Wikipedia tumwiki https://tum.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jani_likulu MediaWiki 1.47.0-wmf.15 first-letter Media Special Talk User User talk Wikipedia Wikipedia talk File File talk MediaWiki MediaWiki talk Template Template talk Help Help talk Category Category talk TimedText TimedText talk Module Module talk Event Event talk 0 955 119264 71835 2026-08-13T13:04:18Z Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi 11606 /* growthexperiments-addlink-summary-summary:2|0|0 */ 119264 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:חורשת המייסדים - גבעת השבשבת חיפה 02 2013 (98).JPG|thumb|Vyakumela]] '''Chomela''' ni chamoyo chilichonse icho chikukula kufuma mu nthaka. Ivi ni nthe Makuni na [[Mphangwe]] Vyomela vya gilini vikusanga nkhongono zo melela kufuma ku Muhanya wa Dazi mu ndondomeko yochemeka fotosinfesis kugwiliska mahamba. == Vyakumela m’Malaŵi == Mu chalo cha [[Malaŵi]] muli vyakumela vya mitundu yinandi. Muli makuni, utheka na vinyakhe ivyo vikusangika m’Malaŵi pela mu chalo chose chapasi. Makuni ya m’Malaŵi yakupambana-pambana kwakuyana na malo ayo makuni aya yakumelako. Makuni yanyakhe ngakuchita kupandika na banthu ngeti makuni ayo pa Chingelezi bakuti ma ''blue gum, pine, gmelina, cypress, '' na yanyakhe yanandi. Makuni yakuti ngambula kwiza na banyakhe ni makuni ngeti makuni ya yembe (mango), mitundu ya mawolenji, (citrus), Makuni yanyakhe ni aya: mubabani, thung’unda, minyozi ya mitundu-mitundu, kabeza, maqokolo, mavilo, masuku, matubeni (strawberry – tree type), mjejengwani, matowo, mulolo, makama, mphangala, kavundula, mono, matwatwa, matunduluka, buyu (baobab), mbula, chifiqe, mubanga, m’zobala, msipani, nthumbuzga za [[kalulu]], kazando, masuju Muliso mphangwe yakupambana pambana ngati: chindere, nyungu, [[Category:Vyakumela]] [[Category:Malaŵi]] ktryhj1qp3xm1377pv5gamcptgzgp6u 0 3809 119311 112273 2026-08-13T22:23:19Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Add 3 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260813sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 119311 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox country | conventional_long_name = United Republic of Tanzania | common_name = Tanzania | native_name = {{native name|sw|Jamhuri ya Muungano wa Tanzania}} | image_flag = Flag of Tanzania.svg | image_coat = Coat of arms of Tanzania.svg | national_motto = {{native phrase|sw|"Uhuru na Umoja"|italic=no}} <br />"[[Freedom and Unity]]" | national_anthem = "[[Mungu ibariki Afrika]]" <br />"God Bless Africa" <br />{{parabr}}{{center|[[File:National Anthem of Tanzania by US Navy Band.ogg]]}} | image_map = Tanzania (orthographic projection).svg | map_caption = Location of Tanzania (dark green) in eastern Africa | image_map2 = File:Tanzania map-en.svg | capital = [[Dodoma]] | largest_city = [[Dar es Salaam]] | official_languages = {{hlist|[[Swahili language|Swahili]]|[[English language|English]]|[[Arabic language|Arabic]] (only in Zanzibar)<ref name="Tanzania Ethnolgue">{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/country/TZ/languages| title=Tanzania| work=Ethnologue| publisher=SIL International}}</ref>}} | languages_type = [[National language]] | languages = [[Swahili language|Swahili]]<ref name="Tanzania Ethnolgue"/> | languages2_type = Other languages | languages2 = [[Languages of Tanzania|Over 100 languages]], including (1m+): {{hlist ||[[Sukuma language|Sukuma]]|[[Nyamwezi language|Nyamwezi]]|[[Chaga languages|Chaga]]|[[Ha language|Ha]]|[[Bena language|Bena]]|[[Gogo language|Gogo]]|[[Haya language|Haya]]|[[Dholuo]]|[[Makonde language|Makonde]]|[[Nyaturu language|Nyaturu]]|[[Maasai language|Maasai]]|[[Jita language|Jita]]|[[Pare language|Pare]]}} | ethnic_groups = Over [[List of ethnic groups in Tanzania|100 ethnic groups]] | demonym = [[Demographics of Tanzania|Tanzanian]] | government_type = [[Unitary state|Unitary]] [[Dominant-party system|dominant-party]] [[Presidential system|presidential]] [[republic]] | leader_title1 = [[President of Tanzania|President]] | leader_name1 = [[Samia Suluhu Hassan]] | leader_title2 = [[Vice-President of Tanzania|Vice-President]] | leader_name2 = [[Philip Mpango]] | leader_title3 = [[Prime Minister of Tanzania|Prime Minister]] | leader_name3 = [[Kassim Majaliwa]] | leader_title4 = [[Speaker of the National Assembly of Tanzania|Speaker]] | leader_name4 = [[Tulia Ackson]] | leader_title5 = [[Chief Justice of Tanzania|Chief Justice]] | leader_name5 = [[Ibrahim Hamis Juma]] | legislature = [[National Assembly (Tanzania)|National Assembly]] | sovereignty_type = Independence {{nobold|from the [[United Kingdom]], the [[German Empire]] and the [[Omani Empire]]}} | established_event1 = [[Tanganyika (1961–1964)|Tanganyika]] | established_date1 = 9 December 1961 | established_event2 = {{nowrap|[[People's Republic of Zanzibar|Zanzibar]]}} | established_date2 = 10 December 1963 | established_event3 = Merger | established_date3 = 26 April 1964 | established_event4 = Current constitution | established_date4 = 25 April 1977 | area_km2 = 947,303 | area_rank = 30th | area_sq_mi = 365,756<ref name="BFF"/> <!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]--> | percent_water = 6.4<ref name="BFF"/> | population_census = 61,741,120{{r|2022_census}} | population_estimate_rank = 24th | population_census_year = 2022 | population_density_km2 = 47.5 | population_density_sq_mi = 123.1 <!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]--> | population_density_rank = 157th | GDP_PPP = {{increase}}$207.5&nbsp;billion <ref name="imf2">{{cite web|url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2022/October|title=World Economic Outlook Database, October 2022|date=October 2022|website=IMF.org|publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]]|access-date= December 23, 2022}}</ref> | GDP_PPP_rank = 72nd | GDP_PPP_year = 2022 | GDP_PPP_per_capita = {{increase}} $3,374 <ref name="imf2"/> | GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 161th | GDP_nominal = {{increase}}$76.5 <ref name="imf2"/>&nbsp;billion | GDP_nominal_rank = 76th | GDP_nominal_year = 2022 | GDP_nominal_per_capita = {{increase}}$1,245<ref name="imf2"/> | GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 164th | Gini = 40.5 | Gini_year = 2017 | Gini_change = increase <!--increase/decrease/steady--> | Gini_ref = <ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/gini-index-coefficient-distribution-of-family-income/country-comparison |title=Gini Index coefficient| publisher=CIA Factbook |access-date=16 July 2021}}</ref> | Gini_rank = | HDI = 0.549<!--number only, between 0 and 1--> | HDI_year = 2021<!-- Please use the year to which the data refers, not the publication year--> | HDI_change = increase <!--increase/decrease/steady--> | HDI_ref = <ref name="HDI">{{cite web|url=https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2021-22pdf_1.pdf|title=Human Development Report 2021/2022|language=en|publisher=[[United Nations Development Programme]]|date=8 September 2022|access-date=8 September 2022}}</ref> | HDI_rank = 160th | currency = [[Tanzanian shilling]] | currency_code = TZS | time_zone = [[East Africa Time]] | utc_offset = +3 | utc_offset_DST = | time_zone_DST = | date_format = dd/mm/yyyy | drives_on = left | iso3166code = TZ | calling_code = [[+255]]{{efn|+007 from Kenya and Uganda.}} | cctld = [[.tz]] | religion_year = 2020 | religion_ref = <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.globalreligiousfutures.org/countries/tanzania#/?affiliations_religion_id=0&affiliations_year=2020&region_name=All+Countries&restrictions_year=2016|title=Religions in Tanzania &#124; PEW-GRF|website=www.globalreligiousfutures.org}}</ref> | religion = {{ublist |item_style=white-space:nowrap; |63.1% [[Christianity in Tanzania|Christianity]] |34.1% [[Islam in Tanzania|Islam]] |1.5% [[Irreligion|No religion]] |1.2% [[Traditional African religions|Traditional faiths]] |0.1% Others }} | today = | map_caption2 = Map of Tanzania }} '''Tanzania''' ntchalo icho chili kumpoto cha kumafumilo ya zuba ya chalo cha [[Malaŵi]]. Chalo ichi kumpoto kwake kuli chalo cha [[Kenya]], kumafumilo ya zuba yakhe kuli nyanja ya mchele ya [[:en:Indian Ocean|Indian Ocean]] ndipo ku mwela kwake kuli chalo cha [[Mozambique|Moçambique]]. Chalo ichi chili na vinyama vinandi. ==Mbiri== {{Main|Mbiri ya Tanzania}} [[File:Olduvai stone chopping tool (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|right| Chiŵiya chakudumura malibwe icho chili na vyaka 1.8 miliyoni, icho ŵakasanga ku [[Olduvai Gorge]] ndipo ŵali kuchiŵika ku [[British Museum]]]] ===Kale=== Charu cha Tanzania nchimoza mwa vyaru vyakale comene pa caru capasi. Viwangwa vya ŵanthu na vyamoyo vinyake vya ŵanthu vikaŵako mu nyengo ya [[Quaternary]]. [[Olduvai Gorge]], mu [[Ngorongoro Conservation Area]], [[UNESCO World Heritage Site]], yili na vinthu ivyo vikulongora umo ŵanthu ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito vinthu ivi. Ŵanthu ŵa ku East Africa ŵakughanaghana kuti mbanthu ŵa ku [[ŵaHadza]] na [[ŵaSandawe]] ŵa ku Tanzania. <ref name="Genetics">{{cite journal |doi=10.1126/science.1172257 |title=The Genetic Structure and History of Africans and African Americans |journal=Science |volume=324 |issue=5930 |pages=1035–44 |year=2009 |pmid=19407144 |pmc=2947357 |last1=Tishkoff |first1=S. A. |last2=Reed |first2=F. A. |last3=Friedlaender |first3=F. R.| last4=Ehret |first4=C. |last5=Ranciaro |first5=A. |last6=Froment |first6=A. |last7=Hirbo |first7=J. B. |last8=Awomoyi |first8=A. A. |last9=Bodo |first9=J. M. |last10=Doumbo |first10=O. |last11=Ibrahim |first11= M. |last12=Juma |first12=A. T. |last13=Kotze |first13=M. J. |last14=Lema |first14=G. |last15=Moore |first15=J. H. |last16=Mortensen |first16=H. |last17=Nyambo |first17=T. B. |last18=Omar |first18= S. A. |last19=Powell |first19=K. |last20=Pretorius |first20=G. S. |last21=Smith |first21=M. W. |last22=Thera |first22=M. A. |last23=Wambebe |first23=C. |last24=Weber |first24=J. L. |last25=Williams |first25=S. M.| bibcode=2009Sci...324.1035T}}</ref> Ŵanthu awo ŵakayowoyanga viyowoyero vya ku South Kushitic ndiwo ŵakamba kusama kufuma ku Ethiopia na Somalia kuya ku Tanzania. Ŵanthu aŵa mbakufuma ku chiyowoyero cha Iraqi, Gorowa, na Burunge. Kuyana na maukaboni gha chiyowoyero, ŵanthu ŵa ku East Cushitic ŵakaluta ku Tanzania vyaka 4,000 na 2,000 ivyo vyajumpha. <ref name="Genetics"/> Ukaboni wa vinthu vyakusangika kale ukulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku South Nilotes, kusazgapo ŵanthu ŵa ku Datooga, ŵakasamira kumwera kufuma ku chigaŵa icho sono ni mphaka pakati pa [[South Sudan]] na [[Ethiopia]]. <ref name="Genetics"/> Ŵanthu aŵa ŵakafuma ku vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Africa ndipo ŵakakhalanga mu vigaŵa vya [[Nyanja ya Victoria]] na [[Nyanja ya Tanganyika]]. Ŵakiza na mitheto ya vyakumera mu vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Africa. Kufuma apo, ŵakafumamo mu vigaŵa ivi na kuluta ku vigaŵa vinyake vya Tanzania pakati pa vyaka 2,300 na 1,700 ivyo vyajumpha. <ref name="Genetics"/> Ŵanthu ŵa ku [[East Nilotic]], kusazgapo ŵanthu ŵa ku [[Masai]], ndiwo ŵakasama kufuma ku South Sudan mu vyaka 500 m'paka 1,500 ivyo vyajumpha. <ref name="Genetics"/><ref>{{cite book |first1=Phyllis |last1=Martin |first2=Patrick |last2=O'Meara |title=Africa |url=https://archive.org/details/africa00mart |url-access=registration |date=1995 |publisher=Indiana University Press |isbn=978-0-253-20984-9}}</ref> Ŵanthu ŵa ku Tanzania ŵakugwira nchito ya kupanga visulo na visulo. Ŵanthu ŵa ku [[Pare]] ndiwo ŵakapanganga visulo vya ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga ku mapiri gha kumpoto kwa Tanzania. <ref>{{cite book |last1=Shoup |first1=John A. |title=Ethnic groups of Africa and the Middle East : an encyclopedia |date=2011 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |location=Santa Barbara, CA |isbn=978-1-59884-362-0 |page=67 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GN5yv3-U6goC&pg=PA67}}</ref> Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Haya awo ŵakakhalanga ku vigaŵa vya kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Nyanja ya Victoria ŵakapanga ng'anjo ya moto, iyo yikaŵawovwira kuti ŵapangenge visulo vya karboni pa nyengo iyo kukaŵa kotcha chomene. <ref>{{cite journal |pmid=17830304 |year=1978 |last1=Schmidt |first1=P. |title=Complex iron smelting and prehistoric culture in Tanzania |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_1978-09-22_201_4361/page/1085 |journal=Science |volume=201 |issue=4361 | pages=1085–89 |last2=Avery |first2=D.H. |doi=10.1126/science.201.4361.1085| bibcode=1978Sci...201.1085S |s2cid=37926350}}</ref> Ŵalendo na ŵamalonda ŵakufuma ku [[Persian Gulf]] na [[India]] ŵakalutanga ku East Africa kwamba mu vyaka vya m'ma 1000 C.E. <ref>{{cite book |first=Kevin |last=Shillington |title=Encyclopedia of African History 3-Volume Set |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=umyHqvAErOAC&pg=PA1510 |date=2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-135-45670-2 |page=1510}}</ref> Chisimu aŵala ŵaŵaliji pa [[chilambo cha Swahili]], ŵaŵaliji pa chilambocho ikaŵeje m'ma 700 kapena 800 AD. <ref>[http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/africa/features/storyofafrica/7chapter5.shtml "The Story of Africa"]. ''BBC World Service''.</ref> === Vyaka vyapakati === Ŵanthu awo ŵakayowoyanga [[chiBantu]] ŵakazenga mizi yakulimira na kuguliska vinthu mumphepete mwa nyanja ya Tanzania kwamba mu vyaka vya m'ma 1000 C.E. Vinthu vyakusangika ku Fukuchani, kumpoto kwa Zanzibar, vikulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵakakhalanga ku malo agha m'ma 600 C.E. Vinthu vinandi ivyo vikasangika pa malo agha vikulongora kuti ŵakazenga nyumba za mathabwa. Pali ukaboni wakuti ŵanthu ŵakaguliskanga vinthu pa mtunda utali chomene yayi. Ŵakasanga vinthu vichoko waka vyakuzengera ku charu chinyake. Kuyana kwa malo agha na malo ghanyake nga ni [[Mkokotoni]] na [[Dar es Salaam]], kukulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵakakhalanga pamoza. Vikuwoneka kuti misumba iyi yikachitanga malonda mu nyanja ya Indian Ocean na mu Africa. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 800 C.E., malonda ghakalutilira kukura ndipo kuumaliro wa m'ma 900 C.E., Zanzibar yikaŵa msumba ukuru wa ŵanthu ŵa ku Swahili. <ref>Horton, Mark and Middleton, Tom. "The Swahili: The Social Landscape of a Mercantile Community." (Oxford: Blackwell, 2010), 46.</ref> Kukula kwa sitima za ku [[Egypt]] na [[Persia]]n kufuma ku [[Nyanja Yiswesi]] na Persian Gulf kukakhozga malonda gha ku [[Indian Ocean]], comenecomene pamanyuma pakuti Fatimid Caliphate yikasamukira ku Fustat ([[Cairo]]). Ŵalimi ŵa Chiswahili ŵakazenga mizi yinandi kuti ŵaguliskane vinthu. Ufumu wa Venda-Shona wa Mapungubwe na [[Zimbabwe]] mu [[South Africa]] na Zimbabwe, vikamba kupanga golide mu nyengo yeneyiyi. Ufumu wa Kilwa ndiwo ukaŵa na mazaza pa vya cuma, vya ŵanthu, na vya cisopa. Kilwa wakaŵa na vipata vichoko ivyo vikafika m'paka ku Mozambique. Sofala wakazgoka malo ghakurughakuru ghakusungirako golide ndipo Kilwa wakazgoka musambazi cifukwa ca malonda agha. Ku mpoto kwa charu ichi ndiko kukaŵa Mombasa na Malindi. Kilwa ndiyo yikaŵa boma likuru comene ku mafumiro gha dazi kwa Africa mpaka apo Ŵapwitikizi ŵakiza ku Africa kuumaliro wa vilimika vya m'ma 1400. <ref>Campbell, Gwyn. "Africa and the Indian Ocean World from Early Times to Circa 1900." Cambridge University Press. 2019</ref> Mu chaka cha 1954, Julius Nyerere wakasintha gulu ili kuŵa gulu la ndyali la [[Tanganyika African National Union]] (TANU). Cakulinga cikuru ca TANU cikaŵa cakuti Tanganyika yiŵe na wanangwa wa kuwusa. Ŵakapanga kampeni yakulembeska ŵanthu ŵaphya, ndipo mu caka cimoza, TANU yikazgoka gulu likuru la ndyali mu caru ici. Nyerere wakaŵa nduna ya boma la Tanganyika mu 1960 ndipo wakalutilira kuŵa nduna yikuru mu 1961 apo Tanganyika yikajiyimira yekha. <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Mulenga|first=Derek C.|date=November 2001|title=Mwalimu Julius Nyerere: a critical review of his contributions to adult education and postcolonialism|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_international-journal-of-lifelong-education_november-december-2001_20_6/page/446|journal=International Journal of Lifelong Education|volume=20|issue=6|pages=446–470|doi=10.1080/02601370110088436|s2cid=143740319|issn=0260-1370}}</ref> ===Koloni=== [[File:City of Kilwa, 1572.jpg|thumb|left| Chithunzi cha 1572 cha mzinda wa [[Kilwa]], malo a [[UNESCO World Heritage Site]]]] Pakukhumba malo agha, Sultan wa [[Oman]] [[Said bin Sultan]] wakasamuskira msumba wake ku [[Zanzibar City]] mu 1840. Mu nyengo iyi, Zanzibar yikazgoka malo ghakusangirako ŵazga ŵa ku East Africa. <ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157 |title=Slavery |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006131931/http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157 |archive-date=6 October 2014}}</ref> Ŵanthu ŵa ku Zanzibar awo ŵakaŵa ŵazga ŵakaŵa pakati pa 65 na 90 peresenti. <ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/548305/slavery/24157/Slave-societies |title=Slave societies |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |date=22 January 2014 |access-date=19 February 2014}}</ref> Yumoza wa ŵanthu awo ŵakaguliskanga ŵazga ku East Africa wakaŵa [[Tippu Tip]], uyo wakaŵa muzukuru wa munthu wa ku Africa uyo wakaŵa muzga. Ŵanthu ŵa [[Nyamwezi]] ŵakendanga na ŵazga awo ŵakalongozgekanga na [[Msiri]] na [[Mirambo]]. <ref>[http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/africa/features/storyofafrica/9chapter3.shtml "The Story of Africa |BBC World Service"]. BBC.</ref> Kuyana na [[Timothy Insoll]], "Vikulongora kuti mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800, ŵazga 718 000 ŵakatolekera ku vyaru vinyake kufuma ku Swahili, ndipo 769,000 ŵakasungika ku vyaru vinyake". <ref>{{cite book |first=Junius P. |last=Rodriguez |title=The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery |url=https://archive.org/details/historicalencycl01rodr |url-access=registration |date=1997 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-0-87436-885-7}}</ref> Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1890, ŵazga ŵakalekeka. <ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.enchantingtravels.com/travel-blog/zanzibar-map-history |title=On The Zanzibar Map: Spices, Slaves And A Bit Of History |date=17 February 2015}}</ref> [[File:Wilhelm Kuhnert Schlacht bei Mahenge 2.jpg|thumb| Nkhondo ya [[Maji Maji Rebellion]] yolimbana ndi ulamuliro wa [[German East Africa]] mu 1905.]] Mu 1863, gulu la Holy Spirit Mission likakhazikiska malo ghakwambilira gha kupokelera ŵalendo mu Zanzibar. Mu 1877, pakulondezga ivyo [[Henry Morton Stanley]] wakacita apo wakaluta ku Africa, ndipo Themba [[Mutessa I la Buganda]] likamuzomerezga Stanley, mpingo wa Church Missionary Society ukatuma ŵamishonale [[Edward John Baxter]] na Henry Cole kuti ŵakhazikiske maofesi gha mu caru. <ref>{{cite web |last1=Middleton |first1=Dorothy |title=Henry Morton Stanley |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Henry-Morton-Stanley |publisher=Encyclopedia Britannica |access-date=29 December 2022 |date=6 May 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author1=Johnson, Hildergard Binder |title=The Locations of Christian Missions in Africa |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/213158 |journal=Geographical Review |year=1967 |volume=57 |issue=2 |pages=168–202 |publisher=Taylor and Francis Ltd |access-date=29 December 2022 |doi=10.2307/213158|jstor=213158 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Europeans In East Africa - View entry |url=https://www.europeansineastafrica.co.uk/_site/custom/database/?a=viewIndividual&pid=2&person=174 |access-date=2022-12-18 |website=www.europeansineastafrica.co.uk}}</ref> Mu 1885, [[Germany]] yikathereska vigaŵa ivyo sono ni Tanzania (kwambura Zanzibar) na kuviŵika mu [[German East Africa]] (GEA). <ref>{{Cite thesis|title=Early Political Discord in Kenya: European Settlers' Political Struggles in the East Africa Protectorate, 1902–1912|publisher=West Virginia University Libraries|first=Makhete|last=Fall|year=2016 |doi=10.33915/etd.5569|doi-access=free}}</ref> Pa 7 Meyi 1919, khoti likuru la [[Paris Peace Conference]] likapeleka GEA yose ku [[Britain]], nangauli [[Belgium]] yikaŵasuska. [[Secretary of State for the Colonies]], [[Alfred Milner]], and [[Belgium's minister to the conference]], [[Pierre Orts]], then negotiated the [[Anglo-Belgian agreement]] of 30 May 1919 Mulembi wa boma wa Britain wakuwona vya maboma, Alfred Milner, na nduna ya Belgium yakuwona vya maboma, Pierre Orts, ŵakadumbiskana za phangano la Anglo-Belgian la 30 May 1919 Apo Britain yikapeleka vigaŵa vya kumpoto-kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa GEA vya [[Ruanda]] na [[Urundi]] ku Belgium. <ref name="Ends">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NQnpQNKeKKAC&pg=PA246 |title=Ends of British Imperialism: The Scramble for Empire, Suez, and Decolonization |author=William Roger Louis |publisher=I.B. Tauris |year=2006 |access-date=19 September 2017 |isbn=978-1-84511-347-6}}</ref> Komiti Yakulaŵilira Malango ya ungano uwu yikazomerezga phangano ili pa Julayi 16, 1919. <ref name="Ends"/> Pa Ogasiti 7, 1919, Khoti Likuru Chomene likazomera phangano ili. <ref>{{cite web |url=https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1919Parisv07/pg_613 |title=PAPERS RELATING TO THE FOREIGN RELATIONS OF THE UNITED STATES, THE PARIS PEACE CONFERENCE, 1919 |publisher=United States Department of State |volume=7 |access-date=19 September 2017}}</ref> Pa Julayi 12, 1919, Komiti ya Mandates yikakolerana kuti chigaŵa chichoko cha [[Kionga Triangle]] kumwera kwa Mlonga wa Rovuma chipelekekenge ku [[Mozambique]]. <ref name="Ends"/> Komiti iyi yikati mu 1894, caru ca Germany cikacicizga caru ca Portugal kuti cipeleke malo agha. <ref name="Ends"/> [[Phangano la Versailles]] likalembeka pa 28 Juni 1919, kweni likamba kugwira ntchito pa 10 Janyuwale 1920. Pa zuŵa ili, boma la Britain, Belgium, na Portugal ndilo likamba kulamulira charu ichi. Kweniso pa zuŵa ili, "Tanganyika" likazgoka zina la caru ca Britain. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1920, ŵanthu ŵa ku Britain ŵakamba kulamulira charu cha Tanzania. <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Liebenow|first=J. Gus|date=1956|title=Responses to Planned Political Change in a Tanganyika Tribal Group|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0003055400067496/type/journal_article|journal=American Political Science Review|language=en|volume=50|issue=2|pages=447–448|doi=10.2307/1951678|jstor=1951678 |s2cid=144390538 |issn=0003-0554}}</ref> [[Chigaluka cha Maji-Maji]], pakati pa 1905 na 1907, chikaŵa chigaluka cha mafuko ghanandi gha ku Africa mu German East Africa kwimikana na maboma gha maboma gha vyaru vinyake. Ŵakaŵasuzga comene, ndipo pamoza na njara, ŵanthu 300,000 ŵakafwa. <ref>John Iliffe, "The Organization of the Maji Maji Rebellion" ''The Journal of African History'', pp. 495–512</ref> Mu Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya pa Charu Chose, ŵanthu pafupifupi 100,000 ŵakufuma ku Tanganyika ŵakanjira usilikari. <ref name="Heale">{{cite book |first1=Jay |last1=Heale |first2=Winnie |last2=Wong |title=Tanzania |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9UhNJxHg14wC |year=2010 |publisher=Marshall Cavendish |isbn=978-0-7614-3417-7}}</ref> Ndipo ŵakaŵa pakati pa Ŵafrika 375,000 awo ŵakarwa nkhondo na ŵasilikari aŵa. <ref name="MGT">[http://www.mgtrust.org/afr2.htm "African participants in the Second World War"]. mgtrust.org.</ref> Ŵanthu ŵa ku Tanganyika ŵakarwa mu gulu la [[King's African Rifles]] mu nyengo ya Nkhondo ya ku East Africa ku [[Somalia]] na Ethiopia ku [[Abyssinia]], ku [[Madagascar]] ku [[Vichy French]] mu nyengo ya Nkhondo ya ku Madagascar, na ku [[Burma]] ku [[Japan]] mu nyengo ya Nkhondo ya ku Burma. <ref name="MGT"/> Charu cha Tanganyika chikaŵa na vyakurya vinandi chomene mu nyengo ya nkhondo iyi, ndipo ndalama izo ŵakaguliskanga zikaŵa zinandi chomene pakuyaniska na izo ŵakaguliskanga pambere nkhondo yindambe. <ref name="Heale"/> Ndipouli, cifukwa ca nkhondo, vinthu vikamba kwenda makora comene mu cigaŵa ici. <ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20150204203753/http://www.content.eisa.org.za/old-page/tanzania-british-rule-between-wars-1916-1945 "Tanzania: British rule between the Wars (1916–1945)"]. ''eisa.org.za''. {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150204203753/http://www.content.eisa.org.za/old-page/tanzania-british-rule-between-wars-1916-1945 |date=4 February 2015}}</ref> Mu 1954, [[Julius Nyerere]] wakasintha wupu uwu kuŵa gulu la ndyali la [[Tanganyika African National Union]] (TANU). Cakulinga cikuru ca TANU cikaŵa cakuti Tanganyika yiŵe na mazaza. Ŵakapanga kampeni yakulembeska ŵanthu ŵaphya, ndipo mu caka cimoza, TANU yikazgoka gulu likuru la ndyali mu caru ici. Nyerere wakaŵa nduna ya boma la Tanganyika mu 1960 ndipo wakalutilira kuŵa nduna yikuru mu 1961 apo Tanganyika yikajiyimira yekha. <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Mulenga|first=Derek C.|date=November 2001|title=Mwalimu Julius Nyerere: a critical review of his contributions to adult education and postcolonialism|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_international-journal-of-lifelong-education_november-december-2001_20_6/page/446|journal=International Journal of Lifelong Education|volume=20|issue=6|pages=446–470|doi=10.1080/02601370110088436|s2cid=143740319|issn=0260-1370}}</ref> ===Mazuŵa Ghano=== Ufumu wa Britain ukamara pa Disembala 9, 1961. [[Elizabeth II]], uyo wakakhala pa chitengo cha ufumu wa Britain mu 1952, wakalutilira kuwusa mu chaka chakwamba cha kujithemba kwa Tanganyika, kweni sono ni [[Fumukazi ya Tanganyika]], ndipo wakuyimilirika na kazembe mukuru. Mu 1961, charu cha Tanganyika nacho chikaŵa mu wupu wa [[British Commonwealth]]. Pa Disembala 9, 1962, charu cha Tanganyika chikazgoka charu cha demokilase icho chikaŵa na pulezidenti. Pambuyo pa [[kusintha kwa Zanzibar]] komwe kunagwetsa ufumu wachiarabu ku Zanzibar yoyandikana nayo, limodzi ndi kuphedwa kwa zikwizikwi za [[Aarabu a Zanzibar]], <ref name="Zanzibar">{{cite news |title=Unveiling Zanzibar's unhealed wounds |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8167390.stm |work=BBC News |date=25 July 2009}}</ref> chirwa ichi chikajiyimira paŵekha mu 1963, ndipo chikasazgikana na charu cha Tanganyika pa 26 Epulero 1964. <ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.vpo.go.tz/document_storage/historical_overview.pdf |title=Background history of The Union between Tanganyika and Zanzibar |publisher=Vice President's Office, United Republic of Tanzania |access-date=25 April 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130125124815/http://www.vpo.go.tz/document_storage/historical_overview.pdf |archive-date=25 January 2013 |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all}}</ref> Kufuma apo, caru ciphya ici cikacemeka ''United Republic of Tanganyika and Zanzibar''. <ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.sahistory.org.za/dated-event/united-republic-tanganyika-and-zanzibar-renamed-united-republic-tanzania|title=The United Republic of Tanganyika and Zanzibar is renamed United Republic of Tanzania|publisher=South African History Online|access-date=10 February 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://thecommonwealth.org/our-member-countries/united-republic-tanzania/history|title=United Republic of Tanzania : History|publisher=Commonwealth.org|access-date=10 February 2019|archive-date=23 February 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190223235543/http://thecommonwealth.org/our-member-countries/united-republic-tanzania/history|url-status=dead}}</ref> Pa Okutobala 29 wa chaka chenechichi, charu ichi chikachemeka United Republic of Tanzania ("Tan" kufuma ku Tanganyika na "Zan" kufuma ku Zanzibar). Chigaŵa ichi chikaŵa chakususkana chomene na ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Zanzibar (nanga ni awo ŵakakolerana na chipani ichi) kweni boma la [[Nyerere]] na boma la Zanzibar ŵakazomera chifukwa cha ivyo ŵakakolerana. Pamanyuma pakuti charu cha Tanganyika chajiyimira pawekha na kuwungana na charu cha Zanzibar kuti chiŵe charu cha Tanzania, Pulezidenti Nyerere wakadidimizga kuti ntchakukhumbikwa kuti ŵanthu ŵa mu charu chiphya ŵamanye umo charu chawo chiliri. Kuti ivi vicitike, Nyerere wakapeleka ivyo vikuwoneka nga ni umo ŵanthu ŵakasuzgikiranga ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yinyake na kusintha zina lawo mu Africa. <ref>[[Pierre Englebert]] and Kevin C. Dunn, "Inside African Politics" 2013: 81</ref> Ku Tanzania kuli viyowoyero vyakujumpha 130. Nangauli pakaŵa suzgo ili, kweni ŵanthu ŵa mafuko ghakupambanapambana ŵakaŵa ŵachoko chomene mu Tanzania pakuyaniska na vyaru vinyake, chomenechomene Kenya. Kweniso kufuma apo charu cha Tanzania chikapokera wanangwa wake, chikaŵa na mtende wa ndyali kuluska vyaru vinandi vya mu Africa. <ref>Henry Bienen and John Waterbury, "World Development Vol 17", 1989: 100</ref> [[File:Arusha Declaration Monument.jpg|thumb|[[Chipilala cha Chipharazgo cha Arusha]]]] Mu chaka cha 1967, boma la Nyerere likamba kughanaghana vya ndyali za kumalyero pamanyuma pa chikalata cha Arusha, icho chikalembapo za [[socialism]] kweniso [[pan-Africanism]]. Pamanyuma pa pharazgo ili, mabanki na mafakitale ghanandi ghakaŵa gha boma. Charu cha Tanzania chikakolerana na charu cha [[China]], icho kufuma mu 1970 m'paka mu 1975 chikapeleka ndalama na kovwira kuzenga [[njanji ya TAZARA]] ya makilomita 1,860 kufuma ku Dar es Salaam m'paka ku Zambia. <ref>{{cite book |first=Jamie |last=Monson |title=Africa's Freedom Railway: How a Chinese Development Project Changed Lives and Livelihoods in Tanzania |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xeeDwcT51BcC&pg=PA23 |year=2009 |publisher=Indiana University Press |isbn=978-0-253-35271-2 |page=199}}</ref> Ndipouli, kwamba m'ma 1970, vinthu vikamba kunangika mu Tanzania chifukwa cha suzgo la vyachuma ilo likaŵa mu vyaru vyakupambanapambana. == Kulemba mabuku == <gallery> Elephant and Kilimanjaro.jpg|Njovu yikujumpha pafupi na [[Phiri la Kilimanjaro]]. Ngorongoro Crater.jpg|[[Ngorongoro Crater]], ni crater yikuru comene pa caru cose iyo yikucitika yayi. </gallery> Malo agha ghakukwana makilomita 947,303, <ref name="BFF">{{cite web|url=http://www.nbs.go.tz/nbs/takwimu/Statistical_Methods_and_Standards/Basic_Facts_and_Figures_on_Human_Settlements_2012_Tanzania_Mainland.zip|title="Basic Facts and Figures on Human Settlements, 2012", National Bureau of Statistics, Tanzania Ministry of Finance, 2013, page 1. Retrieved 10 November 2014}}</ref> Charu cha Tanzania chili pa nambara 13 pa vyaru vikuruvikuru mu Africa ndipo pa nambara 31 pa vyaru vikuruvikuru pa charu chose chapasi. <ref name="Size">{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2147rank.html |title=CIA&nbsp;– The World Factbook&nbsp;– Rank Order&nbsp;– Area |publisher=Cia.gov |access-date=16 October 2014 |archive-date=9 February 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209041128/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2147rank.html |url-status=dead}}</ref> Charu ichi chili kumpoto na Kenya na Uganda, kumanjiliro gha dazi na Rwanda, Burundi, na Democratic Republic of Congo, ndipo kumwera na Zambia, Malawi, na Mozambique. Charu cha Tanzania chili kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Africa. <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/009/a0477e/a0477e13.htm|title=Country review: United Republic of Tanzania|date=December 2003|website=Fisheries and Aquaculture Depart, United Nations. (FAO)}}</ref> Mu charu ichi muli virwa vinandi nga ni [[Unguja]] (Zanzibar), [[Pemba]], na [[Mafia]]. Charu ichi chili na malo ghapachanya na ghachoko chomene mu Africa: Phiri la Kilimanjaro, ilo lili pa mamita 5,895 (mamita 19,341) pachanya pa nyanja, na [[Nyanja ya Tanganyika]], iyo yili pa mamita 1,471 (mamita 4,826) pachanya pa nyanja. [[File:Wildebeest Migration in Serengeti National Park, Tanzania.jpg|thumb|upright=1.05| Kusamalika kwa viyuni vyamuthondo mu [[Serengeti]]]] Charu cha Tanzania chili na mapiri ghanandi kweniso nkhorongo kumpoto kwa charu ichi. Viziŵa vikuruvikuru vitatu vya mu Africa vili mu Tanzania. Kumpoto na kumanjiliro gha dazi kuli Nyanja ya Victoria, nyanja yikuru comene mu Africa, na Nyanja ya Tanganyika, nyanja yakunyang'amira comene mu Africa. Kumwera kwa nyanja iyi kuli Nyanja ya Nyasa. Charu chapakati cha Tanzania chili na mapiri ghakuru na malo ghakutowa. Mphepete mwa nyanja ya kumafumiro gha dazi ni yakuzizima na yakututuŵa, ndipo mumphepete mwa nyanja muli virwa vya [[Zanzibar]]. [[Kalambo Falls]] mu chigaŵa cha kumwera cha kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa [[Rukwa]] ni maji ghaŵiri ghatali chomene mu Africa, ndipo ghali pafupi na nyanja ya Tanganyika. <ref> {{cite web|url= https://www.britannica.com/place/Kalambo-Falls|name=Kalambo Falls|author=Britannica}} </ref> Malo [[ghakuvikilirika gha Menai Bay]] ni malo ghakuru chomene ku Zanzibar. === Umoyo === [[File:Koppen-Geiger Map TZA present.svg|thumb|upright=1.75|Tanzania mapu of Köppen climate classification]] Nyengo ya mu Tanzania yikupambana chomene. Mu vigaŵa vya mapiri, mu nyengo yakuzizima na yakuzizima, matenthedwe ghakuŵa pakati pa 10 na 20 °C. Ku vigaŵa vinyake vya charu ichi, matenthe ghakukhizga chomene yayi. Nyengo yakuzizima chomene yikuŵa pakati pa Novembala na Febuluwale (25°C panji 77.0°F) apo nyengo yakuzizima chomene yikuŵa pakati pa Meyi na Ogasiti (15°C panji 59°F). Kutentha kwa pachaka ndi 20 °C (68.0 °F). Mu vigaŵa vya mapiri muli mphepo yakuzizima. Kusintha kwa nyengo ku Tanzania kukupangiska kuti vula yambe kuwa chomene (kukaŵa na maji ghanandi) kweniso kukaŵa chilangalanga. <ref>{{cite web|title=Tanzania|url=https://www.climatelinks.org/countries/tanzania|access-date=27 November 2020|website=Climatelinks|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Future Climate for Africa|year=2017|title=Future Climate Projections for Tanzania|url=https://futureclimateafrica.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/08/fcfa_tanzania_climatebrief_web.pdf|website=Future Climate for Africa}}</ref> Kusintha kwa nyengo kukukhwaska kale vyalo vya Tanzania nga ni ulimi, maji, umoyo na nkhongono. Kuwuka kwa nyanja na kusintha kwa umo maji ghakukhalira vikukhwaska somba na vyakumera. <ref>{{cite web|title=Tanzania {{!}} UNDP Climate Change Adaptation|url=https://www.adaptation-undp.org/explore/eastern-africa/united-republic-tanzania|access-date=27 November 2020|website=www.adaptation-undp.org|language=en}}</ref> Charu cha Tanzania chikapanga [[National Adaptation Programs of Action]] (NAPAs) mu chaka cha 2007 nga umo chikalembeka na United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. Mu 2012, charu cha Tanzania chikapanga ndondomeko ya kusintha kwa nyengo chifukwa cha kufipa mtima na umo vinthu vyasinthira pa charu. <ref>{{cite web|title=Tanzania: National climate change strategy - National Policy, Plans & Statements - PreventionWeb.net|url=https://www.preventionweb.net/english/policies/v.php?id=59982&cid=0|access-date=27 November 2020|website=preventionweb.net|archive-date=17 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210417211255/https://www.preventionweb.net/english/policies/v.php?id=59982&cid=0|url-status=dead}}</ref> === Vinyama vyamuthondo na kuvikilira === [[File:Mannetjes masaigiraffe in de Serengeti, Tanzania, -12 januari 2013 a.jpg|thumb|[[Chilombo cha Masai]] ndi chinyama cha dziko la Tanzania]] Ku Tanzania kuli vinyama vinandi vya ndopa zakotcha ivyo vili na viŵaro pafupifupi 20 pa viŵaro vyose vya mu Africa. Malo agha ghakukwana makilomita ghakujumpha 42,000 ndipo ghakukwana 38 peresenti ya charu ichi. <ref>{{cite book |first1=Ridwan |last1=Laher |first2=Korir |last2=SingíOei |title=Indigenous People in Africa.: Contestations, Empowerment and Group Rights |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nZiyAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA57 |date=2014 |publisher=Africa Institute of South Africa |isbn=978-0-7983-0464-1 |page=57}}</ref> Ku Tanzania kuli malo ghakusungirako vyamoyo 21, <ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.tanzaniaparks.com/ |title=Home |publisher=Tanzania National Parks |access-date=16 October 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006085600/http://www.tanzaniaparks.com/ |archive-date=6 October 2014 |df=dmy-all}}</ref> Kweniso kuli malo ghakupambanapambana gha vinyama na nkhorongo, kusazgapo malo gha [[Ngorongoro Conservation Area]], kweni pali ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakukhala mu Ngorongoro ndipo ŵakukhumba kunanga malo. Ku Tanzania kumanjiliro gha dazi, [[Gombe Stream National Park]] ndiko Jane Goodall wakambira kusambira za kachitiro ka [[chimpanzees]]. <ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.tanzaniaparks.com/gombe.html |title=Gombe Stream National Park |publisher=Tanzania National Parks |access-date=16 October 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141004004545/http://www.tanzaniaparks.com/gombe.html |archive-date=4 October 2014 |df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first1=Laura |last1=Riley |first2=William |last2=Riley |title=Nature's Strongholds: The World's Great Wildlife Reserves |url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_icMuBQhW4vgC |date= 2005 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-12219-9}}</ref> Ku Tanzania kuli vyamoyo vyakupambanapambana. <ref>{{cite book |author1=S. N. Stuart |first2=Martin |last2=Jenkins |title=Biodiversity in Sub-Saharan Africa and Its Islands: Conservation, Management, and Sustainable Use |url=https://archive.org/details/biodiversityinsu0000stua |url-access=registration |date=1990 |publisher=IUCN |isbn=978-2-8317-0021-2 |page=[https://archive.org/details/biodiversityinsu0000stua/page/204 204]}}</ref> Mu malo gha [[Serengeti]] ku Tanzania, kuli viyuni vinyake nga ni viyuni vyamuthondo (Connochaetes taurinus mearnsi) na viyuni vinyake nga ni mbuzi (zebra) <ref>{{cite web |title=Serengeti wildebeest migration |url=https://www.expertafrica.com/tanzania/info/serengeti-wildebeest-migration |access-date=20 March 2019}}</ref> Ŵakuchitako ulendo ukuru wa pa chaka. Mu charu cha Tanzania muli vyamoyo vyakujumpha 130 vya viyuni vya [[amphibian]] na vyamoyo vyakujumpha 275 vya vinyama ivyo vikukhwaŵa. <ref>Edoarado Razzetti and Charles Andekia Msuya (2002) [https://web.archive.org/web/20200716094052/http://www-3.unipv.it/webshi/images/files/tanzie2002.pdf "Introduction"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200716094052/http://www-3.unipv.it/webshi/images/files/tanzie2002.pdf |date=16 July 2020}}, ''Field Guide to Amphibians and Reptiles of Arusha National Park''. Tanzania National Parks. p. 11</ref> Ku Tanzania ndiko kuli nkharamu zinandi comene pa caru cose. <ref>{{cite web|url=https://allafrica.com/stories/201908120146.html|title=Africa: Tanzania Has Largest Number of Lions in Africa, New Report Says|first=Edward Qorro in|last=Arusha|date=12 August 2019|website=allAfrica.com}}</ref> Charu cha Tanzania chikaŵa na chiŵerengero cha 7.13/10 pa vyaru 172. <ref name="FLII-Supplementary">{{cite journal|last1=Grantham|first1=H. S.|last2=Duncan|first2=A.|last3=Evans|first3=T. D.|last4=Jones|first4=K. R.|last5=Beyer|first5=H. L.|last6=Schuster|first6=R.|last7=Walston|first7=J.|last8=Ray|first8=J. C.|last9=Robinson|first9=J. G.|last10=Callow|first10=M.|last11=Clements|first11=T.|last12=Costa|first12=H. M.|last13=DeGemmis|first13=A.|last14=Elsen|first14=P. R.|last15=Ervin|first15=J.|last16=Franco|first16=P.|last17=Goldman|first17=E.|last18=Goetz|first18=S.|last19=Hansen|first19=A.|last20=Hofsvang|first20=E.|last21=Jantz|first21=P.|last22=Jupiter|first22=S.|last23=Kang|first23=A.|last24=Langhammer|first24=P.|last25=Laurance|first25=W. F.|last26=Lieberman|first26=S.|last27=Linkie|first27=M.|last28=Malhi|first28=Y.|last29=Maxwell|first29=S.|last30=Mendez|first30=M.|last31=Mittermeier|first31=R.|last32=Murray|first32=N. J.|last33=Possingham|first33=H.|last34=Radachowsky|first34=J.|last35=Saatchi|first35=S.|last36=Samper|first36=C.|last37=Silverman|first37=J.|last38=Shapiro|first38=A.|last39=Strassburg|first39=B.|last40=Stevens|first40=T.|last41=Stokes|first41=E.|last42=Taylor|first42=R.|last43=Tear|first43=T.|last44=Tizard|first44=R.|last45=Venter|first45=O.|last46=Visconti|first46=P.|last47=Wang|first47=S.|last48=Watson|first48=J. E. M.|display-authors=1|title=Anthropogenic modification of forests means only 40% of remaining forests have high ecosystem integrity – Supplementary Material|journal=Nature Communications|volume=11|issue=1|year=2020|page=5978|issn=2041-1723|doi=10.1038/s41467-020-19493-3|pmid=33293507|pmc=7723057|bibcode=2020NatCo..11.5978G |doi-access=free}}</ref> == Maulalo Ena == * [[Mfumu Burrito Nyerere]] * [[Kevin Nyerere]] ==Ukaboni== {{Reflist}} {{Afrika}} [[Category:Afrika]] [[Category:Tanzania]] rauzspedfy8atebho1jx40l9r10vok2 0 5033 119262 19710 2026-08-13T12:55:14Z Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi 11606 Changing Category:Wikipedia to Category:Wikipediya. More Tumbuka title 119262 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Mariem the Peul girl in Dogon country by Ferdinand Reus.jpg|thumb|150 px]] '''Mu sungwana'''. {{Commons category|Girls}} [[Category:Wikipediya]] elkn8cwxtp55ul1mai9j1ua4xa4ht78 0 6233 119303 118864 2026-08-13T22:14:17Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Add 5 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260813sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 119303 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Makina yakulongozgeka iyo yikunozga uthenga}} {{Other uses|Mrangura (disambiguation)}} {{Pp-semi-indef}} {{Pp-move}} {{multiple image|perrow = 2|total_width=300 | image1 = ENIAC-changing a tube (cropped).jpg | alt1 = Black-and-white image of a man replacing one vacuum tube out of hundreds in early computer | image2 = IBM System360 Mainframe.jpg | alt2 = Computer room with multiple computer cabinets and operating panel | image3 = LYF WATER 2 Smartphone.JPG | alt3 = Smartphone with rainbow-like display held in a hand | image4 = ThinkCentre S50.jpg | alt4 = Black desktop computer with monitor on top and keyboard in front | image5 = Gamecube-console.jpg | alt5 = Purple video game console with attached controller | image6 = Summit (supercomputer).jpg | alt6 = Rows of large, dark computer cabinets in warehouse-like room | footer = Computers and computing devices from different eras—left to right, top to bottom: {{bulleted list |Early vacuum tube computer ([[ENIAC]]) |[[Mainframe]] computer ([[IBM System/360]]) |[[Smartphone]] ([[LYF]] Water 2) |[[Desktop computer]] (IBM [[ThinkCentre#S50|ThinkCentre S50]] with monitor) |[[Video game console]] (Nintendo [[GameCube]]) |[[Supercomputer]] (IBM [[Summit (supercomputer)|Summit]]) }} }} '''Mrangura''' ni [[makina]]. Iwo ungaŵa [[Kupanga mapulogalamu gha pa mrangura|kupanga mapulogalamu]]. Iwo mwaŵene [[Kupha (kuŵerengera)|kuchita]] ndondomeko. Ndondomeko izi ni za [[masamu]] panji [[mapulogalamu ghakumanyikwa]]. Ichi chikuchemeka ''[[kupenda]]''. Mamrangura gha mazuŵa ghano [[gha pa mrangura]] ghakuchita vinthu vyakupambanapambana. Ntchito izi zikumanyikwa kuti [[Pulogalamu ya mrangura|''mapulogalamu'']]. Mapulogiramu ghakovwira mamrangura kuti ghachitenge milimo yinandi. Lizgu lakuti '''dongosolo la mrangura''' lingayowoya za mrangura yose. Ivi vikusazgapo [[Vipangizo vya pa mrangura|vipangizo vya pa mrangura]], [[vipangizo vyakugwiliskira ntchito]], [[vipangizo]], na [[vipangizo vyakuzungulira]]. Vinthu ivi vikukhumbikwa kuti vigwirenge ntchito mwakukwana. Mwakuyana waka, likung’anamura gulu la mamrangura. Mamrangura agha ghakukolerana. Ŵakugwira ntchito pamoza. Viyelezgero ivi ni [[netiweki ya mrangura]] panji [[gulu la mrangura]]. Vinthu vinandi vikugwiriskira ncito mamrangura. Ivi vikusazgapo [[Mulongozgi wa mapulogalamu|mafakitale]] na [[Vinthu vya magesi vyakuguliska|vinthu vyakuguliska]]. Ŵakugwiriskira ncito mamrangura nga ni [[ndondomeko yakulongozgera]]s. Viyelezgero ni vipangizo vipusu nga ni [[uvuni wa microwave]] na [[kulongozgera patali]]. Vipangizo vya mafakitale nga ni [[roboti ya mafakitale]]s navyo vikuvigwiriskira ncito. Mamrangura ni ghakuzirwa chomene pa vipangizo vyakugwiriskira ntchito ŵanthu wose. Vinthu ivi vikusazgapo [[mrangura]] na [[chipangizo cha pa foni]] nga ni [[foni yamakono]]. Mamrangura ghakupereka nkhongono ku [[Intaneti]]. Intaneti yikukoleska mamrangura mabiliyoni ghanandi na ŵanthu awo ŵakugwiliskira ntchito Intaneti. Mamrangura ghakale ghakaŵanga ghakugwiliskirika nchito waka pa [[kupenda]]. Vipangizo vyambura kusuzga vyakulembeka vikawovwiranga pa mawerengero. [[Abacus]] nchiyelezgero. Ŵanthu ŵali kugwiliskira ntchito kufuma waka pa nyengo yakale. Mu nyengo ya [[Kusintha kwa Mafakitale]], ŵakapanga vipangizo vya makina. Ŵakachitanga ntchito zitali ndiposo zakutondeska. Chiyelezgero ni ndondomeko yakulongozga ya [[loom]]s. Kukwambilira kwa vyaka vya m’ma 1900, ŵakapanga makina ghapachanya chomene gha magesi. Ŵakachitanga mawerengero ghapadera [[Vinthu vya magesi vya analogue|analog]]. Mu nyengo ya [[Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Charu Chose]], ŵakapanga makina ghakwamba ghakupenda ndalama gha pa mrangura [[Digital data|digital]]. Vinthu ivi vikaŵa makina gha [[mrangura ya makina|makina gha magesi]]. Ŵakagwiliskirangaso ntchito [[vavu ya thermionic]]s. Kuumaliro wa vilimika vya m’ma 1940, [[semikondakita]] [[transistor]]s yikawonekera. Mu vilimika vya kumanyuma vya m’ma 1950, vipangizo vya [[silicon]]-vyakupangika na [[MOSFET]] (transistor ya MOS) na [[dera lakuphatikizgika la monolithic]] vikalondezgapo. Ivi vikapangiska kuti paŵe [[maikroprosesa]]. Ŵakapangiskaso kuti paŵe [[kusintha kwa mamrangura ghachokoghachoko]] mu vilimika vya m’ma 1970. Kufuma nyengo iyi, luŵiro lwa mrangura, nkhongono, na kugwira ntchito zinandi vyasazgikira chomene. [[Chiŵerengero cha ma transistor]]s chakwera mwaluŵiro. [[Dango la Moore]] likayowoya kuti ŵanthu ŵakaŵazganga kaŵiri pa vilimika viŵiri vyose. Ici cikapangiska kuti paŵe [[Kusintha kwa Digito]]. Likachitika kuumaliro wa vilimika vya m’ma 1900 na kukwambilira kwa vilimika vya m’ma 1900. Mwakuyana waka, mrangura ya mazuŵa ghano yili na [[chinthu chakupangira vinthu]] chimoza. Ichi chikuŵa [[chigaŵa chapakati cha kupanga vinthu]] (CPU). CPU kanandi yikuŵa [[maikroprosesa]]. Kweniso likusazgapo mtundu unyake wa [[memory ya mrangura]]. Ichi chikuŵa [[kukumbukira kwa semiconductor]] vipangizo. Chinthu chakunozga chikuchita ntchito za masamu. Iwo ukuchitaso ntchito zakupulikikwa. Unit yakulongozgera na kulaŵilira yikusazgapo. Unit iyi ingasintha ndondomeko ya ntchito. Ikuzgora ku [[data|uthenga]] wakusungika. Vipangizo vyakuzungulira ndiwo chigaŵa cha ndondomeko. Iwo ŵakusazgapo vipangizo vyakunjilirapo. Viyelezgero ni [[Tekinoloje ya kiyibodi|makiyibodi]], [[Mbeŵa ya pa mrangura|mbeŵa]], na [[joysticks]]. Iwo ŵakusazgaposo vipangizo vyakufumiskiramo. Viyelezgero ni [[Kuwonelera mrangura|kuwonelera]] na [[Kusindikizga (kusindikizga)|kusindikizga]]. Pali [[Vipangizo vyakunjilirapo na vyakufumamo|vipangizo vyakunjilirapo/vyakufumiska]] navyo. Ivi vikuchita milimo yose yiŵiri. Chiyelezgero ni [[kukhwaska|kukhwaska]]. Vipangizo vyakuzungulira vikuzomerezga kusanga uthenga. Vimanyikwiro ivi vikufuma ku malo gha kuwaro. Iwo ŵakovwiraso kusunga vyakusangikamo. Ivyo vikufuma mu opareshoni vingasangikaso. {{TOC limit|3}} == Mbiri ya zina == [[File:X-4 with Female Computer - GPN-2000-001932.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|[[Munthu-mrangura]], iyo yili na microscope na calculator, 1952|alt=A human computer.]] Pakati pa vilimika vya m’ma 1900 ndipo lizgu ili likamba kumanyikwa makora mazuŵa ghano; kuyana na ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]'', kugwiriskira ncito kwakwamba kwakumanyikwa kwa lizgu lakuti ''mrangura'' kukaŵa mu ng'anamuro lakupambana, mu buku la 1613 lakuchemeka ''The Yong Mans Gleanings'' la mulembi wa Chingelezi [[Richard Brathwait]]: "Ine {{sic}} kuŵazga mrangura yaunenesko ya Times, ndipo Nkhwantha ya Masamu yiwemi chomene iyo euer {{sic|nolink=y}} kupuma, ndipo wakuchepeskako mazuŵa ghako kuŵa nambara yifupi." Kugwiriskira ncito lizgu ili kukayowoyanga za [[mrangura ya munthu]], munthu uyo ​​wakacitanga mawerengero panji [[mawerengero]]s. Lizgu ili likalutilira kuŵa na ng’anamuro limoza mpaka pakati pa vilimika vya m’ma 1900. Mu nyengo ya umaliro wa nyengo iyi, ŵanakazi ŵakaŵanga nga ni mrangura yawo. ŵanyawo.{{Sfn|Evans|2018|p=23}} Mu 1943, mamrangura ghanandi gha ŵanthu ghakaŵa gha ŵanakazi ..{{Sfn|Smith|2013|p=6}} ''[[Dikishonale ya Etymology pa Intaneti]]'' yikupereka ukaboni wakwamba wakugwiriskira ncito ''mrangura'' mu vilimika vya m'ma 1640, kung'anamura 'uyo wakupenda'; iyi ni "zina la wovwiri kufuma ku compute (v.)". "Dikishonale ya Etymology ya pa intaneti" yikuti kugwiriskira ncito lizgu ili kukung'anamura {{" '}}makina ghakuŵerengera' (gha mtundu uliwose) kufuma mu 1897." "Online Etymology Dictionary" yikulongora kuti "kugwiriskira ncito kwa mazuŵa ghano" kwa lizgu ili, kung'anamura 'mrangura ya digito yakupangika' yikafuma mu "1945 pasi pa zina ili; [mu] fundo [yakusambizga] kufuma mu 1937, nga ni ''[[makina gha Turing]]''".<ref>{{cite web |title=computer (n.) |url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=computer |url-status=live |access-date=2021-08-19 |website=Online Etymology Dictionary |language=en-US |archive-date=16 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161116065135/http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=computer }}</ref> The name has remained, although modern computers are capable of many higher-level functions. == Mbiri == {{Main|Mbiri ya mrangura|Mbiri ya vipangizo vya mrangura}} {{For timeline|Timeline of computing}} === Pre-20th century === [[File:Os d'Ishango IRSNB.JPG|thumb|upright=0.65|[[Chiwangwa cha Ishango]], [[chida cha fupa]] icho chikapangika mu nyengo ya [[Africa pambere mbiri yindambe]]]] Vipangizo vyagwiriskirika ncito kuti viwovwire pa kupenda kwa virimika vikwi vinandi, comenecomene vikugwiriskira ncito [[kulemberana kwa yumoza na yumoza]] na [[kupenda kwa minwe|minwe]]. Chipangizo chakwamba chakuŵerengera chikwenera kuti chikaŵa mtundu wa [[tally stick]]. Pamanyuma pake vyakovwira kusunga vyakulembeka mu [[Fertile Crescent]] yose vikaŵa na calculi (vigaŵa vya dongo, makoni, na vinyake) ivyo vikayimiranga viŵelengero vya vinthu, vikwenera kuti vikaŵa viŵeto panji mbewu, ivyo vikajalirika mu viŵiya vya dongo vyambura kuphika. vimanyikwiro, vyose pamoza vikaŵa chiŵelengero cha vinthu ivyo vikasamuskikanga. Mwantheura viŵiya ivi vikaŵanga nga ni [[bill of lading]] panji buku la akaunti. Kuti ŵaleke kuphyora viŵiya ivi, cakwamba ŵakaŵikanga vithuzithuzi vya dongo vya vimanyikwiro kuwaro kwa viŵiya ivi, kuti ŵaŵerengerenge; mawonekero gha vithuzithuzi vikafumiskikapo mu vimanyikwiro vyakupangika; paumaliro, vimanyikwiro vyambura kumanyikwa vikagwiriskirika ncito mwandondomeko nga ni manambara; manambala agha pamanyuma ghakazomerezgeka kuŵa manambara.<br />Paumaliro vimanyikwiro ivyo vikaŵa kuwaro kwa viŵiya ndivyo vikakhumbikwanga kuti vilongosore unandi, ndipo viŵiya vya dongo vikasintha na kuŵa viphapha vya dongo ivyo vikaŵa na vimanyikwiro vya unandi. {{harvnb|Schmandt-Besserat|1999}} estimates it took 4000 years.}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Robson |first=Eleanor |title=Mathematics in Ancient Iraq |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-691-09182-2 |page=5 |author-link=Eleanor Robson}}: calculi were in use in Iraq for primitive accounting systems as early as 3200–3000 BCE, with commodity-specific counting representation systems. Balanced accounting was in use by 3000–2350 BCE, and a [[sexagesimal number system]] was in use 2350–2000 BCE.</ref> Kugwiriskira ncito [[ndodo zakuŵerengera]] nchiyelezgero cimoza. [[File:Abacus 6.png|thumb|upright=1.15|left|The Chinese [[suanpan]] ({{lang|zh|算盘}}). The number represented on this [[abacus]] is 6,302,715,408.]] Pakwamba ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito [[abacus]] pa ntchito za masamu. [[Abacus wa Ŵaroma]] wakapangika kufuma ku vipangizo ivyo vikagwiliskirikanga nchito ku [[Babuloni]] kufuma waka mu 2400 B.C.E. Kufuma nyengo iyi, ŵanthu ŵali kupanga mitundu yinyake yinandi ya matabwa panji matebulo ghakuŵerengera. Mu nyengo ya ŵamitundu ŵa ku Europe [[nyumba yakupenda ndalama]], ŵakaŵikanga pa thebulu salu yakupangika na vithuzithuzi, ndipo vimanyikwiro vikazungulirazungulira pa thebulu ilo mwakuyana na malango ghanyake, nga ni wovwiri pakupenda ndalama.<ref>{{Cite book |author=Flegg, Graham. |title=Numbers through the ages |date=1989 |publisher=Macmillan Education|isbn=0-333-49130-0|location=Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire |language=en-US |oclc=24660570}}</ref> [[File:Antikythera Fragment A (Front).webp|thumb|upright=0.8|[[Nthowa ya Antikythera]], iyo yikapangika mu [[Grisi wakale]] pafupifupi mu 200–80 B.C.E., ni chipangizo chakwambilira [[chakupangira mamrangura ghakuyana waka]].] Ŵakugomezga kuti [[Nthowa ya Antikythera]] ndiyo yikaŵa yakwamba chomene [[mrangura ya analog]], kuyana na [[Derek J. de Solla Price]].<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20080428070448/http://www.antikythera-mechanism.gr/project/general/the-project.html ''The Antikythera Mechanism Research Project''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080428070448/http://www.antikythera-mechanism.gr/project/general/the-project.html |date=28 April 2008 }}, The Antikythera Mechanism Research Project. Retrieved 1 July 2007.</ref> Likapangika kuti liŵerengerenge malo agho ŵasayansi ŵa mu mlengalenga ŵali. Likasangika mu 1901 mu [[chikepe cha Antikythera]] pafupi na chirwa cha [[Antikythera]] ku Greece, pakati pa [[Kythera]] na [[Krete]], ndipo ŵakuti likasangika pafupifupi mu 1900. {{circa|100 BCE}}. Vipangizo vyakuyana waka na vya Antikythera vikawonekangaso yayi m’paka mu vilimika vya m’ma 1400.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Marchant |first=Jo |date=1 November 2006 |title=In search of lost time |journal=Nature |volume=444 |issue=7119 |pages=534–538 |doi=10.1038/444534a |pmid=17136067 |bibcode=2006Natur.444..534M |s2cid=4305761 |doi-access=free | issn = 0028-0836}}</ref> Vinthu vinandi vyakovwira pa kupenda na kupima vinthu vikapangika kuti vigwiriskike nchito pa kusanda vyakuthambo na pa kwenda pa nyanja. [[Chati cha nyenyezi]] chikaŵa [[tchati cha nyenyezi]] icho chikapangika na [[Al-Biruni|Abu Rayhān al-Bīrūnī]] kukwambilira kwa vilimika vya m’ma 1000.<ref name="Wiet">G. Wiet, V. Elisseeff, P. Wolff, J. Naudu (1975). ''History of Mankind, Vol 3: The Great medieval Civilisations'', p. 649. George Allen & Unwin Limited, [[UNESCO]].</ref> Chinthu cha Astrolabe chikapangika mu charu cha Ŵagiriki mu vilimika vya m’ma 100 panji 200 B.C.E. Kusazgapo kwa planisphere na dioptra, astrolabe yikaŵa nadi mrangura ya analog iyo yingakwaniska kugwiliskira nchito mitundu yakupambanapambana ya masuzgo mu vyakuthambo vyakuzungulira. Astrolabe iyo yikusazgapo mrangura ya kalendara<ref>Fuat Sezgin. "Catalogue of the Exhibition of the Institute for the History of Arabic-Islamic Science (at the Johann Wolfgang Goethe University", Frankfurt, Germany), Frankfurt Book Fair 2004, pp.&nbsp;35 & 38.</ref><ref>{{cite journal |first=François |last=Charette |title=Archaeology: High tech from Ancient Greece |journal=Nature |volume=444 |issue=7119 |pages=551–552 |year=2006 |doi=10.1038/444551a|pmid=17136077 |bibcode=2006Natur.444..551C |s2cid=33513516 |doi-access=free }}</ref> ndipo matayala gha magiya ghakapangika na Abi Bakr wa ku Isfahan, Peresiya mu 1235.<ref>{{cite journal|first1=Silvio A.|last1=Bedini|first2=Francis R.|last2=Maddison|year=1966|title=Mechanical Universe: The Astrarium of Giovanni de' Dondi|journal=Transactions of the American Philosophical Society|volume=56|issue=5|pages=1–69|jstor=1006002|doi=10.2307/1006002}}</ref> Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī wakapanga kalendara yakwamba ya nyenyezi,<ref>{{cite journal|first=Derek de S.|last=Price|author-link=Derek J. de Solla Price|year=1984|title=A History of Calculating Machines|url=https://archive.org/details/ieee-micro_1984-02_4_1/page/22|journal=IEEE Micro|volume=4|number=1|pages=22–52|doi=10.1109/MM.1984.291305}}</ref> makina ghakale ghakukhazikika ghakupanga umanyi<ref name=Oren>{{cite journal|first=Tuncer|last=Őren|author-link=Tuncer Őren|year=2001|title=Advances in Computer and Information Sciences: From Abacus to Holonic Agents|url=http://www.site.uottawa.ca/~oren/pubs/pubs-2001-02-Tubitak.pdf|journal=Turk J Elec Engin|volume=9|number=1|pages=63–70|access-date=21 April 2016|archive-date=15 September 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090915033859/http://www.site.uottawa.ca/~oren/pubs/pubs-2001-02-Tubitak.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> na sitima ya magiya na matayala ya magiya,<ref>[[Donald Routledge Hill]] (1985). "Al-Biruni's mechanical calendar", ''Annals of Science'' '''42''', pp.&nbsp;139–163.</ref> {{circa|1000 AD}}. Chigaŵa ichi, chipangizo chakuŵerengera icho chikugwiriskirika nchito pa kumazga masuzgo mu chiŵelengero, trigonometry, kuchulukizga na kugaŵa, ndiposo pa milimo yakupambanapambana, nga ni makwerero na mizu ya cube, chikapangika kuumaliro wa vilimika vya m’ma 1500 ndipo chikasangika kuti chikugwiliskirika ntchito pa kupanga mfuti, kupenda na kulongozga pa nyanja. Planimeter yikaŵa chipangizo cha mawoko chakupenda malo gha chithuzithuzi chakujalika mwa kuchilembapo na chinthu chakukolerana. [[File:Sliderule 2005.png|thumb|upright=1.25|left|A [[slide rule]]]] Rulala la slide likapangika pafupifupi 1620–1630, na msambizgi wa Chingelezi William Oughtred, nyengo yichoko waka kufuma apo fundo ya logarithm yikasindikizgikira. Ni mrangura ya analog iyo yikugwiliskirika ntchito na mawoko kuti yichitenge kuchulukizga na kugaŵa. Apo malango gha slide ghakalutanga panthazi, masikelo ghakusazgikira ghakapereka vimanyikwiro vyakuyana waka, makwerero na mizu ya makwerero, ma cube na mizu ya ma cube, ndiposo milimo yakujumpha nga ni logarithms na exponentials, circular na hyperbolic trigonometry na milimo yinyake. Malango ghakulongora vithuzithuzi agho ghali na masikelo ghapadera ghachali kugwiliskirika ntchito kuti ŵachitenge mwaluŵiro mawerengero gha nyengo zose, nga ni dango la E6B lakuzungulira ilo likugwiriskirika nchito pa nyengo na mtunda . calculations on light aircraft. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1770, Pierre Jaquet-Droz, uyo wakapanga mawotchi ku Switzerland, wakapanga chidole cha makina (automaton) icho chingalemba uku chikukora bolopointi ya quill. Pakusintha nambara na ndondomeko ya matayala ghake gha mukati, vilembo vyakupambanapambana, ndipo ntheura uthenga wakupambanapambana, ungapangika. Mukuyowoya mwakudumura, yingaŵa "yakupangika" kuti yiŵerenge malango. Pamoza na makina ghanyake ghaŵiri ghakusuzga, chidole ichi chili ku Nyumba Yakusungiramo Vinthu vya Kale ya ku Neuchâtel, ku Switzerland, ndipo chikugwira ntchito m’paka sono.<ref>{{cite web |date=11 July 2013 |title=The Writer Automaton, Switzerland |url=http://www.chonday.com/Videos/the-writer-automaton |publisher=chonday.com |access-date=28 January 2015 |archive-date=20 February 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150220154407/http://www.chonday.com/Videos/the-writer-automaton }}</ref> Mu 1831–1835, nkhwantha ya masamu na injiniya [[Giovanni Plana]] wakapanga [[Cappella dei Mercanti (Turin)#Perpetual calendar|Perpetual Calendar machine]], iyo kwizira mu ndondomeko ya mapulley na masilinda yikamanyiska [[perpetual calendar]] ya chaka chilichose kufuma mu 0 CE (ndiko kuti, 1 BCE) m'paka 4000 CE, kusunga utali wa vyaka vyakujumphapo na vyakupambanapambana vya zuŵa. [[tide-predicting machine]] iyo yikapangika na wasayansi wa ku Scotland [[William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin|Sir William Thomson]] mu 1872 yikaŵa yakovwira chomene pa kwenda mu maji ghambura kunyang'amira. Likagwiliskiranga ntchito ndondomeko ya mapulley na mawaya kuti liŵerengerenge yekha unandi wa maji agho ghakuyowoyeka kuti ghazamuŵapo pa nyengo yinyake pa malo ghanyake. [[differential analyser]], mrangura ya makina ya analog iyo yikapangika kuti yimazge [[differential equation]]s na [[integral|integration]], yikagwiliskira nchito nthowa za matayala na diski kuti yiphatikizge vinthu ivi. Mu 1876, Sir William Thomson wakadumbiskana kale za umo vingaŵira vyakuzenga vyakuŵerengera vyanthena ivi, kweni wakatondeka na nkhongono yichoko yakufumiramo ya [[ball-and-disk integrator]]s.<ref name="scientific-computing.com">Ray Girvan, [https://web.archive.org/web/20121103094710/http://www.scientific-computing.com/scwmayjun03computingmachines.html "The revealed grace of the mechanism: computing after Babbage"], {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121103094710/http://www.scientific-computing.com/scwmayjun03computingmachines.html|date=3 November 2012}}, ''Scientific Computing World'', May/June 2003.</ref> Mu chipangizo chakuwonera vyakupambana, ivyo vikafumanga ku integrator yimoza vikapangiskanga kuti integrator yakulondezgapo yinjiremo, panji kuti graphing output. [[torque amplifier]] ndiyo yikaŵa nthowa iyo yikapangiska kuti makina agha ghagwirenge ntchito. Kufuma mu 1920s, [[Vannevar Bush]] na ŵanyake ŵakapanga makina ghakuwonera mphambano. Mu 1890s, injiniya wa ku Spain [[Leonardo Torres Quevedo]] wakamba kupanga mndandanda wa [[Leonardo Torres Quevedo#Analogue calculating machines|analog machines]] wakupambanapambana uwo ungamazga misisi yeneco na yakusuzga ya [[polynomial]]s,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Torres |first=Leonardo |author-link=Leonardo Torres Quevedo |date=1895-10-10 |title=Memória sobre las Máquinas Algébricas |url=https://quickclick.es/rop/pdf/publico/1895/1895_tomoI_28_01.pdf |journal=Revista de Obras Públicas |language=es |issue=28 |pages=217–222}}</ref><ref name="MaquinasAlgebricasLTQ">Leonardo Torres. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=Eo0NAQAAIAAJ Memoria sobre las máquinas algébricas: con un informe de la Real academia de ciencias exactas, fisicas y naturales]'', Misericordia, 1895.</ref><ref name="Thomas2008">{{Cite journal |last=Thomas |first=Federico |date=2008-08-01 |title=A short account on Leonardo Torres' endless spindle |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0094114X07001231 |journal=[[Mechanism and Machine Theory]] |publisher=[[International Federation for the Promotion of Mechanism and Machine Science|IFToMM]] |volume=43 |issue=8 |pages=1055–1063 |doi=10.1016/j.mechmachtheory.2007.07.003 |issn=0094-114X|hdl=10261/30460 |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref name="Gomez-JaureguiGutierrez-GarciaGonzález-RedondoIglesiasManchadoOtero2022">{{Cite journal |last1=Gomez-Jauregui |first1=Valentin |last2=Gutierrez-Garcia |first2=Andres |last3=González-Redondo |first3=Francisco A. |last4=Iglesias |first4=Miguel |last5=Manchado |first5=Cristina |last6=Otero |first6=Cesar |date=2022-06-01 |title=Torres Quevedo's mechanical calculator for second-degree equations with complex coefficients|journal=[[Mechanism and Machine Theory]] |publisher=[[International Federation for the Promotion of Mechanism and Machine Science|IFToMM]] |volume=172 |issue=8|page=104830 |doi=10.1016/j.mechmachtheory.2022.104830|s2cid=247503677 |doi-access=free |hdl=10902/24391 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> iyo yikasindikizgika mu 1901 na [[French Academy of Sciences|Paris Academy of Sciences]].<ref>{{cite journal|date=1901|first=Leonardo|language=fr|last=Torres Quevedo|publisher=Impr. nationale (París)|title=Machines á calculer|url=https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k840139b?rk=21459;2 |journal=Mémoires Présentés par Divers Savants à l'Académie des Scienes de l'Institut de France |volume=XXXII}}<!-- auto-translated by Module:CS1 translator --></ref> === mrangura yakwamba === [[File:Charles Babbage. Wood engraving, 1871. Wellcome V0000259.jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.8|Charles Babbage]] {{multiple image |direction = vertical |footer = |align = right |image1 = Difference engine plate 1853.jpg |caption1 = A diagram of a portion of Babbage's [[Difference engine]] |image2 = Differenceengine.jpg|width=165 |caption2 = The Difference Engine Number 2 at the [[Intellectual Ventures]] laboratory in Seattle }} [[Charles Babbage]], injiniya wa makina wa ku England ndipo [[polymath]], ndiyo wakambiska fundo yakuti paŵe mrangura iyo yingaŵikika mu mapulogiramu. Kuwona kuti "[[computer pioneer|father of the computer]]",<ref>{{cite book |author=Halacy, Daniel Stephen |title=Charles Babbage, Father of the Computer |url=https://archive.org/details/charlesbabbagefa00hala |url-access=registration |year=1970 |publisher=Crowell-Collier Press |isbn=978-0-02-741370-0 }}</ref> iyo wakaghanaghana na kupanga [[mechanical computer]] wakwamba mu vilimika vya m'ma 19th century. Pamanyuma pakugwira ntchito pa [[difference engine]] yake wakapharazga ivyo wakapanga mu 1822, mu pepala ilo wakalemba ku [[Royal Astronomical Society]], ilo likaŵa na mutu wakuti "Note on the application of machinery to the computation of astronomical and mathematical tables".<ref>{{cite web |last1=O'Connor |first1=John J. |last2=Robertson |first2=Edmund F. |author-link2=Edmund F. Robertson |date=1998 |url=http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Babbage.html |title=Charles Babbage |work=MacTutor History of Mathematics archive |publisher=School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of St Andrews, Scotland |access-date=2006-06-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060616002258/http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Babbage.html |archive-date=2006-06-16 }}</ref> Kuŵika mapulogalamu na data kukaŵa kuti kupelekeka ku makina kwizira mu [[punched card]]s, nthowa iyo yikagwiriskirika ncito pa nyengo iyo kuti yilongozge [[loom]]s ya makina nga ni [[Jacquard loom]]. Kuti yifumemo, makina ghaŵenge na [[Printer (computing)|printer]], curve plotter na belu. Makina agha ghakaŵangaso na mazaza ghakulemba manambara pa makadi kuti ŵaŵazgenge pamanyuma. Injini iyi yizamuŵa na [[arithmetic logic unit]], [[control flow]] mu kawonekero ka [[conditional branching]] na [[program loop#Loops|loops]], ndiposo [[computer memory|memory]] yakusazgako, ndipo yizamuŵa yakwamba kupanga mrangura yakugwiriskira ncito vinthu vyose iyo yingalongosoreka mu mazgu gha mazuŵa ghano kuti [[Turing-complete]].<ref name="babbageonline">{{cite web |date=19 January 2007 |title=Babbage |url=http://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/onlinestuff/stories/babbage.aspx?page=5 |access-date=1 August 2012 |work=Online stuff |publisher=Science Museum |archive-date=7 August 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807185334/http://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/onlinestuff/stories/babbage.aspx?page=5 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Graham-Cumming |first=John |date=23 December 2010 |title=Let's build Babbage's ultimate mechanical computer |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg20827915.500-lets-build-babbages-ultimate-mechanical-computer.html |url-status=live |access-date=1 August 2012 |work=opinion |publisher=New Scientist |language=en-US |archive-date=5 August 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120805050111/http://www.newscientist.com/article/mg20827915.500-lets-build-babbages-ultimate-mechanical-computer.html }}</ref> . Makina agha ghakaŵa pafupifupi vyaka zana limoza pambere nyengo yake yindakwane. Vigaŵa vyose vya makina ghake vikakhumbikwiranga kupangika na mawoko – ili likaŵa suzgo likuru ku chipangizo icho chikaŵa na vigaŵa vikwi vinandi. Paumaliro, ntchito iyi yikamara apo ŵa [[British Government]] ŵakadumura kuti ŵaleke kupeleka ndalama. Kutondeka kwa Babbage kumalizga injini yakusanda vinthu kungacitika comene cifukwa ca masuzgo gha ndyali na gha ndalama ndiposo cifukwa cakuti wakakhumbanga kupanga mrangura iyo yikaŵa yakunozga comene ndiposo kuti walutilire kwenda mwaluŵiro kuluska umo munthu waliyose wangacitira. Nangauli vikaŵa nthena, mwana wake, [[Henry Babbage]], wakamalizga mtundu wakupepuka wa injini yakusanda ('' mphero'') mu 1888. Wakalongora makora umo yikugwiriskikira nchito pa matebulo gha mrangura mu 1906. === Makina ghakuŵerengera gha magesi === [[File:Aritmómetro_Electromecánico.jpg|thumb|left|Electro-mechanical calculator (1920) by [[Leonardo Torres Quevedo]].]] Mu buku lake lakuti ''Essays on Automatics'' ilo likalembeka mu 1914, [[Leonardo Torres Quevedo]] wakalemba mbiri yichoko waka ya umo Babbage wakayezgera kupanga injini yakupambana ya makina na injini yakusanda. Pepala ili lili na ndondomeko ya makina agho ghangapenda mafomula nga ni <math>a^x(y - z)^2</math>, gha ndondomeko ya vigaŵa vyakuzirwa. Makina ghose ghakeneranga kulaŵilirika na [[Read-only memory|read-only]] program, agho ghakaŵa ghakukwana na vyakukhumbikwa vya [[conditional branching]]. Wakambiskaso fundo yakuti [[floating-point arithmetic]].<ref name="LTQ1914es">L. Torres Quevedo. ''Ensayos sobre Automática – Su definicion. Extension teórica de sus aplicaciones,'' Revista de la Academia de Ciencias Exacta, Revista 12, pp. 391–418, 1914.</ref><ref>Torres Quevedo, Leonardo. [https://quickclick.es/rop/pdf/publico/1914/1914_tomoI_2043_01.pdf Automática: Complemento de la Teoría de las Máquinas, (pdf)], pp. 575–583, Revista de Obras Públicas, 19 November 1914.</ref><ref>Ronald T. Kneusel. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=eq4ZDgAAQBAJ&dq=leonardo+torres+quevedo++electromechanical+machine+essays&pg=PA84 Numbers and Computers],'' Springer, pp. 84–85, 2017. {{ISBN|978-3-319-50508-4}}</ref> Mu 1920, kuti ŵakondwelere vyaka 100 vya kupangika kwa [[arithmometer]], Torriro the Elect a . [[Keyboard layout|keyboard]], ndipo wakapenda na kusindikizga ivyo vikasangika,{{Sfn|Randell|1982|p=6, 11–13}}<ref name="Randell1982p109">B. Randell. ''Electromechanical Calculating Machine,'' The Origins of Digital Computers, pp.109–120, 1982.</ref>{{sfn|Bromley|1990}}<ref>Cristopher Moore, Stephan Mertens. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=z4zMiZyAE1kC&dq=leonardo+torres+quevedo+++computing&pg=PA291 The Nature of Computation],'' Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, p. 291, 2011. {{ISBN|978-0-199-23321-2}}.</ref> kulongora kuti injini yakusanda vya magesi yingachitika.<ref>Randell, Brian. [https://dl.acm.org/doi/pdf/10.5555/1074100.1074334 Digital Computers, History of Origins, (pdf)], p. 545, Digital Computers: Origins, Encyclopedia of Computer Science, January 2003.</ref> === Analog computers === {{Main|mrangura ya Analog}} [[File:099-tpm3-sk.jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.9|[[William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin|Sir William Thomson]]'s third tide-predicting machine design, 1879–81]] Mu hafu yakwamba ya vilimika vya m’ma 1900, vinthu vinandi ivyo ŵasayansi ŵakakhumbikwiranga pakupanga mamrangura vikafiskika na mamrangura gha analog agho ghakaŵa ghakunozga comene, agho ghakagwiliskiranga nchito ciyerezgero cakudunjika ca suzgo ilo likaŵapo pa nkhani ya makina panji magesi nga ni fundo yakucitira mamrangura. Ndipouli, vinthu ivi vikaŵa vyambura kupangika ndipo kanandi vikaŵavya vinthu vinandi ndiposo vikaŵanga vyambura kwenelera nga ni mamrangura gha mazuŵa ghano gha digito.<ref name="stanf">{{cite book |url=http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/computing-history/ |title=The Modern History of Computing |publisher=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |year=2017 |language=en-US |access-date=7 January 2014 |archive-date=12 July 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100712072148/http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/computing-history/ |url-status=live }}</ref> mrangura yakwamba ya mazuŵa ghano ya analog yikaŵa makina ghakumanyirathu umo maji ghakuŵira, agho ghakapangika na Sir William Thomson (uyo pamanyuma wakazgoka Lord Kelvin) mu 1872. mrangura ya analog ya makina iyo yikapangika kuti yimazge ma equation ghakupambanapambana mwa kuphatikizga vinthu mwakugwiliskira nchito nthowa za matayala na diski, yikapangika na James brotherom the more the Thmo8. Fumu William Thomson.<ref name="scientific-computing.com" /> Luso la kupanga mamrangura gha analog likafika pa msinkhu wake na chipangizo chakuwonera mphambano, icho chikapangika na H. L. Hazen na Vannevar Bush ku MIT kwamba mu 1927. Ici cikazengeka pa vipangizo vyakusazgako makina vya James Thomson na vipangizo vyakukhozga nkhongono ivyo vikapangika na H. W. Nieman. Vipangizo ivi khumi na viŵiri vikapangika pambere vindawoneke kuti vyamara nchito.[citation needed] Mu vilimika vya m’ma 1950, kupambana kwa mamrangura gha magesi gha digito kukapangiska kuti makina ghanandi ghakupangika na analog ghaleke kuŵapo, kweni mamrangura gha analog ghakalutilira kugwiliskirika nchito mu vilimika vya m’ma 1950 mu vinthu vinyake vyapadera nga ni masambiro (slide rule) na ndege (control systems) ..{{Citation needed|date=February 2025}} === Mamrangura gha digito === ==== Magesi-Makina ==== Claude Shannon's 1937 master's thesis wakaŵika fawundeshoni ya mamrangura gha digito, ndipo kumanya kwake kwakugwiriskira ncito algebra ya Boolean pakusanda na kupanga ma circuit ghakusinthasintha ndiyo fundo yakuzirwa iyo yikupangiska mamrangura ghose gha digito gha digito.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=081H96F1enMC |title=A Brief History of Computing |date=2008 |publisher=Springer London |isbn=978-1-84800-083-4 |editor-last=O’Regan |editor-first=Gerard |location=London |pages=28 |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-1-84800-084-1}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite web |last=Tse |first=David |author-link=David Tse |date=2020-12-22 |title=How Claude Shannon Invented the Future |url=https://www.quantamagazine.org/how-claude-shannons-information-theory-invented-the-future-20201222/ |access-date=2024-11-05 |website=Quanta Magazine}}</ref> Mu 1938, ŵasilikari ŵa pa nyanja ŵa ku United States ŵakapanga mrangura ya analog ya magesi iyo yikaŵa yichoko chomene mwakuti ŵangagwiliskira ntchito pa boti la pasi pa maji. Iyi yikaŵa mrangura ya Torpedo Data, iyo yikagwiliskiranga ntchito trigonometry kuti yimazge suzgo la kuponya torpedo pa chinthu icho chikwenda. Mu nyengo ya Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Charu Chose, ŵakapangaso vipangizo vyanthena ivi mu vyaru vinyake.{{Citation needed|date=February 2025}} [[File:Z3 Deutsches Museum.JPG|thumb|left|upright=0.9|Replica of [[Konrad Zuse]]'s [[Z3 (computer)|Z3]], the first fully automatic, digital (electromechanical) computer]] Mamrangura ghakwambilira gha digito ghakaŵa gha magesi; masiwichi gha magesi ghakayendeskanga ma relay gha makina kuti ghachitenge chiŵelengero. Vipangizo ivi vikagwiranga nchito mwaluŵiro yayi ndipo paumaliro pake vikanjilirapo na mamrangura gha magesi ghose agho ghakaŵa ghaluŵiro comene, ndipo pakwamba ŵakagwiliskiranga nchito machubu gha vacuum. Z2, iyo yikapangika na injiniya wa ku Germany Konrad Zuse mu 1939 ku Berlin, yikaŵa yimoza mwa viyelezgero vyakwamba vya mrangura yakutumizga magesi.<ref name="Part 4 Zuse">{{cite web|url=http://www.epemag.com/zuse/part4a.htm|title=Part 4: Konrad Zuse's Z1 and Z3 Computers|last=Zuse|first=Horst|work=The Life and Work of Konrad Zuse|publisher=EPE Online|access-date=17 June 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080601210541/http://www.epemag.com/zuse/part4a.htm |archive-date=1 June 2008}}</ref> [[File:Konrad Zuse (1992).jpg|thumb|right|upright=0.6|[[Konrad Zuse]], inventor of the modern computer<ref name="Bellis">{{cite web |last=Bellis |first=Mary |date=15 May 2019 |orig-date=First published 2006 at inventors.about.com/library/weekly/aa050298.htm |title=Biography of Konrad Zuse, Inventor and Programmer of Early Computers |url=https://www.thoughtco.com/konrad-zuse-modern-computer-4078237 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201213003237/https://www.thoughtco.com/konrad-zuse-modern-computer-4078237 |archive-date=13 December 2020 |access-date=3 February 2021 |website=thoughtco.com |publisher=Dotdash Meredith |quote=Konrad Zuse earned the semiofficial title of 'inventor of the modern computer'{{who|date=February 2023}}.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.computerhope.com/issues/ch001335.htm|title=Who is the Father of the Computer?|website=ComputerHope}}</ref>]] Mu 1941, Zuse wakalondezga makina ghake ghakale na Z3, mrangura yakwamba pa caru cose iyo yikugwira nchito na mapulogiramu gha magesi, ndiposo iyo yikugwira nchito yekha. Z3 yikapangika na 2000 relays, kukhazikiska utali wa mazgu gha 22 bit agho ghakagwiranga ntchito pa wotchi pafupipafupi pafupifupi 5-10 Hz. Khodi ya pulogiramu yikapelekekanga pa filimu yakukhoma apo data yikasungikanga mu mazgu 64 ghakukumbukika panji kupelekeka kufuma pa kiyibodi. Wakaŵa wakuyana waka na makina gha mazuŵa ghano mu vigaŵa vinyake, ndipo wakambiska vinthu vinandi nga ni manambara ghakuyandama. Mmalo mwa kugwiriskira ncito nthowa ya decimal iyo yikaŵa yakusuzga comene (iyo yikagwiriskirika ncito mu kapangilo kakwamba ka Charles Babbage), kugwiriskira ncito nthowa ya binary kukang’anamuranga kuti makina gha Zuse ghakaŵa ghambura kusuzga kupanga ndiposo ghangaŵa ghakugomezgeka comene, cifukwa ca tekinoloje iyo yikaŵapo pa nyengo iyo. Z3 iyo yekha yikaŵa mrangura ya pa caru cose yayi kweni yingasazgikirapo kuti yiŵe yakukwana ya Turing.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Zuse|first=Konrad|author-link=Konrad Zuse|title=The Computer – My Life ''Translated by McKenna, Patricia and Ross, J. Andrew from:'' Der Computer, mein Lebenswerk (1984)|place=Berlin/Heidelberg|publisher=Springer-Verlag|orig-date=1984|year=2010|language=en|isbn=978-3-642-08151-4}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Salz Trautman |first=Peggy |date=20 April 1994 |title=A Computer Pioneer Rediscovered, 50 Years On |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1994/04/20/news/20iht-zuse.html |access-date=15 February 2017 |archive-date=4 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161104051054/http://www.nytimes.com/1994/04/20/news/20iht-zuse.html }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Zuse|first=Konrad|author-link=Konrad Zuse|title=Der Computer. Mein Lebenswerk.|edition=3rd|year=1993|publisher=Springer-Verlag|location=Berlin|language=de|isbn=978-3-540-56292-4|page=55}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://goremotesupport.com/blog/crash-the-story-of-it-zuse|title=Crash! The Story of IT: Zuse|access-date=1 June 2016|url-status=usurped|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160918203643/https://goremotesupport.com/blog/crash-the-story-of-it-zuse/|archive-date=18 September 2016}}</ref><ref name="rojas-ieee">{{cite journal|last=Rojas |first=R. |s2cid=14606587 |title=How to make Zuse's Z3 a universal computer |url=https://archive.org/details/ieee-annals-of-the-history-of-computing_july-september-1998_20_3/page/51 |journal=IEEE Annals of the History of Computing |volume=20 |issue=3 |pages=51–54 |year=1998 |doi=10.1109/85.707574 |author-link=Raúl Rojas}}</ref><ref name="rojas-universal">{{cite web |last=Rojas |first=Raúl |title=How to Make Zuse's Z3 a Universal Computer |url=http://www.inf.fu-berlin.de/users/rojas/1997/Universal_Computer.pdf |url-status=live |access-date=2015-09-28 |website=fu-berlin.de |archive-date=9 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170809123935/http://www.inf.fu-berlin.de/users/rojas/1997/Universal_Computer.pdf }}</ref> mrangura yakulondezgapo ya Zuse, Z4, yikaŵa mrangura yakwamba ya malonda pa caru cose; panyuma pa kuchedwa kwakwamba chifukwa cha Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Charu Chose, yikamalizgika mu 1950 na kupelekeka ku ETH Zurich. mrangura iyi yikapangika na kampani ya Zuse, Zuse KG, iyo yikakhazikiskika mu 1941 nga ni kampani yakwamba iyo yikaŵa na chilato chimoza pera cha kupanga mamrangura ku Berlin. Z4 ndiyo yikapangiska kuti ŵazenge mrangura ya ERMETH, iyo yikaŵa mrangura yakwamba ya ku Switzerland ndiposo yimoza mwa mrangura zakwamba ku Europe.<ref name="OReganZuse">{{Cite book |last=O'Regan |first=Gerard |title=A Brief History of Computing |publisher=Springer Nature |year=2010 |isbn=978-3-030-66599-9 |page=65 |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name="OReganZuse" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Bruderer |first=Herbert |title=Milestones in Analog and Digital Computing |publisher=Springer |year=2021 |isbn=978-3-03040973-9 |edition=3rd |pages=1009, 1087}}</ref> ==== Machubu ghakufumiskikamo mphepo na vipata vya magesi vya dijito ==== {{Anchor|Digital computer|Digital}} Mwaluŵiro waka vinthu vyakukhwaskana na magesi pera vikanjira mu malo gha vinthu vyakuyana waka vya makina na vya magesi, pa nyengo yeneyiyo apo kupenda kwa digito kukanjira mu malo gha analog. Injiniya Tommy Flowers, uyo wakagwiranga nchito ku Post Office Research Station ku London mu vilimika vya m’ma 1930, wakamba kufufuza umo ŵangagwiliskira nchito vinthu vya magesi pakusinthana foni. Vipangizo vyakuyezga ivyo wakapanga mu 1934 vikamba kugwira ntchito pamanyuma pa vyaka vinkhondi, ndipo vikasintha chigaŵa chinyake cha foni kuti chiŵe chipangizo cha magesi chakupangira data, mwakugwiliskira ntchito vikwi vinandi vya machubu ghambura mphepo.[1] Ku US, John Vincent Atanasoff na Clifford E. Berry ŵa ku Iowa State University ŵakapanga na kuyezga mrangura ya Atanasoff-Berry (ABC) mu 1942, [2] "mrangura yakwamba ya digito ya magesi".[3] Nthowa iyi yikaŵaso ya magesi ndipo yikagwiliskiranga ntchito machubu pafupifupi 300 gha vacuum, ndipo ma capacitor ghakaŵikika mu ng’oma yakuzungulira mwamakina kuti munthu wakumbukenge vinthu.<ref name=Copeland2006>{{Cite book|last=Copeland|first=Jack|year=2006|title=Colossus: The Secrets of Bletchley Park's Codebreaking Computers|url=https://archive.org/details/colossussecretso0000unse|location=Oxford|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|pages=[https://archive.org/details/colossussecretso0000unse/page/101 101]–115|isbn=978-0-19-284055-4}}</ref> [[File:Colossus.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|[[Colossus computer|Colossus]], the first [[Digital electronics|electronic digital]] programmable computing device, was used to break German ciphers during World War II. It is seen here in use at [[Bletchley Park]] in 1943.|alt=Two women are seen by the Colossus computer.]] Mu nyengo ya Nkhondo Yaciŵiri ya Caru Cose, ŵasilikari ŵa ku Britain awo ŵakaswa makodi ku Bletchley Park ŵakacita makora comene pakuswa makodi gha ŵasilikari ŵa Germany agho ghakaŵa ghakubisika. Makina ghakubisika gha ku Germany, Enigma, ghakawukirika chomene na wovwiri wa mabomba gha magesi agho kanandi ghakaŵanga na ŵanakazi.[1][2] Kuti ŵaphwanye makina ghakumanyikwa chomene gha ku Germany gha Lorenz SZ 40/42, agho ghakugwiriskira ntchito pa kuyowoyeskana na ŵasilikari ŵapachanya, Max Newman na ŵanyake ŵakatuma Flowers kuti wazenge Colossus.[3] Wakakhala myezi khumi na yimoza kufuma kukwambilira kwa February 1943 wakupanga na kuzenga Colossus wakwamba.[4] Pamanyuma pa kuyezgeka kwakugwira ntchito mu Disembala 1943, Colossus wakatumizgika ku Bletchley Park, uko wakapelekeka pa 18 Januwale 1944[5] ndipo wakawukira uthenga wake wakwamba pa 5 Febuluwale.[3] Colossus ndiyo yikaŵa mrangura yakwamba pa charu chose iyo yikaŵa na mapulogiramu gha pa mrangura.[6] Wakagwiliskiranga ntchito mavavu ghanandi (machubu gha vacuum). Likaŵa na pepala-tepi ndipo likaŵa lakukwaniska kukhazikiska kuti lichitenge milimo yakupambanapambana ya boolean logical pa data yake, kweni likaŵa la Turing-complete yayi. Mk II Colossi 9 ŵakazengeka (Mk I wakasinthika kuŵa Mk II kupanga makina khumi ghose pamoza). Colossus Mark I yikaŵa na mavavu gha thermionic (machubhu) 1,500, kweni Mark II iyo yikaŵa na mavavu 2,400, yikaŵa ya luwiro kaŵiri ndiposo yikaŵa yipusu kugwiliskira nchito kuluska Mark I, ndipo yikapangiska kuti nchito ya kufumiska mazgu yiŵe ya luwiro comene.<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Randell|first1=Brian|author-link1=Brian Randell|last2=Fensom|first2=Harry|last3=Milne|first3=Frank A.|title=Obituary: Allen Coombs|newspaper=The Independent|date=15 March 1995|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/people/obituary-allen-coombs-1611270.html|access-date=18 October 2012|archive-date=3 February 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120203042657/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/people/obituary-allen-coombs-1611270.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Fensom|first=Jim|title=Harry Fensom obituary|date=8 November 2010|url=https://www.theguardian.com/theguardian/2010/nov/08/harry-fensom-obituary|access-date=17 October 2012|newspaper=The Guardian|archive-date=17 September 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130917220225/http://www.theguardian.com/theguardian/2010/nov/08/harry-fensom-obituary|url-status=live}}</ref>[[File:Eniac.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|left|[[ENIAC]] was the first [[Electronics|electronic]], Turing-complete device, and performed ballistics trajectory calculations for the [[United States Army]].]] ENIAC[1] (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer) ndiyo yikaŵa mrangura yakwamba iyo yikapangika ku U.S. Nangauli ENIAC yikaŵa yakuyana waka na Colossus, kweni yikaŵa ya luwiro chomene, yikaŵa yakusinthasintha, ndipo yikaŵa yakukwana nga ni Turing. Nga ni Colossus, "pulogiramu" pa ENIAC yikalongosoreka na maboma gha makhebo ghake gha patch na masiwichi, kulira kutali chomene na makina gha magesi gha pulogiramu yakusungika agho ghakiza pamanyuma. Para ŵalemba pulogiramu, ŵakeneranga kuyiŵika mu makina na kuŵikaso mapulagi na masiwichi. Ŵanthu awo ŵakapanga pulogiramu ya ENIAC ŵakaŵa ŵanakazi 6, awo kanandi ŵakamanyikwanga kuti "ŵasungwana ŵa ENIAC".[58][59] Likasazgako luŵiro lwa vinthu vya magesi na luso lwa kuŵika mapulogiramu gha masuzgo ghanandi ghakuru. Iwo ungasazgirako panji kuwuskapo maulendo 5000 pa sekondi, mwaluŵiro maulendo chikwi kuluska makina ghanyake ghose. Kweniso likaŵa na vigaŵa vyakusazga, kugaŵa, na square root. Kukumbukira kwa liwiro likuru kukaŵa kwa mazgu 20 (pafupifupi 80 bytes). ENIAC yikazengeka pasi pa ulongozgi wa John Mauchly na J. Presper Eckert ku yunivesite ya Pennsylvania, ndipo yikapangika na kuzenga ENIAC kufuma mu 1943 m’paka apo yikamba kugwira ntchito mwakukwana kuumaliro wa 1945. Makina agha ghakaŵa ghakuru chomene, ghakaŵa na uzito wa matani 30, ndipo ghakagwiliskiranga ntchito magesi ghakukwana 200 makilowati, na magesi ghakujumpha 200. 1,500 vyakupelekera, na vikwi vinandi vyakukhozga, vyakukhozga, na vyakukhozga.<ref name="Eniac">{{cite web|url=http://www.techiwarehouse.com/engine/a046ee08/Generations-of-Computer|title=Generations of Computer|publisher=techiwarehouse.com|access-date=7 January 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150702211455/http://www.techiwarehouse.com/engine/a046ee08/Generations-of-Computer/|archive-date=2 July 2015}}</ref> == Mamrangura gha mazuŵa ghano == === Fundo ya mrangura ya mazuŵa ghano === Mamrangura gha mazuŵa ghano ni vipangizo vya magesi ivyo vikugwira ntchito pa data mwakugwiliskira ntchito mapulogiramu agho ghali kusungika, vikuchita mawerengero na kuchita milimo mwaŵene. === Mapulogalamu ghakusungika === mrangura iyo yili na pulogiramu yakusungika yikusunga malango mu memory, ndipo yikovwira kuti munthu waŵe na mapulogiramu ghakusinthasintha na kugwiliskira ntchito kanandi waka. === Ma transistor === Ma transistor ghakanjira mu malo gha machubu gha vacuum, ndipo ghakapangiska kuti mamrangura ghaŵe ghachoko, ghaluŵiro, ndiposo ghakugomezgeka. === Ma circuit ghakuphatikizgika === Ma circuit ghakusazgako (IC) ghakapangiska kuti ma transistor na vinyake viŵe vichoko, ndipo ivi vikapangiska kuti paŵe mapulogalamu gha mazuŵa ghano ghachokoghachoko. === Mamrangura gha pa foni === Vipangizo vyakunyamulika nga ni malaputopu, matabuleti, na mafoni ghamakono vikupangiska kuti munthu waŵe na mrangura paulendo. === Mitundu === ==== Mwakupanga ==== * Von Neumann wakuzenga nyumba * Kuzenga nyumba ku Harvard * Mamrangura gha Quantum ==== Mwakukura, kawonekero na chilato ==== * Mamrangura ghakurughakuru * Mafuremu ghakuru * Mamrangura gha munthu payekha * Nthowa zakuŵikika == Vipangizo == === Mbiri ya vipangizo vya mrangura === Kulondezga kusintha kwa vinthu kufuma ku ma calculator gha makina m’paka ku ma microprocessor gha mazuŵa ghano. === Mitu yinyake ya hardware === * '''Vipangizo vyakunjilirapo''': Kiyibodi, mbeŵa, sikirini yakukhwaska * '''Vipangizo vyakufumiskamo''': Monitor, printer, ma speaker * '''Chigaŵa cha kulaŵilira''': Kulaŵilira ntchito za CPU * '''Chigaŵa chapakati chakupangira vinthu (CPU)''': Chikuchita malango * '''Masamu ghakumanyikwa makora (ALU)''': Wakuchita mawerengero * '''"Kukumbukira"''': RAM, ROM, kusunga * '''Kunjilirapo/kufumamo (I/O)''': Kudumbiskana pakati pa mrangura na vipangizo vinyake * '''Kuchita vinthu vinandi''': Kuchita mapulogalamu ghanandi pa nyengo yimoza * '''Kupanga vinthu vinandi''': Kugwiliskira ntchito ma CPU ghanandi pakupanga vinthu mwakuyana == Mapulogalamu == === Viyowoyero === * '''Khodi ya makina''': Malango gha binary ghakuchitika na CPU * '''Chiyowoyero cha mapulogalamu''': Nthowa yakulembera mapulogalamu * '''Viyowoyero vyapasi''': Msonkhano, pafupi na khodi ya makina * '''"Viyowoyero vyapachanya"''': Python, Java, ivyo vikuŵazgika na ŵanthu === Mapulogalamu === * '''Mapulogalamu ghakusungika''': Mapulogalamu ghakusungika mu kukumbukira * '''Kapangidwe ka pulogiramu''': Kupangika, kulongozgeka na vinthu, na vinyakhe. * ''' Vipusikizgi''': Vyakubudika mu khodi ya mapulogalamu == Kupanga ma intaneti na intaneti == Ikukhwaska ndondomeko (TCP/IP), webusayiti ya pa charu chose, na mamrangura gha pa mtambo. == Mamrangura ghambura kumanyikwa == * Mamrangura gha Quantum * Mamrangura gha DNA * Nthowa zakupangika na wongo == Munthazi == === Viyelezgero vyakupanga mamrangura === * Kupanga mamrangura ghakuyana waka * Kupanga mamrangura gha pamphepete === Mahara ghakupangika === Makina ghakulongozgeka na AI na kusambira kwa makina. === Ntchito na mabungwe === * Ŵanthu awo ŵakupanga mapulogiramu gha mrangura * IEEE, ACM * Mabungwe gha vya tekinoloje (mwachiyelezgero, Google, Apple) == Wonaniso == {{Div col|colwidth=18em}} * [[Fundo ya kuŵerengera]] * [[Chitetezo cha pa mrangura]] * [[Mazgu ghakulongosora vya mrangura]] * [[Mbiri ya sayansi ya mamrangura]] * [[Mndandanda wa mazgu gha pa mrangura agho ghakufumapo]] * [[Mndandanda wa awo ŵakupanga mamrangura]] * [[Mndandanda wa mamrangura ghakupangika waka]] * [[Mndandanda wa mafilimu ghakukhwaskana na mamrangura]] * [[Mndandanda wa ŵapayiniya ŵa sayansi ya mamrangura]] * [[Mndandanda wa mamrangura]] * [[Kuŵerengera kwa pulse]] * [[TOP500]] (mndandanda wa mamrangura ghankhongono chomene) * [[Kupanga mamrangura ghambura kumanyikwa]] {{div col end}} == maNotsi == {{notelist}} == Pobeka == {{Reflist|30em}} == Sources == {{Refbegin|30em}} * {{cite book |first=B. 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|last=Zuse |first=Konrad |title=The Computer – My life |url= https://archive.org/details/computermylife0000zuse |year=1993 |publisher=Pringler-Verlag |location=Berlin |isbn=978-0-387-56453-1 }} {{Refend}} == External links == * {{commons category-inline|Computers}} * {{sister-inline |project=v |links=[[v:How things work college course/Computer quiz|Wikiversity has a quiz on this article]] |short=yes}} <!--========================{{No more links}}============================ | PLEASE BE CAUTIOUS IN ADDING MORE LINKS TO THIS ARTICLE. 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'''''[[User:Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi|Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi]]'''''[[User talk:Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi|'''<span style='color: #00008b;background-color: #FFFFFF;'>_★^★_★</span>''']] 12:45, 13 Ogasiti 2026 (UTC) 5b7ouyvyh976lxaj6ajlbfujcmlv3cp 119257 119256 2026-08-13T12:46:25Z Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi 11606 /* TumbukaArchBot */ 119257 wikitext text/x-wiki {{User:MiszaBot/config |maxarchivesize = 10 |counter = 1 |algo = old(48h) |archive = User talk:Tumbuka Arch/Archive %(counter)d |minthreadstoarchive = 1 |minthreadsleft = 4 }} {{User new message large|textcolor=Black|color1=LightCyan|start1=0%|color2=Aqua|start2=20%|color3=DodgerBlue|start3=90%|bordersize=2px|bordercolor=DodgerBlue|radius=10px|textsize=200%|rotation=135deg|icon-left=|icon-right=[[File:Face-smile.svg|32px|link=|alt=]]|text=Dofyani pano kuti munitumile uthenga uliwose!}}{{User new message large|textcolor=White|color1=#008000|start1=0%|color2=#007500|start2=50%|color3=#007000|start3=75%|bordersize=1px|bordercolor=#007000|radius=10px|textsize=200%|rotation=135deg|icon-left=|icon-right=[[File:Face-smile.svg|32px|link=|alt=]]|text=Just click here to add a new message!|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User_talk:Tumbuka_Arch?action=edit&section=new}} <!-- Do not use another URL in this documentation, especially not Special:MyTalk! 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I don't know where to start, so I hope you have some knowledge? Yewo chomene!! '''''[[User:Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi|Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi]]'''''[[User talk:Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi|'''<span style='color: #00008b;background-color: #FFFFFF;'>_★^★_★</span>''']] 12:45, 13 Ogasiti 2026 (UTC) 5hmscco1o7d8sf5yvprxxhn96wu2r2p 0 6902 119316 118635 2026-08-13T22:37:30Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260813sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 119316 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Largest city in California, United States}} {{About||the county|Los Angeles County, California|other uses}} {{Pp-vandalism|small=yes}} {{Redirect-multi|2|City of Los Angeles|LA}} {{Use mdy dates|date=June 2023}} {{Use American English|date=September 2019}} <!--The article is about the city proper of Los Angeles. Please do not put information about the metropolitan area in this article; it belongs in [[Los Angeles metropolitan area]]. Please do not put info about the county in this article; it belongs in [[Los Angeles County, California]]. --> {{Infobox settlement | settlement_type = [[List of municipalities in California|Msumba]] | name = Los Angeles | official_name = City of Los Angeles | image_skyline = {{multiple image | border = infobox | total_width = 290 | image_style = border:1; | perrow = 1/2/2/2 | caption_align = center | image1 = Los Angeles with Mount Baldy.jpg | caption1 = [[List of tallest buildings in Los Angeles|Skyline]] of [[Downtown Los Angeles]] | image2 = Hollywood sign (8485145044).jpg | caption2 = [[Hollywood Sign]] | image3 = Echo Park Lake.jpg | caption3 = [[Echo Park]] | image4 = Olvera st los angeles (cropped2).jpg | caption4 = [[Calle Olvera]] | image5 = Los Angeles City Hall 2013 (cropped).jpg | caption5 = [[Los Angeles City Hall]] | image6 = Griffith observatory 2006.jpg | caption6 = [[Griffith Observatory]] | image7 = Venice Beach, Los Angeles, CA 01 (cropped2).jpg | caption7 = [[Venice, Los Angeles#Venice Beach|Venice Beach]] }} <!-- DO NOT change without discussion --> | image_flag = Flag of Los Angeles, California.svg | image_seal = Seal of Los Angeles.svg | seal_link = Seal of Los Angeles | image_blank_emblem = Wordmark of Los Angeles, California.svg | blank_emblem_type = Logo | blank_emblem_size = 100px | blank_emblem_alt = L.A. city seal next to LACITY.GOV | blank_emblem_link = Seal of Los Angeles | nickname = L.A., City of Angels,<ref name=VOAnick /> [[The Entertainment Capital of the World]],<ref name=VOAnick>{{cite news|url=http://learningenglish.voanews.com/content/nicknames-for-los-angeles/1644584.html|title=Nicknames for Los Angeles|work=[[Voice of America]]|first1=Shelley|last1=Gollust|date=April 18, 2013|access-date=June 26, 2014}}</ref> La-la-land, Tinseltown<ref name=VOAnick /> | image_map = LA County Incorporated Areas Los Angeles highlighted.svg | map_caption = Location within California and [[Los Angeles County]] | pushpin_map = California#USA#North America | pushpin_relief = 1 | pushpin_mapsize = 290px | pushpin_map_caption = Location within California##Location within the United States##Location within North America | pushpin_label = Los Angeles | pushpin_label_position = right | coordinates = {{coord|34|03|N|118|15|W|region:US-CA_type:city(3800000)|display=inline,title}} | subdivision_type = [[List of sovereign states|Country]] | subdivision_name = {{Flagu|United States}} | subdivision_type1 = [[U.S. state|State]] | subdivision_type2 = [[List of counties in California|County]] | subdivision_name1 = {{Flag|California}} | subdivision_name2 = {{Flagicon image|Flag of Los Angeles County, California.svg}} [[Los Angeles County, California|Los Angeles]] | subdivision_type3 = [[List of regions of California|Region]] | subdivision_type4 = [[Combined Statistical Area|CSA]] | subdivision_type5 = [[Metropolitan statistical area|MSA]] | subdivision_name3 = [[Southern California]] | subdivision_name4 = [[Greater Los Angeles|Los Angeles-Long Beach]] | subdivision_name5 = [[Los Angeles metropolitan area|Los Angeles-Long Beach-Anaheim]] | established_title = [[Pueblo de Los Ángeles|Pueblo]] | established_date = September 4, 1781<ref name="CaliforniaCounty1899">{{cite book|last=Barrows|first=H.D.|title=Historical Society of Southern California Quarterly|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JMg1AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA151|access-date=September 28, 2011|year=1899|page=151ff|chapter=Felepe de Neve|volume=4}}</ref> | established_title1 = [[City status]] | established_date1 = May 23, 1835<ref>{{cite web|url = https://www.kcet.org/shows/lost-la/this-1835-decree-made-the-pueblo-of-los-angeles-a-ciudad-and-californias-capital| title = This 1835 Decree Made the Pueblo of Los Angeles a Ciudad – And California's Capital| publisher=[[KCET]]| access-date = January 27, 2018| date = April 2016}}</ref> | established_title2 = [[Municipal corporation|Incorporated]] | established_date2 = April 4, 1850<ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.calafco.org/docs/Cities_by_incorp_date.doc|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130221091414/http://www.calafco.org/docs/Cities_by_incorp_date.doc|url-status=dead|archive-date = February 21, 2013| title = California Cities by Incorporation Date| format =DOC|publisher=California Association of [[Local Agency Formation Commission]]s| access-date = August 25, 2014}}</ref> | named_for = [[Queen of Heaven|Our Lady, Queen of the Angels]] <!-- Government ----------->| government_type = [[Mayor–council government|Strong mayor–council]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.lacity.org/city-government/about-city-government |title=About the City Government |publisher=City of Los Angeles |access-date=February 8, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150208103544/http://www.lacity.org/city-government/about-city-government |archive-date=February 8, 2015 |url-status=dead }}</ref> | governing_body = [[Los Angeles City Council]] | leader_title = [[Mayor of Los Angeles|Mayor]] | leader_name = [[Karen Bass]] ([[Democratic Party (United States)|D]]) | leader_title1 = [[Los Angeles City Attorney|City Attorney]] | leader_name1 = [[Hydee Feldstein Soto]] (D) | total_type = Total | unit_pref = Imperial | area_footnotes = <ref name="CenPopGazetteer2021">{{cite web|title=2021 U.S. Gazetteer Files|url=https://www2.census.gov/geo/docs/maps-data/data/gazetteer/2021_Gazetteer/2021_gaz_place_06.txt|publisher=United States Census Bureau|access-date=September 7, 2021}}</ref> | area_total_sq_mi = 501.55 | area_total_km2 = 1299.01 | area_land_sq_mi = 469.49 | area_land_km2 = 1215.97 | area_water_sq_mi = 32.06 | area_water_km2 = 83.04 | elevation_m = 93 | elevation_ft = 305 | elevation_min_ft = 0 | elevation_max_m = 1576 | elevation_max_ft = 5075 | elevation_footnotes = | elevation_max_footnotes = | elevation_min_footnotes = | population_total = 3,898,747 | population_as_of = [[2020 United States census|2020]] | population_footnotes = <ref name="QuickFacts">{{cite web |title=QuickFacts: Los Angeles city, California |url=https://www.census.gov/quickfacts/fact/table/losangelescitycalifornia/POP010220|access-date=January 21, 2023 |publisher=U.S. Census Bureau}}</ref> | pop_est_footnotes = <ref name="QuickFacts" /> | population_est = 3,849,297 | pop_est_as_of = 2021 | population_rank = [[List of United States cities by population|2nd]] in the United States<br />[[List of largest cities in California by population|1st]] in California | population_density_sq_mi = 8304.22 | population_density_km2 = 3206.29 | population_urban_footnotes = <ref name="urban area">{{cite web |url=https://www.census.gov/programs-surveys/geography/guidance/geo-areas/urban-rural.html|title=List of 2020 Census Urban Areas|website=census.gov|publisher=United States Census Bureau|access-date=January 8, 2023}}</ref> | population_urban = 12,237,376 (US: [[List of United States urban areas|2nd]]) | population_density_urban_km2 = 2,886.6 | population_density_urban_sq_mi = 7,476.3 | population_metro_footnotes = <ref name="2020Pop">{{cite web |title=2020 Population and Housing State Data |url=https://www.census.gov/library/visualizations/interactive/2020-population-and-housing-state-data.html |publisher=United States Census Bureau |access-date=August 22, 2021}}</ref> | population_metro = 13,200,998 (US: [[List of metropolitan statistical areas|2nd]]) | population_demonym = Angeleno, Angelino, Angeleño<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.kcet.org/shows/lost-la/angelino-angeleno-and-angeleno|title=Angelino, Angeleno, and Angeleño|date=January 10, 2011|website=KCET}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Angeleno|title=Definition of ANGELENO|website=www.merriam-webster.com|date=May 16, 2023 }}</ref> | postal_code_type = [[ZIP Code]]s | postal_code = {{collapsible list |framestyle = text-align:left;border:0;padding:0;line-height:16px; |titlestyle = background:transparent;text-align:left;font-weight:normal; |hlist = true |90001–90084, 90086–90089, 90091, 90093–90097, 90099, 90101–90103, 90174, 90185, 90189, 90291–90293, 91040–91043, 91303–91308, 91311, 91316, 91324–91328, 91330, 91331, 91335, 91340, 91342–91349, 91352–91353, 91356–91357, 91364–91367, 91401–91499, 91504–91505, 91601–91609<ref>[https://media.metro.net/about_us/pla/images/lazipcodes.pdf Zip Codes Within the City of Los Angeles] – LAHD</ref> }} | area_code = [[Area codes 213 and 323|213, 323]], [[Area codes 310 and 424|310, 424]], [[Area codes 818 and 747|818, 747]] | area_code_type = [[North American Numbering Plan|Area codes]] | blank_name_sec1 = [[Federal Information Processing Standards|FIPS]] code | blank_info_sec1 = {{FIPS|06|44000}} | blank1_name_sec1 = [[Geographic Names Information System|GNIS]] feature IDs | blank1_info_sec1 = {{GNIS 4|1662328}}, {{GNIS 4|2410877}} | website = [https://www.lacity.gov lacity.gov] | short_description = City in California | leader_title2 = [[Los Angeles City Controller|City Controller]] | leader_name2 = [[Kenneth Mejia]] (D) | timezone = [[Pacific Time Zone|PST]] | utc_offset = –08:00 | timezone_DST = [[Pacific Daylight Time|PDT]] | utc_offset_DST = –07:00 }} '''Los Angeles''' ({{IPAc-en|US|l|ɔː|s|_|ˈ|æ|n|dʒ|əl|ə|s|audio=En-us-los-angeles.ogg}} {{respell|lawss|_|AN|jəl|əs}}; {{lang-es|Los Ángeles|link=no}} {{IPA-es|los ˈaŋxeles|}}, {{lit|The Angels}}), kanandi zina lake likulembeka kuti '''L.A.''',<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.laalmanac.com/geography/ge13b.php|title=Nicknames for Los Angeles, California|website=www.laalmanac.com}}</ref> ni msumba uwo uli na ŵanthu ŵanandi comene mu [[California]], [[U.S.A]]. Msumba uwu ndiwo uli pakatikati pa malonda, ndalama, na kakhaliro ka ŵanthu ŵa ku Southern California. Los Angeles ni tawuni yaciŵiri ya ŵanthu ŵanandi mu United States pamanyuma pa New York City, na ŵanthu pafupifupi 3.9 miliyoni mu mphepete mwa tawuni iyi mu 2020.<ref name="QuickFacts" /> Los Angeles wali na mphepo ya ku Meditereniyani, ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yakupambanapambana, ndiposo msumba ukuru. Cikaŵa cikaya ca makampani gha mafilimu gha ku Hollywood.<ref name="CenPopGazetteer2021" /> TChigawo chachikulu cha mzindawu chili mu chigawo cha kumwera kwa California pafupi ndi nyanja ya Pacific kumadzulo ndipo chimadutsa m'mapiri a Santa Monica ndi kumpoto ku San Fernando Valley, pomwe mzindawu uli m'malire a San Gabriel Valley kum'mawa kwake. Chigaŵa ichi chili na malo ghakukwana 1210 km2 ndipo chili ku chigaŵa cha Los Angeles, icho chili na ŵanthu ŵanandi chomene ku United States. Kuzakafika mu 2022, chigaŵa ichi chizamukhala ŵanthu pafupifupi 9.86 miliyoni.<ref name=LosAngelesCountyDecline2022>{{cite web |url=https://dof.ca.gov/wp-content/uploads/Forecasting/Demographics/Documents/E-1_2022PressRelease.pdf |title=Slowing State Population Decline puts Latest Population at 39,185,000 |website=dof.ca.gov |access-date=June 12, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220612004340/https://dof.ca.gov/wp-content/uploads/Forecasting/Demographics/Documents/E-1_2022PressRelease.pdf |archive-date=June 12, 2022}}</ref> Ni tawuni yacitatu iyo ŵanthu ŵakuluta kukaya ku United States, pamanyuma pa New York City na Miami, ndipo ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 4.6 miliyoni ŵakaluta kukaya mu tawuni iyi mu 2019.<ref>[https://www.worldatlas.com/cities/america-s-10-most-visited-cities.html "America's 10 most visited cities"], World Atlas, September 23, 2021</ref> Cigaŵa ico sono ni Los Angeles, pakwamba cikakhalanga na ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Tongva, ndipo pamanyuma pake Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo wakacicemera zina ili mu 1542. Msumba uwu ukapangika pa Seputembala 4, 1781, na kazembe wa Spain Felipe de Neve, pa muzi wa Yaanga. Cikaŵa cigaŵa ca Mexico mu 1821 pamasinda pa Nkhondo ya Kujiyimira. Mu 1848, paumaliro wa Nkhondo ya Mexico na America, boma la Los Angeles na chigaŵa chinyake cha California ŵakagura ku United States na phangano la Guadalupe Hidalgo. Pa Epulero 4, 1850, pamanyuma pa myezi yinkhondi, msumba wa Los Angeles ukapangika kuŵa boma. Mu ma 1890 mafuta ghakati ghasangika, msumba uwu ukakura mwaluŵiro.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://blogs.getty.edu/iris/subterranean-l-a-the-urban-oil-fields/|title=Subterranean L.A.: The Urban Oil Fields |date=July 16, 2013|website=The Getty Iris |access-date=December 31, 2015}}</ref> Msumba uwu ukakura comene cifukwa ca kuzengeka kwa mugelo wa maji wa Los Angeles Aqueduct mu 1913. Los Angeles wali na ŵanthu ŵa mu vyaru vyakupambanapambana ndipo ŵali na mafakitale ghakupambanapambana. Lili na dowoko la katundu likuru chomene ku vyaru vya ku America.<ref>{{Cite web |last=LaRocco |first=Lori Ann |date=September 24, 2022 |title=New York is now the nation's busiest port in a historic tipping point for U.S.-bound trade |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2022/09/24/new-york-now-no-1-port-in-us-as-sea-change-in-trade-hits-west-coast.html |access-date=May 22, 2023 |website=CNBC |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Port of NYNJ Beats West Coast Rivals with Highest 2023 Volumes |url=https://maritime-executive.com/article/port-of-nynj-beats-west-coast-rivals-with-highest-2023-volumes |access-date=May 22, 2023 |website=The Maritime Executive |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Port of New York and New Jersey Remains US' Top Container Port |url=https://www.marinelink.com/news/port-new-york-new-jersey-remains-us-top-501852 |access-date=May 22, 2023 |website=www.marinelink.com|date=December 28, 2022 }}</ref> Mu chaka cha 2018, msumba wa Los Angeles ukaŵa na ndalama zakukwana $1 trillion, ndipo uwu ukaŵa msumba wachitatu pa charu chose pa ndalama zakukwana $1 trillion, pamanyuma pa New York na Tokyo. Ku Los Angeles ndiko kukacitikira maseŵero gha Olimpiki mu 1932 na 1984, ndipo ndiko kuzamucitikira maseŵero gha Olimpiki mu 2028. Sonosono apa, cikhutu ico cikacitika mu California, cikapangiska kuti maji gha mu msumba uwu na gha mu Los Angeles ghaŵe ghambura maji.<ref name=LosAngelesRunningOutOfWater>{{cite news|url= https://www.latimes.com/environment/story/2022-10-13/as-election-nears-future-l-a-water-supply-gains-focus|title=Los Angeles is running out of water, and time. Are leaders willing to act?|author=Hayley Smith|newspaper=Los Angeles Times|date=October 13, 2022|access-date=October 14, 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Smith |first=Hayley |date=March 1, 2022 |title=California drought continues after state has its driest January and February on record |url=https://www.latimes.com/california/story/2022-03-01/california-drought-will-continue-after-dry-winter |access-date=November 23, 2022 |website=Los Angeles Times |language=en-US}}</ref> {{TOC limit|3}} ==Zina== Kuyana na umo zina la msumba uwu likazunulikiranga ku malo agha, lizgu ili likusinthanga kufuma ku zina linyake kuya ku linyake. Nkhani ya mu 1953 mu nyuzipepara ya American Name Society yikayowoya kuti mazina gha malo agha ghakafuma ku mazina gha ŵanthu ŵa ku Spain..<ref name="stein">{{cite journal|last=Stein|first=David Allen|year=1953|title=Los Angeles: A Noble Fight Nobly Lost|url=https://archive.org/details/names_1953_1_1-4/page/35|journal=[[Names (journal)|Names]]|volume=1|issue=1|pages=35–38|doi=10.1179/nam.1953.1.1.35}}</ref> In 1908, librarian [[Charles Fletcher Lummis]], who argued for the name's pronunciation with a hard ''g'' ({{IPAc-en|ɡ}}),<ref>{{cite news|last=Masters|first=Nathan|date=February 24, 2011|url=https://www.kcet.org/shows/lost-la/the-crusader-in-corduroy-the-land-of-soundest-philosophy-and-the-g-that-shall-not-be-jellified|title=The Crusader in Corduroy, the Land of Soundest Philosophy, and the 'G' That Shall Not Be Jellified|work=KCET|publisher=Public Media Group of Southern California|access-date=July 4, 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Masters|first=Nathan|date=May 6, 2016|url=https://www.kcet.org/shows/lost-la/how-to-pronounce-los-angeles-according-to-charles-lummis|title=How to Pronounce "Los Angeles," According to Charles Lummis|work=KCET|publisher=Public Media Group of Southern California|access-date=July 4, 2021}}</ref> reported that there were at least 12 pronunciation variants.<ref>{{cite news|last=Lummis|first=Charles Fletcher|date=June 29, 1908|url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/32760469/19080629losangeleslummis/|title=This Is the Way to Pronounce Los Angeles|work=Nebraska State Journal|page=4}}</ref> Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1900, nyuzipepara ya Los Angeles Times yikayowoya kuti lizgu ili likwenera kuzunulika kuti Loce AHNG-hayl-ais (/loʊs ˈɑːŋheɪleɪs/), kung'anamura kuti lizgu ili likwenera kuzunulika kuti Loce AHNG-hayl-ais. Ici cikaŵa cakukondweska yayi.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Kenyon|first1=John Samuel|author1-link=John Samuel Kenyon|last2=Knott|first2=Thomas Albert|year=1944|title=A Pronouncing Dictionary of American English|location=Springfield, Mass.|publisher=G. & C. Merriam|page=260|url=https://archive.org/details/pronouncingdicti00unse/page/260/mode/1up}}</ref> Kufuma mu ma 1930, /lɔːs ˈændʒələs/ ndiyo yikayowoyekanga comene. Mu 1934, wupu wa United States Board on Geographic Names ukadumura kuti mazgu agha ghalembeke nthena. Mu 1952, "jury" iyo yikimikika na Meya Fletcher Bowron yikakolerana nayo fundo iyi.<ref name="stein"/><ref name="harvey">{{cite news|last=Harvey|first=Steve|date=June 26, 2011|url=https://www.latimes.com/local/la-xpm-2011-jun-26-la-me-0626-then-20110626-story.html|title=Devil of a time with City of Angels' name|work=Los Angeles Times|access-date=July 4, 2021}}</ref> Kuyowoya mazgu mu United Kingdom kukusazgapo /lɒs ˈændʒɪliːz, -lɪz, -lɪs/ loss AN-jil-eez, -iz, -iss. Jack Windsor Lewis wakalongosora mazgu agho ghakuyowoyeka kanandi, {{IPAc-en|l|ɒ|s|_|ˈ|æ|n|dʒ|ɪ|l|iː|z|audio=En-uk-Los Angeles.ogg}}, mazgu agha ghakalembekanga mwakuyana na mazgu gha Chigiriki agho ghakumalira pa -es, "ghakalongoranga kuti ŵanthu ŵakamanyanga makora mabuku gha mu Baibolo agho ghakalembekanga kale, kweni Chisipanishi chikamanyanga yayi".<ref>{{cite book|last=Windsor Lewis|first=Jack|year=1990|chapter=''Happ''Y land reconnoitred: the unstressed word-final -{{zwj}}y vowel in General British pronunciation|editor-last=Ramsaran|editor-first=Susan|title=Studies in the Pronunciation of English: A Commemorative Volume in Honour of A.C. Gimson|publisher=Routledge|pages=159–167|isbn=978-1-138-92111-5|chapter-url=http://www.yek.me.uk/happyland.html}} Pages 166–167.</ref> ==Mbili== {{Main|History of Los Angeles}} {{For timeline}} === Mbiri ya ŵanthu ŵakwambilira === [[File:ElAliso treepre1875drawing.jpg|thumb|left|[[Yaanga]], muzi wakuzirwa wa ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Tongva uwo ukaŵako pambere ŵanthu ŵa ku Spain ŵandambe kukhala mu msumba wa Los Angeles.]] Ŵanthu ŵa ku California awo ŵakakhalanga mu chigaŵa icho lero ni Los Angeles Basin na San Fernando Valley, ŵakaŵa ŵa mtundu wa Tongva (uwo sono ukuchemekaso Gabrieleño kufuma mu nyengo ya ŵanthu ŵa ku Spain). Ku malo agha ndiko kukaŵa tawuni ya Yaanga (Tongva: Iyáangaʾ), iyo yikung'anamura "malo gha khuni la thondo", ndipo zuŵa linyake ndiko ŵanthu ŵa ku Spain ŵakazenga tawuni ya Pueblo de Los Ángeles. Iyáangaʾ likung'anamulikaso kuti "dambo la josi".<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.sacbee.com/101/story/1066675.html|title=Smoke is Normal&nbsp;– for 1800|last=Bowman|first=Chris|date=July 8, 2008|newspaper=[[The Sacramento Bee]]|access-date=October 6, 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080709015204/http://www.sacbee.com/101/story/1066675.html|archive-date=July 9, 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://webarchive.iiasa.ac.at/Admin/PUB/Documents/IR-98-077.pdf|title=Environment: Evolution of a Concept|author=Gordon J. MacDonald|page=2|quote=The Native American name for Los Angeles was Yang na, which translates into "the valley of smoke."}}</ref><ref name="google86">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CET4QodMZysC&pg=PA86|title=Fifteen Hundred California Place Names|last=Bright|first=William|publisher=University of California Press|year=1998|isbn=978-0-520-21271-8|page=86|lccn=97043147|quote=Founded on the site of a Gabrielino Indian village called Yang-na, or iyáangẚ, 'poison-oak place.'}}</ref><ref name="sfgate2002">{{cite news|url=http://www.sfgate.com/homeandgarden/thedirt/article/Roots-of-native-names-2712675.php|title=Roots of native names|last=Sullivan|first=Ron|date=December 7, 2002|newspaper=[[San Francisco Chronicle]]|access-date=January 7, 2015|quote=Los Angeles itself was built over a Gabrielino village called Yangna or iyaanga', 'poison oak place.'}}</ref><ref name=":02">{{Cite book |last=Estrada |first=William David |title=The Los Angeles Plaza: Sacred and Contested Space |publisher=University of Texas Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-292-78209-9 |pages=15–50}}</ref> === Boma la Spain === Mu 1542 Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo, uyo wakendanga pa nyanja, wakapika chigaŵa cha kumwera kwa California kuti chiŵe cha Ufumu wa Spain. Gaspar de Portolà na mishonale Juan Crespí ŵakafika pa malo agho sono ni Los Angeles pa Ogasiti 2, 1769.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://pacificahistory.wikispaces.com/Portola+Expedition+1769+Diaries|title=Portola Expedition 1769 Diaries|publisher=Pacifica Historical Society|access-date=January 7, 2015|archive-date=November 13, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151113232240/http://pacificahistory.wikispaces.com/Portola+Expedition+1769+Diaries|url-status=dead}}</ref> [[File:Mission San Fernando Rey de España (Oriana Day) (cropped).jpg|thumb|left|Mu 1797, ŵanthu ŵa ku Spain ŵakambiska Mission San Fernando Rey de España.]] Mu 1771, Franciscan Junípero Serra wakambiska mulimo wa kuzenga Mission San Gabriel Arcángel, iyo yikaŵa mishoni yakwamba mu cigaŵa ici. Pa Seputembala 4, 1781, gulu la ŵanthu ŵakukwana 44 awo ŵakamanyikwanga kuti "Los Pobladores" ŵakambiska tawuni iyo ŵakalicema kuti El Pueblo de Nuestra Señora la Reina de los Ángeles, panji kuti "Sumba ya Mama withu, Fumukazi ya Ŵangelo".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.laalmanac.com/history/hi03b.php|title=Settlement of Los Angeles|website=Los Angeles Almanac|language=en-US|access-date=September 2, 2018}}</ref> Zina la tawuni iyi likususkana; buku la Guinness Book of World Records likuti "El Pueblo de Nuestra Señora la Reina de los Ángeles de Porciúncula"; mabuku ghanyake ghakung'anamura zina ili mwakudumura. Mu msumba uwu ndimo muli dayosisi yikuru comene ya Katolika ku United States. Vigaŵa viŵiri pa viŵiri vya ŵanthu ŵa ku Mexico panji ŵa ku (New Spain) ŵakaŵa ŵa mtundu wa mestizo panji mulatto, awo ŵakaŵa ŵa mu Africa, ŵa fuko limoza na ŵa ku Europe. Kwa vyaka vinandi, ŵanthu ŵakakhalanga mu muzi uwu, kweni mu 1820, ŵanthu ŵakasazgikira kufika pa 650. Mazuŵa ghano, ŵanthu ŵakukumbukira malo agha mu chigaŵa cha Pueblo Plaza na Olvera Street, ku Los Angeles.<ref name="Estrada2006">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NzlO8C5-Q88C|title=Los Angeles's Olvera Street|last=Estrada|first=William D.|publisher=Arcadia Publishing|year=2006|isbn=978-0-7385-3105-2|access-date=September 30, 2011}}</ref> === Boma la Mexico === [[File:Portrait of Pio Pico (Californian State Library) (detail).jpg|thumb|left|Pío Pico, uyo wakaŵa kazembe waumaliro wa ku Mexico, wakawovwira comene kuti msumba wa Los Angeles ukhazikike.]] Mu 1821, caru ca New Spain cikapoka wanangwa ku Spain, ndipo sono ŵanthu ŵa ku pueblo ŵakakhalanga mu caru ca Mexico. Mu nyengo ya Mexican, Kazembe Pío Pico wakazgora msumba wa Los Angeles kuŵa msumba ukuru wa Alta California. Pa nyengo iyi, boma liphya likambiska vinthu vinandi vyakukondweska ŵanthu ŵa ku Los Angeles.<ref>{{cite web |title=Monterey County Historical Society, Local History Pages--Secularization and the Ranchos, 1826-1846 |url=http://mchsmuseum.com/secularization.html |access-date=October 26, 2017 |website=mchsmuseum.com}}</ref> Mu 1846, pa nkhondo iyo yikacitikira caru ca Mexico na America, ŵasilikari ŵa boma la United States ŵakanjira mu muzi uwu. Ivi vikapangiska kuti boma la Mexico lizingire msumba wa Los Angeles, ndipo ŵasilikari ŵa Mexico ŵakukwana 150 ŵakarwa nkhondo na ŵasilikari ŵa boma la Mexico. Muwuso wa Mexico ukamara pamasinda pa Nkhondo ya ku America na Mexico, iyo yikacitikira ku California. Ŵanthu ŵa ku America ndiwo ŵakamba kuwusa caru ca California, pamanyuma pa nkhondo zinandi izo zikamara na kukolerana pa cipangano ca Cahuenga pa Janyuwale 13, 1847. Boma la Mexico likapika mazaza mu 1848, ndipo likapangana na boma la Guadalupe Hidalgo kuti likapeleke msumba wa Los Angeles na chigaŵa chose cha Alta California ku United States.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KyFPAAAAYAAJ|title=Historical and biographical record of southern California: containing a history of southern California from its earliest settlement to the opening year of the twentieth century|last=Guinn|first=James Miller|publisher=Chapman pub. co.|year=1902|page=50|access-date=September 30, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Bauer |first=K. Jack |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/25746154 |title=The Mexican War, 1846-1848 |date=1993 |publisher=University of Nebraska Press |edition=Bison books |location=Lincoln |pages=184|oclc=25746154 }}</ref> ===Post-Conquest era=== {{See also|Victorian Downtown Los Angeles|Los Angeles in the 1920s}} [[File:Treaty of Cahuenga.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.1|Phangano la Cahuenga, ilo likapangika mu 1847 na munthu wa ku California Andrés Pico na John C. Frémont, wakamalizga U.S. Ŵakapoka California.]] Mu 1876 ŵakazenga njanji yakufuma ku New Orleans kuluta ku Los Angeles, ndipo mu 1885 ŵakazenga njanji yakufuma ku Santa Fe. Mu 1892, mafuta ghakasangika mu msumba uwu na mu vigaŵa vyapafupi, ndipo mu 1923, vinthu ivi vikawovwira kuti California yiŵe charu icho chikupanga mafuta ghanandi chomene mu charu ichi. Kuzakafika mu 1900, mu msumba uwu mukaŵa ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 102,000, ndipo maji ghakaŵa ghakusoŵa. Mu 1913, apo ŵakamalizga kuzenga mugelo wa maji ku Los Angeles, William Mulholland ndiyo wakawovwira kuti msumba uwu ulutilire kukura. Chifukwa cha malango agho ghakakanizganga msumba wa Los Angeles kuguliska panji kupeleka maji ku ŵanthu ŵa mu vigaŵa vinyake, misumba yinandi iyo yikazingilizga msumba uwu yikamba kukolerana na Los Angeles.<ref name="LAgrowth">{{citation|last=Basiago|first=Andrew D.|publisher=The Regents of the University of California|title=Water For Los Angeles&nbsp;– Sam Nelson Interview|url=http://texts.cdlib.org/view?docId=ft0v19n64m&doc.view=entire_text|date=February 7, 1988|at=11|access-date=October 7, 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite map|publisher=City of Los Angeles Bureau of Engineering|title=Annexation and Detachment Map|url=http://navigatela.lacity.org/common/mapgallery/pdf/annex34x44.pdf|access-date=March 1, 2017|archive-date=March 1, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170301193923/http://navigatela.lacity.org/common/mapgallery/pdf/annex34x44.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="FinalReport">{{cite web|url=http://www.lamag.com/citythink/citythinkblog/2013/09/25/citydig-las-20th-century-land-grab|title=CityDig: L.A.'s 20th Century Land Grab|author1-link=Glen Creason|last=Creason|first=Glen|date=September 26, 2013|publisher=Los Angeles Magazine|access-date=October 10, 2013}}</ref>[[File:Paramount Pictures studio gate, c. 1940 (cropped).jpg|thumb|left|In the early 20th century, [[Major film studios|Hollywood studios]], like [[Paramount Pictures]], helped transform [[Hollywood, Los Angeles|Hollywood]] into the world capital of film and helped solidify LA as a global economic hub.]] Los Angeles ndiyo yikaŵa na dango lakwamba la kugaŵa malo mu United States. Pa Seputembala 14, 1908, wupu wakulongozga msumba wa Los Angeles ukapharazga kuti malo ghakusungirako ŵanthu na mafakitale ghaŵe ghakupambanapambana. Dango liphya ili likakanizga kuti ŵanthu ŵakhalengemo mu malo ghamoza agho ghakaŵa na malo ghamoza agho ghakaŵa ghakupambana na ghanyake. Mu vyaru ivyo ŵakakanizga mulimo uwu, mukaŵa nyumba zakusungiramo viŵeto, malo ghakusungiramo nkhuni, na malo gha mafakitale agho ghakaŵa na makina. Malango agha ghakapelekeka pamanyuma pakuti vinthu vya mu maindasitiri vyamara. Ivi vikasazgikirapo pa vinthu vinyake ivyo kale vikaŵanga vyakukwiyiska. Vinyake mwa vinthu ivi ni malo ghakusungiramo vinthu vyakuphulika, malo ghakupangira gasi, malo ghakupangira mafuta, malo ghakukomerako nyama, na malo ghakusungiramo viŵiya. Kweniso boma la Los Angeles likapeleka malo 7 ghakusungirako vinthu mu tawuni iyi. Ndipouli, pakati pa 1908 na 1915, wupu wa boma ku Los Angeles ukazomerezga kuti ŵanthu ŵaleke kugwiliskira nchito malo agha, ndipo ivi vikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵambe kugwiliskira nchito malo agha pa vinthu vinyake. Pali mphambano ziŵiri pakati pa dango la Residence District Ordinance la mu 1908 na malango ghanyake gha ku United States. Cakwamba, malango gha mu 1908 ghakapanga mapu ghakukwana yayi nga umo vikaŵira na dango la mu 1916 la New York City. Chachiŵiri, malo ghakukhalamo ghakapambaniskanga yayi mitundu ya nyumba; ghakapambaniskanga yayi nyumba, mahotelo, na nyumba za mbumba yimoza. Mu 1910, Hollywood yikasazgikana na msumba wa Los Angeles, ndipo pa nyengo iyi mu msumba uwu mukaŵa kale makampani 10 gha mafilimu. Mu 1921, makampani gha mafilimu ghakujumpha 80 pa 100 gha mu caru cose ghakaŵa ku L.A. Ndalama izo ŵakasanganga cifukwa ca mulimo uwu, zikawovwira kuti msumba uwu uleke kukumana na suzgo la ndalama ilo likakhwaska caru cose pa nyengo ya suzgo yikuru ya caru cose. Kuzakafika mu 1930, ciŵelengero ca ŵanthu cikajumpha pa 1 miliyoni. Mu 1932, mu msumba uwu ndimo mukachitikira maseŵero gha Olimpiki.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/population/www/documentation/twps0027/tab16.txt|title=Population of the 100 Largest Urban Places: 1930|date=June 15, 1998|publisher=[[United States Census Bureau]]|access-date=January 8, 2015}}</ref><ref name="YoungYoung2007">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QYYMqXUyjnUC&pg=PA21|title=The Great Depression in America: a cultural encyclopedia|last1=Young|first1=William H.|last2=Young|first2=Nancy K.|date=March 2007|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-313-33521-1|page=21|access-date=September 30, 2011}}</ref> ===Post-WWII=== [[File:WSA Photo 4235.jpg|thumb|right|Mu Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Charu Chose, kampani ya California Shipbuilding Corporation pa Terminal Island yikaŵa pakati pa ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakazenga sitima izo zikazengera malo ghakusungirako sitima mu msumba wa Los Angeles.]] Mu nyengo ya Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Charu Chose, Los Angeles likaŵa likuru la kupanga vyombo na ndege. Calship yikapanga maboti ghanandi gha Liberty na Victory Ships pa Terminal Island, ndipo malo gha Los Angeles ghakaŵa likuru gha vyombo vikuruvikuru vinkhondi na viŵiri vya charu (Douglas Aircraft Company, Hughes Aircraft, Lockheed, North American Aviation, Northrop Corporation, na Vultee). Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Charu Chose yikati yamara, msumba wa Los Angeles ukakura mwaluŵiro chomene kuluska kale, ndipo ukamba kusanjika mu chigaŵa cha San Fernando Valley. Chifukwa cha Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Charu Chose, kukura kwa matawuni gha mphaka, na unandi wa ŵanthu, malo ghakusanguluska ghanandi ghakazengeka na kugwiriridwa mu malo agha. Chifukwa cha mphambano ya mitundu, mu 1965 ku Watts kukachitika chisokonezo ndipo ŵanthu 34 ŵakafwa na kupwetekeka.<ref name="Hinton2">{{cite book |last1=Hinton |first1=Elizabeth |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ATS6CwAAQBAJ&q=Turn+left+or+get+shot&pg=PA69 |title=From the War on Poverty to the War on Crime: The Making of Mass Incarceration in America |date=2016 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=9780674737235 |pages=68–72}}</ref>[[File:Olympic Torch Tower of the Los Angeles Coliseum.jpg|thumb|left|Chiphikiro chakujulira maseŵero gha Olimpiki mu 1984 pa LA Coliseum]] Mu 1969, California ndiyo yikaŵa malo ghakwamba apo pa Intaneti pakaŵavya vinthu vyakupambanapambana, ndipo uthenga wakwamba uwo ukafuma ku Yunivesite ya California ku Los Angeles (UCLA) ukaluta ku Stanford Research Institute ku Menlo Park. Mu 1973, Tom Bradley wakasankhika kuŵa meya wakwamba wa msumba uwu, ndipo wakagwira nchito nyengo zinkhondi mpaka apo wakafumira mu 1993. Vinthu vinyake ivyo vikacitika mu msumba uwu mu vyaka vya m'ma 1970 vikusazgapo nkhondo ya Symbionese Liberation Army ku South Central mu 1974 na milandu ya Hillside Stranglers mu 1977-1978. Kukwambilira kwa 1984, msumba uwu ukaŵa na ŵanthu ŵanandi comene kuluska wa Chicago, ndipo ukaŵa msumba waciŵiri pa misumba yikuru ku United States. Mu 1984, mu msumba uwu mukacitikaso maseŵero gha pa Olimpiki. Nangauli vyaru 14 vya Cikomyunizimu vikakana kuti vileke kuŵapo pa maseŵero gha Olimpiki, kweni maseŵero gha Olimpiki gha mu 1984 ghakaŵa ghakovwira comene kuluska maseŵero ghanyake ghose agho ghakaŵako, ndipo ghakaŵa ghaciŵiri kuti ghaŵe na phindu.<ref name="Zarnowski">{{cite journal|author-link1=Frank Zarnowski|last=Zarnowski|first=C. Frank|date=Summer 1992|title=A Look at Olympic Costs|url=http://www.la84foundation.org/SportsLibrary/JOH/JOHv1n1/JOHv1n1f.pdf|url-status=dead|journal=Citius, Altius, Fortius|volume=1|issue=1|pages=16–32|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080528012143/http://www.la84foundation.org/SportsLibrary/JOH/JOHv1n1/JOHv1n1f.pdf|archive-date=May 28, 2008|access-date=October 1, 2011}}</ref>[[File:48 California Willshire Grand (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright|[[Wilshire Grand Center]], nyumba iyi yikazengeka mu 2017, ndipo ni nyumba yitali chomene ku California na kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa United States.]] Pa 29 Epulero, 1992, pakawuka viwawa pakati pa mafuko, ndipo khoti la ku Simi Valley likagamura kuti ŵapolisi ŵanayi ŵa Los Angeles Police Department (LAPD) ŵaleke mulandu. Mu 1994, cindindindindi cikuru ico cikacitika ku Northridge cikasunkhunya msumba uwu, ndipo cikabwangandura vinthu vyakukwana $12.5 biliyoni na kukoma ŵanthu 72. Caka ici cikamara na mulandu wa Rampart, uwo ukaŵa umoza mwa milandu yikuru comene ya kupuluska mu mdauko wa America.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/lapd/scandal/cron.html|title=Rampart Scandal Timeline|access-date=October 1, 2011|publisher=[[Frontline (U.S. TV series)|PBS Frontline]]}}</ref> === M'ma 2000 === Mu 2002, Meya James Hahn wakalongozga kampeni yakuwukira boma, ndipo ivi vikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵa mu San Fernando Valley na Hollywood ŵaleke kuwukira boma. Mu 2022, Karen Bass wakazgoka mwanakazi wakwamba kuŵa meya wa msumba uwu, ndipo ivi vikapangiska kuti msumba wa Los Angeles uŵe msumba ukuru chomene mu United States kuti mwanakazi waŵe meya. Mu msumba wa Los Angeles ndimo muzamuchitikira maseŵero gha Olimpiki gha mu 2028.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://money.cnn.com/2017/07/31/news/los-angeles-olympics-2028/index.html|title=Los Angeles will host 2028 Olympics|last=Horowitz|first=Julia|date=August 1, 2017|website=[[CNNMoney]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170731190432/http://money.cnn.com/2017/07/31/news/los-angeles-olympics-2028/index.html|archive-date=July 31, 2017|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.worldatlas.com/articles/cities-which-have-hosted-multiple-summer-olympic-games.html|title=Cities Which Have Hosted Multiple Summer Olympic Games|website=worldatlas|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161215161622/http://www.worldatlas.com/articles/cities-which-have-hosted-multiple-summer-olympic-games.html|archive-date=December 15, 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> == Makhalilo gha malo == {{See also|Los Angeles Basin|San Fernando Valley}} === Malo ghakukhala === [[File:Los Angeles by Sentinel-2, 2019-03-30.jpg|thumb|Kuwona malo gha ku Los Angeles kufuma pa satellite]] Msumba wa Los Angeles uli na malo ghakukwana 1,302 km2 ndipo uli na malo ghakukwana 1,214 km2 na maji ghakukwana 88 km2.<ref name="gazetteer">{{Cite US Gazetteer|2010|places|CA}}</ref> Msumba uwu uli pa mtunda wa makilomita 71 kufuma kumpoto kuya kumwera ndipo uli pa mtunda wa makilomita 29 kufuma kumafumiro gha dazi kuya kumanjiliro gha dazi. Msumba uwu uli pa mtunda wa makilomita 550. Los Angeles ni tawuni ya mapiri ndiposo ya mapiri. Malo ghapachanya chomene mu msumba uwu ni Phiri la Lukens ilo lili pa mtunda wa mamita 1,547, ilo lili kumpoto chakumafumiro gha dazi kwa San Fernando Valley. Chigaŵa chakumafumiro gha dazi kwa mapiri gha Santa Monica chikupakana ku Nyanja ya Pacific ndipo chikupatura Los Angeles Basin na San Fernando Valley. Vigaŵa vinyake vya ku Los Angeles vili na mapiri. Ku mpoto kwa tawuni ya Washington, ku vigaŵa vya kumafumiro gha dazi nga ni Boyle Heights, chigaŵa cha Crenshaw kuzingilizga Baldwin Hills, na chigaŵa cha San Pedro. Kuzingilizga tawuni iyi kuli mapiri ghatali. Kumpoto kwake kuli mapiri gha San Gabriel, agho ŵanthu ŵa ku Angelenos ŵakutemwa kuluta kukasopa. Malo ghapachanya chomene ni Phiri la San Antonio, ilo ŵanthu ŵa ku malo agha ŵakulimanya kuti Phiri la Baldy. Kutali na malo agha, kuli Phiri la San Gorgonio, ilo lili pa mtunda wa makilomita 130 kumafumiro gha dazi kwa msumba wa Los Angeles. Mlonga wa Los Angeles, uwo nyengo zinandi ukwenda nyengo yiliyose, ndiwo ukwenda mu maji. Wupu wa Army Corps of Engineers ukanozga na kujara makilomita 82 kuti maji ghaleke kwiza. Mtsinjewu umayamba mu chigawo cha Canoga Park mumzindawu, umadutsa chakum'mawa kuchokera ku San Fernando Valley kumpoto kwa mapiri a Santa Monica, ndipo umatembenukira kumwera kudzera pakatikati pa mzindawu, ukuyenda kumlomo wake ku Port of Long Beach ku Pacific Ocean. Mlonga ucoko wa Ballona ukuthira mu Santa Monica Bay ku Playa del Rey.<ref name="Gumprecht2001">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2ftBJpp7aIoC|title=The Los Angeles River: Its Life, Death, and Possible Rebirth|last=Gumprecht|first=Blake|date=March 2001|publisher=JHU Press|isbn=978-0-8018-6642-5|page=173|access-date=October 3, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.google.com/maps/@34.1149676,-116.8483927,10.69z|title=Google Maps|website=Google Maps}}</ref> === Vyakumela === {{see also|California coastal sage and chaparral}} [[File:The Duck Pond at Playa del Rey.jpg|thumb|left|[[Del Rey Lagoon Park|Del Rey Lagoon]] ku [[Playa del Rey]]]] Ku Los Angeles kuli vyakumera vinandi, cifukwa ca malo ghakupambanapambana, nga ni mumphepete mwa nyanja, mu vipalamba, na mu mapiri. Vimera ivi vikusangika chomene mu vigaŵa vya m'mphepete mwa nyanja, chaparral, na mu nkhorongo. Vyakumera vya ku malo agha ni: California poppy, matilija poppy, toyon, Ceanothus, Chamise, Coast Live Oak, sycamore, willow na Giant Wildrye. Vinyake mwa vyakumera ivi, nga ni sunflowers ya ku Los Angeles, vikusangika viŵi yayi mwakuti vili pafupi kumara. Nangauli mu msumba uwu mulije khuni ili, kweni khuni la Coral Tree (Erythrina caffra) ndilo ni khuni la boma la Los Angeles, ndipo maluŵa gha boma la Los Angeles ni Paradise Bird (Strelitzia reginae).<ref name="Communications2003">{{cite book|title=Los Angeles Magazine|date=April 2003|publisher=Emmis Communications|page=62|chapter=Flower|journal=Los Angeles|issn=1522-9149|access-date=October 6, 2011|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-10EAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA62}}</ref> [[Washingtonia robusta|Mexican Fan Palms]], [[Phoenix canariensis|Canary Island Palms]], [[Syagrus romanzoffiana|Queen Palms]], [[Date Palm]]s, na [[Washingtonia filifera|California Fan Palms]] ni vinyake mwa vyakumera ivi ni vya ku Los Angeles, nangauli ni vya ku California pera, kweni vikusangika mu msumba wa Los Angeles yayi. === Nthaka === [[File:Mt. Lukens overlooking La Crescenta-Montrose.jpg|thumb|right|[[Mount Lukens]], mu mapiri gha San Gabriel, muli malo ghatali chomene ku Los Angeles]] Pakuti msumba wa Los Angeles uli pa malo ghakucemeka Pacific Ring of Fire, nyengo zinyake kukuchitika vindindindi. Vinthu ivi vikupangiska kuti paŵe vindindindi vikuruvikuru, ivyo vikupangiska kuti paŵe vindindindi vikuruvikuru pafupifupi 10,000 pa caka mu Southern California, nangauli vinandi mwa vindindindi ivi ni vichoko mwakuti vingapulikikwa yayi.<ref name="quakes">{{cite web|url=https://earthquake.usgs.gov/learn/facts.php|title=Earthquake Facts|publisher=[[United States Geological Survey]]|access-date=October 3, 2011}}</ref> Chigaŵa cha San Andreas Fault, icho chili pa mphaka pakati pa Pacific Plate na North American Plate, chikuduka mu chigaŵa cha Los Angeles. Cigaŵa ca malo agha ico cikujumpha mu Southern California, cikutimbanizgika na cindindindi cikuru pa virimika 110 panji 140, ndipo ŵakumanya vya cindindindindi ŵakucenjezga kuti cindindindi cikuru cinyake cingacitikaso, cifukwa cindindindi cikuru cakumalizga ico cikacitika cikaŵa ico cikacitika ku Fort Tejon mu 1857. Malo gha ku Los Angeles na malo ghanyake agho ghakukhala ŵanthu ŵanandi, ghakunangika na vindindindi vyamabuchi. Vindindindi vikuruvikuru ivyo vyacitika mu Los Angeles ni vya ku Long Beach mu 1933, ku San Fernando mu 1971, ku Whittier Narrows mu 1987, na ku Northridge mu 1994. Kweni vinyake ni vyambura nkhongono ndipo munthu wakuvipulikiska yayi. Wupu wa USGS ukafumiska lipoti la UCERF la ku California ilo likulongosora umo chindindindi chingachitikira ku California. Vigaŵa vinyake vya tawuni iyi vikusuzgikaso na tsunami. Malo agho ghali pa dowoko ghakaŵaso na ngozi chifukwa cha chindindindi icho chikachitika ku Aleutian Islands mu 1946, ku Valdivia mu 1960, ku Alaska mu 1964, ku Chile mu 2010, na ku Japan mu 2011.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://geology.com/records/largest-earthquake/|title=World's Largest Recorded Earthquake|publisher=Geology.com|access-date=January 12, 2015}}</ref> === Msumba === {{Main|List of districts and neighborhoods in Los Angeles}} {{wide image|LA Downtown View (cropped).jpg|800px|{{center|The skyline of [[Downtown Los Angeles]]}}}} Msumba uwu uli na vigaŵa vinandi, ndipo vinyake mwa vigaŵa ivi vikaŵa mu msumba wa Los Angeles. Vigaŵa ivi vikapangika pacoko na pacoko, ndipo vili na malo ghakukwana mwakuti msumba uli na vikhwangwani ivyo vikulongora vigaŵa vyose.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ladot.lacity.org/WhatWeDo/Operations/NeighborhoodServices/Neighborhoodsigns/index.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907050707/http://ladot.lacity.org/WhatWeDo/Operations/NeighborhoodServices/Neighborhoodsigns/index.htm|url-status=dead|title=LADOT|archive-date=September 7, 2015}}</ref> ==== Overview ==== [[File:The Griffith Observatory at night, Mt. Hollywood, Los Angeles, California, U.S.jpg|thumb|left|View of the [[Downtown Los Angeles]] skyline from [[Griffith Park]]]] Misewu ya mu tawuni iyi yikwenda mu nthowa zakuyana waka, ndipo misewu yinyake yikujumpha mu misewu iyi. Kweni ivi vikusuzga cifukwa ca malo ghambura kwendeska magalimoto, ndipo ivi vyapangiska kuti paŵe mageti ghakupambanapambana mu madambo ghose agho ghakukhala mu msumba wa Los Angeles. Misewu yikuru-yikuru yikupangika kuti yikwendeska magalimoto ghanandi mu vigaŵa vinandi vya mu msumba uwu, ndipo yinandi mwa misewu iyi njitali comene; Sepulveda Boulevard njitali makilomita 69, ndipo Foothill Boulevard njitali makilomita 97, ndipo yikufika ku San Bernardino. Ŵadokotala ŵa galimoto ku Los Angeles ŵakuŵa na suzgo lakuti pa caru cose paŵa nyengo zinonono comene, kuyana na umo ŵakwendeskera magalimoto ŵakucitira, TomTom. Ŵadokotala ŵa magalimoto mu LA ŵakumalira maora 92 pa msewu pa chaka. Pa nyengo ya maora gha pachanya chomene, pali magalimoto ghakukwana 80 peresenti, kuyana na ivyo vyalembeka pa index iyi.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation-now/2015/04/01/worst-cities-traffic-usa-los-angeles/70762026/|title=Los Angeles tops worst cities for traffic in USA|website=USA TODAY|access-date=December 31, 2015}}</ref> Kanandi mu msumba wa Los Angeles mukuŵa nyumba zambura kujumpha msinkhu, mwakupambana na mu msumba wa New York. Ku Los Angeles kuli nyumba zikuruzikuru yayi, kweni pali malo ghachoko waka nga ni Downtown, Warner Center, Century City, Koreatown, Miracle Mile, Hollywood, na Westwood. Nyumba zichoko waka izo zili kuzengeka kuwaro kwa malo agha, zikuwoneka makora comene. Mulimo wa kuzenga ukucitika mu vigaŵa vyakupambanapambana, m'malo mwa kuzenga nyumba yimoza. Kweni mu msumba wa Los Angeles muli nyumba zinandi zakujumpha 30 zakudikanya, ndipo 14 zili na nyumba zakujumpha 50 zakudikanya, ndipo ziŵiri zili na nyumba zakujumpha 70 zakudikanya, ndipo nyumba yitali chomene ni Wilshire Grand Center. Kweniso mu msumba wa Los Angeles muli nyumba zinandi zakukhalamo m'malo mwa nyumba za mbumba yimoza. <gallery mode="packed" heights="100" caption="Malo ghanyake gha [[List of districts and neighborhoods in Los Angeles|Los Angeles]]"> File:Crossing 1st St. (15569188450) (cropped2).jpg|[[Boyle Heights, Los Angeles|Boyle Heights]] File:Little Armenia Los Angeles view edit1.jpg|[[East Hollywood, Los Angeles|East Hollywood]] File:Skyline view of Los Angeles, California, centering on the 13-story Eastern Columbia Building in the Broadway Theater District LCCN2013631691 (cropped).tif|[[Historic Core, Los Angeles|Historic Core]] File:Pacific Palisades Photo Don Ramey Logan (cropped).jpg|[[Pacific Palisades, Los Angeles|Pacific Palisades]] File:20140810-0429 Nisei Week Festival (cropped).JPG|[[Little Tokyo, Los Angeles|Little Tokyo]] File:Silverlake, Los Angeles (cropped).jpg|[[Silver Lake, Los Angeles|Silver Lake]] File:San-Pedro1.jpg|[[San Pedro, Los Angeles|San Pedro]] File:View of Griffith Park from Sunset Boulevard (cropped2).jpg|[[Los Feliz, Los Angeles|Los Feliz]] File:Sunny business district roads (Unsplash) (cropped).jpg|[[Financial District, Los Angeles|Financial District]] File:Aerial view of beaches (Venice) July 2022 (3).jpg|[[Venice, Los Angeles|Venice]] File:The Duck Pond at Playa del Rey (cropped).jpg|[[Playa del Rey, Los Angeles|Playa del Rey]] File:Wilshire Boulevard winds through Westwood-3730987095 (cropped).jpg|[[Westwood, Los Angeles|Westwood]] </gallery> === Nyengo === {{Main|Climate of Los Angeles}} {{climate chart | Los Angeles (Downtown) |48.9|68.0|3.29 |50.0|68.0|3.64 |52.4|69.9|2.23 |54.8|72.4|0.69 |58.1|73.7|0.32 |61.4|77.2|0.09 |64.7|82.0|0.02 |65.4|84.0|0.00 |64.2|83.0|0.13 |59.9|78.6|0.58 |53.1|72.9|0.78 |48.2|67.4|2.48 |float = right |clear = right |units = imperial |source = NOAA<ref name="Los Angeles Downtown Weatherbox NOAA txt"/>}} Los Angeles ili na nyengo ziŵiri za nyengo ya chihanya na nyengo ya chiwuvi (Köppen Csb pa mphepete mwa nyanja na vigaŵa vinandi vya pakati pa msumba, Csa pafupi na metropolitan region kumanjiliro gha dazi), kweni yikupokera maji ghavula pachaka pachoko kuluska malo ghanyake gha mu nyanja ya Mediterranean, ntheura yili pafupi na mphaka ya nyengo ya chiwuvi (BSh), nangauli yikusulako waka. Nyengo ya muhanya yikuŵa yiwemi mu cilimika cose. Mu nyengo ya chiwuvi, malo agha ghakukwana pafupifupi 68 °F (20 °C) ndipo ghakupangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵaŵe nga ŵali mu malo ghakuzizima, nangauli nyengo iyi yikuzizima chomene chifukwa chakuti usiku kukuzizima chomene.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://boomcalifornia.com/2017/05/22/the-myth-of-a-desert-metropolis-los-angeles-was-not-built-in-a-desert-but-are-we-making-it-one/|title=The Myth of a Desert Metropolis: Los Angeles was not built in a desert, but are we making it one?|date=May 22, 2017|website=Boom California|language=en|access-date=March 8, 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.plantmaps.com/koppen-climate-classification-map-north-america.php|title=Interactive North America Koppen-Geiger Climate Classification Map|website=www.plantmaps.com|access-date=March 8, 2019}}</ref> Mu msumba wa Los Angeles, zuŵa likuŵala comene mu cilimika cose, ndipo cilimika cilicose kuli mazuŵa 35 pera agho kuli vula. Mu nyanja iyi, mu mwezi wa Epulero, Meyi, Juni na Novembala, nyengo ya kotcha yikupambana na 32°C. Mu mwezi wa Julayi, Ogasiti, Okutobala, nyengo ya kotcha yikupambana na mazuŵa ghankhondi. Ku San Fernando Valley na San Gabriel Valley kukuzizima comene. Mu vigaŵa vya ku mpoto, nyengo yikupambana chomene. Kutentha kwapakati pa nyanja ndi 63 °F (17 °C), kuchokera 58 °F (14 °C) mu Januwale mpaka 68 °F (20 °C) mu Ogasiti. Maora gha zuŵa ghakujumpha 3,000 pa cilimika, kufuma pa ora limoza pa zuŵa mu Disembala kufika pa ora limoza pa zuŵa mu Julayi. Malo gha ku Los Angeles ghakusangikaso na vinthu vinyake ivyo vikuchitika mu malo ghachoko, ivyo vikupangiska kuti malo ghachoko ghaŵe pafupi na malo ghanyake. Mwaciyelezgero, nyengo yakuzizima comene mu mwezi wa Julayi ku Santa Monica Pier ni 21 °C, apo ku Canoga Park, uko kuli pa mtunda wa makilomita 24, kuli 35 °C. Mzinda uwu, nga ni malo ghanandi gha kumwera kwa California, ukuŵa na nyengo yakuzizima iyo yikuchemeka kuti "June Gloom". Para kwaca mulenji kukuŵa mabingu panji jumi, ndipo para kwaca namise kukuŵa zuŵa.<ref name="Poole2010">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HAPWv2OkeXUC&pg=PA22|title=Frommer's Los Angeles 2011|last=Poole|first=Matthew R.|date=September 22, 2010|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-0-470-62619-1|page=22|access-date=October 5, 2011}}</ref>[[File:Lake Hollywood Reservoir by clinton steeds.jpg|thumb|left|[[Hollywood Reservoir|Lake Hollywood]] ku [[Santa Monica Mountains]]]] Sonosono apa, cikhutu ico cikacitika mu California cikapangiska kuti maji gha mu msumba uwu ghaleke kwenda makora.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.latimes.com/california/story/2022-03-01/california-drought-will-continue-after-dry-winter |title=California drought continues after state has its driest January and February on record |website=www.latimes.com |date= March 2022|access-date=March 9, 2022}}</ref> Mu tawuni ya Los Angeles mukuŵa vula yikuru pa chaka, ndipo kanandi yikuwa pakati pa Novembala na Malichi. Nyengo zinyake vula iyi yikuŵa yichoko waka, kweni nyengo zinyake yikuŵa yikuru chomene. Kanandi vula yikulokwa comene mu mapiri na mumphepete mwa nyanja cifukwa ca kukwera kwa mapiri. Nyengo ya cihanya yikuŵavya vula. Nyengo zinyake, para mphepo ya kumwera panji ya kumafumiro gha dazi yikwiza, nyengo ya chihanya yikuŵa na chivula cha mphepo, chomenechomene mu mapiri. Ku mphepete mwa nyanja kulije vula yinandi, kweni ku mapiri kuli vula yinandi. Vikuwoneka kuti ni viŵi yayi kuti vula yinonenge. Kanandi vinthu vikusintha kufuma pa chaka chimoza kuya pa chinyake, ndipo nyengo yichoko waka ya vula yikulokwa yayi. Kanandi mu nyanja ya Pacific para kuli vula, kukaŵanga nyengo ya El Niño, ndipo para kuli chilangalanga, kukaŵanga nyengo ya La Niña. Para vula yalokwa kanandi waka mu mazuŵa ghacoko waka yingapangiska kuti maji ghatutuke mu mapiri, comenecomene para moto wamara mu mapiri.<ref name="NCDC-CANOGA">{{cite web |year=2004 |title=Climatography of the United States No. 20 (1971–2000) |url=http://cdo.ncdc.noaa.gov/climatenormals/clim20/ca/041484.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130902181245/http://cdo.ncdc.noaa.gov/climatenormals/clim20/ca/041484.pdf |archive-date=September 2, 2013 |access-date=October 5, 2011 |publisher=[[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration]]}}</ref> [[File:Venice Beach, Los Angeles, CA 07.JPG|thumb|right|Venice Beach ku South Coast ya California]] Kuzizima na chiwuvi ni viŵi yayi mu msumba na mumphepete mwa nyanja, ndipo kaumaliro ku chiwuvi kukaŵanga pa 29 January 1979. Kuzizima kukuchitika pafupifupi chaka chilichose mu madambo, apo mapiri gha mu msumba ghakuŵa na chiwuvi nyengo ya chiwuvi. Pa Janyuwale 15, 1932, mu msumba wa Los Angeles mukaŵa chiwuvi chikuru chomene. Mu Febuluwale 2019 kukawa chiwuvi chakwamba kufuma mu 1962, ndipo mu Janyuwale 2021 kukawa chiwuvi mu malo ghakufupi na Los Angeles. Ku malo ghakukwelera ku tawuni iyi, nyengo yakuzizima chomene yikaŵapo pa Seputembala 27, 2010, ndipo nyengo yakuzizima chomene yikaŵapo pa Janyuwale 4, 1949. Mu msumba wa Los Angeles, nyengo yakuzizima chomene iyo yili kulembekapo ni 49 °C, pa Seputembala 6, 2020, ku weather station pa Pierce College mu San Fernando Valley pafupi na Woodland Hills. Mu nyengo ya cihanya na nyengo ya ciwuvi, mphepo ya Santa Ana nyengo zinyake yikucitiska kuti ku Los Angeles kuŵe kwakotcha comene ndiposo kukawomira, ndipo ivi vikupangiska kuti paŵe ngozi yikuru ya moto. <ref>{{cite web |author1=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration |title=Los Angeles/Oxnard |url=https://w2.weather.gov/climate/index.php?wfo=lox |website=National Weather Service Forecast Office |access-date=September 9, 2020}}</ref>{{Los Angeles weatherbox}} === Nkhani za malo === {{Further|Pollution in California#Los Angeles air pollution}} {{external media|width=210px|align=right|headerimage=|audio1=[https://www.sciencehistory.org/distillations/podcast/fighting-smog-in-los-angeles "Fighting Smog in Los Angeles"], ''Distillations'' Podcast, 2018 [[Science History Institute]]}} Pakuti mu msumba uwu muli magalimoto ghanandi, kweniso muli maboti ghanandi, mu msumba uwu mukuŵa mphepo ziheni chomene. Mu chigaŵa cha Los Angeles na San Fernando Valley, mphepo ya mu mphepo yikupambana comene na mphepo ya mu mphepo zinyake. Vipimo vya mphepo iyo yikufuma ku magalimoto mu msumba vingasazgikira kufika pa 55 peresenti.<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xdwDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA65|title=What can we do about smog?|last=Stimson|first=Thomas E.|date=July 1955|journal=[[Popular Mechanics]]|page=65|issn=0032-4558|access-date=October 6, 2011}}</ref> [[File:Los Angeles Pollution (cropped).jpg|thumb|left|Chithukivu mu msumba wa Los Angeles mu Disembala 2005]] Nyengo ya chivula ichi yikwamba mu Meyi na kumalira mu Okutobala. Apo misumba yinyake yikuruyikuru yikuthemba vula kuti yifumiske josi, mu msumba wa Los Angeles vula yikuŵavya malita 380. Nkhani ya umo mphepo yiliri ku Los Angeles na mu misumba yinyake yikuruyikuru yikawovwira kuti paŵe malango ghakukhwaskana na umo vinthu viliri pa caru cose, kusazgapo dango la Clean Air Act. Apo dango ili likapelekekanga, boma la California likatondeka kupanga pulani iyo yingawovwira kuti lipulikirenge malango ghaphya ghakukhwaskana na mphepo yiwemi. Sonosono apa, boma la California ndilo likamba kulimbikira kuti lileke kunanga mphepo. Vikuwoneka kuti mu vilimika vyakulondezgapo, chivula ichi chizamulutilira kuchepa chifukwa cha vinthu vinandi ivyo ŵanthu ŵacita kuti ŵachepeske chivula ichi. Vinthu ivi ni magalimoto agho ghakwenda na magesi na magalimoto ghanyake agho ghakwenda na magesi, magalimoto agho ghakwenda na ŵanthu ŵanandi, na vinyake. Chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu awo ŵakasuzgikanga na mphepo ya smog mu msumba wa Los Angeles, chachepa kufuma pa ŵanthu 100 pa chaka mu ma 1970, kufika pa zero mu vyaka vya m'ma 2000. Nangauli vinthu vikwenda makora, kweni lipoti la pa caka la American Lung Association la 2006 na 2007 likati msumba uwu ndiwo ukaŵa wakunangika comene mu caru cose. Mu 2008, msumba uwu ukaŵa wachiŵiri pa malo agho kukaŵanga mphepo ziheni chomene ndipo ukaŵaso na mphepo ziheni chomene chaka chose. Mu 2010, tawuni iyi yikafiska ivyo yikakhumbanga vyakuti mu msumba uwu, 20 peresenti ya magesi gha mu msumba uwu ghafumenge ku malo agho ghangawelerapo. Kafukufuku wa American Lung Association wa mu 2013 wakulongora kuti mu chigaŵa ichi ndimo muli chivula cha mphepo icho chikunanga chomene mu charu, ndipo ni chigaŵa chachinayi pa vigaŵa vyose ivyo vikufipiskika nyengo yichoko waka na chaka chose. Kweniso ku Los Angeles ndiko kuli munda ukuru comene wa mafuta. Mu msumba uwu muli visimi vya mafuta vyakujumpha 700 ivyo vili pa mtunda wa mamita 460 kufuma ku nyumba, matchalitchi, masukulu, na vipatala. Mu tawuni iyi muli viyuni vinandi ivyo vikukhala na viyuni vyamuthengere. Ŵanandi ŵali na suzgo ili. Nangauli Serieys na ŵanyake mu 2014 ŵakasanga kuti maselo agho ghakovwira kuti maselo ghasinthe ghangaŵa mu malo ghakupambanapambana, kweni ŵakutondeka kulongora kuti maselo agha ghangawovwira kuti maselo ghasinthe mwakuti ghapone para maselo ghasintha.<ref name="Serieys-et-al-2014-bundle">{{Unbulleted list citebundle|{{cite journal | last1=Lambert | first1=Max R. | last2=Brans | first2=Kristien I. | last3=Des Roches | first3=Simone | last4=Donihue | first4=Colin M. | last5=Diamond | first5=Sarah E. | title=Adaptive Evolution in Cities: Progress and Misconceptions | journal=[[Trends in Ecology & Evolution]] | publisher=[[Cell Press]] | volume=36 | issue=3 | year=2021 | issn=0169-5347 | doi=10.1016/j.tree.2020.11.002 | pages=239–257| pmid=33342595 | s2cid=229342193 }}|{{cite journal | last1=Serieys | first1=Laurel E. K. | last2=Lea | first2=Amanda | last3=Pollinger | first3=John P. | last4=Riley | first4=Seth P. D. | last5=Wayne | first5=Robert K. | title=Disease and freeways drive genetic change in urban bobcat populations | journal=Evolutionary Applications | publisher=[[Blackwell publishing|Blackwell]] | volume=8 | issue=1 | date=December 2, 2014 | issn=1752-4571 | doi=10.1111/eva.12226 | pages=75–92 | pmid=25667604 | pmc=4310583 | s2cid=27501058}}}}</ref> == Chiwerengero cha anthu == {{Main|Demographics of Los Angeles}} {{See also|History of Armenian Americans in Los Angeles|History of Central Americans in Los Angeles|History of Chinese Americans in Los Angeles|History of Iranian Americans in Los Angeles|History of the Japanese in Los Angeles|History of the Jews in Los Angeles|History of Palestinians in Los Angeles|Ukrainian Americans in Los Angeles|History of Mexican Americans in Los Angeles}} {{US Census population |1850= 1610 |1860= 4385 |1870= 5728 |1880= 11183 |1890= 50395 |1900= 102479 |1910= 319198 |1920= 576673 |1930= 1238048 |1940= 1504277 |1950= 1970358 |1960= 2479015 |1970= 2811801 |1980= 2968528 |1990= 3485398 |2000= 3694820 |2010= 3792621 |2020= 3898747 |estyear= 2022 |estimate= 3819538 |estref=<ref>{{cite web|url=https://dof.ca.gov/wp-content/uploads/Forecasting/Demographics/Documents/E-1_2022PressRelease.pdf|title=Slowing state population decline puts latest population at 39,185,000|format=Press Release|work=Department of Finance|access-date=February 5, 2023|date=May 2, 2022|location=Sacramento|archive-date=May 25, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220525233629/https://dof.ca.gov/wp-content/uploads/Forecasting/Demographics/Documents/E-1_2022PressRelease.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> |align-fn=center | footnote=United States Census Bureau<ref>{{cite web |url = https://www.census.gov/programs-surveys/decennial-census.html |title = Census of Population and Housing |publisher = [[U.S. Census Bureau]] |access-date = March 19, 2007 }}</ref><br />2010–2020, 2021<ref name="QuickFacts"/> }} Ku United States, mu 2010, ŵanthu awo ŵakalembeka mu msumba wa Los Angeles ŵakaŵa 3,792,621. Ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga mu tawuni iyi ŵakaŵanga 8,092.3 pa mita yimoza na hafu (3,124.5 pa kilomita yimoza). Kuyana na msinkhu wawo, ŵanthu 874,525 (23.1%) ŵakaŵa na vyaka vyambura kukwana 18, ŵanthu 434,478 (11.5%) ŵakaŵa ŵa vyaka vya pakati pa 18 na 24, ŵanthu 1,209,367 (31.9%) ŵakaŵa ŵa vyaka vya pakati pa 25 na 44, ŵanthu 877,555 (23.1%) ŵakaŵa ŵa vyaka vya pakati pa 45 na 64, ndipo ŵanthu 396,696 (10.5%) ŵakaŵa ŵa vyaka vya pakati pa 65 na kujumphirapo. Ŵakaŵa na vyaka 34.1. Pa ŵanakazi 100, ŵanalume ŵakaŵapo 99.2. Pa ŵanakazi 100 ŵa vyaka 18 kuya munthazi, pakaŵa ŵanalume 97.6. Pakaŵa nyumba zakukwana 1,413,995 (kufuma pa 1,298,350 mu 2005 kufika mu 2009) ndipo nyumba izi zikakhalanga ŵanthu 2,812.8 pa sikweya kilomita (1,086.0 pa sikweya kilomita), ndipo nyumba 503,863 (38.2%) zikaŵa za ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga mu nyumba zawo, ndipo 814,305 (61.8%) zikaŵa za ŵanthu awo ŵakachitanga renti. Pa ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga mu nyumba zawo, ŵanthu 1,535,444 (40.5% ya ŵanthu wose) ndiwo ŵakakhalanga mu nyumba zawo, ndipo ŵanthu 2,172,576 (57.3%) ndiwo ŵakakhalanga mu nyumba zawo. Kuyana na kalembera wa mu 2010, mu msumba wa Los Angeles, ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga mu ukavu ŵakasanganga ndalama zakukwana $49,497.<ref name="Census 2010, LA city">{{cite web |title=Los Angeles (city), California |url=https://www.census.gov/quickfacts/table/PST045215/0644000,06 |access-date=October 3, 2016 |publisher=[[United States Census Bureau]]}}</ref> === Mtundu na fuko === {| class="wikitable sortable collapsible" style="font-size: 90%;" |- !Racial and ethnic composition !1940<ref name="Census">{{cite web |title=Race and Hispanic Origin for Selected Cities and Other Places: Earliest Census to 1990 |url=https://www.census.gov/population/www/documentation/twps0076/twps0076.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120812191959/http://www.census.gov/population/www/documentation/twps0076/twps0076.html |archive-date=August 12, 2012 |access-date=November 6, 2015 |publisher=[[United States Census Bureau]]}}</ref> !1970<ref name="Census" /> !1990<ref name="Census" /> !2010<ref name=datacensus/> !2020<ref name=datacensus>{{cite web|url=https://data.census.gov/cedsci/table?g=1600000US0644000&y=2020&d=DEC%20Redistricting%20Data%20%28PL%2094-171%29&tid=DECENNIALPL2020.P2|publisher=US Census Bureau|title=2020: DEC Redistricting Data (PL 94-171)}}</ref> |- |[[Hispanic and Latino Americans|Hispanic or Latino (of any race)]] |7.1% |17.1% |39.9% |48.5% |46.9% |- |[[Non-Hispanic whites|White (non-Hispanic)]] |86.3% |61.1% |37.3% |28.7% |28.9% |- |[[Asian American|Asian (non-Hispanic)]] |2.2% |3.6% |9.8% |11.1% |11.7% |- |[[African American|Black or African American (non-Hispanic)]] |4.2% |17.9% |14.0% |9.2% |8.3% |- |Other (non-Hispanic) |N/A |N/A |0.1% |0.3% |0.7% |- |[[Multiracial American|Two or more races (non-Hispanic)]] |N/A |N/A |N/A |2.0% |3.3% |} Kuyana na census ya mu 2010, ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yakupambanapambana mu Los Angeles ni: 1,888,158 White (49.8%), 365,118 African Americans (9.6%), 28,215 Native Americans (0.7%), 426,959 Asians (11.3%), 5,577 Pacific Islanders (0.1%), 902,959 from other races (23.8%), and 175,635 (4.6%) from two or more races. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Spain panji ŵa ku Latin America ŵakaŵapo 1,838,822 (48.5%). Mu msumba wa Los Angeles muli ŵanthu ŵakufuma mu vyaru vyakujumpha 140, ndipo ŵakuyowoya viyowoyero vyakukwana 224. Ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yinyake nga ni Chinatown, Historic Filipinotown, Koreatown, Little Armenia, Little Ethiopia, Tehrangeles, Little Tokyo, Little Bangladesh, na Thai Town ni viyelezgero vya ŵanthu ŵa viyowoyero vinandi ku Los Angeles.<ref name="Census 2010, LA city" /><ref name="World Population Review">{{cite web |title=Los Angeles, California Population 2019 |url=http://worldpopulationreview.com/us-cities/los-angeles-population/ |website=World Population Review |access-date=August 21, 2019}}</ref> [[File:Distribution of high income households across LA County.png|thumb|left|Percentage of households with incomes above $150k across [[Los Angeles County, California|Los Angeles County]] census tracts]] Mu 2010, ŵanthu ŵa ku Spain awo ŵakaŵa kuti mbazungu ŵakaŵapo 28.7 peresenti, ndipo mu 1940 ŵakaŵa 86.3 peresenti. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Spain ŵakukhala mu vigaŵa vya mumphepete mwa nyanja ya Pacific kweniso mu vigaŵa vya Santa Monica Mountains. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Mexico ndiwo ŵakukhala mu tawuni iyi. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Mexico ndiwo ŵakukhala mu tawuni iyi. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Spain ŵakukhala ku Mexico na ku Central America ndipo ŵakukhala mu msumba wa Los Angeles na cigaŵa cake cose. Vinthu ivi vikucitika comene mu vigaŵa vya ku Downtown nga ni East Los Angeles, Northeast Los Angeles na Westlake. Kweniso, ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakukhala mu vigaŵa vya kumafumiro gha dazi kwa msumba wa Los Angeles, ku Downey, mbakufuma ku Spain.<ref name="Census 2010, LA city" />[[File:Race and ethnicity 2010- Los Angeles (5560490330).png|thumb|upright=1.1|Mapu gha mitundu na mitundu mu Los Angeles ku 2010 U.S. census. Mapu gha mtundu na mitundu mu LA 2010 U. S. census . Mapu gha mafuko na mitundu mu L. S. ku 2010 U . S. censuses. Dontho lililose ni ŵanthu 25.: {{legend inline|outline=white|white|text=⬤|textcolor=#ff0000|White}} {{legend inline|outline=white|white|text=⬤|textcolor=#0000ff|Black}} {{legend inline|outline=white|white|text=⬤|textcolor=#00ffaa|Asian}} {{legend inline|outline=white|white|text=⬤|textcolor=#ffa600|Hispanic}} {{legend inline|outline=white|white|text=⬤|textcolor=#ffff07|Other}}]] Mitundu yikuru ya ku Asia ni ya ku Philippines (3.2%) na ya ku Korea (2.9%), iyo yili na vigaŵa vyawo mu Wilshire Center na Historic Filipinotown. Ŵanthu ŵa ku China, awo mba 1.8% mwa ŵanthu wose ŵa ku Los Angeles, ŵakukhala kuwaro kwa msumba wa Los Angeles ndipo ŵakukhala mu San Gabriel Valley kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Los Angeles County, kweni ŵalipo ŵanandi mu msumba uwu, chomene mu Chinatown. Ku Chinatown na ku Thaitown kukukhala ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Thailand na Cambodia, awo ni 0.3% na 0.1% ya ŵanthu ŵa ku Los Angeles. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Japan ŵalipo 0.9% mu msumba wa Los Angeles ndipo ŵali na malo ghakucemeka Little Tokyo mu msumba uwu, ndipo gulu linyake la ŵanthu ŵa ku Japan ŵali mu chigaŵa cha Sawtelle ku West Los Angeles. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Vietnam ŵakukwana 0.5% mu msumba wa Los Angeles. Ŵanthu ŵa ku India ŵakukwana 0.9% mu msumba uwu. Mu tawuni iyi mukukhala ŵanthu ŵa ku Armenia, Asiriya, na Iran, ndipo ŵanandi ŵakukhala mu vigaŵa vyakucemeka Little Armenia na Tehrangeles. Ŵanthu ŵa ku America awo mba fuko la African American ndiwo ŵakhalanga comene ku South Los Angeles, ndipo ndiwo ŵakhalanga ŵanthu ŵanandi mu chigaŵa ichi kufuma waka mu ma 1960. Vigaŵa vya ku South Los Angeles uko kuli ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Africa ni Crenshaw, Baldwin Hills, Leimert Park, Hyde Park, Gramercy Park, Manchester Square na Watts. Padera pa South Los Angeles, vigaŵa vinyake vya ku Central Los Angeles, nga ni Mid-City na Mid-Wilshire navyo vili na ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Africa. Ku Fairfax kuli ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Eritrea na Ethiopia. Los Angeles ni tawuni yaciŵiri pa caru cose pa ŵanthu ŵa ku Mexico, Armenia, El Salvador, Philippines, na Guatemala, ndipo ni tawuni yacitatu pa ŵanthu ŵa ku Canada, kweniso ni tawuni yaciŵiri pa ŵanthu ŵa ku Japan, Iran, Cambodia, na Roma. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Italy ŵakukhala ku San Pedro.<ref>{{cite book|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=MwQZUOiSqPcC&q=italians+in+los+angeles|title=Italians in Los Angeles|isbn=9780738547756 |last1=Bitetti |first1=Marge |year=2007 }}</ref> Ŵanandi mwa ŵanthu ŵa ku Los Angeles awo ŵakababikira ku vyaru vinyake ŵakababikira mu [[Mexico]], [[El Salvador]], [[Guatemala]], [[Philippines]] na [[Korea]].<ref>https://web.archive.org/web/20230721044750/https://dornsife.usc.edu/assets/sites/731/docs/LOSANGELES_web.pdf</ref> === Chisopo === {{bar box |title = Religious affiliation (2014)<ref name="LAReligion1" /><ref name="LAReligion2" /> |titlebar=#ccf |background-color=#f8f9fa |float=right |bars = {{bar percent|Christian|darkblue|65}} {{bar percent|[[Catholic Church|Catholic]]|mediumblue|32}} {{bar percent|[[Protestant]]|mediumblue|30}} {{bar percent|Other Christian|mediumblue|3}} {{bar percent|Unaffiliated|purple|25}} {{bar percent|Jewish|lightgreen|3}} {{bar percent|[[Muslim]]|lightgreen|2}} {{bar percent|[[Buddhist]]|lightgreen|2}} {{bar percent|[[Hindu]]|lightgreen|1}} {{bar percent|Other faiths|lightgreen|1}} }} Kuyana na kafukufuku uyo wakacitika mu 2014 na Pew Research Center, Cikhristu ndico cisopa cikuru comene mu Los Angeles (65%).<ref name="LAReligion1">{{cite web |title=Religious Landscape Study: Adults in the Los Angeles Metro Area |publisher=[[Pew Research Center]] |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/religious-landscape-study/metro-area/los-angeles-metro-area/ |year=2014 |access-date=2023-06-26 }}</ref><ref name="LAReligion2">{{cite web|url=http://www.pewforum.org/2015/05/12/americas-changing-religious-landscape/|title=America's Changing Religious Landscape|date=May 12, 2015|publisher=[[Pew Research Center]]: Religion & Public Life}}</ref> Tchalitchi la Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Los Angeles ndilo likuru comene mu caru ici. Cardinal Roger Mahony, uyo wakaŵa bishopu mulara, ndiyo wakalaŵiliranga mulimo wa kuzenga Cathedral of Our Lady of the Angels, iyo yikajulika mu Seputembala 2002 mu msumba wa Los Angeles. Mu chaka cha 2011, ŵanthu ŵakambaso kulondezga kaluso ka kupanga misa na viphikiro vya kusopa Nuestra Señora de los Ángeles, kuti ŵakumbukirenge kukhazikiskika kwa msumba wa Los Angeles mu 1781. Nkharo iyi yikamba pa zuŵa la kukondwelera kukhazikiskika kwa msumba wa Los Angeles mu 1782 ndipo yikalutilira pafupifupi vilimika 100 pamanyuma pake.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thequeenofangels.com/wp-content/media/tidings-online20110906.pdf|title=2011 'Grand Procession' revives founding of L.A. Marian devotion|author=Dellinger, Robert|date=September 6, 2011|work=The Tidings Online|access-date=January 14, 2015}}</ref>[[File:St. Vincent de Paul Catholic Church (Los Angeles) (cropped).jpg|thumb|left|upright|[[St. Vincent de Paul Church (Los Angeles)|St. Vincent de Paul Church]], a parish of the [[Archdiocese of Los Angeles]]]] Mu tawuni iyi muli Ŵayuda 621,000, ndipo tawuni iyi ndiyo yili na Ŵayuda ŵanandi chomene mu United States, pamanyuma pa msumba wa New York. Ŵayuda ŵanandi ŵa ku Los Angeles ŵakukhala ku Westside na ku San Fernando Valley, nangauli ku Boyle Heights kukaŵa Ŵayuda ŵanandi pambere Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Charu Chose yindachitike chifukwa cha kukanizgika kukhazikiska nyumba. Vigaŵa vikuru-vikuru vya Ŵayuda ŵa Orthodox ni Hancock Park, Pico-Robertson, na Valley Village, apo Ŵayuda ŵa ku Israel ŵakukhala mu vigaŵa vya Encino na Tarzana, na Ŵayuda ŵa ku Persia ku Beverly Hills. Mu msumba wa Los Angeles muli visopa vya Ciyuda vyakupambanapambana, nga ni Ciyuda ca Reform, Ciyuda ca Conservative, Ciyuda ca Orthodox, na Ciyuda ca Reconstructionist. Nyumba ya kusoperamo ya Breed Street ku East Los Angeles, iyo yikazengeka mu 1923, yikaŵa yikuru comene kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Chicago. Wupu wa Kabbalah nawo ulipo mu msumba uwu. Mpingo wa International Church of the Foursquare Gospel ukapangika ku Los Angeles na Aimee Semple McPherson mu 1923 ndipo uli na ofesi yikuru ku malo agha mpaka lero. Kwa vilimika vinandi, mpingo uwu ukacitiranga maungano ghawo mu tempele la Angelus, ilo pa nyengo iyo likazengekanga, likaŵa limoza mwa matchalitchi ghakurughakuru mu caru ici.<ref>Edith Waldvogel Blumhofer, ''Aimee Semple McPherson: everybody's sister'', Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, USA, 1993, page 246–247</ref>[[File:Wilshire Boulevard Temple 2017 (cropped).jpg|thumb|right|[[Wilshire Boulevard Temple]] is one of the largest [[synagogue]]s in LA.]] Mu msumba wa Los Angeles mukaŵa ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa chisopa cha Chiprotesitanti. Mpingo wakwamba wa Ŵaprotesitanti ku Los Angeles ukaŵa wa Ŵametodisti uwo ukacitikira mu nyumba ya munthu munyake mu 1850. Ndipo mpingo wakale chomene wa Ŵaprotesitanti uwo uchali kugwira nchito, wa First Congregational Church, ukapangika mu 1867. Kukwambilira kwa vyaka vya m'ma 1900, wupu wakuwona vya Baibolo wa Bible Institute of Los Angeles ukalemba mabuku agho ghakambiska gulu la Ŵakhristu la Fundamentalist. Ndipo gulu la Azusa Street Revival likambiska chisopa cha Pentekoste.<ref name="Eighteen5019Thirty">{{cite web |author=Clifton L. Holland |title=n Overview of Religion in Los Angeles from 1850 to 1930 |url=http://www.prolades.com/glama/la5co07/overview_1850-1930.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170905133328/http://www.prolades.com/glama/la5co07/overview_1850-1930.htm |archive-date=September 5, 2017 |access-date=September 18, 2017}}</ref> Mpingo wa Metropolitan Community Church nawo ukambira mu cigaŵa ca Los Angeles. Matchalitchi ghakuzirwa mu msumba uwu ni agha: [[First Presbyterian Church of Hollywood]], [[Bel Air Presbyterian Church]], [[First African Methodist Episcopal Church of Los Angeles]], [[West Angeles Church of God in Christ]], [[Second Baptist Church (Los Angeles, California)|Second Baptist Church]], [[Crenshaw Christian Center]], [[McCarty Memorial Christian Church]], na First Congregational Church. [[File:Second Church of Christ, Scientist, Los Angeles.jpg|thumb|left|[[Second Church of Christ, Scientist (Los Angeles)|Second Church of Christ, Scientist]]]] Kachisi wa Los Angeles California Temple, kachisi wachiŵiri mu ukuru wake uyo wakwendeskeka na Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, wali pa Santa Monica Boulevard mu muzi wa Westwood ku Los Angeles. Tempile ili likajulika mu 1956, ndipo likaŵa lakwamba kuzengeka ku California. Ku chigaŵa cha Hollywood ku Los Angeles, kuli maofesi ghanandi, matchalitchi, na malo ghakucemeka Celebrity Center of Scientology.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.scientology.cc/en_US/index.html|title=Church of Scientology Celebrity Centre International|website=Church of Scientology Celebrity Centre International|access-date=June 17, 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |first=Daniel |last=Miller |url=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/general-news/scientologys-hollywood-real-estate-empire-213141/ |title=Scientology's Hollywood Real Estate Empire |work=[[The Hollywood Reporter]] |date=July 21, 2011 |access-date=February 26, 2022}}</ref> Pakuti mu msumba wa Los Angeles muli ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yakupambanapambana, ŵanthu ŵa visopa vyakupambanapambana ŵakusangikamo. Vinyake mwa visopa ivi ni Chibuda, Chihindu, Chisilamu, Chizoroastriya, Sikhism, Chibahá'í, matchalitchi gha Orthodox, Chisufi, Chishintoism, Chitaoism, Chinkhumi, Chitchayinizi, na ghanyake ghanandi. Mwaciyelezgero, ŵanthu ŵakufuma ku Asia ŵali kupanga mipingo yinandi ya Ŵabuddha, ndipo mu msumba uwu muli Ŵabuddha ŵanandi comene kuluska mu caru cose. Nyumba yakwamba ya Ŵabuddha yakupangiramo vyakununkhira yikazengeka mu msumba uwu mu 1875. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakugomezga kuti Ciuta kulije ndipo ŵakulondezga visambizgo vyautesi. Mzere Wambura Tchalitchi.<ref name="Eighteen5019Thirty" /> === Homelessness === {{main|Homelessness in Los Angeles}} [[File:Homeless people, Los Angeles, California (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright|Mahema gha Ŵambura Nyumba ku [[Los Angeles City Hall]], 2021]] Kufika mu Janyuwale 2020, mu msumba wa Los Angeles muli ŵanthu ŵakukwana 41,290 awo ŵalije pakukhala, ndipo ŵanthu aŵa ŵakukwana pafupifupi 62 peresenti ya ŵanthu wose awo ŵalije pakukhala mu chigaŵa ichi. Ichi chikulongora kuti ŵanthu awo ŵakasoŵa pakukhala ŵakasazgikira na 14.2% kuyana na cilimika cakwambilira (para ŵanthu awo ŵakasoŵa pakukhala ŵakasazgikira na 12.7% ku LA County). Mu tawuni ya Los Angeles, ŵanthu ŵanandi chomene mbambura nyumba, ndipo ŵakukhala mu muzi wa Skid Row. Mu tawuni iyi muli ŵanthu ŵakukwana 8,000, ndipo tawuni iyi njimoza mwa tawuni izo zili na ŵanthu ŵanandi chomene mu United States. Ŵanandi ŵakuyowoya kuti ŵanthu awo ŵakusoŵa pakukhala mu Los Angeles ŵakusazgikira cifukwa ca kusoŵa nyumba zakukwana kweniso cifukwa ca kumwa munkhwala panji vinthu vinyake vyakupambanapambana. Pa ŵanthu 82,955 awo ŵakaŵavya nyumba mu 2019, pafupifupi 60 pa ŵanthu 100 ŵaliwose ŵakayowoya kuti ŵakaŵavya nyumba chifukwa cha masuzgo gha ndalama. Mu msumba wa Los Angeles, ŵanthu ŵafipa ŵakusuzgika comene na kusoŵa pakukhala.<ref name=":0">{{Cite news|last=Cowan|first=Jill|date=June 12, 2020|title=What Los Angeles's Homeless Count Results Tell Us|language=en-US|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/06/12/us/la-county-homeless-population.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200612130812/https://www.nytimes.com/2020/06/12/us/la-county-homeless-population.html|archive-date=June 12, 2020|url-access=subscription|url-status=live|access-date=July 6, 2020|issn=0362-4331}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=2823 – Report And Recommendations Of The Ad Hoc Committee On Black People Experiencing Homelessness|url=https://www.lahsa.org/documents?id=2823-report-and-recommendations-of-the-ad-hoc-committee-on-black-people-experiencing-homelessness|access-date=July 6, 2020|website=www.lahsa.org}}</ref> === Viwawa === {{Main|Crime in Los Angeles}}{{See also|List of criminal gangs in Los Angeles}} [[File:LAPD Staples Center Officers.jpg|thumb|left|Ŵalaraŵalara ŵa Boma [[Los Angeles Police Department]] (LAPD)]] Mu 1992, mu msumba wa Los Angeles, ŵanthu 1,092 ŵakakomeka. Vigeŵenga vikamba kuchepa mu Los Angeles mu ma 1990 na m'ma 2000, ndipo mu 2009, ŵanthu 314 ŵakakomeka.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://abclocal.go.com/story?section=news/local/los_angeles&id=7204706|title=Los Angeles crime rates hit 50-year lows|author=Powell, Amy|date=January 6, 2010|access-date=January 14, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150721210109/http://abclocal.go.com/story?section=news%2Flocal%2Flos_angeles&id=7204706|archive-date=July 21, 2015|url-status=dead|publisher=[[KABC-TV]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lapdonline.org/read_the_beat_magazine/pdf_view/43819|title=LAPD year-end crime statistics|publisher=[[Los Angeles Police Department]]|access-date=April 13, 2010|archive-date=July 11, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130711054236/http://www.lapdonline.org/read_the_beat_magazine/pdf_view/43819|url-status=dead}}</ref> Ici cikung'anamura kuti pa ŵanthu 100,000, 7.85 ndiwo ŵakukoma ŵanthu, ndipo ici cikulongora kuti ŵanthu awo ŵakukoma ŵanthu ŵacoko comene pakuyaniska na mu 1980 apo ŵanthu 34.2 pa ŵanthu 100,000 ndiwo ŵakakomeka.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.disastercenter.com/californ/crime/976.htm|title=Uniform Crime Reports of Los Angelesand Index from 1985 to 2005|access-date=April 20, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lapdonline.org/assets/pdf/cityprof.pdf|title=LAPD Online Crime Rates|publisher=[[Los Angeles Police Department]]|access-date=April 13, 2010}}</ref> Pa ŵanthu aŵa, 15 ŵakaŵa ŵapolisi. Munthu yumoza uyo ŵakamukoma ni Randal Simmons wa mu gulu la SWAT, ndipo wakaŵa wakwamba kukomeka mu LAPD. Mu 2013, mu msumba wa Los Angeles, ŵanthu ŵakukwana 251 ŵakakomeka. Ŵapolisi ŵakughanaghana kuti pali vinthu vinandi ivyo vikupangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵaleke kugwiliskira nchito Intaneti, ndipo cimoza mwa vinthu ivi nchakuti ŵawukirano ŵakumalira nyengo yinandi pa Intaneti. Mu 2021, ŵanthu ŵakukoma ŵanthu ŵakwera comene kufuma mu 2008 ndipo pakaŵa ŵanthu 348. Mu 2015, vikavumbukwa kuti ŵapolisi ŵa ku Los Angeles ŵakayowoyanga viŵi yayi vya ulwani kwa vyaka 8, ivyo vikapangiska kuti ulwani uwu uwoneke kuŵa uchoko chomene kuluska umo uliri.<ref>{{cite news |title=Los Angeles Police Underreported Crime Stats for 8 Years |url=https://time.com/4074896/los-angeles-crime-rates-higher-assaults/ |magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] |date=October 15, 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=LAPD captain accuses department of twisting crime statistics to make city seem safer |url=https://www.latimes.com/local/lanow/la-me-ln-lapd-crime-stats-claim-20171103-story.html |work=Los Angeles Times |date=November 6, 2017}}</ref> Banja la Dragna na la Cohen ndilo likaŵa likuru pa gulu la vigeŵenga mu msumba uwu mu nyengo ya kuzomerezgeka kwa cigeŵenga, ndipo likakura comene mu vyaka vya m'ma 1940 na 1950 apo kukaŵa nkhondo ya Sunset Strip. Mwakuyana na dipatimenti ya polisi ya ku Los Angeles, mu msumba uwu muli ŵanthu ŵakukwana 45,000, awo ŵali mu magulu 450. Ŵanyake mwa ŵanthu aŵa ni ŵa Crips na ŵa Bloods, awo ni magulu gha pa msewu gha ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa na America, ndipo ŵakambira ku South Los Angeles. Magulu gha pa msewu gha ŵanthu ŵa ku Latin America nga ni Sureños, na Mara Salvatrucha, gheneagho ghali na ŵanthu ŵa ku El Salvador, ghose ghakafuma ku Los Angeles. Lekani msumba uwu ukuchemeka kuti "Mzinda wa Magulu gha Vigeŵenga ku America".<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSN08492271|title=Police target 11 worst Los Angeles street gangs|author=Serjeant, Jill|date=February 8, 2007|newspaper=[[Reuters]]|access-date=January 14, 2015}}</ref> == Chuma == {{Further|Los Angeles Chamber of Commerce}} {{See also|Los Angeles County, California#Economy}} [[File:Tree Map of Employment by Industries in Los Angeles County, Ca (2015).svg|thumb|Chiwerengero cha anthu ogwira ntchito m'mafakitale ku Los Angeles mu 2015]] Vinthu ivyo vikupangiska kuti msumba wa Los Angeles uŵe na ndalama zinandi ni malonda gha pa caru cose, vyakusanguluska (kuwonelera pa TV, mafilimu, maseŵero gha pa vidiyo, kwimba sumu, na kupanga vinthu vinyake), vyakupangiska ndege, vya tekinoloje, vyakupangira mafuta, mafashoni, vyakuvwara, na vyamwendakwenda. Vinyake mwa vinthu ivi ni vya ndalama, kutumirana mauthenga, malango, vyaumoyo, na vyamwendesko. Mu 2017 Global Financial Centres Index, Los Angeles yikaŵikika pa malo 19 pa malo gha ndalama pa charu chose kweniso pa malo 6 ku United States pamanyuma pa New York City, [[San Francisco#Economy|San Francisco]], [[Economy of Chicago#Finance|Chicago]], [[Economy of Boston|Boston]], na [[Economy of Washington, D.C.|Washington, D.C]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.longfinance.net/images/gfci/gfci_21.pdf|title=The Global Financial Centres Index 21|date=March 2017|publisher=Long Finance|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170611000617/http://www.longfinance.net/images/gfci/gfci_21.pdf|archive-date=June 11, 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref> Pa ma studio ghankhondi ghakurughakuru gha mafilimu, Paramount Pictures pera ndiyo yili mu msumba wa Los Angeles. Los Angeles ni malo ghakuru comene ghakupangira vinthu ku United States. Madowoko gha ku Los Angeles na Long Beach, agho ghakukolerana na malo agha, ndigho ghakutchuka chomene ku United States ndipo ndigho ghachinkhondi pa charu chose.<ref name="citydata">{{cite web |title=Los Angeles: Economy |url=<nowiki>http://www.city-data.com/us-cities/The-West/Los-Angeles-Economy.html</nowiki> site blacklisted |access-date=October 7, 2011 |publisher=[[City-Data]]}}</ref>[[File:Los Angeles Harbor - panoramio - Zzyzx (1).jpg|thumb|left|Port of Los Angeles na Port of Long Beach ni malo ghachinkhondi pa vyaru ivyo vili na ŵanthu ŵanandi chomene pa charu chose.]] Pa ma studio ghankhondi ghakurughakuru gha mafilimu, Paramount Pictures pera ndiyo yili mu msumba wa Los Angeles. Los Angeles ni malo ghakuru comene ghakupangira vinthu ku United States. Madowoko gha ku Los Angeles na Long Beach, agho ghakukolerana na malo agha, ndigho ghakutchuka chomene ku United States ndipo ndigho ghachinkhondi pa charu chose.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Chiotakis|first=Steve|date=October 1, 2019|title=Navigating LA's cannabis industry with the city's pot czar|language=en|publisher=KCRW|url=https://www.kcrw.com/news/shows/greater-la/la-opens-its-first-cannabis-cafe/navigating-las-cannabis-industry-with-the-citys-pot-czar|access-date=October 30, 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=REYES|first=EMILY ALPERT|date=October 29, 2019|title=L.A. should suspend vetting applications for pot shops amid concerns, Wesson urges|language=en-US|newspaper=[[Los Angeles Times]]|url=https://www.latimes.com/california/story/2019-10-29/la-pot-shops-licensing-suspection-urged|access-date=October 30, 2019}}</ref> Mu chaka cha 2018, mu msumba wa Los Angeles muli makampani ghatatu agho ghakusangika pa Fortune 500. Makampani agha ni: AECOM, CBRE Group, na Reliance Steel & Aluminum Co. Makampani ghanyake agho ghali na ofesi yawo yikuru ku Los Angeles na vigaŵa vyapafupi ni agha: [[The Aerospace Corporation]], [[California Pizza Kitchen]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cpk.com/about|title=Our Company: From a legendary pizza to a global brand|website=[[California Pizza Kitchen]]|access-date=July 30, 2022}}</ref> [[Capital Group Companies]], [[Deluxe Entertainment Services Group]], [[Dine Brands Global]], [[DreamWorks Animation]], [[Dollar Shave Club]], [[Fandango Media]], [[Farmers Insurance Group]], [[Forever 21]], [[Hulu]], [[Panda Express]], [[SpaceX]], [[Ubisoft Film & Television]], [[The Walt Disney Company]], [[Universal Pictures]], [[Warner Bros.]], [[Warner Music Group]], na [[Trader Joe's]]. [[File:Skyline view of Los Angeles, California LCCN2013631685 (cropped).tif|thumb|right|[[Downtown Los Angeles]] ni malo ghakucitirapo bizinesi mu msumba uwu.]] {| class="wikitable sortable" |+ ! colspan="3" |Largest non-government employers in Los Angeles County, August 2018<ref>{{cite web|url=https://lacontroller.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/FY18_CAFR_Final_1.31.19_v3.pdf|title=City of Los Angeles' Comprehensive Annual Financial Report|date=January 31, 2019|access-date=September 9, 2019|archive-date=December 12, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191212053646/https://lacontroller.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/FY18_CAFR_Final_1.31.19_v3.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> |- !Rank !Employer !Employees |- |1 |[[Kaiser Permanente]] |37,468 |- |2 |[[University of Southern California]] |21,055 |- |3 |[[Northrop Grumman|Northrop Grumman Corp.]] |16,600 |- |4 |[[Providence Health & Services|Providence Health and Services Southern California]] |15,952 |- |5 |[[Target Corporation|Target Corp.]] |15,000 |- |6 |[[Ralphs]]/Food 4 Less (Kroger Co. Division) |14,970 |- |7 |[[Cedars-Sinai Medical Center]] |14,903 |- |8 |[[The Walt Disney Company|Walt Disney Co.]] |13,000 |- |9 |[[Allied Universal]] |12,879 |- |10 |[[NBCUniversal|NBC Universal]] |12,000 |} == Vinthu vyakukhwaskana na luso na kakhaliro == {{Main|Culture of Los Angeles}} [[File:Los Angeles Plaza-1.jpg|thumb|right|Malo ghakale chomene gha mu msumba uwu, pa Plaza de Los Ángeles pafupi na Calle Olvera]] Kanandi msumba wa Los Angeles ndiwo ukuchemeka kuti msumba wa ŵanthu awo ŵakughanaghana na kupanga vinthu, chifukwa munthu yumoza pa ŵanthu 6 awo ŵakukhala mu msumba uwu, wakugwira ntchito ya kupanga vinthu. Ndipo ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakukhala mu msumba uwu, nga ni awo ŵakulemba mabuku, awo ŵakupanga mafilimu, awo ŵakuchita maseŵero, awo ŵakuvina, na awo ŵakwimba. Msumba uwu ukumanyikwaso cifukwa ca vithuzithuzi vyakutowa ivyo vili pa viliŵa.<ref name="shatkin2013">{{cite news | newspaper = Los Angeles Magazine | title = Let the Renaissance Begin: L.A. Votes to Lift Mural Ban | last = Shatkin | first = Elina | date = August 28, 2013 | url = https://www.lamag.com/culturefiles/let-the-renaissance-begin-la-votes-to-lift-mural-ban/}}</ref> === Malo ghakuzirwa === {{See also||List of sites of interest in the Los Angeles area|National Register of Historic Places listings in Los Angeles, California}} [[File:El Cabrillo Courtyard.png|thumb|left|[[El Cabrillo]], a [[Spanish Colonial Revival|Spanish Revival]] style [[National Historic Landmark]]]] The [[Culture_of_Los_Angeles#Architecture|architecture of Los Angeles]] is influenced by its Spanish, Mexican, and American roots. Popular styles in the city include [[Spanish Colonial Revival]] style, [[Mission Revival]] style, [[California Churrigueresque]] style, [[Mediterranean Revival]] style, [[Art Deco architecture|Art Deco]] style, and [[Mid-Century Modern]] style, among others. Malo ghakuzirwa ku Los Angeles ni [[Hollywood Sign]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.hollywoodsign.org/|title=The Hollywood Sign, Official website for one of the most iconic landmarks in the world|website=Hollywood sign.org|access-date=July 25, 2022}}</ref> [[Walt Disney Concert Hall]], [[Capitol Records Building]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.discoverlosangeles.com/visit/the-capitol-records-building-the-story-of-an-la-icon|title=The Capitol Records Building: The Story of an L.A. Icon – Discover Los Angeles|access-date=July 25, 2022}}</ref> the [[Cathedral of Our Lady of the Angels]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://olacathedral.org/|title=Cathedral of our lady of the angels – Los Angeles, CA|website=olacathedral.org|access-date=July 25, 2022}}</ref> [[Angels Flight]],<ref>{{Cite web|url= https://www.angelsflight.org/|title=Angels Flight Railway: Los Angeles Landmark since 1901|website=angels flight.org|access-date=July 25, 2022}}</ref> [[Grauman's Chinese Theatre]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://variety.com/2022/film/features/hollywood-tcl-chinese-theatre-95-anniversary-1235268815/|title=Hollywood's iconic TCL Chinese Theatre Celebrates 95 Years of Premieres and Stars|last=Gilchrist|first=Todd|date=May 18, 2022|website=[[Variety (magazine)|Variety]]|access-date=July 25, 2022}}</ref> [[Dolby Theatre]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.dolby.com/movies-tv/dolby-theatre/#gref|title=The Dolby Theatre|website=dolby.com|access-date=July 25, 2022}}</ref> [[Griffith Observatory]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://griffithobservatory.org/about/|title=Griffith Observatory: A Symbol of Los Angeles, A Leader in Public Observing|website=[[Griffith Observatory]]|access-date=July 25, 2022}}</ref> [[Getty Center]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.getty.edu/|title=Getty Center homepage|website=getty.edu|access-date=July 26, 2022}}</ref> [[Getty Villa]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.getty.edu/visit/villa/|title=Visit the Getty Villa Museum|website=getty.edu|access-date=July 26, 2022}}</ref> [[Stahl House]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://stahlhouse.com/|title=The Stahl House – About us|website=[[Stahl House]]|access-date=July 26, 2022}}</ref> the [[Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum]], [[L.A. Live]], the [[Los Angeles County Museum of Art]], the [[Venice Canal Historic District]] nad boardwalk, [[Theme Building]], [[Bradbury Building]], [[U.S. Bank Tower]], [[Wilshire Grand Center]], [[Hollywood Boulevard]], [[Los Angeles City Hall]], [[Hollywood Bowl]], battleship {{USS|Iowa|BB-61|6}}, [[Watts Towers]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.latimes.com/travel/story/2021-12-24/how-the-watts-towers-were-born-and-how-they-got-to-be-100|title=Watts Towers at 100: Junk turned into art still casts a spell|last=Reynolds|first=Christopher|date=December 24, 2021|website=[[The Los Angeles Times]]|access-date=July 26, 2022}}</ref> [[Staples Center]], [[Dodger Stadium]], na [[Olvera Street]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.discoverlosangeles.com/things-to-do/discover-olvera-street-and-historic-el-pueblo-de-los-angeles|title=Discover Olvera Street And Historic El Pueblo De Los Angeles|website=discoverlosangeles.com|access-date=July 26, 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.lalive.com/visitor-center/about-la-live|title=About L.A. Live|website=[[L.A. Live]]|access-date=July 26, 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.discoverlosangeles.com/things-to-do/the-hollywood-bowl-the-story-of-an-la-icon|title=The Hollywood Bowl – Discover Los Angeles|website=Discover Los Angeles|access-date=July 26, 2022}}</ref> === Mafilimu na maseŵero === [[File:Chinese Theatre (26776735090).jpg|thumb|upright=.9|Nyumba ya Grauman ya ku China pa Hollywood Walk of Fame]] Ŵanthu ŵa ku Los Angeles ŵakutemwana chomene na maseŵero. Kuyana na ivyo likayowoya gulu linyake (USC Stevens Institute for Innovation), "pa caru pali maseŵero ghakujumpha 1,100 pa cilimika, ndipo sabata yiliyose maseŵero agha ghakukwana 21". Ku Los Angeles kuli malo ghakupambanapambana ghakusambizgira sumu, ndipo ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 1.3 miliyoni ŵakuluta ku malo agha. Nyumba ya Walt Disney Concert Hall, ndiyo yili pakatikati pa malo ghakusungiramo sumu agha, ndipo ndimo muli gulu lakumanyikwa la ŵakwimba sumu la Los Angeles Philharmonic. Mabungwe ghakuzirwa nga ni Center Theatre Group, Los Angeles Master Chorale, na Los Angeles Opera nawo ŵakukhala ku Music Center.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.laopera.org/|title=LA Opera – Los Angeles|website=[[Los Angeles Opera]]|access-date=July 25, 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.centertheatregroup.org/about/our-history/|title=Our History – Center Theatre Group|website=centertheatregroup.org|access-date=July 25, 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.lamasterchorale.org/|title=Los Angeles Chorale Official Homepage|website=lamasterchorale.org|access-date=July 25, 2022}}</ref> Ŵaluso ŵakulongozgeka na ŵanthu ŵa ku malo ghakupambanapambana nga ni sukulu ya Colburn School na USC Thornton School of Music. [[File:Hollywood bowl and sign.jpg|left|thumb|[[Hollywood Bowl]] kju [[Hollywood Hills]]]] Dera la Hollywood ndilo likumanyikwa kuti ndilo likupangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵapange mafilimu, ndipo dera la Los Angeles ndilo likupangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵapange mafilimu. Mu msumba uwu ndimo muli masitudiyo ghakurughakuru gha mafilimu na makampani ghakurughakuru gha sumu. Ku Los Angeles ndiko kukucitikira ma Academy Awards, ma Primetime Emmy Awards, ma Grammy Awards na ma show ghanyake ghanandi. Ku Los Angeles ndiko kuli sukulu ya USC School of Cinematic Arts iyo ni sukulu yakale comene ya ku America.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/01/31/movies/31film.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060203034021/http://www.nytimes.com/2006/01/31/movies/31film.html |archive-date=February 3, 2006 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|title=At U.S.C., a Practical Emphasis in Film|last=Waxman|first=Sharon|date=January 31, 2006|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|access-date=October 14, 2011}}</ref> === Museums and galleries === {{See also|List of museums in Los Angeles|List of museums in Los Angeles County, California}} [[File:Getty Villa exterior.jpg|thumb|right|Getty Villa ni yimoza mwa maofesi ghaŵiri gha J. Paul Getty Museum, pafupi na Getty Center]] Mu chigaŵa cha Los Angeles muli nyumba zakusungiramo vinthu vyakale na malo ghakusungiramo vinthu vyakale ghakukwana 841.<ref name="lmu" /> Vinyake mwa vinthu ivi ni Los Angeles County Museum of Art, Getty Center (chigaŵa cha J. Paul Getty Trust, ni wupu uwo uli na vinthu vinandi pa caru cose), Petersen Automotive Museum, Huntington Library, Natural History Museum, Battleship Iowa, The Broad, iyo yili na vinthu vyakujumpha 2,000 ivyo vikulongora luso la mazuŵa ghano, na Museum of Contemporary Art. Ku Gallery Row kuli nyumba zinandi za vinthu vyakujambulika, ndipo ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakwiza ku Downtown Art Walk.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://articles.latimes.com/2011/aug/05/local/la-me-0805-art-walk-20110805|title=Downtown L.A. Art Walk safety changes planned|last=Mather|first=Kate|date=August 5, 2011|newspaper=[[Los Angeles Times]]|access-date=October 20, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.moca.org/about/mission-and-history|title=Welcome to the Museum of Contemporary Art|website=moca.org|access-date=July 25, 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.pacificbattleship.com/|title=Battleship USS Iowa Official website|website=Pacificbattleship.com|access-date=July 25, 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.petersen.org/|title=Welcome to the Petersen Automotive Museum|website=petersen.org|access-date=July 25, 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://articles.latimes.com/2009/mar/16/entertainment/et-getty16|title=Getty slashes operating budget after severe investment losses|last=Boehm|first=Mike|date=March 16, 2009|newspaper=[[Los Angeles Times]]|access-date=October 20, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lacma.org/overview|title=Overview|publisher=[[Los Angeles County Museum of Art]]|access-date=October 20, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.huntington.org/about|title=About the Huntington|website=[[Huntington Library]]|access-date=July 25, 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://brianpetruzzelli.com/modern-architecture-in-los-angeles/|title=Modern Architecture in Los Angeles|website=brianpetruzzelli.com|date=November 8, 2022 |access-date=March 18, 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://nhm.org/|title=Natural History Museum of Los Angeles|website=nhm.org|access-date=July 25, 2022}}</ref><ref name="lmu">{{cite web|url=http://www.lmu.edu/about/The_Los_Angeles_Region.htm|title=The Los Angeles Region|date=May 5, 2008|publisher=[[Loyola Marymount University]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111018115613/http://www.lmu.edu/about/The_Los_Angeles_Region.htm|archive-date=October 18, 2011|url-status=dead|access-date=October 20, 2011}}</ref> ===Libraries=== [[File:Los Angeles Central Library, 630 W. 5th St. Downtown Los Angeles 2 (cropped).jpg|thumb|left|[[Los Angeles Public Library|Los Angeles Central Library]]]] Ku Los Angeles kuli mabuku ghakukwana 72.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lapl.org/branches/|title=Los Angeles Public Library Branches|publisher=[[Los Angeles Public Library]]|access-date=October 24, 2011}}</ref> Vigaŵa vya malo ghambura kukolerana na boma vikusangika na maofesi gha Layibulare ya Boma la Los Angeles, agho ghanandi ghali pafupi na ŵanthu.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://lacountylibrary.org/|title=LA County Library|website=lacountylibrary.org|access-date=July 25, 2022}}</ref> === Kuphika === Vyakurya vya ku Los Angeles vikukolerana na vyakurya vya ku vyaru vinyake ivyo vili na ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakwiza mu msumba uwu. Kuzakafika mu 2022, Michelin Guide yamanya malo ghakurya 10 agho ghakupeleka nyenyezi ziŵiri ku malo ghakurya ghaŵiri na nyenyezi yimoza ku malo ghakurya 8.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://guide.michelin.com/us/en/california/us-los-angeles/restaurants/1-star-michelin/2-stars-michelin|title=Los Angeles Michelin Restaurants|website=guide.michelin.com|access-date=November 29, 2022}}</ref> Ŵanthu awo ŵakafuma ku Latin America, comenecomene ku Mexico, ŵakiza na cakurya nga ni tacos, burritos, quesadillas, tortas, tamales, na enchiladas ico ŵakaguliskanga mu magalimoto ghakuguliska vyakurya, mu malo ghakupangira cakurya, na mu malo ghakupangira cakurya. Ku malo ghakurya gha ku Asia, uko kuli ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakufuma ku vyaru vinyake, kuli malo ghanandi mu tawuni iyi. Kweniso ku Los Angeles kuli vyakurya vinandi vyambura vyakurya vya nyama.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.discoverlosangeles.com/things-to-do/chinatown-the-story-of-an-la-icon|title=The Guide to Chinatown in Los Angeles|newspaper=Discover Los Angeles|access-date=November 29, 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.discoverlosangeles.com/visit/the-guide-to-koreatown-in-los-angeles|title=The Guide to Koreantown in Los Angeles|website=discoverlosangeles.com|access-date=November 29, 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.discoverlosangeles.com/things-to-do/a-walking-tour-of-little-tokyo|title=A Walking Tour of Little Tokyo|website=discoverlosangeles.com|access-date=November 29, 2022}}</ref> == Maseŵero == {{See also|Sports in Los Angeles|History of the National Football League in Los Angeles}} [[File:USC vs University of Oregon November 2019 (cropped).png|alt=|thumb|upright=1.1|[[Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum]]]] Ku Los Angeles na vigaŵa vinyake, kuli magulu 11 gha maseŵero ghakupambanapambana. Timu izi zikusazgapo Los Angeles Dodgers na Los Angeles Angels za Major League Baseball (MLB), Los Angeles Rams na Los Angeles Chargers za National Football League (NFL), Los Angeles Lakers na Los Angeles Clippers za National Basketball Association (NBA), Los Angeles Kings na Anaheim Ducks za National Hockey League (NHL), Los Angeles Galaxy na Los Angeles FC za Major League Soccer (MLS), na Los Angeles Sparks za Women's National Basketball Association (WNBA). Timu zinandi za maseŵero zikusazgapo UCLA Bruins na USC Trojans mu National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA), zose ziŵiri ni timu za Division I mu Pac-12 Conference, kweni zikusamukira ku Big Ten Conference.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.espn.com/college-sports/story/_/id/34173688/source-usc-ucla-considering-move-pac-12-big-ten |title=USC, UCLA moving from Pac-12 to Big Ten in 2024|last=Thamel|first=Pete|author-link=Pete Thamel |date=June 30, 2022|website=[[ESPN]]|access-date=July 24, 2022}}</ref>[[File:Dodger Stadium field from upper deck 2015-10-04.jpg|thumb|left|Dodger Stadium, nyumba ya LA Dodgers ya Major League Baseball]] Los Angeles ni msumba waciŵiri mu United States, kweni pakati pa 1995 na 2015 kukaŵavya timu ya NFL. Nyengo yinyake ku Los Angeles kukaŵa magulu ghaŵiri gha NFL: Rams na Raiders. Wose ŵaŵiri ŵakafumako mu msumba uwu mu 1995, ndipo Rams ŵakasamira ku St. Louis, ndipo gulu la Raiders likawelera ku Oakland. Pamanyuma pa vilimika 21 mu St. Louis, pa 12 January, 2016, NFL yalengeza kuti a Rams abwerera ku Los Angeles kwa nyengo ya 2016 NFL ndi masewera ake omwe amasewera ku Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum kwa nyengo zinayi.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.nfl.com/news/story/0ap3000000621645/article/rams-to-relocate-to-la-chargers-first-option-to-join|title=Rams to relocate to L.A.; Chargers first option to join|last=Hanzus|first=Dan|date=January 12, 2016|access-date=January 13, 2016|publisher=National Football League|website=NFL.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.therams.com/news-and-events/article-1/Rams-to-Return-to-Los-Angeles/802b4e16-671e-4864-97b6-943115cdc4cf|title=Rams to Return to Los Angeles|date=January 12, 2016|access-date=January 13, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160120221040/http://www.therams.com/news-and-events/article-1/Rams-to-Return-to-Los-Angeles/802b4e16-671e-4864-97b6-943115cdc4cf|archive-date=January 20, 2016|url-status=dead|publisher=St. Louis Rams}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/sports/wp/2015/01/12/nfl-returns-to-los-angeles-owners-approve-move-by-rams-chargers-with-option-to-join/|title=NFL returns to Los Angeles: Owners approve move by Rams; Chargers with option to join|last=Maske|first=Mark|date=January 12, 2016|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|access-date=January 12, 2016}}</ref> Pamaso pa 1995, a Rams ankasewera masewera awo ku Coliseum kuyambira 1946 mpaka 1979 zomwe zinawapangitsa kukhala gulu loyamba la masewera olimbitsa thupi ku Los Angeles, ndipo kenako anasamukira ku Anaheim Stadium kuyambira 1980 mpaka 1994. San Diego Chargers yalengeza pa 12 January, 2017, kuti iwo nawonso kusamukira ku Los Angeles (woyamba kuyambira nyengo yake yoyamba mu 1960) ndipo kukhala Los Angeles Chargers kuyambira mu 2017 NFL nyengo ndipo ankachita pa Ulemu Health Sports Park mu Carson, California kwa nyengo zitatu. Mu nyengo ya 2020, Rams na Chargers ŵakasamira ku SoFi Stadium iyo yikazengeka waka.<ref>{{cite web|url= https://www.foxbusiness.com/sports/rams-chargers-sofi-stadium-virtual-ceremony-final-cost|title=Rams, Chargers unveil $5 billion SoFi Stadium at virtual ceremony ahead of NFL kickoff|last=Barrabi|first=Thomas|date=September 8, 2020|website=[[Fox Business]]|access-date=September 8, 2020}}</ref> [[File:Crypto.com arena drone shot early 2023.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|Crypto.com Arena, nyumba ya Los Angeles Lakers, Los Angeles Clippers, Los Angeles Kings, na Los Angeles Sparks]] Ku Los Angeles kuli malo ghanandi gha maseŵero, kusazgapo Dodger Stadium, Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum, BMO Stadium na Crypto.com Arena. The Forum, SoFi Stadium, Dignity Health Sports Park, Rose Bowl, Angel Stadium, na Honda Center zili mu misumba ya pafupi na Los Angeles.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.xfl.com/teams/los-angeles|title=XFL.com – Official home of the XFL|website=www.xfl.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.lacoliseum.com/coliseum-history/|title=Los Angeles Coliseum: Coliseum History|website=lacoliseum.com|access-date=July 24, 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://bancofcaliforniastadium.com/about/|title=Banc of California Stadium: Stadium Info|website=bancofcaliforniastadium.com|access-date=July 24, 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cryptoarena.com/arena-info/about-us|title=Crypto.com Arena: About Us|website=cryptoarena.com|access-date=July 24, 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.mlb.com/dodgers/ballpark|title=Dodger Stadium|website=[[Los Angeles Dodgers]]|access-date=July 24, 2022}}</ref> Msumba wa Los Angeles ndiwo ukacitiska maseŵero gha Olimpiki kaŵiri, mu 1932 na mu 1984, ndipo uzamucitiska maseŵero agha kacitatu mu 2028. Los Angeles ni msumba wacitatu ku London (1908, 1948, na 2012) na Paris (1900, 1924, na 2024) kuti kukacitikira maseŵero gha Olimpiki katatu. Apo maseŵero gha Olimpiki ghakacitikanga mu 1932, malo agho kale ghakaŵa 10th Street ghakazgoka Olympic Blvd. Mu 1985 ku Los Angeles kukacitikaso maseŵero ghakucemeka Deaflympics, ndipo mu 2015 kukacitikaso maseŵero ghanyake ghakucemeka Special Olympics World Summer Games.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.specialolympics.org/RegionsPages/content.aspx?id=17736&LangType=1033|title=Los Angeles To Host 2015 Special Olympics World Summer Games|date=September 14, 2011|publisher=[[Special Olympics]]|access-date=February 9, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/07/31/sports/olympics/los-angeles-2028-summer-olympics.html|title=Los Angeles Makes Deal to Host the 2028 Summer Olympics|last1=NAGOURNEY|first1=Adam|date=July 31, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170802233825/https://www.nytimes.com/2017/07/31/sports/olympics/los-angeles-2028-summer-olympics.html|archive-date=August 2, 2017|url-status=live|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|last2=LONGMAN|first2=JERÉ|author-link=Adam Nagourney}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.deaflympics.com/games.asp?1985-s|title=Games – Deaflympics|work=deaflympics.com|access-date=June 29, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180211093131/http://deaflympics.com/games.asp?1985-s|archive-date=February 11, 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref> [[File:LAFC vs Philadelphia Union (2018) by Subashwilfred (20180630233148).jpg|thumb|left|[[BMO Stadium]], nyumba ya [[Los Angeles FC]] ya [[Major League Soccer]]]] 8 NFL Super Bowls nayo yikacitikira mu msumba uwu na vigaŵa vyapafupi- 2 ku Memorial Coliseum (the first Super Bowl, I and VII), 5 ku Rose Bowl mu Pasadena (XI, XIV, XVII, XXI, and XXVII), na 1 ku Inglewood (LVI).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nfl.com/news/los-angeles-to-host-super-bowl-lvi-in-feb-2022-at-sofi-stadium|title=Los Angeles to host Super Bowl LVI in Feb. 2022 at SoFi Stadium|date=February 9, 2021|website=NFL.com|publisher=[[National Football League]]|access-date=October 10, 2021}}</ref> Mu Rose Bowl mukusangikaso maseŵero ghakupambanapambana gha mpira wa koleji ghakucemeka Rose Bowl, agho ghakucitika zuŵa lililose la Caka Ciphya. Mu 1994, ku Los Angeles kukacitikaso maseŵero 8 gha nkhonya ya caru cose mu Rose Bowl, kusazgapo maseŵero ghaumaliro, apo Brazil ndiyo yikawina. Mu Rose Bowl mukaŵaso maseŵero ghanayi mu 1999 pa nkhumano ya caru cose ya FIFA ya ŵanakazi, kusazgapo maseŵero ghaumaliro, apo United States yikathereska China pa penalty. Mu maseŵero agha, Brandi Chastain wakavura shati yake wakati walemba penalty iyo yikapangiska kuti waŵe na nkharo yiwemi. Msumba wa Los Angeles uzamuŵa umoza mwa misumba 11 ya ku United States uko kuzamucitikira maseŵero gha nkhonya ya caru cose ya FIFA ya 2026. Maseŵero agha ghazamucitikira mu Sitediyamu ya SoFi. Los Angeles ni limoza mwa misumba 6 ya ku North America iyo yikamba kuwina nkhonyo mu viphapha vikuruvikuru vyose (MLB, NFL, NHL, NBA na MLS), ndipo yikamalizga mu 2012 apo Kings yikathereska Stanley Cup.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.latimes.com/projects/los-angeles-dodgers-multiple-titles/|title=Only 10 cities have won multiple titles in a year, Los Angeles now tied for the most|last=Mukherjee|first=Rahul|date=October 27, 2020|website=[[Los Angeles Times]]|access-date=October 27, 2020}}</ref> == Boma == {{Main|Government of Los Angeles}} {{See also|Government of Los Angeles County}} [[File:City Hall, LA, CA, jjron 22.03.2012 (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright|Nyumba ya boma ya Los Angeles, iyo yikazengeka mu 1928, ndiyo yili na ofesi ya Meya wa msumba uwu na ya City Council.]] Los Angeles ni msumba uwo uli pasi pa dango la ŵanthu wose, kweni ni msumba uwo uli pasi pa dango la ŵanthu wose yayi. Ndondomeko iyo yilipo sono yikapelekeka pa Juni 8, 1999, ndipo yasinthika kanandi waka.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lacity.org/city-government/city-charter-rules-and-codes|title=Los Angeles, California Code Resources|publisher=American Legal Publishing|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150123035002/http://lacity.org/city-government/city-charter-rules-and-codes|archive-date=January 23, 2015|url-status=dead|access-date=January 23, 2015}}</ref> Boma ilo likusankhika na ŵanthu likupangika na wupu wa boma la Los Angeles City Council na meya wa Los Angeles, awo ŵakugwira ntchito mu boma la meya, kweniso loya wa boma (kuti waleke kupusikika na loya wa chigaŵa, ofesi ya chigaŵa) na mulongozgi wa boma. Meya wa tawuni iyi ni Karen Bass. Pali vigaŵa 15 vya makomiti gha tawuni. Mu msumba uwu muli maofesi ghanandi na maofesala, kusazgapo Dipatimenti ya Polisi ya Los Angeles (LAPD), Los Angeles Board of Police Commissioners, Los Angeles Fire Department (LAFD), Housing Authority of the City of Los Angeles (HACLA), Los Angeles Department of Transportation (LADOT), na Los Angeles Public Library (LAPL).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.lapl.org/|title=Los Angeles Public Library Website|website=[[Los Angeles Public Library]]|access-date=July 24, 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://locator.lacounty.gov/lac/Location/3175767/housing-authority-of-the-city-of-los-angeles|title=Housing Authority of the City of Los Angeles – Services Locator lacounty.gov|website=locator.lacounty.gov|access-date=July 24, 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url= https://www.lapdonline.org/police-commission/|title=Police Commission – LAPD Online|website=lapdonline.org|access-date=July 24, 2022}}</ref> Chikalata cha msumba wa Los Angeles icho chikazomerezgeka na ŵanthu awo ŵakasora mu 1999 chikapangiska kuti paŵe ma komiti agho ghakwimira ŵanthu wose awo ŵakukhala mu muzi uwu, awo ŵakugwira ntchito panji awo ŵali na katundu wawo. Makomiti gha vigaŵa ghakulaŵilira vinthu paŵekha ndipo ghakusankha ŵekha umo ŵacitirenge vinthu, ghakusankha mphaka zawo, ghakupanga malango ghawo, na kusora ŵalaraŵalara ŵawo. Pali makomiti gha vigaŵa pafupifupi 90. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Los Angeles ŵakusora ŵalaŵiliri ŵa vigaŵa 1, 2, 3, na 4. === Federal and state representation === Mu Nyumba ya Malamulo ya California, Los Angeles wali kugaŵikana pakati pa vigaŵa 14. Mu chigaŵa cha California, msumba uwu uli na vigaŵa 8. Mu Nyumba ya Malamulo ya United States, yili na vigaŵa 9.<ref>{{Cite web |title=City of Los Angeles Hub |url=https://geohub.lacity.org/datasets/ab63122b097641d28d70ef434ebdf852/explore?location=34.073608,-118.192183,9.98 |access-date=2023-06-15 |website=geohub.lacity.org |language=en-us}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://wedrawthelines.ca.gov/downloads/meeting_handouts_072011/handouts_20110729_q2_sd_finaldraft_splits.zip|title=Communities of Interest&nbsp;— City|publisher=California Citizens Redistricting Commission|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151023054153/http://wedrawthelines.ca.gov/downloads/meeting_handouts_072011/handouts_20110729_q2_sd_finaldraft_splits.zip|archive-date=October 23, 2015|url-status=dead|access-date=September 28, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://wedrawthelines.ca.gov/downloads/meeting_handouts_072011/handouts_20110729_q2_ad_finaldraft_splits.zip|title=Communities of Interest&nbsp;— City|publisher=California Citizens Redistricting Commission|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151023054757/http://wedrawthelines.ca.gov/downloads/meeting_handouts_072011/handouts_20110729_q2_ad_finaldraft_splits.zip|archive-date=October 23, 2015|url-status=dead|access-date=September 28, 2014}}</ref> == Masambilo == === Colleges and universities === [[File:Powell Library (cropped).JPG|thumb|right|[[University of California, Los Angeles]]]] [[File:Doheny.jpg|thumb|right|[[University of Southern California]]]] [[File:Cal State University, Los Angeles.jpg|right|thumb|[[California State University, Los Angeles]]]] [[File:2 2011-09-29 WarnerBldg Facade SP-Pano1 (cropped).jpg|thumb|right|[[American Film Institute]]]] [[File:Loyola Marymount SunkenGardens SacredHeartChapel (cropped).jpg|thumb|right|[[Loyola Marymount University]]]] [[File:OxyThorne cropped.jpg|thumb|right|[[Occidental College]]]] Pali ma yunivesite ghatatu mu msumba uwu: California State University, Los Angeles (CSULA), California State University, Northridge (CSUN) na University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://alumni.ucla.edu/uclas-story/|title=UCLA's Story|website=UCLA.edu|publisher=[[University of California Los Angeles]]|access-date=August 7, 2017}}</ref> Ma koleji ghapadera mu msumba uwu ni agha: {{colbegin}} * [[AFI Conservatory|American Film Institute Conservatory]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.afi.com/|title=Official website of American Film Institute|website=AFI.com|access-date=August 7, 2017}}</ref> * [[Alliant International University]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.alliant.edu/campus-locations/los-angeles|title=Alliant International University – Los Angeles Campus|website=alliant.edu|access-date=August 7, 2017}}</ref> * [[American Academy of Dramatic Arts]] (Los Angeles Campus)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.aada.edu/campuses/los-angeles-campus-overview/|title=American Academy of Dramatic Arts – Los Angeles Campus Overview|website=aada.edu|access-date=August 7, 2017}}</ref> * [[American Jewish University]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.aju.edu/about-aju|title=American Jewish University – About AJU|website=AJU.edu|access-date=August 7, 2017}}</ref> * [[Abraham Lincoln University]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.alu.edu/about/alu-history/|title=History of ALU|website=ALU.edu|access-date=August 7, 2017}}</ref> * [[American Musical and Dramatic Academy|The American Musical and Dramatic Academy – Los Angeles campus]] * [[Antioch University]]'s Los Angeles campus<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.antioch.edu/los-angeles/|title=Antioch University Los Angeles|website=antioch.edu|date=October 18, 2016 |access-date=August 7, 2017}}</ref> * [[Charles R. Drew University of Medicine and Science]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cdrewu.edu/|title=Charles R. Drew University: homepage|website=cdrewu.edu|access-date=August 7, 2017}}</ref> * [[Colburn School]]<ref>{{cite web|title=Colburn|url=https://www.colburnschool.edu/|access-date=January 22, 2022|website=colburnschool.edu}}</ref> * [[Columbia College Hollywood]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://columbiacollege.edu/|title=Columbia College Hollywood – Explore your dreams|website=Colombiacollege.edu|access-date=August 7, 2017}}</ref> * [[Emerson College]] (Los Angeles Campus)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.emerson.edu/emerson-los-angeles|title=Emerson Los Angeles|website=Emerson.edu|access-date=August 7, 2017}}</ref> * [[Emperor's College]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.emperors.edu/about/|title=Discover Emporor's|website=Emperors.edu|access-date=August 7, 2017}}</ref> * [[Fashion Institute of Design & Merchandising]]'s Los Angeles campus (FIDM) * [[Los Angeles Film School]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.lafilm.edu/|title=The Los Angeles Film School|website=lafilm.edu|access-date=August 7, 2017}}</ref> * [[Loyola Marymount University]] (LMU is also the parent university of [[Loyola Law School]] in Los Angeles)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.lmu.edu/about/history/|title=Loyola Marymount: Our History|website=LMU.edu|access-date=August 7, 2017}}</ref> * [[Mount St. Mary's College]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.msmu.edu/|title=Mount St. Mary's: Fast Facts|website=msmu.edu|access-date=August 7, 2017}}</ref> * [[National University (California)|National University]] of California<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nu.edu/locations/southerncalifornia/losangeles/|title=National University – Los Angeles, California|website=nu.edu|access-date=August 7, 2017}}</ref> * [[Occidental College]] ("Oxy")<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.oxy.edu/about-oxy|title=About Oxy – Occidental College|website=Oxy.edu|access-date=August 7, 2017}}</ref> * [[Otis College of Art and Design]] (Otis)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.otis.edu/|title=Otis College of Art & Design website|website=otis.edu|access-date=August 7, 2017}}</ref> * [[Southern California Institute of Architecture]] (SCI-Arc)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.sciarc.edu/|title=Southern California Institute of Architecture: A School of Architectural Thinking|website=sciarc.edu|access-date=August 7, 2017}}</ref> * [[Southwestern Law School]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.swlaw.edu/about-southwestern/history-southwestern|title=Southwestern Law school – Los Angeles|website=swlaw.edu|access-date=August 7, 2017}}</ref> * [[University of Southern California]] (USC)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://about.usc.edu/|title=About USC|website=USC.edu|publisher=[[University of Southern California]]|access-date=August 7, 2017}}</ref> * [[Woodbury University]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://woodbury.edu/program/school-of-architecture/los-angeles/|title=Los Angeles – Woodbury University|website=woodbury.edu|date=October 14, 2016 |access-date=August 7, 2017}}</ref> {{colend}} Sukulu ya Community College yili na ma campus 9 agho ghakulongozgeka na ma trustees gha Los Angeles Community College District: {{colbegin}} * [[East Los Angeles College]] (ELAC)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.elac.edu/|title=East Los Angeles College|website=elac.edu|access-date=August 7, 2017}}</ref> * [[Los Angeles City College]] (LACC)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.lacitycollege.edu/|title=Los Angeles City College|website=lacitycollege.edu|access-date=August 7, 2017}}</ref> * [[Los Angeles Harbor College]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.lahc.edu/|title=Los Angeles Harbor College|website=lahc.edu|access-date=August 7, 2017}}</ref> * [[Los Angeles Mission College]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lamission.edu/|title=Los Angeles Mission College|website=lamission.edu|access-date=August 7, 2017}}</ref> * [[Los Angeles Pierce College]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.piercecollege.edu/|title=Los Angeles Pierce College|website=Piercecollege.edu|access-date=August 7, 2017}}</ref> * [[Los Angeles Valley College]] (LAVC)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.lavc.edu/|title=Los Angeles Valley College|website=lavc.edu|access-date=August 7, 2017}}</ref> * [[Los Angeles Southwest College]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.lasc.edu/|title=L.A. Southwest College|website=lasc.edu|access-date=August 7, 2017}}</ref> * [[Los Angeles Trade-Technical College]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lattc.edu/|title=Los Angeles Trade-Technical College|website=lattc.edu|access-date=August 7, 2017}}</ref> * [[West Los Angeles College]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wlac.edu/|title=West Los Angeles College homepage|website=wlac.edu|access-date=August 7, 2017}}</ref> {{colend}} Pali makoleji na mayunivesite ghanandi agho ghakusangika kuwaro kwa msumba wa Greater Los Angeles, kusazgapo Claremont Colleges consortium, iyo yikusazgapo makoleji agho ghakusankha makoleji agho ghakusambizga vya maluso ku U.S., na California Institute of Technology (Caltech), yimoza ya mabungwe agho ghakusambizga vya STEM pa charu chose. ===Sukulu=== {{See also|Los Angeles County, California#Education|List of high schools in Los Angeles County, California}}Sukulu ya Los Angeles Unified School District yikusambizga ŵana ŵa sukulu pafupifupi 800,000 mu msumba wa Los Angeles na mu vigaŵa vinyake. Pamasinda pakuti pulogiramu ya Proposition 13 ya mu 1978 yazomerezgeka, masukulu gha mu matawuni ghakaŵa na suzgo la ndalama. LAUSD yikumanyikwa na masukulu agho ghali na ndalama zinandi yayi, ghakuzura na ŵanthu kweniso ghakupwelelereka makora yayi, nangauli masukulu 162 agho ghakusangika mu Magnet Schools ghakukolerana na masukulu ghapadera. Vigaŵa vichoko waka vya Los Angeles vili mu Inglewood Unified School District, na Las Virgenes Unified School District. Ofesi ya Maphunziro ya Los Angeles County ikugwira ntchito ya Los Angeles County High School for the Arts.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www2.census.gov/geo/maps/DC2020/PL20/st06_ca/schooldistrict_maps/c06037_los_angeles/DC20SD_C06037.pdf|title=2020 census – school district reference map: Los Angeles County, CA|publisher=[[U.S. Census Bureau]]|accessdate=January 8, 2021|page=6/19}} – [https://web.archive.org/web/20220509050503/https://www.lacoe.edu/Portals/0/BusinessServices/Business/County%20Committee/Las%20Virgenes%20USD.pdf?ver=2016-08-01-154827-037 See map of Las Virgenes USD], [https://planning.lacity.org/odocument/0541e9db-ddb3-4279-a1d8-a271048fcc9d See map of Los Angeles city boundary]</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www2.census.gov/geo/maps/DC2020/PL20/st06_ca/schooldistrict_maps/c06037_los_angeles/DC20SD_C06037.pdf|title=2020 census – school district reference map: Los Angeles County, CA|publisher=[[U.S. Census Bureau]]|accessdate=January 8, 2021|page=11/19}} – [https://web.archive.org/web/20220509050503/https://www.lacoe.edu/Portals/0/BusinessServices/Business/County%20Committee/Inglewood%20USD.pdf?ver=2019-04-01-135454-273 See map of Inglewood USD], [https://planning.lacity.org/odocument/0541e9db-ddb3-4279-a1d8-a271048fcc9d See map of Los Angeles city boundary]</ref> == Wayilesi == {{Main|Media in Los Angeles}} {{See also|List of television shows set in Los Angeles|List of films set in Los Angeles}} [[File:Hollywood Sign (Zuschnitt).jpg|thumb|left|The [[Hollywood Sign]] is a prominent symbol of the [[American film industry]].]] Chigawo cha Los Angeles ndi chigawo chachiwiri cha msika waukulu kwambiri ku US (pambuyo pa New York) ndi nyumba 5,431,140 (4,956% ya US), yomwe imagwiritsidwa ntchito ndi ma wailesi osiyanasiyana a AM ndi FM ndi ma TV. Los Angeles na New York City ni vyaru viŵiri pera ivyo vili na VHF 7.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.museum.tv/archives/etv/A/htmlA/allocation/allocation.htm|title=Allocation|publisher=[[Museum of Broadcast Communications]]|access-date=October 20, 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130829172310/http://www.museum.tv/archives/etv/A/htmlA/allocation/allocation.htm|archive-date=August 29, 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref> Nyuzipepara yikuru ya mu ciyowoyero ca Cingelezi iyo yikufuma zuŵa lililose mu cigaŵa ici ni Los Angeles Times.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.latimes.com/about|title=About the Los Angeles Times|website=[[Los Angeles Times]]|access-date=July 25, 2022}}</ref> La Opinión ni nyuzipepara yikuru ya Cisipanishi ya mu msumba uwu.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://laopinion.com/|title=LA Opinión website|website=laopinion.com|access-date=July 25, 2022}}</ref> The Korea Times ni nyuzipepara yikuru ya mu chiyowoyero cha ku Korea, ndipo The World Journal ni nyuzipepara yikuru ya chiyowoyero cha ku China. Nyuzipepara ya Los Angeles Sentinel ni nyuzipepara yikuru ya mu msumba uwu iyo yikulembeka na ŵanthu ŵa ku America.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://lasentinel.net/about|title=About Us: Los Angeles Sentinel|website=lasentinel.net|access-date=July 25, 2022}}</ref> Magazini ya Investor's Business Daily yikufuma ku maofesi agho ghali ku Los Angeles, ku Playa del Rey.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.investors.com/|title=Investors Business Daily: Stock News and Stock Market Analysis|website=investors.com|access-date=July 26, 2022}}</ref> [[File:LA Times building.jpg|thumb|right|The former ''[[Los Angeles Times|LA Times]]'' headquarters]] Ma TV ghanayi ghakurughakuru, pamoza na Telemundo na Univision, nawo ŵali na masiteshoni agho ghakupharazga ku Los Angeles na ku West Coast: KABC-TV ya ABC (Channel 7), KCBS-TV ya CBS (Channel 2), KTTV-TV ya Fox (Channel 11), KNBC-TV ya NBC (Channel 4), KCOP-TV ya MyNetworkTV (Channel 13), KEAV-TV ya Telemundo (Channel 52), na KMEX-TV ya Univision (Channel 34). Chigawochi chili ndi masiteshoni anayi a PBS, pomwe KCET, idalumikizananso ndi netiweki ngati wachiwiri wachiwiri mu Ogasiti 2019, atakhala zaka zisanu ndi zitatu zapitazi ngati wailesi yakanema yayikulu kwambiri mdzikolo. KTBN (Channel 40) ni wayilesi yakumanyikwa ya Trinity Broadcasting Network, iyo yili ku Santa Ana. Vipharazgo vinandi vya pa TV, nga ni KCAL-TV (Channel 9) na KTLA-TV (Channel 5), vikuyowoyeka mu chigaŵa ichi.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nbclosangeles.com/|title=NBC Los Angeles|website=nbclosangeles.com|access-date=July 24, 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://abc7.com/|title=Los Angeles and Southern California News, Weather, Sports|website=abc7.com|access-date=July 24, 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.foxla.com/|title=FOX 11 Los Angeles|website=foxla.com|access-date=July 24, 2022}}</ref> [[File:Paramountpicturesmelrosegate (cropped).jpg|thumb|left|[[Paramount Pictures]] Studios]] Paliso manyuzipepara ghanyake ghacoko gha ku malo agha, nga ni Los Angeles Register, Los Angeles Community News, Los Angeles Daily News, LA Weekly, L.A. Mu magazini iyi muli nkhani za ku Greater Los Angeles, Los Angeles Magazine, Los Angeles Business Journal, Los Angeles Daily Journal, The Hollywood Reporter, Variety, na Los Angeles Downtown News.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.ladowntownnews.com/site/about.html|title=Los Angeles Downtown News – History|website=ladowntownnews.com|access-date=July 25, 2022|archive-date=July 6, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220706223303/http://www.ladowntownnews.com/site/about.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> Padera pa manyuzipepara ghakurughakuru, pali manyuzipepara ghanandi agho ghakulembeka mu viyowoyero ivyo ŵanthu ŵakufuma mu vyaru vinyake ŵakuyowoya, nga ni Ciarmenia, Cingelezi, Cikoreya, Ciperesiya, Cirussia, Cichayina, Cijapani, Cihebere, na Ciarabu. Misumba yinandi iyo yili pafupi na Los Angeles yili na manyuzipepara agho ghakulembeka zuŵa lililose. Mwaciyelezgero, magazini ya The Daily Breeze (iyo yikupharazga ku South Bay), na The Long Beach Press-Telegram. Nkhani za luso, chikhalidwe ndi moyo wausiku ku Los Angeles zikufotokozedwanso ndi owongolera angapo am'deralo ndi mayiko, kuphatikiza Time Out Los Angeles, Thrillist, Kristin's List, DailyCandy, Diversity News Magazine, LAist, ndi Flavorpill.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://beta.flavorpill.com/losangeles|title=Flavorpill|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130207012702/http://beta.flavorpill.com/losangeles|archive-date=February 7, 2013|url-status=dead|access-date=September 1, 2015}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://laist.com/about-us|title=Welcome to LAist: About Us|website=last.com|access-date=July 25, 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.timeout.com/los-angeles|title=Time Out Los Angeles: The L.A. guide for things to do, restaurants, bars, movies, shopping, events and more|website=timeout.com|access-date=July 25, 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thrillist.com/|title=Thrillist Official website|website=thrillist.com|access-date=July 25, 2022}}</ref> ==Infrastructure== === Transportation === {{Main|Transportation in Los Angeles}} ==== Freeways ==== {{Main|Southern California freeways}} [[File:Los Angeles - Echangeur autoroute 110 105 (cropped).JPG|thumb|[[Judge Harry Pregerson Interchange]], connecting the [[Interstate 105 (California)|Century Freeway (I-105)]] and the [[Interstate 110 and State Route 110 (California)|Harbor Freeway (I-110)]] in [[South Los Angeles|South LA]].]] Msumba uwu na vigaŵa vinyake vya mu msumba wa Los Angeles vili na misewu yinandi. Lipoti la Texas Transportation Institute la Urban Mobility Report likati mu 2019 misewu ya ku Los Angeles ndiyo yikaŵa yakusuzga chomene ku United States.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://static.tti.tamu.edu/tti.tamu.edu/documents/mobility-report-2021.pdf|title=2021 Urban Mobility Report|publisher=Texas Transportation Institute|date=June 2021|access-date=April 22, 2022}}</ref> Kufuma pa malo agha pakaŵa ku San Francisco/Oakland, Washington, D.C., na Miami. Nangauli mu msumba uwu muli magalimoto ghanandi, kweni ŵanthu awo ŵakwenda mu msumba wa Los Angeles ŵakwenda nyengo yifupi kuluska awo ŵakwenda mu misumba yinyake yikuruyikuru nga ni New York City, Philadelphia, na Chicago. Ku Los Angeles, pa avereji, munthu wakendanga maminiti 29.2 kuti wakafike ku nchito, ndipo nyengo iyi yikuyana waka na ya ku San Francisco na Washington, D.C.<ref name="ACS2006">{{cite web|url=http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/DCGeoSelectServlet?ds_name=ACS_2006_EST_G00_|title=American Community Survey 2006, Table S0802|publisher=[[United States Census Bureau]]|access-date=July 11, 2010|archive-date=September 16, 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080916055045/http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/DCGeoSelectServlet?ds_name=ACS_2006_EST_G00_|url-status=dead}}{{dead link|date=June 2022|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}https://www.census.gov/programs-surveys/acs/</ref> Misewu yikuru iyo yikusazga LA na vyaru vinyake ni Interstate 5, iyo yikwenda kumwera kufuma ku San Diego kuya ku Tijuana ku Mexico na kumpoto kufuma ku Sacramento, Portland, na Seattle kuya ku mphaka ya Canada na US; Interstate 10, iyo yili kumwera chomene kumafumiro gha dazi kuya kumanjiliro gha dazi, ndipo yikwenda kufuma ku mphepete ya nyanja kukafika ku Jacksonville, Florida; na U.S. Nthowa ya 101, iyo yikuluta ku California Central Coast, San Francisco, ku Redwood Empire, na ku Oregon na Washington. ==== Public transit ==== {{Main|Los Angeles County Metropolitan Transportation Authority}} [[File:Metrogoldlinemem.jpg|thumb|left|Sitima ya Los Angeles Metro Rail imagwira ntchito ndi LACMTA.]] Ku Los Angeles County Metropolitan Transportation Authority (LA County Metro) na mabungwe ghanyake ghakupambanapambana ghakwendeska magalimoto gha pa msewu, kweniso magalimoto gha pasi pa mtunda na magalimoto gha pa njanji mu chigaŵa chose cha Los Angeles, ndipo mwezi uliwose ŵanthu ŵakukwana 38.8 miliyoni ŵakukwera magalimoto agha. Pa ŵanthu aŵa, ŵanandi (30.5 miliyoni) ŵakwenda pa mabasi gha mu msumba uwu, agho ni ghaciŵiri pa mabasi ghose mu caru ici. Mwezi uliwose, ŵanthu pafupifupi 8.2 miliyoni ŵakakweranga sitima ya pasi pa mtunda. Mu chaka cha 2017, ŵanthu ŵakukwana 397 miliyoni ŵakakwera mabasi, ndipo ŵanthu pafupifupi 285 miliyoni ŵakakwera mabasi ndipo ŵanthu pafupifupi 113 miliyoni ŵakakwera njanji. Mu chigaŵa chakwamba cha chaka cha 2018, ŵanthu ŵakukwana 95 miliyoni ŵakakwera sitima, ndipo mu chigaŵa ichi ŵanthu ŵakukwana 98 miliyoni ŵakakwera sitima mu chaka cha 2017, ndipo mu chigaŵa ichi ŵanthu ŵakukwana 105 miliyoni ŵakakwera sitima mu chaka cha 2016. Mu 2005, ŵanthu 10.2% mu msumba wa Los Angeles ŵakendanga na magalimoto. Malinga ndi kafukufuku wa American Community Survey wa 2016, 9.2% ya ogwira ntchito ku Los Angeles (mzinda) adapita kuntchito pogwiritsa ntchito zoyendera pagulu.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://censusreporter.org/data/table/?table=B08101&geo_ids=16000US0644000&primary_geo_id=16000US0644000|title=Means of Transportation to Work by Age|publisher=Census Reporter|access-date=May 6, 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://money.cnn.com/2007/06/13/real_estate/public_transit_commutes/index.htm|title=New Yorkers are Top Transit Users|last=Christie|first=Les|date=June 29, 2007|access-date=October 24, 2011|publisher=CNN}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://isotp.metro.net/MetroRidership/Index.aspx|title=Interactive Estimated Ridership Stats: Calendar Year, 2017|publisher=Los Angeles County Metro Transit Authority|access-date=May 6, 2018}}</ref><ref name="metro">{{cite web|url=http://www.metro.net/news/pages/ridership-statistics/|title=Ridership Statistics|publisher=[[Los Angeles County Metropolitan Transportation Authority]]|access-date=October 24, 2011|archive-date=November 1, 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111101115617/http://www.metro.net/news/pages/ridership-statistics/|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="metro" /><ref>{{cite web|url=http://isotp.metro.net/MetroRidership/YearOverYear.aspx|title=Interactive Estimated Ridership Stats: Year over Year, 2018|publisher=Los Angeles County Metro Transit Authority|access-date=May 6, 2018}}</ref> [[File:Los Angeles Union Station 22.jpg|thumb|right|Siteshoni ya Union Station yikusangika na Amtrak California, Metrolink, na Metro Rail.]] Msewu wa pasi pa mtunda uwo ukujumpha mu msumba uwu, ndiwo uli pa nambara 9 pa misewu yinandi iyo yikujumpha mu United States.<ref name="APTA">{{cite web|url=http://www.apta.com/resources/statistics/Documents/Ridership/2011_q1_ridership_APTA.pdf|title=Public Transit Ridership Report|year=2011|publisher=[[American Public Transportation Association]]|access-date=October 24, 2011}}</ref> Msewu uwu uli na misewu ya B na D, kweniso misewu ya A, C, E, na K. Mu 2016, E Line yikafika ku Pacific Ocean pa Santa Monica. Msewu wa Metro G na J ni misewu ya mabasi agho ghakwenda mwaluŵiro. Kuzakafika mu 2022, masiteshoni gha sitima ya light rail ghazamuŵa 99. Msumba uwu uli na njanji iyo yikufuma ku Los Angeles kuluta ku vigaŵa vyapafupi.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://metrolinktrains.com/|title=Welcome to Metrolink|website=metrolinktrains.com|access-date=July 25, 2022}}</ref> Padera pa masitima agho ghakupelekeka na Metrolink na Los Angeles County Metropolitan Transportation Authority, ku Los Angeles kukwendekaso sitima za Amtrak. Siteshoni ya njanji yikuru mu msumba uwu ni Union Station kumpoto kwa Downtown. Kweniso, tawuni iyi yikupanga mabasi gha pa tawuni iyi na gha ku malo ghanyake kwizira mu dipatimenti yakuwona vya mendero ya ku Los Angeles, panji kuti LADOT. ==== Airports ==== {{Main|List of airports in the Los Angeles area}} [[File:TheThemeBuildingLosAngeles (cropped2).jpg|thumb|right|Los Angeles Intl. Ndege ya LAX ndiyo yili na ŵanthu ŵanandi comene pa caru cose capasi.]] Ndege yikuru ya pa charu chose na ya pa charu chapasi iyo yikulongozgera ku Los Angeles ni Ndege ya pa charu cose ya Los Angeles (IATA: LAX, ICAO: KLAX), iyo yikumanyikwa na code ya pa ndege iyi, '''LAX'''.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.flylax.com/|title=Office website of the Los Angeles International Airport|website=flylax.com|access-date=July 24, 2022}}</ref> Malo agha ghali ku Westside ku Los Angeles pafupi na Sofi Stadium ku Inglewood. Pali viŵanja vikuru-vikuru vya ndege ivyo vili pafupi na malo agha: * {{airport codes|ONT|KONT}} [[Ontario International Airport]], owned by the city of Ontario, CA; serves the Inland Empire.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.flyontario.com/corporate/airport-information|title=Airport Information|website=[[Ontario International Airport]]|access-date=July 25, 2022}}</ref> * {{airport codes|BUR|KBUR}} [[Hollywood Burbank Airport]], jointly owned by the cities of Burbank, Glendale, and Pasadena. Formerly known as Bob Hope Airport and Burbank Airport, the closest airport to Downtown Los Angeles serves the San Fernando, San Gabriel, and Antelope Valleys.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.hollywoodburbankairport.com/about-us/history_facts/|title=History & Facts of Burbank Airport|website=[[Hollywood Burbank Airport]]|access-date=July 25, 2022}}</ref> * {{airport codes|LGB|KLGB}} [[Long Beach Airport]], serves the Long Beach/Harbor area.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.longbeach.gov/lgb/about-us/|title=Long Beach Airport Directory|website=[[Long Beach Airport]]|access-date=July 25, 2022}}</ref> * {{airport codes|SNA|KSNA}} [[John Wayne Airport]] of Orange County. Limoza mwa ma eyapoti ghakurughakuru chomene pa charu chose ghakusangika ku Los Angeles: Van Nuys Airport {{airport codes|VNY|KVNY}}.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lawa.org/welcome_VNY.aspx?id=92|title=Van Nuys Airport General Description|publisher=[[Los Angeles World Airports]]|access-date=October 25, 2011}}</ref> ==== Seaports ==== [[File:Vincent Thomas bridge.San Pedro.JPG|thumb|left|Mlatho wa Vincent Thomas pa Terminal Island mu Port of Los Angeles]] Mzinda wa Port of Los Angeles uli ku San Pedro Bay mu chigaŵa cha San Pedro, pafupifupi makilomita 20 kumwera kwa Downtown. Mumphepete mwa nyanja iyi muli malo ghakurughakuru agho ghakukwana makilomita 69. Mumphepete mwa nyanja iyi muli nyanja yinyake yakuchemeka Long Beach.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.portoflosangeles.org/|title=Port of Los Angeles, the nations #1 container port and global model for sustainability, security, and social responsibility|website=[[Port of Los Angeles]]|access-date=July 25, 2022}}</ref> Maboti gha ku Port of Los Angeles na Port of Long Beach pamoza ghakupanga Los Angeles/Long Beach Harbor.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mxsocal.org/pdffiles/108th%20HSC%20Mtg%20Apr%205%202006.pdf|title=Los Angeles/Long Beach Harbor Safety Committee|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061008141319/http://www.mxsocal.org/pdffiles/108th%20HSC%20Mtg%20Apr%205%202006.pdf|archive-date=October 8, 2006|url-status=dead|access-date=March 16, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.harboremployers.com/web/|title=Los Angeles/Long Beach Harbor Employers Association|publisher=Harboremployers.com|access-date=March 16, 2011}}</ref> Madowoko ghaŵiri agha ngakwamba pa madoko ghose gha vyamuminda pa charu chose chapasi, ndipo mu 2008 ghakatumizganga vyamuminda vyakujumpha 14.2 miliyoni.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://aapa.files.cms-plus.com/Statistics/WORLD%20PORT%20RANKINGS%2020081.pdf|title=AAPA World Port Rankings 2008|access-date=March 16, 2011}}</ref> Port of Los Angeles ndiyo yili na ma container ghanandi chomene ku United States ndipo ndiyo yili na ma cruise ghanandi chomene pa West Coast ya United States -  The Port of Los Angeles's World Cruise Center yikawovwira ŵanthu pafupifupi 590,000 mu 2014.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.portoflosangeles.org/facilities/passenger.asp|title=Cruise Passenger and Ferry Terminals|publisher=[[Port of Los Angeles]]|access-date=January 14, 2015}}</ref> Paliso madoko ghanyake agho ghakukhala ŵanthu ŵanandi agho ghali mumphepete mwa nyanja ya Los Angeles. Mumphepete mwa nyanja iyi muli maboti ghanayi: Vincent Thomas Bridge, Henry Ford Bridge, Long Beach International Gateway Bridge, na Commodore Schuyler F. Mlatho wa Heim. Sitima ya Catalina Express ndiyo yikwenda kufuma ku San Pedro kuya ku Avalon (na Two Harbors) pa Santa Catalina Island. == Ŵanthu ŵakumanyikwa == {{Main|List of people from Los Angeles}} ==Misumba yakuyana mazina== [[File:Sister cities of Los Angeles.jpg|alt=|thumb|A sign near [[Los Angeles City Hall|LA City Hall]] displaying Los Angeles' sister cities.]] <!-- *** IMPORTANT *** * Please do not add or remove sister cities unless you provide a reliable * * source. This list is verified by http://sistercities.lacity.org/, * * which lists 25 sister cities. If you make changes to this list without * * citing a source, your edits will be reverted. * --> Los Angeles has 25 [[sister cities]],<ref name="Sistercities">{{cite web|url=http://sistercities.lacity.org/|title=Sister Cities of Los Angeles|publisher=[[Government of Los Angeles|Sister Cities Los Angeles]]|access-date=February 25, 2019}}</ref> listed chronologically by year joined: {{Colbegin}} * {{flagdeco|ISR}} [[Eilat]], Israel (1959) * {{flagdeco|JPN}} [[Nagoya]], Japan (1959) * {{flagdeco|BRA}} [[Salvador, Bahia|Salvador]], Brazil (1962) * {{flagdeco|FRA}} [[Bordeaux]], France (1964)<ref name="Bordeaux twinnings">{{cite web | url=http://www.bordeaux.fr/p63778/europe%C2%A0et%C2%A0international | title=Bordeaux– Rayonnement européen et mondial | work=Mairie de Bordeaux | access-date=July 29, 2013 | language=fr |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130207154903/http://www.bordeaux.fr/p63778/europe%C2%A0et%C2%A0international | archive-date=February 7, 2013}}</ref><ref name="Bordeaux twinnings 2">{{cite web | url=http://www.cncd.fr/frontoffice/bdd-recherche-resultat.asp?searchField=bordeaux&x=36&y=14 | title=Bordeaux-Atlas français de la coopération décentralisée et des autres actions extérieures | work=Délégation pour l'Action Extérieure des Collectivités Territoriales (Ministère des Affaires étrangères) | access-date=July 29, 2013 | language=fr |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130207152951/http://www.cncd.fr/frontoffice/bdd-recherche-resultat.asp?searchField=bordeaux&x=36&y=14 | archive-date=February 7, 2013}}</ref> * {{flagdeco|DEU}} [[Berlin]], Germany (1967)<ref name="Berlin twinnings">{{cite web | url=http://www.berlin.de/rbmskzl/staedteverbindungen/staedtepartnerschaft_ueberblick.en.html | title=Berlin City Partnerships | work=Der Regierende Bürgermeister Berlin | access-date=September 17, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130521054019/http://www.berlin.de/rbmskzl/staedteverbindungen/staedtepartnerschaft_ueberblick.en.html | archive-date=May 21, 2013}}</ref> * {{flagdeco|ZMB}} [[Lusaka]], Zambia (1968) * {{flagdeco|MEX}} [[Mexico City]], Mexico (1969) * {{flagdeco|NZL}} [[Auckland]], New Zealand (1971) * {{flagdeco|ROK}} [[Busan]], South Korea (1971) * {{flagdeco|IND}} [[Mumbai]], India (1972) * {{flagdeco|IRN}} [[Tehran]], Iran (1972) * {{flagdeco|ROC}} [[Taipei]], Taiwan (1979) * {{flagdeco|PRC}} [[Guangzhou]], China (1981)<ref name="Guangzhou twinnings">{{cite web | url=http://www.gzwaishi.gov.cn/Category_121/Index.aspx | title=Guangzhou Sister Cities | publisher=Guangzhou Foreign Affairs Office | access-date=July 21, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121024091437/http://www.gzwaishi.gov.cn/Category_121/Index.aspx | archive-date=October 24, 2012}}</ref> * {{flagdeco|GRC}} [[Athens]], Greece (1984) * {{flagdeco|RUS}} [[Saint Petersburg]], Russia (1984) * {{flagdeco|CAN}} [[Vancouver]], Canada (1986)<ref name="Vancouver">{{cite web | url=http://vancouver.ca/ctyclerk/cclerk/20080311/documents/a14.pdf | title=Vancouver Twinning Relationships | publisher=City of Vancouver | access-date=December 5, 2009 }}</ref> * {{flagdeco|EGY}} [[Giza]], Egypt (1989) * {{flagdeco|IDN}} [[Jakarta]], Indonesia (1990) * {{flagdeco|LTU}} [[Kaunas]], Lithuania (1991) * {{flagdeco|PHL}} [[Makati]], Philippines (1992) * {{flagdeco|CRO}} [[Split, Croatia]] (1993)<ref name="Split twinnings">{{cite web | url=http://www.split.hr/Default.aspx?sec=526 | title=Gradovi prijatelji Splita |trans-title=Split Twin Towns | work=Grad Split [Split Official City Website] | access-date=December 19, 2013 | language=hr |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120324035937/http://www.split.hr/Default.aspx?sec=526 | archive-date=March 24, 2012}}</ref> * {{flagdeco|SLV}} [[San Salvador]], El Salvador (2005) * {{flagdeco|LBN}} [[Beirut]], Lebanon (2006) * {{flagdeco|ITA}} [[Ischia, Campania]], Italy (2006) * {{flagdeco|ARM}} [[Yerevan]], Armenia (2007)<ref name="Yerevan twinnings 2">{{cite web | url=http://www.yerevan.am/en/partner/sister-cities/ | title=Yerevan Twin Towns & Sister Cities | work=Yerevan Municipality Official Website | access-date=November 4, 2013}}</ref> {{Colend}} In addition, Los Angeles has the following "friendship cities": * {{flagdeco|POL}} [[Łódź]], Poland * {{flagicon|AUS}} City of [[Melbourne]], Australia * {{flagdeco|UK}} [[Manchester]], United Kingdom<ref name="Manchester">{{cite web|url=http://www.manchestereveningnews.co.uk/news/greater-manchester-news/twinning-link-with-la-925445|title=Twinning link with LA|date=July 27, 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130731001604/http://www.manchestereveningnews.co.uk/news/greater-manchester-news/twinning-link-with-la-925445|archive-date=July 31, 2013|url-status=dead|access-date=July 28, 2009|newspaper=[[Manchester Evening News]]}}</ref> * {{flagdeco|ISR}} [[Tel Aviv]], Israel<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jewishla.org/Tel_Aviv_LA_Partnership.cfm|title=Tel Aviv/Los Angeles Partnership|year=2007|publisher=The Jewish Federation of Greater Los Angeles|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080623075353/http://www.jewishla.org/Tel_Aviv_LA_Partnership.cfm|archive-date=June 23, 2008|access-date=August 7, 2008}}</ref> == Wonaniso == {{colbegin}} * [[Largest cities in Southern California]] * [[Largest cities in the Americas]] * [[List of hotels in Los Angeles]] * [[List of largest houses in the Los Angeles Metropolitan Area]] * [[List of museums in Los Angeles]] * [[List of museums in Los Angeles County, California]] * [[List of music venues in Los Angeles]] * [[List of people from Los Angeles]] * [[List of tallest buildings in Los Angeles]] * [[National Register of Historic Places listings in Los Angeles, California]] * [[USS Los Angeles|USS ''Los Angeles'']], 4 ships (including 1 airship) {{colend}} == Ukaboni == {{reflist}} == Vyakulemba vinyake == {{See also|Bibliography of Los Angeles}} === General === * Holli, Melvin G., and Jones, Peter d'A., eds. ''Biographical Dictionary of American Mayors, 1820-1980'' (Greenwood Press, 1981) short scholarly biographies each of the city's mayors 1820 to 1980. [https://archive.org/details/biographicaldict0000unse_r8s1 online]; see index at p.&nbsp;409 for list. * {{cite book|title=Southern California: An Island on the Land|author=Carey McWilliams|publisher=Peregrine Smith|year=2009|isbn=978-0-87905-007-8|edition=9th|author-link=Carey McWilliams (journalist)|url=https://archive.org/details/southerncaliforn00mcwi}} * {{cite book|title=It's Your Misfortune and None of My Own: A New History of the American West|title-link=It's Your Misfortune and None of My Own|author=Richard White|publisher=University of Oklahoma Press|year=1991|isbn=978-0-8061-2567-1|author-link=Richard White (historian)}} * {{cite book|title=Los Angeles: Capital of the Third World|url=https://archive.org/details/losangelescapita0000rief|author=David Rieff|publisher=Touchstone|year=1992|isbn=978-0-671-79210-7|author-link=David Rieff}} * {{cite book|title=Translating LA: A Tour of the Rainbow City|author=Peter Theroux|publisher=Norton|year=1994|isbn=978-0-393-31394-9|author-link=Peter Theroux|url=https://archive.org/details/translatingla00pete}} * {{cite book|title=Los Angeles: A History of the Future|author=Paul Glover|publisher=Greenplanners|year=1995|isbn=978-0-9622911-0-4|author-link=Paul Glover (activist)}} * {{cite book|title=Los Angeles A to Z: An Encyclopedia of the City and County|author=Leonard Pitt & Dale Pitt|publisher=University of California Press|year=2000|isbn=978-0-520-20530-7|place=Berkeley}} * {{cite book|title=Los Angeles: Portrait of a City|author=[[Kevin Starr]] and David Ulin|publisher=[[Taschen]] America|year=2009|isbn=978-3-8365-0291-7|editor=Jim Heimann|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/losangelesportra0000unse}} === Architecture and urban theory === * {{cite book|title=Los Angeles: The Architecture of Four Ecologies|url=https://archive.org/details/losangelesarchit0000banh|author=Reyner Banham|publisher=[[University of California Press]]|year=2009|isbn=978-0-520-26015-3|edition=2nd|place=Berkeley|author-link=Reyner Banham}} * {{cite book|title=City of Quartz: Excavating the Future in Los Angeles|title-link=City of Quartz|author=Mike Davis|publisher=Verso|year=2006|isbn=978-1-84467-568-5|author-link=Mike Davis (scholar)}} * {{cite book |title=The Fragmented Metropolis: Los Angeles 1850–1930 |url=https://archive.org/details/fragmentedmetrop0000foge_l1o1 |author=[[Robert M. Fogelson]] |publisher=University of California Press |year=1993 |isbn=978-0-520-08230-4 |place=Berkeley}} * {{cite book|title=The History of Forgetting: Los Angeles and the Erasure of Memory|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofforgett0000klei|author=Norman M. Klein|publisher=Verso|year=1997|isbn=978-1-84467-242-4}} * {{cite book|title=L.A. Lost & Found: An Architectural History of Los Angeles|author=Sam Hall Kaplan|publisher=Hennessey and Ingalls|year=2000|isbn=978-0-940512-23-8}} * {{cite book|title=Overdrive: L.A. Constructs the Future, 1940–1990|url=https://archive.org/details/overdrivelaconst0000unse|author=Wim de Wit and Christopher James Alexander|publisher=Getty Publications|year=2013|isbn=978-1-60606-128-2}} === Race relations === * {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0lQXqQPNOUcC|title=Anything but Mexican: Chicanos in contemporary Los Angeles|last=Acuña|first=Rodolfo|publisher=Verso|year=1996|isbn=978-1-85984-031-3|author-link=Rodolfo Acuña|access-date=September 30, 2011}} * {{cite book|title=No Crystal Stair: African Americans in the City of Angels|url=https://archive.org/details/nocrystalstairaf0000geor|last=George|first=Lynell|publisher=Verso|year=1992|isbn=978-0-86091-389-4}} * {{cite book|title=L.A. City Limits: African American Los Angeles from the Great Depression to the Present|last=Sides|first=Josh|publisher=University of California Press|year=2006|isbn=978-0-520-24830-4|place=Berkeley}} * {{cite book|title=Murder at the Sleepy Lagoon: Zoot Suits, Race, and Riot in Wartime L.A.|url=https://archive.org/details/murderatsleepyla0000paga|author=Eduardo Obregón Pagán|publisher=The University of North Carolina Press|year=2006|isbn=978-0-8078-5494-5}} * {{cite book|title=The Great Black Way: L.A. in the 1940s and the Last African American Renaissance|url=https://archive.org/details/greatblackwayla00smit|url-access=registration|author=R. J. Smith|publisher=PublicAffairs|year=2007|isbn=978-1-58648-521-4}} === LGBT === * {{cite book|title=Gay L. A.: A History of Sexual Outlaws, Power Politics, And Lipstick Lesbians|author=[[Lillian Faderman]] and Stuart Timmons|publisher=Basic Books|year=2006|isbn=978-0-465-02288-5|url=https://archive.org/details/gaylahistoryofse00lill}} * {{cite book|title=Bohemian Los Angeles: and the Making of Modern Politics|last=Hurewitz|first=Daniel|publisher=University of California Press|year=2007|isbn=978-0-520-24925-7|place=Berkeley|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/bohemianlosangel0000hure}} === Environment === * {{cite book|title=Cadillac Desert: The American West and its Disappearing Water|title-link=Cadillac Desert|author=Marc Reisner|publisher=[[Penguin Books]]|year=1986|isbn=978-0-14-017824-1|author-link=Marc Reisner}} * {{cite book|title=Smogtown: The Lung-Burning History of Pollution in Los Angeles|author=Chip Jacobs and William Kelly|publisher=Outlook Hardcover|year=2008|isbn=978-1-58567-860-0|url=https://archive.org/details/smogtownlungburn00jaco}} === Social movements === * {{cite book|title=Set the Night on Fire: L.A. in the Sixties|author=Mike Davis and Jon Wiener|publisher=Verso|year=2020|isbn=978-1-78478-024-1}} === Art and literature === * {{cite book|title=Writing Los Angeles: A Literary Anthology|publisher=[[Library of America]]|year=2002|isbn=978-1-931082-27-3|editor=David L. Ulin|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/writinglosangele0000unse}} * {{cite book|title=Pop L.A.: Art and the City in the 1960s|last=Whiting|first=Cécile|publisher=University of California Press|year=2008|isbn=978-0-520-25634-7|place=Berkeley}} == Vigaŵa vya kuwalo == {{Sister project links|voy=Los Angeles|collapsible=true}} <!-- *********************** ({{No More Links}}) *************************** * Please be cautious in adding more links to this article. Wikipedia * * is not a collection of links nor should it be used for advertising. * * * * Excessive or inappropriate links Will-Be-Deleted. * * See [[Wikipedia:External links]] & [[Wikipedia:Spam]] for details. * * * * If there are already plentiful links, please propose additions or * * replacements on this article's [[[[Talk:Los Angeles|talk page]]]], * * or submit your link to the relevant category at the Open Directory * * Project (dmoz.org) and link back to that category using the {{dmoz}}* * template. * ********************** ({{No More Links}}) **************************** --> <!-- {{Spoken Wikipedia|LosAngelesPart1.ogg|2011-10-08}} --> * {{official website}} {{Clear}} {{Portal bar|North America|United States|California|Cities|Greater Los Angeles}} {{Los Angeles}} {{Navboxes |title = Articles related to Los Angeles |list = {{Los Angeles County, California}} {{Greater Los Angeles Area}} {{California county seats}} {{California}} {{Olympic Summer Games Host Cities}} {{Paralympic Summer Games Host Cities}} {{World's most populated urban areas}} {{California cities and mayors of 100,000 population}} {{Southern California megaregion}} {{Megacities}} }} {{authority control}} [[Category:Los Angeles| ]] [[Category:1781 establishments in New Spain]] [[Category:1850 establishments in California]] [[Category:Cities in Los Angeles County, California]] [[Category:County seats in California]] [[Category:Incorporated cities and towns in California]] [[Category:Populated coastal places in California]] [[Category:Populated places established in 1781]] [[Category:Port cities in California]] [[Category:Railway towns in California]] [[Category:Spanish mission settlements in North America]] ggtcdkx5ks57us63jet3e2o0tgps221 0 6905 119307 118818 2026-08-13T22:18:13Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260813sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 119307 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|Country in West Africa}} {{about|the country of Republic of Benin|the pre-colonial kingdom in Nigeria|Kingdom of Benin|the city in Nigeria|Benin City|other uses}} {{pp-move-indef}} {{Use dmy dates|date=December 2019}} {{Infobox country | conventional_long_name = Republic of Benin | native_name = {{native name|fr|République du Bénin}}<br>{{native name|yo|Orílẹ̀-èdè Olómìnira ilẹ̀ Bẹ̀nẹ̀}} | common_name = Benin | image_flag = Flag of Benin.svg | image_coat = Coat of arms of Benin.svg | image_map = Benin (orthographic projection with inset).svg | map_caption = {{map caption|location_color=dark green}} | image_map2 = | national_motto = {{vunblist|{{native phrase|fr|"Fraternité, Justice, Travail"|italics=off|nolink=yes}}|"Fraternity, Justice, Labour"}} | national_anthem = {{native phrase|fr|[[L'Aube nouvelle]]|nolink=yes}}<br />{{small|"The Dawn of a New Day"}}<br /><div style="display:inline-block;margin-top:0.4em;">[[File:L'Aube_Nouvelle.ogg]]</div> | languages_type = [[National language]]s | languages = {{collapsible list|bullets=y|title={{nobold|List:}} | |[[French language|French]] |[[Arabic language|Arabic]] |[[English language|English]] |[[Aguna language|Aguna]] | [[Adja language|Aja]] | [[Alada language|Alada]] | [[Fon language|Fon]] |[[Gbe languages|Gbe]] | [[Gen language|Gen]] | [[Gun language|Gun]] | [[Pherá language|Pherá]] | [[Phla language|Phla]] | [[Tofin language|Tofin]] | [[Tɔli language|Tɔli]] | [[Waci language|Waci]] | [[Berba language|Berba]] | [[Kabiye language|Kabye]] | [[Lama language|Lama]] | [[Lukpa language|Lukpa]] |[[Mbelime language|Mbelime]] | [[Mossi language|Mossi]] | [[Nateni language|Nateni]] | [[Ngangam language|Ngangam]] | [[Tammari language|Tammari]] | [[Tem language|Tem]] | [[Waama language|Waama]] | [[Yom language|Yom]] |[[Kwa languages|Kwa]] | [[Chakosi language|Chakosi]] | [[Foodo language|Foodo]] | [[Ede language|Ede]] | [[Ifè language|Ifè]] | [[Mokole language (Benin)|Mokole]] | [[Yoruba language|Yoruba]] |[[Yoruboid languages|Yoruboid]] | [[Bariba language|Bariba]] | [[Dendi language|Dendi]] | [[Fula language|Fula]] | [[Hausa language|Hausa]]}} | demonym = {{hlist|Beninese}} | ethnic_groups = {{vunblist|38.4% [[Fon people|Fon]]|15.1% [[Adja people|Adja]] & [[Gen language|Mina]]|12% [[Yoruba people|Yoruba]]|9.6% [[Bariba people|Bariba]]|8.6% [[Fula people|Fula]]|6.1% Ottamari|4.3% Yoa-Lokpa|2.9% [[Dendi people|Dendi]]|2.8% Others}} | ethnic_groups_year = 2013 census<ref name="insae-bj.org">{{cite web |title=PRINCIPAUX INDICATEURS SOCIO DEMOGRAPHIQUES ET ECONOMIQUES |url=https://www.insae-bj.org/images/docs/insae-statistiques/enquetes-recensements/RGPH/1.RGPH_4/Indicateurs-et-Projetcions/Principaux%20Indicateurs%20projections%20Preface%20RGPH4.pdf |website=www.insae-bj.org |publisher=INSTITUT NATIONAL DE LA STATISTIQUE ET DE L'ANALYSE ECONOMIQUE |language=fr |access-date=14 December 2019 |archive-date=18 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200918231011/https://www.insae-bj.org/images/docs/insae-statistiques/enquetes-recensements/RGPH/1.RGPH_4/Indicateurs-et-Projetcions/Principaux%20Indicateurs%20projections%20Preface%20RGPH4.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> | religion = {{ublist |item_style=white-space:nowrap; | 52.2% [[Christianity in Benin|Christianity]] | 24.6% [[Islam]] | 17.9% [[African Traditional Religion|Traditional faiths]] | 5.2% [[Irreligion|No religion]] | 0.1% Others }} | religion_year = 2020 | religion_ref = <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.globalreligiousfutures.org/countries/benin/religious_demography#/?affiliations_religion_id=0&affiliations_year=2020|title=Religions in Benin &#124; PEW-GRF|access-date=17 April 2021|archive-date=17 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211017154104/http://www.globalreligiousfutures.org/countries/benin/religious_demography#/?affiliations_religion_id=0&affiliations_year=2020|url-status=live}}</ref> | capital = [[Porto-Novo]]^a | largest_city = [[Cotonou]] | government_type = [[Unitary state|Unitary]] [[Presidential system|presidential]] [[republic]] | leader_title1 = [[President of Benin|President]] | leader_name1 = [[Patrice Talon]] | leader_title2 = [[Vice President of Benin|Vice President]] | leader_name2 = [[Mariam Chabi Talata]] | legislature = [[National Assembly (Benin)|National Assembly]] | sovereignty_type = [[Independence]] | established_event1 = [[Republic of Dahomey]] established | established_date1 = 11 December 1958 | established_event2 = from [[France]] | established_date2 = 1 August 1960 | established_event3 = | established_date3 = | established_event4 = | established_date4 = | area_rank = 100th | area_km2 = 114763 | area_sq_mi = | area_footnote = <ref name=AS2010>{{Cite report |date=2012 |title=Annuaire statistique 2010 |language=fr |url=http://www.insae-bj.org/annuare-statistique.html?file=files/publications/annuel/Annuaire%20statistique%20%20INSAE%202010.pdf |publisher=[[Institut national de la statistique et de l'analyse économique|INSAE]] |page=49 |access-date=17 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304091201/http://www.insae-bj.org/annuare-statistique.html?file=files%2Fpublications%2Fannuel%2FAnnuaire%20statistique%20%20INSAE%202010.pdf |archive-date=4 March 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref> | percent_water = 0.4% | population_estimate = 14,219,908<ref>{{Cite CIA World Factbook|country=Benin|access-date=22 June 2023|year=2023}}</ref> | population_estimate_year = 2023 | population_estimate_rank = 74th | population_density_km2 = 94.8 | population_density_sq_mi = | GDP_PPP = $29.918 billion<ref name=imf2>{{cite web|url=https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2018/02/weodata/weorept.aspx?pr.x=31&pr.y=10&sy=2015&ey=2019&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=638&s=NGDPD%2CPPPGDP%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPPC&grp=0&a=|title=World Economic Outlook Database, October 2018|publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]]|website=IMF.org|access-date=1 February 2019|archive-date=12 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200612060735/https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2018/02/weodata/weorept.aspx?pr.x=31&pr.y=10&sy=2015&ey=2019&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=638&s=NGDPD,PPPGDP,NGDPDPC,PPPPC&grp=0&a=|url-status=live}}</ref> | GDP_PPP_rank = 137th | GDP_PPP_year = 2019 | GDP_PPP_per_capita = $2,552<ref name=imf2/> | GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 163rd | GDP_nominal = $11.386 billion<ref name=imf2/> | GDP_nominal_rank = 141st | GDP_nominal_year = 2019 | GDP_nominal_per_capita = $971<ref name=imf2/> | GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 163rd | Gini_year = 2015 | Gini_change = increase <!--increase/decrease/steady--> | Gini = 47.8 <!--number only--> | Gini_ref = <ref>{{cite web|url=https://databank.worldbank.org/data/reports.aspx?source=2&series=SI.POV.GINI&country=BEN|title=GINI index (World Bank estimate)|publisher=[[World Bank]]|website=databank.worldbank.org|access-date=1 February 2019|archive-date=4 September 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220904222242/https://databank.worldbank.org/reports.aspx?source=2&series=SI.POV.GINI&country=BEN|url-status=live}}</ref> | Gini_rank = | HDI = 0.525 <!--number only--> | HDI_year = 2021<!-- Please use the year to which the data refers, not the publication year--> | HDI_change = decrease<!--increase/decrease/steady--> | HDI_ref = <ref name="UNHDR">{{cite web|url=https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2021-22pdf_1.pdf|title=Human Development Report 2021/2022|language=en|publisher=[[United Nations Development Programme]]|date=8 September 2022|access-date=18 January 2023}}</ref> | HDI_rank = 166th | currency = [[West African CFA franc]] | currency_code = XOF | country_code = | time_zone = [[West Africa Time|WAT]] | utc_offset = +1 | time_zone_DST = | utc_offset_DST = | date_format = dd/mm/yyyy | drives_on = right | calling_code = [[+229]] | cctld = [[.bj]] | footnote_a = [[Cotonou]] is the seat of government. | today = }} '''Benin''' ({{IPAc-en|audio=En-Benin-pronunciation.ogg|b|ɛ|ˈ|n|iː|n}};<ref>{{cite EPD|18}}</ref> {{lang-fr|Bénin}} {{IPA-fr|benɛ̃|}}, {{lang-fon|Benɛ}}, {{lang-ff|Benen}}), mwalamulo '''Charu cha Benin''' ({{lang-fr|République du Bénin}}), ''ndipo pakale'' [[Republic of Dahomey|'''Dahomey''']],<ref>{{Cite news|date=1975-12-01|title=Dahomey Announces Its Name Will Be Benin|language=en-US|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1975/12/01/archives/dahomey-announces-its-name-will-be-benin.html|access-date=2020-09-16|issn=0362-4331|archive-date=16 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200916200353/https://www.nytimes.com/1975/12/01/archives/dahomey-announces-its-name-will-be-benin.html|url-status=live}}</ref> ni chalo icho chili ku [[Western Africa]]. Charu ichi chili kumafumiro gha dazi na [[Togo]], kumafumiro gha dazi na [[Nigeria]], kumpoto cha kumafumiro gha dazi na [[Burkina Faso]], ndipo kumpoto cha kumafumiro gha dazi na [[Niger]]. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakukhala mumphepete mwa nyanja ya Benin, iyo yili kumpoto kwa [[nyanja ya Atlantic]].<ref name="HughesHughes1992">{{cite book|last1=Hughes|first1=R. H.|last2=Hughes|first2=J. S.|title=A Directory of African Wetlands|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VLjafeXa3gMC|year=1992|publisher=IUCN|isbn=978-2-88032-949-5|page=301|access-date=12 October 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160508163425/https://books.google.com/books?id=VLjafeXa3gMC|archive-date=8 May 2016|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=AS2010 /> Msumba ukuru wa charu ichi ni [[Porto-Novo]], ndipo boma lili ku Cotonou. Charu cha Benin chili na malo ghakukwana 114,763 square kilometres (44,310 sq mi) ndipo ŵanthu ŵakukwana 13 million.{{UN_Population|ref}} Ni caru cicoko comene ca ku malo gha cimphepo. Charu ichi nchimoza mwa vyaru ivyo vikutondeka comene, ndipo cuma cake cikuthemba comene pa vyakurya. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakugwira nchito na kusanga ndalama kufuma ku ulimi.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fao.org/isfp/country-information/benin/en/ |title=FAO Initiative on Soaring Food Prices |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121024021730/http://www.fao.org/isfp/country-information/benin/en/ |archive-date=24 October 2012 |website=[[Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations]] |access-date=29 June 2010}}</ref> Kwambira mu 17 m'paka mu 19 C.E., mu chigaŵa ichi mukaŵa ufumu wa [[Dahomey]], msumba wa Porto-Novo, na vyaru vinyake vya kumpoto. Chigaŵa ichi chikachemekanga kuti Slave Coast kwamba mu 17th century chifukwa cha unandi wa ŵanthu awo ŵakaguliskikanga na kuguliskika mu nyengo ya malonda gha ŵazga ku Atlantic. Mu 1894, [[France]] yikatora chigaŵa ichi na kuchiŵika mu French West Africa. Mu 1960, charu cha Dahomey chikamba kujiyimira paŵekha. Pakuŵa caru cakujiyimira, Benin wali na maboma gha demokilase, gha ŵasilikari, na gha ŵasilikari. Boma ilo likamanyikwanga na zina lakuti Republic of Benin likaŵako pakati pa 1975 na 1990. Mu 1991, boma ili likasinthika na boma la Benin.<ref name="Ibp Usa p85">{{cite book |title=Global Logistics Assessments Reports Handbook |volume=1: Strategic Transportation and Customs Information for Selected Countries |publisher=International Business Publications USA |date=2008 |orig-date=2015-10-06 |isbn=978-0739766033 |page=85}}</ref> Chiyowoyero cha boma mu Benin ni Chifurenchi, ndipo ŵanthu ŵakuyowoya viyowoyero vinyake nga ni Fon, Bariba, Yoruba, na Dendi. Chisopa chikuru chomene mu Benin ni Chikhristu (52.2%), Islamu (24.6%) na visopa vinyake (17.9%).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.globalreligiousfutures.org/countries/benin/religious_demography#/?affiliations_religion_id=0&affiliations_year=2020|title=Religions in Benin &#124; PEW-GRF|access-date=17 April 2021|archive-date=17 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211017154104/http://www.globalreligiousfutures.org/countries/benin/religious_demography#/?affiliations_religion_id=0&affiliations_year=2020|url-status=live}}</ref> Charu cha Benin chili mu wupu wa United Nations, African Union, [[Economic Community of West African States]], Organisation of Islamic Cooperation, South Atlantic Peace and Cooperation Zone, Francophonie, Community of Sahel – Sahara States, African Petroleum Producers Association na Niger Basin Authority. ==Zina== Mu nyengo ya muwuso wa France ndipo pamanyuma pa kujithemba pa Ogasiti 1, 1960, charu ichi chikachemeka Dahomey, pamanyuma pa Ufumu wa Dahomey. Pa Novembala 30, 1975, boma la Benin likasintha zina la charu ichi.<ref>{{Cite news|date=1975-12-01|title=Dahomey Announces Its Name Will Be Benin|language=en-US|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1975/12/01/archives/dahomey-announces-its-name-will-be-benin.html|access-date=2020-09-16|issn=0362-4331}}</ref> Chirwa ichi chili mumphepete mwa nyanja ya Benin, ndipo zina la nyanja iyi lili kufuma ku Ufumu wa Benin, uwo uli ku Nigeria. ==Mbili== {{main|History of Benin}} === Vyaka vyakwambilira === [[File:Kingdom of Dahomy-1793.jpg|thumb|left|Mapu ghakulongola [[Kingdom of Dahomey]], 1793.]] Pambere chaka cha 1600 chindafike, charu cha Benin chikaŵa na vigaŵa vyakupambanapambana. Mu vyaru ivi mukaŵa misumba iyo yikaŵa mumphepete mwa nyanja (manyumba agha ghakaŵa gha fuko la Aja, kweniso gha Yoruba na Gbe) kweniso gha mafuko agho ghakaŵa mukati mwa charu. Ufumu wa Oyo, uwo ukaŵa kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Benin, ukaŵa ufumu wa ŵasilikari mu chigaŵa ichi.<ref name="Bay-1998">{{cite book|last=Bay|first=Edna|title=Wives of the Leopard: Gender, Politics, and Culture in the Kingdom of Dahomey|url=https://archive.org/details/wivesofleopardge0000baye|year=1998|publisher=University of Virginia Press}}</ref> Vinthu vikasintha mu vyaka vya m'ma 1700 na 1800, apo Ufumu wa Dahomey, uwo ukaŵa na ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa Fon, ukazengeka pa malo gha Abomey ndipo ukamba kupoka vigaŵa vinyake mumphepete mwa nyanja.<ref>{{cite book|last=Akinjogbin|first=I.A.|title=Dahomey and Its Neighbors: 1708–1818|year=1967|publisher=Cambridge University Press|oclc=469476592}}</ref> Kuzakafika mu 1727, Themba Agaja la Ufumu wa Dahomey likapoka misumba ya Allada na Whydah. Dahomey wakaŵa kuti wazgoka chigaŵa cha Ufumu wa Oyo, ndipo wakalimbananga na msumba wa Porto-Novo uwo ukaŵa ku chigaŵa cha Oyo kweni wakawukira yayi.<ref name="Law-1986">{{cite journal|last=Law|first=Robin|title=Dahomey and the Slave Trade: Reflections on the Historiography of the Rise of Dahomey|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-african-history_1986_27_2/page/237|journal=The Journal of African History|year=1986|volume=27|issue=2|pages=237–267|doi=10.1017/s0021853700036665|s2cid=165754199}}</ref> Kuwuka kwa Dahomey, mphindano yake na Porto-Novo, na ndyali za mafuko mu cigaŵa ca kumpoto vikalutilira mu nyengo ya ukoloni na ya pamanyuma pake.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Creevey|first1=Lucy|last2=Ngomo|first2=Paul|last3=Vengroff|first3=Richard|title=Party Politics and Different Paths to Democratic Transitions: A Comparison of Benin and Senegal|journal=Party Politics|year=2005|volume=11|issue=4|pages=471–493|doi=10.1177/1354068805053213|s2cid=145169455|url=https://zenodo.org/record/897004|access-date=20 April 2018|archive-date=2 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201202224421/https://zenodo.org/record/897004|url-status=live}}</ref> Vinthu vikasintha mu vyaka vya m'ma 1700 na 1800, apo Ufumu wa Dahomey, uwo ukaŵa na ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa Fon, ukazengeka pa malo gha Abomey ndipo ukamba kupoka vigaŵa vinyake mumphepete mwa nyanja.<ref name="Alpern1998">{{cite book|last=Alpern|first=Stanley B.|title=Amazons of Black Sparta: The Women Warriors of Dahomey|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Fdtg4e5_WoIC|year=1998|publisher=C. Hurst & Co. Publishers|isbn=978-1-85065-362-2|page=37|access-date=12 October 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160506013639/https://books.google.com/books?id=Fdtg4e5_WoIC|archive-date=6 May 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> [[File:São João Baptista de Ajudá 1886 (cropped).jpg|thumb|left|Ufumu wa Portugal ndiwo ukakhala nyengo yitali comene mu Benin, kwamba mu 1680 m'paka mu 1961, apo ŵasilikari ŵaumaliro ŵakafumako ku Ajudá.]] Mathemba gha ku Dahomey ghakaguliskanga ŵazga ŵawo ku vyaru vinyake panji kuŵakoma mwakuyana na kaluso kawo. Kuzakafika mu 1750, Themba la Dahomey likasanganga ndalama zakukwana £250,000 pa chaka pakuguliska ŵazga ŵa ku Africa ku ŵamalonda ŵa ku Europe.<ref name="BbcSlavery">{{cite web |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/africa/features/storyofafrica/9chapter2.shtml |title=African Slave Owners |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130308014748/http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/africa/features/storyofafrica/9chapter2.shtml |archive-date=8 March 2013 |website=The story of South Africa: Slavery |publisher=BBC World Service}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,91575,00.html |last=Miller |first=David Lee |title=African Ambassador Apologizes for Slavery Role |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100522233737/http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,91575,00.html |archive-date=22 May 2010 |work=Fox News |date=10 July 2003}}</ref> Malo agha ghakacemekanga kuti "Mphepete mwa Nyanja ya Ŵazga" cifukwa ca malonda gha ŵazga agho ghakacitikanga. Malango gha khoti agho ghakakanizganga kuti ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵakakoleka ku nkhondo ŵadumulikeko mitu, ghakachepeskanga unandi wa ŵazga awo ŵakafumanga mu chigaŵa ichi. Ŵanthu aŵa ŵakakwera kufuma pa 102,000 mu 1780 kufika pa 24,000 mu 1860. Cigaŵa cimoza ico cikapangiska kuti caru ici cicepe nchakuti mu 1807, boma la Britain likakanizga kuguliska ŵazga. Ŵanthu ŵakalutilira kuchepa m'paka mu 1885 apo boti laumaliro la ŵazga likafumako ku Benin Republic na kuluta ku Brazil. Msumba ukuru wa Porto-Novo ("New Port" mu Ciphwitikizi) ukaŵa msumba wa malonda gha ŵazga. Ŵanakazi ŵa ku Dahomey awo ŵakulongozgeka na themba, ŵakuluta ku nkhondo, 1793. Vinthu vinyake ivyo Ŵapwitikizi ŵakapenjanga ni vinthu vyakuŵaja vya mino gha zovu ivyo ŵanthu ŵa ku Benin ŵakavipanga nga ni viŵiya vyakusungiramo mchere, matambulara, na masengwe.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/history/magazine/2021/01-02/ivory-saltcellar-reveals-colonial-power-dynamic-benin-portugal/|title=This ivory relic reveals the colonial power dynamic between Benin and Portugal History Magazine, National Geographic, 09.02.2021|website=[[National Geographic Society]]|access-date=9 February 2021|archive-date=9 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210209201911/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/history/magazine/2021/01-02/ivory-saltcellar-reveals-colonial-power-dynamic-benin-portugal/}}</ref> ===Chikoloni=== {{See also|Second Franco-Dahomean War}} [[File:Bénin- 1893.jpg|thumb|Chithuzithuzi cha ku France cha umo charu cha Dahomey chikapokelerekera mu 1893]] Kuzakafika pakati pa vyaka vya m'ma 1800, caru ca Dahomey "cikamba kulopwa na kutaya mazaza ghake". Mu 1892 Ŵacifurenci ŵakatora malo agha. Mu 1899, ŵa ku France ŵakamba kulamulira chigaŵa cha French Dahomey. France sought to benefit from Dahomey and the region "appeared to lack the necessary agricultural or mineral resources for large-scale capitalist development". As a result, France treated Dahomey as a sort of preserve in case future discoveries revealed resources worth developing.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|title=Slavery, Colonialism and Economic Growth in Dahomey, 1640-1960|url=https://archive.org/details/slaverycoloniali0000mann|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1982|isbn=9780511563072|pages=[https://archive.org/details/slaverycoloniali0000mann/page/n36 15]}}</ref> Boma la France likakanizga kugura na kuguliska ŵazga. Ŵenecho ŵa ŵazga ŵakakhumbanga kuti ŵambeso kulamulira ŵazga nga umo ŵakachitiranga na malo, ŵekhaŵekha, na ŵanthu ŵa mu mbumba yawo. Ivi vikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Dahomean ŵambeso kulimbana, "kwamba mu 1895 m'paka 1920, kuti ŵamanye umo ŵangapokera malo na ntchito. Ŵanthu ŵa mu mizi iyi ŵakakhumbanga kuti ŵamanye mphaka za malo agho ŵakakhalanga. Masuzgo gha cisopa ghakaŵa nga ni mphindano za caru na malonda. Ŵanthu ŵa mafuko ghakupambanapambana ŵakalimbananga kuti ŵaŵe na mazaza pa mbumba zikuruzikuru". Mu 1958, France yikapeleka wanangwa ku Republic of Dahomey, na wanangwa wakukwana pa 1 August 1960 uwo ukukondwelereka chaka chilichose nga ni Zuŵa la Wanangwa, holide ya chalo. Pulezidenti uyo wakalongozga caru kuti ciŵe na wanangwa wakaŵa Hubert Maga.<ref name="Stokes2009">{{cite book|editor-last=Stokes|editor-first=Jamie|title=Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Africa and the Middle East: L to Z|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gaFvrgEACAAJ|date=2009|publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=978-0-8160-7158-6|page=229|access-date=12 October 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160503171808/https://books.google.com/books?id=gaFvrgEACAAJ|archive-date=3 May 2016|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Araujo2010">{{cite book|last=Araujo|first=Ana Lucia|title=Public Memory of Slavery: Victims and Perpetrators in the South Atlantic|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kymzngEACAAJ|year=2010|publisher=Cambria Press|isbn=978-1-60497-714-1|page=111|access-date=12 October 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160617084013/https://books.google.com/books?id=kymzngEACAAJ|archive-date=17 June 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> ===Post-colonial=== Pamasinda pa 1960, pakaŵa mabutha na kusintha kwa boma, ndipo ŵanthu ŵa Hubert Maga, Sourou Apithy, Justin Ahomadégbé, na Émile Derlin Zinsou ndiwo ŵakalongozganga. Ŵabali ŵatatu aŵa ŵakakolerana kuti ŵapangenge wupu wa pulezidenti pamanyuma pa viwawa ivyo vikacitika pa maungano gha mu 1970. Pa Meyi 7, 1972, Maga wakapeleka mazaza kwa Ahomadégbé. Pa Okutobala 26, 1972, Lt. Mubali uyu ni Kol. Mathieu Kérékou wakawuskapo boma la ŵanthu ŵatatu, ndipo wakazgoka pulezidenti. Pa Novembala 30, 1974, wakapharazga kuti caru ici nchakuzomerezgeka na Marxist, ndipo cikulongozgeka na Wupu wa Nkhondo wa Revolution (CMR), uwo ukaŵa na nchito ya mafuta na mabanki. Pa Novembala 30, 1975, wakasinthaso zina la charu ichi kuŵa Benin People's Republic. Boma la Benin likasintha mu nyengo iyo likaŵako: nyengo ya kusankhana mitundu (1972-1974); nyengo ya kusankhana mitundu (1974-1982); na nyengo ya kujura ku vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi na kuleka vinthu vinyake (1982-1990).<ref name="auto">{{Cite web|url=http://afriquepluriel.ruwenzori.net/benin1.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210304083636/http://afriquepluriel.ruwenzori.net/benin1.htm|archive-date=4 March 2021|title=Wikiwix&#91;archive&#93;|access-date=11 December 2021}}</ref><ref name="Dickovick2012">{{cite book|last=Dickovick |first= J. Tyler|title=Africa 2012|url=https://archive.org/details/africa20120000dick|url-access=registration|access-date=5 March 2013|date=9 August 2012|publisher=Stryker Post|isbn=978-1-61048-882-2|page=[https://archive.org/details/africa20120000dick/page/69 69]}}</ref><ref name="HoungnikpoDecalo2012">{{cite book|last1=Houngnikpo|first1=Mathurin C.|last2=Decalo|first2=Samuel|title=Historical Dictionary of Benin|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0yGPTsRubWEC&pg=PR33|access-date=5 March 2013|date=14 December 2012|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=978-0-8108-7171-7|page=33|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140423214217/http://books.google.com/books?id=0yGPTsRubWEC&pg=PR33|archive-date=23 April 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> Mu 1974, pasi pa mazaza gha ŵawukirano ŵakugaluka - "Ligueurs" - boma likamba ndondomeko ya socialist: kukanizga vyalo vya ndyali, kunozga ndondomeko ya masambiro, kukhazikiska mabungwe gha vyalo na maboma gha vigaŵa, na kampeni yakuwuskamo "magulu gha ŵasilikari" kusazgapo mafuko. Boma likakanizga ŵanthu ŵakususka. Mathieu Kérékou wakasankhika kuŵa pulezidenti na National Revolutionary Assembly mu 1980, ndipo wakasankhikaso mu 1984. Wakamba kukolerana na ŵanthu ŵa ku China, North Korea, na Libya, ndipo "pafupifupi" bizinesi yose na vinthu vinyake ivyo vikuchitika mu charu ichi vikaŵa pasi pa boma. Kérékou wakayezga kunozga masambiro, ndipo wakayowoya mazgu ghakuti "Ukavu ni suzgo yayi". Boma ili likagwiliskiranga nchito ndalama izo likaguliskanga pakugura vyakukanizgika vya nyukiliya kufuma ku Soviet Union na ku France.<ref name="kneib">{{Cite book |last=Kneib |first=Martha |url=https://archive.org/details/benin0000knei/page/22 |title=Benin |date=7 January 2007 |isbn=978-0-7614-2328-7 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/benin0000knei/page/22 22–25]}}</ref> Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1980, caru ca Benin cikakura comene pa nkhani ya vyachuma (15.6% mu 1982, 4.6% mu 1983 na 8.2% mu 1984), m'paka apo ŵakajara mphaka ya Nigeria na Benin. Boma likaŵavya nkhongono zakupelekera malipiro ku ŵateŵeti ŵa boma. Mu 1989, pakawuka vivulupi apo boma likaŵavya ndalama zakukwana kuti lilipire ŵasilikari. Mabanki ghakawa. Paumaliro, Kérékou wakaleka chisopa cha Marx, ndipo ungano ukamucicizga kuti wafwature ŵakayidi ŵa ndyali na kunozga vyakusankha. Marxism-Leninism yikalekeka kuŵa boma. Zina la caru ili likasinthika kuŵa Republic of Benin pa 1 Malichi 1990, pamanyuma pakuti boma liphya lakhalako.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://flagspot.net/flags/bj.html|title=Benin|publisher=Flagspot.net|access-date=2 May 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100612012647/http://flagspot.net/flags/bj.html|archive-date=12 June 2010}}</ref>[[File:BoniYayi inauguration2006.jpg|thumb|right|[[Thomas Boni Yayi|Yayi Boni]]'s 2006 presidential inauguration]] Kerékou wakatondeka kupokera mazaza kufuma kwa Nicéphore Soglo mu 1991 ndipo wakaŵa purezidenti wakwamba mu Africa uyo wakataya mazaza ghake. Kerékou wakawelera ku mazaza wakati watonda pa mavoti gha mu 1996. Mu 2001, Kerékou wakathereskeka pa mavoti ghanyake. Mu 1999, Kérékou wakaphepiska pa mulimo ukuru uwo ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa ŵakacita pa malonda gha ŵazga gha ku Atlantic. Kérékou na pulezidenti wakale Soglo ŵakathemba yayi pa mavoti gha 2006, cifukwa wose ŵaŵiri ŵakakanizgika na malango gha boma pa nkhani ya vilimika na nyengo ya mavoti. Pa 5 March 2006, chisankho chikapangiska kuti Yayi Boni na Adrien Houngbédji ŵasankhane. Chisankho chachiwiri chinachitika pa 19 March ndipo chinapambana ndi Boni, yemwe adagwira ntchito pa 6 April. Boni wakasankhika mu 2011, wakatora mavoti 53.18% mu chigaŵa chakwamba. Wakaŵa pulezidenti wakwamba kuwina pa maungano gha chigaŵa kufuma apo boma likakhazikiskikira mu 1991. Pa chisankho cha pulezidenti cha March 2016 apo Boni Yayi wakakanika na dango la chalo kuti wazakaŵepo pa nyengo yachitatu, wamalonda Patrice Talon wakathereska chigaŵa chachiŵiri na mavoti 65.37%, wakatonda banki ya ndalama na nduna yikuru yakale Lionel Zinsou. Talon wakalapa pa 6 April 2016. Apo wakayowoyanga pa zuŵa leneilo khoti la malango likakhozgeranga mavoti, Talon wakati "pambere tindayowoyepo, tichitengepo kanthu pa kusintha malango gha boma". Wakayowoya kuti wakukhumba kuchepeska ŵa mu boma kufuma pa 28 kufika pa 16. Mu Epulero 2021, Pulezidenti Patrice Talon wakasankhikaso, na mavoti ghakujumpha 86.3%, mu mavoti gha pulezidenti wa Benin. Ŵalondezgi ŵa Pulezidenti Talon ndiwo ŵakamba kulamulira nyumba ya malango. Mu Febuluwale 2022, boma la Benin likaŵa na vivulupi vikuru comene kuluska vyose.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Five rangers, soldier killed in attack in Benin, park management says |url=https://news.yahoo.com/five-rangers-soldier-killed-attack-203717334.html |access-date=2022-02-16 |website=news.yahoo.com |language=en-US}}</ref> Kweniso mu 2022, ŵakawezgera ku Benin vyakuvwara 26 vyakuzunulika kufuma ku France, vyaka 129 pamanyuma pakuti vyatoleka na ŵasilikari.<ref>[https://www.lemonde.fr/afrique/article/2022/02/21/regardez-la-puissance-de-ces-objets-le-benin-expose-les-vingt-six-uvres-restituees-par-la-france_6114618_3212.html]</ref> ==Politics== {{main|Politics of Benin}}<!--Please add new information to relevant articles of the series--> Boma la Benin lili na vigaŵa vinandi. Mu charu ichi, pulezidenti wakuŵa mutu wa boma kweniso wa boma. Boma ndilo likuŵa na mazaza pa boma. Boma na wupu wakulongozga ndiwo ŵali na mazaza gha kupanga malango. Ŵeruzgi ŵakujiyimira ŵekha, kweni Talon ndiyo wakuŵalongozga. Ndondomeko ya ndyali yili kufuma ku Dango la 1990 la Benin na kusintha kwa demokilase mu 1991. Pa vyaru 52 vya mu Africa, charu ichi chili pa nambara 18 ndipo chili na masambiro ghapachanya pa nkhani ya chivikiliro na malango kweniso vya wanangwa wa ŵanthu. Pa lipoti la wupu wa Reporters Without Borders lakuyowoya za wanangwa wa ŵanthu pa charu chose mu 2007, charu cha Benin chili pa nambara 53 pa vyaru 169. Mu 2016, apo Talon wakamba kuwusa, malo agha ghakaŵa pa nambara 78. Mu 2005, boma la Benin likaŵa pa nambara 88 pa vyaru 159 pa nkhani ya vimbundi vya ŵapolisi, ŵamalonda, na ŵandyali.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nationmaster.com/graph/gov_cor-government-corruption|title=Countries Compared by Government, Government corruption rating. International Statistics at NationMaster.com|work=nationmaster.com|access-date=13 February 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110208015202/http://www.nationmaster.com/graph/gov_cor-government-corruption|archive-date=8 February 2011|url-status=live}}</ref> Ndondomeko yake ya demokilase "yasezgeka" kufuma apo Pulezidenti Talon wakamba kuwusa. Mu 2018, boma lake likapeleka malango ghaphya ghakwendeskera mavoti na kukwezga mtengo wa kulembeska. Wupu wa vyakusankha, uwo ukazura na ŵanthu awo ŵakakolerana na Talon, ukazomerezga yayi kuti magulu ghose ghakwimikana na boma ghaŵepo pa maungano ghaparamende mu 2019, ndipo ichi chikapangiska kuti ŵanthu wose awo ŵakakolerana na Talon ndiwo ŵalutilire kuŵa mu Nyumba ya Malamulo. Paumaliro, nyumba ya malango iyi yikasintha malango gha vyakusankha mwakuti munthu uyo wakukhumba kuŵa pulezidenti wakwenera kuzomerezgeka na ŵimiliri 10 pa 100 ŵa boma la Benin. Pakuti Talon ndiyo wakulongozga pa nkhani ya ivyo vikuchitika mu Nyumba ya Ufumu na mu maofesi ghanandi gha meya, ndiyo wakulongozga pa nkhani ya awo ŵangasankha kuŵa ŵalongozgi ŵa boma. Ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yose ŵakususka ivyo vikachitika ndipo boma la United States likamazga wovwiri wa vyachuma ku charu ichi.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Benin: Freedom in the World 2021 Country Report|url=https://freedomhouse.org/country/benin/freedom-world/2021|access-date=2021-12-16|website=Freedom House|language=en|archive-date=16 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211216181132/https://freedomhouse.org/country/benin/freedom-world/2021|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Press Release: MCC's Board Selects Belize, Zambia for Grant Assistance|url=https://www.mcc.gov/news-and-events/release/press-release-121521-board-selects-belize-zambia|url-status=live|access-date=2021-12-16|website=Millennium Challenge Corporation|language=en|quote=However, due to Benin's overall multi-year decline in its commitment to MCC's eligibility criteria and the principles of democratic governance, the Board discussed and endorsed MCC's determination to significantly reduce the portion of the planned regional investment that would be made in Benin through a concurrent compact.|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211215202326/https://www.mcc.gov/news-and-events/release/press-release-121521-board-selects-belize-zambia|archive-date=15 December 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-12-16|title=Recul de la démocratie: les Etats-Unis sanctionnent le Bénin à travers le MCC|url=https://lanouvelletribune.info/2021/12/recul-de-la-democratie-les-etats-unis-sanctionnent-le-benin-a-travers-le-mcc/|access-date=2021-12-16|website=La Nouvelle Tribune|language=fr|archive-date=16 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211216181132/https://lanouvelletribune.info/2021/12/recul-de-la-democratie-les-etats-unis-sanctionnent-le-benin-a-travers-le-mcc/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Hirschel-Burns|first=Tim|title=Benin's King of Cotton Makes Its Democracy a Sham|url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2021/04/08/benin-election-democracy-sham-patrice-talon/|access-date=2021-12-16|website=Foreign Policy|language=en-US|archive-date=16 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211216181132/https://foreignpolicy.com/2021/04/08/benin-election-democracy-sham-patrice-talon/|url-status=live}}</ref> == Kugawikana kwa boma == {{main|Departments of Benin|Communes of Benin}} <imagemap> File:Benin departments named.png|thumb|right|Departments of Benin. poly 452.13 201.00 432.37 175.00 432.37 175.00 429.41 171.04 424.48 166.29 425.49 161.00 425.49 161.00 430.99 145.17 430.99 145.17 430.99 145.17 434.73 139.91 434.73 139.91 434.73 139.91 437.47 133.00 437.47 133.00 438.73 130.04 441.97 126.19 440.84 123.09 440.84 123.09 437.00 117.84 437.00 117.84 437.00 117.84 435.46 114.25 435.46 114.25 435.46 114.25 427.78 103.48 427.78 103.48 423.94 99.85 421.52 100.59 418.00 99.08 418.00 99.08 412.00 95.94 412.00 95.94 407.56 94.53 403.87 97.80 399.21 93.69 393.54 88.68 389.49 74.63 388.41 73.22 386.74 71.06 384.29 70.27 382.33 68.51 382.33 68.51 376.63 61.45 376.63 61.45 376.63 61.45 367.91 53.63 367.91 53.63 367.91 53.63 361.27 49.37 361.27 49.37 358.02 46.48 356.56 40.31 353.39 37.60 350.60 35.21 347.18 36.57 343.28 33.20 338.92 29.44 339.95 23.09 331.00 19.63 323.94 16.91 317.88 24.78 310.00 24.00 310.00 24.00 305.70 33.03 305.70 33.03 305.70 33.03 294.00 34.21 294.00 34.21 294.00 34.21 286.00 36.09 286.00 36.09 286.00 36.09 281.00 36.67 281.00 36.67 281.00 36.67 274.00 39.28 274.00 39.28 274.00 39.28 261.00 42.00 261.00 42.00 264.45 68.19 264.13 56.05 268.00 73.00 275.10 74.53 277.32 79.66 270.00 82.00 268.11 85.35 267.76 85.37 264.00 86.00 264.82 97.35 264.58 93.94 261.00 104.00 259.83 107.27 259.88 108.74 257.86 112.00 257.86 112.00 251.03 121.00 251.03 121.00 248.70 125.78 252.41 127.54 246.93 131.96 232.52 143.59 230.29 142.17 216.58 158.00 214.22 160.72 209.02 165.50 208.65 169.00 208.26 172.72 216.24 185.20 218.42 189.00 218.42 189.00 235.30 219.00 235.30 219.00 240.56 228.57 243.98 230.73 244.00 242.00 244.00 242.00 244.00 291.00 244.00 291.00 244.00 292.99 243.77 296.81 245.02 298.40 246.38 300.12 260.71 301.03 263.00 300.38 266.22 299.47 267.09 297.41 272.00 297.06 280.71 296.45 282.90 301.51 287.17 303.70 289.24 304.76 293.61 305.42 296.00 305.53 298.65 306.04 301.42 306.13 304.00 305.53 308.54 303.99 312.26 300.21 316.00 298.52 319.81 296.63 330.39 296.04 333.86 298.52 335.71 299.95 336.06 301.09 337.00 303.00 337.00 303.00 355.00 303.00 355.00 303.00 355.00 303.00 373.00 301.00 373.00 301.00 373.00 301.00 404.00 292.44 404.00 292.44 404.00 292.44 431.00 290.00 431.00 290.00 431.00 290.00 445.00 288.21 445.00 288.21 445.00 288.21 460.00 288.82 460.00 288.82 460.00 288.82 474.00 284.78 474.00 284.78 474.00 284.78 483.00 283.00 483.00 283.00 482.50 274.60 480.55 277.64 476.39 273.57 474.00 271.25 473.50 268.53 471.93 266.37 470.45 264.35 468.05 263.00 467.11 260.90 465.21 256.64 470.40 249.79 470.70 245.00 470.84 242.80 468.02 232.09 467.01 230.00 465.75 227.38 464.06 226.13 463.31 223.00 462.41 219.20 463.69 215.50 465.00 212.00 458.09 210.88 456.07 206.26 452.13 201.00 [[Alibori Department|Alibori]] poly 37.46 246.00 37.46 252.00 37.46 252.00 37.46 252.00 35.31 258.00 35.31 258.00 35.31 258.00 34.40 265.00 34.40 265.00 32.65 269.76 26.21 273.58 24.01 278.00 22.52 281.03 24.08 291.52 24.01 296.00 23.82 305.84 20.15 302.44 20.00 313.00 20.00 313.00 20.00 323.00 20.00 323.00 20.00 325.41 19.78 328.58 21.02 330.70 22.40 333.07 26.70 335.76 29.00 337.42 29.00 337.42 45.00 349.37 45.00 349.37 45.00 349.37 82.00 373.20 82.00 373.20 82.00 373.20 107.00 388.27 107.00 388.27 111.81 390.32 114.39 389.60 118.00 390.63 130.19 394.14 122.76 395.20 140.00 395.00 145.96 394.93 151.03 393.89 156.00 390.36 160.95 386.85 170.76 377.10 176.00 375.13 180.62 373.39 183.60 376.89 194.00 376.76 194.00 376.76 214.00 376.76 214.00 376.76 219.13 375.48 220.35 373.34 230.00 371.40 233.97 370.60 241.83 370.30 243.98 366.77 245.17 364.82 245.08 361.23 244.82 359.00 244.34 354.97 239.47 338.13 237.30 335.17 234.48 331.32 229.02 329.01 229.16 323.00 229.33 316.13 237.71 311.47 240.40 307.72 242.31 305.05 241.99 302.12 241.84 299.00 241.84 299.00 241.84 241.00 241.84 241.00 242.00 238.76 242.09 236.16 241.83 234.00 240.65 230.85 237.02 225.12 235.30 222.00 235.30 222.00 222.42 199.00 222.42 199.00 222.42 199.00 211.72 180.00 211.72 180.00 210.41 177.70 207.70 172.35 205.61 171.02 203.63 169.77 200.33 170.06 198.00 169.83 198.00 169.83 179.00 168.01 179.00 168.01 172.75 168.17 171.85 169.55 167.00 170.24 167.00 170.24 159.00 170.24 159.00 170.24 154.87 170.68 148.54 174.29 145.00 173.97 140.61 173.58 139.06 169.50 137.20 167.84 135.56 166.35 130.21 164.35 128.00 163.80 124.03 162.80 116.29 163.66 113.75 167.22 112.30 169.25 112.92 171.08 110.65 173.37 108.55 175.49 104.72 176.40 103.92 180.04 103.92 180.04 105.00 189.00 105.00 189.00 105.00 189.00 95.00 188.00 95.00 188.00 95.20 190.02 95.78 192.77 94.31 194.45 91.55 197.61 77.91 193.83 74.00 193.00 74.12 200.87 77.74 199.74 75.00 211.00 69.72 208.52 68.74 210.16 64.00 213.00 66.47 221.45 72.00 221.45 70.00 232.00 70.00 232.00 63.00 228.56 63.00 228.56 63.00 228.56 57.00 226.73 57.00 226.73 57.00 226.73 49.00 223.00 49.00 223.00 46.19 229.10 45.52 230.06 49.00 236.00 49.00 236.00 40.00 237.00 40.00 237.00 40.00 237.00 37.46 246.00 37.46 246.00 [[Atakora Department|Atakora]] poly 457.00 290.83 444.00 290.06 444.00 290.06 444.00 290.06 435.00 291.86 435.00 291.86 435.00 291.86 425.00 291.21 425.00 291.21 425.00 291.21 410.00 293.79 410.00 293.79 410.00 293.79 402.00 294.46 402.00 294.46 390.01 296.62 381.24 303.72 369.00 302.73 362.03 302.17 363.46 303.89 358.00 304.89 358.00 304.89 344.00 304.89 344.00 304.89 338.12 304.96 336.10 304.95 334.00 299.00 330.07 299.00 319.10 298.57 316.00 299.74 311.61 301.39 307.49 307.15 301.00 307.70 297.78 307.97 288.94 306.59 286.17 304.93 282.96 303.00 281.61 300.23 277.00 299.28 267.48 297.31 266.77 302.05 261.99 302.66 261.99 302.66 244.00 302.00 244.00 302.00 243.08 313.35 229.57 314.00 231.24 325.00 232.04 330.24 236.64 331.99 239.44 336.01 241.19 338.53 242.02 342.05 242.86 345.00 244.32 350.15 247.94 360.01 246.57 364.98 244.30 373.20 230.96 372.34 224.00 374.25 215.51 376.59 216.42 381.17 221.00 387.00 215.50 390.69 219.79 394.05 219.41 399.00 219.07 403.42 213.76 408.39 216.95 418.00 221.36 431.25 229.17 432.89 228.89 442.00 228.89 442.00 225.42 471.00 225.42 471.00 224.95 474.53 225.04 479.91 223.07 482.85 220.31 486.96 210.88 486.90 206.10 489.56 200.51 492.67 199.71 502.20 200.09 508.00 200.34 511.83 201.45 517.74 203.85 520.78 206.80 524.50 211.02 524.42 212.39 530.00 213.73 535.43 206.59 553.24 211.74 560.95 217.97 570.28 236.41 563.79 236.00 577.00 236.00 577.00 310.00 577.00 310.00 577.00 312.73 576.99 316.25 577.33 318.43 575.40 320.92 573.20 320.80 569.99 321.32 567.00 322.73 558.85 321.71 561.34 322.24 556.00 322.24 556.00 323.91 547.00 323.91 547.00 324.35 540.98 322.25 532.46 331.00 531.69 332.81 531.53 334.28 532.10 336.00 532.28 341.27 532.85 343.12 529.82 349.00 529.06 353.86 528.43 354.56 530.23 358.00 530.54 361.32 530.83 370.70 528.20 372.73 525.49 374.30 523.40 376.92 513.91 377.58 511.00 377.58 511.00 381.66 497.83 381.66 497.83 381.66 497.83 380.98 486.00 380.98 486.00 380.68 476.61 375.81 477.30 379.29 470.00 383.12 461.98 385.40 466.33 391.98 456.00 396.68 448.63 393.76 447.02 397.31 443.39 401.48 439.14 406.55 441.71 408.94 436.93 410.67 433.46 407.81 429.38 406.94 426.00 405.90 421.94 407.23 418.17 410.22 415.27 412.84 412.73 424.28 408.25 428.00 407.56 433.00 406.65 435.16 409.44 439.24 404.85 441.02 402.86 448.74 392.17 449.44 390.00 452.26 381.29 445.08 373.83 458.00 370.00 458.00 366.84 458.47 359.88 456.98 357.32 455.80 355.29 446.60 348.06 445.26 343.00 444.26 339.23 447.43 333.31 449.10 330.00 452.77 322.74 449.55 322.09 458.00 317.29 459.54 316.42 461.17 315.40 463.00 315.34 465.90 315.25 472.14 319.47 475.00 321.00 475.00 321.00 477.68 312.00 477.68 312.00 477.68 312.00 478.63 305.00 478.63 305.00 478.63 305.00 483.05 295.00 483.05 295.00 483.05 295.00 483.05 285.00 483.05 285.00 483.05 285.00 457.00 290.83 457.00 290.83 [[Borgou Department|Borgou]] poly 204.00 378.09 198.00 378.82 198.00 378.82 195.22 379.01 189.99 378.26 187.00 377.91 183.64 377.52 180.15 375.88 177.00 376.43 168.76 377.87 159.89 391.57 150.00 395.14 145.58 396.38 131.55 396.56 127.00 395.14 119.22 393.40 119.53 391.49 109.00 391.00 109.00 391.00 109.00 409.00 109.00 409.00 109.00 409.00 110.00 424.00 110.00 424.00 110.00 424.00 110.00 444.00 110.00 444.00 109.87 453.63 106.71 453.36 105.91 458.00 105.45 460.61 107.25 464.32 108.00 467.00 114.17 468.97 113.93 474.31 114.00 480.00 114.03 482.98 113.74 487.26 114.72 490.00 116.12 493.90 128.70 508.73 132.09 511.78 135.10 514.48 137.49 514.98 139.44 517.27 139.44 517.27 145.51 528.00 145.51 528.00 147.02 531.73 147.68 545.12 148.17 550.00 148.17 550.00 149.00 608.00 149.00 608.00 152.74 607.83 162.55 606.68 166.00 605.70 170.07 604.54 173.60 601.66 178.00 602.89 181.90 603.99 184.73 607.28 188.00 608.84 191.81 610.65 193.97 609.29 198.00 611.73 201.82 614.05 205.90 619.16 213.00 621.59 221.08 624.36 228.08 622.78 236.00 621.00 236.00 621.00 236.86 599.00 236.86 599.00 236.86 599.00 234.51 587.04 234.51 587.04 234.51 587.04 233.07 582.58 233.07 582.58 232.54 579.04 234.93 575.89 233.77 573.14 232.45 570.01 227.92 569.43 225.00 568.79 219.30 567.55 214.40 566.93 210.64 561.96 202.86 551.69 211.67 541.18 209.85 530.04 208.90 524.19 203.33 524.76 199.99 517.00 196.43 508.71 197.14 494.28 205.04 488.70 209.60 485.47 216.59 484.97 222.00 484.00 222.00 484.00 225.28 454.00 225.28 454.00 225.75 450.23 227.35 441.23 226.58 438.00 224.89 430.85 215.61 424.73 214.21 414.00 213.33 407.25 216.93 404.33 217.52 400.00 217.95 396.84 216.60 394.67 216.66 392.00 216.29 389.21 217.38 387.80 216.66 385.00 216.46 382.76 215.64 382.31 215.00 378.09 208.25 379.58 209.49 378.17 204.00 378.09 [[Donga Department|Donga]] poly 318.42 730.00 311.02 715.00 311.02 715.00 311.02 715.00 313.71 704.00 313.71 704.00 313.71 704.00 314.30 696.00 314.30 696.00 314.30 696.00 315.83 688.00 315.83 688.00 315.83 688.00 316.39 680.00 316.39 680.00 316.39 680.00 319.72 668.00 319.72 668.00 319.72 668.00 313.56 646.00 313.56 646.00 313.56 646.00 315.37 640.00 315.37 640.00 315.37 640.00 316.64 633.00 316.64 633.00 316.64 633.00 320.82 619.00 320.82 619.00 320.82 619.00 320.00 612.00 320.00 612.00 320.00 612.00 320.00 603.00 320.00 603.00 320.00 603.00 319.00 591.00 319.00 591.00 319.00 591.00 317.98 580.60 317.98 580.60 317.98 580.60 310.00 579.00 310.00 579.00 310.00 579.00 235.00 579.00 235.00 579.00 235.26 586.63 236.56 584.73 237.67 590.00 239.34 597.46 238.85 605.57 237.67 613.00 237.01 616.76 238.31 618.16 237.10 620.07 234.94 623.47 229.59 623.95 226.00 624.00 221.06 624.06 215.54 624.49 211.00 622.33 205.31 619.62 201.44 614.89 198.00 613.17 194.55 611.45 192.14 612.51 188.00 610.16 184.89 608.40 182.82 605.80 179.00 604.65 173.86 603.11 169.76 606.21 165.00 607.51 158.90 609.18 155.15 609.00 149.00 609.00 149.00 609.00 153.66 623.42 153.66 623.42 153.66 623.42 148.64 636.00 148.64 636.00 148.64 636.00 151.00 649.00 151.00 649.00 151.00 649.00 151.00 722.00 151.00 722.00 151.00 722.00 152.00 735.00 152.00 735.00 152.00 735.00 152.00 755.94 152.00 755.94 166.40 753.42 176.18 756.23 181.00 755.94 187.22 755.43 189.92 751.17 198.00 754.13 201.28 755.33 204.30 757.44 206.59 760.08 208.54 762.34 209.03 764.62 212.12 765.57 217.89 767.35 223.35 763.69 226.00 763.61 228.52 763.53 229.97 765.05 233.00 765.70 235.57 766.25 238.37 765.71 240.90 766.73 240.90 766.73 255.70 777.45 255.70 777.45 257.51 779.06 259.10 781.50 261.30 782.43 263.15 783.21 267.83 783.00 270.00 783.00 272.03 774.71 276.57 773.19 278.40 768.00 279.76 764.17 277.20 755.85 284.10 752.02 286.30 750.80 289.53 751.00 292.00 751.00 292.00 751.00 319.00 751.00 319.00 751.00 319.00 751.00 318.42 730.00 318.42 730.00 [[Collines Department|Collines]] poly 292.30 753.00 286.57 752.61 284.39 754.02 281.46 755.92 281.10 759.84 281.08 763.00 281.04 774.80 270.91 774.76 272.27 785.00 272.27 785.00 273.76 791.00 273.76 791.00 275.77 801.74 275.37 806.88 280.47 817.96 283.01 823.47 285.98 822.81 287.98 826.21 288.89 827.76 289.44 832.73 290.00 835.00 292.46 844.84 293.99 846.60 294.00 857.00 294.00 857.00 286.00 857.00 286.00 857.00 286.23 859.87 287.62 869.61 289.01 871.72 290.95 874.68 294.33 874.42 296.69 876.56 298.98 878.65 298.94 881.14 299.00 884.00 299.00 884.00 299.00 913.00 299.00 913.00 299.00 913.00 315.00 912.00 315.00 912.00 315.76 917.70 316.21 927.45 321.00 931.00 321.00 931.00 322.37 924.00 322.37 924.00 322.93 917.23 320.61 905.79 329.00 903.00 329.00 903.00 328.00 894.00 328.00 894.00 318.78 891.20 322.04 885.32 322.64 880.00 322.64 880.00 322.64 872.01 322.64 872.01 322.64 866.54 319.80 866.88 319.03 862.96 317.84 856.92 322.79 851.79 328.00 850.00 326.01 846.41 321.84 843.26 321.74 840.00 321.64 836.40 325.42 834.71 325.69 830.00 325.69 830.00 323.14 814.00 323.14 814.00 323.14 814.00 323.14 796.00 323.14 796.00 323.04 790.35 322.85 788.03 329.00 787.00 329.00 787.00 328.02 776.51 328.02 776.51 328.02 776.51 319.58 765.91 319.58 765.91 319.58 765.91 319.00 753.00 319.00 753.00 319.00 753.00 295.00 753.00 295.00 753.00 [[Plateau Department|Plateau]] poly 206.34 763.93 205.43 757.98 198.00 755.65 191.50 753.61 187.31 756.49 184.00 757.05 184.00 757.05 174.00 757.05 174.00 757.05 174.00 757.05 169.00 757.05 169.00 757.05 164.61 756.98 153.74 754.41 152.33 760.22 151.73 762.72 153.77 772.55 154.89 775.00 154.89 775.00 158.36 781.00 158.36 781.00 158.36 781.00 166.66 799.00 166.66 799.00 167.87 801.99 168.54 806.16 170.20 808.63 170.20 808.63 174.52 813.21 174.52 813.21 174.52 813.21 183.37 825.01 183.37 825.01 187.45 831.76 184.90 833.76 187.92 839.99 187.92 839.99 197.31 852.00 197.31 852.00 198.71 854.11 208.31 865.01 210.09 865.98 211.94 866.98 213.96 866.99 216.00 866.83 216.00 866.83 238.00 863.41 238.00 863.41 240.99 862.91 246.45 862.26 249.00 861.03 251.65 859.76 254.75 856.94 257.00 855.00 261.30 861.61 263.82 856.19 272.00 851.00 272.00 851.00 272.00 855.00 272.00 855.00 272.00 855.00 292.00 855.00 292.00 855.00 292.00 855.00 288.00 835.00 288.00 835.00 288.00 835.00 286.41 827.21 286.41 827.21 286.41 827.21 279.70 819.96 279.70 819.96 279.70 819.96 274.37 806.00 274.37 806.00 274.37 806.00 269.43 786.60 269.43 786.60 269.43 786.60 260.30 783.98 260.30 783.98 260.30 783.98 253.83 777.87 253.83 777.87 253.83 777.87 241.55 769.00 241.55 769.00 241.55 769.00 233.00 767.69 233.00 767.69 233.00 767.69 226.00 764.00 226.00 764.00 221.54 767.25 214.37 769.95 209.30 766.15 [[Zou Department|Zou]] poly 153.00 804.00 153.00 859.00 153.00 859.00 153.00 859.00 139.00 859.00 139.00 859.00 140.12 869.52 144.79 869.08 146.70 874.04 146.70 874.04 148.00 891.00 148.00 891.00 148.00 891.00 167.00 887.01 167.00 887.01 173.25 884.66 179.78 879.51 187.00 881.43 192.57 882.92 192.27 886.99 195.43 890.37 199.86 895.12 204.70 896.92 211.00 897.00 211.10 886.84 212.56 890.16 215.29 883.00 215.29 883.00 217.11 877.00 217.11 877.00 218.73 873.21 219.32 873.47 220.00 869.07 220.00 869.07 213.00 869.07 213.00 869.07 206.74 868.26 197.27 854.10 193.37 849.09 190.23 845.06 187.66 844.48 185.56 839.00 183.47 833.53 184.76 830.30 182.35 826.01 182.35 826.01 168.00 807.99 168.00 807.99 168.00 807.99 160.57 789.00 160.57 789.00 160.57 789.00 155.00 778.00 155.00 778.00 151.88 784.13 153.00 796.83 153.00 804.00 [[Kouffo Department|Couffo]] poly 257.00 858.00 248.00 863.30 248.00 863.30 248.00 863.30 222.00 868.00 222.00 868.00 221.30 877.09 214.05 887.68 213.30 891.00 213.30 891.00 212.78 897.00 212.78 897.00 212.78 897.00 210.56 904.00 210.56 904.00 210.56 904.00 210.03 909.00 210.03 909.00 209.27 912.47 207.53 913.55 207.11 918.00 206.62 923.23 208.88 928.13 207.61 934.00 206.40 939.60 201.12 945.73 201.38 952.00 201.38 952.00 206.00 968.00 206.00 968.00 222.41 965.82 240.46 961.05 257.00 961.00 262.31 950.04 272.23 953.79 277.61 950.02 281.43 947.33 282.20 940.30 281.95 936.00 281.83 933.85 281.57 933.02 281.00 931.00 274.36 932.39 273.12 930.44 273.00 924.00 273.00 924.00 273.00 901.00 273.00 901.00 273.00 901.00 271.88 889.00 271.88 889.00 271.88 889.00 271.88 880.00 271.88 880.00 270.65 874.76 266.10 871.72 265.57 868.00 265.10 864.74 268.71 860.40 270.00 855.00 262.76 858.36 261.92 862.80 257.00 858.00 [[Atlantique Department|Atlantique]] poly 265.94 871.63 272.70 873.14 274.03 882.00 274.03 882.00 276.00 930.06 276.00 930.06 277.77 929.74 280.02 929.17 281.69 930.06 286.93 933.10 282.45 945.82 281.00 950.00 290.46 952.22 290.49 955.31 294.09 956.25 296.22 956.80 307.99 954.73 311.00 954.27 312.59 954.03 315.15 953.84 316.43 952.83 318.46 951.21 317.93 947.36 318.04 945.00 318.18 941.90 319.74 936.26 319.27 934.17 318.66 931.45 316.47 930.61 315.04 925.00 314.39 922.44 314.16 916.52 312.26 915.00 309.68 912.91 300.38 914.73 297.00 915.00 297.00 915.00 297.00 885.00 297.00 885.00 297.00 885.00 295.98 878.56 295.98 878.56 295.98 878.56 286.74 871.95 286.74 871.95 286.74 871.95 284.00 857.00 284.00 857.00 276.19 857.00 270.53 855.71 267.85 865.00 [[Ouémé Department|Ouémé]] poly 190.28 887.88 191.51 885.48 187.86 884.18 179.49 881.23 172.19 887.47 165.00 890.03 161.26 891.37 159.48 890.71 156.00 891.21 156.00 891.21 149.00 893.00 149.00 893.00 149.00 893.00 144.00 907.00 144.00 907.00 150.92 912.00 146.25 912.89 149.18 917.78 150.76 920.42 153.53 920.93 155.83 922.69 160.20 926.05 161.69 929.71 162.00 935.00 172.27 940.14 174.95 959.54 178.00 970.00 178.00 970.00 161.00 974.00 161.00 974.00 157.16 974.77 154.35 974.62 152.00 978.00 152.00 978.00 204.00 968.00 204.00 968.00 204.00 968.00 199.26 951.00 199.26 951.00 199.26 951.00 205.79 933.00 205.79 933.00 205.79 933.00 205.06 919.00 205.06 919.00 205.06 919.00 210.00 900.00 210.00 900.00 204.65 899.12 198.01 895.52 194.14 891.70 [[Mono Department|Mono]] poly 278.09 952.30 265.26 954.83 262.14 957.00 260.19 958.36 260.03 959.06 259.00 961.00 259.00 961.00 274.00 960.00 274.00 960.00 274.00 960.00 275.00 956.00 275.00 956.00 275.00 956.00 275.00 960.00 275.00 960.00 275.00 960.00 290.00 957.00 290.00 957.00 290.00 957.00 290.00 955.00 290.00 955.00 287.42 953.90 284.83 952.87 282.00 952.63 [[Littoral Department|Littoral]] </imagemap> Charu cha Benin chili na vigaŵa 12 (French: départements) ivyo vili na vikaya 77. Mu 1999, madipatimenti 6 ghakale ghakagaŵikana mu vigaŵa viŵiri, ndipo ghakazgoka madipatimenti 12 ghakale.<ref>{{citation|url= http://www.statoids.com/ubj.html|title= Statoids - Benin|access-date= 26 November 2019|archive-date= 18 May 2021|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210518143005/http://www.statoids.com/ubj.html|url-status= live}}</ref> {{#section:Departments of Benin|table}} == Ŵanthu == {{Pie chart | thumb = right | caption = '''Ethnic Groups of Benin (2013 Census)''' | label1 = Fon | value1 = 38.4| color2=#36A | label2 = Adja & Mina | value2 = 15.1| color1=#6A5 | label3 = Yoruba | value3 = 12 | color3=#FF33AC | label4 = Bariba | value4 = 9.6 | color4=#1A9 | label5 = Fula | value5 = 8.6| color5=#E17720 | label6 = Ottamari | value6 = 6.1 | color6=#F0FF00 | label7 = Yoa-Lokpa | value7 = 4.3 | color7=#64ECDF | label8 = Dendi | value8 = 2.9 | color8=#F0FF01 | label9 = Other | value9 = 2.8 | color9=#65ECDF }} {{stack|[[File:K640 b 160.jpg|thumb|Children]]}} {{main|Demographics of Benin|Languages of Benin}} Pa ŵanthu 11,485,000 awo ŵakukhala mu Benin, ŵanandi ŵakukhala kumwera kwa charu ichi. Ŵanthu ŵakukhala vyaka 62. Mu charu ichi muli ŵanthu ŵa mafuko pafupifupi 42, kusazgapo Ŵayoruba (awo ŵakafuma ku Nigeria m'ma 1200 C.E.); Ŵandidi (awo ŵakafuma ku Mali m'ma 1500 C.E.); Ŵabaliba na Ŵafula (awo ŵakafuma ku Mali m'ma 1500 C.E.); Ŵabetammaribe na Ŵasomba (awo ŵakukhala mu mapiri gha Atakora); Ŵafoni (awo ŵakukhala mu chigaŵa cha Abomey) kumwera kwa charu ichi, kweniso Ŵamina, Xueda, na Aja (awo ŵakafuma ku Togo) awo ŵakukhala mumphepete mwa nyanja.<ref name="bn" /> Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Africa ŵakwiza ku Benin, kusazgapo ŵanthu ŵa ku Nigeria, Togo, na Mali. Ŵanthu ŵa ku vyaru vinyake ŵali nga ni ŵanthu ŵa ku Lebanon na ŵa ku India awo ŵakuchita malonda. Ŵanthu awo ŵakuteŵetera mu maofesi gha ŵapharazgi ŵa ku Europe, mu maofesi ghakovwira ŵanthu ku vyaru vinyake, mu mawupu gha wupu wakuwona vya wanangwa wa ŵanthu, na mu magulu gha ŵamishonale ŵalipo pa ŵanthu 5,500 mu Europe.<ref name="bn" />Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵa ku Europe ŵali kufuma ku Benin. {{Historical populations|align=none|direction=horizontal | pop_name=Population{{UN_Population|ref}} |1950 |2,200,000 |2000 |6,800,000 |{{UN_Population|Year}} |{{#expr:{{formatnum:{{UN_Population|Benin}}|R}} round -5}} }} {{Largest cities | country = Benin | stat_ref = According to the 2013 Census<ref>{{cite web |title=Benin: Departments, Major Cities & Towns - Population Statistics, Maps, Charts, Weather and Web Information |url=http://citypopulation.de/Benin-Cities.html |website=www.citypopulation.de |access-date=7 December 2021 |archive-date=9 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190509011915/http://citypopulation.de/Benin-Cities.html |url-status=live }}</ref> | list_by_pop = | div_name = Department | div_link = | city_1 = Cotonou | div_1 = Littoral Department{{!}}Littoral | pop_1 = 679,012 | img_1 = Cotonou vue.jpg | city_2 = Porto-Novo{{!}}{{nowrap|Porto-Novo}} | div_2 = Ouémé Department{{!}}Ouémé | pop_2 = 264,320 | img_2 = Porto-Novo vue.jpg | city_3 = Parakou | div_3 = Borgou Department{{!}}Borgou | pop_3 = 255,478 | img_3 = | city_4 = Godomey{{!}}{{nowrap|Godomey}} | div_4 = Atlantique Department{{!}}Atlantique | pop_4 = 253,262 | img_4 = | city_5 = Abomey-Calavi | div_5 = Atlantique Department{{!}}Atlantique | pop_5 = 117,824 | city_6 = Djougou | div_6 = Donga Department{{!}}Donga | pop_6 = 94,773 | city_7 = Bohicon | div_7 = Zou Department{{!}}Zou | pop_7 = 93,744 | city_8 = Ekpè | div_8 = Ouémé Department{{!}}Ouémé | pop_8 = 75,313 | city_9 = Abomey | div_9 = Zou Department{{!}}Zou | pop_9 = 67,885 | city_10 = Nikki, Benin{{!}}Nikki | div_10 = Borgou Department{{!}}Borgou | pop_10 = 66,109 }} === Religion === {{Pie chart |thumb = right |caption = Religion in Benin (2013 CIA World Factbook estimate)<ref>{{Cite CIA World Factbook|country=Benin|access-date=6 November 2008 |year=2008}}</ref> | label1 = [[Christianity]] | value1 = 48.5 | color1 = DodgerBlue | label2 = [[Islam]] | value2 = 27.7 | color2 = Green | label3 = Others / None | value3 = 12.2 | color3 = Yellow | label4 = [[Vodun]] | value4 = 11.6 | color4 = Gold }} [[File:Benin - batism ceremony in Cotonou.jpg|thumb|Ŵanthu 5 pa ŵanthu 100 awo ŵakukhala mu Benin ŵali mu tchalitchi ili, la African Initiated Church.]] {{main|Religion in Benin}} Visopa vikuruvikuru ni Cikhristu, ico cikulondezgeka kumwera na pakati pa Benin ndiposo mu caru ca Otammari mu Atakora, na Cisilamu, ico cikayambiskika na Ufumu wa Songhai na ŵamalonda ŵa Hausa, ndipo cikulondezgeka mu vigaŵa vyose vya Alibori, Borgou na Donga, kweniso pakati pa Ŵayoruba (awo nawo ŵakulondezga Cikhristu). Ŵanyake ŵakulutilira kugomezga visambizgo vya Vodun na Orisha ndipo ŵali kunjizga cisopa ca Vodun na Orisha mu Cikristu. Gulu la Ahmadiyya Muslim Community, ilo lili kwamba mu ma 1800, lili na ŵanthu ŵanandi mu charu ichi. Mu 2013, ŵanthu 48.5% ŵa mu Benin ŵakaŵa Ŵakhristu (25.5% Ŵaroma Ŵakatolika, 6.7% ŵa Tchalitchi la Khristu, 3.4% ŵa Methodist, 12.9% ŵa visopa vinyake vya Chikhristu), 27.7% ŵakaŵa Ŵasilamu, 11.6% ŵakasopanga Vodun, 2.6% ŵakasopanga visopa vinyake vya ku malo agha, 2.6% ŵakasopanga visopa vinyake, ndipo 5.8% ŵakatenge ŵalije chisopa.<ref name="insae-bj.org"/><ref name="report">[https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2007/90082.htm International Religious Freedom Report 2007: Benin] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190729171032/https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2007/90082.htm|date=29 July 2019}} . United States [[Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor]] (14 September 2007). ''This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the [[public domain]].''</ref> Kafukufuku uyo wakachitika na boma mu 2011 na 2012 wakalongora kuti Ŵakhristu ŵakaŵa 57.5% (Ŵakatolika ŵakaŵa 33.9%, Ŵamethodisti 3.0%, Ŵakuchanya 6.2% na Ŵakhristu ŵanyake 14.5%), apo Ŵasilamu ŵakaŵa 22.8%. Visopa ivi ni vya ku Atakora (vigaŵa vya Atakora na Donga), kweniso vya ku Yoruba na Tado. Msumba wa Ouidah, uwo uli mumphepete mwa nyanja, ndiwo ŵanthu ŵa ku Benin ŵakutemwa kusopa.<ref name="DHS 2011-12">{{cite web|url=https://dhsprogram.com/pubs/pdf/FR270/FR270.pdf|title=Enquête Démographique et de Santé (EDSB-IV) 2011-2012|publisher=Ministère du Développement, de l'Analyse Économique et de la Prospective Institut National de la Statistique et de l'Analyse Économique (INSAE)|page=39|language=fr|access-date=20 April 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170623015547/http://dhsprogram.com/pubs/pdf/fr270/fr270.pdf|archive-date=23 June 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> ===Masambilo=== [[File:BEN 2001-007-S20.jpg|thumb|Ŵasambiri.]] {{main|Education in Benin}} Chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu awo ŵakumanya kuŵazga na kulemba: mu 2015 chikaŵa 38.4% (49.9% ku ŵanalume na 27.3% ku ŵanakazi). Ku Benin ŵanthu wose ŵakusambira pulayimale, ndipo hafu ya ŵana (54%) ŵakalembeska masambiro gha sekondare mu 2013, kuyana na lipoti la UNESCO Institute for Statistics. Nangauli nyengo yinyake masambiro ghakaŵa ghaulere yayi, kweni sono Benin wali kuwuskapo ndarama za sukulu ndipo wakuchita ivyo vikayowoyeka pa ungano wa mu 2007.<ref name="UnescoBenin">{{cite web|url=http://www.unesco.org/new/en/unesco/worldwide/africa/benin/|title=Benin|publisher=U. N. Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization|access-date=17 September 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100913193731/http://www.unesco.org/new/en/unesco/worldwide/africa/benin/|archive-date=13 September 2010|url-status=live}}</ref> Kufuma mu 2009, boma lapeleka ndalama zinandi chomene za pa GDP ku masukulu. Kuyana na lipoti la UNESCO Institute for Statistics, mu 2015, ndalama izo ŵanthu ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito pa nkhani ya masambiro (pa vigaŵa vyose) zikakwana 4.4% ya GDP. Pa ndalama izi, caru ca Benin cikapeleka cigaŵa cimoza pa masambiro ghapacanya: 0.97% ya GDP. Pakati pa 2009 na 2011, chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu awo ŵakasambiranga pa yunivesite chikakwera kufuma pa 10% kufika pa 12% pa ŵanthu awo ŵakaŵa na vyaka vyapakati pa 18 na 25. Chiŵelengero cha ŵana ŵa sukulu awo ŵakasambiranga masambiro ghapachanya chikakwera chomene pakati pa 2006 na 2011, kufuma pa 50,225 kufika pa 110,181. Ŵasambiri awo ŵali na masambiro ghapachanya na ghapachanya (postsecondary) awo ŵalije digiri, ndiwo ŵali na masambiro agha.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last1=Essegbey |first1=George |url=http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0023/002354/235406e.pdf |title=West Africa. In: UNESCO Science Report: towards 2030 |last2=Diaby |first2=Nouhou |last3=Konté |first3=Almamy |publisher=UNESCO |year=2015 |isbn=978-92-3-100129-1 |location=Paris |pages=471–497 |access-date=12 June 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170630025557/http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0023/002354/235406e.pdf |archive-date=30 June 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> === Umoyo === {{main|Health in Benin}} {{see also|HIV/AIDS in Benin}} Mu caka ca 2013, ciŵelengero ca ŵanthu awo ŵali na HIV/AIDS ku Benin cikaŵa 1.13% pa ŵanthu wose ŵa vyaka 15-49. Maleriya ni suzgo likuru ku Benin, ndipo ndico cikupangiska kuti ŵana awo ŵandakwaniske vyaka vinkhondi ŵalwarenge na kufwa. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1980, ŵanthu ŵacoko comene kuluska 30% mu caru ici ndiwo ŵakasanganga wovwiri wa munkhwala. Pa ŵana 1,000 awo ŵakubabika, ŵana 203 ndiwo ŵakufwa. Ndondomeko ya ku Bamako yikasintha vinthu ivi mwa kunozga vyakupwelelera umoyo wa ŵanthu, ndipo ivi vikapangiska kuti ŵapelekenge wovwiri wakukwana.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.who.int/inf-new/child6.htm|title=Bamako Initiative revitalizes primary health care in Benin|publisher=WHO.int|access-date=28 December 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070106133809/http://www.who.int/inf-new/child6.htm|archive-date=6 January 2007}}</ref> Mu 2015, caru ca Benin cikaŵa pa nambara 26 pa vyaru vyose pa caru capasi pa nkhani ya kufwa kwa ŵanakazi. Lipoti la wupu wa UNICEF la mu 2013, likati ŵanakazi 13 pa ŵanakazi 100 ŵaliwose ŵakomeka. Ndondomeko iyi yikakhwaska vigaŵa vyose vya ndopa, ndipo pamasinda vinthu vikasintha pa nkhani ya ndopa. Wupu wa Demographic and Health Surveys, ukuchita kafukufuku pa nkhani iyi mu Benin kwambira mu 1996.<ref name="Benin Surveys">{{cite web |title=Benin |website=The DHS Program |publisher=[[USAID]] |url=https://dhsprogram.com/Countries/Country-Main.cfm?ctry_id=52 |access-date=2022-08-27 |archive-date=27 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220827151035/https://dhsprogram.com/Countries/Country-Main.cfm?ctry_id=52 |url-status=live }}</ref> == Makhalilo gha charu == {{main|Geography of Benin}} [[File:Benin map of Köppen climate classification.svg|thumb|Map of Köppen climate classification.]] Chigaŵa cha kumpoto na kumwera kwa Africa chili pakati pa latitude 6° na 13°N, kweniso longitude 0° na 4°E. Charu ichi chili kumafumiro gha dazi na Togo, kumpoto na Burkina Faso na Niger, kumafumiro gha dazi na Nigeria, ndipo kumwera na Benin Bay. Mtunda kufuma ku Mlonga wa Niger kumpoto m'paka ku Nyanja ya Atlantic kumwera ni makilomita pafupifupi 650. Nangauli mumphepete mwa nyanja muli mtunda wa makilomita 121, kweni charu ichi chili na mtunda wa makilomita 325 pa malo ghakupambanapambana. Charu ichi chili na chiŵelengero cha 5.86/10, ndipo chili pa 93 pa vyaru 172.<ref name="FLII-Supplementary">{{cite journal|last1=Grantham|first1=H. S.|last2=Duncan|first2=A.|last3=Evans|first3=T. D.|last4=Jones|first4=K. R.|last5=Beyer|first5=H. L.|last6=Schuster|first6=R.|last7=Walston|first7=J.|last8=Ray|first8=J. C.|last9=Robinson|first9=J. G.|last10=Callow|first10=M.|last11=Clements|first11=T.|last12=Costa|first12=H. M.|last13=DeGemmis|first13=A.|last14=Elsen|first14=P. R.|last15=Ervin|first15=J.|last16=Franco|first16=P.|last17=Goldman|first17=E.|last18=Goetz|first18=S.|last19=Hansen|first19=A.|last20=Hofsvang|first20=E.|last21=Jantz|first21=P.|last22=Jupiter|first22=S.|last23=Kang|first23=A.|last24=Langhammer|first24=P.|last25=Laurance|first25=W. F.|last26=Lieberman|first26=S.|last27=Linkie|first27=M.|last28=Malhi|first28=Y.|last29=Maxwell|first29=S.|last30=Mendez|first30=M.|last31=Mittermeier|first31=R.|last32=Murray|first32=N. J.|last33=Possingham|first33=H.|last34=Radachowsky|first34=J.|last35=Saatchi|first35=S.|last36=Samper|first36=C.|last37=Silverman|first37=J.|last38=Shapiro|first38=A.|last39=Strassburg|first39=B.|last40=Stevens|first40=T.|last41=Stokes|first41=E.|last42=Taylor|first42=R.|last43=Tear|first43=T.|last44=Tizard|first44=R.|last45=Venter|first45=O.|last46=Visconti|first46=P.|last47=Wang|first47=S.|last48=Watson|first48=J. E. M.|title=Anthropogenic modification of forests means only 40% of remaining forests have high ecosystem integrity - Supplementary Material|journal=Nature Communications|volume=11|issue=1|year=2020|page=5978|issn=2041-1723|doi=10.1038/s41467-020-19493-3|pmid=33293507|pmc=7723057|bibcode=2020NatCo..11.5978G |doi-access=free}}</ref> [[File:Atakora Benin Batia.jpg|thumb|Atakora, ni limoza mwa madipatimenti ghaŵiri agho ghali kumpoto comene mu Benin.]] [[File:West African male lion.jpg|thumb|left|Nkhorongo ya Pendjari ni malo ghakusungirako nkharamu za ku West Africa na vinyama vinyake vikuruvikuru.]] Charu cha Benin chili na malo ghakupambanapambana ndipo chingagaŵika mu vigaŵa vinayi kufuma kumwera kuya kumpoto, kwambira pa malo gha pasi, gha mchenga, gha mumphepete mwa nyanja (malo ghapachanya 10 m (32.8 ft)) agho ghali na usani wa makilomita 10. Charu ichi chili na mathipa, nyanja, na nyanja zinandi. Kumanyuma kwa nyanja kuli mapiri gha kumwera kwa Benin agho ghali na nkhorongo za nkhorongo za ku Guinea. Chifukwa cha malo agha, charu ichi chikusuzgika na kusintha kwa nyengo. Pakuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakukhala kufupi na mumphepete mwa nyanja ndipo ŵakukhala ku malo ghapacanya, kukwera kwa nyanja kungapangiska kuti vinthu viheni vichitikenge. Ku vigaŵa vya kumpoto, vigaŵa vinyake vizamuzgoka mapopa. Chigaŵa icho chili na mapiri ghatali ghakukwana mamita 400 chili pafupi na Nikki na Save. Pa mphaka ya kumpoto ca kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa caru ici pali mapiri ghanandi agho ghakumanyikwa kuti Atacora. Phiri la Sokbaro lili pa mtunda wa mamita 658. Mu Benin muli minda, makuni gha mangrove, na nkhorongo. Ku vigaŵa vinyake vya charu ichi, makuni gha baobab ghakukhala mu thengere. Makuni ghanyake ghali mumphepete mwa milonga. Kumpoto na kumpoto ca kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Benin, kuli njovu, nkharamu, viyuni vya mu mphepete mwa nyanja, na vinyama vinyake nga ni mphoyo.<ref name=bn>{{citation-attribution| {{cite web |url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/6761.htm |title=Background Note: Benin |publisher=U.S. Department of State |date=June 2008 |access-date=22 May 2019 |archive-date=4 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190604183410/https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/6761.htm |url-status=live }} }}.</ref> Nkhorongo ya Pendjari, Arli, na W, ku Burkina Faso na Niger, ni malo agho nkhalamu za ku West Africa zikukhala. Ku W-Arli-Pendjari kuli nkharamu zakukwana 356 (vyakuŵapo: 246 466). Kwamba kale, mu Benin mukaŵa ntcheŵe yakuchemeka Lycaon pictus. Ku chigaŵa cha mumphepete mwa nyanja, kukulokwa maji pafupifupi mamita 1,300 pa chaka. Mu Benin, mu chaka mukuŵa nyengo ziŵiri za vula na nyengo ziŵiri za chilangalanga. Nyengo ya vula yikwamba kufuma mu Epulero m'paka kuumaliro wa Julayi, ndipo kufuma mu Seputembala m'paka Novembala kukuŵa nyengo yifupi ya vula. Nyengo ya chilangalanga yikwamba mu Disembala m'paka mu Epulero, ndipo nyengo yakuzizima yikwamba mu Julayi m'paka Seputembala. Ku vigaŵa vya mumphepete mwa nyanja, kuthukira na kuthukira kwa maji ni vinandi. Ku Cotonou, kutentha kwapakati pa nyengo ni 31 °C (87.8 °F); ndipo kwapasi ni 24 °C (75.2 °F).<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Henschel|first1=P.|last2=Coad|first2=L.|last3=Burton|first3=C.|last4=Chataigner|first4=B.|last5=Dunn|first5=A.|last6=MacDonald|first6=D.|last7=Saidu|first7=Y.|last8=Hunter|first8=L. T. B.|editor-last=Hayward|editor-first=Matt|title=The Lion in West Africa is Critically Endangered|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0083500|journal=[[PLoS ONE]]|volume=9|page=e83500|year=2014|issue=1|pmid=24421889|pmc=3885426|bibcode=2014PLoSO...983500H|doi-access=free}}</ref> Para munthu wakwenda kumpoto na kujumpha mu viŵaya na mapiri ghakututuŵa na kuluta ku Sahel, matenthedwe ghakusazgikira. Mphepo yakufuma ku Sahara yakucemeka Harmattan yikuputa kufuma mu Disembala mpaka mu Malichi, apo utheka ukufota, vyakumera vinyake vikuŵa vyakubinkha, ndipo fuvu likunjilira mu caru, ndipo kucanya "kukubenekelera". Kweniso ni nyengo iyo ŵalimi ŵakotcha makuni mu minda yawo.<ref name=bn/><ref name="bn" /><ref>{{cite web |first=C. Michael |last=Hogan |date=2008-12-02 |url=http://globaltwitcher.auderis.se/artspec_information.asp?thingid=35993 |title=Painted Hunting Dog: Lycaon pictus |website=GlobalTwitcher |editor=N. Stromberg |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101209234758/http://globaltwitcher.auderis.se/artspec_information.asp?thingid=35993 |archive-date=9 December 2010 }}</ref> ==Chuma== {{main|Economy of Benin}} [[File:Benin Product Exports (2019).svg|upright=1.4|thumb|right|A proportional representation of Benin exports, 2019]] [[File:Extensive Landwirtschaft im Norden Benins bei Djougou.jpg|thumb|Extensive agriculture in the north of Benin, near Djougou.]] [[File:GDP per capita development of Benin.svg|thumb|Real GDP per capita development of Benin since 1950]] Charu ichi chikuthemba pa ulimi, kupanga katoni, na malonda. Makuni gha katoni ghakukwana 40% gha GDP na pafupifupi 80% ya ndalama izo ŵanthu ŵakuguliska.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/6761.htm|title=Background Note: Benin|publisher=State.gov|date=3 February 2010|access-date=2 May 2010|archive-date=4 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190604183410/https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/6761.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> Kukura kwa GDP ku malo ghakukhala ŵanthu kukakanizgika pa 5,1% mu 2008 na 5,7% mu 2009. Cinthu cikuru ico cikovwira kuti caru ici cikure ni vyakurya, ndipo katoni ndiyo yikuguliskika comene, apo mauteŵeti ghakuluska comene GDP, comenecomene cifukwa ca malo agho Benin yili, agho ghakovwira kuti vinthu vyamalonda, vya mendero, na vyakusanguluska vicitikenge makora mu vyaru vyapafupi.<ref>{{cite web |title=Benin: Financial Sector Overview |website=Making Finance Work for Africa |url=https://www.mfw4a.org/country/benin |access-date=30 November 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110513105544/http://www.mfw4a.org/benin/benin-financial-sector-profile.html |archive-date=13 May 2011 }}</ref> Vinthu vikenda makora mu charu cha Benin mu 2017, ndipo chiŵelengero chikakura pafupifupi 5.6%. Vinthu ivyo vikapangiska kuti vinthu vyende makora ni vyakumera makuni, doko la Cotonou, na mawoko. Ku Cotonou, boma likukhumba kusazgirako ndalama izo likusanga. Mu 2017, charu cha Benin chikaguliska katundu wa madola pafupifupi 2.8 biliyoni nga ni mpunga, nyama na viŵeto, moŵa, mafuta gha pulasitiki, makina gha migodi na ghakujulira, mawoko, magalimoto gha ŵanthu, na vinthu vyakutoweskera. Vinthu vikuru comene ivyo ŵakuguliska ku vyaru vinyake ni makuni gha makuni gha makuni, makuni gha makuni gha makuni gha makuni, makuni gha makuni gha makuni gha makuni gha makuni gha makuni gha makuni gha makuni gha makuni, makuni gha cashew, mafuta gha shea, na makuni. Vinthu vyakuthupi ivyo ŵanthu ŵakugwiliskira nchito ni vicoko comene kuluska umo viliri pa caru cose. Mu 2016, charu cha Benin chikaŵa na malo ghakukwana mahekitala 0.9 gha vyakumera pa munthu yumoza pa charu chose.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Lin|first1=David|last2=Hanscom|first2=Laurel|last3=Murthy|first3=Adeline|last4=Galli|first4=Alessandro|last5=Evans|first5=Mikel|last6=Neill|first6=Evan|last7=Mancini|first7=MariaSerena|last8=Martindill|first8=Jon|last9=Medouar|first9=FatimeZahra|last10=Huang|first10=Shiyu|last11=Wackernagel |first11=Mathis|date=2018|title=Ecological Footprint Accounting for Countries: Updates and Results of the National Footprint Accounts, 2012-2018|journal=Resources|language=en|volume=7|issue=3|pages=58|doi=10.3390/resources7030058|doi-access=free}}</ref> Mu 2016, charu cha Benin chikagwiliskira ntchito malo ghakukwana mahekitala 1.4 pa munthu yumoza. Ichi chikung'anamura kuti ŵakugwiliskira nchito "vigaŵa viŵiri" vya malo agho Benin wali. Pa cifukwa ici, caru ca Benin cili na suzgo la vyamoyo. Munda wa katoni kumpoto kwa Benin. Kuti caru ici cikure makora, Benin yikukhumba kukopa ndalama zinandi zakufuma ku vyaru vinyake, kuŵika mtima comene pa vyakusanguluska, kovwira kuti vyakurya na vyakurya viŵe makora, na kukhozga vyakupharazga. Mu Malichi 2006, boma la Benin likapeleka ndalama zakukwana madola 307 miliyoni gha ku United States kuti viwovwire ŵanthu awo ŵakukhumba kuchita bizinesi.<ref name="MCC">{{cite web|title=2006 Benin Compact Summary|website=Millennium Challenge Corporation|date=2006|url=https://assets.mcc.gov/agreements/022206_benin_compact_summary.pdf|access-date=16 April 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160203153130/https://assets.mcc.gov/agreements/022206_benin_compact_summary.pdf|archive-date=3 February 2016}}</ref> Wupu wa Paris Club na ŵakukongozga ŵaŵiri ŵakawovwira kuchepeska ngongoli ya caru cose. Kuŵavya magesi ghakukwana kukulutilira "kutimbanizga" vyachuma cha Benin ndipo boma lacitapo kanthu kuti likure magesi. Nangauli wupu wa vyamalonda ku Benin ukuwovwira ŵanthu pafupifupi 75% pa ŵanthu wose awo ŵakugwira ntchito, kweni wupu wa International Trade Union Confederation (ITCU) ukuti mu vyamalonda muli masuzgo ghanandi, kusazgapo kusowa kwa malipiro ghakuyana waka ku ŵanakazi, kugwiliskira ntchito ŵana, kweniso ntchito ya kuchichizgika. Charu cha Benin chili mu wupu wa Organization for the Harmonization of Business Law in Africa (OHADA).<ref name="CIA">{{Cite CIA World Factbook|country=Benin|access-date=2022-08-27 <!--check original ref placement date in article history--> |year=2022}}</ref> Ku Cotonou ndiko kuli dowoko la nyanja na chiŵanja cha ndege pera. Maliri gha Benin ghali na misewu ya mizere yiŵiri iyo yikukolerana na vyaru vinyake (Togo, Burkina Faso, Niger, na Nigeria). Mafoni gha pa foni ghalipo mu caru cose ici. Mu vigaŵa vinyake muli Intaneti ya ADSL. Boma la Benin lili pa Intaneti kwizira mu wayilesi (kwambira mu 1998) kweniso pa wayilesi ya SAT-3/WASC (kwambira mu 2001). Ŵakuwona kuti "malipiro ghapachanya" ghazamumara para ŵamba kugwiliskira ntchito nthowa ya Africa Coast to Europe mu 2011. Pakuti ciŵelengero ca GDP ca ŵanthu awo ŵakukura cafika pa 4 na 5 peresenti kwa vyaka vyakujumpha 20, ukavu ukulutilira kusazgikira. Wupu wa National Institute of Statistics and Economic Analysis ku Benin ukati ŵanthu awo ŵakukhala pasi pa ukavu ŵakwera kufuma pa 36.2% mu 2011 kufika pa 40.1% mu 2015.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Benin: Request for a Three-year Arrangement Under the Extended Credit Facility-Press Release; Staff Report; and Statement by the Executive Director for Benin|last=International Monetary Fund. African Dept.|publisher=International Monetary Fund|year=2017|pages=5}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.worldbank.org/en/country/benin/overview|title=The World Bank In Benin|date=10 October 2017|website=The World Bank|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180309013038/http://www.worldbank.org/en/country/benin/overview|archive-date=9 March 2018|url-status=live|access-date=14 March 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=OHADA.com: The business law portal in Africa|url=http://www.ohada.com/index.php|access-date=22 March 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090326033744/http://www.ohada.com/index.php|archive-date=26 March 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Serious violations of core labour standards in Benin, Burkina Faso and Mali|work=ICFTU Online|url=http://www.icftu.org/displaydocument.asp?Index=991220267&Language=EN|access-date=30 July 2007|archive-date=4 September 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220904222240/https://www.viasatprovider.com/?Index=991220267&Language=EN|url-status=live}}</ref> ===Science and technology=== {{Main|Science and technology in Benin}} ==== National policy framework ==== Unduna wa vya masambiro ghapachanya na kafukufuku wa vya sayansi ndiwo ukuchita milimo ya sayansi. Wupu wa National Directorate of Scientific and Technological Research ndiwo ukucita mulimo wa kunozga na kwendeska vinthu, apo wupu wa National Council for Scientific and Technical Research na National Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters uli na mulimo wa kucenjezga. Wupu wa Benin National Fund for Scientific Research and Technological Innovation ndiwo ukupeleka ndalama. Wupu wa Benin wakuvikilira vinthu vya sayansi na vyakupanga vinthu vinyake, ukupeleka vinthu vya sayansi kwizira mu kupanga na kuthandazga vinthu ivi. Charu cha Benin chili pa malo gha 128 pa Global Innovation Index mu 2021, kufuma pa 123 mu 2019.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Global Innovation Index 2021|url=https://www.wipo.int/global_innovation_index/en/2021/|work=[[World Intellectual Property Organization]]|publisher=[[United Nations]]|access-date=2022-03-05|language=en|archive-date=20 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210920133358/https://www.wipo.int/global_innovation_index/en/2021/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Global Innovation Index 2019|url=https://www.wipo.int/global_innovation_index/en/2019/index.html|access-date=2021-09-02|website=www.wipo.int|language=en|archive-date=2 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210902101818/https://www.wipo.int/global_innovation_index/en/2019/index.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=RTD - Item|url=https://ec.europa.eu/newsroom/rtd/items/691898|access-date=2021-09-02|website=ec.europa.eu|archive-date=2 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210902140715/https://ec.europa.eu/newsroom/rtd/items/691898|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2013-10-28|title=Global Innovation Index|url=https://knowledge.insead.edu/entrepreneurship-innovation/global-innovation-index-2930|access-date=2021-09-02|website=INSEAD Knowledge|language=en|archive-date=2 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210902101622/https://knowledge.insead.edu/entrepreneurship-innovation/global-innovation-index-2930|url-status=live}}</ref> Ndondomeko iyi yikwamba kusintha kufuma mu 2006 apo ndondomeko ya sayansi yikanozgeka. Buku ili lasinthika na kusazgikirapo na mabuku ghaphya ghakukhwaskana na sayansi na vyakupanga vinthu vinyake (chaka icho likapelekekera ni pakati pa mabokosi):<ref name=":0" /> * a manual for monitoring and evaluating research structures and organizations (2013); * a manual on how to select research programmes and projects and apply to the National Fund for Scientific Research and Technological Innovation (2013) for competitive grants; * a draft act for funding scientific research and innovation and a draft code of ethics for scientific research and innovation were both submitted to the Supreme Court in 2014; * a strategic plan for scientific research and innovation (under development in 2015). Equally important are Benin's efforts to integrate science into existing policy documents: * ''Benin Development Strategies 2025'': ''Benin 2025 Alafia'' (2000); * Growt''h Strategy for Poverty Reduction 2011–2016'' (2011); * Phase 3 of the ''Ten-year Development Plan for the Education Sector'', covering 2013–2015; * ''Development Plan for Higher Education and Scientific Research 2013–2017'' (2014). Mu 2015, vigaŵa vya Benin ivyo vikaŵa vyakukhumbikwa chomene pa kafukufuku wa sayansi vikaŵa: umoyo, masambiro, vyakuzenga na vinthu vyakuzengera nyumba, mendero na malonda, mitheto, vyakusanguluska na mawoko, makuni gha katoni na vyakuvwara, vyakurya, nkhongono na kusintha kwa nyengo.<ref name=":0" /> Vinthu vinyake ivyo vikupangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵaleke kuchita makora kafukufuku mu Benin ni ivi:<ref name=":0" /> * the unfavorable organizational framework for research: weak governance, a lack of co-operation between research structures and the absence of an official document on the status of researchers; * the inadequate use of human resources and the lack of any motivational policy for researchers; and * the mismatch between research and development needs. ==== Human and financial investment in research ==== Mu 2007, ku Benin kukaŵa ŵasayansi 1,000. Ichi chikulongora kuti pa ŵanthu 1 miliyoni, pali ŵasayansi 115. "Vipinda vikuruvikuru vya kafukufuku" ni Center for Scientific and Technical Research, National Institute of Agricultural Research, National Institute for Training and Research in Education, Office of Geological and Mining Research na Center for Entomological Research.<ref name=":0" /> Yunivesite ya Abomey-Calavi yikasankhika na Banki ya Charu Chose mu 2014 kuti yikateŵeterenge mu mapulojekiti gha Centres of Excellence, chifukwa cha umanyi wake wa masamu. Pa mulimo uwu, Banki ya Caru Cose yili kupeleka ngongoli ya madola 8 miliyoni ku Benin. Wupu wa African Universities uli kupokera ndalama izo zikovwira kuti ukolerane na masukulu 19 gha ku West Africa agho ghakupokelera ntchito iyi. Palije "maukaboni" ghakukhwaskana na unandi wa ndalama izo Benin wakuŵika pa kafukufuku.<ref name=":0" /> Mu 2013, boma likapeleka 2.5% ya GDP ku vya umoyo. Mu Disembala 2014, ŵanthu ŵakujipeleka 150 ŵakufuma ku Benin, Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana, Mali, Niger, na Nigeria, ŵakaluta ku Guinea, Liberia, na Sierra Leone kuti ŵakateŵetere lumoza na wupu wa Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS). Nthenda ya Ebola yikutikumbuska kuti ku vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Africa kulije ndalama zinandi zakovwilira ŵanthu.<ref name=":0" /> Boma la Benin likapeleka ndalama zakukwana 5% ya GDP ku ulimi mu 2010, apo vyaru vya mu Africa vikazomerezga kuti vipelekenge ndalama zakukwana 10% ya GDP ku vyaru ivi mu Maputo Declaration ya 2003. Iwo ŵakakhozga cilato ici mu Malabo Declaration iyo yikazomerezgeka mu Equatorial Guinea mu 2014. Mu mazgu ghaumaliro agha, iwo ŵakakhozga khumbo lawo lakuti "ŵapeleke 10% ya bajeti yawo ya vyalo vyawo kuti viwovwire vyalo vyawo, ndipo ŵakakolerana pa vilato vyakuti vyalo viŵe na vyakurya vinandi, kuchepeskako kuchepa kwa vyakurya na kuchepeskako ku 10% mu vyalo vya mu Africa". Pa ungano wa ŵalongozgi ŵa vyaru vya ku Africa ku Equatorial Guinea, ŵakutondeka kumazga nkhani ya kuŵika ndondomeko yakuyana ya ivyo ŵanthu ŵakwenera kuchita kuti ŵafiske vilato vya 10 peresenti.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.one.org/africa/press/one-applauds-au-malabo-declarations-re-commitment-to-agriculture-transformation/|title=One Applauds AU Malabo Declaration's Recommitment to Agriculture Transformation|date=2 July 2014|work=ONE.org|access-date=12 June 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010183945/https://www.one.org/africa/press/one-applauds-au-malabo-declarations-re-commitment-to-agriculture-transformation/|archive-date=10 October 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> ==== Research output ==== Benin ndiyo yili na mabuku ghanandi chomene gha sayansi mu vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Africa. Mu 2014, mu database iyi mukaŵa nkhani za sayansi 25.5 pa ŵanthu 1 miliyoni. Ivi vikupambana na 65.0 ku Gambia, 49.6 ku Cape Verde, 23.2 ku Senegal na 21.9 ku Ghana. Kufuma mu 2005 m'paka mu 2014, mabuku agho ghali mu kabuku aka ghakwandana chomene mu Benin. Pakati pa 2008 na 2014, ŵanthu awo ŵakagwiranga nchito na Benin ŵakaŵa ŵa ku France (529), United States (261), United Kingdom (254), Belgium (198) na Germany (156).<ref name=":0" /> ===Transportation=== {{main|Transport in Benin}} Mu Benin, ŵanthu ŵakwenda pa msewu, sitima, maji, na ndege. Mu Benin muli misewu ya makilomita 6,787, ndipo misewu iyi yili na misewu ya makilomita 1,357. Pa misewu yikuruyikuru ya mu caru ici, pali misewu 10 iyo yikwenda mwaluŵiro. Ici cikung'anamura kuti pali misewu ya makilomita 5,430 yambura kujintha. Msewu wa Trans-West African Coastal Highway ukujumpha mu Benin, ndipo ukukolerana na Nigeria kumafumiro gha dazi, na Togo, Ghana, na Ivory Coast kumanjiliro gha dazi. Para mulimo wa kuzenga wa kumalizgika ku Liberia na Sierra Leone, msewu uwu uzamulutilira kulazga kumanjiliro gha dazi ku vyaru vinyake 7 vya ECOWAS. Msewu unyake uwo uli na mathabwa, ukwendera kumpoto kwa Benin m'paka ku Niger. Mtunda wa njanji mu Benin ni mtunda wa makilomita 578 (359 mi) wa njanji yimoza ya mita 1,000. Ntchito ya kuzenga yikamba pa mizere ya pa caru cose iyo yikukolerana na Benin na Niger na Nigeria. Benin nayo wazamunjira mu AfricaRail. Ndege za Cadjehoun, izo zili ku Cotonou, zikwenda mwakudunjika ku Accra, Niamey, Monrovia, Lagos, Ouagadougou, Lomé, na Douala, na misumba yinyake ya mu Africa. Ku Cotonou kuli maulendo ghakudunjika ghakuya ku Paris, Brussels, na Istanbul. ==Mwambo== [[File:Palais Des Congres De Cotonou.jpg|thumb|left|Palais Des Congres in [[Cotonou]].]] ===Arts===<!--only first paragraph has a citation--> {{see also|Benin literature|Music of Benin|Cinema of Benin}} [[File:Who's coming ?.jpg|thumb|Music group.]] Mabuku gha mu Benin ghakalembeka na mulomo pambere Chifurenchi chindaŵe chiyowoyero chikuru. Mu 1929, Félix Couchoro wakalemba buku lakwamba mu ciyowoyero ca Benin, lakuti L'Esclave (Muzga). Pamanyuma pakuti charu cha Ghana chazakaŵa na wanangwa, ŵanthu ŵa ku Ghana ŵakamba kwimba sumu za ŵanthu ŵa ku Ghana, French cabaret, American rock, funk and soul, na rumba ya ku Congo. Biennale ya Benin, yikulutilira na mapulojekiti gha mawupu ghanyake na ŵantchito, yikamba mu charu ichi mu 2010 nga ni chiphikiro chakuchemeka "Regard Benin". Mu 2012, ntchito iyi yikamba kuchitika pa vigaŵa viŵiri, ndipo yikendeskekanga na wupu wa Consortium, uwo ni wupu wa mawupu gha mu vigaŵa ivi. Abdellah Karroum na gulu lake ndiwo ŵakulongozga chiphikiro ichi. ===Customary names=== Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵa ku Benin awo ŵakukhala kumwera kwa charu ichi ŵali na mazina gha mu chiyowoyero cha Akan agho ghakulongora zuŵa ilo ŵakababikira. Ici nchifukwa ca ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Akan nga ni Akwamu na ŵanji.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Akwamu |author=((Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica)) |article=Akwamu: historical state, Africa |date=2000 |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online |title=Archived copy |access-date=27 August 2022 |archive-date=29 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220429211843/https://www.britannica.com/place/Akwamu |url-status=live }}</ref> ===Language=== {{main|Languages of Benin}} Viyowoyero vya mu cigaŵa ici ndivyo vikusambizgika pa masukulu gha pulayimare, ndipo ciyowoyero ca Cifurenci cikamba kusambizgika pamanyuma pa vilimika vinandi. Pa sukulu ya sekondare, ciyowoyero ca ku France ndico cikusambizgika. Viyowoyero vya ku Benin vikulembeka na chilembo chapadera pa lizgu lililose ilo likupulikikwa, m'malo mwa vilembo vyakupambanapambana nga umo viliri mu Chifurenchi panji vilembo vya digraph nga umo viliri mu Chingelezi. Ichi chikusazgapo chiyowoyero cha Beninese Yoruba, icho ku Nigeria chikulembeka na vilembo vyakupambanapambana. Mwachiyelezgero, mu viyowoyero vya ku Benin, mazgu ghapakati gha vwayelo ghakulembeka kuti é, è, ô, o mu Chifurenchi ghakulembeka kuti e, ɛ, o, ɔ, apo mu Chingelezi mazgu gha pa chiŵaya ghakulembeka kuti ng na sh panji ch, ghakulembeka kuti ŋ na c. Ma digraph ghakugwiliskirika nchito pa ma vowel gha mu mphuno na ma consonants gha mu milomo gha kp na gb, nga umo viliri mu zina la ciyowoyero ca Fon Fon gbe /fõ ɡ͡be/, ndipo ma diacritics ghakugwiliskirika nchito nga ni vimanyikwiro. Mu mabuku gha Cifurenci, mazgu gha Cifurenci na Cibenini ghakusangika pamoza. ===Cuisine=== [[File:Bahia acaraje.jpg|thumb|Para munthu wakuphika chiŵiya ichi, wakuŵa kuti waphya.]] {{main|Benin cuisine}} Mu vyakurya vyawo ŵakuŵa na vyakurya viphya ivyo ŵakuphika pamoza na vyakurya vinyake. Mu vyakurya vya kumwera kwa charu cha Benin, chakurya ichi chikuŵa na chiŵiya cha chimanga icho ŵakugwiliskira ntchito pakunozga ufu uwo ŵakupeleka pamoza na msuzi wa phere panji wa tomato. Ŵakurya somba na nkhuku, nyama ya ng'ombe, mbuzi, na mphumphi. Mu chigaŵa cha kumpoto kwa Benin, ŵanthu ŵakutemwa kurya yamsisi. Ŵanthu ŵa ku vigaŵa vya kumpoto ŵakurya nyama ya ng'ombe na ya nkhumba iyo ŵayiphika mu mafuta gha makuni gha maolive panji gha phesulu. Mu vyakurya vinyake ŵakugwiliskira nchito cheese. Ŵanthu ŵakurya mphangwe, mpunga, na vipasi, kweniso vipambi nga ni mango, lalanje, avokado, nthochi, kiwi, na anyezi. Ŵanthu ŵakuti para munthu wakurya wakurya nyama yichoko ndipo wakurya mafuta ghanandi. Para munthu wakuphika nyama mu mafuta gha phura panji gha phesulu, ndipo wakuphika somba mu Benin. Para munthu wakuphika tirigu, wakugwiliskira ntchito mashini ghakupwanthira tirigu. "Chicken on the spit" ni nthowa iyo nkhuku yikuwotchekera pa moto. Nyengo zinyake ŵanthu ŵakuŵika mizu ya khuni la maolive mu chiŵiya na maji gha mchere na adyo kuti yiŵe yituŵa. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakuphika na viŵiya vyadongo kuwaro. ===Sports=== Maseŵero ghakurughakuru mu Benin ni bola, basketball, gofu, njinga, baseball, softball, tennis na rugby union. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 2000, mu caru ici mukaŵa maseŵero gha baseball.<ref>{{cite news |last=Mozey |first=Brian |date=22 June 2016 |url=https://www.hometownsource.com/sun_post/news/local/duo-develops-nonprofit-organization-baseball-in-benin/article_6aefe8f6-a49d-56bb-ac65-6974a62faf7f.html |access-date=2022-08-27 |url-status=live |url-access=registration |title=Duo develops nonprofit organization, Baseball in Benin |newspaper=Minnesota Sun Post |publisher=APG of East Central Minnesota |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160805192808/http://post.mnsun.com/2016/06/22/duo-develops-nonprofit-organization-baseball-in-benin/ |archive-date=5 August 2016 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Sports in Benin |url=https://www.verlete.com/country/benin/}}</ref> === Traditional authorities === Charu cha Benin chili na maufumu ghanandi ghambura mazaza, ghanandi mwa maufumu agha ghakafuma ku maufumu agho ghakaŵako pambere charu chindambe kulamulira (nga ni Arda). Mafumu agho ghakuŵa na mazaza pa ŵanthu yayi, ghakuŵa na mazaza yayi, kweni ghakuchita vinthu mwakuyana na dango. Nangauli vili nthena, iwo ŵakuŵa na mazaza pa nkhani za ndyali mu vigaŵa vyawo ndipo kanandi ŵandyali ŵa ku Benin ŵakuŵawovwira. Magulu ghakuvikilira ŵanthu nga ni Wupu wa Mathemba gha ku Benin ndiwo ghakwimira mathemba gha mu charu chose.<ref>{{Cite report |author=Research Directorate |publisher=[[Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada]] |location=Ottawa |type=Response to Information Request |date=2016-05-04 |title=Benin: Kings in northern Benin, specifically in Borgou department; extent of their power in comparison with the power of political and civil authorities; a king's ability to force a woman to marry him; remedies available to a woman who refuses to marry a king (2014-April 2016) |docket=BEN105509.FE |url=https://www.ecoi.net/en/document/1393811.html |access-date=2022-08-27 |via=European Country of Origin Information Network |language=en |archive-date=6 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210506152051/https://www.ecoi.net/en/document/1393811.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Monde: Haïti veut punir les crimes vaudous comme au Benin |url=http://news.anmwe.com/monde-haiti-veut-punir-les-crimes-vaudous-comme-au-benin/ |access-date=2022-08-27 |website=Anmwe News |language=fr |archive-date=27 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220827071551/http://news.anmwe.com/monde-haiti-veut-punir-les-crimes-vaudous-comme-au-benin/ |url-status=live }}</ref> == Wonaniso == {{Portal|Africa}} <!-- [[Bibliography of Benin]] --> * [[Index of Benin-related articles]] * [[Outline of Benin]] * [[Telephone numbers in Benin]] ==Ukaboni== {{Reflist}} {{Refbegin}} {{Free-content attribution | title = UNESCO Science Report: towards 2030 | author = UNESCO | publisher = UNESCO Publishing | page numbers = 471–497 | source = | documentURL = http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0023/002354/235406e.pdf | license statement URL = | license = CC BY-SA IGO 3.0 }} {{Refend}} == Vyakulemba vinyake == {{Refbegin}} * Butler, S., ''Benin (Bradt Travel Guides)'' (Bradt Travel Guides, 2019) * Caulfield, Annie, ''Show Me the Magic: Travels Round Benin by Taxi'' (Penguin Books Ltd, 2003) * Kraus, Erika and Reid, Felice, ''Benin (Other Places Travel Guide)'' (Other Places Publishing, 2010) * Seely, Jennifer, ''The Legacies of Transition Governments in Africa: The Cases of Benin and Togo'' (Palgrave Macmillan, 2009) {{Refend}} == Vigaŵa vya kuwalo == {{Sister project links|voy=Benin}} * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/country_profiles/1064527.stm Country Profile] from [[BBC News]] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20231228150152/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/benin/ Benin]. ''[[The World Factbook]]''. [[Central Intelligence Agency]]. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20090507211758/http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/benin.htm Benin] from ''UCB Libraries GovPubs'' * [[BBC]], {{YouTube|rp8flCwvoAU|Civilisations - BBC Two: "Western reactions to Benin bronzes"}}, Apr 10, 2018. * {{curlie|Regional/Africa/Benin/|Benin}} * [[commons:Atlas of Benin]] * [https://archive.today/20121214215241/http://atlas.media.mit.edu/app/treemap/export/ben/2009/ Benin Exports] * [http://www.ifs.du.edu/ifs/frm_CountryProfile.aspx?Country=BJ Forecasts for Benin Development] '''Government''' * [http://www.gouv.bj/ Government of Benin] (official website) {{in lang|fr}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20080813074351/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/world-leaders-1/world-leaders-b/benin.html Chief of State and Cabinet Members] * [http://report.globalintegrity.org/benin Global Integrity Report: Benin]{{Dead link|date=August 2019 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} '''News media''' * [http://www-sul.stanford.edu/depts/ssrg/africa/benin/benin-newspapers-news.html Directory of Benin news sources] from Stanford University '''Trade''' * [http://wits.worldbank.org/CountryProfile/Country/BEN/Year/2010/Summary World Bank Benin 2010 Summary Trade Statistics] '''Sports''' * [http://post.mnsun.com/2016/06/22/duo-develops-nonprofit-organization-baseball-in-benin/ Baseball] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160805192808/http://post.mnsun.com/2016/06/22/duo-develops-nonprofit-organization-baseball-in-benin/ |date=5 August 2016 }} {{Benin topics}} {{Navboxes |list = {{African Union}} {{Community of Sahel–Saharan States}} {{Countries of Africa}} {{La Francophonie|state=collapsed}} {{Organisation of Islamic Cooperation|state=collapsed}} }} {{Authority control}} {{coord|6|28|N|2|36|E|display=title}} [[Category:Benin| ]] [[Category:Countries in Africa]] [[Category:Economic Community of West African States]] [[Category:Former Portuguese colonies]] [[Category:French-speaking countries and territories]] [[Category:Least developed countries]] [[Category:Member states of the African Union]] [[Category:Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie]] [[Category:Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation]] [[Category:Member states of the United Nations]] [[Category:Republics]] [[Category:States and territories established in 1960]] [[Category:West African countries]] [[Category:1960 establishments in Africa]] k59oywplp764o3g7ctuqvw1i9nymx1n 0 6910 119314 118862 2026-08-13T22:34:58Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260813sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 119314 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Country in Southern Africa}} {{distinguish|Bophuthatswana}} {{pp-move|small=yes}} {{Use British English|date=December 2021}} {{Use dmy dates|date=December 2021}} {{Infobox country | conventional_long_name = Charu cha Botswana | common_name = Botswana | native_name = {{native name|tn|Lefatshe la Botswana}} | image_flag = Flag of Botswana.svg | image_coat = Coat of arms of Botswana.svg | coa_size = 90 | national_motto = {{native phrase|tn|Pula|paren=no}}<br />"Rain" | national_anthem = {{native phrase|tn|[[Fatshe leno la rona]]|paren=no}}<br />"Blessed Be This Noble Land"{{parabr}}{{center|[[File:United States Navy Band - Fatshe leno la rona.ogg]]}} | image_map = {{Switcher|[[File: Botswana (centered orthographic projection).svg|frameless]]|Show globe|[[File:Location Botswana AU Africa.svg|upright=1.15|frameless]]|Show map of Africa|default=1}} | map_caption = | capital = [[Gaborone]] | coordinates = {{Coord|24|39.5|S|25|54.5|E|type:city|display=inline}} | largest_city = capital | official_languages = [[English language|English]]<ref name="gov.bw languages">{{Cite web |title=About Our Country |url=https://www.gov.bw/about-our-country |access-date=2022-04-17 |website=Gov.bw |quote=Botswana has a number of tribes across the country, collectively known as Batswana. The official language is English and Setswana is the national language, although there are other spoken languages.}}</ref> | languages_type = National language | languages = [[Tswana language|Setswana]]<ref name="gov.bw languages" /> | ethnic_groups = {{Unbulleted list|79% [[Tswana people|Tswana]] |11% [[Kalanga people|Kalanga]] |2% [[San people|San]] |8% Others (includes [[Kgalagadi language|Kgalagadi]], [[Basarwa]], [[Indians in Botswana|Indian]], and [[White people in Botswana|White]])}} | ethnic_groups_year = 2012<ref name="cia"/> | religion = {{Unbulleted list|79.1% [[Christianity in Botswana|Christianity]] |—70.2% [[Protestantism]] |—8.9% Other [[Christian]] |15.2% [[Irreligion in Botswana|No religion]] |4.1% [[Badimo]] |1.4% Others{{efn|Including [[Baháʼí Faith in Botswana|Baháʼí]], [[Hinduism in Botswana|Hindu]], and [[Islam in Botswana|Islam]].}} |0.3% Unspecified<ref>{{Cite CIA World Factbook|country=Botswana|date=14 September 2022|year=2022}}</ref>}} | religion_year = 2021 | demonym = {{Unbulleted list|Batswana (plural) |Motswana (singular)}} | government_type = [[Unitary state|Unitary]] [[Dominant-party system|dominant-party]] [[List of countries by system of government#Parliamentary republics with an executive presidency|parliamentary republic with an executive presidency]]<ref>{{Cite CIA World Factbook|country=Botswana|access-date=17 December 2019|year=2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Selolwane |first1=Onalenna |title=Monopoly Politikos: How Botswana's Opposition Parties Have Helped Sustain One-Party Dominance |journal=African Sociological Review |date=2002 |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=68–90 |doi=10.4314/asr.v6i1.23203 |jstor=24487673 |doi-access=free }}</ref> | leader_title1 = [[President of Botswana|President]] | leader_name1 = [[Mokgweetsi Masisi]]<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2018-03-28/masisi-to-lead-botswana-as-khama-steps-down-after-decade-at-helm|title=Masisi to Lead Botswana as Khama Steps Down After a Decade|newspaper=Bloomberg.com|date=28 March 2018|access-date=31 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180401010006/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2018-03-28/masisi-to-lead-botswana-as-khama-steps-down-after-decade-at-helm|archive-date=1 April 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> | leader_title2 = [[Vice-President of Botswana|Vice-President]] | leader_name2 = [[Slumber Tsogwane]] | leader_title3 = [[Speaker of the National Assembly of Botswana|National Assembly Speaker]] | leader_name3 = [[Phandu Skelemani]] | legislature = [[Parliament of Botswana|Parliament]]<br />([[National Assembly of Botswana|National Assembly]]) | sovereignty_type = [[Independence]] | sovereignty_note = from the [[United Kingdom]] | established_event1 = Established ([[Constitution of Botswana|Constitution]]) | established_date1 = 30 September 1966 | area_km2 = 581,730 | area_rank = 47th <!-- Area rank should match [[List of countries and dependencies by area]] --> | area_sq_mi = 224,610 <!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]--> | area_footnote = <ref>{{cite report|url = http://www.fao.org/3/a-az171e.pdf | publisher = United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization | website = fao.org | title = Global Forest Resources Assessment 2015 – Country Report – Botswana | page = 9 | date = 2015 | quote = Total Country Area ('000)ha / 58 173 }}</ref><!-- 58,173,000 hectares is 581,730 km2 --> | percent_water = 2.7 | population_estimate = 2,384,246<ref>{{Cite CIA World Factbook|country=Botswana|access-date=24 September 2022|year=2022}}</ref> | population_census = 2,359,609 <ref name="Statistics Bostwana - Census 2022 - Population of cities, towns and villages">{{Cite web |title=Statistics Bostwana - Census 2022 - Population of cities, towns and villages |url=https://www.statsbots.org.bw/sites/default/files/publications/Population%20of%20Cities%20Towns%20and%20Villages%20%202022.pdf}}</ref> | population_estimate_year = 2022 | population_estimate_rank = 145th | population_census_year = 2022 | population_density_km2 = 4.1 | population_density_sq_mi = 10.62 | population_density_rank = 231st | GDP_PPP = {{increase}}$47.04 billion <ref name="imf2">{{cite web|url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2022/October|title=World Economic Outlook Database, October 2022|date=October 2022|website=IMF.org|publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]]|access-date= October 11, 2022}}</ref> | GDP_PPP_year = 2022 | GDP_PPP_rank = 123rd | GDP_PPP_per_capita = {{increase}}$19,199<ref name=imf2/> | GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 77th | GDP_nominal = {{increase}}$18.00 billion<ref name=imf2/> | GDP_nominal_year = 2022 | GDP_nominal_rank = 127th | GDP_nominal_per_capita = {{increase}}$7,348 <ref name=imf2/> | GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 87th | Gini = 53.3 | Gini_year = 2015 | Gini_change = decrease <!--increase/decrease/steady--> | Gini_ref = <ref name="WBgini">{{cite web |url= https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI?locations=BW |title= GINI index (World Bank estimate) |publisher= World Bank |access-date= 20 April 2019 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20171213083923/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI?locations=BW |archive-date= 13 December 2017 |url-status= live}}</ref> | Gini_rank = | HDI = 0.693<!--number only, between 0 and 1--> | HDI_year = 2021<!-- Please use the year to which the data refers, not the publication year--> | HDI_change = decrease <!--increase/decrease/steady--> | HDI_ref = <ref name="2022 components">{{cite book |title=Human Development Report 2021-22: Uncertain Times, Unsettled Lives: Shaping our Future in a Transforming World |date=8 September 2022 |publisher=United Nations Development Programme |isbn=978-9-211-26451-7 |pages=272–276 |website=hdr.undp.org |url=https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2021-22pdf_1.pdf |access-date=8 September 2022 |archive-date=8 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220908114232/http://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2021-22pdf_1.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> | HDI_rank = 117th | currency = [[Botswana pula|Pula]] | currency_code = BWP | time_zone = [[Central Africa Time]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.elaws.gov.bw/desplaylrpage1.php?id=1399|last=Chapter: 01:04|title=Interpretation Act 1984 (§40(1))|date=20 July 1984|access-date=11 September 2020|archive-date=28 March 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170328201053/http://www.elaws.gov.bw/desplaylrpage1.php?id=1399|url-status=dead}}</ref> | utc_offset = +2 | utc_offset_DST = | time_zone_DST = | date_format = dd/mm/yyyy | drives_on = left | calling_code = [[+267]] | cctld = [[.bw]] | official_website = {{URL|http://www.gov.bw/}} | footnote_a = | today = }} '''Botswana''' ({{lang-tn|Land of the Tswana|label=[[English language|English]]}}; {{IPAc-en|audio=En-Bostwana-pronunciation.ogg|b|ɒ|t|ˈ|s|w|ɑː|n|ə}}, {{small|kweneso}} {{IPAc-en|UK|b|ʊ|t|-|,_|b|ʊ|ˈ|tʃ|w|-}}<ref name="Collins">{{cite web|url=https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/botswana|title=Botswana|work=[[Collins English Dictionary]]|publisher=[[HarperCollins]]|access-date=26 July 2019}}</ref>),mwaboma, '''Charu cha Botswana''', ni chalo icho chili ku [[Southern Africa]]. Charu cha Botswana chili pa malo ghapachanya chomene, ndipo pafupifupi 70 peresenti ya chigaŵa chake ni [[mapopa gha Kalahari]]. Charu ichi chili kumafumiro gha dazi na kumwera kwa [[South Africa]], kumanjiliro gha dazi na kumpoto kwa [[Namibia]], na kumpoto kwa [[Zimbabwe]]. [[Mlonga wa Kazungula]] ndiwo ukuwovwira kuti charu cha [[Zambia]] chiŵe pa mtende.<ref>{{Cite book|url= http://www.afdb.org/fileadmin/uploads/afdb/Documents/Project-and-Operations/Multinational%20(Zambia-Bostwana)%20-%20AR%20-%20Kazungula%20Bridge%20Project.pdf|title= Kazungula Bridge Project|last= Darwa|first= P. Opoku|publisher= African Development Fund|year= 2011|page= Appendix IV|access-date= 4 May 2012|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20121114113821/http://www.afdb.org/fileadmin/uploads/afdb/Documents/Project-and-Operations/Multinational%20(Zambia-Bostwana)%20-%20AR%20-%20Kazungula%20Bridge%20Project.pdf|archive-date= 14 November 2012|url-status= dead}}</ref> Mu charu ichi muli ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 2.3 miliyoni<ref>{{Cite web|title=Population, total - Botswana {{!}} Data|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.POP.TOTL?locations=BW|access-date=2021-06-07|website=data.worldbank.org}}</ref>. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa [[Tswana]] ndiwo ŵakukhala mu chigaŵa ichi.<ref>{{Citation |title=Botswana |date=2023-03-28 |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/botswana/#people-and-society |work=The World Factbook |access-date=2023-04-05 |publisher=Central Intelligence Agency |language=en}}</ref>Ŵanthu pafupifupi 11.6 pa 100 ŵaliwose ŵakukhala mu msumba ukuru wa [[Gaborone]]. Kale yikaŵa yimoza mwa vyaru vikavu comene pa caru capasi, ndipo paumaliro wa m'ma 1960, GDP ya munthu yumoza yikaŵa pafupifupi madola 70 pa caka.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Consolidating Democratic Governance in Southern Africa : Botswana|url=https://www.africaportal.org/publications/consolidating-democratic-governance-in-southern-africa-botswana/|last1=Maundeni|first1=Zibani|last2=Mpabanga|first2=Dorothy|date=2007-01-01|website=Africa Portal|access-date=2020-05-28|last3=Mfundisi|first3=Adam}}</ref> Ŵanthu ŵa mazuŵa ghano ŵakamba kukhala mu charu ichi vyaka vyakujumpha 200,000 ivyo vyajumpha. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Tswana ŵakafuma ku mafuko agho ghakalongosoranga chiyowoyero cha [[Bantu]], agho ghakasamukira kumwera kwa Africa ku Botswana cha m'ma 600 C.E., ndipo ŵakakhalanga mu vikaya vya mafuko. Mu 1885, Ŵanung'una ŵakamba kulamulira chigaŵa ichi ndipo ŵakachilongora kuŵa chigaŵa chakulongozgeka na boma la [[Bechuanaland]]. Apo boma la Bechuanaland likaleka kulamulira charu ichi, likazgoka charu chakujiyimira paŵekha pa 30 Seputembala 1966. Kufuma waka pa nyengo iyi, charu ichi chili na wanangwa wakusankha ŵanthu, ndipo ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuchita makora pa nkhani ya chisopa. Vinthu vikuru chomene mu charu ichi ni migodi, viŵeto, na vyakusanguluska. Dziko la Botswana lili na GDP (purchasing power parity) pa munthu yumoza ya $18,113 pa chaka cha 2021, yimoza mwa vyaru vyapachanya chomene mu Africa. Charu cha Botswana ndicho chikupanga dayamondi zinandi chomene pa charu chose. Ndalama izo charu ichi chikusanga pa munthu yumoza (ndipo ni chachinayi pa vyaru vyose vya mu Africa) zikovwira kuti ŵanthu ŵakhalenge makora kweniso kuti chiŵe na ndandanda ya ŵanthu awo ŵakukura chomene mu vyaru vya ku Africa (panyuma pa Gabon na South Africa).<ref>[http://www.nationsonline.org/oneworld/GNI_PPP_of_countries.htm Gross national income (GNI) – Nations Online Project] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090219232439/http://nationsonline.org/oneworld/GNI_PPP_of_countries.htm |date=19 February 2009 }}. Nationsonline.org. Retrieved on 27 October 2016.</ref><ref name="2022 components" />Dziko la Botswana ndilo dziko loyamba ku Africa kulandira Forbes 30 Under 30 ndi 2017 Netball World Youth Cup. Charu cha Botswana chili mu wupu wa Southern African Customs Union, Southern African Development Community, Commonwealth of Nations, na United Nations. Caru ici cikakhwaskika comene na nthenda ya [[HIV]] na [[AIDS]]. Mu 2002, charu cha Botswana ndicho chikaŵa chakwamba kupeleka munkhwala wakukoma majeremusi. Nangauli pakaŵa ndondomeko zakovwira ŵanthu kuti ŵamanye makora matenda agha, kweni chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu awo ŵakaŵa na nthenda iyi chikakwera kufuma pa 290,000 mu 2005 kufika pa 320,000 mu 2013.:A20 Mu 2014, charu cha Botswana ndicho chikaŵa na nthenda iyi pa charu chose. Ndipouli, mu vyaka vyasonosono apa, caru ici caŵa na suzgo la HIV na AIDS.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.unaids.org/en/resources/presscentre/pressreleaseandstatementarchive/2021/december/emtct_botswana |title=Botswana is first country with severe HIV epidemic to reach key milestone in the elimination of mother-to-child HIV transmission |publisher=UN AIDS |year=2021 |location=Brazzaville |access-date=10 July 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/globalhivtb/who-we-are/success-stories/success-story-pages/partnership-for-success.html|title=Partnership for Success: CDC and Botswana Lead Progress Toward HIV Epidemic Control|publisher=[[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]]|date=30 September 2022|accessdate=29 March 2023}}</ref> ==Kwiza kwa zina== Zina la caru ici likung'anamura "Charu ca Ŵatswana". Dango la boma la Botswana likuzomerezga kuti ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Tswana ŵaŵe ŵakukolerana. Pakwamba ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Batswana ndiwo ŵakachemekanga Ŵatswana. Ndipouli, lizgu ili likuyowoyaso za ŵanthu wose ŵa ku Botswana.<ref>{{cite web|title=Botswanan or Batswana? It's complicated – Voices of Africa|url=http://voicesofafrica.co.za/botswanan-batswana-its-complicated/|publisher=Voices of Africa|access-date=6 January 2018|date=17 August 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180106231817/http://voicesofafrica.co.za/botswanan-batswana-its-complicated/|archive-date=6 January 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> ==Mbili== {{Main|History of Botswana}} ===Mbili yakwamba=== [[File:Two Rhino.jpg|thumb|left|The 'Two Rhino' painting at [[Tsodilo]], a [[UNESCO World Heritage Site]]]] Ivyo ŵanthu ŵakufukura vinthu vyakale ŵali kusanga vikulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵakukhala mu charu cha Botswana vyaka pafupifupi 2 miliyoni. Viŵiya vya malibwe na vyamoyo vinyake vyalongora kuti ŵanthu ŵakakhalanga mu vigaŵa vyose vya charu ichi vyaka pafupifupi 400,000 ivyo vyajumpha. Mu Okutobala 2019, ŵasayansi ŵakayowoya kuti ŵanthu wose ŵa mazuŵa ghano ŵakababikira ku Botswana vyaka pafupifupi 200,000 ivyo vyajumpha. Vinthu ivyo ŵanthu ŵa mazuŵa ghano ŵali kusunga, nga ni vithuzithuzi ivyo vili kupangika mu mphanji, vili kulembeka vyaka 73,000. Ŵanthu ŵakwambilira awo ŵakakhalanga kumwera kwa Africa, ŵakamanyikwanga kuti ŵakaŵa ŵasekuru ŵa ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa San ("Bushmen") na Khoi. Magulu ghose ghaŵiri agha ghakuyowoya viyowoyero vya ŵanthu ŵachoko ŵakuchemeka Khoe-Kwadi, Kx?? a, na Tuu. Apo ng'ombe zikambanga kuliskika kumwera kwa Africa vyaka pafupifupi 2,000 ivyo vyajumpha, viŵeto vikaŵa vyakuzirwa comene mu caru ici cifukwa mu cigaŵa ici mukaŵa vyakumera vinandi vyambura viyuni vya tsetse. Vinyalala vya Domboshaba Vili na linga la malibwe (pachanya) na mbale ya dongo (pasi) Tikumanya makora yayi apo ŵanthu awo ŵakayowoyanga chiyowoyero cha Bantu ŵakambira kusamira ku charu ichi kufuma kumpoto, nangauli ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakugomezga kuti ŵakafika mu 600 C.E. Mu nyengo iyi, ŵasekuru ŵa ŵanthu awo sono ŵakuchemeka Kalanga ŵakasamira ku vigaŵa ivyo sono vili kumpoto ca kumafumiro gha dazi kwa caru ici. Ŵanthu aŵa ŵakakhalanga mu vigaŵa vya Zimbabwe kweniso vya Mapungubwe, ndipo chakuzirwa chomene pa vigaŵa ivi ni vya Domboshaba, malo agho ŵanthu ŵakakhalanga mu nyengo ya Great Zimbabwe (1250-1450 C.E.), ndipo ghakaŵa na viliŵa vya malibwe vyakudika mamita 1.8. Malo agha ghakaŵa ghakuchindikika na ŵanthu ŵa mu chigaŵa ichi ndipo ŵanthu ŵakugomezga kuti mulongozgi uyu wakakhalanga pachanya pa phiri pamoza na ŵateŵeti ŵake. Vyaru ivi vikaŵa kuwaro kwa vigaŵa ivyo sono ni Botswana, ndipo vikuwoneka kuti vikaŵa na viŵeto vikuru comene mu malo agho sono ni Central District. Malo ghakurughakuru agha ghakakhalanga makora m'paka mu 1300 C.E. ndipo ghakawoneka kuti ghakamara apo msumba wa Mapungubwe ukaparanyikira. Mu nyengo iyi, ŵanthu ŵakwambilira awo ŵakayowoyanga Chitswana, awo ni Bakgalagadi, ŵakasamira kumwera kwa Kalahari. Ŵanthu wose aŵa ŵakendanga mu nthowa za malonda izo zikendanga kufuma ku Limpopo River kuluta ku Indian Ocean, ndipo katundu wa ku Asia nga ni mphete wakendanga m'paka ku Botswana, panyake kuti ŵakapokeranga njovu, golide, na masengwe.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Denbow|first1=James|last2=Klehm|first2=Carla|last3=Dussubieux|first3=Laure|date=April 2015|title=The glass beads of Kaitshàa and early Indian Ocean trade into the far interior of southern Africa|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/antiquity/article/glass-beads-of-kaitshaa-and-early-indian-ocean-trade-into-the-far-interior-of-southern-africa/9BB659F4DA38A560EF64C4E8E3F49AFA|journal=Antiquity|language=en|volume=89|issue=344|pages=361–377|doi=10.15184/aqy.2014.50|s2cid=161212483|issn=0003-598X}}</ref> Ku Toutswemogala Hill Iron Age Settlement, malo agha ghakaŵa na vyaka vyapakati pa 7 na 19 AD. Chigaŵa ichi chikapangika mu vyaka vyakujumpha 1,000. Mu 700 AD, ŵanthu ŵa Toutswe ŵakaluta kumanjiliro gha dazi ku Botswana na kwamba kupanga minda ya ulimi wa ku malo gha pa ng'ombe. Malo agha ghakaŵa pakati pa chigaŵa chikuru cha ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga kumafumiro gha dazi kwa charu cha Botswana. Ŵakasanga vinthu vinandi ivyo vikaŵa na viŵeto vya viŵeto, ndipo ŵakaghanaghananga kuti ivi vikaŵa viŵeto vya viŵeto ndipo chigaŵa ichi chikaŵa pakati pa viŵeto vinandi. Ndipouli, kulima ndiko kukawovwira kuti chigaŵa cha Toutswemogala chikhale nyengo yitali. Ŵanyake ŵakukhala mu nyumba zakupambanapambana kwa vyaka vinandi. Nyengo iyo ŵasekuru ŵa ŵanthu ŵakuyowoya Chitswana ŵakambira kulamulira chigaŵa ichi, yikumanyikwa makora yayi. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Bakwena, awo ŵakalongozgekanga na mulongozgi wakumanyikwa chomene zina lake Kgabo II, ŵakanjira kumwera kwa Kalahari mu 1500 C.E., ndipo ŵanthu ŵake ŵakachimbizga ŵanthu ŵa Bakgalagadi kumanjiliro gha dazi mu mapopa. Pakati pajumpha vyaka, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Bakwena ŵakasamira mu vigaŵa vinyake. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Bangwaketse ŵakakhalanga kumanjiliro gha dazi, apo ŵa ku Bangwato ŵakasamira kumpoto ca kumafumiro gha dazi mu vigaŵa ivyo kale vikaŵa vya Kalanga. Pakati pajumpha nyengo yicoko waka, ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Bangwato awo ŵakamanyikwanga na zina lakuti Batawana ŵakasamukira ku Okavango Delta, panyake mu ma 1790.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Tlou|first=T.|date=1974|title=The Nature of Batswana States: Towards a Theory of Batswana Traditional Government – The Batawana Case|journal=Botswana Notes and Records|volume=6|pages=57–75|jstor=40959210|issn=0525-5090}}</ref> ===Effects of the Mfecane and Batswana-Boer Wars=== {{main|Mfecane}} [[File:Kapstaaten 1905.png|thumb|left|German map of 1905 still showing the undivided Bechuanaland area]] Mabuku ghakwambilira ghakulongosora vya charu cha Botswana ghakalembeka mu 1824. Ivyo vikalembeka apa vikulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Bangwaketse ndiwo ŵakaŵa ŵankhongono comene mu cigaŵa ici. Mu muwuso wa Makaba II, ŵanthu ŵa ku Bangwaketse ŵakasunganga viŵeto vinandi mu malo gha mu mapopa agho ghakaŵa ghakuvikilirika. Pa nyengo iyi, mafumu ghanyake gha mu chigaŵa ichi ghakaŵa na ŵanthu 10,000 ndipo ghakaŵa na vinthu vinandi. Mu nyengo ya Mfecane, mu 1823-1843, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku South Africa ŵakanjira mu charu ichi. Nangauli Ŵangwaketse ŵakathereska ŵasilikari ŵa Bakololo mu 1826, kweni nyengo yikati yajumphapo, ŵasilikari wose ŵa ku Botswana ŵakaŵawukira, ŵakaŵatimbanizga, na kuŵasuzga. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Bakololo na AmaNdebele ŵakaŵawukiranga kanandi waka na kutora ng'ombe zinandi, ŵanakazi, na ŵana kufuma ku ŵanthu ŵa ku Batswana. Kweni pamanyuma pa 1843, apo Ŵamandebele ŵakasamukira kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Zimbabwe, suzgo ili likamara.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Morton |first=Barry|date=2009-01-14|title=The Hunting Trade and the Reconstruction of Northern Tswana Societies after the Difaqane, 1838–1880|journal=South African Historical Journal|volume=36|pages=220–239|language=en|doi=10.1080/02582479708671276}}</ref> [[File:Sechele Gustav Fritsch 1865.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Sechele I]] who led a Batswana Merafe Coalition against [[Boers]] in 1852]] Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1840 na 1850, ŵamalonda awo ŵakaguliskanga vinthu ku Cape Colony ŵakamba kwenda na ŵanthu ŵa ku Batswana. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Bakwena, Bangwaketse, Bangwato, na Batawana ŵakagwilira lumoza ntchito yakuguliska njovu, ndipo ndalama izo ŵakaguliskanga ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito pakuguliska mahachi na futi. Mu 1880, vinthu vikasintha chomene, ndipo Ŵabatswana ŵakamba kulamulira ŵanthu ŵa ku Bushmen, Kalanga, Bakgalagadi, na mitundu yinyake. Pamanyuma pa ulendo uwu, ŵanthu ŵa ku Cape Colony ŵakamba kukhala ku mphaka za Botswana mu chigaŵa cha Transvaal. Mu 1852 gulu la mafumu gha ku Tswana ilo likaŵa na Sechele I, likathereska Ŵafrika pa Nkhondo ya ku Dimawe, ndipo pamanyuma pa vyaka 8, ŵakachita phangano la mtende ku Potchefstroom mu 1860. Kufuma waka pa nyengo iyi, ŵanthu ŵakakolerana kuti paŵe mphaka pakati pa charu cha South Africa na Botswana, ndipo ŵanthu ŵa ku Afrika na ŵa ku Batswana ŵakaguliskana vinthu na kukolerana. Mu 1884 Batawana, gulu la ŵasilikari ŵa mtundu wa Tswana awo ŵakalongozgekanga na Kgosi Moremi, ŵakathereska Ŵandebele awo ŵakanjira mu chigaŵa cha kumpoto kwa charu cha Botswana. Nkhondo iyi yikapangiska kuti ufumu wa Ndebele uparanyike mu Zimbabwe. Cifukwa ca mtende uwo ukaŵako pakati pa 1860 na 1880, malonda ghakalutilira kukura. Ŵamishonale Ŵacikhristu ŵakagwiliskira nchito mwaŵi uwu. Kuzakafika mu 1856, mu caru ici mukaŵa ŵa Lutheran na London Missionary Society. Kuzakafika mu 1880, mu muzi uliwose mukaŵa mishonale, ndipo ŵakamba kovwira ŵanthu. Khama III (1875-1923) ndiyo wakaŵa wakwamba kuzgora Chikhristu kuŵa chisopa cha boma. Pa nyengo ya Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Caru Cose, Cikristu cikaŵa cisopa cakuzomerezgeka mu vyaru vyose.<ref>Landau, P. (1995) ''The Realm of the Word: Language, Gender, and Christianity in the Southern African Kingdom''. Portsmouth, N.H.: Heinemann.</ref> ===Colonialism and the Bechuanaland Protectorate=== {{Main|Bechuanaland Protectorate}} Mu nyengo ya Nkhondo ya ku Africa, ufumu wa Germany na wa Britain ukakhumbanga malo gha Botswana. Pa ungano uwo ukachitikira ku Berlin, Britain likadumura kuti liŵike charu cha Botswana mu mawoko ghake kuti livikilire nthowa yakuya kumpoto. Mu Janyuwale 1885, boma la Zimbabwe likapoka chigaŵa cha Tswana na kutuma ŵasilikari ŵa Warren kumpoto kuti ŵakhozge chigaŵa ichi na kuphalira ŵalongozgi ŵa chigaŵa ichi kuti ŵapulikire ivyo Britain yikayowoya. Nangauli ŵakaŵa na wofi, kweni ŵakazomera. Mu 1890, vigaŵa vya kumpoto kwa madigiri 22 vikaŵikamo chigaŵa chiphya cha Bechuanaland. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1890, chigaŵa chiphya ichi chikagaŵika mu vigaŵa vinkhondi na viŵiri, ndipo malo ghachoko waka ghakaŵa gha ŵanthu ŵatuŵa. Mu ma 1890, boma la Britain likaghanaghana vya kupeleka malo gha Bechuanaland ku British South Africa Company. Ndondomeko iyi yikaŵa pafupi kufiskika nangauli ŵalongozgi ŵa Tswana ŵakalomba kuti ŵalute ku England kuti ŵakasuske, kweni ŵakayichimbizga cifukwa ca kutondeka kwa nkhondo ya Jameson mu Janyuwale 1896.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.academia.edu/15645705 |title=The Invention and Perpetuation of Botswana's National Mythology, 1885–1966 |last1=Morton |first1=Barry |last2=Ramsay |first2=Jeff |access-date=13 July 2018 |via=academia.edu|pages=7–11}}</ref><ref>Parsons, N. (1998) ''King Khama, Emperor Joe, and the Great White Queen: Victorian Britain Through African Eyes''. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.</ref>[[File:1960 6d Bechuanaland Protectorate stamp.jpg|thumb|Postage stamp of British-ruled [[Bechuanaland Protectorate|Bechuanaland]] from 1960]] Mu 1910, apo charu cha South Africa chikapangika kufuma ku vyaru vikuruvikuru ivyo vikaŵa pasi pa Britain, vyaru ivi vikaŵamo yayi. Ndipouli, boma la Britain likamba kufumba ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga mu caru ici ivyo ŵakakhumbanga. Nangauli maboma gha ku South Africa ghakakhumbanga kuti malo agha ghaŵe pasi pa mazaza ghawo, kweni Britain wakalutilira kuchedwa. Boma la Britain likati lasankhika mu 1948, likambiska apartheid, ndipo charu cha South Africa chikati chafumamo mu wupu wa Commonwealth mu 1961, vikawovwira kuti charu cha Britain na vigaŵa vinyake vileke kukolerana na boma la South Africa. Mu 1920, boma la Britain likakhazikiska mawupu ghaŵiri kuti ghamwimire ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa na ku Europe. Wupu wa African Council ukaŵa na ŵalongozgi 8 ŵa mafuko gha Tswana na ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵakasankhika. Mu 1934, pakaŵa malango ghakukhwaskana na muwuso wa mafuko. Mu 1951, wupu wakupeleka ulongozgi wa vyaru vya ku Europe na ku Africa ukapangika, ndipo mu 1961, dango la vyaru vya ku Africa likakhazikiska wupu wakupeleka fundo. ===Independence=== {{see also|Independence Day (Botswana)}} Mu Juni 1964, boma la United Kingdom likapokelera fundo yakuti ku Botswana kuŵe boma lakujiwusa. Mu Febuluwale 1966, ku London kukachitika ungano wa kujithemba. Mu 1965, boma la charu ichi likasamira ku Gaborone, kufupi na mphaka ya Botswana na South Africa. Kuyana na dango la mu 1965, caru ici cikaŵa na mavoti ghakwamba ndipo cikaŵa pa mtende pa 30 Seputembala 1966. Seretse Khama, mulongozgi wa gulu lakujiyimira pawekha na uyo wakakhumbanga kuwusa kwa Ngwato, wakasankhika kuŵa purezidenti wakwamba, ndipo pamanyuma wakasankhikaso kaŵiri. Fumukazi Elizabeth II, pamoza na Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh na mwana wake Prince Andrew, Duke of York, ŵakafika ku Botswana pa ulendo waciŵiri wa ku Africa pa 25-27 July 1979. Pa nyengo iyo ŵakalutanga, ŵanthu ŵakamba kuvina na kuwombera futi. Khama wakafwa mu 1980. Mubali Quett Masire ndiyo wakaŵa wachiŵiri kwa pulezidenti, ndipo wakasankhika mu 1984 na kuwuskikaso mu 1989 na 1994. Masire wakafumapo pa udindo wake mu 1998. Wakalongozgeka na Festus Mogae, uyo wakasankhika mu 1999 na kuwuskikaso mu 2004. Mu 2008, Ian Khama (mwana wa purezidenti wakwamba) ndiyo wakalaŵiliranga boma ili. Pa 1 Epulero 2018 Mokgweetsi Eric Keabetswe Masisi wakalapizga kuŵa purezidenti wachisanu wa Botswana, wakunjira mu malo mwa Ian Khama. Wakwimira chipani cha Botswana Democratic Party, icho chawina mavoti ghanandi pa mavoti ghose kufuma apo charu chikapokera wanangwa. Mathemba ghose agho ghakaŵako pamanyuma pake ghakaŵa gha chipani cimoza. Mu Disembala 1999, Khoti la pa Caru Cose likadumura mulandu uwo ukaŵa kuti wakhala nyengo yitali pa mphaka ya kumpoto na cigaŵa ca Caprivi ku Namibia. Khoti likadumura kuti cirwa ca Kasikili nchigaŵa ca Botswana. Mu ma 1970, charu cha Botswana chikaŵa na mbiri ya kuŵa cimoza mwa vyaru ivyo vikupanga dayamondi zinandi pa caru cose. Mbiri iyi yikukhalilira m'paka sono, cifukwa nchito ya migodi ya dayamondi ya ku Botswana njimoza mwa nchito zikuru comene pa caru cose. Mu Botswana, migodi ya Jwaneng njakusambazi comene kuluska yose.<ref>{{cite web|last=Guest|first=Peter|url= https://www.cnn.com/2015/12/03/africa/botswana-diamonds-jwaneng/index.html|title=Inside the world's richest diamond mine |publisher=[[CNN]]|date=3 December 2015|accessdate=29 March 2023}}</ref> ==Makhalilo== {{Main|Geography of Botswana|Climate of Botswana|Climate Change in Botswana}} [[File:Botswana map of Köppen climate classification.svg|thumb|Botswana map of [[Köppen climate classification]]]] Botswana ni chalo cikuru comene pa vyaru vyose pa caru capasi. Charu ichi chili nga ni Madagascar panji France. Charu ichi chili pakati pa latitude 17° na 27° kumwera, ndipo longitude 20° na 30° kumafumiro gha dazi. Charu cha Botswana chili pa mapiri ghatali chomene. Charu cha Botswana chili na chipalamba cha Kalahari icho chili na malo ghakukwana 70 peresenti. Ku mpoto ca kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa charu ichi kuli dambo la Okavango Delta. Ku mpoto kwa charu ichi kuli Makgadikgadi Pan, malo ghakurughakuru gha mchere. Mlonga wa Limpopo, uwo uli ku chigaŵa cha kumwera kwa Africa, uli mu chigaŵa cha Botswana. Mlonga wa Notwane ukupeleka maji ku msumba wa Gaborone. Mlonga wa Chobe uli kumpoto, ndipo ndiwo mphaka pakati pa Botswana na chigaŵa cha Zambezi ku Namibia. Mlonga wa Chobe ukukumana na Mlonga wa Zambezi pa malo ghakucemeka Kazungula (kung'anamura khuni lichoko la soseji, apo Sebitwane na fuko lake la Makololo ŵakambuka Mlonga wa Zambezi na kunjira mu Zambia). ===Biodiversity and conservation=== [[File:Cebras de Burchell (Equus quagga burchellii), vista aérea del delta del Okavango, Botsuana, 2018-08-01, DD 28.jpg|thumb|Zebras roaming the Okavango Basin]] Mu charu cha Botswana muli vyamoyo vinandi. Padera pa vigaŵa vya mu mapopa, paliso vyakumera na malo ghanyake agho kuli viyuni. Kumpoto kwa charu cha Botswana kuli mtundu unyake ukuru wa ntcheŵe za ku Africa izo zili pafupi kumara. Mu chigaŵa cha Chobe, muli malo ghanandi chomene gha njovu za ku Africa. Malo agha ghali na malo ghakujumpha 11,000 km2 ndipo muli viyuni vyakukwana 350. Malo ghakucemeka Chobe National Park na Moremi Game Reserve (mu Okavango Delta) ndigho ghakwendako ŵanthu ŵanandi. Malo ghanyake ghakusungirako nyama gha Central Kalahari Game Reserve agho ghali mu mapopa gha Kalahari mu chigaŵa cha Ghanzi; Makgadikgadi Pans National Park na Nxai Pan National Park ghali mu chigaŵa cha Central mu chigaŵa cha Makgadikgadi Pan. Malo ghakusungirako vinyama gha Mashatu ni gha ŵanthu ŵekha, ndipo ghali pa malo agho mukusangika milonga ya Shashe na Limpopo kumafumiro gha dazi kwa charu cha Botswana. Malo ghanyake ghakusungirako vyamoyo ni malo ghakuchemeka Mokolodi Nature Reserve kufupi na Gaborone. Paliso malo ghanyake ghakupatulika nga ni Khama Rhino Sanctuary (kwa visko) na Makgadikgadi Sanctuary (kwa visko). Vyose viŵiri vili ku Central District.{{multiple image | direction = vertical | width = | footer = | image1 = Okavango Delta, Botswana (2674364913).jpg | caption1 we = | image2 = Giraffe crossing a road in Botswana.jpg | caption2 = The [[Okavango Delta]] (top).<br />Giraffe crossing a road (bottom). }} Charu cha Botswana chili na masuzgo ghaŵiri, chilangalanga na kuzgoka mapopa. Vigaŵa vitatu pa vigaŵa vinayi vya ŵanthu na vinyama mu charu ichi vikuthemba pa maji gha pasi chifukwa cha chilangalanga. Kuzenga mabowo ghakunyang'amira na maji gha pasi pa mtunda kwachepeskako masuzgo gha chilangalanga. Mu Botswana, maji gha pa mtunda ngakusuzga chomene, ndipo kulimilira mu vyaru ivyo kuli maji ghachoko chomene. Mu vigaŵa vyakukwana 95% vya caru ici, viŵeto ndivyo vikovwira comene ŵanthu kusanga ndalama. Pafupifupi 71 peresenti ya malo gha mu caru ici ghakugwiliskirika nchito pa malo ghakuliskako viŵeto, ndipo ici ndico cikupangiska kuti caru ici ciŵe mapopa kweniso kuti dongo lileke kunangika. Pakuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Botswana ŵakusanga chandulo na viŵeto, ŵakulutilira kupwelelera viŵeto. Kufuma mu 1966 m'paka mu 1991, viŵeto vikakura kufuma pa 1.7 miliyoni kufika pa 5.5 miliyoni.:64 Mwakuyana waka, ŵanthu ŵakusazgikira kufuma pa 574,000 mu 1971 kufika pa 1.5 miliyoni mu 1995, kusazgapo 161% mu vilimika 24. Pa mabanja ghose gha ku Botswana, 50% ghali na viŵeto. Para munthu wakugwiliskira ntchito malo ghakupwanthirapo panji mapopa, wakuŵa na masuzgo ghakuru. Vinthu vikunangikirathu chifukwa cha chilangalanga na kusintha kwa nyengo. Ŵanthu awo ŵakumanya vya cilengiwa ŵakuyowoya kuti cigaŵa ca Okavango Delta cikuwomira cifukwa cakuti viŵeto vikuliska viŵeto vinandi. Deltha la Okavango ni limoza mwa malo ghakurughakuru gha nkhorongo mu charu cha Botswana. Dipatimenti yakuwona vya nkhorongo yikamba kale kufiska ndondomeko ya kuwezgerapo vyakumera mu mizi ya ku Kgalagadi South, Kweneng North na Boteti. Kuŵaso na vyakumera vya ku malo agha kukovwira kuti charu chileke kunangika. Boma la United States nalo lacita phangano na boma la Botswana, kuŵapa ndalama zakukwana madola 7 miliyoni gha ku United States kuti ŵachepeske ngongoli ya boma la Botswana na madola 8.3 miliyoni. Fundo yakuti boma la United States lichepeskeko ngongoli ya charu cha Botswana njakuti charu ichi chiŵikengepo mtima pa kuvikilira malo. Charu ichi chikaŵa pa malo gha nambara 8. Wupu wa United Nations Development Programme ukuti ukavu ndiwo ukupangiska kuti ku Botswana ŵanthu ŵagwiliskirenge nchito comene vinthu vyakuthupi. Kuti ivi visinthe, UNDP yikawovwira pa mulimo uwo ukambira ku Struizendam, kumwera kwa Botswana. Chilato cha ntchito iyi nkhusanga "vinjeru vya ŵanthu ŵa ku malo agha na nthowa zawo zakwendeskera malo". Awo ŵakulongozga gulu ili ŵakwenera kuŵa ŵanthu ŵa mu cigaŵa ico, kuti ŵaŵakope, na kusazgirako mwaŵi wawo wa kusanga ndalama na kuchepeska ukavu. UNDP yikayowoyaso kuti boma likwenera kufiska ndondomeko izo zikovwira ŵanthu kuti ŵajilongozgenge ŵekha.<ref name="afrol1">{{cite web |url = http://www.afrol.com/articles/13090 |title = Botswana villages fighting desertification |publisher = Afrol |access-date = 4 July 2010 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20091102221242/http://www.afrol.com/articles/13090 |archive-date = 2 November 2009 |url-status = live}}</ref> == Boma na ndale == {{Main|Politics of Botswana|Government of Botswana}} [[File:Mokgweetsi E.K. Masisi, President of the Republic of Botswana.jpg|upright|thumb|The current president, [[Mokgweetsi Masisi]]]] Dziko la Botswana ndilo lili na demokilase yakale comene pa caru cose. Ndondomeko ya malango ya boma la Botswana njakuti yikovwira ŵanthu ŵa mu charu ichi. Ndyali za Botswana zikuchitika mu ndondomeko ya chalo cha demokilase icho chili na vipani vinandi, apo purezidenti wa Botswana ni mutu wa chalo na mutu wa boma. Boma ndilo likuŵa na mazaza pa boma. Boma na Nyumba ya Malamulo ya ku Botswana ndivyo vili na mazaza gha kuzenga malango. Chisankho chaposachedwapa, cha khumi ndi chimodzi, chinachitika pa 23 October 2019. Kufuma waka apo boma la Botswana likapokera wanangwa wake, chipani cha Botswana Democratic Party ndicho chili na mazaza pa ndyali. Dziko la Botswana lili pa malo 30 pa vyaru 167 mu 2021 Democracy Index (The Economist), kuluska Italy na Belgium, ndipo lili pasi pa Czech Republic. Ici cikaŵa cigaŵa caciŵiri pa vigaŵa vyose vya mu Africa, ndipo cikaŵa caciŵiri pa vigaŵa vyose vya mu Africa. Kuyana na ma V-Democracy indexes gha 2023, charu cha Botswana chili pa nambara 75 pa vyaru vyose pa charu chapasi ndipo chili pa nambara 12 pa vyaru vya mu Africa. Wupu wa Transparency International ukati, charu cha Botswana ndicho ntchakunanga chomene mu Africa.<ref>Transparency International [https://www.transparency.org/en/cpi/2020/index/nzl]. Retrieved 16 February 2021.</ref> ===Judiciary=== [[File:Gaborone, Botswana High Court.jpg|thumb|left|High Court of Botswana]] Ŵeruzgi ŵakujiyimira ŵekha. Likusazgapo makhoti gha ku Britain agho ghali na makhoti gha Magistrates Courts, High Court na Court of Appeal. Khoti Likuru la ku Ireland ni khoti likuru ilo lili na mazaza ghakupambanapambana ghakupulikizga milandu ya milandu ya milandu ya milandu ya wanangwa wa ŵanthu panji ya malango. Khoti la Apilu ndilo likupulikiska apilu. Mulongozgi wa khoti ili ni mulara wa ŵeruzgi. Khoti la Apilu ndilo ni khoti likuru comene mu caru ici ndipo likupeleka vyeruzgo ku khoti likuru na ku khoti la vyamalonda. Mulongozgi wa khoti la apilu ni mulara wa khoti. Ŵeruzgi ŵakwimikika na pulezidenti wa Botswana mwakuyana na ulongozgi wa komiti ya vya malango. Nangauli wupu wa mawoko wa ku Botswana waŵako kufuma mu 1997, kweni palije ukaboni wakuti ŵanthu ŵanyake nga mbanakazi ŵali kuchita makora pa nkhani ya malango.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.lssa.org.za/upload/SADCLA-2017.pdf|title=18th Annual SADC Lawyers' Association Conference and General Meeting|date=August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171110005020/http://www.lssa.org.za/upload/SADCLA-2017.pdf|archive-date=10 November 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> '''List of chief justices of Botswana'''<ref>{{cite news|url= http://www.olddailynews.gov.bw/cgi-bin/news.cgi?d=20120927|title= Efficient judicial system ensures justice|newspaper= Daily News|access-date= 4 March 2016|url-status= dead|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160305121224/http://www.olddailynews.gov.bw/cgi-bin/news.cgi?d=20120927|archive-date= 5 March 2016}}</ref> {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" |- !No. !Name !Tenure |- |1 |[[Dendy Young]] |1968–1971 |- |2 |[[Akinola Aguda]] |1972–1975 |- |3 |George O. L. Dyke |1975–1977 |- |4 |[[Robert John Hayfron-Benjamin]] |1977–1981 |- |5 |[[James Aiden O'Brien Quinn]] |1981–1987 |- |6 |Luke Livesey |1987–1992 |- |7 |Moleleki D. Mokama |1992–1997 |- |8 |Julian Nganunu |1997–2010 |- |9 |Maruping Dibotelo |2018–2018 |- |10 |Terrence Ronnowane |2018- ''Incumbent'' |- |} ===Foreign relations and military=== [[File:Botswanatroopsboardplane.png|thumb|left|Botswana soldiers board a [[Botswana Defence Force]] plane to Mozambique, July 2021.]] {{Main|Foreign relations of Botswana|Botswana Defence Force}} Pa nyengo iyo charu cha Botswana chikapokera wanangwa, chikaŵavya ŵasilikari. Ŵasilikari ŵa ku Rhodesia na South Africa ŵakati ŵathereska ŵasilikari ŵa Zimbabwe People's Revolutionary Army na Umkhonto we Sizwe, ndipo mu 1977, ŵasilikari ŵa Botswana Defence Force (BDF) ŵakapangika. Pulezidenti ni mulara wa ŵasilikari ndipo wakusora wupu wakuvikilira ndipo sono BDF yili na ŵasilikari pafupifupi 60,000. Mu 2019, charu cha Botswana chikasaina phangano la UN lakukanizga vilwero vya nyukiliya. Chifukwa cha kusintha kwa ndyali mu South Africa na mu chigaŵa ichi, maofesi gha BDF ghakovwira chomene pa nkhani ya kugega ulovi, kunozgekera masoka, na kusungilira mtende. Boma la United States ndilo likawovwira chomene kuti gulu la BDF likure. Boma la Botswana likapeleka wanangwa ku boma la United States kuti liwone usange lingakhazikiska msasa wa Africa Command (AFRICOM) mu caru ici.<ref>Pounds, Lance (14 December 2015) [http://www.africom.mil/media-room/article/27819/botswana-defence-force-u-s-army-leaders-meet-in-europe Botswana Defence Force, U.S. Army Leaders Meet in Europe] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170718193102/http://www.africom.mil/media-room/article/27819/botswana-defence-force-u-s-army-leaders-meet-in-europe |date=18 July 2017 }}. U.S. Army Africa</ref> ===Human rights=== {{Main|Human rights in Botswana}} Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa mtundu wa San ŵakaŵachimbizga mu malo ghawo. Kuti ŵafumemo mu malo agha, ŵakaŵakaniranga maji pa malo ghawo ndipo ŵakakakikanga para ŵacenjezga, ico cikaŵa cakurya cawo cikuru. Caru cawo cili pakati pa malo agho kuli dayamondi zinandi comene. Kweni boma likukana kuti ŵanthu aŵa ŵakakhalanga mu malo agha vyaka vinandi chomene. Ku malo agha, ŵanthu ŵakusuzgika kusanga nchito, ndipo ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakumwa comene moŵa. Pa Ogasiti 24, 2018, Fernand de Varennes, uyo ni mulaŵiliri wapadera wa UN pa nkhani ya ŵanthu ŵachoko waka, wakalemba chikalata icho chikapempha charu cha Botswana kuti "chivikilire wanangwa wa ŵanthu ŵachoko waka pa nkhani ya vinthu vya boma, malo na vinthu vinyake, kweniso viyowoyero vya ŵanthu ŵachoko waka pa nkhani ya masambiro na vinyake". Ku Botswana, ŵanthu ŵakugonana ŵanalume panji ŵanakazi ŵekhaŵekha ŵakaŵa ŵambura kuzomerezgeka m'paka mu Juni 2019. Pa Juni 11 wa chaka chenechicho, Khoti Likuru ku Botswana likadumura kuti malango gha mu Criminal Code ghakaŵa ghambura kuzomerezgeka. Ku Botswana, ŵanthu awo ŵakukoma munthu ŵakulangika na kukakika. Wupu wakuwona vya wanangwa wa ŵanthu wa ku Botswana, Ditshwanelo, ukakhazikiskika mu 1993.<ref>"[https://web.archive.org/web/20180218204716/http://www.ditshwanelo.org.bw/ Ditshwanelo Website] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180218204716/http://www.ditshwanelo.org.bw/ |date=18 February 2018 }}"</ref> ===Administrative divisions=== {{Main|Districts of Botswana|Sub-districts of Botswana}} <imagemap> File:Districts of Botswana (image map).svg|thumb|upright=1.1|The districts of Botswana. The appropriate article can be found by clicking over the district. City districts are not shown. poly 250 100 625 100 625 200 775 200 775 400 625 400 625 500 250 500 [[w:North-West District (Botswana)]] rect 900 75 650 200 [[w:Chobe District]] poly 800 225 900 225 1075 425 1075 600 1375 600 1075 850 900 850 650 500 650 400 800 425 [[w:Central District (Botswana)]] rect 1400 400 1075 600 [[w:North-East District (Botswana)]] poly 250 500 625 500 825 775 800 825 125 825 125 650 250 650 [[w:Ghanzi District]] rect 900 825 525 950 [[w:Kweneng District]] rect 1350 875 900 1025 [[w:Kgatleng District]] rect 550 825 100 1300 [[w:Kgalagadi District]] rect 850 1000 650 1150 [[w:Southern District (Botswana)]] rect 1110 1000 850 1150 [[w:South-East District (Botswana)]] </imagemap> Maboma 10 gha Botswana ni agha: * [[Southern District (Botswana)|Southern District]] * [[South-East District (Botswana)|South-East District]] * [[Kweneng District]] * [[Kgatleng District]] * [[Central District (Botswana)|Central District]] * [[North-East District (Botswana)|North-East District]] * [[Ngamiland District]] * [[Kgalagadi District]] * [[Chobe District]] * [[Ghanzi District]] Botswana's councils created from urban or town councils are: [[Gaborone|Gaborone City]], [[Francistown]], [[Lobatse|Lobatse Town]], [[Selebi-Phikwe|Selebi-Phikwe Town]], [[Jwaneng|Jwaneng Town]], [[Orapa|Orapa Town]] and [[Sowa, Botswana|Sowa Township]]. ==Chuma== {{Main|Economy of Botswana}} Kufuma apo charu cha Botswana chikapokera wanangwa wake, ndalama izo munthu waliyose wakasanganga zikakura mwaluŵiro chomene pa charu chose. Dziko la Botswana lasintha kufuma ku kuŵa limoza la vyaru vikavu comene pa caru cose kuya ku kuŵa caru ca ŵanthu awo ŵali na ndalama zinandi. GDP ya munthu yumoza yikakura kufuma pa $1,344 mu 1950 kufika pa $15,015 mu 2016. Nangauli charu cha Botswana chikaŵa na vinthu vinandi, kweni chikaŵa na ndondomeko yiwemi iyo yikawovwira kuti ndalama izo ŵanthu ŵakasanganga mu charu ichi ziweleremo. Kuyana na umo ŵanthu ŵakuyowoyera, charu ichi chili pa nambara 4 pa vyaru ivyo vili na ndalama zinandi chomene pa charu chose cha Africa.<ref>{{cite web |author=Kästle, Klaus |url=http://www.nationsonline.org/oneworld/GNI_PPP_of_countries.htm |title=GNI PPP table |publisher=Nationsonline.org |date=24 July 2009 |access-date=19 January 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100115190433/http://www.nationsonline.org/oneworld/GNI_PPP_of_countries.htm |archive-date=15 January 2010 |url-status=live}}</ref> [[File:Tree map export 2009 Botswana.jpeg|thumb|Graphical depiction of Botswana's product exports in 28 colour-coded categories]] [[File:GDP per capita development of Botswana.svg|thumb|GDP per capita of Botswana, 1950 to 2018]] [[File:GDP per capita (current), % of world average, 1960-2012; Zimbabwe, South Africa, Botswana, Zambia, Mozambique.png|thumb|GDP per capita (current), % of world average, 1960–2012; Zimbabwe, South Africa, Botswana, Zambia, Mozambique]] Unduna wa vya Malonda na Makampani wa ku Botswana ndiwo ukukhwimiska bizinesi mu caru cose. Wupu wa International Monetary Fund ukati kufuma mu 1966 m'paka mu 1999, ciŵelengero ca cuma cikakuranga na ciŵelengero cakujumpha 9% pa caka. Kuyana na vyaru vinyake vya mu Africa, charu cha Botswana chili na wanangwa wa vinthu vinandi. Boma likalutilira na ndyali yiwemi, nangauli mu 2002 na 2003, ŵakaŵavya ndalama zakukwana. Charu ichi chili na ngongoli zinandi chomene mu Africa ndipo chili na ndalama zakukwana madola ghakujumpha 7 biliyoni mu 2005/2006. Ndondomeko ya malango yikulongosora kuti makhoti ghaŵe ghakujiyimira payekha, ndipo boma likuchindika fundo iyi. Dango ili ndakukwana kuti ŵanthu ŵagwirenge makora nchito za malonda, nangauli milandu yinandi yikuŵa yakusuzga kuti ŵeruzgike. Kuvikilira wanangwa wa vinjeru kwaŵa makora comene. Charu cha Botswana chili pa malo ghaciŵiri kufuma ku South Africa mu vyaru vya ku sub-Saharan Africa mu 2014 International Property Rights Index.<ref>{{cite web|title=The International Property Rights Index 2014: Africa by Score|url=http://internationalpropertyrightsindex.org/countries?r=A&f=ipri&o=desc|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208141240/http://internationalpropertyrightsindex.org/countries?r=A&f=ipri&o=desc|archive-date=8 December 2015|access-date=23 August 2015|publisher=The International Property Rights Index}}</ref> Nangauli boma la Botswana likuzomerezga ŵanthu ŵakufuma ku vyaru vinyake kuti ŵachiteko vinthu vinyake mu charu ichi, kweni ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakuchitako yayi. Kuwonjezeka kwa ndalama zakunja kuli na nchito yikuru pa vyamalonda vya boma. Malango gha vya ndalama ghakwendera makora, ndipo ndondomeko za maburoko yikwenda makora, nangauli yikuchedwa. Ndalama izo ŵanthu ŵakuguliska nga ni ndalama izo ŵakusanga, ngongoli, ndalama izo ŵakusanga, katundu uyo munthu wakuŵa nayo, malipiro agho munthu wakupeleka, na ndalama izo munthu wakulipira pakuchita malonda, zingawezgeka kwambura mphaka. Charu cha Botswana chikuguliska mafuta na magesi kufuma ku South Africa. Pali magesi ghanyake agho ghakufuma mu malasha. === Magesi === {{Excerpt|Energy in Botswana}} ===Mayendelo=== {{See also|Roads in Botswana}} Pa ungano wa SONA 2020 ŵakayowoya kuti ku Botswana kuli misewu yinandi ya makilomita 31,747 (19,727 mi). Pa mtunda uwu, makilomita 20,000 (12,000 mi) ghali na misewu. Makilomita ghakukwana 11,747 (7,299 mi) agho ghalipo ghalije misewu. Mtunda wa msewu ukuwoneka mu makilomita ndipo chiŵelengero cha msewu chikuwoneka mu makilomita pa ora (kph) panji na chimanyikwiro cha chiŵelengero cha msewu (NSL). Magulu ghanyake gha magalimoto ghali na mphaka zakusazgikira izo zikulondezgeka na mphaka za luŵiro.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Mupimpila|first=C|date=2010-09-30|title=Internalising the Externalities of Public Transport in Botswana|journal=Botswana Journal of Economics|volume=5|issue=7|doi=10.4314/boje.v5i7.60307|issn=1810-0163|doi-access=free}}</ref> === Ndalama === Mu vyaru vinandi muli mabungwe ghanandi gha vya ndalama, ndipo ndalama za penshoni na mabanki ni vyakuzirwa comene. Mabanki ghalutilira kuŵa na phindu, ndalama zinandi, ndiposo ghakwenda makora, cifukwa cakuti ndalama za caru zikukura ndiposo msonkho ngukuru. Banki ya ku Botswana ndiyo njakovwira. Ndalama za mu charu ichi ni pula. Ndondomeko ya banki ya ku Botswana njimoza mwa ndondomeko zakupambanapambana mu Africa. Pakuti boma likulondezga fundo za pa caru cose pa nkhani ya kujilongora makora pa nkhani za ndalama na kulaŵilira mabanki, likovwira kuti ŵamalonda ŵasange ngongoli. Banki ya Capital Bank yikajulika mu 2008. Mu Ogasiti 2015, mu charu ichi mukaŵa mabanki ghanandi. Boma likucitako nchito ya banki kwizira mu mabungwe gha boma na ndondomeko yapadera yakovwira ŵanthu kusanga ndalama. Ngongoli zikupelekeka mwakuyana na umo vinthu viliri pa msika, kweni boma likupeleka ngongoli zakovwira. Mu vyaka vyasonosono apa, mabungwe gha vya ndalama agho ghakusanga ndalama yayi ghalutilira kunozgekera, comenecomene kwizira mu wupu umoza uwo ukuwona vya ndalama. Boma lafumiskapo malango ghakwendeskera ndalama za boma, ndipo chifukwa cha ivi, mabungwe ghanyake ghakwendeska ndalama, ndipo kampani ya Botswana Stock Exchange yikukura.<ref name="botswana-facts-figs">{{cite web | url=http://www.gov.bw/en/Business/Sub-audiences/Investors/Facts-and-Figures/ | title=Investors: Facts and Figures | publisher=Republica of Botswana | access-date=23 August 2015 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150905000003/http://www.gov.bw/en/Business/Sub-audiences/Investors/Facts-and-Figures/ | archive-date=5 September 2015 | url-status=live}}</ref> ===Gemstones and precious metals=== Ku Botswana, Dipatimenti ya Migodi na Vinthu Vyakuthupi (Department of Mines and Mineral Resources, Green Technology and Energy Security) iyo yikulongozgeka na Hon Sadique Kebonang ku Gaborone, yikusunga vinthu vyakukhwaskana na migodi mu caru cose. Debswana, kampani yikuru comene ya migodi ya dayamondi iyo yikugwira nchito mu Botswana, yili na ndalama 50 pa 100 za boma. Makampani gha migodi ghakupeleka ndalama pafupifupi 40% ku boma. Mu 2007, ŵanthu ŵakasanga usambazi unandi wa uranium, ndipo ŵakaghanaghananga kuti usambazi uwu wambenge kusangika mu 2010. Makampani ghakupambanapambana gha migodi gha ku vyaru vinyake ghaŵa na maofesi ghawo mu Botswana, ndipo ghakupenja dayamondi, golide, uranium, mkuwa, na mafuta. Boma la Botswana likati mu 2009, lizamukhumba kuleka kugwiliskira ntchito malibwe gha dayamondi pa vinthu vyachuma. Mu charu cha Botswana muli migodi yinandi chomene ya dayamondi. Mu 2013, ku Orapa ŵakaguliska dayamondi yakujumpha madola 1.6 biliyoni.<ref name="Kitco">[https://web.archive.org/web/20130921053511/http://www.kitco.com/ind/Zimnisky/2013-08-20-Ranking-Of-The-World-s-Diamond-Mines-By-Estimated-2013-Production.html "Ranking Of The World's Diamond Mines By Estimated 2013 Production"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130921053511/http://www.kitco.com/ind/Zimnisky/2013-08-20-Ranking-Of-The-World-s-Diamond-Mines-By-Estimated-2013-Production.html|date=21 September 2013}}, ''[[Kitco]]'', 20 August 2013.</ref> === Creative industries === Ŵakuwona kuti mulimo wa vyamasalamusi pa nkhani ya vyachuma ukuzirwa comene. Wupu wa United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) ukulembapo manambara ghakukhwaskana na katundu uyo wakuguliskika ku vyaru vinyake na katundu uyo wakunjira mu vyaru vinyake. Wupu wa World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) wawovwira kunozga kafukufuku uyo wakulongora kuti pa charu chose pali makampani ghakujumpha 50. Kuyana na umo WIPO yikupangira, ndalama izo ŵanthu ŵakupeleka ku vyamaseŵero vya kulenga zikupambana pakati pa 2% na 11% kuyana na caru. Pakugwiliskira nchito ndondomeko ya WIPO, wupu wa Companies and Intellectual Property Authority (CIPA) na Botswana Institute for Development Policy Analysis ŵakalemba kafukufuku wakukhwaskana na vigaŵa vinyake mu 2019. Mu 2016, mafakitale a copyright adathandizira 5.46% ku phindu lowonjezera ndi 2.66% ku chiwerengero cha ogwira ntchito, 1.28% ku katundu ndi 3.47% ku katundu.<ref>{{Cite book|date=June 2019|title=The Economic Contribution of Copyright Industries in Botswana|url=https://www.wipo.int/export/sites/www/copyright/en/performance/pdf/econ_contribution_cr_bt.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.wipo.int/export/sites/www/copyright/en/performance/pdf/econ_contribution_cr_bt.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live|isbn=978-99968-3-063-1|access-date=29 December 2021|website=WIPO}}</ref> == Ŵanthu == {{Main|Demographics of Botswana}} {|class="wikitable" style="float: right; margin-right: 10px" |+ Population in Botswana{{UN_Population|ref}} |- ! scope="col" style="background:#cfb;"|Year ! scope="col" style="background:#cfb;"|Million |- |1950 ||style="text-align:right;"|0.4 |- |2000 ||style="text-align:right;"|1.7 |- |2020 ||style="text-align:right;"|2.4 |} Mu 2012, ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Tswana ndiwo ŵakaŵa ŵanandi chomene mu charu cha Botswana, ndipo ŵakakwananga 79% ya ŵanthu wose. Ŵanyake 7 peresenti mbanthu ŵa fuko la White Batswana/European Batswana, ŵa ku India, na mafuko ghanyake gha ku Southern Africa.<ref>{{Cite CIA World Factbook|country=Botswana|date=10 May 2022|year=2022}}</ref> Ŵanthu ŵa mu chigaŵa ichi ni Bayei, Bambukushu, Basubia, Baherero, na Bakgalagadi. Ŵanthu ŵachoko waka ŵa ku India ŵali kufuma ku Mozambique, Kenya, Tanzania, Mauritius, na South Africa. [[File:Bevölkerungspyramide Botswana 2016.png|thumb|left|Population pyramid 2016]] Since 2000, because of deteriorating economic conditions in [[Zimbabwe]], the number of [[Zimbabweans in Botswana]] has risen into the tens of thousands.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=National and international responses to the Zimbabwean exodus: implications for the refugee protection regime|publisher=Policy Development and Evaluation Service, [[United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees]]|series=Research Papers|volume=175|last1=Betts|first1=Alexander|last2=Kaytaz|first2=Ezra|year=2009|url=http://www.reliefweb.int/rw/rwb.nsf/retrieveattachments?openagent&shortid=MINE-7UL4R6&file=Full_Report.pdf}}{{Dead link|date=February 2022 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Ŵanthu ŵambura kukwana 10,000 ŵa mtundu wa San ŵachali na umoyo wawo. Kwambira m'ma 1990, boma la Botswana likuyezga kufumiska Ŵasani mu malo ghawo.<ref>Lovgren, Stefan (14 September 2004) [http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2004/09/0914_040914_labushmen_2.html African Bushmen Tour U.S. to Fund Fight for Land] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160808232807/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2004/09/0914_040914_labushmen_2.html |date=8 August 2016 }}. ''National Geographic News''.</ref> [[James Anaya]], mu 2010, Mlembi Wapadera wa United Nations pa nkhani ya wanangwa wa ŵanthu na wanangwa wa ŵanthu ŵa ku malo agha, wakalemba kuti para ŵanthu ŵa ku malo agha ŵatayika, ŵakusuzgika chomene.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Visit Central Kalahari Game Reserve In Botswana|url=https://kubwafive-safaris.com/visit-central-kalahari-game-reserve-in-botswana/|access-date=2020-10-03|website=Kubwa Five Safaris|language=en-GB}}</ref> as a special example.<ref name=Anaya/>{{rp|2}} Among Anaya's recommendations in a report to the [[United Nations Human Rights Council]] was that development programs should promote, in consultation with indigenous communities such as the San and Bakgalagadi people, activities in harmony with the culture of those communities such as traditional hunting and gathering activities.<ref name=Anaya>{{cite report |author=Anaya, James |date=2 June 2010 |title=Addendum – The situation of indigenous peoples in Botswana |publisher=United Nations Human Rights Council. A/HRC/15/37/Add.2 |url=http://unsr.jamesanaya.org/docs/countries/2010_report_botswana_en.pdf |access-date=7 August 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181006041536/http://unsr.jamesanaya.org/docs/countries/2010_report_botswana_en.pdf |archive-date=6 October 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref>{{rp|19}} {{Largest cities | country = Botswana | stat_ref = Census Botswana 2022<ref>{{Cite web |date=June 2022 |title=POPULATION OF CITIES, TOWNS AND VILLAGES |url=https://www.statsbots.org.bw/sites/default/files/publications/Population%20of%20Cities%20Towns%20and%20Villages%20%202022.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.statsbots.org.bw/sites/default/files/publications/Population%20of%20Cities%20Towns%20and%20Villages%20%202022.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |access-date=22 July 2022 |website=POPULATION AND HOUSING CENSUS 2022 |publisher=Gaborone: Statistics Botswana.}}</ref> | list_by_pop = List of cities in Botswana | div_name = District | div_link = | city_1 = Gaborone | div_1 = South-East District (Botswana){{!}}South-East | pop_1 = 246,325 | img_1 = Gaborone, Botswana - 51207616203.jpg | city_2 = Francistown| div_2 = North-East District (Botswana){{!}}North-East| pop_2 = 103,417| img_2 = The main square in Francistown (3297095166).jpg | city_3 = Mogoditshane| div_3 = Kweneng District{{!}}Kweneng | pop_3 = 88,006 | city_4 = Maun, Botswana{{!}}Maun| div_4 = North-West District (Botswana){{!}}North-West| pop_4 = 84,993| img_4 = MaunAirport.jpg | city_5 = Molepolole| div_5 = Kweneng District{{!}}Kweneng| pop_5 = 74,674| img_5 = | city_6 = Serowe| div_6 = Central District (Botswana){{!}}Central | pop_6 = 55,676 | city_7 = Tlokweng| div_7 = South-East District (Botswana){{!}}South-East | pop_7 = 55,508 | city_8 = Palapye| div_8 = Central District (Botswana){{!}}Central | pop_8 = 52,636 | city_9 = Mochudi| div_9 = Kgatleng District{{!}}Kgatleng| pop_9 = 50,317 | city_10 = Mahalapye| div_10 = Central District (Botswana){{!}}Central | pop_10 = 48,431 | city_11 = Kanye, Botswana{{!}}Kanye| div_11 = Southern District (Botswana){{!}}Southern| pop_11 = 48,028 | city_12 = Selebi-Phikwe{{!}}Selibe Phikwe| div_12 = Central District (Botswana){{!}}Central| pop_12 = 42,488 | city_13 = Letlhakane| div_13 = Central District (Botswana){{!}}Central | pop_13 = 36,338 | city_14 = Ramotswa| div_14 = South-East District (Botswana){{!}}South-East | pop_14 = 33,271 | city_15 = Lobatse| div_15 = South-East District (Botswana){{!}}South-East | pop_15 = 29,772 | city_16 = Mmopane | div_16 = Kweneng District{{!}}Kweneng | pop_16 = 25,345 | city_17 = Thamaga| div_17 = Kweneng District{{!}}Kweneng | pop_17 = 25,297 | city_18 = Moshupa| div_18 = Southern District (Botswana){{!}}Southern | pop_18 = 23,858 | city_19 = Tonota| div_19 = Central District (Botswana){{!}}Central | pop_19 = 23,296 | city_20 = Bobonong| div_20 = Central District (Botswana){{!}}Central | pop_20 = 21,216 }} ===Viyowoyelo=== {{bar box |title=Languages of Botswana |titlebar=#ddd |left1=Languages |right1=Percent |float=right |bars= {{bar percent|Setswana|darkgreen|77.3}} {{bar percent|Sekalanga|purple|7.4}} {{bar percent|Shekgalagadi|red|3.4}} {{bar percent|English|black|2.8}} {{bar percent|Sesarwa|green|1.7}} {{bar percent|Sembukushu|darkblue|1.6}} {{bar percent|Ndebele|cyan|1.0}} {{bar percent|Seherero|darkred|1.0}} {{bar percent|Afrikaans|gray|0.4}} {{bar percent|Sesubiya|tan|0.3}} {{bar percent|Seyeyi|lime|0.2}} {{bar percent|Other Asian|violet|0.4}} {{bar percent|Other European|azure|0.4}} {{bar percent|Other African|yellow|0.1}} {{bar percent|Other|brown|0.1}} }} {{Main|Languages of Botswana|Setswana}} Chiyowoyero cha boma ku Botswana ni Chingelezi, ndipo ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuyowoya Chisetswana.<ref name="gov.bw languages" /> Mu Citswana, vilembo vyakwambilira ni vyakuzirwa comene kuluska mu viyowoyero vinyake vinandi, cifukwa Citswana ni ciyowoyero ca Bantu ndipo vili na mazina agho ghakulembeka na vilembo ivi. Zina mwa vinthu ivi ni Bo, ilo likung'anamura charu, Ba, ilo likung'anamura ŵanthu, Mo, uyo ni munthu yumoza, na Se, uyo ni chiyowoyero. Mwaciyelezgero, mtundu ukuru comene wa ŵanthu ŵa ku Botswana ni ŵa mtundu wa Tswana. Ŵanthu wose aŵa mba Batswana, munthu yumoza ni Motswana, ndipo chiyowoyero chawo ni Setswana. Viyowoyero vinyake ivyo vikuyowoyeka mu Botswana ni Kalanga (Sekalanga), Sarwa (Sesarwa), Ndebele, Kgalagadi, Tswapong,! Mazgu agha ni Xóõ, Yeyi, ndipo mu vigaŵa vinyake, Afrikaans. ===Chisopo=== {{Main|Religion in Botswana}} {{bar box |title=[[Religion in Botswana]] ([[Pew Research Center|Pew Research]])<ref name=pew>[https://web.archive.org/web/20131216190527/http://www.globalreligiousfutures.org/countries/botswana/religious_demography#/?affiliations_religion_id=0&affiliations_year=20100 Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project: Botswana] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131216190527/http://www.globalreligiousfutures.org/countries/botswana/religious_demography#/?affiliations_religion_id=0&affiliations_year=20100 |date=16 December 2013 }}. [[Pew Research Center]]. 2010.</ref> |titlebar=#ddd |left1=religion |right1=percent |float=right |bars= {{bar percent|[[Christianity in Botswana|Protestant]]|blue|66}} {{bar percent|[[Irreligion|Atheist]]|darkgrey|20}} {{bar percent|[[Roman Catholicism in Botswana|Catholic]]|purple|7}} {{bar percent|[[African traditional religion|Folk]]|red|6}} {{bar percent|[[Freedom of religion in Botswana|Other]]|gray|1}} }} Ŵanthu pafupifupi 77% ŵa mu charu ichi ŵakuti Mbakhristu. Ŵakhristu ŵanandi ŵali mu tchalitchi la Anglican, Methodist, na United Congregational Church of Southern Africa. Mu caru ici muli mipingo ya ŵa Lutheran, Baptist, Roman Catholic, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, Dutch Reformed Church, Mennonites, Seventh-day Adventists, na Ŵakaboni ŵa Yehova. Kuyana na kalembera wa mu 2001, mu caru ici muli Ŵasilamu pafupifupi 5,000 (ŵanandi ŵakufuma ku South Asia), Ŵahindu 3,000, na 700 ŵa cisopa ca Bahá'í. Ŵanthu pafupifupi 20 pa 100 ŵaliwose ŵalije chisopa. ==Mwambo== {{Main|Culture of Botswana}} Kuyana na chiyowoyero icho ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuyowoya mu charu cha Botswana, lizgu lakuti Setswana likuyowoyeka kuti likulongosora umo ŵanthu ŵa ku Botswana ŵaliri. Ku Botswana, ŵanthu ŵa mafuko ghanandi ŵakupokelerana munthowa zakupambana. Kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Batswana ŵafwatukane makora, ŵakuyowoyeskana mazgu ghakuti "Dumelang". Pa viphikiro nga ni Dikgafela, panji viphikiro vya nthengwa, ŵanakazi ŵa ku Batswana ŵakulongora kuti mbakukondwa para ŵakulira. ===Literature and cinema=== Mabuku gha ku Botswana ghali na malo ghake mu mabuku gha ku Africa. Mabuku gha mu Africa ghakumanyikwa cifukwa ca umo ghakulembera. Kulemba kwaŵako kwa nyengo yitali ku Botswana, kufuma ku nyengo ya kupenta malibwe, comenecomene mu mapiri gha Tsodilo, agho ghakumanyikwa kuti ghakaŵa na vyaka 20,000, mpaka lero. [[File:Unity Dow - PopTech 2011 - Camden Maine USA (cropped).jpg|thumb|left|[[Unity Dow]], author of ''Far and Beyon''', ''The Screaming of the Innocent'' and ''Heavens May Fall'']] Mazuŵa ghano, mu charu cha Botswana muli ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakulemba nkhani za mbiri, za ndyali, na zakukondweska. Ŵanyake mwa ŵanthu aŵa ni Bessie Head, uyo wakababikira ku South Africa ndipo wakakhalanga ku Serowe; Andrew Sesinyi; Barolong Seboni (uyo milimo yake yikusazgapo Images of the Sun, Screams and Pleas, Lovesongs, Windsongs of the Kgalagadi and Lighting the Fire, na mabuku ghanyake agho ghakusazgapo seŵero lakuti Sechele I, na Setswana Riddles Translated into English); Unity Dow, Galesiti Baruti; Caitlin Davies; Lauri Kubuetsile; Albert Malikongwa; Toro Mositi; na Moteane Melamu.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://medium.com/@africadialogue/the-history-and-future-of-literature-in-botswana-dc0120b34561|title=The History and Future of Literature in Botswana|first=Africa in|last=Dialogue|date=12 July 2017|website=Medium}}</ref> Vinthu vinandi ivyo Bessie Head wakalemba vikacitika mu msumba wa Serowe. Mufilimu ya When Rain Clouds Gather (1968), Maru (1971), na A Question of Power (1973) zose zili na nkhani iyi. Mabuku ghatatu agha ghakulongosora vya umoyo wa munthu. Mabuku agha ghakulongosora ivyo vikachitikira Maru apo wakakhalanga pa famu iyo ŵanthu ŵakakhalanga. Head wakafumiskaso nkhani zifupi zinandi, kusazgapo buku la The Collector of Treasures (1977). Wakalemba buku lakuti Serowe: Village of the Rainwind. Buku lake laumaliro, A Bewitched Crossroad (1984), ni buku la mdauko ilo likalembeka mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800. Kweniso wakalemba nkhani ya ntchimi ziŵiri, yumoza musambazi ndipo munyake mukavu, zina lake Yakobe: Wasembe Wakupembuzga na Cipulikano.<ref>Mary Ellen Snodgrass, [https://books.google.com/books?id=LXyyYs2cRDcC&pg=PT141 "Head, Bessie (Bessie Amelia Emery Head)"], ''Encyclopedia of the Literature of Empire'', Infobase Publishing, 2010, pp. 131–132.</ref><ref name=SAHO>[http://www.sahistory.org.za/dated-event/bessie-amelia-head-sa-novelist-dies "Bessie Amelia Head, SA novelist dies"], South African History Online, 17 April 1986.</ref> Mu 1981, filimu ya The Gods Must Be Crazy yikaŵa mu charu cha Botswana ndipo yikaŵa yakutchuka chomene pa charu chose. Mu 2000, filimu ya Disney ya Whispers: An Elephant's Tale yikaŵa mu charu cha Botswana. Pamanyuma, mu 2009, mabuku ghanyake gha M. Filimu ya Saravanan yakuchemeka Ayan, iyo yikaŵa mu chiyowoyero cha Tamil, yikaŵa mu charu cha Botswana. A United Kingdom (Ufumu wa United Kingdom), nkhani ya chitemwa cha Seretse Khama na Ruth Williams, yikapangika pakati pa Botswana na London.<ref name="oxfordbibliographies">{{cite web|url=https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780199846733/obo-9780199846733-0110.xml|title=Botswana (Bechuanaland) – African Studies|website=Oxford Bibliographies|access-date=2019-12-22}}</ref> ===Media=== {{main|Media of Botswana}} Ku Botswana kuli mawayilesi 6 gha TV, ndipo limoza mwa mawayilesi agha ni la boma (Botswana TV), pamoza na Now TV, Khuduga HD, Maru TV, Access TV na EBotswana. Pali mawayilesi ghankhondi (RB1, RB2, Duma FM, Gabz FM, na Yarona FM) na manyuzipepara 13 (Mmegi, Sunday Standard, The Telegraph, Business Weekly, The Botswana Gazette, The Voice, The Guardian, Echo, Botswana People's Daily, DailyNews, Tswana Times, Weekend Post, na The Monitor) agho ghakupharazga nyengo zose. ===Music=== {{Main|Music of Botswana}} {{multiple image | direction = vertical | width = | footer = | image1 = | caption1 we = | image2 = Tomeletso Seeretsi.jpg | caption2 we = | image3 = Tswana Small Basket.jpg | caption3 = Folklore Musician Sereetsi (top) & traditional basket (bottom) }} Sumu za ku Botswana zikuzunulika na ŵanthu ŵanandi, nyengo zinyake kwambura kugwiliskira ntchito viŵiya. Sumu za ŵanthu ŵa ku Botswana zili na vyakwimbira nga ni setinkane (chipinda cha piyano chichoko), segankure/segaba (chiyowoyero cha ku Botswana icho chikuyana waka na chiyowoyero cha ku China), moropa (vyakwimbira vyakupambanapambana), phala (chisulo icho chikulizgika pa viphikiro, icho chili na mitundu yakupambanapambana). Vyakwimbira vya ku Botswana vikugwiliskirika waka pa vingwe yayi. Mawoko nagho ghakugwiliskirika nchito nga ni vyakwimbira, mwa kugwiriskirana mawoko pamoza panji kugwiliskira nchito phathisi (khumba la mbuzi lakuzingilizgika mu ciŵaya, ilo likugwiriskirika nchito na ŵanalume pera) kuti lipange sumu na sumu. Mu vyaka vyasonosono apa, gitala yikumanyikwa kuti ni ciŵiya ca kwimba ico cikovwira ŵanthu ŵa ku Tswana. Sumu ya fuko ni "Fatshe leno la rona". Buku ili likalembeka na kulemba na Kgalemang Tumediso Motsete.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Makgala|first=Christian John|date=2014-07-03|title=Neil Parsons, National Coat of Arms, and Introduction of the Pula Currency in Botswana, 1975–1976|journal=South African Historical Journal|volume=66|issue=3|pages=504–520|doi=10.1080/02582473.2014.898081|s2cid=159475736|issn=0258-2473}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Welcome to Daily News .:. General - Birth of nation|url=http://www.dailynews.gov.bw/news-details.php?nid=31255|website=www.dailynews.gov.bw|access-date=2020-05-24|archive-date=26 January 2020|archive-url=https://archive.today/20200126140631/http://www.dailynews.gov.bw/news-details.php?nid=31255|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Botswana Music|url=https://www.knowbotswana.com/botswana-music.html|website=KnowBotswana|access-date=2020-05-24}}</ref> === Visual arts === Ku chigaŵa cha kumpoto kwa Botswana, ŵanakazi ŵa mu mizi ya Etsha na Gumare ŵakumanyikwa cifukwa ca luso lawo la kupanga vidunga kufuma ku khuni la mkama la Mokola na vyakununkhira vya mu malo agha. Vikwama ivi vikuŵa vyakupambanapambana mu mitundu yitatu: vikuruvikuru vyakudikanya ivyo ŵakugwiliskira nchito pakusunga vinthu, vikuruvikuru vyambura kujara ivyo ŵakugwiliskira nchito pakunyamura vinthu pa mutu panji pakupwantha tirigu, na viŵiya vichoko ivyo ŵakugwiliskira nchito pakupwantha tirigu. Vinthu ivi vikuŵa viwemi comene cifukwa ca mitundu iyo vikuŵa nayo kweniso umo vikupangikira.{{sfn|Cunningham|Milton|1987}} Vithuzithuzi vyakale chomene vya ku Botswana na South Africa vikulongora ŵanthu ŵakuŵawuka, vinyama, na ŵanthu. Kung San/Bushmen) vyaka vyakujumpha 20,000 ivyo vyajumpha mu mapopa gha Kalahari. ===Food=== {{Main|Cuisine of Botswana}} Vyakurya vya ku Botswana vikusazgapo nyama pakuti ku Botswana kuli viŵeto vinandi. Chakurya cha fuko ili ni seswaa, nyama yakufuma ku mbuzi panji nyama ya ng'ombe, Segwapa nyama yakomira, yakufuma ku nyama ya ng'ombe m'paka nyama ya nyama ya nyama. Vyakurya vya ku Botswana vikuyana waka na vyakurya vinyake vya ku Southern Africa. Viyelezgero vya vyakurya vya ku Botswana ni: Bogobe, pap, boerewors, samp, Magwinya na mopane. Pakuphika chiŵiya ichi, munthu wakuŵika ufu wa sorghum, wa mbuto, panji wa mphoza mu maji ghakubilisa, wakuwuskamo viŵiya ivi na kuviphika pachokopachoko. Cakurya ico cikucemeka ting cikupangika para munthu wakusazgapo mkaka na shuga. Para mulije mkaka na shuga, nyengo zinyake tingaryeka pamoza na nyama panji mphangwe. Nthowa yinyake yakuphikira bogobe nkusazgako mkaka wakununkhira na mpunga. Cakurya ici cikucemeka tophi na fuko la Kalanga. Madila ni cakurya ca mkaka cakuyana na yogati panji sour cream.<ref>{{Citation |title=Microbiome of madila - a southern-african fermented milk product |last1=Ohenhen |first1=Regina |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/315493533 |work=International Journal of Basic and Applied Sciences |volume=2 (2) (2013) 170–175 |pages= |access-date=2023-02-26 |script-title= |publication-date=2013 |author-mask= |last2=Imarenezor |first2=E.P.K |last3=Kihuha |first3=A.N.}}</ref> Ŵanthu ŵakulima mphangwe zinandi, nga ni cowpeas, ditloo, na letlhodi. Vyakumera vinyake vikukura mu thengere ndipo vikusangika nyengo yiliyose, nga ni thepe na Delele (okra). Ku malo agha kuli vipasi vinandi, kusazgapo marula. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakuti tuyuni utu tukwiza kufuma ku Botswana. Pali mtundu unyake wa nyungu uwo ukulimikaso. Mitundu yinyake ya nyungu iyo yikusangika mu vigaŵa vya mu mapopa, njakuzirwa comene ku ŵanthu ŵa mu vigaŵa ivi. Boma la Kgalagadi Breweries Limited ndilo likupanga moŵa wakuchemeka St. Louis Lager, ndiyo njere yakwamba na yimoza pera ya ku Botswana iyo yikumanyikwa chomene mu charu ichi kwamba mu 1989, kweniso Keone Mooka Mageu, chakumwa chambura moŵa. ===Sports=== {{Main|Sport in Botswana}} [[File:Francistown Stadium Botswana.jpg|thumb|left|[[Francistown Stadium]]]] Bola ndilo ndakutchuka mu Botswana. Maseŵera ghanyake agho ŵanthu ŵakutemwa ni softball, cricket, tennis, rugby, badminton, handball, golf, na track and field. Dziko la Botswana ndi membala wa International Cricket Council. Mu 1991, charu cha Botswana chikaŵa mu wupu wa International Badminton Federation na African Badminton Federation. Wupu wa Botswana Golf Union ukupeleka maseŵero gha gofu agho ŵanthu ŵakuchita. Dziko la Botswana likapambana mendulo yakwamba ya Olimpiki mu chaka cha 2012 apo Nijel Amos wakathereska siliva mu mpikisano wa mamita 800. Mu chaka cha 2011, Amantle Montsho wakazgoka championship wa charu chose mu maseŵera gha mamita 400 ndipo wakatora mendulo yakwamba ya ku Botswana pa maseŵera gha pa charu chose. Kabelo Kgosiemang ni mulongozgi wa Africa katatu, Isaac Makwala ni mulongozgi wa mphinjika uyo wakumanya chomene maseŵero gha mamita 400, wakaŵa walongozgi wa golide pa maseŵero gha Commonwealth mu 2018, Baboloki Thebe wakaŵa walongozgi wa siliva mu maseŵero gha mamita 200 pa maseŵero gha Summer Youth Olympics mu 2014 ndipo wakafika ku semi-finals pa World Junior Championships mu 2014 pa maseŵero gha masamu, ndipo Ross Branch Ross, uyo wakwenda pa njinga, wali na nambala yimoza pa maseŵero gha South African Cross Country Championship ndipo wakathereska pa Dakar Rally. Letsile Tebogo wakimika chiphalizgano cha junior pa 100 metres na nyengo ya 9.94 pa 2022 World Athletics Championships. Pa 7 August 2021 dziko la Botswana linalandira mendulo ya bronze mu mpikisano wa 4 × 400 metres wa amuna pa Olimpiki ku Tokyo. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakutemwa chomene maseŵero agha. Ŵasambizgi ŵanandi ŵa ku Britain awo ŵali kusamira ku vyaru vinyake, ŵakasambizganga maseŵero agha mu masukulu gha ku sekondare ku Botswana. Bungwe la Botswana Bridge Federation (BBF) likakhazikiskika mu 1988 ndipo likulutilira kunozga maseŵera agha. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakutemwa comene maseŵero gha kujoba, ndipo gulu ili lili na ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 800. Mu 2007, BBF yikapempha wupu wa English Bridge Union kuti ucitenge ungano wa sabata yimoza mu Meyi 2008.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ebu.co.uk/general/news/2008/BotswanaTrip.htm|title=English Bridge Union|publisher=English Bridge Union|access-date=1 June 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080227184536/http://www.ebu.co.uk/general/news/2008/BotswanaTrip.htm|archive-date=27 February 2008|url-status=live}}</ref> ==Masambilo== {{See also|Ministry of Tertiary Education, Research, Science and Technology (Botswana)}} {{Main|Education in Botswana}} [[File:Lady Physicist.jpg|thumb|Physicist in a Lab at [[Botswana International University of Science and Technology]]]] Kufuma waka apo charu cha Botswana chikapokera wanangwa mu 1966, charu ichi chaluta panthazi chomene pa nkhani ya masambiro. Pa nyengo iyo, mu caru ici mukaŵa ŵanthu ŵacoko comene awo ŵakamalizga masambiro gha ku sekondare. Ku Botswana, chiŵerengero cha ŵanthu ŵakumanya kulemba na kulemba chikakwera kufuma pa 69% mu 1991 kufika pa 83% mu 2008. Pa vyaru vya ku Africa, charu cha Botswana ndicho chili na ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakumanya kuŵazga na kulemba. Kuyana na buku la The World Factbook - Central Intelligence Agency, mu 2015, ŵanthu 88.5% ŵa vyaka 15 kuya munthazi ŵakamanyanga kuŵazga na kulemba.<ref name="ref">{{cite web |title=UNESCO Institute for Statistics |url=http://stats.uis.unesco.org |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080725065836/http://stats.uis.unesco.org/ |archive-date=25 July 2008 |access-date=21 August 2011 |publisher=Stats.uis.unesco.org}}</ref> Cifukwa ca kusanga malibwe gha daimondi na kusazgikira kwa ndalama izo boma likasanganga, masambiro ghakasazgikira comene mu caru ici. Ŵasambiri wose ŵakasambizgika kwa vyaka 10, ndipo ŵakasambiranga sukulu ya Junior Certificate. Pafupifupi hafu ya ŵanthu awo ŵakusambira ŵakuluta ku sukulu za sekondare kwa vyaka viŵiri. Masambiro gha ku sekondare mu Botswana ngawanangwa yayi nesi ghakukakamizgika.<ref name="ref" /> Para ŵafuma ku sukulu, ŵakusambira ŵangasambira ku sukulu yinyake pa sukulu zinkhondi na ziŵiri izo zili mu charu ichi, panji kusambira masambiro gha kusambizga panji unesi. Ŵana ŵa sukulu aŵa ŵakasambiranga pa yunivesite ya Botswana, yunivesite ya Botswana ya Agriculture and Natural Resources, yunivesite ya Botswana International University of Science and Technology, na ku Botswana Accountancy College ku Gaborone. Ŵasambiri ŵanyake ŵanandi ŵakuluta ku masukulu ghapachanya ghapachanya mu charu chose. Pa maunivesite agha pali Botho University, yunivesite yakwamba ya ŵanthu ŵekha mu charu ichi iyo yikupeleka masambiro gha ku sukulu ya Accounting, Business na Computing. Yunivesite yinyake ya pa caru cose ni Limkokwing University of Creative Technology iyo yikupeleka madigiri ghakupambanapambana mu vya Maluso. Masukulu ghanyake ghakusambizga vya masambiro ghapachanya ni Ba Isago, ABM University College, New Era, Gaborone Institute of Professional Studies, Gaborone University College of Law And Professional Studies etc. Ŵasambizgi ŵa sukulu za boma ŵacita vinandi comene kuti ŵasambizge makora ŵanthu. Ŵanandi mwa ŵana aŵa boma likuŵawovwira. Yunivesite yachiŵiri ya pa charu chose, ya Botswana International University of Science and Technology, yikamara ku Palapye mu 2011. Vinthu vinandi ivyo vikachitika pa umoyo wa ŵanthu vikaŵa vyacilendo. Ŵasambizgi ŵa masukulu gha pulayimale ŵachalije ndalama zinandi, ndipo ŵakupokera malipiro ghambura kuyana na ŵasambizgi ŵa masukulu gha sekondare. Dipatimenti ya vya masambiro mu charu cha Botswana yikugwira ntchito yakuzenga malaibulale mu masukulu gha pulayimale pamoza na African Library Project. Boma la Botswana likugomezga kuti para lingaŵika ndalama zinandi pa masambiro, charu ichi chingaleka kuthemba chomene malibwe gha dayamondi. Vilato ivi vikulondezgeka kwizira mu ndondomeko ya masambiro gha maluso, iyo yili mu ndondomeko ya NPVET (National Policy on Vocational Education and Training). Boma la Botswana likugwiliskira nchito 21% ya ndalama zake pa masambiro.<ref name="ref" /> Mu Janyuwale 2006, boma la Botswana likapharazga kuti liwezgerengepo ndalama zakusambizgira ŵana ŵa sukulu pamanyuma pa vyaka makumi ghaŵiri vya masambiro gha wanangwa wa boma nangauli boma likulutilira kupeleka masambiro ghakukwana na ndalama zakukwana zakukhala nazo ku munthu waliyose wa ku Botswana uyo wakusambira pa yunivesite. ===Vinthu viphya na vya zeru=== {{main|Science and technology in Botswana}} [[File:SolarCharger Deaftronics.jpg|thumb|Deaftronics Solar Powered Hearing Aid]] Dziko la Botswana likukhumba kugwiliskira nchito sayansi na vyakupangapanga kuti lisinthe vinthu pa nkhani ya vyachuma na kuchepeskako kugomezgeka kwake ku migodi ya dayamondi. Pa cifukwa ici, kufuma mu 2008, boma la Russia lazenga malo ghaŵiri ghakupambanapambana mu vigaŵa vya vyakurya, daimondi, luso, mendero, umoyo na masambiro. Mu 2011, boma la Botswana likalemba ndondomeko yake ya kafukufuku, sayansi na vyakupangapanga. Ndondomeko iyi yikovwira kuti vinthu visinthe mwaluŵiro pa nkhani ya sayansi, charu chose, na kufiska vilato vya boma ivyo vili kulembeka mu mabuku ghapachanya, kusazgapo pulani ya 10 ya boma la Botswana yakukhwaskana na chitukuko m'paka mu 2016. Mu ndondomeko ya National Policy on Research, Science, Technology and Innovation (2011) muli chilato cha kukwezga ndalama zakwendeskera kafukufuku (R&D) kufuma pa 0.26% ya GDP mu 2012 kufika pa 2% ya GDP mu 2016. Chilato ichi chingafiskika mu nyengo yakutemeka pera usange boma lingasazgirako ndalama zakwendeskera kafukufuku.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|url=http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0023/002354/235406e.pdf|title=UNESCO Science Report: towards 2030|publisher=UNESCO|year=2015|isbn=978-92-3-100129-1|location=Paris|pages=546–547|access-date=20 March 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170322210919/http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0023/002354/235406e.pdf|archive-date=22 March 2017|url-status=live}}</ref>[[File:BeeSat RTM 500x500.JPG|thumb|left|Cubesat miniaturized satellite]] Nangauli ndalama izo ŵakuŵika pa kafukufuku ni zichoko, kweni mu charu ichi muli ŵasayansi ŵanandi chomene ku Africa kumwera kwa Sahara. Dziko la Botswana lili pa nambala 106 pa Global Innovation Index mu 2021, kufuma pa nambala 93 mu 2019.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Global Innovation Index 2019|url=https://www.wipo.int/global_innovation_index/en/2019/index.html|access-date=2021-09-02|website=www.wipo.int|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=RTD - Item|url=https://ec.europa.eu/newsroom/rtd/items/691898|access-date=2021-09-02|website=ec.europa.eu}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2013-10-28|title=Global Innovation Index|url=https://knowledge.insead.edu/entrepreneurship-innovation/global-innovation-index-2930|access-date=2021-09-02|website=INSEAD Knowledge|language=en|archive-date=2 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210902101622/https://knowledge.insead.edu/entrepreneurship-innovation/global-innovation-index-2930|url-status=dead}}</ref> Mu 2009, kampani ya Deaftronics, iyo yikugwira ntchito ku Botswana, yikamba kupanga munkhwala wakovwira kupulika. Kufuma waka pa nyengo iyi, Deaftronics yaguliska vinthu ivi vyakujumpha 10,000. Chiŵiya chilichose cha munkhwala uwu chikugulika pa mtengo wa madola 200 gha ku America. Vinthu ivi ni vyakudura viŵi yayi pakuyaniska na vinyake ivyo vikuŵa na mtengo wakugulira. Mu 2011, Dipatimenti Yakusanda vya Vyakumera ya ku Botswana (DAR) yikavumbura ng'ombe za Musi, izo zikapangika kuti zikondweske chomene viŵeto vya ng'ombe. Mtundu uwu wa nyama ni wa mtundu wa Tswana, Bonsmara, Brahman, Tuli, na Simmental. Chilato cha kafukufuku uyu chikaŵa chakuti ŵasange majini agho ghangaŵa nga ni mitundu iyo yikusangika kale ku Botswana, ndipo ghangaŵa ghawemi chomene kuluska mitundu ya ku Tswana.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.mmegi.bw/index.php?sid=1&aid=166&dir=2011%2FSeptember%2FThursday8%2F |title=Hardy breed named Musi at unveiling |website=mmegi.bw |date=6 August 2007 |access-date=16 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190110013727/http://www.mmegi.bw/index.php?sid=1&aid=166&dir=2011/September/Thursday8/ |archive-date=10 January 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> Mu 2016, wupu wa Botswana Institute of Technology Research and Innovation (BITRI) ukapangiska chiyezgelero cha kufumiska nthenda ya foot and mouth mwakukolerana na wupu wa Botswana Vaccine Institute na Canadian Food Inspection Agency. Njira zakulongozgera matenda izo zilipo zikukhumbikwira ŵanthu ŵakumanyikwa comene na vinthu vyapadera, ivyo vikupangiska kuti ndondomeko ya kucezga yilutilire.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://news.rapidmicromethods.com/2016/12/bitri-develops-rapid-foot-and-mouth.html?m=1 |title=BITRI Develops Rapid Foot and Mouth Disease Test Kit |website=rapidmicromethods.com |access-date=9 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190110013809/http://news.rapidmicromethods.com/2016/12/bitri-develops-rapid-foot-and-mouth.html?m=1 |archive-date=10 January 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> {{ multiple image | direction = vertical | width = | footer = | image1 = | caption1 we= | image2 = Botswana Innovation Hub Under Construction.jpg | caption2 we= | image3 = Botswana Innovation Hub Under Construction 2.jpg | caption3 =Botswana Innovation Hub Under Construction }} MeerKAT (Square Kilometre Array (SKA)) yizamuŵa na vyakupimira vikuruvikuru na ma antenna agho ghazamupambanapambana. Vyakurya vinyake vizamusangika mu vyaru vinyake 8 vya mu Africa. Charu cha Botswana chikasankhika kuti chiŵepo chifukwa chakuti chili ku chigaŵa cha kumwera kwa charu, ndipo chingaŵa chipusu kupokera mauthenga kufuma ku vyaru vinyake. Boma la Botswana lazenga telesikopu ya SKA ku Kgale View, yakucemeka African Very Long Base Line Interferometry Network (AVN) na kutuma msambiri pa masambiro gha vya nyenyezi. Pa 18 December, 2020, charu cha Botswana chikamba ntchito yake ya vyaka vitatu yakuzenga na kwambiska satellite (CubeSat). Bungwe la Botswana International University of Science and Technology (BIUST) ndilo lizamulongozga mulimo wa kupanga satellite iyi ndipo lizamovwira Yunivesite ya Oulu ku Finland. Satellite iyi yizamuteŵetera pakuwona caru capasi, ndipo yizamupeleka fundo zakovwira pa ulimi wavinjeru na pa vyalo vya pa caru. Kweniso vitovwirenge kumanya nyengo iyo tiryenge mbuto mwakugwiliskira ntchito ma robot na makina.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dailynews.gov.bw/news-details.php?nid=60276 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415234043/http://www.dailynews.gov.bw/news-details.php?nid=60276 |archive-date=15 April 2021 |title=Satellite technology development giant leap |work=Botswana Daily News |date=20 December 2020 |access-date=2 October 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://africanews.space/botswana-launches-national-space-program/|title=Botswana Launches National Space Program|first=Space in|last=Africa|date=23 December 2020}}</ref> Mu 2016, kampani yinyake yakuchemeka Almaz, yikajura kampani yakwamba ya kupanga makompyuta..<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.itwebafrica.com/more-countries/botswana/237043-botswana-opens-first-tech-assembly-plant |title=Botswana opens first tech assembly plant |website=itwebafrica.com |access-date=9 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190110013902/http://www.itwebafrica.com/more-countries/botswana/237043-botswana-opens-first-tech-assembly-plant |archive-date=10 January 2019 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.thepatriot.co.bw/business/item/3389-almaz-enters-botswana-ict-sector.html |title=Almaz enters Botswana ICT sector |work=The Patriot |access-date=9 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190109205218/http://www.thepatriot.co.bw/business/item/3389-almaz-enters-botswana-ict-sector.html |archive-date=9 January 2019 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Pa 19 Novembala 2021 ŵasayansi ku Botswana Harvard HIV Reference Laboratory (BHHRL) ŵakasanga mtundu wa Omicron ndipo pamanyuma ŵakawuchema kuti B.1.1.529, ndipo pamanyuma ŵakawuchema kuti "Omicron" ndipo ŵakaŵa charu chakwamba pa charu chose chapasi kusanga mtundu uwu. Kwambira kuuyambiro wa chaka cha 2021, ŵasanda viŵaro vya ŵanthu pafupifupi 2,300 awo ŵali na kachilombo ka SARS-CoV-2. Kuyana na Dr. Gaseitsiwe, viŵelengero vya viŵelengero vya viŵelengero vya viŵelengero vya ŵanthu ivyo vyatumika ku GISAID ni vyapacanya comene mu caru ca Africa pa munthu yumoza. Bungwe la Botswana Harvard AIDS Institute Partnership (BHP) likakhazikiskika mu 2003, vyaka viŵiri pamanyuma pakuti wupu uwu wajura BHHRL, malo ghakwamba puzengau chose gha kafukufuku wa HIV.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/features/2021/12/14/inside-the-botswana-lab-that-discovered-omicron |title=Inside the Botswana lab that discovered Omicron |work=Aljazeera |last=Flood |first=Zoe |date=14 December 2021 |access-date=9 January 2022 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211214111713/http://www.aljazeera.com/features/2021/12/14/inside-the-botswana-lab-that-discovered-omicron |archive-date=14 December 2021 }}</ref> ==Vyakuzenga== {{multiple image | direction = vertical | width = | footer = | image1 = | caption1 we = | image2 = PSX 20190111 022104.jpg | caption2 we = | image3 = Francistown interchange Botswana.png | caption3 = [[Sir Seretse Khama International Airport|SSKI Airport]] (top), [[Air Botswana]] (Middle) & Thapama Interchange (bottom) }} Ku Botswana kuli misewu ya makilomita 971, misewu ya makilomita 18,482, na ma eyapoti 92. Misewu iyi yili kuzengeka kufuma apo tikambira kujiyimira tekha mu 1966. Wupu wa ndege wa ku Botswana ni Air Botswana, ndipo ukwendeska ndege mu charu ichi na ku vyaru vinyake vya mu Africa. Botswana Railways ni kampani ya sitima ya ku caru cose, iyo yikovwira comene pa misewu ya ku Southern Africa. Botswana Railways yikupeleka vinthu vyakwendeskera njanji kuti ŵanthu ŵagulire vinthu vinandi mu migodi na vyamuminda, kweniso njanji za ŵanthu na madoko ghakomira.<ref>{{Cite web |url= http://www.gov.bw/en/ministries--authorities/ministries/ministry-of-transport-and-communications/departments/department-of-roads/divisions/ |title=Ministry of Transport and Communications |access-date=21 January 2019 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20180729080321/http://www.gov.bw/en/ministries--authorities/ministries/ministry-of-transport-and-communications/departments/department-of-roads/divisions |archive-date=29 July 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url= http://www.botswanarailways.co.bw/profile |title=Botswana Railways |access-date=21 January 2019 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20190121232609/http://www.botswanarailways.co.bw/profile |archive-date=21 January 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> Pa nkhani ya magesi, ku Botswana, ŵanthu ŵakugwiliskira nchito malasha pakupanga magesi. Sonosono apa, caru ici caŵika mtima comene pa vyakununkhira vya magesi ndipo cafiska ndondomeko yikuru ya kukopa ŵaganyu mu vyakununkhira vya magesi nga ni mphepo, zuŵa na biomass. Vipinda vya magesi vya ku Botswana ni Morupule B Power Station (600 MW), Morupule A Power Station (132 MW), Orapa Power Station (90 MW), Phakalane Power Station (1.3 MW) na Mmamabula Power Station (300 MW), ivyo vikulindizgika kuti vizamunjira pa intaneti sonosono apa. Unduna wa vya Mineral Resources, Green Technology and Energy Security, uli kunozga na kupanga sitima ya magesi ya 200 MW.<ref>{{Cite news |url= http://www.sundaystandard.info/unusual-tourism-ministry-solar-power-plant-tender-raises-eyebrows |title=Unusual Tourism ministry solar power plant tender raises eyebrows |work=Sunday Standard |location= Gaborone |date=3 December 2017 |access-date=8 October 2019 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20201028231344/https://www.sundaystandard.info/unusual-tourism-ministry-solar-power-plant-tender-raises-eyebrows/ |archive-date=28 October 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="mmegi.bw">{{cite web |url=http://www.mmegi.bw/index.php?sid=1&aid=1253&dir=2012/June/Friday22/ |title=Botswana - energy sector overview |website=mmegi.bw |date=22 June 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190121232514/http://www.mmegi.bw/index.php?sid=1&aid=1253&dir=2012/June/Friday22/ |archive-date=21 January 2019 }}.</ref> ===Umoyo=== {{Excerpt|Health in Botswana}} ====Health industry==== [[File:Scottish Livingstone Hospital 228.jpg|thumb|Scottish Livingstone Hospital in Molepolole]] Dipatimenti ya vyaumoyo mu charu cha Botswana ndiyo yikulaŵilira umoyo wa ŵanthu mu charu chose. Kuyana na Banki ya Caru Cose, mu 2009 ŵanthu ŵakakhazganga kukhala na umoyo utali wa vilimika 55, kweni mu 1990 ukaŵa vyaka 64,1 ndipo mu 2002 ukaŵa vyaka 49. Kuyana na kalembera wa mu 2011, ŵanthu ŵakukhala vyaka 54,06. Wupu wa Khensa wa ku Botswana ni wupu wakujipeleka. Wupu uwu uli mu wupu wa International Union for Cancer Control. Wupu uwu ukupeleka wovwiri wakukwana ku ŵanthu awo ŵakulwara nthenda ya kansa..<ref name="UICC Cancer Association of Botswana">{{cite web |publisher=Union for International Cancer Control |url=http://www.uicc.org/membership/cancer-association-botswana |title=Cancer Association of Botswana |access-date=29 March 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130528080003/http://www.uicc.org/membership/cancer-association-botswana |archive-date=28 May 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref> ==== Nthenda ya HIV/AIDS ==== {{Main|HIV/AIDS in Botswana}} [[File:Life expectancy in select African countries, 1950–2019.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|Life expectancy in select Southern African countries, 1950–2019. [[HIV/AIDS]] has caused a fall in life expectancy.]] Nga umo viliri mu vyaru vinyake vya ku Africa, AIDS yikupangiska masuzgo ghanandi pa vya cuma. Ndalama zakwendeskera vyachuma zikadumulika na 10 peresenti mu 2002'3 cifukwa ca kunangika kwa bajeti na kusazgikira kwa ndalama zakwendeskera vya cipatala. Ku Botswana, nthenda ya AIDS yikananga comene umoyo wa ŵanthu. Mu 2006, ŵakawona kuti ŵanthu awo ŵakubabika na nthenda iyi ŵakukhala vyaka 65 m'paka 35. Ndipouli, kuyana na kalembera wa mu 2011, ŵanthu ŵakukhala vyaka 54,06. Kweni pa chithuzithuzi apa pali vyaka vyakujumpha 65, ntheura pali mauthenga ghakupambana pa nkhani ya umoyo. Ku Botswana, ŵanthu ŵa vyaka vyapakati pa 15-49 ŵakaŵa na nthenda ya HIV/AIDS. Ivi vikupangiska kuti charu cha Botswana chiŵe chachitatu pa vyaru ivyo vili na matenda agha mu 2013, uku "chikulongozga pa nkhani ya kugega na kupwelelera matenda". Mu 2003, boma likamba ndondomeko yikuru yakusazgapo munkhwala wa HIV waulere panji wa mtengo wapasi kweniso kampeni yakupharazga kuti nthenda ya HIV yileke kuthandazgika; mu 2013, ŵanthu ŵakukwana 40% mu Botswana ŵakaŵa na nthenda ya HIV.:28 Mu gulu la vyaka vyapakati pa 15 na 19, nthenda ya HIV yikamba kuthandazgika pa 6% pa ŵanakazi na 3.5% pa ŵanalume mu 2013,:33 ndipo mu gulu la vyaka vyapakati pa 20 na 24, nthenda ya HIV yikamba kuthandazgika pa 15% pa ŵanakazi na 5% pa ŵanalume.:33 Botswana ni yimoza mwa vyaru 21 ivyo gulu la UN AIDS likati vyazunulika mu 2011 mu ndondomeko ya Global Plan ya kumazga nthenda ya HIV pakati pa ŵana na kusunga ŵanyinawo ŵamoyo.:37 Kufuma mu 2009 kufika mu 2013, nthenda ya HIV yikakhira pa 50% pa ŵana.:38 Cinthu cinyake ico cikulongora kuti banthu ŵakukwaniska panji ŵakugomezga kuti nthenda ya HIV yikumara, nchakuti pa banthu ŵakukwana 10% pa banthu ŵakutora nthenda ya HIV mu 2013, banthu ŵakukwana pafupifupi 50% pa banthu ŵakukwana ŵakukwaniska na Na pulogiramu ya kuchepeska nthenda ya HIV kufuma ku amama kuya ku ŵana, caru ca Botswana cachepeska nthenda iyi kufuma pa 40% kufika pa 4%. Pa muwuso wa Festus Mogae, Boma la Botswana likapempha wovwiri wa ku vyaru vinyake pakulwera HIV/AIDS ndipo likapokera wovwiri kufuma ku Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, Merck Foundation, ndipo pamoza ŵakapanga African Comprehensive HIV/AIDS Partnership (ACHAP). Ŵabali ŵanyake awo ŵakateŵeterapo pa nyengo yakwambilira ŵakaŵa ku Botswana-Harvard AIDS Institute, ku Harvard School of Public Health, na ku Botswana-UPenn Partnership of the University of Pennsylvania. Kuyana na lipoti la UNAIDS la mu 2011, ŵanthu wose mu Botswana ŵakutora munkhwala uwo ukovwira kuti ŵaleke kufwa.<ref>{{Citation |url= http://www.unaids.org/en/media/unaids/contentassets/documents/unaidspublication/2011/JC2216_WorldAIDSday_report_2011_en.pdf |title= World AIDS Day Report |year= 2011 |publisher= UNAIDS |access-date= 21 February 2012 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130601011732/http://www.unaids.org/en/media/unaids/contentassets/documents/unaidspublication/2011/JC2216_WorldAIDSday_report_2011_en.pdf |archive-date= 1 June 2013 |url-status= live}}</ref> Vinyake ivyo vingapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵaŵe na HIV ku Botswana ni kugonana pa nyengo yimoza, kugonana na munthu munyake, kugonana na ŵanthu ŵa miwiro yakupambanapambana, kweniso ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakuluta ku vyaru vinyake kukapenja ntchito. Cifukwa cakuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakugonana na ŵanalume panji ŵanakazi ŵanandi, ŵakuŵa na suzgo linyake. === Ulendo === {{main|Tourism in Botswana}} [[File:Botswana.jpg|thumb|Tourist on a safari boat cruise]] Bungwe la Tourism Organisation la ku Botswana ndilo likwendeska vyalo mu charu ichi. Ŵalendo ŵanandi ŵakuluta ku Gaborone chifukwa cha vinthu vinandi ivyo ŵanthu ŵakuchita. Lion Park Resort ni malo ghakwamba ghakusanguluskira ŵanthu ku Botswana. Malo ghanyake agho ŵanthu ŵakuluta ku Botswana ni Gaborone Yacht Club na Kalahari Fishing Club kweniso malo ghanyake ghakukondweska nga ni Gaborone Dam na Mokolodi Nature Reserve. Pali malo gha gofu agho ghakusungilizgika na bungwe la Botswana Golf Union (BGU). Phakalane Golf Estate ni nyumba yakuzirwa comene iyo yili na mahotelo kweniso malo ghakukhala gofu. Malo ghakusungirako vinthu vyakale mu Botswana ni:<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20090808044920/http://www.botswanagolfunion.org.bw/ (BGU)]. Botswana Golf Union. Retrieved on 19 May 2017.</ref> * [[Botswana National Museum]] in Gaborone * Kgosi Bathoen II (Segopotso) Museum in Kanye * Kgosi Sechele I Museum in Molepolole * Khama III Memorial Museum in Serowe * Nhabe Museum in Maun * [[Phuthadikobo Museum]] in Mochudi * Supa Ngwano Museum Centre in Francistown ==Wonaniso== {{portal|Africa}} * [[Outline of Botswana]] * [[List of Botswana-related topics]] == Vinyake vyamubuku == {{Notelist}} == Ukaboni == === Citations === {{Reflist}} === General sources === {{Free-content attribution | title = UNESCO Science Report: Towards 2030 | author = UNESCO | publisher = UNESCO Publishing | page numbers = 546–547 | source = | documentURL = http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0023/002354/235406e.pdf | license statement URL = | license = CC BY-SA IGO 3.0 }} == Vyakulemba vinyake == {{refbegin}} * Charles, Thalefang (2016). ''Botswana's Top50 Ultimate Experiences''. Mmegi Publishing House. {{ISBN|9789996845413}}. * {{cite web |url=https://economics.mit.edu/files/284 |title=An African Success Story: Botswana |last1=Acemoglu |first1=Daron |last2=Johnson |first2=Simon |last3=Robinson |first3=James A. |date=11 July 2001 |via=mit.edu |ref=none |access-date=13 July 2018 |archive-date=18 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180718075640/http://economics.mit.edu/files/284 |url-status=dead }} * {{cite journal | last1 = Cohen | first1 = Dennis L | year = 1979 | title = The Botswana Political Elite: Evidence from the 1974 General Election | url = | journal = Journal of Southern African Affairs | volume = 4 | issue = | pages = 347–370 }} * Colclough, Christopher and Stephen McCarthy. ''The Political Economy of Botswana: A Study of Growth and Income Distribution'' (Oxford University Press, 1980) * {{cite journal|first1=A.B.|last1=Cunningham|first2=S.J.|last2=Milton|title=Effects of basket-weaving industry on mokola palm and dye plants in northwestern Botswana|date=1987|publisher=Economic Botany}} * {{Cite book|last1=Denbow |first1=James |name-list-style=amp |last2=Thebe |first2=Phenyo C. |title=Culture and Customs of Botswana |url=https://archive.org/details/culturecustomsof0000denb |location=Westport, CT |publisher=Greenwood Press |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-313-33178-7 |ref=none}} * Edge, Wayne A. and Mogopodi H. Lekorwe eds. ''Botswana: Politics and Society'' (Pretoria: J.L. van Schaik, 1998) * {{cite journal | last1 = Good | first1 = Kenneth | year = 1992 | title = Interpreting the Exceptionality of Botswana | url =https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-modern-african-studies_1992-03_30_1/page/69| journal = Journal of Modern African Studies | volume = 30 | issue = | pages = 69–95 | doi = 10.1017/S0022278X00007734 | s2cid = 154542272 }} * {{cite journal |last=Good |first=Kenneth |title=Corruption and Mismanagement in Botswana: A Best-Case Example? |journal=Journal of Modern African Studies |date=September 1994 |volume=32 |number=3 |pages=499–521 |url=https://projects.iq.harvard.edu/files/gov2126/files/good.pdf |via=harvard.edu |access-date=13 July 2018 |issn=0022-278X |eissn=1469-7777 |doi=10.1017/S0022278X00015202 |s2cid=153626418 |ref=none |archive-date=3 April 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180403150659/http://projects.iq.harvard.edu/files/gov2126/files/good.pdf |url-status=dead }} * Tlou, Thomas, and Alec C. Campbell. ''History of Botswana'' (Macmillan Botswana, 1984) {{refend}} == Vigaŵa vya kuwalo == {{Sister project links|auto=1|voy=Botswana|d=Q963}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20210109202201/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/botswana Botswana]. ''[[The World Factbook]]''. [[Central Intelligence Agency]]. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20081026035549/http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/botswana.htm Botswana] from [[UCB Libraries]] GovPubs * {{curlie|Regional/Africa/Botswana}} * [https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-13040376 Botswana] from the [[BBC News]] * {{Wikiatlas|Botswana}} * {{osmrelation-inline|1889339}} * [http://www.ifs.du.edu/ifs/frm_CountryProfile.aspx?Country=BW Key Development Forecasts for Botswana] from [[International Futures]] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20230629130744/https://www.government.co.bw/ Government Directory for Botswana] {{Botswana topics}} {{Navboxes |title = Related articles |list = {{English official language clickable map}} {{Countries of Africa}} {{Southern African Development Community}} {{African Union}} {{Commonwealth of Nations}} {{Botswana government ministries and agencies}} }} {{Authority control}} {{Coord|24|39.5|S|25|54.5|E|display=title}} [[Category:Botswana| ]] [[Category:Southern African countries]] [[Category:Countries and territories where English is an official language]] [[Category:Landlocked countries]] [[Category:Member states of the African Union]] [[Category:Member states of the Commonwealth of Nations]] [[Category:States and territories established in 1966]] [[Category:Member states of the United Nations]] [[Category:Republics in the Commonwealth of Nations]] [[Category:1966 establishments in Botswana]] [[Category:Countries in Africa]] [[Category:Former least developed countries]] 1alylw8lnprqvadggp03o1forqjan7y 0 6914 119334 118874 2026-08-13T23:10:29Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Add 3 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260813sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 119334 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Country in the Horn of Africa}} {{About|the country|other uses}} {{distinguish|Ethopia (moth)}} {{Pp-semi-indef}} {{Pp-move|small=yes}} {{Patronymic names||Naming conventions in Ethiopia and Eritrea}} {{Use dmy dates|date=May 2022}}<!-- Please DO NOT enlarge the lede further by adding additional detail to it since it is already too long. Instead, add additional detail to the appropriate sub-section much further below! --> {{Infobox country | conventional_long_name = Charu cha Etiyopiya | common_name = Ethiopia | native_name = {{Collapsible list |titlestyle = background:transparent;text-align:center;line-height:normal;font-size:85%; |title = Name in national languages |{{Infobox | subbox = yes | bodystyle = font-size:78%;font-weight:normal; | rowclass1 = mergedrow | label1 = [[Amharic]]: | data1 = {{lang|am|የኢትዮጵያ ፌዴራላዊ ዴሞክራሲያዊ ሪፐብሊክ}}<br />{{lang|am-Latn|Ye-Ītyōṗṗyā Fēdēralawī Dēmokirasīyawī Rīpebilīk}} | rowclass3 = mergedrow | label3 = [[Oromo language|Oromo]]: | data3 = {{lang|om|Rippabliikii Federaalawaa Dimokraatawaa Itiyoophiyaa}} | rowclass4 = mergedrow | label4 = [[Somali language|Somali]]: | data4 = {{lang|so|Jamhuuriyadda Dimuqraadiga Federaalka Itoobiya}} | rowclass5 = mergedrow | label5 = [[Wolaitta language|Wolayta]]: | data5 = {{lang|wal|Toophphiyaa Federaale Demokiraase Ripaablike}} | rowclass6 = mergedrow | label6 = [[Tigrinya language|Tigrinya]]: | data6 = {{lang|ti|ፌዴራላዊ ዴሞክራሲያዊ ሪፐብሊክ ኢትዮጵያ}}<br />{{lang|ti-Latn| Fēdēralawī Dēmokirasīyawī Rīpebilīki Ítiyop'iya}} | rowclass7 = mergedrow | label7 = [[Afar language|Afar]]: | data7 = {{lang|aa|Itiyoppiya Federaalak Demokraatik Rippeblikih}} }} }} | image_flag = Flag of Ethiopia.svg | image_coat = Emblem of Ethiopia.svg | symbol_type = Emblem | national_anthem = <br />{{lang|am|ወደፊት ገስግሺ ፣ ውድ እናት ኢትዮጵያ|bold=yes}}<br />({{Lang-en|"[[March Forward, Dear Mother Ethiopia]]"}})<br /><div style="display:inline-block;margin-top:0.4em;">{{center|[[File:Wedefit Gesgeshi Widd Innat Ittyoppya.ogg]]}}</div> | image_map = Ethiopia (Africa orthographic projection).svg | capital = [[Addis Ababa]] | coordinates = {{Coord|9|1|N|38|45|E|type:city}} | largest_city = capital | official_languages = [[Afar language|Afar]] <br /> [[Amharic]] <br /> [[Oromo language|Oromo]] <br /> [[Somali language|Somali]] <br /> [[Tigrinya]]<ref name="Ventures"/><ref name="Nazret"/><ref name="africanews.com">{{cite news |last1=Shaban |first1=Abdurahman |title=One to five: Ethiopia gets four new federal working languages |url=https://www.africanews.com/2020/03/04/one-to-five-ethiopia-gets-four-new-federal-working-languages// |agency=Africa News |access-date=23 October 2020 |archive-date=15 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201215231030/https://www.africanews.com/2020/03/04/one-to-five-ethiopia-gets-four-new-federal-working-languages// |url-status=dead}}</ref> | languages_type = {{nowrap|'''[[Regional language]]s'''}}<ref name="africa.upenn.edu">{{Cite web | url=https://www.africa.upenn.edu/Hornet/Ethiopian_Constitution.html | title=Ethiopian Constitution}}</ref> | ethnic_groups = {{plainlist| * 34.5% [[Oromo people|Oromo]] * 26.9% [[Amhara people|Amhara]] * 6.2% [[Somalis in Ethiopia|Somali]] * 6.1% [[Tigrayans|Tigrayan]] * 4.0% [[Sidama people|Sidama]] * 2.5% [[Gurage people|Gurage]] * 2.3% [[Welayta people|Welayta]] * 1.7% [[Hadiya people|Hadiya]] * 1.7% [[Afar people|Afar]] * 1.5% [[Gamo people|Gamo]] * 12.6% [[List of ethnic groups in Ethiopia|Others]]}} | languages_sub = yes | languages = {{Flatlist| * [[Harari language|Harari]] * [[Sidamo language|Sidama]] * [[Languages of Ethiopia]] <!-- includes only languages officially recognized by a region as the working language --> }} | languages2_type = Foreign languages | languages2 = | ethnic_groups_year = 2007<ref name="CSA">{{cite web|title=Table 2.2 Percentage distribution of major ethnic groups: 2007|page=16|url=http://www.csa.gov.et/pdf/Cen2007_firstdraft.pdf|work=Summary and Statistical Report of the 2007 Population and Housing Census Results|publisher=Population Census Commission|access-date=14 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090325050115/http://www.csa.gov.et/pdf/Cen2007_firstdraft.pdf|archive-date=25 March 2009}}</ref><ref name=2007Census /> | religion = {{ublist |item_style=white-space; |{{Tree list}} * 67.3% [[Christianity in Ethiopia|Christianity]] ** 43.8% [[Ethiopian Orthodox Church|Ethiopian Orthodoxy]] ** 22.8% [[P'ent'ay]] ** 0.7% Other [[Christians|Christian]] {{Tree list/end}} |31.3% [[Islam in Ethiopia|Islam]] |0.6% [[Traditional African religion|Traditional faiths]] |0.8% [[Religion in Ethiopia|Others]] / [[Irreligion|None]] }} | religion_year = 2016<ref>{{cite web |title=Ethiopia- The World Factbook |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/ethiopia/#people-and-society |website=www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/ |publisher=Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) |access-date=19 July 2021}}</ref> | demonym = [[Ethiopians|Ethiopian]] | government_type = [[Federal parliamentary republic]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://globalafrica.isp.msu.edu/files/5015/5916/5319/TedVestal.pdf|title=Zenawism as ethnic-federalism}}</ref> | leader_title1 = [[President of Ethiopia|President]] | leader_name1 = [[Sahle-Work Zewde]] | leader_title2 = [[Prime Minister of Ethiopia|Prime Minister]] | leader_name2 = [[Abiy Ahmed]] | legislature = [[Federal Parliamentary Assembly]] | upper_house = [[House of Federation]] | lower_house = [[House of Peoples' Representatives]] | sovereignty_type = [[History of Ethiopia|Formation]] | established_event1 = [[Ethiopian Empire]] | established_date1 = 1270 | established_event2 = ''[[Zemene Mesafint]]'' | established_date2 = 7 May 1769 | established_event3 = [[Zemene Mesafint#End of Zemene Mesafint era|Reunification]] | established_date3 = 11 February 1855 | established_event4 = [[Menelik II#Centralisation|Centralisation]] | established_date4 = 1904 | established_event5 = [[Italian Ethiopia|Occupied and annexed]] into [[Italian East Africa]] | established_date5 = 9 May 1936 | established_event6 = [[Anglo-Ethiopian Agreement]] | established_date6 = 31 January 1942 | established_event7 = [[Derg]] | established_date7 = 12 September 1974 | established_event8 = [[Transitional Government of Ethiopia|Transitional government]] | established_date8 = 28 May 1991 | established_event9 = [[Constitution of Ethiopia|Current constitution]] | established_date9 = 21 August 1995 | area_km2 = 1,104,300<ref name="CIA World Factbook"/> | area_rank = 26th <!-- Should match [[List of countries and dependencies by area]] --> | area_sq_mi = 426,371 <!-- Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] --> | percent_water = 0.7 | population_estimate = 116,462,712<ref>{{Cite CIA World Factbook|country=Ethiopia|access-date=24 September 2022}}</ref> | population_estimate_year = 2023 | population_estimate_rank = 13th | population_census = 73,750,932<ref name=2007Census>{{cite web |title=Country Level |url=http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php/census-report/census-tables/category/301-census-tables?download=655:countrylevel |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190208061518/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php/census-report/census-tables/category/301-census-tables?download=655:countrylevel |url-status=dead |archive-date=8 February 2019 |work=2007 Population and Housing Census of Ethiopia |publisher=[[Central Statistical Agency (Ethiopia)|CSA]] |date=13 July 2010 |access-date=18 January 2013}}</ref> | population_census_year = 2007 | population_density_km2 = 92.7 | population_density_sq_mi = 240.1 <!-- Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] --> | population_density_rank = 123rd | GDP_PPP = {{increase}} $394 billion<ref name="IMFWEOET">{{cite web|url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2023/April/weo-report?c=644,&s=NGDPD,PPPGDP,NGDPDPC,PPPPC,&sy=2021&ey=2023&ssm=0&scsm=1&scc=0&ssd=1&ssc=0&sic=0&sort=country&ds=.&br=1|title=World Economic Outlook Database, April 2023|date=April 2023|website=IMF.org|publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]]|access-date=21 April 2023}}</ref> | GDP_PPP_year = 2023 | GDP_PPP_rank = 55th | GDP_PPP_per_capita = {{increase}} $3,724<ref name="IMFWEOET"/> | GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 159th | GDP_nominal = {{increase}} $156 billion<ref name="IMFWEOET"/> | GDP_nominal_year = 2023 | GDP_nominal_rank = 59th | GDP_nominal_per_capita = {{increase}} $1,475<ref name="IMFWEOET"/> | GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 159th | Gini = 35.0 <!--number only--> | Gini_year = 2015 | Gini_change = increase<!--increase/decrease/steady--> | Gini_ref = <ref name="wb-gini">{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/gini-index-coefficient-distribution-of-family-income/country-comparison/ |title=Gini Index coefficient |publisher=CIA World Factbook |access-date=16 July 2021}}</ref> | HDI = 0.498 <!-- number only --> | HDI_year = 2021<!-- Please use the year to which the data refers, not the publication year --> | HDI_change = increase <!-- increase/decrease/steady --> | HDI_ref = <ref name="UNHDR">{{cite web|url=https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2021-22pdf_1.pdf|title=Human Development Report 2021/2022|language=en|publisher=[[United Nations Development Programme]]|date=September 8, 2022|access-date=September 8, 2022}}</ref> | HDI_rank = 175th | currency = [[Ethiopian birr|Birr]] | currency_code = ETB | time_zone = [[East Africa Time|EAT]] | utc_offset = +3 | utc_offset_DST = | time_zone_DST = | drives_on = right | calling_code = [[+251]] | cctld = [[.et]] }} '''Ethiopia''',{{efn|{{lang-am|ኢትዮጵያ|Ītyōṗṗyā}} {{IPA-am|i.tjo.p’ja|pron}}, {{lang-om|Itiyoophiyaa}}, {{lang-so|Itoobiya}}, {{lang-ti|ኢትዮጵያ|Ítiyop'iya}}, {{lang-aa|Itiyoppiya}}}} panji kuti '''Charu cha Etiyopiya''', panji kuti '''Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia''', chili ku mpoto kwa [[Africa]]. Charu ichi chili kumpoto na Eritrea, kumpoto na kumafumiro gha dazi na [[Djibouti]], kumafumiro gha dazi na kumpoto na kumafumiro gha dazi na [[Somalia]], kumwera na [[Kenya]], kumanjiliro gha dazi na [[South Sudan]], kweniso kumpoto na kumanjiliro gha dazi na [[Sudan]]. Charu cha Etiyopiya chili na malo ghakukwana 1,100,000 square kilometres. Kufika mu chaka cha 2022, charu ichi chili na ŵanthu pafupifupi 113.5 miliyoni, ndipo ni charu cha nambara 13 pa vyaru ivyo vili na ŵanthu ŵanandi chomene pa charu chose chapasi.<ref name="csa2">{{cite web |title=Population Projections for Ethiopia 2007–2037 |url=http://www.csa.gov.et/census-report/population-projections/category/368-population-projection-2007-2037?download=936:population-projection-2007-2037 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803052731/http://www.csa.gov.et/census-report/population-projections/category/368-population-projection-2007-2037?download=936:population-projection-2007-2037 |archive-date=3 August 2020 |access-date=25 September 2020 |website=www.csa.gov.et}}</ref>{{UN_Population|ref}}Msumba ukuru wa [[Addis Ababa]], uli pa mtunda wa makilomita ghanandi kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa [[East African Rift]] iyo yikupatura charu ichi kuŵa vigaŵa viŵiri.<ref name="CIA2">{{cite web |title=Ethiopia |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/ethiopia/ |access-date=5 April 2021 |work=The World Factbook |publisher=CIA}}</ref> Ŵanthu ŵa mazuŵa ghano ŵakafuma mu charu icho sono chikuchemeka Ethiopia ndipo ŵakaluta ku [[Near East]] na kunyake mu nyengo ya Middle Paleolithic.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kessler |first=David F. |title=The Falashas : a Short History of the Ethiopian Jews |date=2012 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-283-70872-2 |oclc=819506475}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hopkin |first=Michael |date=16 February 2005 |title=Ethiopia is top choice for cradle of ''Homo sapiens'' |journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] |doi=10.1038/news050214-10}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Li |first1=J.Z. |last2=Absher |first2=D.M. |last3=Tang |first3=H. |last4=Southwick |first4=A.M. |last5=Casto |first5=A.M. |last6=Ramachandran |first6=S. |last7=Cann |first7=H.M. |last8=Barsh |first8=G.S. |last9=Feldman |first9=M. |last10=Cavalli-Sforza |first10=L.L. |last11=Myers |first11=R.M. |year=2008 |title=Worldwide Human Relationships Inferred from Genome-Wide Patterns of Variation |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_2008-02-22_319_5866/page/1100 |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |volume=319 |issue=5866 |pages=1100–04 |bibcode=2008Sci...319.1100L |doi=10.1126/science.1153717 |pmid=18292342 |s2cid=53541133}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=21 February 2008 |title=Humans Moved From Africa Across Globe, DNA Study Says |publisher=[[Bloomberg News]] |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=newsarchive&sid=awJVkvnk8KjM |url-status=dead |access-date=16 March 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110629125652/http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=newsarchive&sid=awJVkvnk8KjM |archive-date=29 June 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Kaplan |first=Karen |date=21 February 2008 |title=Around the world from Addis Ababa |url=http://www.startribune.com/world/15860017.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130603122801/http://www.startribune.com/world/15860017.html |archive-date=3 June 2013 |access-date=16 March 2009 |work=[[Los Angeles Times]]}}</ref> Kumwera cha kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Ethiopia ndiko ŵanthu ŵakuyowoya viyowoyero vya ku Afroasiatic. Mu 980 B.C.E., [[Ufumu wa D'mt]] ukathandazga ufumu wake pa charu cha [[Eritrea]] na kumpoto kwa Ethiopia, apo Ufumu wa Aksum ukalutilira kulamulira charu ichi vyaka 900. Ufumu uwu ukazomera Chikhristu mu 330, ndipo Chisilamu chikafika mu 615.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Abbink |first=Jon |date=1998 |title=An Historical-Anthropological Approach to Islam in Ethiopia: Issues of Identity and Politics |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1771876 |journal=Journal of African Cultural Studies |volume=11 |issue=2 |pages=109–124 |doi=10.1080/13696819808717830 |jstor=1771876 |hdl=1887/9486 |issn=1369-6815|hdl-access=free }}</ref> Pamanyuma pakuti msumba wa [[Aksum]] wabwangandulika mu 960, maufumu ghakupambanapambana ghakaŵa mu charu cha Etiyopiya. Ufumu wa Zagwe ukalamuliranga kumpoto na pakati m'paka apo ukawuskikira na Yekuno Amlak mu 1270, ndipo ukayambiska ufumu wa Ethiopia na ufumu wa [[Solomonic]]. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1400 C.E., ufumu uwu ukakura chomene chifukwa cha kusazgikira kwa vigaŵa vyawo na kulimbana na vigaŵa vinyake. Nkhondo ya Adal (1529-1543) ndiyo yikawovwira kuti ufumu uwu uŵe wakupambana. Themba [[Tewodros II]] likamalizga [[Zemene Mesafint]] mu 1855, ndipo ici cikapangiska kuti Etiyopiya wakolerane na ŵanthu ŵa mu caru ici.<ref>{{Cite web |date=12 April 2022 |title=Ethnicity and Power in Ethiopia |url=https://era.ed.ac.uk/bitstream/id/1299/Vaughanphd.pdf}}</ref> Kwambira mu 1878, Themba Menelik II likapoka vigaŵa vinandi vya charu cha Ethiopia. Kuumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1800, charu cha Ethiopia chikajivikilira ku ŵalwani awo ŵakachitanga nkhondo na charu cha Egypt na Italy. Mu 1935, boma la [[Fascist Italy]] likapoka charu cha Ethiopia na kuwunjika pamoza na vyaru vya [[Eritrea]] na [[Somaliland]]. Mu 1941, pa nyengo ya Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya pa Charu Chose, ŵasilikari ŵa ku [[Britain]] ŵakamba kuwukira msumba uwu. Gulu la [[Derg]], ilo likawovwirika na Soviet Union, likamba kuwusa mu 1974 pamanyuma pa kuwuskapo Themba [[Haile Selassie]] na [[muwuso wa Solomoni]]. Pati pajumpha nyengo yichoko waka kufuma apo Derg yikamara mu 1991, gulu la [[Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF)]] likamba kulamulira charu ichi. Kufuma waka pa nyengo iyi, ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yakupambanapambana ŵakwambana kwa nyengo yitali, ndipo ndyali zilije mtende. Kufuma mu 2018, magulu gha vigaŵa na gha mafuko ghakapanga nkhondo zinandi mu Ethiopia.<ref name=BBC1120>{{Cite news|author=BBC Staff|date=3 November 2020|title=Ethiopia attack: Dozens 'rounded up and killed' in Oromia state|language=en|work=BBC|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-54787034|access-date=25 May 2021}}</ref> Charu cha Ethiopia chili na ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yakupambanapambana yakujumpha 80. Chikhristu ndicho ntchisopa chikuru chomene mu charu ichi, ndipo ŵanthu ŵachoko waka ndiwo ŵakulondezga chisopa cha Chisilamu. Boma ili ndilo likambiska Wupu wa United Nations, Gulu la Ŵamitundu 24, Gulu la Ŵambura Kujibatika, Gulu la Ŵamitundu 77, na Wupu wa Umoza wa ku Africa. Ku Addis Ababa ndiko kuli wupu wa African Union, Pan African Chamber of Commerce and Industry, United Nations Economic Commission for Africa, African Standby Force na mawupu ghanandi gha pa charu chose agho ghakuwona vya Africa. Charu cha Ethiopia nchimoza mwa vyaru ivyo vikukura comene yayi, kweni nyengo zinyake chikucemeka kuti ni caru ico cikukura comene. Ndipouli, kuyana na ndalama izo munthu waliyose wakuguliska na fundo ya Human Development Index, caru ici nchikavu comene, ndipo ŵanthu ŵanandi mbakavu, kweni ŵakuchindika yayi wanangwa wa ŵanthu, ndipo ŵanthu awo ŵakumanya kuŵazga na kulemba ni 49%. Ntchito za ulimi ndizo zikuluzikulu kwambiri ku Ethiopia, zomwe zikuyimira 36% ya GDP ya dzikolo kuyambira 2020.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ethiopia: Share of economic sectors in the gross domestic product (GDP) from 2010 to 2020 |url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/455149/share-of-economic-sectors-in-the-gdp-in-ethiopia/#:~:text=This%20statistic%20shows%20the%20share%20of%20economic%20sectors,and%20the%20services%20sector%20contributed%20about%2036.81%20percent. |website=Statista}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Agriculture in Ethiopia: data shows for a large part Agriculture still retained its majority share of the economy. |url=https://lekreports.com/agriculture-in-ethiopia-data-shows-for-a-large-part-agriculture-still-retained-its-majority-share-of-the-economy/ |website=The Low Ethiopian Reports|date=16 June 2022 }}</ref> ==Zina== {{see also|Aethiopia}} Zina la Chigiriki lakuti Αἰθιοπία (kufuma ku Αἰθίοψ, Aithiops, "munthu wa ku Etiyopiya") ni lizgu ilo lili kufuma ku lizgu la Chigiriki lakuti α??θω na ??ψ. Kuyana na buku la Liddell-Scott Jones Greek-English Lexicon, lizgu ili likung'anamulika kuti chisko chawotcheka mu zina, ndipo mu zina la chigaŵa, chisko chawotcheka. Munthu munyake wakulemba mdauko zina lake Herodotus, wakazunuranga vigaŵa vya ku Africa kumwera kwa Sahara. Pakuti Ŵagiriki ŵakamanyanga kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Etiyopiya ŵakaŵa "ŵabulumembe", ŵakaŵagaŵa mu vigaŵa viŵiri, ŵa ku Africa na ŵa kumafumiro gha dazi kufuma ku Turkey m'paka ku India.<ref>Homer, ''Odyssey'' 1.22–4.</ref> Zina la Chigiriki ili likalembeka mu Chiamharic kuti ኢትዮጵያ, ʾĪtyō?? yā. Panyake lizgu lakuti Αἰθιοπία likafuma ku lizgu lakuti ዕጣን (ʿəṭan, lubani), ilo ku Etiyopiya likafuma. Mu malemba gha Ŵagiriki na Ŵaroma, zina lakuti Etiyopiya likaŵa zina la ku Nubia wakale. Mu malemba ghanyake gha mu Baibolo, zina lakuti Etiyopiya likusangikaso mu Mabaibolo ghanandi gha mu Baibolo. Malemba ghakale gha Cihebere ghakuyowoya kuti Nubia ni Kush. Ndipouli, mu Cipangano Ciphya, lizgu la Cigiriki lakuti Aithiops likuzunulika, pakuyowoya za muteŵeti wa Kandake, fumukazi ya Kush. Pakulondezga mitheto ya Ŵagiriki na Baibolo, buku la Monumentum Adulitanum, ilo lili kulembeka mu vyaka vya m'ma 300 C.E., likulongora kuti themba la Aksum likalamuliranga chigaŵa icho chikaŵa kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Ethiopia na Sasu. Themba Ezana la ku Aksum likathereska Nubia mu vyaka vya m'ma 1900. Mu ciyowoyero ca Ge'ez, lizgu lakuti Aἰθίοπες likuyana waka na lizgu lakuti Ḥbšt na Ḥbśt (Ḥabashat). Pamanyuma, zina liphya ili likang'anamulika kuti ḥbs ('Aḥbāsh) mu Cisaba na Ḥabasha mu Cirabu. Mu buku la Ge'ez Book of Axum ilo likalembeka mu vyaka vya m'ma 1400, zina ili likulongora kuti munthu uyu wakaŵa Ityopp'is. Iyo wakaŵa mwana wa Kushi, mwana wa Hamu, uyo ŵanthu ŵakuti ndiyo wakazenga msumba wa Axum. Mu Cingelezi, na kuwaro kwa Ethiopia, caru ici cikamanyikwanga na zina lakuti Abyssinia. Zina ili lili kufuma ku lizgu Lachilatini lakuti Habash.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Schoff|first1=Wilfred Harvey|title=The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea: travel and trade in the Indian Ocean|date=1912|publisher=Longmans, Green, and Co.|page=62|url=https://archive.org/stream/periplusoferythr00schouoft#page/62/mode/2up|access-date=28 September 2016}}</ref> ==Mbili== {{Main|History of Ethiopia}} {{further|Ethiopian historiography}} === Mbili yakwambilia === {{Main article|Prehistoric Ethiopia}} [[File:Homo Sapiens Idaltu.JPG|thumb|A ''[[Herto Man|Homo sapiens idaltu]]'' hominid skull]] Vinthu vinandi vyakuzirwa ivyo ŵasanga vyawovwira kuti charu cha Ethiopia na vigaŵa vyakuzingilizga viŵe pa malo ghakwamba pa nkhani ya vyamoyo. Munthu uyo wakukhala vyaka vinandi chomene uyo wasangika ku Ethiopia ni Ardipithecus ramidus (Ardi) wa vyaka 4.2 miliyoni. Wakaŵa Muzungu mu 1994. Munthu uyo wakumanyikwa chomene ni Australopithecus afarensis (Lucy). Mu 1974 Donald Johanson wakasanga chinyama ichi mu Dambo la Awash mu chigaŵa cha Afar. Zina lakuti Lucy likuyowoya za malo agho ŵakasangako vinthu ivi. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakuti munthu uyu wakaŵako vyaka 3.2 miliyoni ivyo vyajumpha.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/sn/prehistoric_life/human/human_evolution/mother_of_man1.shtml|title=Mother of man – 3.2&nbsp;million years ago|publisher=Bbc.co.uk|access-date=16 March 2009}}</ref><ref name="Dinkinesh">{{cite book|title=Lucy's Legacy: The Quest for Human Origins|last2=Wong|first2=Kate|date=2010|publisher=Crown Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-307-39640-2|pages=8–9|last1=Johanson|first1=Donald C.}}</ref><ref name="iho1">{{cite web|url=https://iho.asu.edu/about/lucys-story|title=Institute of Human Origins: Lucy's Story|date=15 June 2016|access-date=23 March 2017}}</ref> Charu cha Etiyopiya ndicho chikaŵa chakwamba kuti ŵanthu ŵa mazuŵa ghano, awo ŵakuchemeka Homo sapiens, ŵambe kuŵako. Vinthu vyakale chomene ivyo vikusangika pa malo agha ni ivyo vikakhalako vya Omo. Vinthu ivi vikazengeka kumwera cha kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa charu cha Omo. Kweniso ŵakasanga viwangwa vya munthu munyake wakuchemeka Homo sapiens idaltu mu dambo la Awash. Vinthu ivi vikaŵako vyaka pafupifupi 160,000 ivyo vyajumpha, ndipo vingaŵa kuti vikaŵa vyamoyo vya mtundu wa Homo sapiens, panji ŵasekuru ŵa ŵanthu ŵa mazuŵa ghano. Vinthu vyakale vya Homo sapiens ivyo vikusangika pa malo gha Jebel Irhoud ku Morocco vikulongora kuti vikaŵako vyaka 300,000 ivyo vyajumpha, apo vya Omo-Kibish I (Omo I) vya kumwera kwa Ethiopia ni viswaswa vyakale chomene vya Homo sapiens ivyo vikumanyikwa mu nyengo yasono (196 ± 5 ka). Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakuyowoya kuti ŵanthu ŵakwambilira awo ŵakayowoyanga chiyowoyero ichi ŵakafika mu chigaŵa ichi mu nyengo ya Neolithic kufuma ku malo agho ŵanthu aŵa ŵakakhalanga mu Dambo la Nayelo. Ŵasayansi ŵanandi mazuŵa ghano ŵakuti ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Afroasiatic ŵakafuma ku kumpoto cha kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Africa chifukwa chakuti mu chigaŵa ichi mukaŵa mitundu yakupambanapambana. Mu 2019, ŵanthu ŵakufukura vinthu vyakale ŵakasanga malo ghakubisamamo malibwe agho ghakaŵako vyaka 30,000 kumanyuma pa malo gha Fincha Habera mu mapiri gha Bale. Malo agha ghali pachanya pa nyanja mamita 3,469. Para munthu wali pachanya nthena, wakuŵa na nthenda ya hypoxia kweniso nyengo yiheni. Kafukufuku munyake uyo wakalembeka mu magazini ya Science, wakulongora kuti malo agha ndigho ghakaŵa ghakwamba pa malo ghose agho ŵanthu ŵakakhalanga. Ŵakasanga viwangwa vikuruvikuru vya vinyama, vyakuyegheramo malibwe vinandi, na vyoto vyakale.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/08/08/science/humans-high-altitude-ethiopia.html|title=In the Ethiopian Mountains, Ancient Humans Were Living the High Life|last=Zimmer|first=Carl|date=8 August 2019|work=[[The New York Times]]|access-date=16 August 2019|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/found-earliest-evidence-high-altitude-home-humans-180972878/|title=Archaeologists Uncover Evidence of an Ancient High-Altitude Human Dwelling|last=Katz|first=Brigit|website=Smithsonian|language=en|access-date=16 August 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://arstechnica.com/science/2019/08/ethiopia-provides-the-earliest-evidence-of-people-living-at-altitude/|title=The first people to live at high elevations snacked on giant mole rats|last=Smith|first=Kiona N.|date=9 August 2019|website=Ars Technica|language=en-us|access-date=16 August 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.livescience.com/earliest-evidence-human-mountaineers.html|title=Earliest Evidence of Human Mountaineers Found in Ethiopia|last=History|first=Charles Q. Choi 2019-08-09T12:59:10Z|website=livescience.com|date=9 August 2019|language=en|access-date=16 August 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://gizmodo.com/this-rock-shelter-in-ethiopia-may-be-the-earliest-evide-1837104167|title=This Rock Shelter in Ethiopia May Be the Earliest Evidence of Humans Living in the Mountains|last=Dvorsky|first=George|website=Gizmodo|date=9 August 2019 |language=en-US|access-date=16 August 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.upi.com/Science_News/2019/08/09/Earliest-evidence-of-high-altitude-living-found-in-Ethiopia/9561565318908/|title=Earliest evidence of high-altitude living found in Ethiopia|website=UPI|language=en|access-date=16 August 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Miehe|first1=Georg|last2=Opgenoorth|first2=Lars|last3=Zech|first3=Wolfgang|last4=Woldu|first4=Zerihun|last5=Vogelsang|first5=Ralf|last6=Veit|first6=Heinz|last7=Nemomissa|first7=Sileshi|last8=Negash|first8=Agazi|last9=Nauss|first9=Thomas|date=9 August 2019|title=Middle Stone Age foragers resided in high elevations of the glaciated Bale Mountains, Ethiopia|url=https://archive.org/details/science_2019-08-09_365_6453/page/583|journal=Science|language=en|volume=365|issue=6453|pages=583–587|doi=10.1126/science.aaw8942|issn=0036-8075|pmid=31395781|bibcode=2019Sci...365..583O|s2cid=199505803}}</ref> Vinthu vinyake ivyo vikulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵakamba kugwiliskira ntchito vilwero vya malibwe (vinthu ivyo vikamanyikwanga na ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Homo sapiens) vikawoneka mu 2013 pa malo gha Gademotta ku Ethiopia. Mu 2019, ku Aduma ŵakasangaso vilwero vinyake vya mu nyengo ya malibwe, ivyo vikaŵa vyaka 100,000 na 80,000 ivyo vikaŵa nga ni mivi iyo ŵanthu ŵakuponya mikondo ŵakugwiliskira ntchito.<ref name="Sahle">{{Cite journal|title=Assessment of complex projectiles in the early Late Pleistocene at Aduma, Ethiopia|journal=PLOS ONE|volume=14|issue=5|pages=e0216716|year=2018|doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0216716|pmid=31071181|pmc=6508696|vauthors=Sahle Y, Brooks AS|doi-access=free}}</ref> ===Antiquity=== {{Main|Dʿmt|Kingdom of Aksum}} [[File:Men from Punt Carrying Gifts, Tomb of Rekhmire MET 30.4.152 EGDP013029.jpg|thumb|Men from [[Land of Punt|Punt]] carrying Gifts, Tomb of [[Rekhmire]]. Punt being located in the Northern Ethiopian, Eritrean regions.]] [[File:KingEndybisEthiopia227-235CE.jpg|thumb|[[Aksumite currency]] of the [[Axumite kings|Aksumite king]] called [[Endubis]], 227–35, at the [[British Museum]]. The inscriptions in [[Ancient Greek]] read "ΑΧΩΜΙΤΩ ΒΑΣΙΛΕΥΣ" ("King of Axum") and "ΕΝΔΥΒΙΣ ΒΑΣΙΛΕΥΣ" ("King Endubis"), the Greek language was the [[lingua franca]] by that time so its use in coins simplified foreign trade.]] {{multiple image | align left | total_width =280 | image1 = 'The Visit of the Queen of Sheba to King Solomon', oil on canvas painting by Edward Poynter, 1890, Art Gallery of New South Wales.jpg| image2 = Adulis.jpg |footer = [[King Solomon]] and the [[Queen Sheba]] are central figures in Ethiopian traditional history, as the central figures of forming the [[Solomonic dynasty]] and the Imperial line of Ethiopia (left) Ancient ruins in [[Adulis]] pertaining to Ethiopian and modern-day Eritrean civilization near the [[Red Sea]] thousands of years ago }} [[File:Contenitore di simulacro con rilievo e iscrizioni, V secolo ac ca. 06.jpg|thumb|An Axumite [[Stele|stela]]]] Mu 980 B.C.E., Dʿmt yikakhazikiskika mu Eritrea na Tigray mu Ethiopia ndipo ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakugomezga kuti ndiyo yikenda m'malo mwa Punt. Msumba uwu ukaŵa ku Yeha, kumpoto kwa Ethiopia. Ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakusanda mdauko ŵakuwona kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Etiyopiya ndiwo ŵakambiska ŵanthu aŵa, nangauli kale ŵanandi ŵakatenge ŵanthu ŵa ku Saba ndiwo ŵakambiska. Ŵasayansi ŵanyake ŵakuwona kuti Dʿmt ntchigaŵa cha ŵanthu ŵakuyowoya chiyowoyero cha ku Asia awo ŵakakhalanga mu vigaŵa vya Cushitic na Semitic. Ndipouli, ŵanthu ŵakugomezga kuti ciyowoyero ca Ge'ez, ico cikayowoyeka kale na ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Semite ku Ethiopia, cikafuma ku Cibeya. Kale mu 2000 B.C.E., ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵakayowoyanga ChiSemiti ŵakakhalanga mu Ethiopia na Eritrea uko chiyowoyero cha Ge'ez chikakura. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Saba ŵakakhalanga mu malo ghachoko waka, ndipo ŵakamara mu vyaka 10 panji 100. Panyake yikaŵa malo gha malonda panji gha nkhondo agho ghakaŵa pamoza na ŵanthu ŵa ku Etiyopiya ŵa Dʿmt panji ŵa mu mtundu unyake. Pamanyuma pakuti ufumu wa Dʿmt wabwangandulika mu vyaka vya m'ma 400 B.C.E., chigaŵa cha Ethiopia chikamba kulamulirika na maufumu ghachoko. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 100 C.E., Ufumu wa Aksum ukaŵa mu chigaŵa icho sono chikuchemeka Tigray na Eritrea. Buku linyake likuti msumba wakwamba wa ufumu uwu ukazengeka na Itiyopis, mwana wa Kush. Pamanyuma pake, ufumu wa Aksum ukafika mu Yemen, sirya linyake la Nyanja Yiswesi. Ntchimi ya ku Peresiya, Mani, yikazunura msumba wa Axum pamoza na ufumu wa Roma, Peresiya, na China, kuti ukaŵa umoza wa maufumu ghanayi ghakuru gha mu nyengo yake, mu vyaka vya m'ma 300. Kweniso ŵanthu ŵakugomezga kuti matchalitchi gha ku Eguputo na Ethiopia ghakakolerananga. Pali ukaboni unyake wakulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Aksum ŵakakolerananga na Fumukazi ya ku Sheba. Pafupifupi mu 316 C.E., Frumentius na munung'una wake Edesius ŵa ku Ture ŵakaluta na asibweni ŵawo ku Ethiopia. Apo ngaraŵa yikimilira pa dowoko la ku Nyanja Yiswesi, ŵanthu ŵa ku malo agha ŵakakoma wose padera pa ŵabali ŵaŵiri awo ŵakatolekera ku nyumba ya themba nga mbazga. Ŵakapika maudindo ghakuzirwa na fumu, ndipo ŵakang'anamuska ŵanthu ŵa mu nyumba yake kuŵa Ŵakhristu. Frumentius wakaŵa bishopu wakwamba wa ku Aksum. Ndalama yinyake ya mu 324 C.E. yikulongora kuti charu cha Etiyopiya ndicho chikaŵa chachiŵiri kuzomera Chikhristu (panyuma pa Armenia mu 301). Ŵanthu ŵa ku Aksum ŵakamanyanga makora umo charu cha Greece na Roma chikachitiranga vinthu, kweni ŵakamba kukolerana na ŵanthu ŵa ku India na Ufumu wa Roma pa msewu wa Silk Road.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web|title=Solomonic Descent in Ethiopian History|url=https://www.worldhistory.org/article/1875/solomonic-descent-in-ethiopian-history/|access-date=20 December 2021|website=World History Encyclopedia|language=en}}</ref><ref name="britishmuseum.org">{{cite web |last1=The British Museum |last2=The CarAf Centre |title=The wealth of Africa – The kingdom of Aksum – Teachers' notes |url=https://www.britishmuseum.org/pdf/KingdomOfAksum_TeachersNotes.pdf |website=BritishMuseum.org |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191104191259/https://www.britishmuseum.org/pdf/KingdomOfAksum_TeachersNotes.pdf |archive-date=4 November 2019}}</ref>[[File:South Arabian - Fragment of a Frieze with an Ibex and Oryxes - Walters 2138.jpg|thumb|A stela with an [[Nubian ibex|ibex]] and three [[Arabian oryx]], associated with [[Astar (god)|Astar]] (ዐስተር), Semetic god of the [[Venus in culture|Morning and Evening Star]], found at Axum]] ===Middle Ages=== {{Main|Ethiopia in the Middle Ages}} [[File:Kingdom of Axum blue.png|thumb|The [[Kingdom of Aksum]] at its peak in the 6th century]] [[File:Hijra Abyssinia (Rashid ad-Din).jpg|thumb|300x300px|14th century Islamic depiction of the [[Migration to Abyssinia|First Hijrah]]:The King of Aksum declines the [[Quraysh|Qurayshi]] request to send the Muslims back to Mecca]] Ufumu uwu ukachemekanga "Ethiopia" mu nyengo ya Ezana mu vyaka vya m'ma 400 C.E. Ufumu wa Kush ukati wapokeka mu 330, ufumu wa Aksum ukafika paheni chomene pakati pa vyaka vya m'ma 500 na 600. Nyengo iyi yikadumulizgika na ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakanjira mu vigaŵa vya kumwera kwa Arabia, kusazgapo Ŵayuda ŵa Dhu Nuwas ŵa Ufumu wa Himyarite na Nkhondo za Ŵaperesiya. Mu 575, Ŵaaksumu ŵakazingilizga na kuwuskaso Sana'a pamanyuma pakuti Sayf ibn Dhī Yazan uyo wakaŵa kazembe wa msumba uwu wakomeka. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 700 C.E., Ŵasilamu Ŵachiarabu ŵakapoka msumba wa Adulis, ndipo chifukwa cha kunangika kwa malo, kusintha kwa nyengo, kweniso vula izo zikalokwa pakati pa 730 na 760, ufumu uwu ukamba kuchepa nkhongono. Ufumu wa Aksum ukamara mu 960 C.E. apo Fumukazi Gudit yikathereska themba laumaliro la Aksum. Mu muwuso wa Gudit, uwo ukatora vyaka 40, wakakhumbanga kumazga Chikhristu (chisopa icho Themba Ezana la ufumu wa Axumite likazomera pakwamba) mwa kotcha matchalitchi na kukhomera ŵanthu awo ŵakalutilira kugomezgeka ku Tchalitchi la Orthodox la Tewahedo, ilo pa nyengo iyo likawonekanga nga ni chisopa cha boma. Gudit wakayezga kuchichizga ŵanthu ŵanandi kuti ŵasinthe chisopa chawo ndipo wakaparanya vinthu vinandi ivyo vikaŵako mu nyengo ya ufumu wa Axumite. Chifukwa chakuti Gudit wakaparanya ŵanthu ŵanandi, ŵanthu ŵa ku Aksum ŵakachimbilira kumwera kwa charu ichi na kukhazikiska ufumu wa Zagwe. Ufumu uwu ukawusikanga na ŵanthu ŵa fuko la Agaw kwambira mu 912, nangauli ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakakhalanga mu charu ichi ŵakayowoya kuti ukaŵa mu 1137 apo Mara Takla Haymanot wakathereska themba laumaliro la Ŵaaksumite, Dil Na'od, na kutora mwana wake msungwana. Ufumu wa Zagwe ndiwo ukawovwira kuti Chikhristu chiwelerepo, ndipo m'ma 1200 C.E., Chikhristu chikafika mu chigaŵa cha Shewan. Chithunzi cha Emperor Yekuno Amlak chomwe akuti chinalembedwa m'zaka za m'ma 1700 Muwuso wa Zagwe ukamara apo Yekuno Amlak, mwanalume wa ku Amhara, wakawukira Themba Yetbarak na kukhazikiska ufumu wa Ethiopia. Iyo wakazenga nyumba ya ufumu ya Solomoni iyo yikwenera kuti yikamba na Solomoni na Fumukazi ya ku Sheba. Kuyana na buku la mdauko la ku Ethiopia lakuti Kebra Nagast, ilo likang'anamulika mu Chigez mu 1321, zina lake likaŵa Bäynä Ləḥkəm (kufuma ku Chiarabic: ابن الحكيم, Ibn Al-Hakim, "Mwana wa Wavinjeru"). Kukwambilira kwa vyaka vya m'ma 1400, Etiyopiya wakayezga kukolerana na maufumu gha ku Europe. Kalata iyo Henry IV wa ku England wakalembera fumu ya ku Etiyopiya yilipo. Mu 1428, Yeshaq I wakatuma mathenga ghaŵiri kwa Alfonso V wa ku Aragon, uyo wakatuma mathenga ghake agho ghakatondeka kumalizga ulendo wakuwelera ku Aragon. Ŵanthu ŵakwambilira ŵa ku Europe ŵakamba kukolerana na Portugal mu 1508 mu nyengo ya Dawit II.<ref>[[#Beshah|Beshah]], p. 25.</ref> ====Abyssinian–Adal War (1529–1543)==== {{main article|Ethiopian–Adal War}} [[File:YagbeaSionBattlingAdaSultan.JPG|thumb|The Sultan of Adal (right) and his troops battling Emperor [[Yagbea-Sion]] and his men.]] Ufumu wa Etiyopiya ukayamba kuthandazgika kufuma kwa Amda Seyon I, uyo wakathereska ufumu wakwambilira wa Chisilamu mu chigaŵa ichi, Ifat Sultanate, mu vyaka vya m'ma 1300 pamanyuma pa kupoka Ufumu wa Damot mu 1317, ndipo Themba Zara Yaqob ndilo likathereska Masawa na Dahlak mu 1465. Ufumu wa Adal, uwo ukakhala pamanyuma pa Ifat, ukaŵako mu 1415 ndipo ukaŵa na msumba ukuru ku Zelia, ku Somalia. Ŵana ŵa Adal, awo ŵakakhozgekanga na Ŵaturuki ŵa ku Ottoman, ŵakayezga kuti ŵanjire mu ufumu wa Ethiopia mu 1529, ndipo ŵakamba nkhondo ya ku Ethiopia. Al-Ghazi wakathereska ŵasilikari ŵa Etiyopiya mu nkhondo ya ku Amba Sel mu 1531. Cristóvão da Gama wakawovwira comene pa nkhondo iyi, wakawovwira Ŵaetiyopiya na ŵasilikari 400 ku Massawa. Ivyo wakacita vikamovwira kuti wafwe pa nkhondo ya ku Wofla mu 1542. Mu 1543, ŵasilikari ŵa Abyssinia awo ŵakalongozgekanga na Fumu Gelawdewos ŵakathereska ŵasilikari ŵa Adal pa Nkhondo ya Wayna Daga. Pamanyuma, mulongozgi wa ŵasilikari ŵa ku Etiyopiya zina lake Azmach Calite, wakachimbizga Imam uyo wakapwetekeka. Ŵasilikari ŵa Adal ŵakati ŵamanya kuti wafwa, ŵakafumapo mwaluŵiro. Mu 1559, Gelawdewos wakadumulika mutu pa Nkhondo ya Fatagar. Pakuzgora, Ras Hamalmal wa ku Abyssinia wakapoka msumba ukuru wa Harar na kukoma Sultan Barakat ibn Umar Din. Nkhondo izi zikawovwira kuti ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Oromo ŵalute ku vigaŵa vya kumpoto mu ma 1500.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Aga|first=Mark T.|title=Abyssinian-Adal War — allaboutETHIO|url=https://allaboutethio.com/hwadal.html|access-date=9 January 2022|website=allaboutethio.com|language=en}}</ref> ==== Oromo migrations (16th century) ==== {{main article|Oromo migrations}} Kuzakafika m'ma 1500 C.E., ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Oromo ŵakaluta ku vigaŵa vya kumpoto kwa charu ichi. Ŵakati ŵafuma ku Guji na Borena Zone, ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Oromo ŵakakhalanga mu vigaŵa vinandi ivyo ŵanthu ŵakagomezganga. Pakwamba, ŵasilikari aŵa ŵakizanga mwaluŵiro kuzakapoka viŵeto vinandi na vinthu vinyake na kuwelera kukwawo. Nthowa iyi yikalutilira m'paka pa gada wa Meslé. Abba Bahrey wakayowoya kuti ŵanthu ŵakamba kuthandazgika chomene mu nyengo ya Themba Dawit II (luba Melbah), apo ŵakanjira mu msumba wa Bale pambere ŵandanjire mu Ufumu wa Adal. Themba Sarsa Dengel likayezga kuti limare nkhondo ya kumwera, kweni likatondeka.{{sfn|Pankhurst|1997|p=287}} ==== Jesuit influence (1555–1632) ==== Kufuma mu ma 1700, charu cha Ethiopia chikamba kuyowoyeskana na charu cha Portugal, chomenechomene pa nkhani za chisopa. Kwambira mu 1555, ŵa Jesuit ŵa ku Portugal ŵakayezga kuti Cikatolika ciŵe cisopa ca boma. Ŵakati ŵatondeka kanandi waka, mu 1603 ŵakatuma ŵamishonale ŵanandi, kusazgapo Pedro Paez, uyo wakaŵa Mujeremani. Paez wakaŵa na nkharo yiwemi comene pa nkhani za ndyali. Ŵasambiri ŵa Yesu, kusazgapo Manoel de Almeida, Manoel Barradas, na Jerónimo Lobo, ŵakalemba nkhani zakukhwaskana na umo ŵanthu ŵa ku Etiyopiya ŵakakumananga na ŵanthu ŵakwambilira. Ndipouli, buku lawo likamanyikwa yayi m'paka mu ma 1900, apo likalembeka. Mu 1622, Fumu Susenyos I yikati yaŵa themba, yikazomerezga kuti cisopa ca Katolika ciŵe cisopa ca boma mu Ethiopia. Pa nyengo yeneyiyo, ŵanthu ŵa tchalitchi la Orthodox ŵakagaluka cifukwa ca ivyo ŵakacita.<ref name="berndl2005">{{Cite book|last=Berndl|first=Klaus|url=https://archive.org/details/nationalgeograph0000unse_m8x7/page/333/mode/2up|title=National Geographic Visual History of the World|publisher=National Geographic Society|year=2005|isbn=978-0-7922-3695-5|pages=333|language=en}}</ref> ===Gondarine period (1632–1769)=== {{Main article|Gondarine period}} Mu 1632, Fumu Fasilides yikamazga boma la Katolika na kuwezgerapo cisopa ca Orthodox Tewahedo. Muwuso wa Fasilides ukapangiska kuti ufumu wake ukhazikike ndipo mu 1636 wakasamuskira msumba ukuru ku Gondar. Wakacimbizga ŵa Jesuiti mwa kuwombora malo agho ŵakaŵa nagho na kuŵatuma ku Fremona. Mu nyengo ya kuwusa kwake, wakazenga nyumba yikuru ya ufumu, Fasil Ghebbi. Kweniso wakazenga vipata vinkhondi na viŵiri vya malibwe pa mlonga wa Blue Nile. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Agaw awo ŵakakhalanga ku Lasta ŵakalutilira kugaluka. Fasilides wakaluta ku Lasta na kuwukira msumba uwu, ndipo wakamalizga nkhondo iyi, nga umo wakalongosolera James Bruce wa ku Scotland. Pakati pa 1642 na 1647, Fasilides wakayezga kukolerana na Imam Al-Mutawakkil Isma'il wa ku Yemen kuti ŵadumbiskane za nthowa yakwendamo malonda mu tawuni ya Massawa iyo yikaŵa mu mawoko gha Ŵaotomu. Nkhongono na lumbiri lwa Gondar vikamara mu 1706 apo Iyasu I wakafwa cifukwa mafumu ghanandi ghakatemwanga umoyo wa usambazi kuluska vya ndyali. Iyasu II wakati wafwa mu 1755, Mfumukazi Mentewab wakiza na munung'una wake Ras Wolde Leul ku Gondar ndipo wakamuzgora Ras Bitwaded. Mu 1767, Ras Mikael Sehul, uyo wakaŵa muwusi wa chigaŵa cha Tigray, wakapoka charu cha Gondar na kukoma Iyoas I mu 1769, uyo wakaŵa themba pa nyengo iyo.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Gondar Period |url=https://ethiopianhistory.com/Gondar_Period/ |access-date=2022-06-05 |website=ethiopianhistory.com}}</ref> ===Zemene Mesafint (1769–1889)=== {{Main|Zemene Mesafint}} Pakati pa 1769 na 1855, charu cha Etiyopiya chikaŵa mu nyengo iyo ŵanthu ŵakakhalanga ŵekha. Mafumu agha ghakaŵa ŵanthu ŵakumanyikwa chomene, ndipo ŵakalongozgekanga na mafumu na ŵanthu ŵakuzirwa nga ni Ras Mikael Sehul, Ras Wolde Selassie wa ku Tigray, kweniso ŵa fuko la Yejju Oromo la Wara Sheh, nga ni Ras Gugsa wa ku Yejju. Pambere Zemene Mesafint wandambe kuwusa, Themba Iyoas I likamba kuyowoya chiyowoyero cha Oromo (Afaan Oromo). Charu cha Ethiopia chikaŵa kutali chomene na ŵanthu ŵa ku Britain, kweni mu 1855 maufumu gha Amhara gha kumpoto kwa Ethiopia (Gondar, Gojjam, na Shewa) ghakakolerana. Tewodros II wakambiska ndondomeko ya kukolerana, kuŵika vinthu pakatikati, na kuzenga boma. Ivi vikapangiska kuti ŵamazaza ŵa vigaŵa ivi ŵaleke kuŵa na mazaza, ŵambeso kwendeska vinthu mu ufumu wawo, kweniso kuti paŵe ŵasilikari. Ivi vikapangiska kuti boma la Ethiopia liŵe na mazaza pa charu chose. Kweni Tewodros wakasuzgika na viwawa vinandi mu ufumu wake. Ŵasilikari ŵa kumpoto kwa charu cha Oromo, ŵakugaluka ŵa mtundu wa Tigrayan, na ŵasilikari ŵa Ufumu wa Ottoman na ŵasilikari ŵa ku Eguputo awo ŵakizanga pafupi na Nyanja Yiswesi, ŵakapangiska kuti Tewodros II waleke nkhongono. Wakajikoma mu 1868 apo wakarwa nkhondo yaumaliro na ŵasilikari ŵa Britain ku Abyssinia pa Nkhondo ya Magdala. Tewodros wakati wafwa, Tekle Giyorgis II wakapharazgika kuŵa themba kweni wakatimbika ku Zulawu (21 June 1871) na Adwa (11 July 1871). Mercha Kassai uyo wakathereska ŵasilikari ŵakamuphalira kuti ni Yohannes IV pa Janyuwale 21, 1872. Mu 1875 na 1876, ŵasilikari ŵa Ottoman/Egypt, pamoza na ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Europe na America, ŵakanjira mu Abyssinia kaŵiri kose kweni pakwamba ŵakathereskeka. Pa ungano wa ku Boru Meda mu 1878, Yohannes wakapeleka dango lakuti Ŵasilamu ŵa ku Ethiopia ŵakwenera kuzomera Cikristu panji ŵakanizgikenge. Awo ŵakakana ŵakakomekanga nyengo yeneyiyo. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakakomeka ndipo ŵanyake ŵanandi ŵakaleka minda na katundu wawo na kuchimbilira ku Harar, Bale, Arsi, Jimma, na ku Sudan wuwo. Kufuma mu 1885 m'paka 1889, Ethiopia wakajibatika ku Nkhondo ya Mahdist iyo yikaŵa na Britain, Turkey, na Egypt kwimikana na boma la Sudan. Mu 1887, Menelik II, fumu ya Shewa, yikawukira Harar pamanyuma pa kutonda nkhondo ya Chelenqo. Pa Malichi 10, 1889, Yohannes IV wakakomeka na ŵasilikari ŵa Khalifa Abdullah wa ku Sudan apo wakalongozganga ŵasilikari ŵake pa Nkhondo ya Gallabat.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Dictionary of African historical biography|url=https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofafri0000mark|last=Lipschutz|first= Mark|date=1986|publisher=University of California Press|others=Rasmussen, R. Kent|isbn=978-0-520-06611-3|edition=2nd ed., expanded and updated|location=Berkeley|page=[https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofafri0000mark/page/1 1]|oclc=14069361}}</ref>[[File:Téwodros_II_-_2.jpg|thumb|upright|Emperor [[Tewodros II]] ({{reign|1855|1868}}) brought an end of ''Zemene Mesafint'']] ===From Menelik II to Adwa (1889–1913)=== {{main article|First Italo-Ethiopian War|Menelik's Expansions}} [[File:Menelik campaign map 1 3.jpg|alt=|left|thumb|The conquests of Emperor [[Yohannes IV]], ''[[Negus]]'' [[Menelik II|Menelik]] and general [[Ras Alula]] in 1879–1889]] Charu cha Etiyopiya chikamba kuwusa mu nyengo ya Menelik II, uyo wakaŵa themba kufuma mu 1889 m'paka apo wakafwira mu 1913. Kufuma ku malo ghake mu chigaŵa cha Shewa, Menelik wakamba kupoka vigaŵa vya kumwera, kumafumiro gha dazi, na kumanjiliro gha dazi uko kukakhalanga ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Oromo, Sidama, Gurage, Welayta, na ŵanthu ŵanyake. Wakacita nthena na wovwiri wa gulu la Shewan Oromo la Ras Gobana Dacche, ilo likapoka malo agho ghakaŵavya kufuma pa nkhondo ya Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi, kweniso malo ghanyake agho ghakaŵavya muwuso wa Ethiopia. Pa nyengo iyo ŵasilikari ŵa Ethiopia ŵakathereskanga ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Oromo, ŵakawukira ŵanthu ŵa mtundu uwu. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakuti ŵanthu mamiliyoni ghanandi ŵakakomeka. Kweniso ŵanthu ŵa ku Dizi na ŵa mu Ufumu wa Kaffa ŵakaŵachitira nkhaza zinandi. Menelik wakathereska ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Oromo awo ŵakakhalanga kuwaro kwa ŵasilikari ŵake chifukwa cha kugaluka kwa mtundu uwu kwa vyaka vinandi. Mu muwuso uwu mukaŵa muwuso wa fuko la Yejju, uwo ukaŵa na Aligaz wa ku Yejju na mukuru wake Ali I wa ku Yejju. Ŵakazenga tawuni ya Debre Tabor mu chigaŵa cha Amhara, iyo yikazgoka msumba ukuru wa ufumu uwu. Menelik II wakaŵa mwana wa Haile Melekot, Negus wa ku Shewa, na Ejegayehu Lema Adeyamo, muteŵeti wa nyumba yacifumu. Wakababikira ku Angolala mu chigaŵa cha Oromo ndipo wakakhala vyaka 12 na Shewan Oromos. Mu nyengo ya muwuso wa Menelik, mulimo wa kuzenga misewu, magesi, na masambiro ukalutilira kukura, ndipo boma likambiska msonkho. Msumba wa Finfinne ukazengekaso ndipo ukachemeka Addis Ababa; mu 1889-1891 ukazgoka msumba ukuru wa Ufumu wa Ethiopia.[[File:Menelik II in coronation garb, Emperor of Ethiopia.jpg|thumb|Menelik II in Coronation Garms and Tunic after the battle of Adwa]] Nangauli ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakamususkanga, kweni Menelik II wakaŵa na mazaza pa charu chose. Mu Meyi 1889, wakalembeska phangano la wuchale na Italy. Phangano ili likayowoya kuti charu cha Italy chizomerezge kuti Ethiopia ndiyo yili na mazaza pa charu chose. Pakuwezgera, caru ca Italy cikeneranga kumupa vilwero Menelik na kumovwira pakuŵa fumu. Ŵaitaliya ŵakagwiliskira nchito nyengo iyo yikajumphapo kufuma apo phangano ili likalembekera m'paka apo boma la Italy likakolerana nalo. Nkhondo Yakwamba ya ku Italy na Ethiopia yikamara pa Nkhondo ya ku Adwa pa 1 Malichi 1896, apo ŵasilikari ŵa ku Italy ŵakathereskeka na Ŵaetiyopiya. Mu 1896, pakalembeka phangano la Addis Ababa, ilo likasintha phangano la Wuchale. Ŵanthu pafupifupi hafu ŵakafwa na njara yikuru ya ku Ethiopia (1888-1892).<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20090211211756/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,966291-3,00.html "Famine Hunger stalks Ethiopia once again – and aid groups fear the worst"]. ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]''. 21 December 1987.</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1093/jhmas/XXI.2.95| title = The Great Ethiopian Famine of 1888–1892: A New Assessment| url = https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-the-history-of-medicine-and-allied-sciences_1966-04_21_2/page/95| journal = Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences| issue = 2| pages = 95–124| year = 1966| last1 = Pankhurst | first1 = R. | volume = 21| pmid = 5326887}}</ref> ===Haile Selassie I era (1916–1974)=== {{Main|Haile Selassie|Modernization under Haile Selassie}} [[File:Addis Ababa-8e00855u.jpg|thumb|Emperor [[Haile Selassie|Haile Selassie I]] at his study in [[National Palace, Addis Ababa|Jubilee Palace]] (1942)]] Kukwambilira kwa vyaka vya m'ma 1900, Themba Haile Selassie (Ras Tafari) ndilo likawusa. Haile Selassie I wakababika na ŵapapi awo ŵakayowoyanga viyowoyero vitatu vya ku Ethiopia. Wakafika pa mazaza pamanyuma pakuti Lij Iyasu wakathereskeka, ndipo wakambiska kampeni ya kusinthiska vinthu mu charu chose kufuma mu 1916 apo wakapika udindo wa Ras and Regent (Inderase) kwa Empress Regnant Zewditu, ndipo wakazgoka muwusi wa Ufumu wa Ethiopia. Zewditu wakati wafwa, pa Novembala 2, 1930, iyo wakaŵa themba. Mu 1931, Haile Selassie wakapeleka dango lakwamba ku Ethiopia ilo likayananga na dango la ku Japan ilo likaŵako mu 1890.<ref>Asnake Kefale, [[Tomasz Kamusella]] and Christopher Van der Beken. 2021. ''Eurasian Empires as Blueprints for Ethiopia: From Ethnolinguistic Nation-State to Multiethnic Federation''. London: Routledge, pp 23–34.</ref> ====Fascist Italy occupation (1936–1941)==== {{main article|Second Italo-Ethiopian War|Italian Ethiopia|Italian East Africa|Arbegnoch|Black Lions}} [[File:Abyssinian-soldiers-1936-142348340618.jpg|thumb|Ethiopian cavalry during the [[Second Italo-Ethiopian War]] in 1936]] Nkhondo yaciŵiri ya ku Italy na Ethiopia yikananga wanangwa wa Ethiopia. Nkhondo iyi yikamba apo caru ca Italy cikapokelereka na ŵasilikari ŵa Fascist mu Okutobala 1935, ndipo pamanyuma pake caru ca Italy cikamba kuwusa caru ici (1936-1941), pamanyuma pakuti Italy yikatonda nkhondo iyi. Pa nyengo iyi, Haile Selassie wakaluta ku caru cinyake ndipo wakapempha wupu wa League of Nations mu 1935, ndipo wakayowoya nkhani iyo yikapangiska kuti waŵe wakumanyikwa pa caru cose. Pakuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Ethiopia ŵakakhalanga mu matawuni gha ku mizi, Italy wakakumananga na ŵanthu ŵakususka na kuŵawukira mu misumba. Haile Selassie wakacimbilira ku Fairfield House, ku Bath, England. Mussolini wakamanya kuphalira ufumu wa Italy kuti ni Etiyopiya, ndipo Themba la Italy, Vittorio Emanuele III, likamba kulamulira ufumu uwu. Mu 1937, ŵanthu ŵa ku Italy ŵakakomeka ku Yekatit 12, ndipo pakati pa ŵanthu 1,400 na 30,000 ŵakakomeka. Ŵanthu aŵa ŵakakomeka cifukwa cakuti ŵakayezga kukoma Rodolfo Graziani, muwusi wa ku Italy ku East Africa. Ŵataliyana ŵakagwiliskira nchito vilwero vyakofya vya makemikali pakunjira mu Ethiopia. Ŵasilikari ŵa ku Italy ŵakaponya mabomba mu caru cose ca Ethiopia agho ghakaŵanga na mphepo yakucemeka mustard gas, ndipo ici cikapangiska kuti ŵasilikari ŵa ku Ethiopia ŵaleke nkhongono. Ŵasilikari ŵa ku Italy ŵakaponya pasi matani pafupifupi 300 gha gasi kweniso futi zinandi. Kugwiliskira nchito vilwero ivi kukaŵa kwananga kukuru comene. Ŵa Italiya ŵakaŵika ndalama zinandi pa vinthu vya ku Ethiopia apo ŵakalamuliranga charu ichi. Ŵakapanga msewu wakucemeka "msewu wa ufumu" pakati pa Addis Ababa na Massaua. Ŵakazengaso misewu ya njanji ya mtunda wa makilomita ghakujumpha 900, ŵakazenga madamu na magesi, kweniso ŵakazenga makampani ghanandi gha boma na ghapadera. Boma la Italy likawuskapo wuzga, uwo ukaŵako kwa vyaka vinandi. Pamanyuma pakuti Italy wanjira mu Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya pa Charu Chose, ŵasilikari ŵa Ufumu wa Britain pamoza na Arbegnoch ŵakathaska Ethiopia mu nyengo ya Nkhondo ya ku East Africa mu 1941. Nkhondo ya ŵasilikari ŵa Italy yikalutilira mpaka mu 1943. Charu ichi chikaŵa pasi pa ŵasilikari ŵa Britain. Ivi vikalondezgana na kuzomerezgeka kwa ufumu wa Britain kuti charu cha Ethiopia chiŵe na mazaza ghose, kwambura wanangwa wa Britain, apo phangano la Anglo-Ethiopia likasazgikira mu Disembala 1944, nangauli vigaŵa vinyake vikalutilira kulamulirika na Britain kwa vyaka vinandi. Kuyana na phangano la mtende ilo likaŵako mu 1947, Italy yikazomera mazaza gha Ethiopia. Pa Ogasiti 26, 1942, Haile Selassie wakafumiska dango ilo likawuskapo ŵazga. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1900, mu Ethiopia mukaŵa ŵazga pakati pa 2 na 4 miliyoni.{{sfn|Campbell|Miers|Miller|2007|p=219}} ====Post-World War II (1941–1974)==== {{main article|1960 Ethiopian coup d'état attempt|Federation of Ethiopia and Eritrea|Eritrean War of Independence}} Mu 1952, Haile Selassie wakapangiska kuti charu cha Eritrea chiŵe pamoza. Mu 1962, wakawuskapo boma ili na kunjizga charu cha Eritrea. {{multiple image | align = right | total_width = 280 | image1 = General-Mengistu-Neway-1919-1961.jpg | image2 = Germame Neway.jpg | footer = General [[Mengistu Neway|Mengistu]] (left) and [[Germame Neway]] (right) were the two perpetrators of the failed [[1960 Ethiopian coup d'état attempt|1960 coup d'état attempt]] against Emperor Haile Selassie | footer_align = center }} Haile Selassie wakaŵa pafupi kuwuskika pa udindo mu 1960 mu chiŵembu cha gulu lakususkana ilo likalongozgekanga na ŵabali Germame na Mengistu Neway apo Selassie wakaŵa pa ulendo wa boma ku Brazil. Pa Ciŵiri mise, pa Disembala 13, gulu linyake likapusika ŵalaŵiliri ŵa Ufumu na ŵanthu ŵakuzirwa kuti ŵanjire mu Nyumba ya Ufumu. Zuŵa lakulondezgapo, nkhondo yikamba pakati pa ŵasilikari ŵa boma la Britain (Kebur Zebegna) na ŵakugaluka awo ŵakalongozgekanga na Jenerale Tsege na Koloneli Warqenah. Apo nkhondo iyi yikambanga, Germame na ŵasilikari ŵanyake ŵakakoma ŵanthu 15 awo ŵakaŵa mu nyumba ya Genetta Leul. Pa ŵanthu aŵa pakaŵa ŵalara ŵa boma nga ni Ras Abebe Aregai, Makonnen Habte-Wolde na Major General Mulugeta.<ref>Henze, ''Layers of Time'', p. 255</ref> [[File:Elizabeth II and Haile Selassie.jpg|thumb|left|London, England [[Emperor Haile Selassie I]] seated with [[Queen Elizabeth II]] in 1954 while on an official state visit]] Nkhondo iyi yikati yamara, Mubali Tsege wakakomeka, Col. Warqenah wakajikoma, ndipo ŵabali Mengistu na Germame Neway ŵakaŵa pafupi na Mojo pa Disembala 24. Nkhondo iyi yikaŵa yakofya comene kwa Haile Selassie m'paka apo kukacitikira Nkhondo ya ku Ethiopia mu 1974. Mu 1963, Haile Selassie wakawovwira chomene pakukhazikiska wupu wakuchemeka Organisation of African Unity (OAU). Ŵanthu mu Ethiopia ŵakasuska Haile Selassie cifukwa ca suzgo la mafuta ilo likacitika pa caru cose mu 1973. Mtengo wapachanya wa mafuta ukapangiska kuti ŵadokotala na ŵasambizgi ŵambe kunjira mu sitiroko pa Febuluwale 18, 1974, ndipo ŵana ŵa sukulu na ŵantchito mu Addis Ababa ŵakamba kulongora kuti ŵakususka boma pa Febuluwale 20, 1974. Ivi vikapangiska kuti paŵe njara ya vyakurya, kusuzgika pa nkhani ya muwuso, nkhondo za pa mphaka, kweniso ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakakondwa yayi na vinthu ivyo vikachitika. Boma la Aklilu Habte-Wold likathereskeka, ndipo boma liphya likapangika ndipo Endelkachew Makonnen wakaŵa nduna yikuru.<ref>[[#Valdes Vivo|Valdes Vivo]], p. 21.</ref> ===The Derg era (1974–1991)=== {{see also|Ethiopian Revolution|Derg|People's Democratic Republic of Ethiopia|Ethiopian Civil War|Eritrean War of Independence|1983–85 famine in Ethiopia}} [[File:EPRP.jpg|thumb|upright|The [[Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Party]] (EPRP) clashed with the [[Derg]] during the [[Red Terror (Ethiopia)|Red Terror]]]] Ufumu wa Haile Selassie ukamara pa Seputembala 12, 1974, apo wakathereskeka na Derg, komiti ya ŵasilikari na ŵapolisi iyo yikalongozgekanga na Aman Andom. Pamanyuma pa kukomeka kwa ŵalara ŵa boma na ŵasilikari ŵakwambilira 60 kusazgapo Aman mu Novembala 1974, wupu uphya wa Provisional Military Administrative Council uwo sono ukulongozgeka na Jenerale Tafari Benti ukalekeska muwuso wa ufumu mu Malichi 1975 ndipo ukakhazikiska Ethiopia kuŵa boma la Marxist-Leninist ilo likaŵa chipani chakulongozga mu boma la nyengo yeneyiyo. Kuwuskapo muwuso wa ŵasilikari, kusazgirako luso lwa kuŵazga na kulemba, kuzengaso charu, na kunozga malo ghanandi, kusazgapo kusamukira ku malo ghanyake na kuzgoka mizi kufuma ku vigaŵa vya mapiri vya Ethiopia, ndivyo vikaŵa vyakukhumbikwa chomene. Pamanyuma pa kulimbana kwa mukati uko kukapangiska kuti Tafari Benti uyo wakaŵa mulongozgi wa chipani ichi na ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵakamukhozganga ŵakomeke mu Febuluwale 1977, kweniso Atnafu Abate uyo wakaŵa wachiŵiri wa mulongozgi wa chipani ichi mu Novembala 1977, Mengistu Halie Mariam ndiyo wakaŵa mulongozgi wa chipani ichi. Pa nyengo iyi, boma la Derg likawuskapo ŵanthu ŵanandi, kukaŵa chilangalanga, kweniso ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakachimbira kwawo. Mu 1977, Somalia, iyo pakwamba yikapokeranga wovwiri na vilwero kufuma ku USSR, yikawukira Ethiopia mu Nkhondo ya Ogaden, na kupoka cigaŵa ca Ogaden. Ethiopia wakaweleramo mu caru ici pamanyuma pakuti wambira kupokera wovwiri ukuru wa ŵasilikari kufuma ku vyaru vya Soviet Union, Cuba, South Yemen, East Germany, na North Korea. Pa ŵasilikari aŵa pakaŵa ŵasilikari 15,000 ŵa ku Cuba.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Mengistu Regime and Its Impact|url=https://memory.loc.gov/frd/etsave/et_01_08.html|website=Library of Congress}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Oberdorfer|first=Don|date=March 1978|title=The Superpowers and the Ogaden War|newspaper=The Washington Post|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1978/03/05/the-superpowers-and-the-ogaden-war/00f60ef2-01b4-4cd3-8c5f-e545df388def/}}</ref>[[File:Derg.gif|thumb|left|Mulongozgi wa Ethiopia Mengistu Haile Mariam (kumazere) pamoza na ŵa Derg ŵanyake Tafari Benti (pakati) na Atnafu Abate (kumalyero). Mengistu wakakomeka ku Ethiopia cifukwa ca milandu iyo wakacita mu nyengo ya boma lake, iyo yikakoma ŵanthu 500,000; wakakhala mu caru ca Zimbabwe mu 2018.<ref name=BBC>{{cite web|date=22 December 1999|title=US admits helping Mengistu escape|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/575405.stm|access-date=13 December 2017|website=BBC}}</ref>]] Mu 1976-78, ŵanthu ŵakukwana 500,000 ŵakakomeka cifukwa ca wofipa, kampeni ya nkhaza ya Derg kwimikana na magulu ghakupambanapambana gha ŵakususka, comenecomene Marxist-Leninist Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Party (EPRP). Chitenthe ciŵisi cikacitika cifukwa ca ivyo Derg wakacema kuti 'Citenthe Cituŵa,' cinthu ico cikaŵa na nkhaza zinandi, kukoma ŵanthu, na kukoma ŵanthu. Mu 1987, Derg wakajilekeska yekha na kukhazikiska People's Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (PDRE) pamanyuma pa kukhazikiska Constitution ya 1987 ya Ethiopia yakuyana na Constitution ya 1977 ya Soviet Union na malango ghakusintha. Njara iyo yikacitika mu Ethiopia mu 1983-85 yikasuzga ŵanthu pafupifupi 8 miliyoni, ndipo ŵanthu 1 miliyoni ŵakafwa. Ŵanthu ŵakamba kugalukira boma, chomenechomene kumpoto kwa Eritrea na Tigray. Gulu la Tigray People's Liberation Front (TPLF) likasazgikana na magulu ghanyake ghakwimikana na boma mu 1989, ndipo likapangiska gulu lakuchemeka Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF). Pa nyengo yeneyiyo, mu nyengo ya Mikhail Gorbachev, Soviet Union yikamba kuwelera nyuma kufuma ku kuzenga cikomyunizimu ca pa caru cose kuya ku visambizgo vya glasnost na perestroika, ndipo ici cikapangiska kuti wovwiri wa vyaru vya Socialist Bloc ku Ethiopia ukhale ucoko comene. Ici cikapangiska kuti paŵe masuzgo ghanyake gha vya cuma ndiposo kuti ŵasilikari ŵathere cifukwa cakuti ŵasilikari ŵa ku mpoto ŵakamba kuwukira. Kuwa kwa Marxism-Leninism mu vyaru vinyake, ndiposo ku Eastern Europe mu nyengo ya kusintha kwa vinthu mu 1989, kukakolerana na umo Soviet Union yikamazgira wovwiri ku Ethiopia mu 1990. Kuti ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yose ŵamuteŵetere, Mengistu wakakhumbanga kuti vinthu viŵe makora mu caru na kumazga muwuso wa chipani cimoza. Kweni pakaŵa kuti pajumpha nyengo kuti boma lake lipone. Mu Meyi 1991, ŵasilikari ŵa EPRDF ŵakaluta ku Addis Ababa, ndipo Soviet Union yikatondeka kuponoska boma. Mengistu wakacimbira mu caru ici ndipo wakapika wanangwa wa kuwelera ku Zimbabwe, uko wachali kukhala. Mu 2006, Khoti Likuru la ku Addis Ababa, ku Ethiopia, likati lazenga mulandu uwu vyaka 12, likasanga Mengistu na mulandu wa kukoma ŵanthu. Ŵalongozgi ŵanandi ŵa boma lake nawo ŵakasangika na mulandu wa nkhondo. Mengistu na ŵanji awo ŵakacimbira mu caru ŵakeruzgika na kweruzgika kwambura kuŵapo. Ŵalaraŵalara ŵanandi ŵa boma ŵakapika cilango ca nyifwa, ndipo ŵanji ŵanandi ŵakakhala mu jere vilimika 20 pambere ŵandagowokereke cilango ca umoyo wawo wose.<ref>{{Cite web|date=March 2006|title=Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor 2005|url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/drl/rls/hrrpt/2005/61569.htm|website=U.S. Department of State}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=June 2006|title=Mengistu Haile Mariam|url=https://trialinternational.org/latest-post/mengistu-haile-mariam/|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181022232516/https://trialinternational.org/latest-post/mengistu-haile-mariam/|archive-date=22 October 2018|access-date=22 October 2018|website=Trial International}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=January 2018|title=Eshetu Alemu|url=https://trialinternational.org/latest-post/eshetu-alemu/|website=Trial International}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Alemu Aneme|first=Girmachew|date=2001|title=Apology and trials: The case of the Red Terror trials in Ethiopia|url=http://www.ahrlj.up.ac.za/aneme-g-a|website=African Human Rights Law Journal}}</ref> ===<span id="AnchorFederal">Federal Democratic Republic (1991–present)</span>=== {{main article|Ethiopia under federal republic}} {{See also|Eritrean independence referendum, 1993}} Mu Julayi 1991, EPRDF yikacemera ungano wa vyaru vyose kuti uŵike boma lakwendera lumoza la Ethiopia ilo likaŵa na ŵanthu 87. Mu Juni 1992, gulu la Oromo Liberation Front likafumamo mu boma; mu Malichi 1993, ŵanthu ŵa Southern Ethiopia Peoples' Democratic Coalition nawo ŵakafumamo mu boma. Mu Epulero 1993, charu cha Eritrea chikapokera wanangwa kufuma ku Ethiopia. Mu 1994, ŵakalemba dango liphya ilo likapangiska kuti paŵe nyumba za malango ziŵiri na makhoti.<ref name="Constitution2">{{cite web|title=Article 5|url=http://www.wipo.int/edocs/lexdocs/laws/en/et/et007en.pdf|access-date=2 July 2015|work=Ethiopian Constitution|publisher=WIPO}}</ref>[[File:Meles Zenawi - World Economic Forum Annual Meeting 2012.jpg|thumb|upright|Former Prime Minister [[Meles Zenawi]] at the 2012 [[World Economic Forum]] annual meeting]] Chisankho chakwamba cha vyaru vinandi chikachitika mu Meyi 1995, ndipo chipani cha EPRDF ndicho chikapambana. Mulongozgi wa boma la nyengo yachilendo, Meles Zenawi, ndiyo wakaŵa nduna yikuru yakwamba ya boma la Ethiopia, ndipo Negasso Gidada ndiyo wakaŵa mulongozgi wa boma ili. Mu Dango la ku Ethiopia ilo likapelekeka mu 1995, EPRDF yikapokelera waka yayi layizgo la Soviet la Derg lakuti ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yakujumpha 80 ŵa mu charu ichi ŵaŵe na wanangwa wa kusama. Mu nthowa iyi, mtundu wa Ethiopia ukaŵa na boma ilo likaŵa na vigaŵa vya ŵanthu. Mu Meyi 1998, pa mphindano iyo yikaŵa pakati pa Eritrea na Ethiopia, pakawuka Nkhondo ya ku Eritrea na Ethiopia. Nkhondo iyi yikamara mu Juni 2000. Ici cikakhwaska comene cuma ca Ethiopia, kweni cikakhozga muwuso wa boma. Chisankho chachitatu cha chipani cha Ethiopia pa 15 Meyi 2005 chikaŵa chakususkana chomene, ndipo magulu ghanandi ghakwimikana nagho ghakati pakaŵa upusikizgi. Nangauli wupu wa Carter Center ukazomerezga ivyo vikachitika pambere maungano ghandambe, kweni ukakondwa yayi na ivyo vikachitika pamanyuma pa maungano. Awo ŵakulaŵilira ivyo vikuchitika pa mavoti mu vyaru vya Europe ŵakayowoya kuti boma likovwira pa kampeni ya EPRDF, kweniso kuti pakaŵa vinthu vinyake ivyo vikachitika mwambura kwenelera pakuŵerenga mavoti na kufumiska mavoti. Maphwando a chipani chakususkana nagho ghakasanga vithuzithuzi vyakujumpha 200 mu Nyumba ya Malamulo, pakuyaniska na vithuzithuzi 12 pera mu 2000 apo pakaŵa mavoti. Nangauli ŵalongozgi ŵanandi ŵa chipani cha CUD ŵakakana kukhala mu nyumba ya malango, kweni ŵakakakika cifukwa ca kususka vivulupi ivyo vikacitika. Wupu wa Amnesty International ukaŵawona kuti ni "ŵakayidi ŵa njuŵi" ndipo pamasinda ŵakaŵafumiska. Wupu wakukolerana wa vyaru vyakususka boma na ŵanthu ŵanyake ukapangika mu 2009 kuti ufumiske boma la EPRDF mu mavoti gha 2010. Chipani cha Meles, icho chili na mazaza kwambira mu 1991, chikapharazga manifesto yake ya mapeji 65 mu Addis Ababa pa 10 Okutobala 2009. Chipani chakususka chikapokera mavoti ghanandi mu Addis Ababa, kweni EPRDF yikayimiska kupenda mavoti kwa mazuŵa ghanandi. Pamanyuma pake, likapoka mazaza pa maungano agha, uku likuyuzgika na milandu ya upusikizgi. Mu 2011, mu chigaŵa cha kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Africa mukaŵa chilangalanga chikuru chomene mu vyaka 60. Vinthu vikamba kwenda makora yayi chifukwa cha chilangalanga m'paka mu 2012, ndipo boma la Japan likagwiliskira ntchito nthowa zakovwira ŵanthu kuti ŵalutilire kuŵa na umoyo uwemi.<ref name="Twdisyihoa">{{cite web|title=The worst drought in 60 years in Horn Africa |url=http://www.africa-eu-partnership.org/node/2158 |publisher=Africa and Europe in Partnership |access-date=2 August 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111102172007/http://www.africa-eu-partnership.org/node/2158 |archive-date=2 November 2011}}</ref>[[File:Deputy Secretary of Defense Ashton B. Carter, left, is greeted by Ethiopian Prime Minister Hailemariam Desalegn at his office in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, on July 24, 2013 130724-M-EV637-339.jpg|thumb|Former Prime Minister of Ethiopia [[Hailemariam Desalegn]] meeting with former US Deputy Secretary of Defense [[Ash Carter]] in Addis Ababa.]] Meles wakafwa pa 20 August 2012 ku Brussels, uko wakalerekanga nthenda yambura kumanyikwa. Mubali Hailemariam Desalegn, uyo wakaŵa wachiŵiri kwa nduna yikuru, wakasankhika kuŵa nduna yikuru m'paka pa chisankho cha mu 2015, ndipo wakalutilira kuŵa nduna yikuru. Pa Ogasiti 5, 2016, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakamba kususka ivyo boma likachita. Ŵanthu aŵa ŵakakhumbanga kuti ŵaleke kuswa wanangwa wa ŵanthu, kufwatura ŵakayidi ŵa ndyali, kugaŵira makora usambazi uwo ukasangika chifukwa cha kukura kwa chuma kwa vyaka 10, kweniso kuti chigaŵa cha Wolqayt chiwelere ku chigaŵa cha Amhara. Vinthu ivi vikaŵa vyakofya chomene pa ŵanthu awo ŵakasuskanga mu vigaŵa vya ku Africa kufuma apo boma la Ethiopia likakoma ŵanthu 75 pa nyengo ya viphikiro mu chigaŵa cha Oromia mu Novembala na Disembala 2015. Pa 6 Okutobala, 2016, boma la Ethiopia likapharazga kuti kuli suzgo. Mu Ogasiti 2017, boma likawuskapo dango la vyakofya. Pa 16 February, 2018, boma la Ethiopia likapharazga nyengo ya suzgo ya myezi sikisi pa charu chose pamanyuma pa kufumiska nduna yikuru Hailemariam Desalegn. Hailemariam ni fumu yakwamba mu mbiri ya Ethiopia ya mazuŵa ghano kufumapo; ŵalongozgi ŵakwambilira ŵali kufwa panji kuwuskika. Iyo wakati wakukhumba kuti vinthu visinthe. ===Abiy Ahmed and the Prosperity Party (2018–present)=== {{Anchor|Government reforms (2018–present)}} {{see also|Ethiopian civil conflict (2018–present){{!}}Ethiopian civil conflict|Tigray War}} [[File:Ethiopian Prime Minister Abiy Ahmed receiving the Nobel Peace Prize in Oslo 2019.jpg|thumb|Prime Minister [[Abiy Ahmed]] receiving the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] in Oslo in 2019]] Nduna yikuru yiphya yikaŵa Abiy Ahmed, uyo wakaluta ku Eritrea mu 2018, ndipo wakamalizga nkhondo pakati pa vyaru viŵiri ivi. Chifukwa cha kuyezgayezga kwake kumazga nkhondo ya vyaka 20 pakati pa Ethiopia na Eritrea, Abiy Ahmed wakapokera chawanangwa cha Nobel cha mtende mu 2019. Pamanyuma pa kuwusa mu Epulero 2018, Abiy, wa vyaka 46, wakafwatura ŵakayidi ŵa ndyali, wakalayizga kuti mu 2019 paŵenge mavoti ghakwenelera ndipo wakapharazga vyakusintha pa vyachuma. Pa 6 June 2019, mawebusayiti ghose agho ghakaŵa kuti ghakaŵa pasi pa censure ghakazgoreka, ndipo ŵakayidi ŵa ndyali ŵakujumpha 13,000 ŵakafwatulika.<ref>{{cite news |title=Abiy's Ethiopia pardons 13,000 accused of treason or terrorism |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-ethiopia-politics-idUSKCN1PG1IZ |work=Reuters |date=22 January 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ooni.torproject.org/post/ethiopia-unblocking/|title=OONI – Ethiopia: Verifying the unblocking of websites|website=ooni.torproject.org|date=29 June 2018|access-date=14 January 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://newbusinessethiopia.com/ethiopia-prison-administration-fires-103-individuals/|title=Ethiopia prison administration fires 103 individuals – New Business Ethiopia|language=en-US|access-date=14 January 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190113175528/https://newbusinessethiopia.com/ethiopia-prison-administration-fires-103-individuals/|archive-date=13 January 2019|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://cyberethiopia.com/2013/?p=2012|title=Reflections on the Rule of Law and Ethiopia's Transition to Democratic Rule (Part I)|date=12 January 2019|website=Cyber Ethiopia|language=en-US|access-date=14 January 2019}}</ref> Nkhondo ya mitundu yikasazgikira cifukwa ca masuzgo gha ndyali. Pakaŵa nkhondo pakati pa mtundu wa Oromo, uwo ni fuko likuru chomene mu charu ichi, na fuko la Somalia. Kuyambira mu 2019, mu nkhondo ya Metekel, nkhondo mu chigawo cha Metekel cha chigawo cha Benishangul-Gumuz ku Ethiopia zikunenedwa kuti zikuphatikizapo zigawenga kuchokera ku anthu a Gumuz motsutsana ndi Amhara ndi Agaws. Mu Malichi 2020, mulongozgi wa gulu la Amhara lakuchemeka Fano, Solomon Atanaw, wakayowoya kuti ŵafumengepo yayi vilwero m'paka apo chigaŵa cha Metekel na vigaŵa vya Welkait na Raya mu chigaŵa cha Tigray viwelerenge ku chigaŵa cha Amhara. Mu mwezi wa Seputembala 2018, ŵanthu 23 ŵakakomeka pa nkhaza za ŵanthu ŵachoko waka mu chigaŵa cha Oromia kufupi na Addis Ababa, msumba ukuru wa Ethiopia. Ŵanthu 35 ŵakakomeka pamanyuma mu Addis Ababa na mu chigaŵa chakuzingilizga cha Oromia pa nyengo ya viwawa ivyo ŵanandi ŵakawonanga kuti boma likuchitapo kanthu yayi pa nkhaza izi. Ŵanyake ŵakakomeka na ŵapolisi..<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/09/24/world/africa/ethiopia-ethnic-violence-arrests.html|title=Thousands Are Arrested in Ethiopia After Ethnic Violence|newspaper=The New York Times|date=24 September 2018|access-date=27 April 2019|last1=Ahmed|first1=Hadra|last2=Goldstein|first2=Joseph}}</ref> [[File:Ethiopia overall conflcit map 2020s.png|left|thumb|Map illustrating the [[Ethiopian civil conflict (2018–present)|Ethiopian civil conflict]] as of 2022; included are [[2022 al-Shabaab invasion of Ethiopia|al-Shabaab attacks]], the [[Tigray War]] zone, and the redeployment of federal troops from the southeast to the north. ]] Pa 22 June 2019, magulu gha ŵasilikari ŵa chigaŵa ichi ŵakayezga kutimbanizga boma la chigaŵa ichi, ndipo mu nyengo iyi, pulezidenti wa chigaŵa cha Amhara, Ambachew Mekonnen, wakakomeka. Mulinda wa boma uyo wakaŵa ku chigaŵa cha ŵasilikari ŵakususka boma wakakoma Jenerale Se'are Mekonnen   Mukuru wa ŵasilikari ŵa Ethiopia National Defense Force    kweniso movwiri wake, Major General Gizae Aberra. Ofesi ya Prime Minister yikaphalira Brigadier General Asaminew Tsige, mulongozgi wa mawupu ghakuvikilira chigaŵa cha Amhara, kuti ndiyo wakalongozganga chiŵembu ichi, ndipo Tsige wakakomeka na ŵapolisi kufupi na Bahir Dar pa 24 June. Gulu la Fano ni gulu la ŵawukirano la Amhara mu Ethiopia, ilo likuwoneka nga ni gulu lakususka panji gulu la ŵasilikari. Mgwirizano pakati pa Fano na Qeerroo, mtundu wawo wa Oromo, ukagwira ntchito yayikulu pakubweretsa kusintha kwa ndale ndi kayendetsedwe kogwirizana ndi utsogoleri wa Abiy Ahmed. Mu nyengo ya Nkhondo ya Tigray, Fano wakawovwira ŵasilikari ŵa boma na ŵa chigaŵa kukarwa na ŵakugaluka awo ŵakaŵa ku chigaŵa cha Tigray People's Liberation Front panji TPLF. Mabungwe a Fano akuimbidwa mlandu wogwira nawo ntchito yakupha anthu, kuphatikiza 58 ya anthu a Qemant ku Metemma pa 10-11 Januware 2019, komanso zochita zankhondo ku Humera mu Novembala 2020.<ref>{{cite news | last1= Akinwotu | first1= Emmanuel | title= 'I saw people dying on the road': Tigray's traumatised war refugees | date= 2 December 2020 |newspaper= [[The Guardian]] | url= https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2020/dec/02/tigray-war-refugees-ethiopia-sudan |access-date=2 December 2020 |archive-url= https://archive.today/20201202185821/https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2020/dec/02/tigray-war-refugees-ethiopia-sudan |archive-date= 2 December 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref>[[File:Ethiopian Civil War (2020-present).svg|thumb|Territorial control as of March 2023:<br />{{resize|85%|(For a more detailed, up-to-date, interactive map, see [[Template:Ethiopian wars and insurgencies detailed map|here]])}}.<br /> '''Pro-federal government troops'''{{leftlegend|#fcadad|[[Government of Ethiopia|Ethiopian federal government]] and regional allies}} '''Anti-federal government rebels''' {{leftlegend|#ffff44|[[Oromo Liberation Army]]}}]] Chiwonetsero cha chionetsero chinabuka ku Ethiopia pambuyo pa kuphedwa kwa woimba wa Oromo Hachalu Hundessa pa 29 June 2020, zomwe zidapangitsa kuti anthu osachepera 239 aphedwe. Boma la feduro, pasi pa chipani cha Prosperity Party, likapempha kuti National Election Board ya Ethiopia yisinthe mavoti gha 2020 chifukwa cha umoyo na chivikiliro chifukwa cha COVID-19. Pa nyengo iyi pakaŵavya deti ilo likayowoyekerathu kuti mavoti ghaŵengepo, kweni boma likati para katemera wa COVID-19 wafika, mavoti ghaŵengepo. Chipani cha Tigrayan, cha TPLF, chikakanira kuti mavoti ghalekeske ndipo, apo pempho lawo ku boma la federal kuti mavoti ghachitike likakanika, TPLF yikalutizga mavoti pa 9 September 2020. Ŵakacitanga vinthu pamoza na magulu ghakwimikana na boma mu vigaŵa vyawo ndipo ŵakaŵapo na ŵalongozgi ŵa vyaru vinyake. Ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 2.7 miliyoni ŵakavota. Ubwezi pakati pa boma la federal na boma la chigaŵa cha Tigray ukasuzga chomene pamanyuma pa chisankho, ndipo pa 4 November 2020, Abiy wakayamba nkhondo ya nkhondo mu chigaŵa cha Tigray pakuzgora ku vilwero vya ŵasilikari awo ŵakakhalanga mwenemumo, ivyo vikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵachimbire ku Sudan na kwamba nkhondo ya Tigray. Pa Novembala 9, 2020, ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 600 ŵakakomeka mu tawuni ya Mai Kadra. Mu Epulero 2021, Eritrea yikati ŵasilikari ŵake ŵakurwa nkhondo mu Ethiopia. Kufika mu Malichi 2022, ŵanthu 500,000 ŵakafwa chifukwa cha vivulupi na njara mu Nkhondo ya Tigray, ndipo ŵanyake ŵakuti chiŵelengero ichi chikukwana 700,000-800,000 paumaliro wa 2022. Pamanyuma pa kufumiska malango ghanandi gha mtende na kuwoneseska kuti vinthu vyendenge makora, Ethiopia na ŵasilikari ŵa Tigrayan ŵakazomerezga kuti nkhondo yimare pa Novembala 2, 2022; kweni pakuti Eritrea yikaŵa chigaŵa cha phangano ili yayi, malo ghawo ghakaŵa ghambura kupulikikwa.<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Winning |first1=Alexander |last2=Cocks |first2=Tim |date=2022-11-02 |title=Parties in Ethiopia conflict agree to cease hostilities |language=en |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/african-union-parties-ethiopia-conflict-have-agreed-cease-hostilities-2022-11-02/ |access-date=}}</ref> ==Boma na ndale== {{Main|Politics of Ethiopia|Law of Ethiopia|Judiciary of Ethiopia}}<!-- Please add new information to relevant articles of the series, not here --> {{see also|Rulers and Heads of State of Ethiopia}} [[File:Ethiopian Parliament.jpg|thumb|[[House of People's Representatives]] is the lower house of the Ethiopian [[Federal Parliamentary Assembly]]]] Charu cha Ethiopia chili na boma laparamende, ndipo nduna yikuru ndiyo ni mutu wa boma. Boma ndilo lili na mazaza ghakulongozga ndipo boma na nyumba ziŵiri za boma ndizo zili na mazaza ghakulongozga. Nyumba ya Federation ni nyumba yakudumura ya wupu wakulongozga wa vyalo viŵiri na vithuzithuzi 108, ndipo nyumba yakudumura ni Nyumba ya Wimiliri ya Ŵanthu (HoPR) na vithuzi 547. Nyumba ya Federation yikusankhika na maboma gha vigaŵa, apo ŵimiliri ŵa HoPR ŵakusankhika mwakudunjika. Makhoti gha ku Ethiopia ghali na makhoti ghaŵiri: makhoti gha boma na gha boma. Dango la FDRE likapeleka mazaza ku Khoti Likuru Chomene ilo likwenera kuwuskapo na kuwona ivyo makhoti ghanyake gha boma ghachita. Kweniso, Khoti Likuru Chomene lingeruzga milandu mu vigaŵa vinkhondi mu vigaŵa vyose vya boma panji "mu vigaŵa ivyo vili pasi pake" usange likuwona kuti "ntchakukhumbikwa kuti urunji ufiskike makora".<ref>{{Cite book |title=See Federal High Court Establishment Proclamation No.322/2003. Federal High Courts have been placed in the following states: Afar, Benshngul/Gumuz, Gambela, Somali, and SNNPR.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Federal Courts Proclamation 25/1996,as amended by Federal Courts (Amendment) Proclamation 138/1998, Federal Courts (Amendment) Proclamation 254/2001, Federal Courts (Amendment) Proclamation 321/2003, and Federal Courts Proclamation (Reamendment) Proclamation 454/2005 (Federal Courts Proclamation), Article 24(3).}}</ref> Phangano la Wupu Wakulongozga likapeleka fundo zitatu: malango, vyaru na malo agho khoti likweruzgirenge. Kuyana na ndime 78 mu Dango la 1994, wupu wa vyeruzgo ngwakujiyimira wekha pa nkhani ya malango. Kuti ivi vicitike, ŵalara ŵa boma ŵakwimika mulaŵiliri wa khoti lakulongozga. Para munthu wasankhika, wupu wakulongozga ulije mazaza ghakuwuskirapo. Ŵeruzgi ŵanyake ŵakusoleka na Federal Judicial Administration Council (FJAC) mwakuyana na fundo zakupulikikwa makora ndiposo ulongozgi wa nduna yikuru. Mu vigaŵa vyose, ŵeruzgi ŵangafumiskika yayi pa udindo wawo pekha usange ŵafumapo, ŵaswa malango gha ndyali, ŵakukolerana yayi, panji ŵakutondeka kuchita makora milimo yawo chifukwa cha ulwari. Ŵalara ŵa boma ndiwo ŵakuzomerezga kuti ŵeruzgi ŵa boma ŵafumiskike mu maofesi ghawo. Mu 2015, lipoti la Freedom House likati fundo iyi njautesi. Mwakuyana na Democracy Index iyo yikalembeka na Economist Intelligence Unit ku United Kingdom kuumaliro wa 2010, Ethiopia ni "maufumu ghakutemwera ŵanthu", ndipo ni charu cha 118 pa vyaru 167. Charu cha Ethiopia chikakhira pa malo 13 kufuma mu 2008, ndipo lipoti la mu 2010 likati boma likakanizga ŵanthu awo ŵakususka boma, ŵapharazgi, na wupu wa ŵanthu wose pambere ŵandalute ku mavoti mu 2010.<ref>[http://graphics.eiu.com/PDF/Democracy_Index_2010_web.pdf The Economist Intelligence Unit's Index of Democracy 2010]. (PDF). p.17. Retrieved on 3 March 2012.</ref> ===Kwendeska boma=== {{Main|Government of Ethiopia}} {{multiple image | align = right | image1 = Abiy Ahmed with LI Yong 2018 (cropped).jpeg | width1 = 125 | caption1 = [[Prime Minister of Ethiopia|Prime Minister]] [[Abiy Ahmed]] | image2 = Sahle-Work Zewde in 2016.jpg | width2 = 125 | caption2 = [[President of Ethiopia|President]] [[Sahle-Work Zewde]] }} Mu nyengo ya boma la ku Ethiopia, ndyali za mu charu ichi zikasintha chomene. Mazuŵa ghano, chuma chake chikwendera fundo zakupambanapambana. Mu Juni 1994, pakaŵa maungano ghakwamba gha vyaru 547. Ungano uwu ukazomera dango la fuko la Ethiopia mu Disembala 1994. Mu Meyi na Juni 1995, ku Ethiopia kukachitika maungano gha boma na gha chigaŵa. Maphwando ambiri a chipani chotsutsa anasankha kulekerera chisankhochi. Chipani cha Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF) chikatonda chomene. Ŵalongozgi ŵa vyaru na ŵaboma ŵanyake ŵakaghanaghana kuti ŵa chipani cha visopa vinyake mphanyi ŵakanjilirapo. Boma lakwamba la Ethiopia ilo likalongozgeka na dango liphya likakhazikiskika mu Ogasiti 1995. Boma la Prime Minister Meles Zenawi ilo likalongozgekanga na EPRDF likakhozga fundo ya federalism ya mafuko, ndipo likapeleka mazaza ghakuru ku maboma gha vigaŵa. Mazuŵa ghano, mu Ethiopia muli vigaŵa 11 ivyo vikujiyimira vyekha. Mu nyengo ya maboma agho ghakaŵako kale, wanangwa wa ŵanthu, kusazgapo wanangwa wa kupharazga, ukaŵa na mphaka. Ŵanthu ŵakaŵavya mwaŵi wa kuŵazga nkhani zinyake padera pa nyuzipepara za boma. Kwambira waka pa nyengo ya maungano gha mu 2005, ŵapharazgi 18 awo ŵakalemba nkhani zakususka boma ŵakakakika chifukwa cha kusopa vikozgo. Boma likagwiliskiranga ntchito malango ghakukhwaskana na kusesa kuti liwofye ŵanthu awo ŵakasuskanga ivyo likakhumbanga. Boma la Meles likasankhika mu 2000 mu mavoti ghakwamba gha vyaru vinandi; kweni, mavoti agha ghakasuskika comene na ŵalaŵiliri ŵa vyaru na vyaru vinyake. Gulu la EPRDF nalo likathereska pa chisankho cha 2005 ndipo Meles wakawelera ku mazaza. Nangauli ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakazomera kuti paŵe mavoti, kweni ŵakususka na awo ŵakulaŵilira vinthu mu vyaru vya ku Europe na vyaru vinyake ŵakayowoya kuti mavoti agha ghakaŵa ghambura kukolerana na malango gha pa caru cose ghakukhwaskana na mavoti ghakwenelera ndiposo ghakufwatuka. Wapolisi wa ku Ethiopia wapha ŵanthu ŵakukwana 193, comenecomene mu msumba wa Addis Ababa, mu nkhaza izo zikacitika pamanyuma pa mavoti gha mu Meyi 2005.<ref>{{cite news|title=Ethiopian probe team criticises judge over report. |url=http://www.kilil5.com/node/4419 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120907072116/http://www.kilil5.com/node/4419 |url-status=dead |archive-date=7 September 2012 |agency=Reuters |date=11 September 2006 |access-date=21 July 2007}}</ref>[[File:Secretary Kerry and Ethiopian Foreign Minister Adhanom Hold a News Conference in Addis Ababa (3).jpg|thumb|Former Foreign Minister of Ethiopia [[Tedros Adhanom]] with former U.S. Secretary of State [[John Kerry]]]] Boma likambaso kuyuzga ŵanthu mu vigaŵa; mu chigaŵa cha Oromia, boma likagwiliskira ntchito nthambuzgo, kukaka ŵanthu na nthowa zinyake kuti liŵaleke kuyowoyapo na ŵanthu awo ŵakasuskanga chisankho, chomenechomene awo ŵakakolerananga na chipani cha Oromo National Congress (ONC). Boma likulimbana na ŵakugaluka mu chigaŵa cha Ogaden kwamba mu 2007. Chipani chikuru chomene mu 2005 chikaŵa cha Coalition for Unity and Democracy (CUD). Pamanyuma pa kugaŵikana kwa mukati, ŵalongozgi ŵanandi ŵa chipani cha CUD ŵakambiska chipani chiphya cha Unity for Democracy and Justice chakulongozgeka na Mweruzgi Birtukan Mideksa. Birtukan Mideksa, wa mtundu wa Oromo, ni mwanakazi wakwamba kulongozga chipani mu Ethiopia. Mu chaka cha 2008, maboma ghankhondi ghakwimikana nagho ghakaŵa United for Democracy and Justice (Unity for Democracy and Justice) yakulongozgeka na Judge Birtukan Mideksa, United Ethiopian Democratic Forces (United Ethiopian Democratic Forces) yakulongozgeka na Beyene Petros, Oromo Federalist Democratic Movement (Oromo Federalist Democratic Movement) yakulongozgeka na Bulcha Demeksa, Oromo People's Congress (Oromo People's Congress) yakulongozgeka na Merera Gudina, na United Ethiopian Democratic Party (Medhin Party) yakulongozgeka na Lidetu Ayalew. Pambuyo pa chisankho cha 2015, Ethiopia yataya MP yake yokhayo yotsutsa; pofika 2015 kunalibe aphungu otsutsa mu nyumba yamalamulo ya Ethiopia.<ref name = "BBC Obama trip">{{Cite news | title = Obama in Ethiopia for key talks with regional leaders | url = https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-33671340 | website = BBC News | date = 27 July 2015 | access-date = 27 July 2015}}</ref> ===Ubale na vyaru vinyake=== {{main article|Foreign relations of Ethiopia}} [[File:The state visit of Reuven Rivlin to Ethiopia, May 2018 (4382).jpg|thumb|Ethiopian [[Prime Minister of Ethiopia|Prime Minister]] [[Abiy Ahmed]] with Israeli [[President of Israel|President]] [[Reuven Rivlin]] in May 2018]] Kwambira ku Punt, Etiyopiya ni caru ico cikaguliskanga comene vinthu nga ni golide, mino gha zovu, vinyama vyakupambanapambana, na vyakununkhira. Ŵanandi awo ŵakulemba mdauko ŵakaghanaghana kuti vinthu vikamba kwenda makora pakati pa Ethiopia na ufumu wa Themba Tewodros II. Kufuma nyengo yira, vyaru ivi vikawonekanga kuti ni vyambura ntchito m'paka apo Suez Canal yikajulikira cifukwa ca Nkhondo ya Mahdist.<ref>Although Bahru Zewde, ''A History of Modern Ethiopia'', second edition (Oxford: James Currey, 2001), believes that the Suez Canal brought strategic value to the Red Sea region (p. 73), Sven Rubenson, ''The Survival of Ethiopian Independence'' (Hollywood: Tsehai,1991) argues that only with the Mahdi War did the United Kingdom interest themselves once again in Ethiopia (pp. 283ff).</ref> [[File:Sergio Mattarella and Abiy Ahmed Ali (2).jpg|thumb|Ethiopian [[Abiy Ahmed|Prime Minister Abiy Ahmed]] with the President of Italy [[Sergio Mattarella]]]] Mazuŵa ghano, Ethiopia wali na ubwezi wakukhora na vyaru nga ni China, Israel, Mexico, Turkey, na India. Ubwezi na Sudan na Egypt uli pa mphindano chifukwa cha ntchito ya Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam iyo yikakwera mu 2020. Nangauli vyaru vinkhondi na cimoza (Ethiopia, Kenya, Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, na Tanzania) vikasaina Nile Basin Initiative mu 2010, kweni Eguputo na Sudan ŵakakana phangano la kugaŵikana maji cifukwa ca kuchepeskeka kwa maji mu Nile Basin. Mu 2020, Prime Minister Abiy Ahmed wakachenjezga kuti "Palije nkhongono izo zingalekeska Ethiopia kuzenga damu. Usange tingakhumbikwira kuluta ku nkhondo, tinganozga ŵanthu mamiliyoni ghanandi". Ethiopia ni munyake wa Global War on Terrorism and African Growth and Opportunity Act (AGOA). Ku United States. Purezidenti wakale Barack Obama ndiye anali woyamba kugwira ntchito kukachezera Ethiopia mu Julayi 2015, pomwe amalankhula ku African Union, adawunikira kulimbana ndi uchigawenga wachisilamu. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Ethiopia ŵakuluta ku vyaru vya ku Europe, comenecomene ku Italy, Saudi Arabia, United Kingdom, Canada, Sweden, na Australia. Ku Ethiopia kuli Ŵayuda pafupifupi 155,300 awo ŵali kusamira ku Israel. Ŵakucemeka kuti Beta Israel. Charu cha Ethiopia nchimoza mwa vyaru ivyo vili mu Gulu la 24 (G-24), gulu la vyaru vyambura kukolerana na G77. Mu 1963, wupu wa African Unity (OAU) uwo pamasinda ukachemeka kuti African Union, ukapangika mu Addis Ababa. Kweniso ni munthazi wa wupu wa Pan African Chamber of Commerce and Industry, United Nations Economic Commission for Africa, African Standby Force na mawupu ghanandi gha pa caru cose agho ghakuwona vya Africa. Ethiopia njimoza mwa vyaru vya mu Africa ndipo yikaŵa yumoza wa ŵimiliri ŵa wupu wa League of Nations (uno ni United Nations) kwamba waka mu 1923. Ntchito za UN mu Ethiopia ni za wovwiri wa ŵanthu na vya kuzenga. Mwaciyelezgero, gulu la UNCT ku Ethiopia lili na ŵimiliri ŵa mawupu 28 gha UN. Maofesi ghanyake gha wupu uwu ghakukolerana na wupu wa United Nations Economic Commission for Africa na African Union. Wupu wa UN ukuŵika mtima pa vinthu vyose vya mu Ethiopia, ukupeleka vilato viŵiri: Vilato vya Kukula kwa Vinthu Vyakukhalilira (SDGs) na vya Kukula kwa Charu. Ivi vikusazgapo kulimbana na ukavu, kukura kwa cuma, kusintha kwa nyengo, masambiro na wovwiri wa munkhwala, kusazgirako nchito na kuvikilira cilengiwa.<ref>{{Cite web|title=The United Nations in Ethiopia {{!}} United Nations in Ethiopia|url=https://ethiopia.un.org/en/about/about-the-un|access-date=3 January 2022|website=ethiopia.un.org|language=en}}</ref> === Ŵankhondo === {{main|Military history of Ethiopia|Ethiopian National Defense Force}} [[File:2014 01 22 Ethiopia Welcome Ceremony 001.jpg (12086805304).jpg|thumb|Ŵasilikari ŵa Ethiopia National Defense Force pa chiphikiro ku Baidoa, Somalia pakukumbuka umo Ethiopia wali kunjilira mu gulu la African Union pa 22 January 2014]] Ŵasilikari ŵa ku Etiyopiya ŵakamba kuwusa mu nyengo yakale chomene. Cifukwa cakuti Ethiopia wali pakati pa vyaru vya ku Middle East na Africa, kwa nyengo yitali wakhala pakati pa vyaru vya kumafumiro gha dazi na vya kumanjiliro gha dazi. Mu 1579, Ufumu wa Ottoman ukayezga kusazgikira kufuma ku malo gha mumphepete mwa nyanja ku Massawa. Ŵasilikari ŵa Ufumu wa Etiyopiya ŵakathereska Ŵaeguputo mu 1876 ku Gura. Nkhondo ya ku Adwa ndiyo yikumanyikwa comene cifukwa cakuti ŵasilikari ŵa Ethiopia ŵakathereska ŵalwani ŵawo. Chikawovwira kuti Etiyopiya walutilire kuŵa charu chakujiyimira. Nkhondo iyi yikacitika pa 1 Malichi 1896 pafupi na tawuni ya Adwa. Ŵasilikari ŵa Etiyopiya ŵakamba kuzgoka ŵaphya mu nyengo ya Tafari Mekonnen, uyo pamasinda wakaŵa Themba Haile Selassie I. Mu 1917, wakapanga gulu la ŵasilikari ŵakuvikilira ŵanthu ŵa Ufumu, la Kebur Zabagna. Gulu la ŵasilikari aŵa likasambizgika pa sukulu ya ŵasilikari ya ku France ku Saint-Cyr. Gulu la ŵasilikari ŵa Ethiopia ilo likalongozgekanga na Kagnew Battalion, likachitako nkhondo ya ku Korea kwambira mu 1950. Mabuku ghanyake ghakayowoya kuti ŵasilikari ŵa Ethiopia ŵakakhalako vyaka 15, kweni ghanyake ghakuti ŵakafumapo mu 1975, nga ni gulu la UN. Gulu ili likaŵa na ŵasilikari 6,037 pa nyengo ya nkhondo.<ref name="autob">{{cite web |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201204260161.html |title=Ethiopia: Association to Commemorate 61st of Korean War |work=AllAfrica |date=25 April 2012 |agency=Ethiopian News Agency |access-date=5 December 2022 |url-access=subscription}}</ref>[[File:Ethiopian Soldiers Korean War.jpg|thumb|Ethiopian [[Kebur Zabagna]] soldiers seen at [[Korean War|Korean war]] siding with [[South Korea]] against [[Korean War|North Korean and communist]] backed forces in 1953]] Wupu wakuvikilira chalo cha Ethiopia (Ethiopian National Defence Force) ni wupu wakuvikilira chalo cha Ethiopia. Wupu wa ENDF uli na magulu ghaŵiri: Wupu wa Ethiopian Ground Forces na wa Ethiopian Air Force. Kufuma waka mu 1996, charu cha Ethiopia icho chilije nyanja, chilije ŵasilikari ŵa nkhondo, kweni mu 2018 Prime Minister Abiy Ahmed wakayowoya pa TV ya boma kuti: "Tili kuzenga ŵasilikari ŵankhongono chomene ŵa pasi na ŵa mu mlengalenga mu Africa... tikwenera kuzenga ŵasilikari ŵithu ŵa nkhondo munthazi".<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-44369382|title=Why landlocked Ethiopia wants to launch a navy|last=Olewe|first=Dickens|date=14 June 2018|access-date=7 July 2019|work=BBC News}}</ref> ===Malango=== {{main article|Law enforcement in Ethiopia|Crime in Ethiopia}} {{See also|Police brutality in Ethiopia}} Ndondomeko ya chalo yikuphalira ŵapolisi ŵa boma la Ethiopia (EFP). Wupu uwu ndiwo ukuvikilira umoyo wa ŵanthu pa charu chose. Wapolisi wa boma wakapangika mu chaka cha 1995, ndipo wapolisi wa boma wakwendeskeka na kazembe wa boma kufuma mu Okutobala 2000; kazembe wa boma wakupeleka lipoti ku Unduna wa vya Mtende, kweni wakasinthika pamanyuma pa kusintha kwa ndyali mu chaka cha 2018, ndipo wakuluta ku nyumba ya malango. Mu vyaka vyakumasinda, ŵapolisi ŵa boma ndiwo ŵakapharazganga mwakudunjika. Kweniso, ŵapolisi ŵa boma ŵali na wanangwa wa kuphalira ŵapolisi ŵa vigaŵa kuti ŵaŵawovwire. Gulu la ŵasilikari ŵakujiyimira pawekha ŵakuvikilira ŵanthu. Mazuŵa ghano, kupeleka vimbundi nchinthu cakuzirwa comene, comenecomene ŵapolisi ŵa msewu. Mu vyaka vyasonosono apa, ŵapolisi ŵacitaso nkhaza zinandi. Pa Ogasiti 26, 2019, vidiyo ya mwanalume uyo wali na nkhonyo uyo ŵapolisi ŵaŵiri ŵakamutimba apo mwanakazi munyake mulara wakanjiranga mu msumba wa Addis Ababa, yikathandazgika chomene. Ŵapolisi ŵakuti para ŵapolisi ŵacita vinthu viheni, ndikuti ŵakulondezga yayi fundo ya mu ndime 52 ya malango gha boma, iyo yikuti ŵapolisi awo ŵacita viheni ŵafumiskike pa nchito. Malango gha African Union gha Luanda na Robben Island panji chikalata cha United Nations cha Justice for Victims of Abuse of Power and their Basic Principles on the Use of Force & Firearms, chikukhumba kuti komiti ya Ethiopian Government Disciplinary Committee yikomane na nkhaza za ŵapolisi pa munthu yumoza na wose.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Woubshet|first=Ayele|date=14 August 2020|title=Our 'protectors' in blue: Police brutality and misconduct in Ethiopia|url=https://www.ethiopia-insight.com/2020/08/14/our-protectors-in-blue-police-brutality-and-misconduct-in-ethiopia/|access-date=6 January 2022|website=Ethiopia Insight|language=en-US}}</ref> === Wanangwa wa '''ŵa'''nthu === {{Main|Human rights in Ethiopia}} {{Further|War crimes in the Tigray War}} Kanandi ŵanthu ŵakuswa wanangwa wa ŵanthu chifukwa cha nkhaza izo zikuchitika pakati pa mafuko. Mu 2016, ŵanthu 100 ŵakakomeka na boma mu chigaŵa cha Oromia na Amhara. Wupu wa United Nations (UN) wapempha kuti ŵalaŵiliri ŵa wupu uwu ŵafike ku Ethiopia kuti ŵamanye ivyo vyachitika, kweni boma la Ethiopia ilo likulongozgeka na EPRDF likakana. Ŵanthu aŵa ŵakususka kuti ŵanthu ŵakuwukira malo ghawo na kuŵavya wanangwa wakusankha awo ŵakuŵawimira. Gulu la EPRDF ilo likulongozgeka na TPLF ndilo likapokera 100% pa mavoti agho ghakaŵa na upusikizgi. Merera Gudina, mulongozgi wa bungwe la Oromo People's Congress, wakati caru ca East Africa cili pa "mphepete mwa nthowa". Iyo wakasazgirapo kuti: "Ŵanthu ŵakukhumba wanangwa wawo". "Ŵanthu ŵakukhuta na ivyo boma likucita kwa vilimika 25. Ŵakulimbana na vinthu nga ni kupoka malo, kuwezgera nduzga, mavoti ghakubisika, kukwera kwa mtengo wa vinthu, na vinyake vinandi. "Usange boma likulutilira kukanizga ŵanthu apo ŵanthu mamiliyoni ghanandi ŵakukhumba wanangwa wawo, (nkhondo ya pawenenawene) yingacitika".<ref name="reuters.com">{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-ethiopia-landrights-violence-idUSKCN10M12X|title=Ethiopia's battle for land reforms could lead to civil war: opposition leader|date=11 August 2016|access-date=8 May 2017|newspaper=Reuters}}</ref>[[File:Omo River Valley IMG 0463.jpg|thumb|Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Karo mu vigaŵa vya kumwera]] Kuyana na kafukufuku uyo wakachitika mu 2003 na wupu wa National Committee on Traditional Practices ku Ethiopia, nthengwa izo zikuchitika chifukwa cha kukora ŵanthu ni 69% ya nthengwa izo zikuchitika mu charu ichi. Ŵapharazgi na ŵanthu awo ŵakuchitapo kanthu ŵakawopeka panji kukakika chifukwa cha nkhani izo ŵakalemba za nthenda ya COVID-19 mu Ethiopia. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Omotic Karo na Hamer awo ŵakukhala kumwera kwa Etiyopiya, ŵakuwona kuti ŵanthu ŵalara na ŵana awo ŵali na suzgo la thupi ŵakuchemeka bangi, kung'anamura "ŵambura kutowa". Ŵanyake ŵakugomezga kuti ŵana ŵambura kupendera ŵakukhwaska ŵanji. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Karo ŵakazomerezga yayi nkharo iyi mu Julayi 2012. Mu 2013, wupu wa Oakland Institute ukalemba lipoti ilo likati boma la Ethiopia likuchichizga "ŵanthu ŵanandi chomene ŵa ku Gambela kuti ŵafumemo mu malo ghawo". Lipoti linyake likuti awo ŵakakana, ŵakaŵachitiranga nkhaza zakupambanapambana. Lipoti lakuyana waka la mu 2012 la wupu wa Human Rights Watch likulongosoraso ivyo boma la Ethiopia likacita mu 2010 na 2011 pa nkhani ya kuzenga mizi mu Gambela. Boma la Ethiopia likukana ivyo boma likuyowoya kuti likupoka malo gha ŵanthu ndipo likuwona kuti vinthu vikwenda makora mu charu ichi. Pa 23 Okutobala, 2019, ŵanthu ŵakamba kusuzgika chomene mu chigaŵa cha Oromia, chifukwa cha ivyo munthu munyake uyo wakugwira ntchito pa nkhani za wanangwa wa ŵanthu zina lake Jawar Mohammed wakayowoya. Kuyana na lipoti la boma, ŵanthu 86 ŵakafwa. Pa Meyi 29, 2020, wupu wa Amnesty International ukafumiska lipoti ilo likususka ŵasilikari ŵa Ethiopia kuti ŵakukaka ŵanthu ŵanandi na kuŵakoma kwambura mulandu. Lipoti ili likati mu 2019, ŵanthu 25 awo ŵakaghanaghanika kuti ŵakovwira gulu la Oromo Liberation Army, ŵakakomeka na ŵasilikari mu vigaŵa vinyake vya Oromia. Kweniso, pakati pa Janyuwale na Seputembala 2019, ŵanthu 10,000 ŵakakakika chifukwa cha kukayikira, ndipo ŵanandi "ŵakakomeka mwankhaza".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://apnews.com/78d1d784e9c7c441df4ee9632557a900|title=New report alleges killings, mass detentions in Ethiopia|access-date=29 May 2020|website=Associated Press}}</ref> ==== Wanangwa wa ŵa LGBT ==== {{Main article|LGBT rights in Ethiopia}} Ku Ethiopia, kugonana kwa ŵanalume panji ŵanakazi ŵekhaŵekha nkhukanizgika. Mwakuyana na ndime 629 ya Criminal Code, munthu uyo wakuchita vinthu vya kugonana kwa ŵanthu ŵaviŵaro vyakuyana wakulangika vyaka 15 panji umoyo wake wose. Charu cha Ethiopia nchakusuzga comene. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakutinkha ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa LGBT ndipo kanandi ŵanthu ŵakuŵatambuzga chifukwa cha chisopa chawo. Ŵanthu ŵakugonana ŵanalume panji ŵanakazi ŵekhaŵekha ŵakamba kumanyikwa mu charu ichi kufuma waka apo boma likadandawura ku wupu wakuwona vya wanangwa wa ŵanthu mu 2008, ndipo ŵanthu ŵa mtundu uwu ŵakamba kukura mu misumba yikuruyikuru nga ni Addis Ababa. Mahoteli ghanyake ghakuzirwa nga ni Sheraton Addis na Hilton Hotel ghakaŵa na ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakagomezganga kuti ŵanthu ŵakwendera fundo za boma. Tchalitchi la Orthodox la ku Ethiopia ndilo likususka chomene. Mwachiyelezgero, Dereje Negash, uyo ni munthu wakulimbikira ntchito za wanangwa wa ŵanthu, wakambiska gulu lakuti "Zim Anlem" mu 2014. Kuyana na kafukufuku uyo wakacitika mu 2007, ŵanthu 97 pa 100 ŵaliwose ku Ethiopia ŵakugomezga kuti kugonana kwa ŵanalume panji ŵanakazi ŵekhaŵekha nkhwakuzomerezgeka yayi. Pa vyaru 45 ivyo vikafumbika, ici cikaŵa cigaŵa caciŵiri pa vyaru vyose ico ŵanthu ŵakukana kusambira Baibolo.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://pewglobal.org/reports/pdf/258.pdf |title="Pew Global Attitudes Project", (pages 35, 81, and 117) |access-date=3 December 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100214225525/http://pewglobal.org/reports/pdf/258.pdf |archive-date=14 February 2010 |url-status=dead}}</ref> ===Administrative divisions=== {{Main|Subdivisions of Ethiopia|Regions of Ethiopia|List of zones of Ethiopia|Districts of Ethiopia}} [[File:Map of zones of Ethiopia.svg|thumb|center|upright=2.6|Map of [[Regions of Ethiopia|regions]] and [[list of zones of Ethiopia|zones]] of Ethiopia]] Pambere chaka cha 1996 chindafike, charu cha Ethiopia chikaŵa na vigaŵa 13, ndipo vinandi vikafuma ku vigaŵa vyakale. Pasono charu ichi chili na maboma gha vigaŵa vinandi, ndipo maboma agha ghakulaŵilira vigaŵa, vigaŵa, na vigaŵa. Charu cha Ethiopia chili kugaŵika mu vyaru 11 ivyo vili na mafuko (kililoch, singular kilil) na misumba yiŵiri (astedader akababiwoch, singular astedader akababi), ndipo yaumaliro ni Addis Ababa na Dire Dawa. Chigaŵa ichi chili na vigaŵa 68, na vigaŵa 550 na vigaŵa vinyake. Ndondomeko iyi yikupeleka mazaza ghakuru ku vigaŵa ivyo vili na boma lawo na demokilase, kweni vikukolerana na malango gha boma. Chigaŵa chilichose chili na wupu wa chigaŵa uwo ŵanthu ŵake ŵakusankhika mwakudunjika kuti ŵimilire vigaŵa. Wupu uwu uli na mazaza gha malango na gha kuwusa. Kweniso, ndime 39 ya Dango la Ethiopia yikupereka wanangwa ku vigaŵa vyose kuti vijipature ku Ethiopia. Ndipouli, ŵanthu ŵakususkana pa nkhani ya umo boma likupelekera mazaza ku boma. Makonsili ghakufiska milimo yawo kwizira mu komiti yikuru na maofesi gha vigaŵa. Ndondomeko iyi yikulongosoreka makora chomene mu wupu, wupu wakulongozga na wupu wa boma. ==Makhalilo gha charu== {{Main|Geography of Ethiopia}} [[File:Wonchi Lake of Ethiopia.jpg|thumb|right|[[Nyanja ya Wonchi]] pa mphambano pakati pa Ambo na Waliso mu chigaŵa cha Oromia]] Charu cha Etiyopiya chili pa nambara 28 pa vyaru vikuruvikuru pa charu chapasi. Malo agha ghali pakati pa dera lakwamba la kumpoto na lakwamba lakwamba la kumpoto, kweniso pakati pa dera lakwamba la kumafumiro gha dazi na lakwamba la kumafumiro gha dazi. Cigaŵa cikuru ca Ethiopia cili ku mphanji ya Africa, iyo ni cigaŵa ca kumafumiro gha dazi comene ca caru ici. Vyaru ivyo vili na mphaka na Ethiopia ni Eritrea kumpoto, Djibouti, Somalia, Kenya, South Sudan na Sudan. Mu charu cha Ethiopia muli mapiri ghanandi na malo ghakupambanapambana agho ghakupatukana na Great Rift Valley. Malo ghakupambanapambana, nyengo, dongo, vyakumera, na malo agho ŵanthu ŵakukhala. Charu cha Etiyopiya chili na vyakumera vyakupambanapambana. Nyanja ya Tana, iyo yili kumpoto, ndiyo yikupangiska Mlonga wa Blue Nile. Kweniso kuli mitundu yinandi ya viyuni ivyo vikusangika mu charu ichi, chomenechomene chiyuni cha gelada, walia ibex, na chinkhara cha ku Ethiopia. Pakuti charu ichi chili pa mtunda utali, chili na malo ghanandi ghakupambanapambana. Charu ichi chili na vyaru vyakupambanapambana, kufuma ku vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi uko kuli nkhorongo na milonga yinandi, m'paka ku malo ghakucemeka Dallol kumpoto. Mapiri gha ku Ethiopia ndigho ni ghakuru comene pa mapiri ghose gha mu Africa, ndipo mu mphanji ya Sof Omar muli mphanji yikuru comene pa caru cose. Charu cha Ethiopia ndicho chili na malo ghaŵiri pa vyaru ivyo vili pa chiharo cha UNESCO mu Africa.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/&search=&searchSites=&search_by_country=&search_yearinscribed=&themes=&criteria_restrication=&media=&description=&order=region|title=UNESCO World Heritage Centre – World Heritage List |website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre}}</ref> ===Nyengo=== {{Main|Climate of Ethiopia|Climate change in Ethiopia}} {{See also|Beautifying Sheger}} [[File:Köppen climate types of Ethiopia.svg|thumb|upright=1.4|[[Köppen climate classification]] of Ethiopia]] Nyengo iyo ŵanthu ŵakukhala ni nyengo ya mphepo yakuzizima iyo yikupangiska kuti vinthu visinthe. Malo ghatali gha ku Etiyopiya ghakukwana chigaŵa chikuru cha charu ichi ndipo nyengo yake njakukhoma chomene kuluska vigaŵa vinyake ivyo vili pafupi na Ekitoriya. Misumba yinandi yikuru-yikuru ya mu caru ici yili pa mtunda wa mamita 2,500 (6,562), kusazgapo misumba yikuru ya Gondar na Axum. Msumba ukuru wa Addis Ababa uli musi mwa Phiri la Entoto, ndipo uli pa mtunda wa mamita 2400. Cikaŵa na mphepo yiwemi caka cose. Pakuti nyengo ya mu Addis Ababa njimoza caka cose, nyengo za mu msumba uwu zikuthemba pa vula. Nyengo ya chiwuvi yikwamba mu Okutobala m'paka Febuluwale, nyengo ya vula yichoko yikwamba mu Malichi m'paka Meyi, ndipo nyengo ya vula yinandi yikwamba mu Juni m'paka Seputembala. Pa avereji, pa chaka kukulokwa maji pafupifupi 1,200 millimeters. {{multiple image|align left | total_width = 360 | image1 = View on Mt Chokwe.jpg | image2 = Volcano eruption at the Danakil depression, Ethiopia..jpg | footer = Mu vigaŵa vinyake vya mapiri vyakujumpha mamita 4,000 nga ni mapiri gha Bale na Simien, chiwuvi chikuwoneka nyengo yiliyose ya chiwuvi mu Ethiopia (kumazere) Ethiopia yili na chigaŵa chimoza cha vigaŵa vyakuzizima chomene pa charu chose, chigaŵa cha Afar chili na vula yikuru chaka chose }} Pa zuŵa, zuŵa likuŵala pafupifupi maora 7. Nyengo ya chilangalanga ndiyo njakutowa comene pa caka, nangauli nyengo ya vula yikuru comene mu Julayi na Ogasiti, zuŵa likuŵala kwa maora ghanandi. Kutentha kwapakati pa chaka ku Addis Ababa ndi 16 ° C (60.8 ° F), ndipo kutentha kwa tsiku ndi tsiku kumakhala pafupifupi 20 ° C (68.0 ° F) chaka chonse, ndipo usiku wonse kumakhala 5 ° C (41.0 ° F). Misumba yinandi yikuruyikuru na malo ghanyake agho ŵanthu ŵakuluta kukawona vyalo ku Ethiopia ghali pachanya chomene nga ni Addis Ababa. Mu vigaŵa vyambura kukwera chomene, chomenechomene mu vigaŵa vya pasi chomene vya Ethiopia, nyengo yingaŵa yakuzizima chomene. Dallol, mu Danakil Depression mu chigaŵa cha kumafumiro gha dazi kwa charu ichi, ni malo agho kukotcha comene pa caru cose.<ref name=":0" /> Charu cha Ethiopia chili pangozi chifukwa cha kusintha kwa nyengo. Vinyake mwa vinthu ivi ni kuthukira kwa maji na kusintha kwa vula. Kusintha kwa nyengo mu nthowa izi kukupangiska kuti vyakurya vileke kuŵa vyakukhumbikwa kweniso kuti vinthu vileke kwenda makora mu charu. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Ethiopia ŵakacicizgika kuleka nyumba zawo na kuluta ku vyaru vya ku Gulf, kumwera kwa Africa na ku Europe. Kufuma mu April 2019, Prime Minister wa Ethiopia Abiy Ahmed wakwendeska ntchito ya Beautifying Sheger, iyo yikukhumba kuchepeska masuzgo gha kusintha kwa nyengo mu Addis Ababa. Mu Meyi wakulondezgapo, boma likacita "Chiphikiro ca Sheger", kuti liwovwire ŵanthu kusanga ndalama zakukwana madola 1 biliyoni. Makampani gha njanji ghaŵiri gha ku China ghakapeleka ndalama zakwendeskera misewu 12 ya makilomita 56 mu chigaŵa cha China na Ethiopia.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://addisstandard.com/news-chinas-reprieve-on-interest-free-loan-only/|title=News: China's reprieve on interest-free loan only|last=Addisstandard|date=25 April 2019|website=Addis Standard|language=en-US|access-date=23 May 2019}}</ref> ===Vyamoyo=== {{Main|Wildlife of Ethiopia}}{{see also|Environmental issues in Ethiopia|Deforestation in Ethiopia}} [[File:Mountain Nyala (M), Bale,Ethiopia (14496349688).jpg|thumb|[[Mountain nyala]]s in [[Bale Mountains National Park]], one of several wildlife reserves in Ethiopia]] Ku Ethiopia kuli vyamoyo vyakukhalapo 31. Mu nyengo yakale, ntcheŵe za ku Africa zikaŵa zakupambanapambana. Ndipouli, cifukwa ca ivyo ŵakawona ku Finicha'a, ŵakughanaghana kuti nyama iyi yili kufwa. Nkhumba ya ku Ethiopia ndiyo ŵanthu ŵakuyifufuza comene pa vinyama vyose ivyo vili pa ngozi mu Ethiopia. Charu cha Ethiopia chili na viyuni vinandi chomene. Kufika sono, mu Ethiopia muli viyuni vyakujumpha 856, ndipo 20 mwa vyuni ivi ni vyekha ivyo vikukhala mu charu ichi. Viyuni 16 vili pa ngozi panji vili pa ngozi yikuru. Viyuni vinandi vikurya viyuni vyamuthengere nga ni Bicyclus anynana. Kwamba kale, vyamoyo vyamuthengere vikumara mwaluŵiro mu Africa chifukwa cha kudumulika kwa makuni, nkhondo, kunangika kwa vinthu, kupenja nyama, na vinthu vinyake ivyo ŵanthu ŵakuchita. Nkhondo iyo yikatora vyaka 17, pamoza na chilangalanga, vikakhwaska makora yayi malo agho ŵanthu ŵakukhala. Vinthu vinyake ivyo vikupangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵaleke kukhala makora ni kunanga malo agho ŵakukhala. Para vinthu vyasintha mwaluŵiro, vinyama vikuŵavya nyengo yakukhazikika. Vinthu ivyo ŵanthu ŵakuchita vikupangiska kuti vinyama na vinyama vinandi visuzgike. Mu 2010, charu cha Ethiopia chikapanga matani 6,494,000 gha carbon dioxide.<ref>United Nations Statistics Division, [http://mdgs.un.org/unsd/mdg/SeriesDetail.aspx?srid=749&crid= Millennium Development Goals indicators]: Carbon dioxide emissions (CO2), thousand tonnes of CO2 (collected by CDIAC) Human-produced, direct emissions of carbon dioxide only. Excludes other greenhouse gases; [[land use, land-use change, and forestry]] (LULUCF); and natural background flows of CO2 (See also: Carbon cycle)</ref> Mu Ethiopia muli vyamoyo vinandi ivyo vili pangozi ya kumara. Viyuni ivyo vili pa ngozi ku Ethiopia vingagaŵika mu vigaŵa vitatu (kuyana na umo IUCN yikuviwonera): vyamoyo ivyo vili pa ngozi yikuru, vyamoyo ivyo vili pa ngozi, na vyamoyo ivyo vingaŵa na suzgo.<ref name="Massicot">Massicot, Paul (2005). [http://www.animalinfo.org/country/ethiopia.htm Animal Info-Ethiopia].</ref> [[File:TroupeDeGeladaSimien.JPG|thumb|right|Grazing [[gelada]]s in the [[Simien Mountains National Park|Semien Mountains]]]] Charu cha Ethiopia ntchimoza mwa vyaru vinkhondi na vitatu ivyo vyakumera vikupangika kufuma ku vyakumera vinyake.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Khoury|first1=Colin K.|last2=Achicanoy|first2=Harold A.|last3=Bjorkman|first3=Anne D.|last4=Navarro-Racines|first4=Carlos|last5=Guarino|first5=Luigi|last6=Flores-Palacios|first6=Ximena|last7=Engels|first7=Johannes M.M.|last8=Wiersema|first8=John H.|last9=Dempewolf|first9=Hannes|date=15 June 2016|title=Origins of food crops connect countries worldwide|journal=Proc. R. Soc. B|volume=283|issue=1832|pages=20160792|doi=10.1098/rspb.2016.0792|pmc=4920324}}</ref> Ndipouli, kupasura makuni ni suzgo likuru comene ku Ethiopia, cifukwa kafukufuku wakulongora kuti makuni ghakututuka ghakupangiska dongo kunangika, vyakurya vikumara, vinyama vikumara, kweniso vyamoyo vikumara. Kuuyambiro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1900, makilomita pafupifupi 420,000 (panji 35%) gha charu cha Ethiopia ghakaŵa na makuni, kweni kafukufuku wasono wakulongora kuti makuni ghakukwana pafupifupi 11.9% ya charu ichi. Charu ichi chikaŵa pa malo gha 50. Charu cha Ethiopia chikutaya makilomita 1,410 gha nkhorongo chaka chilichose chifukwa cha kunozga nkhuni, kuzgoka malo ghakuliskako viŵeto, kulima chomene, na kugwiliskira ntchito nkhuni za nkhorongo pakuzenga. Pakati pa 1990 na 2005, caru ici cikasoŵa makuni pafupifupi 21,000 km2. Ndondomeko za boma izo zikuchitika sono kuti zileke kuparanya makuni ni izi: kusambizga ŵanthu, kovwira ŵanthu kuti ŵambeso kukhalamo makuni, na kupeleka vinthu vinyake vyakukhumbikwa m'malo mwa makuni. Mu vigaŵa vya ku mizi, boma likupeleka vyakurya vyambura makuni na malo ghambura makuni kuti ŵanthu ŵambe kulima kwambura kuparanya makuni. Magulu nga ni SOS na Farm Africa ghakugwira ntchito na boma na maboma gha mu vigaŵa kuti ghaŵe na ndondomeko ya kunozga nkhorongo. Boma la Ethiopia lili kupeleka ndalama zakukwana 2.3 miliyoni Euro, ndipo sonosono apa lakwamba kusambizga ŵanthu umo ŵangachepeskera kunangika kwa makuni na umo ŵangachitira kuti ŵaleke kumazga makuni. Ntchito iyi yikovwira ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 80. ==Chuma== {{Main|Economy of Ethiopia|Industrial sector in Ethiopia}} [[File:GDP_per_capita_development_of_Ethiopia.svg|thumb|Development of GDP per capita]] [[File:Ethiopia Product Exports (2019).svg|upright=1.6|thumb|right|A proportional representation of Ethiopia exports, 2019]] Charu cha Ethiopia chikakura chomene mu nyengo ya muwuso wa Meles Zenawi. Kuyana na IMF, charu cha Ethiopia chikaŵa na chuma icho chikukura luŵiro chomene pa charu chose, ndipo chikakura chomene pa chaka cha 2004 m'paka 2009. Mu 2007 na 2008, charu ichi ndicho chikaŵa na ndalama zinandi chomene mu Africa. Mu 2015, Banki ya Charu Chose yikayowoya kuti Ethiopia yikukura luŵiro chomene pa nkhani ya vyachuma, ndipo pakati pa 2004 na 2014, chiŵelengero cha vinthu mu charu ichi chikakura na 10.9%.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.worldbank.org/en/country/ethiopia/publication/ethiopia-great-run-growth-acceleration-how-to-pace-it|title=With Continued Rapid Growth, Ethiopia is Poised to Become a Middle Income Country by 2025|access-date=24 June 2016}}</ref> Mu 2008 na 2011, vinthu vikasintha chomene mu Ethiopia chifukwa cha kukwera kwa ndalama na suzgo la ndalama. Mu Ogasiti 2011, unandi wa ndalama ukakwera kufika pa 40 peresenti chifukwa cha ndalama zambura kujikora, malipiro gha ŵateŵeti ŵa boma ghakakwera chomene kukwambilira kwa 2011, kweniso mitengo ya vyakurya yikakwera chomene. Pa 2011 ¥12, unandi wa ndalama uwo ukaŵa paumaliro wa chaka ukaŵa wa 22%, ndipo unandi wa ndalama uwo ukaŵa pa chiŵerengero chimoza ukaŵa wa 2012 ¥13 chifukwa cha ndondomeko ya ndalama. Nangauli mu vyaka vyasonosono apa, caru cikukura comene, kweni GDP pa munthu yumoza njimoza mwa vinthu vyacoko comene pa caru cose, ndipo caru cili na masuzgo ghanandi. Ndipouli, cifukwa ca kuŵika mtima comene pa vinthu vya boma na vyakumera, ndyali ya Ethiopia yikumazga masuzgo ghake kuti yiŵe malo ghakwendeskera vinthu mu Africa. Mu chaka cha 2019 dango likapika ilo likapeleka wanangwa ku ŵanthu ŵa ku Ethiopia kuti ŵagwiliskire nchito ndalama mu vyalo vya Ethiopia.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://w7news.com/ethiopia-to-open-banks-for-ethiopian-investors-in-the-diaspora/|title=Ethiopia to Open Banks for Ethiopian Investors in the Diaspora|last=Sze|first=Mari|website=W7 News|date=12 August 2019 |language=en-US|access-date=14 August 2019}}</ref>[[File:Ethiopian cargo ship at Port of Djibouti.jpg|thumb|left|An Ethiopian logistics shipping cargo docked at the red sea]] Ndondomeko ya chalo ya Ethiopia yikulongosora kuti wanangwa wakuŵa na malo ngwakuti "mboma na ŵanthu", kweni ŵanthu ŵangagura malo kwa vyaka 99, kweni ŵangaguliska yayi. Kupeleka malo kwa munthu munyake nga ni renti kwa vyaka 20, kukovwira kuti munthu uyo wakugwiliskira nchito makora malo agha ndiyo wapokere. Kugaŵira na kwendeska malo kukuwoneka nga ni malo agho vimbundi vilipo, ndipo kanandi ŵanthu ŵakukhumba kupokera vimbundi para ŵakudumbiskana nkhani zakukhwaskana na malo. Pakuti ŵanthu ŵalije malo ghakukhalamo, kanandi vinthu ivi vikuchitika kwambura kufumba awo ŵakugwiliskira nchito malo agha. Nyengo zinyake ukali na kuleka kugomezgeka vikupangiska ŵanthu kugaluka. Kweniso, vyakurya vikulutilira kuchepa mu caru ici, ndipo cichali na chilangalanga, ico cikupangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵafumemo mu vyaru vyawo.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.terradaily.com/reports/Six_million_children_threatened_by_Ethiopia_drought_UN_999.html |title=Six million children threatened by Ethiopia drought: UN |publisher=Terradaily.com |access-date=16 March 2009}}</ref> ===Magesi=== {{see also|Energy in Ethiopia|List of power stations in Ethiopia}} Ku Ethiopia kuli milonga yikuruyikuru 14, kusazgapo Nile. Ili lili na maji ghanandi comene mu Africa. Mu 2012, maofesi gha maji ghakapanga pafupifupi 88,2% ya nkhongono zose zakupangira magesi. Magesi ghanyake ghakafuma ku mafuta (8.3%) na vyakununkhira (3.6%). Pa ŵanthu wose awo ŵakakhalanga mu tawuni iyi, mu 2016 ŵanthu 42 ŵakaŵa na magesi. Kufumira mu 2016, magesi ghose agho ghakapangika ghakaŵa 11.15 TW⋅h ndipo ghakaŵa 9.062 TW⋅h. Magesi agho ghakafuma ku vyaru vinyake ghakaŵa 0.166 TW⋅h, ndipo ghakafuma 0 kW⋅h.<ref name="CIA2"/>[[File:Cement never sleeps (8756743123).jpg|thumb|left|A factory in [[Dire Dawa]], Ethiopia: one of Ethiopia's biggest economic cities]] Ŵanthu awo ŵakugwira nchito mu vyaru vinyake ŵalipo pafupifupi 85 peresenti. Ndipouli, nchito ya mauteŵeti yikupangiska kuti GDP yiŵe yikuru comene. Vinthu vinyake vinandi ivyo vikuchitika pa charu vikuthemba pa ulimi, kusazgapo malonda, kunozga, na kutumizga vyakurya ku vyaru vinyake. Ŵalimi ŵachoko na mabungwe ndiwo ŵakupanga vyakurya ivi, ndipo vyakurya vinandi ivyo vikupelekeka ku vyaru vinyake vikufuma ku vyaru vinyake. Vyakumera vikuruvikuru ni khofi, vipasi, mafuta, tirigu, mbuto, makuni, na mphangwe. Ethiopia nayo ni malo ghakupambanapambana gha vyakumera nga ni enset, khofi na teff. Vinthu vyose ivyo vikupelekeka ku vyaru vinyake ni vyakurya (kupaturako golide) ndipo khofi ndilo likusangika ndalama zinandi. Ethiopia ndiyo ni caru caciŵiri pa vyakurya vikuru comene mu Africa. Kuyana na umo wupu wa United Nations ukuyowoyera, GDP ya Ethiopia pa munthu yumoza yili kufika pa $357 mu 2011.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.hydroworld.com/articles/2015/10/power-generation-begins-at-1-870-mw-gibe-iii-hydroelectric-project-in-ethiopia.html|title=Power generation begins at 1,870-MW Gibe III hydroelectric project in Ethiopia|website=www.hydroworld.com|access-date=24 June 2016}}</ref> ===Ulimi=== {{Main article|Agriculture in Ethiopia}} [[File:Tef in Ethiopia 01.jpg|thumb|[[Eragrostis tef|Tef]] field near [[Mojo, Ethiopia|Mojo]]]] Ŵanthu awo ŵakugwira nchito mu vyaru vinyake ŵalipo pafupifupi 85 peresenti. Ndipouli, nchito ya mauteŵeti yikupangiska kuti GDP yiŵe yikuru comene. Vinthu vinyake vinandi ivyo vikuchitika pa charu vikuthemba pa ulimi, kusazgapo malonda, kunozga, na kutumizga vyakurya ku vyaru vinyake. Ŵalimi ŵachoko na mabungwe ndiwo ŵakupanga vyakurya ivi, ndipo vyakurya vinandi ivyo vikupelekeka ku vyaru vinyake vikufuma ku vyaru vinyake. Vyakumera vikuruvikuru ni khofi, vipasi, mafuta, tirigu, mbuto, makuni, na mphangwe. Ethiopia nayo ni malo ghakupambanapambana gha vyakumera nga ni enset, khofi na teff. Vinthu vyose ivyo vikupelekeka ku vyaru vinyake ni vyakurya (kupaturako golide) ndipo khofi ndilo likusangika ndalama zinandi. Ethiopia ndiyo ni caru caciŵiri pa vyakurya vikuru comene mu Africa. Kuyana na umo wupu wa United Nations ukuyowoyera, GDP ya Ethiopia pa munthu yumoza yili kufika pa $357 mu 2011.<ref name="auto">{{Cite news| title = National Accounts Estimates of Main Aggregates | publisher = The United Nations Statistics Division | url = http://data.un.org/Data.aspx?d=SNAAMA&f=grID%3a101%3bcurrID%3aUSD%3bpcFlag%3a1 | access-date = 12 November 2013}}</ref> Ŵanthu ŵa ku Etiyopiya ŵakulima chomene. Ŵakulimbikira chomene kulima na kuliska viyuni na vyamoyo vinyake ivyo vindazgokepo chifukwa cha chisopa na mitheto yawo. Ndipouli, vyakurya ndivyo vichali kukolerana na GDP ya charu ichi. Vyaru vya ku Ethiopia vyaŵa na nkhongono zinandi kwa vyaka vinandi, kweni sono vikumara. Charu ichi chikumanyikwa na njara iyo yikuŵapo chifukwa cha chilangalanga, masoka ghacilengiwa, vinyama vyakofya, kusoŵa kwa vula, ndiposo kupeleŵera kwa vinthu vya tekinoloje. ===Katundu wakutuma kuwalo=== {{Main|Coffee production in Ethiopia}} [[File:Treemap on exports of Ethiopia 2014 (mid detail).png|thumb|upright=1.6|Ethiopia Export Treemap from [[MIT]]–[[Harvard]] [[The Observatory of Economic Complexity|Economic Complexity Observatory]] {{As of|2014|1|17|alt=(2014)}}]] Kanandi ŵanthu ŵakuti mu charu cha Ethiopia ndimo mukababikira khofi. Vinthu ivyo vyatumizgika kufuma ku Ethiopia mu caka ca ndalama ca 2009-2010 vikaŵa USD 1.4 biliyoni. Mu charu cha Ethiopia, khofi wakusangika chomene kuluska mu charu chilichose. "Khofi ndiyo yikovwira ŵanthu pafupifupi 15 miliyoni ŵa ku Ethiopia, awo ni 16 peresenti ya ŵanthu wose. Ŵalimi ŵa kumafumiro gha dazi kwa caru ici, awo ŵakusuzgika cifukwa ca kukwera kwa mphepo, ŵakusuzgika comene mu vilimika vyasonosono apa. Ethiopia ndiyo yili na viŵeto vikuru comene vya ng'ombe pa caru cose. Vinthu vinyake ivyo ŵanthu ŵakuguliska ni khat, golide, vinthu vya vikumba, na mafuta. Kukula kwa msika wa maluŵa kwa sonosono apa kukung'anamura kuti Ethiopia wali pafupi kuŵa yumoza wa vyakumera na maluŵa agho ghakwendeskeka chomene pa charu chose.<ref>{{cite news|title=Ethiopia's flower trade in full bloom |url=http://www.mg.co.za/articlePage.aspx?articleid=264689&area=/breaking_news/breaking_news__business/ |quote=Floriculture has become a flourishing business in Ethiopia in the past five years, with the industry's exports earnings set to grow to $100-million by 2007, a five-fold increase on the $20-million earned in 2005. Ethiopian flower exports could generate an estimated $300-million within two to three years, according to the head of the government export-promotion department, Melaku Legesse. |work=[[Mail & Guardian]] |date=19 February 2006 |access-date=21 June 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070418195017/http://www.mg.co.za/articlePage.aspx?articleid=264689&area=%2Fbreaking_news%2Fbreaking_news__business%2F |archive-date=18 April 2007}}</ref>[[File:Blessed Coffee brand bags.jpg|thumb|Ethiopian ''Blessed Coffee'' branded bags in the United States. Coffee is one of main exports of Ethiopia.]] Kanandi ŵaliska ŵakuchita malonda ghambura kuzomerezgeka na boma. Mu vyaru vya kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Africa, malonda ghakujumpha 95 peresenti ghakwendera mu nthowa zinyake. Kuguliska ng'ombe, ngamila, mberere, na mbuzi za ku Ethiopia ku Somalia, Djibouti, na Kenya, pa chaka kukukwana madola 250 m'paka 300 miliyoni. Kuguliska vyakurya kukuchepeska mtengo wa vyakurya, kukovwira kuti vyakurya viŵe vyakukhora, kuchepeska mphindano pa mphaka, na kukhozga umoza wa vyaru. Kweni chifukwa chakuti malonda agha ghalije malango ndiposo maukaboni, pangaŵa ngozi, nga ni para matenda ghakuthandazgika luŵiro chomene. Kweniso boma la Ethiopia likukondwa yayi na ndalama izo likusanga chifukwa cha misonkho na ndalama izo likupeleka ku vyaru vinyake. Mu vilimika vyasonosono apa, ŵanthu ŵayezga kulemba na kulongozga malonda agha. Chifukwa chakuti makampani ghapachekha ghakukura pachokopachoko, vyakuvwara vya makuni nga ni matumba vikuŵa vyakurya vikuru ivyo ŵanthu ŵakuguliska. Vinyake ivyo ŵakuguliska ku vyaru vinyake ni vyakurya, vipasi, katoni, mkaka, mbuto, na vikumba. Pakuzenga madamu ghaphya na mapulojekiti ghakupanga magesi gha maji, Ethiopia nayo wakukhumba kutumizga magesi ku vyaru vinyake. Ŵanandi ŵakuwona kuti maji ghanandi gha mu Ethiopia ni "mafuta ghatuŵa" ndipo khofi ni "golide lifipa". Kweniso mu vigaŵa vinyake ivyo ŵanthu ŵakukhala viŵi yayi, mu charu cha Ethiopia muli vinthu vinandi vyakututuŵa. Ndipouli, cifukwa ca masuzgo gha ndyali mu vigaŵa ivi, vinthu vikwenda makora yayi. Mu 2008, ŵasayansi ŵa ku Ethiopia ŵakasangika na mulandu wa kusaska golide. Ŵanthu ŵanayi awo ŵakumanya vya sayansi ya vinthu vya pasi na charu ŵa ku Ethiopia ŵakakakika cifukwa ca kuguliska golide. Ŵapolisi ŵakasanga kuti golide uyo wakatoleka ku banki ya ku Ethiopia wakaŵa wa golide, ndipo ndalama izo boma likaguliskanga zikaŵa pafupifupi madola 17 miliyoni. Mu 2011, ntchito ya kuzenga damu la Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam yikamba. Para lamara, lizamupanga nkhongono zinandi ku Ethiopia izo zingapelekeka ku vyaru vinyake. ===Mayendelo=== {{Main|Transport in Ethiopia}} [[File:Addis Ababa Light Rail vehicle, March 2015.jpg|thumb|[[Addis Ababa Light Rail|Light rail]] in [[Addis Ababa]], Ethiopia]] Ethiopia yili na makilomita 926 gha njanji za magetsi za 1,435 mm (4 ft 8+1⁄2 in), makilomita 656 gha njanji ya Addis Ababa-Djibouti pakati pa Addis Ababa na Port of Djibouti (kujumpha Awash) na makilomita 270 gha njanji ya Awash-Hara Gebeya pakati pa Addis Ababa na matawuni gha Dessie/Kombolcha (nawo kujumpha Awash). Pa Ogasiti 2017, misewu yose yiŵiri iyi yikaŵa pa ntchito yakuyezgelera panji yikaŵa mu mulimo wa kuzenga. Para njanji zose ziŵiri izi zazakayamba kugwira ntchito mu 2018 na 2019, zizamovwira kuti ŵanthu ŵendenge pa mtunda wa makilomita 120 pa ora. Pakughanaghana kuti ulendo wa ŵanthu kufuma ku Addis Ababa kuluta ku Djibouti City uŵenge wa maora ghachoko waka 12 ndipo kufuma ku Addis Ababa kuya ku Dessie/Kombolcha uŵenge wa maora 6. Pamanyuma pa mtunda wakudumura wa makilomita 270 wa msewu wa Awash/Hara Gebeya Railway, mulimo waciŵiri wa kuzenga mtunda wa makilomita 120 ukukhumba kusazgirako msewu uwu kufuma ku Dessie/Kombolcha kuya ku Hara Gebeya/Woldiya. Tikumanya yayi apo chigaŵa ichi chizamupangikira na kujura. Njanji yacitatu, ya makilomita 216 ya kumpoto nayo yikuzengeka pakati pa Mek'ele na Woldiya, kweni nchambura macitiko kuti njanji iyi yizgoke pa nyengo wuli. Misewu yose ya njanji yili mu cigaŵa ca misewu ya njanji iyo yizamuŵa na mtunda wa makilomita ghakujumpha 5,000.[[File:Ethiopian_Airlines_Boeing_787-8_ET-AOS_FRA_2012-10-28.png|thumb|A [[Boeing 787|Boeing 787-8]] of [[Ethiopian Airlines]]]] Pakuŵa cigaŵa cakwamba ca pulogiramu ya vilimika 10 ya kuzenga misewu, pakati pa 1997 na 2002, boma la Ethiopia likamba kuyezgayezga comene kuti liŵe na misewu yiwemi. Ntheura, kwambira mu 2015, mu Ethiopia mukaŵa misewu ya makilomita 100,000 (Federal na Regional), yose yikaŵa yakwenda pa malibwe kweniso ya malibwe.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Ethiopia's Road Sector Dev't Becoming Proportionate to Rapid Economic Growth: WB |url=http://www.ena.gov.et/en/index.php/economy/item/386-ethiopia-s-road-sector-dev-t-becoming-proportionate-to-rapid-economic-growth-wb |website=www.ena.gov.et |access-date=23 December 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151224055826/http://www.ena.gov.et/en/index.php/economy/item/386-ethiopia-s-road-sector-dev-t-becoming-proportionate-to-rapid-economic-growth-wb |archive-date=24 December 2015}}</ref> [[File:Ethiopia - Lake Assale.jpg|thumb|[[Afar Region|Afar]] is a tourist attraction since it has an open salt field stretching kilometers on end]] Ku Ethiopia kukaŵa ma eyapoti 58 mu 2012, ndipo 61 mu 2016. Pa malo agha, pali Bole International Airport mu Addis Ababa na Aba Tenna Dejazmach Yilma International Airport mu Dire Dawa. Ethiopian Airlines, chiŵaro cha Star Alliance, ndiyo yikwendeska ndege mu charu ichi, ndipo yikukolerana na boma la Ethiopia. Kufuma ku Bole International Airport, ndege iyi yikwendeska ndege 102 za pa charu chose, 20 za mu charu chose, na katundu 44. Kweniso ni yimoza mwa vyamaseŵera ivyo vikukura luŵiro comene mu vyaru ivi.<ref name="Ceabtdta">{{cite news |title=Ethiopian Airlines – Bringing the Dreamliner to Africa |publisher=CNN |date=3 September 2012 |url=http://edition.cnn.com/2012/09/03/world/africa/ethiopian-airlines-ceo/index.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120904002135/http://edition.cnn.com/2012/09/03/world/africa/ethiopian-airlines-ceo/index.html |archive-date=4 September 2012 |access-date=21 September 2012 |url-status=dead}}</ref> === Wupu wakukopa '''ŵalendo''' === {{Main article|Tourism in Ethiopia}} Charu cha Ethiopia chikutemwa chomene vyamalonda, ndipo mu 2006, vyalo ivi vikapanga 5.5% ya GDP. Mu 2015, wupu wa European Council ukati Ethiopia ni "malo ghakutowa chomene pa charu chose". Mu 2020 pera, ŵanthu 518 000 ŵakaluta ku Ethiopia, ndipo ŵakaŵa pa nambara 126 pa charu chose. Ku Ethiopia kuli malo 9 agho ghali kulembeka na UNESCO kuti ni malo ghakukumbukika na ŵanthu wose:<ref>{{cite web |title=Properties inscribed on the World Heritage List: Ethiopia |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/statesparties/et/ |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=11 August 2021}}</ref> *[[Axum#Main sites of Axum|Ruins of Aksum]] *[[Rock-Hewn Churches, Lalibela]] *[[Fasil Ghebbi]], Gondar Region *[[Harar#Attractions|Harar Jugol]], the Fortified Historic Town *[[Konso|Konso Cultural Landscape]] *Lower Valley of the [[Awash River|Awash]] *Lower Valley of the [[Omo River|Omo]] *[[Tiya]] *[[Simien Mountains National Park]] == Ŵanthu == {{Main|Demographics of Ethiopia}} {{see also|Ethiopians|List of ethnic groups in Ethiopia}} Charu cha Ethiopia ndicho chili na ŵanthu ŵanandi chomene pa charu chose chapasi. Ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga mu charu ichi ŵakakwera kufuma pa 38.1 miliyoni mu 1983 kufika pa 109.5 miliyoni mu 2018. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800, ŵanthu aŵa ŵakaŵa 9 miliyoni. Kafukufuku wakulongora kuti pakati pa 1994 na 2007, chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu ku Ethiopia chikakuranga pa 2.6% pa chaka. Pasono, caru ici nchimoza mwa vyaru 10 ivyo vikukura comene pa caru cose. Kuzakafika mu 2060, chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu pa charu chose chapasi chizamukwera kufika pa 210 miliyoni. Kuyana na umo wupu wa UN ukuyowoyera, mu vyaka vyasonosono apa, ŵanthu ŵakukhala vyaka vinandi, ndipo vyaka ivyo ŵanalume ŵakukhala ni vyaka 56 ndipo vyaka ivyo ŵanakazi ŵakukhala ni vyaka 60.<ref name="auto"/> {{bar box |width=340px|float=right|titlebar=#ddd |title=[[Ethnic groups in Ethiopia]] |left1=Ethnic group |right1=Population |bars = {{bar percent|[[Oromo people|Oromo]]|Green|100|{{nowrap|25.4 (34.4%)}}}} {{bar percent|[[Amhara people|Amhara]]|Yellow|78.37|19.9 (27.0%)}} {{bar percent|[[Somalis in Ethiopia|Somali]] |Red|18.08|4.59 (6.2%)}} {{bar percent|[[Tigrayans]] |Blue|17.67|4.49 (6.1%)}} {{bar percent|[[Sidama people|Sidama]]|Purple|11.63|2.95 (4.0%)}} {{bar percent|[[Gurage people|Gurage]]|Brown|7.32|1.86 (2.5%)}} {{bar percent|[[Welayta people|Welayta]]|Black|6.60|1.68 (2.3%)}} {{bar percent|[[Afar people|Afar]]|Orange|5.03|1.28 (1.7%)}} {{bar percent|[[Hadiya people|Hadiya]]|Teal|5.00|1.27 (1.7%)}} {{bar percent|[[Gamo people|Gamo]]|Gray|4.33|1.10 (1.5%)}} {{bar percent|[[List of ethnic groups in Ethiopia|Others]]|Silver|36.67|9.30 (12.6%)}} |caption=Population in millions according to 2007 Census<ref name=2007Census /> }} Ŵanthu ŵa ku Ethiopia ŵali na mitundu yakupambanapambana ya ŵanthu, ndipo mitundu yinandi chomene njakuti: Oromo, Amhara, Somali, na Tigray. Kuyana na kalembera wa mu 2007, ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Oromo ndiwo mbanandi chomene mu Ethiopia. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Amhara ŵalipo 27.0% pa ŵanthu wose ŵa mu charu ichi, apo ŵa mtundu wa Somali na Tigray ŵalipo 6.2% na 6.1% pa ŵanthu wose ŵa mu charu ichi. Mtundu unyake uwo ukuzunulika ni: Sidama 4.0%, Gurage 2.5%, Welayta 2.3%, Afar 1.7%, Hadiya 1.7%, Gamo 1.5% na Others 12.6%. Ŵanthu ŵanandi mu charu ichi ŵakuyowoya ciyowoyero ca ciarabu. Ŵanthu awo ŵakuyowoya ChiSemiti ŵakujichema kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Habesha. Mu Chiarabu, lizgu ili (al-Ḥabasha) ndilo lili kufuma ku lizgu lakuti "Abyssinia". Kweniso, ŵanthu ŵachoko waka awo ŵakuyowoya chiyowoyero cha Nilo-Saharan ŵakukhala kumwera kwa charu ichi, chomenechomene mu chigaŵa cha Gambela icho chili pafupi na South Sudan. Ŵanthu ŵa mitundu iyi mbanandi chomene, chomenechomene ŵa Nuer na Anuak. Kweniso, ku Ethiopia kukaŵa ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 75,000 ŵa ku Italy awo ŵakakhalanga mu caru ici. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Italy ŵakakhalako kwa vyaka vinandi pamanyuma pakuti Themba Selassie laŵagowokera. Ndipouli, cifukwa ca nkhondo ya mukati mu caru ca Ethiopia mu 1974, ŵanthu pafupifupi 22,000 ŵa ku Italy na Ethiopia ŵakafumamo mu caru ici. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 2000, makampani ghanyake gha ku Italy ghakawelera ku Ethiopia, ndipo ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Italy awo ŵakugwira ntchito za mawoko na ŵantchito ŵakiza na mbumba zawo. Chigaŵa cha Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples' Region chili na mitundu yakujumpha 56. Mu 2009, ŵanthu 135,200 awo ŵakachimbilira ku Ethiopia ŵakaŵapo. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakafuma ku Somalia (ŵanthu pafupifupi 64,300), Eritrea (41,700) na Sudan (25,900). Boma la Ethiopia likakhumbanga kuti ŵanthu wose awo ŵachimbira kwawo ŵakhalenge mu misasa.<ref name="World Refugee Survey 2009">{{cite news|title=World Refugee Survey 2008 |publisher=U.S. Committee for Refugees and Immigrants |date=19 June 2008 |url=http://www.refugees.org/resources/refugee-warehousing/archived-world-refugee-surveys/2009-wrs-country-updates/ethiopia.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120502073801/http://www.refugees.org/resources/refugee-warehousing/archived-world-refugee-surveys/2009-wrs-country-updates/ethiopia.html |archive-date=2 May 2012}}</ref> ===Viyowoyelo=== {{Main|Languages of Ethiopia}} {{Pie chart | thumb = right | caption=[[Languages of Ethiopia]] {{As of|2007|lc=y}} Census<ref name=2007Census /> | label1 = [[Oromo language|Oromo]] | value1 = 33.8 | color1 = Green | label2 = [[Amharic]] | value2 = 29.3 | color2 = Yellow | label3 = [[Somali language|Somali]] | value3 = 6.2 | color3 = Red | label4 = [[Tigrinya language|Tigrinya]] | value4 = 5.9 | color4 = Blue | label5 = [[Sidamo language|Sidamo]] | value5 = 4.0 | color5 = Purple | label6 = [[Wolaytta language|Wolaytta]] | value6 = 2.2 | color6 = Black | label7 = [[Gurage languages|Gurage]] | value7 = 2.0 | color7 = Brown | label8 = [[Afar language|Afar]] | value8 = 1.7 | color8 = Orange | label9 = [[Hadiyya language|Hadiyya]] | value9 = 1.7 | color9 = Teal | label10 = [[Gamo-Gofa-Dawro language|Gamo]] | value10 = 1.5 | color10 = Gray | label11 = [[Languages of Ethiopia#Overview|others]] | value11 = 11.6 | color11 = white }} Buku linyake likuti ku Ethiopia kuli viyowoyero 90. Ŵanthu ŵanandi mu charu ichi ŵakuyowoya viyowoyero vya Ŵaasiriya. Chiyowoyero ichi chikusazgapo chiyowoyero cha Oromo, icho chikuyowoyeka na ŵanthu ŵa ku Oromo, na ChiSomali, icho chikuyowoyeka na ŵanthu ŵa ku Somalia. Wose pamoza, ŵanthu aŵa ŵakukwana vigaŵa vitatu pa vigaŵa vinayi vya ŵanthu wose ŵa mu Ethiopia. Viyowoyero vinyake vya ku Afroasiatic ivyo vikuyowoyeka na ŵanthu ŵanandi ni Cushitic Sidamo, Afar, Hadiyya, na Agaw, kweniso viyowoyero vya ChiSemite vya Gurage, Harari, Silt'e, na Argobba. Mu vigaŵa vinyake ŵanthu ŵakuyowoya Ciarabic, ico nchigaŵa ca ciyowoyero ca ku Africa na Asia. Kweniso ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Omotic ndiwo ŵakuyowoya viyowoyero ivi. Viyowoyero ivi ni Aari, Bench, Dime, Dizin, Gamo-Gofa-Dawro, Maale, Hamer, na Wolaytta. Viyowoyero vya mu mbumba ya Nilo-Sahara vikuyowoyeka na ŵanthu ŵachoko waka awo ŵakukhala kumwera kwa charu ichi. Viyowoyero ivi ni Nuer, Anuak, Nyangatom, Majang, Suri, Me'en, na Mursi. Cingelezi ndico cikuyowoyeka comene pa caru cose, ndipo ndico cikusambizgika mu masukulu gha sekondare na masukulu ghose ghapacanya. Chiyowoyero cha Amharic ndicho chikasambizgikanga mu masukulu gha pulayimale, kweni mu vigaŵa vinandi chiyowoyero ichi chafumiskikapo ndipo ŵanthu ŵakuyowoya viyowoyero vinyake nga ni Oromo, Somali, na Tigrinya. Nangauli viyowoyero vyose vikuzomerezgeka mwakuyana waka na dango la mu 1995 la Ethiopia ndipo chiyowoyero cha Oromo ndicho chili na ŵanthu ŵanandi chomene, kweni chiyowoyero cha Amharic ndicho chili na ŵanthu ŵanandi chomene.[[File:Aksum, iscrizione di re ezana, in greco, sabeo e ge'ez, 330-350 dc ca. 10.jpg|thumb|[[Ezana of Axum|King Ezana]] of [[Kingdom of Aksum|Axum's]] rock inscription in the [[Geʽez|Ge'ez]] language dating back to 330-350 AD]] Vigaŵa vyakupambanapambana vya Ethiopia na misumba iyo yili na malango, vili na wanangwa wa kusankha viyowoyero vyawo. ChiAmharic chikumanyikwa nga chiyowoyelo cha boma mu chigaŵa cha Amhara, Benishangul-Gumuz, Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples' Region, Gambela Region, Addis Ababa na Dire Dawa. Chilankhulo cha Oromo chikugwira ntchito ngati chilankhulo cha ntchito ndi chilankhulo chachikulu cha maphunziro ku Oromia, Harar ndi Dire Dawa komanso ku Oromia Zone ku Amhara Region. ChiSomali ndi chiyankhulo cha boma cha chigawo cha Somali ndi Dire Dawa, pamene Afar, Harari, ndi Tigrinya zimadziwika ngati chilankhulo cha boma m'madera awo. Sonosono apa boma la Ethiopia likapharazga kuti viyowoyero vya Afar, Amharic, Oromo, Somali, na Tigrinya ni viyowoyero vya boma vya Ethiopia. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵachali kuyowoya Chiitaliya, chomenechomene ŵachekuru. Chiyowoyero cha Amharic na Tigrinya vili na mazgu ghanyake agho ghali kufuma ku Chiitaliya.<ref name="Yaqob">{{cite web|url=https://totalitarismo.altervista.org/italianismi-nel-somalo-e-nell-amarico/|title=Italianismi nel somalo e nell'amarico|first=Mister|last=Totalitarismo|date=2 December 2018}}</ref><ref name="altervista">''I prestiti italiani in amarico e tigrino'', Yaqob Beyene</ref> ====Malemba==== Ciyowoyero cikuru comene ca ku Ethiopia ni cilembo ca [[Ge'ez]]. Chiyowoyero ichi chikamba kugwiliskirika ntchito mu vyaka vya m'ma 500 na 500 B.C.E. pakulemba chiyowoyero cha Ge'ez. Mazuŵa ghano, chiyowoyero cha Ge'ez ndicho chikuyowoyeka mu matchalitchi gha Orthodox gha ku Ethiopia na Eritrea. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1980, ŵanthu ŵakamba kulemba vilembo vya ku Ethiopia mu kompyuta. Mazuŵa ghano ntchigaŵa cha Unicode nga ni Ethiopic, Ethiopic Extended, Ethiopic Supplement na Ethiopic Extended-A. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Etiyopiya ŵakugwiliskiraso ntchito vilembo vinyake. Vinthu ivi ni vilembo ivyo Bakri Sapalo wakalemba vya Chi Oromo.<ref name="HH-551">{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1017/S0041977X00144209|jstor=616613| title = The Oromo orthography of Shaykh Bakri Saṗalō| journal = Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies| volume = 44| issue = 3| pages = 550| year = 2009| last1 = Hayward | first1 = R.J.| last2 = Hassan | first2 = M. |s2cid=162289324}}</ref> ===Chisopa=== {{Main|Religion in Ethiopia}} {{Pie chart |thumb = right |caption = Religion in Ethiopia (2016 estimate)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/ethiopia/#:~:text=Religions,%2C%20Catholic%200.7%25%2C%20traditional%20.|title = Ethiopia - the World Factbook| date=7 September 2022 }}</ref> |label1 = [[Ethiopian Orthodox Church|Ethiopian Orthodoxy]] |value1 = 43.8 |color1 = Orchid |label4 = [[Islam in Ethiopia|Islam]] |value4 = 31.3 |color4 = Green |label2 = [[P'ent'ay]] |value2 = 22.8 |color2 = Blue |label3 = Other [[Christian]] |value3 = 0.7 |color3 = Purple |label5 = [[Traditional African religion|Traditional faiths]] |value5 = 0.6 |color5 = Yellow |label6 = Other |value6 = 0.8 |color6 = Red }} Charu cha Etiyopiya chili paubwezi wakukhora na visopa vikuruvikuru vitatu vya Abrahamu. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 300 C.E., ufumu wa Etiyopiya ndiwo ukaŵa wakwamba kuzomerezga Chikhristu kuŵa chisopa cha boma. Chifukwa cha ivyo likadumura pa ungano wa ku Chalcedon, mu 451 Ŵamiyaphysites, awo ŵakaŵa Ŵakhristu ŵanandi chomene mu Eguputo na Etiyopiya, ŵakasuskika kuti ŵakasopanga ŵaciuta ŵamoza pera. Nangauli pasono chisopa ichi ntcha boma yayi, kweni tchalitchi la Orthodox la Tewahedo ndilo likulamulira chomene. Kweniso ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa chisopa cha Ciarabu ŵakukhala mu caru ici. Charu cha Etiyopiya ndicho chikaŵa malo ghakwamba uko ŵanthu ŵakasamukira mu nyengo ya Chisilamu. Negash ni tawuni iyo yili mu chigaŵa cha Tigray, ndipo ni malo ghakale chomene agho Ŵasilamu ŵakakhalanga mu Africa.. [[File:Lalibela, san giorgio, esterno 24.jpg|thumb|upright|The subterranean rock-hewn [[Church of Saint George, Lalibela|Church of Saint George]] in [[Lalibela]] is a [[World Heritage Site|UNESCO World Heritage Site]].]] Kuyana na kalembera wa mu 2007, Ŵakhristu ŵalipo 62.8% (43.5% ŵa Ethiopia Orthodox, 19.3% ŵa visopa vinyake), Ŵasilamu ŵalipo 33.9%, awo ŵakulondezga visopa vyawo ŵalipo 2.6%, ndipo visopa vinyake vilipo 0.6%. Chiŵelengero cha Ŵakristu na Ŵasilamu chikukhalilira mwakuyana waka pakuyaniska na unandi wa ŵanthu awo ŵakalembeka vyaka vinandi ivyo vyajumpha. Ŵasilamu ŵanandi ŵali mu chisopa cha Sunni, ndipo Ŵasilamu awo ŵali mu chisopa chinyake ndiwo ni gulu lachiŵiri likuru chomene la Ŵasilamu. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa chisopa cha Sunni mba Shafi'i panji Salafi, ndipo ku malo agha kuli Ŵasilamu ŵanandi ŵa chisopa cha Sufi. Ŵasilamu ŵanandi awo ŵakukhala mu chigaŵa cha kumpoto kwa Afar ŵali kupanga gulu lakujipatura lakucemeka "Islamic State of Afaria". Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakasuskanga fundo yakuti boma la Haile Selassie likapanga ndondomeko ya kupenda ŵanthu kuti charu cha Ethiopia chiwoneke nga ni charu cha Ŵakhristu. Ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakuwona vya Chisilamu na kulemba mabulogu ŵakuti Ŵasilamu mbanandi chomene ndipo ŵakukolerana yayi na maukaboni agho ghali pachanya apa. Ufumu wa Axum ndiwo ukaŵa wakwamba kuzomera Chikhristu, apo Frumentius wa ku Turo, uyo wakachemekanga Fremnatos panji Abba Selama ("Wiske wa Mtende") ku Ethiopia, wakang'anamuska Themba Ezana mu vyaka vya m'ma 400. Mwakuyana na Baibolo, Cikristu cikanjira mu Etiyopiya nyengo yitali comene pambere ivi vindacitike.<ref>[https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Acts+8 "Acts 8"]. ''Bible Gateway''.</ref>[[File:01 - Priests dancing for Timkat.jpg|thumb|Orthodox priests dancing during the celebration of ''[[Timkat]]'']] [[File:307771234 612238670404451 4282782264089827086okay.webm|thumb|[[Haile Selassie|Emperor Haile Selassie I]] seen celebrating the finding of the cross at [[Meskel Square]] (1971)]] Tchalitchi la Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo lili mu tchalitchi la Eastern Orthodox. Ni cisopa cikuru comene pa visopa vyose vya Cikhristu, nangauli sonosono apa matchalitchi ghanyake gha P'ent'ay (Chipulotesitanti) ghazara comene. Kwambira mu 1930, Tchalitchi la Katolika ku Ethiopia lili na ŵanthu ŵacoko waka ndipo likugwirizana comene na boma la Roma.<ref name="bx">{{Cite web |last=Abegaz |first=Berhanu |date=1 June 2005 |title=Ethiopia: A Model Nation of Minorities |url=http://bxabeg.people.wm.edu/Ethiopia.Census%20Portrait.pdf |access-date=27 July 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/ejhist.html |title=The History of Ethiopian Jews |publisher=Jewishvirtuallibrary.org |access-date=16 March 2009}}</ref> [[File:Mešita v Bahir Daru.jpg|thumb|A mosque in [[Bahir Dar]]]] Chisilamu mu Ethiopia chikamba mu 622 C.E. apo Muhammad wakaphalira gulu la Ŵasilamu kuti ŵaleke kutambuzgika ku Mecca. Pamanyuma ŵasambiri ŵakaluta ku Abyssinia kwizira ku Eritrea, uko pa nyengo iyo kukaŵa Ashama ibn-Abjar, themba la Ŵakhristu. Kweniso ŵanthu ŵanandi chomene awo ŵakaŵa Ŵasahaba ŵakaŵa Ŵaetiyopiya. Kuyana na kafukufuku uyo wakachitika mu 2007, ŵanthu 1,957,944 mu Ethiopia ŵakulondezga visopa vyawo. Kweniso ŵanthu ŵanyake 471,861 ŵali mu visopa vinyake. Nangauli ŵanthu ŵa visopa vyose ŵakusangika mu vigaŵa vyose, kweni ŵanandi ŵakukhala mu vigaŵa vinyake vya caru ici. Ŵakhristu ŵanandi ŵakukhala kumpoto kwa Amhara na Tigray, ndipo ŵanandi mwa iwo mba tchalitchi la Orthodox la Tewahedo. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa P'ent'ay ndiwo ŵakukhala chomene mu vigaŵa vya Oromia na SNNP (Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples' Region). Ŵasilamu ku Ethiopia ŵakulondezga chisopa cha Sunni ndipo ŵakukhala ku chigaŵa cha kumafumiro gha dazi na kumpoto cha kumafumiro gha dazi. Ŵanthu awo ŵakulondezga visopa vyawo ŵakukhala mu vigaŵa vyakutali kumwera na kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa charu ichi, mu vigaŵa vya SNNP, Benishangul-Gumuz na Gambela.<ref name=2007Census/><ref name="Ofcansky">{{cite book |last=Thomas P. Ofcansky |first=LaVerle Berry |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R3M0V0VfgiMC |title=Ethiopia: A Country Study |publisher=Kessinger Publishing |year=2004 |isbn=978-1-4191-1857-9 |pages=130–41}}</ref> M'paka m'ma 1980, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa mtundu wa Beta Israel ŵakakhalanga ku Ethiopia. Ŵayuda pafupifupi 4,000, awo ŵakuti ni fuko lakuzgeŵa la Israyeli, ŵakukhala mu Ethiopia, pamoza na ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa mafuko ghaŵiri, Falash Mura na Beta Abraham. Falash Mura ni Beta Israel awo, nangauli ŵakumanyikwa kuti Mbayuda, ŵakamba kugomezga Cikhristu cifukwa ca mulimo wa umishonale. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Beta Abraham ŵakuwoneka kuti mbanthu ŵa mtundu wa Beta Israyeli awo ŵali kufuma mu nyengo ya ŵapositole. Nangauli wose ŵaŵiri ŵacali kucemeka kuti Beta Israel, kweni ŵali kutali na gulu la ŵanthu ŵa mu Israyeli. Ŵalongozgi ŵa gulu la Beta Israel ŵakuzomerezga ŵanthu ŵa Falash Mura, ndipo ŵapempha kuti ŵaŵaleke kuluta ku Israel. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Beta Abraham ŵakutemweka yayi na ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yinyake. Mu matawuni na mizi yinyake ya ku Ethiopia nga ni Wolleka, kufupi na msumba wa Gondar, Ŵayuda ŵa ku Ethiopia ŵachali ŵanandi, kweni sono ku United States kuli Ŵayuda ŵanandi ŵa ku Ethiopia. Magulu ghakuvikilira wanangwa wa ŵanthu ghakususka boma kuti likukora ŵanthu ŵakuchitapo kanthu, ŵamutolamakani, na ŵalembi ŵa nkhani kuti ŵaleke kususka visopa vinyake. Pa Ogasiti 3, 2015, ŵanthu 17 awo ŵakachitanga vinthu vya chisopa cha Ciislamu ŵakakakika. Ŵakaŵa na mulandu wakuti ŵakakhumbanga kupanga boma la Cisilamu mu caru ico ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakaŵa Ŵakhristu. Ŵanthu wose awo ŵakayuzgika ŵakakana ivyo ŵakayowoya ndipo ŵakayowoya kuti ŵakachitanga viheni pera pakuvikilira wanangwa wawo.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dailysabah.com/africa/2015/08/04/ethiopia-hands-lengthy-prison-terms-to-muslim-activists|title=Ethiopia hands lengthy prison terms to Muslim activists|date=4 August 2015|work=DailySabah|access-date=24 October 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-ethiopia-arrests-idUSKCN0Q82AC20150803|title=Ethiopia hands lengthy prison terms to Muslim activists|newspaper=Reuters|access-date=24 October 2015|date=3 August 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-33759946|title=Ethiopia jails Muslims convicted of terror plot|newspaper=BBC News|access-date=24 October 2015|date=3 August 2015}}</ref> ===Kukhala mu tauni=== {{Main|List of cities and towns in Ethiopia}} [[File:Addis Ababa Railway Megenagna Area.jpg|thumb|[[Addis Ababa|Railway in Addis Ababa]] is one of the main transports people use in the city in their day-to-day activities]] Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuluta ku vyaru vinyake, ndipo vinthu vikusintha chomene mu misumba. Mu Ethiopia, ŵanthu ŵakuluta mu misumba yinandi, ndipo nyengo ziŵiri zikulutilira kukura. Cakwamba, mu 1936-1941 mu nyengo iyo caru ca Italy cikaŵa pasi pa muwuso wa Mussolini, ndipo kufuma mu 1967 m'paka mu 1975 apo ŵanthu ŵakakhalanga mu matawuni ŵakasazgikira katatu. Mu 1936, charu cha Italy chikapoka charu cha Ethiopia, ndipo chikazenga vinthu vyakovwira kuti misumba yikuruyikuru yikolerane. Ici pamoza na ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Italy na ŵantchito ndiwo ŵakapangiska kuti vinthu visinthe mwaluŵiro mu nyengo iyi. Nyengo yachiŵiri ya kukura yikaŵa kwamba mu 1967 m'paka mu 1975, apo ŵanthu ŵa ku mizi ŵakasamukira mu matawuni kupenja nchito na umoyo uwemi. Mulimo uwu ukakhora chifukwa cha ndondomeko ya boma ya kusintha malo mu 1975, iyo yikawovwira ŵanthu kuti ŵakhalenge ku mizi. Ŵanthu ŵakati ŵafumako ku mizi na kuluta ku misumba, ŵanthu ŵakamba kuchepa chomene. Dango la kunozga malo likakhumbanga kusazgirako ulimi cifukwa cakuti vyakurya vikakuranga yayi pamoza na unandi wa ŵanthu mu nyengo ya 1970-1983. Ndondomeko iyi yikawovwira kuti ŵanthu ŵaŵe na mipingo yikuruyikuru ya ŵalimi. Dango ili likapangiska kuti vyakurya vyasazgikire, nangauli pali kukwesana pa cifukwa cake. Ŵanthu awo ŵakukhala mu matawuni ŵakulutilira kukura ndipo kufuma mu 1975 m'paka mu 2000, ŵakasazgikira na 8.1%.<ref name="Accessed 5-10-08">[https://web.archive.org/web/20180313170039/http://worldbank.org/ Worldbank.org]. Retrieved 5 October 2008 {{nonspecific|date=November 2010}}</ref> {{Largest cities or towns of Ethiopia}} ====Rural and urban life==== {{Main article|Rural flight in Ethiopia}} [[File:Gonder from the Goha hotel.jpg|thumb|[[Gondar]] skyline]] Kanandi ŵanthu ŵakuluta ku misumba cifukwa ca kukhumba umoyo uwemi. Mu vyaru ivyo muli ŵanthu ŵanandi, umoyo wa zuŵa na zuŵa ukuyana waka na kulimbana kuti munthu wapone. Pafupifupi 16% ya ŵanthu mu Ethiopia ŵakukhala na ndalama zakukwana dola limoza pa zuŵa (2008). Ŵana ŵa vyaka 5 kukhilira pasi ŵakukwana 42%. Mbumba zinandi zakusuzgika (75%) zikugona pamoza na viŵeto, ndipo 40% ya ŵana ŵakugona pasi. Mbumba ya ŵanthu 6 panji 7 yikukhala mu nyumba ya mathipa ya mamita 30, ndipo muli vigaŵa viŵiri vyambura kukura.<ref name="Crawley">Crawley, Mike. [https://web.archive.org/web/20120625131910/http://www.idrc.ca/EN/Resources/Publications/Pages/ArticleDetails.aspx?PublicationID=587 "Breaking the Cycle of Poverty in Ethiopia"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120625131910/http://www.idrc.ca/EN/Resources/Publications/Pages/ArticleDetails.aspx?PublicationID=587|date=25 June 2012}}. April 2003. International Development Research Centre. Retrieved on 24 May 2008</ref>[[File:On The Road To Simien Mountains National Park, Ethiopia (2446794591).jpg|thumb|left|Rural area in the [[Simien Mountains National Park]]]] Wupu wa ŵalimi ukusuzgika na ukavu. Pakuti malo agha ngachoko chomene, ŵalimi ŵangazomerezga yayi kuti ghaleke kupambika makora. Chifukwa cha kunangika kwa malo agha, viŵeto vikuleka kupambika vyakurya, ndipo mkaka ukuchepa. Pakuti ŵanthu ŵakotcha vyakumera m'malo mwa kuviwezgera mu dongo, mbwenu vyakurya vikumara. Kuchepa kwa vyakurya kukupangiska kuti ŵalimi ŵaleke kusanga ndalama zinandi, njara, kusoŵa chakurya na matenda. Ŵalimi ŵambura kupwelelera makora ŵakusuzgika kugwira nchito mu minda yawo ndipo vyakurya vikumara. Nangauli mu misumba vinthu vili makora comene, kweni mu Ethiopia mose muli ukavu na ukotoli uheni. Ndipouli, ukavu ku Ethiopia ukakhira kufuma pa 44% kufika pa 29.6% mu 2000-2011, kuyana na World Bank. Mu Addis Ababa, msumba ukuru wa charu ichi, ŵanthu 55% ŵakakhalanga mu vikaya vya ŵanthu ŵachoko. Kweni sono, cifukwa cakuti nchito ya kuzenga yikukura comene mu misumba yikuruyikuru, comenecomene mu Addis Ababa. Mu tawuni iyi muli nyumba zinandi za boma izo ŵanthu pafupifupi 600,000 ŵakukhala. Mu tawuni iyi, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakukhumbikwira nadi maji ghawemi, chifukwa ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵalije malo ghakutozgera viswaswa. Ici cikupangiska kuti matenda ghasazgikire cifukwa ca maji ghaheni.<ref name="Accessed 15 May 2008">Shivley, K. "Addis Ababa, Ethiopia" [https://web.archive.org/web/20170211101151/https://www.macalester.edu/courses/geog61/kshively/index.html Macalester.edu] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170211101151/https://www.macalester.edu/courses/geog61/kshively/index.html|date=11 February 2017}}. Retrieved 15 May 2008.</ref>[[File:Any Day, Adigrat (12582724894).jpg|thumb|Street scene in [[Adigrat]]]] Nangauli ŵanthu ŵakukhala makora mu misumba, kweni ŵanthu ŵa ku Addis Ababa ŵakukhala makora kuluska ŵanthu awo ŵakukhala mu vyaru vya ŵanthu ŵa viŵeto. Mwakupambana na ŵana ŵa ku mizi, ŵana 69% ŵa mu matawuni ŵakusambira pulayimale, ndipo 35 peresenti ya ŵana aŵa ŵakusambira sekondare. Msumba wa Addis Ababa uli na yunivesite yake kweniso masukulu ghanyake ghanandi gha sekondare. Ŵanthu awo ŵakumanya kulemba na kulemba ŵalipo 82%. Mabungwe ghanandi ghambura kwendera boma ghakovwira kuti suzgo ili limare. Kweni ghanandi mwa mabungwe agha ghali kutali chomene, ghakuchita vinthu mwambura kukolerana, ndipo ghakugwira ntchito mwakupambana. Wupu wa mawupu ghambura vya boma ku sub-Saharan Africa ukuyezga kwendera lumoza.<ref name="Accessed 5-10-08"/> ===Umoyo=== {{Main|Health in Ethiopia}}{{Further|Child marriage in Ethiopia|Polygamy in Ethiopia}} [[File:Child mortality in Sub-Saharan Africa and Ethiopia.svg|thumb|Declining child mortality in Sub-Saharan Africa and Ethiopia since 1950]] Lipoti la Wupu wa vya Umoyo pa Caru Cose la mu 2006 likulongora kuti mu 2003, kukaŵa ŵadokotala 1,936 ndipo pa ŵanthu 100,000, pakaŵa ŵadokotala 2.6 pera. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuyowoya kuti charu cha Ethiopia chili mu suzgo chifukwa cha kusintha kwa vinthu pa charu. Vinthu vikuru ivyo vikuchitika mu charu cha Ethiopia ni matenda agho ghakuthandazgika na ŵanthu ŵanandi. Ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 44 miliyoni (pafupifupi hafu ya ŵanthu wose) ŵalije maji ghawemi. Vinthu ivi vikusazgikira cifukwa ca kusoŵa kwa ŵadokotala na manesi ndiposo malo gha cipatala. Umoyo wa ŵanthu mu misumba ni uwemi comene. Ŵana awo ŵakubabika, ŵana awo ŵakufwa, na awo ŵakufwa ni ŵachoko chomene mu matawuni kuluska mu mizi. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakukhala mu misumba kuluska ku mizi, kweni mu vyaka vyasonosono apa, vinthu vyamba kwenda makora mu charu chose. Nangauli ŵanthu ŵakusuzgika na maji, kweni ŵakugwiliskira nchito maji ghanandi. Mu misumba, ŵanthu 81% ŵakugwiliskira nchito maji agha. Nga umo viliri mu vigaŵa vinyake vya mu Africa, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuluta ku misumba kuti ŵakakhalenge makora. Kukwambilira kwa 2005, wupu wa WHO ukati ku Ethiopia kukaŵa vipatala 119 (12 ku Addis Ababa) na maofesi gha munkhwala 412. Ŵana awo ŵakufwa para ŵababa mbachoko chomene, ndipo pa ŵanthu 1,000 awo ŵakubabika, 41 ŵakufwa. Kufuma mu 1990 m'paka mu 2012, charu cha Ethiopia chikakwaniska kuchepeska chiŵelengero cha ŵana awo ŵakufwa para ŵandafike vyaka 5. Nangauli chiŵelengero ichi chachepa chomene, kweni ŵanakazi ŵanandi mu charu ichi ŵakusuzgika na masuzgo agho ghakuŵapo para ŵababa. HIV/AIDS mu Ethiopia yikaŵa pa 1.1% mu 2014, ndipo yikakhira chomene kufuma pa 4.5% vyaka 15 ivyo vyajumpha. Ŵanthu awo ŵakusuzgika comene ni ŵanthu ŵakavu na ŵanakazi, cifukwa ca kupeleŵera kwa masambiro gha vyaumoyo, kuŵawovwira, kuŵamanya makora ŵanthu, ndiposo kuleka kuŵa na umoyo uwemi. Boma la Ethiopia na mawupu gha vyaru vinandi nga ni World Health Organization (WHO), na United Nations, ŵakwambiska kampeni ndipo ŵakugwira nchito mwakukwana kuti ŵawovwire kuti umoyo wa ŵanthu ku Ethiopia uŵe uwemi kweniso kuti ŵanthu ŵamanye makora za matenda gha AIDS na matenda ghanyake agho ghakuthandazgika.<ref>(Dugassa, 2005).</ref>[[File:Bracing for a short, sharp jab.jpg|thumb|An Ethiopian girl about to receive her [[measles]] vaccine]] Charu cha Ethiopia chili na ŵana ŵanandi awo ŵakufwa pa nthumbo. Nangauli Ethiopia wakakwaniska yayi kufiska chilato cha MDG cha kuchepeska nyifwa ya ŵamama na vigaŵa viŵiri pa vigaŵa vitatu mu 2015, kweni vinthu vikwenda makora. Mwachiyelezgero, chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu awo ŵakugonana pambere ŵandababike chikakwera kufuma pa 8.1% mu 2000 kufika pa 41.8% mu 2014, ndipo chiŵelengero cha awo ŵakugonana pambere ŵandababike chikakwera kufuma pa 29% kufika pa 98.1% mu nyengo yeneyiyi. Mazuŵa ghano, pa ŵana 100,000, ŵanakazi 420 ndiwo ŵakufwa. Ŵanthu ŵachoko waka ku Ethiopia ndiwo ŵakubabikira mu vipatala, ndipo ŵanandi ŵakubabikira mu vikaya. Ŵanakazi ŵacekuru awo ŵakulindizgika kuti ŵababe pa nyumba ndiwo ŵakuŵawovwira. "Wupu wa vyaumoyo wa pa caru cose ukuti para ŵanakazi ŵangababika mu maofesi gha munkhwala agho ghali na wovwiri wakukwana ndiposo awo ŵali kusambizgika makora, ŵangaleka kufwa na kulwara".<ref>(Dorman et al., 2009, p.&nbsp;622).</ref> [[File:Community Health Workers (5762479865).jpg|thumb|Community health care workers]] Cifukwa cakuti palije ŵantchito ŵanandi ŵa munkhwala awo ŵakumanya vya munkhwala, kweniso palije ndalama zakovwilira ŵantchito aŵa, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakugomezga yayi ŵanthu awo ŵakuchizga matenda. Chinthu chimoza icho ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuchita, kwali ŵali mu chisopa wuli panji ŵali na ndalama zinandi, nkhuswa viŵaro vya ŵanakazi (Female Genital Mutilation, panji FGM). Mu 2004, boma la Ethiopia likakanizga kugwiliskira ntchito munkhwala uwu. Kuguliska ŵanakazi ni kaluso ako kakuchitika pambere ŵandatorane ndipo kakusangika mu vyaru vya kumpoto kwa Africa na vigaŵa vinyake vya ku Middle East.<ref name="Rohayes">{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1525/ae.1975.2.4.02a00030| title = Female genital mutilation, fertility control, women's roles, and the patrilineage in modern Sudan: A functional analysis1| journal = American Ethnologist| volume = 2| issue = 4| pages = 617–33| year = 1975| last1 = Hayes | first1 = R.O. | doi-access = free}}</ref><ref name="Bodman">Bodman, Herbert L. and Tohidi, Nayereh Esfahlani (1998) [https://books.google.com/books?id=PFzdA2Hini4C Women in Muslim societies: diversity within unity], Lynne Rienner Publishers, p. 41. {{ISBN|1-55587-578-5}}</ref>Ŵanakazi ndiwo ŵakuchiska ŵanthu kuti ŵaleke kugonana na ŵanalume ŵanyawo.<ref name="Frayser">Frayser, Suzanne G. and Whitby, Thomas J. (1995) [https://books.google.com/books?id=ZArPH0nFGo0C Studies in human sexuality: a selected guide], Libraries Unlimited, p. 257 {{ISBN|1-56308-131-8}}.</ref>[[File:Addis Ababa Fistula Hospital - from Flickr 159817756.jpg|thumb|[[Addis Ababa Fistula Hospital]]]] Ku Ethiopia, ŵanakazi ŵanandi ŵakukomeka, kweni ku ŵasungwana yayi. Kafukufuku wakukhwaskana na ŵanthu na umoyo wa ku Ethiopia (Ethiopia's 2005 Demographic and Health Survey (EDHS)) wakalongora kuti pa ŵanakazi ŵa vyaka vyapakati pa 15 na 49, chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu awo ŵakulwara matenda agha chili pa 74%. Mu vigaŵa vya Dire Dawa, Somalia, na Afar, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuchita nthena. Mu vigaŵa vya Oromo na Harari, ŵanakazi na ŵasungwana ŵakujumpha 80 pa 100 ŵaliwose ŵakuchita opareshoni iyi. Ŵanakazi awo ŵakusuzgika na nthenda iyi mbachoko chomene mu vigaŵa vya Tigray na Gambela. Kuyana na kafukufuku uyo wakachitika mu 2010, ku Ethiopia, ŵanakazi ŵa vyaka vyapakati pa 35 na 39 ŵali na nthenda iyi pa ŵanthu 81 peresenti. Lipoti linyake la UNICEF la mu 2014 likulongora kuti pa ŵasungwana wose ŵa vyaka 14 kukhilira pasi, 24 pera ndiwo ŵakatoleka. Kweniso mu charu ichi ŵanthu ŵakukotora ŵanalume, ndipo pafupifupi 76% ya ŵanalume ŵa mu Ethiopia ŵakukotoreka. Boma la Ethiopia lili kusaina mapangano ghakupambanapambana agho ghakuvikilira wanangwa wa ŵanakazi na ŵana. Dango la caru ici likupeleka wanangwa wa ŵanakazi. Ŵakuyezga kukhozga umoyo wa ŵanakazi mwa kumazga malango na maluso ghose agho ghakutondeska ŵanakazi kuti ŵachitenge vinthu mwakuyana na wanangwa wawo. Ndondomeko ya Umoyo wa Maghanoghano iyo yikalembeka mu 2012, yikalongozga kuti paŵe ndondomeko yakovwira kuti umoyo wa maghanoghano uŵe makora mu Ethiopia. Ndondomeko iyi yikayowoya kuti umoyo wa maghanoghano ukwenera kuŵa mu ndyali. Ndipouli, ndondomeko ya umoyo wa maghanoghano ya ku caru cose yikwenda makora yayi. Mwachiyelezgero, chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu awo ŵakusuzgika maghanoghano chikasazgikira na 34.2% kufuma mu 2007 m'paka 2017. Kweniso, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuŵa na maghanoghano ghambura kwenelera, ŵakulongozga makora yayi, kweniso ŵakukolerana yayi pa nkhani ya umoyo wa maghanoghano.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Health system governance to support scale up of mental health care in Ethiopia: a qualitative study|first1=Charlotte|last1=Hanlon|first2=Tigist|last2=Eshetu|first3=Daniel|last3=Alemayehu|first4=Abebaw|last4=Fekadu|first5=Maya|last5=Semrau|first6=Graham|last6=Thornicroft|first7=Fred|last7=Kigozi|first8=Debra Leigh|last8=Marais|first9=Inge|last9=Petersen|first10=Atalay|last10=Alem|date=8 June 2017|journal=International Journal of Mental Health Systems|volume=11|pages = 38|doi=10.1186/s13033-017-0144-4|pmid=28603550|pmc=5465569}}</ref> ===Masambilo=== {{Main|Education in Ethiopia}} {{See also|Higher education in Ethiopia}} [[File:Addis Abeba University (Sam Effron).jpg|thumb|Entrance of [[Addis Ababa University]]]] Charu cha Ethiopia chikaŵa na chisopa cha Orthodox cha Tewahedo kufuma mu nyengo ya Ŵakhristu ŵa ku Axum mu 330 C.E. Ŵaliska ndiwo ŵakasambizganga Ŵakhristu ŵa ku Etiyopiya visambizgo vyaunenesko. Para ŵana ŵa sukulu ŵamalizga masambiro ghawo, ŵakuŵa ŵasofi kweniso ŵakusambira chomene. Masambiro gha mazuŵa ghano ghakamba mu 1908 apo Fumu Menelik II yikajura sukulu yakwamba mu Addis Ababa. Kweniso, Themba Haile Selassie I likawovwira kuti paŵe yunivesite yakwamba, yunivesite ya Addis Ababa, iyo yikazengeka mu 1950. Sonosono apa, boma likunozga masukulu ghapachanya gha vigaŵa vinandi.<ref>{{cite web |title=Education in Ethiopia |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Ethiopia/Education |website=Britannica |access-date=5 February 2022}}</ref> [[File:Plants in a Laboratory for High School Science, Addis Ababa.jpg|thumb|Plants in a laboratory of [[Ethio-Parents' School]] in Addis Ababa]] Ndondomeko iyo yilipo sono yikukolerana na ndondomeko ya kusazgirako masukulu, iyo yikuyana comene na umo vikaŵira mu vigaŵa vya ku mizi mu vyaka vya m'ma 1980, ndipo yikusazgapo kuti ŵanthu ŵa vigaŵa ivi ŵalutilire kusambizgika mu viyowoyero vyawo. Masambiro gha ku pulayimale ngambura kulipira ndipo kanandi ŵanthu ŵakusambira para ŵali na vyaka vyapakati pa 7 na 12. Masambiro gha ku sekondare mu Ethiopia ghakukhala vyaka vinkhondi na cimoza, kufuma apo vyaka vinayi vya masambiro gha ku sekondare.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Teferra|first1=Damtew|last2=Altbach|first2=Philip G.|title=African Higher Education: An International Reference Handbook|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RROdAAAAMAAJ|year=2003|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=978-0-253-34186-0|pages= 316–25}}</ref> [[File:Top floor of the first science museum in Ethiopia.jpg|thumb|The [[Ethiopia Museum of Art and Science|Addis Ababa Science Museum of Art and Science]] serves as the country's biggest hub which showcases the country's newest innovations]] Masambiro gha ku Ethiopia ghakulongozgeka na Unduna wa vya masambiro ndipo ndondomeko yake ni 4+4+2+2 system; masambiro gha ku pulayimale ghakukhala vyaka vinkhondi na viŵiri, ndipo gha vyaka vinayi gha masambiro gha ku sekondare ghakukhala vyaka viŵiri. Wupu wakuwona vya masambiro (National Education Assessment and Examination Agency) ndiwo ukuchita viyezgelero vya boma. Kuyambira chaka cha 2018, pali mayeso awiri a boma: Ethiopian General Secondary Education Certificate Examination (EGSECE), omwe amadziwikanso kuti Grade 10 national exam ndi Grade 12 national exam. Mazuŵa ghano, pali masukulu gha boma 30. Pambere chaka cha 1991 chindafike, ku Ethiopia kukaŵavya masukulu gha masukulu ghapachanya, kweni sono kuli masukulu ghapachanya ghapachanya 61. Chiŵelengero cha ŵana ŵa sukulu ŵa masukulu ghapachanya na ghapachanya chikakwera chomene, kufuma pa 34,000 mu 1991 kufika pa 757,000 mu 2014. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ku Ethiopia ŵasambira makora. Ŵanthu pafupifupi 3 miliyoni ŵakasambiranga masukulu gha pulayimale mu 1994-95, kweni mu 2008-09, chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu awo ŵakasambiranga masukulu gha pulayimale chikakwera kufika pa 15.5 miliyoni. Mu 2013-14, chiŵelengero cha ŵana awo ŵakalembeskanga sukulu ku Ethiopia chikakwera chomene mu vigaŵa vyose. Pa caru cose, ciŵelengero ca ŵana ŵaciŵelengero ca ŵana ŵaciŵelengero ca ŵanalume cikaŵa 104.8%, ca ŵasungwana 97.8%, na 101.3%. Mu vyaka vyasonosono apa, chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu awo ŵakumanya kuŵazga na kulemba chikakwera chomene. Mu 2007, chiŵelengero ichi chikaŵa 39% (ŵanalume 49.1% na ŵanakazi 28.9%). Lipoti la UNDP mu 2011 likulongora kuti ŵanthu 46.7% mu Ethiopia ŵakumanya kuŵazga na kulemba. Lipoti lenelili likayowoyaso kuti chiŵelengero cha ŵanakazi awo ŵakumanya kuŵazga na kulemba chikakwera kufuma pa 27 kufika pa 39 peresenti kufuma mu 2004 m'paka mu 2011, ndipo cha ŵanalume kufuma pa 49 kufika pa 59 peresenti. Mu 2015, chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu awo ŵakumanya kuŵazga na kulemba chikakwera chomene, chikafika pa 49.1% (57.2% ŵanalume na 41.1% ŵanakazi).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://data.uis.unesco.org/Index.aspx?DataSetCode=EDULIT_DS&popupcustomise=true&lang=en|title=Education|last=UIS|website=data.uis.unesco.org}}</ref> ==Mwambo== {{Main|Culture of Ethiopia}} [[File:Roasting Ethiopian coffee ceremony.jpg|thumb|170px|An Ethiopian woman roasting coffee beans in a [[coffee house]]. The coffee serving ceremony is the most important course in Ethiopia.<ref>{{Cite web|date=25 October 2019|title=Ethiopian Coffee Guide: Buying and Brewing Tips|url=https://www.homegrounds.co/ethiopian-coffee/|access-date=11 February 2022|language=en-US}}</ref>]] Ŵanthu ŵa ku Ethiopia ŵakakhalanga ku chigaŵa ichi, ndipo ŵakayowoyanga chiyowoyero cha ChiSemiti, Chicushiti, na chiyowoyero cha Nilo-Saharan. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Tigray na Amhara, awo ŵakalongozganga ndyali kumasinda, ŵakupambana na ŵanthu ŵanyake chifukwa cha ndondomeko yawo na umo ŵakakhalanga. Ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵali kufuma ku Kaffa, Sidamo, na Afar.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=27 August 1976|title=The peoples and cultures of Ethiopia|url=https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.1976.0061|journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B. Biological Sciences|language=en|volume=194|issue=1114|pages=7–16|doi=10.1098/rspb.1976.0061|pmid=11482|issn=0080-4649|last1=Lewis|first1=I. M.|bibcode=1976RSPSB.194....7L|s2cid=46723065}}</ref> Cinthu ico cikumanyikwa comene pa vyakucitika vya khofi. Mwakupambana na vyaru vinandi, khofi wakupelekeka pa ungano wa mbumba, wa ŵabwezi, panji wa mu muzi. Pali mitundu yitatu ya kumwa khofi: yimoza yakuchemeka "awol", yachiŵiri "tona" (ቶና) na yachitatu "baraka" (ባርካ). Nthano ya khofi yikamba na Kaldi, muliska wa mbuzi wa ku Keffa Zone uyo wakawona kuti mbuzi yake yikamba kuŵa na nthenda ya nthenda ya kutenthema cifukwa ca kurya vivwati ivyo vikapangiska kuti yimbenge mwambura kujikora. Wakati waŵa na vipasi, ŵakamuphalira kuti wavipeleke ku ŵasembe ŵa ku nyumba ya ŵasofi. Wasembe munyake wakati Kaldi ni "muzga wa Dyabulosi". Ŵanthu ŵakugomezga kuti Kaldi wakaŵako mu 850 C.E., ndipo ŵakugomezga kuti ndiyo wakamba kulima khofi ku Ethiopia mu vyaka vya m'ma 900.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web|title=Ethiopian Coffee Culture – Legend, History and Customs|url=https://www.thespruceeats.com/ethiopian-coffee-culture-765829|access-date=25 December 2021|website=The Spruce Eats|language=en}}</ref> ===Maluso=== {{main article|Ethiopian art}} [[File:Ethiopian scribes.jpg|thumb|Illustration showing two [[Kingdom of Aksum|Aksumite]] scribes]] Vinthu vya ku Ethiopia vikakhwaskika chomene na vithuzithuzi vya Ŵakhristu. Vinthu ivi vikaŵa mipukutu, vithuzithuzi, mphinjika, vikozgo, na vinthu vinyake vya visulo nga ni mphumphu. Ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakalembako mabuku agha ŵakaŵa ŵa tchalitchi la Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo, ilo likaŵa la boma kwa vyaka vinandi. Mu nyengo ya Aksumite, ŵanthu ŵakaŵikangamo vinthu vyakuŵaja mu malibwe, nangauli palije vinthu vya Chikhristu ivyo vikusangika mu nyengo iyi. Apo Chikhristu chikambanga, ŵanthu ŵa ku Byzantium ndiwo ŵakambiska visambizgo vyake. Vinthu vinandi ivyo vikaŵako pambere nyengo ya mazuŵa ghano yindize vikabwanganduka chifukwa cha kuwukira kwa ufumu wa Adal mu vigaŵa vya mapiri vya ku Ethiopia, kweni ŵakatumizgika na ŵapositole ŵa Katolika. Ŵanji ŵakamba kunjilirapo pa luso lwa ku Ethiopia mu vyaka vya m'ma 1900. ===Kuzenga=== {{main article|Architecture of Ethiopia}} [[File:ET Gondar asv2018-02 img03 Fasil Ghebbi.jpg|thumb|The Royal Enclosure at [[Fasil Ghebbi]], [[Gondar]]]] Panji nyumba zakutowa comene izo zikazengeka mu nyengo yakale zikazengeka mu nyengo ya Dʿmt. Kuzenga kwa Ashlar kukaŵa kwa mtundu unyake wa ku South Arabia. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Aksum ŵakalutilira kuzenga mu vyaka vya m'ma 400 C.E. Pa malibwe agha ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito libwe limoza. Dindi la Chijaro chautesi ilo likazengera mafumu gha ku Aksumite, likaŵa la mtundu umoza. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Lalibela ŵakakhalanga ku malo ghanyake agho ghakaŵa na ŵanthu ŵa ku Aksum, kweni malo ghanyake ghakaŵa na malibwe panji makuni ghakupambana. Mu nyengo ya Gondarine, vyakuzengeka vya ku Ethiopia vikaŵa vya Baroque, Arabic, Turkish na Gujarati. Chiyelezgero ni linga la ufumu la Fasil Ghebbi, ilo lili na vyakuvwara viŵiri ivi. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800 na 1900, ŵanthu ŵakamba kuchema nyumba izi kuti Nyumba za Ufumu.<ref>{{Cite web |first1=Andreu Martínez |last1=Alòs-Moner |title=Gondarine Art and Architecture (HaAh 523) – Course Syllabus |url=https://www.academia.edu/11314717}}</ref> ===Visambizgo=== {{main article|Ethiopian philosophy}} Visambizgo vya ŵanthu ŵa ku Etiyopiya vikaŵa vyakukondweska comene mu Africa kwamba kale comene, nangauli vikaŵa vyakupambana na visambizgo vya ŵanthu ŵa ku Greece na ku Patristic. Ŵanthu awo ŵakamanyikwa chomene chifukwa cha vinjeru vya ŵanthu ŵakaŵa nga ni Zera Yacob (1599-1692) na Walda Heywat, uyo wakalemba buku lakuti Hatata mu 1667. ===Kulemba mabuku=== {{main article|Ethiopian literature}} [[File:Giyorgis MET DP367372.jpg|thumb|[[Giyorgis of Segla]], prolific religious author in the [[Late Middle Ages]]]] Mabuku gha mu Ethiopia ghakalembeka mu nyengo ya Ŵaakshumi mu vyaka vya m'ma 300 C.E. Ghanandi mwa mabuku agha ghakulongosora vya cisopa. Mu malemba ghacifumu, ŵakagwiliskiranga nchito ciyowoyero ca Ge'ez na Cigiriki. Mwakupambana na vyaru vinandi vya ku Africa, mu Ethiopia muli chiyowoyero cha Ge'ez, icho chikayowoyeka chomene pa nkhani za ndyali na masambiro. Nangauli pasono vinthu vikwenda makora yayi mu caru ici, kweni mulimo wa kuvikilira vinthu uwu wafika paheni comene. Mabuku ghanandi gha ku Ethiopia ghakalembeka na mawoko (branna, panji ብራና mu Ciamharic). Pakunozga khuni ili, ŵakuwunjika mapepara gha vikumba na kughaphaka kuti ghaŵe ghakukolerana. Utali wa mupukutu uwu ukuthemba pa umo ukalembekera. Mwachiyelezgero, buku lapakompyuta ilo likusangika mu thumba lili na utali wa masentimita 45, ndipo ndilo lizito chomene. Ŵakulemba mdauko ŵakughanaghana kuti mu Ethiopia mukaŵa mipukutu yakale. Mazuŵa ghano napo, malemba ghakale agho ghakaŵa nga ni codex ghachalipo, ndipo ghakusangika pa mapepara gha vikumba.<ref name=":4" /> Buku linyake lakumanyikwa ilo ŵanthu ŵakulemba ni mupukutu uwo ukuŵavikilira. Vinyake mwa vyakurya ivi vikaŵa vya masalamusi. Mipukutu iyo yikulembeka na ŵaliska ŵambura kusankhika awo ŵakumanya vya kufumiska viŵanda na kuchizga. Para munthu wakunyamura mpukutu wa masentimita 30, kanandi wakuwupinda na kukhomeka pa chiliŵa cha nyumba. Ŵanthu ŵakususkana chomene na mipukutu iyo yikuyana na mabuku gha ku Ethiopia. Mu viyowoyero vinyake, ŵanthu ŵa ku Etiyopiya ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito mabuku ghakulembeka pa vilembo (ghakuchemeka sensul) agho ghakalembeka kuumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1500 panji 1600. Mabuku agha kanandi ghakulongosora umoyo na nyifwa ya ŵanthu ŵa chisopa..<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Nosnitsin|first=Denis|date=2012|title=Ethiopian Manuscripts and Ethiopian Manuscript Studies. A brief Overview and Evaluation|url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/galim_0753-5015_2012_num_58_1_1993|journal=Gazette du livre médiéval|volume=58|issue=1|pages=1–16|doi=10.3406/galim.2012.1993}}</ref> ====Poetry==== [[File:Tsegaye Gabre-Medhin 2.jpg|thumb|150px|Tsegaye Gebre-Medhin in 1980s]] Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakutemwa kuyowoya vya Ethiopia. Ŵaluso ŵanandi ŵakuyowoya za vinthu ivyo vikacitika kale, kusuzgika kwa ŵanthu, ukavu na njara. Qene ni cigaŵa ico cikugwiliskirika nchito comene mu sumu za ku Ethiopia. Kuti munthu waŵe na vinjeru vyaunenesko wakwenera kuŵa na maghanoghano ghakwenelera. Para munthu wakuyowoya mazgu ghaŵiri ghakupambanapambana, limoza likuŵa na fundo zakupulikikwa makora ndipo linyake ndakusuzga chomene kulipulikiska. Ntheura, ici cikucemeka semena work (golide na sera).<ref name=":9">{{Cite web|last=Aga|first=Mark T.|title=20 Of The Best Poets And Poems of Ethiopia (Qene included) — allaboutETHIO|url=https://allaboutethio.com/20-must-read-poems-of-ethiopia-best-ethiopian-poetry.html|access-date=18 December 2021|website=allaboutethio.com|language=en}}</ref> Ŵaluso ŵakumanyikwa chomene ni Tsegaye Gebre-Medhin, Kebede Michael na Mengistu Lemma. ===Calendar=== {{Main|Ethiopian calendar|Oromo calendar}} [[File:Celebrate The Return of Axum Obelisk (Detail) (3172365788).jpg|thumb|Model commemorating the [[Obelisk of Axum|Obelisk of Aksum]]'s return to Ethiopia from Italy, showing the date of its departure and return according to the [[Ethiopian calendar]]]] Ku Ethiopia kuli makalendala ghanandi. Kalendala yakumanyikwa comene ni ya ku Etiyopiya, iyo yikucemekaso Ge'ez calendar, ndipo yikulembeka na cilembo ca Ge'ez, ico nchimoza mwa vilembo vyakale comene pa caru cose. Likuthemba pa kalendara yakale ya ku Alexandria panji ya ku Coptic, iyo nayo yikafuma ku kalendara ya ku Eguputo. Nga ni kalendara ya Ŵacoptic, kalendara ya Ŵaetiyopiya nayo yili na myezi 12 ya mazuŵa 30 na mazuŵa 5 panji 6. Miyezi ya ku Ethiopia yikwamba pa zuŵa limoza na ya ku Coptic, kweni mazina ghawo ghali kulembeka mu Chigeez Nga umo vikaŵira na kalendara ya Julian, zuŵa la nambara sikisi la epagomenal, ilo ni zuŵa lakwamba, likuŵikika pa 29 Ogasiti, myezi 6 pambere zuŵa lakwamba la Julian lindafike. Ntheura, zuŵa lakwamba la chaka cha Ethiopia, 1 Mäskäräm, kwa vyaka vya pakati pa 1901 na 2099 (kuphatikizapo), kanandi ni Seputembala 11 (Gregorian), kweni likuŵa pa Seputembala 12 mu vyaka ivyo vyajumpha chaka cha Gregorian. Pa kalendara ya Gregorian, nyengo iyi yili kunthazi kwa vilimika vinkhondi na viŵiri na myezi yitatu cifukwa ca umo ŵanthu ŵakupima zuŵa ilo Yesu wakababikira. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Oromo ndiwo ŵakambiska kalendara yinyake cha m'ma 300 B.C.E. Kalendala iyi yikuthemba pa ivyo ŵanthu ŵakuwona pa mwezi. Miyezi ya Oromo (nyenyezi/miyezi ya mwezi) ni Bittottessa (Iangulum), Camsa (Pleiades), Bufa (Aldebarran), Waxabajjii (Belletrix), Obora Gudda (Central Orion-Saiph), Obora Dikka (Sirius), Birra (mwezi wakuzura), Cikawa (gibbous moon), Sadasaa (quarter moon), Abrasa (large crescent), Ammaji (medium crescent), and Gurrandala (small crescent).<ref>{{cite web|first=Lawrence R |last=Doyle |url=http://www.tusker.com/Archaeo/art.currentanthro.htm |title=The Borana Calendar Reinterpreted |work=tusker.com |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081029073246/http://www.tusker.com/Archaeo/art.currentanthro.htm |archive-date=29 October 2008}}</ref> ===Cuisine=== {{Main|Ethiopian cuisine}} {{multiple image | align =right | total_width = 280 | image1 = Coffee ceremony of Ethiopia and Eritrea 1.jpg | image2 = Alicha 1.jpg | image3 = Kitfo with Ayibe..JPG |footer = [[Coffee]] which was found in Ethiopia is the country's most drank beverage (left) [[Injera]] with a mix of wot's or a bayinatu is one of the country's famous foods (center) [[kitfo]] meat diced whether cooked or raw is usually presented with injera, and other foods, it its one of the country's most iconic foods (right) }} {{see also|List of Ethiopian dishes and foods}} The best-known [[Ethiopian cuisine]] consists of various types of thick meat [[stew]]s, known as ''[[wat (food)|wat]]'' in Ethiopian culture, and vegetable side dishes served on top of [[injera]], a large [[sourdough]] [[flatbread]] made of [[teff]] flour. This is not eaten with utensils, but instead the injera is used to scoop up the entrées and side dishes. Almost universally in Ethiopia, it is common to eat from the same dish in the middle of the table with a group of people. It is also a common custom to feed others within a group or own hands—a tradition referred to as "[[Ethiopian cuisine#Gursha|gursha]]".Mu vyakurya vya ku Ethiopia mulije nyama ya nkhumba panji viŵeto vya mtundu uliwose, pakuti vyose ivi ni vyakukanizgika mu visopa vya Orthodox, Chikhristu, Chisilamu na Chiyuda. Chechebsa, Marqa, Chukko, Michirra na Dhanga ni vyakurya vyakumanyikwa chomene ku Oromo. Kitfo ni cakurya ico ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Gurage ŵakutemwa comene. Kweniso, Doro Wot (ዶሮ ወጥ mu chiAmharic) na Tsebehi Derho (ጽብሒ ድርሆ mu chiTigrinya), ni vyakurya vinyake vyakumanyikwa chomene, ivyo vikufuma kumpoto kwa Ethiopia. Tihlo (ጥሕሎ) ni mtundu wa cakurya ico cikupangika na ufu wa balere wakukaŵa. Tihlo sono yikumanyikwa chomene mu Amhara ndipo yikupharazgika kumwera.<ref>{{cite web|title=Culture of the people of Tigrai|url=http://www.tigraionline.com/bahlina.html|publisher=Tigrai Online|access-date=3 January 2013}}</ref> ===Holidays=== {{main article|Public holidays in Ethiopia}} [[File:Meskel-festival-in-Ethiopia 01.jpg|thumb|[[Meskel]] commemorates the discovery of [[True Cross]] by Roman queen [[Helena, mother of Constantine I|Helena]] in 326 CE]] Most holidays are belonged to the [[Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo]], and secondly of [[Islam in Ethiopia|Islam]]. Secular holidays espouse national or historical chronicles. Secular holidays are follows with date of celebration: * [[Adwa Victory Day]] (2 March) * International Workers' Day (1 May) * [[Ethiopian Patriots' Victory Day]] (5 May) * [[Downfall of the Derg (holiday)|Downfall of the Derg]] (28 May) * [[Enkutatash]] (11 September or 12 September (leap year)) * [[Nations, Nationalities and Peoples' Day]] (8 December) Ethiopian Orthodox holidays are: * [[Ethiopian Christmas]] (7 January) * [[Timkat]] (19 January) * [[Good Friday]] * [[Easter]] * [[Meskel]] (27 September or 28 September (leap year)) Islamic holidays are: * [[Ramadan]] * [[Mawlid]] * [[Eid al-Fitr]] * [[Eid al-Adha]] ===Media=== {{main|Communications in Ethiopia|Media in Ethiopia}} {{multiple image | align = left | total_width = 280 | image1 =| image2 =| image3 = Teddy Afro.jpg |footer = Actress Mekdes Tsegaye (left), [[Tilahun Gessesse]] (center) and [[Teddy Afro]] (right) are three influential Ethiopians in the music and movie industries in Ethiopia}} [[File:Ethiopian Television.JPG|thumb|The [[Ethiopian Broadcasting Corporation]] headquarter in Addis Ababa]]The [[Ethiopian Broadcasting Corporation]] (EBC), formerly known as ETV, is the [[state media]]. Radio broadcasting was commenced earlier in 1935 before the television service began in 1962 with assistance of British firm Thomson and Emperor Haile Selassie.<ref name="africanews.com"/> Since 2015, EBC has upgraded its studios with modernized transmission. [[Kana TV]] is the most popular TV channel in Ethiopia.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ipsnews.net/2017/12/ethiopias-new-addiction-says-media-freedom/#:~:text=%E2%80%9CKana%E2%80%9D%20translates%20as%20something%20between,of%20the%20prime%20time%20market |title=Ethiopia's New Addiction – And What It Says About Media Freedom |last=Jeffrey |first=James |work=Inter Press Service News Agency |date=21 December 2017 |access-date=28 June 2021}}</ref> It is mainly known for [[Dubbing (filmmaking)|dubbing]] foreign content into [[Amharic]]. Over several decades, the state television has served as the major mass media until in the late 2000s, when [[EBS TV (Ethiopia)|EBS TV]] launched as the first private television channel. Moreover, numerous private channels were commenced in 2016, culminating in the growth of privately owned media companies in the country. As an example, [[Fana TV]] has been the largest TV network since its launch in 2017. The most widely circulated newspapers in Ethiopia are [[Addis Fortune]], [[Capital Ethiopia]], [[Ethiopian Reporter]], Addis Zemen{{citation needed|date=September 2017}} (''Amharic'') and [[Ethiopian Herald]].{{citation needed|date=September 2017}} The sole internet service provider is the national telecommunications firm [[Ethio telecom]]. A large portion of users in the country access the internet through mobile devices.<ref name=":3">{{Cite news|url=http://www.newsweek.com/ethiopia-internet-blocked-618806|title=Why has Ethiopia pulled its mobile internet access again?|last=Gaffey|first=Conor|date=1 June 2017|work=Newsweek|access-date=14 August 2017}}</ref> {{as of|2016|July}}, there are around 4.29&nbsp;million people who have internet access at their home as compared to a quarter of a million users a decade before that.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.internetlivestats.com/internet-users/ethiopia/|title=Ethiopia Internet Users|date=1 July 2016|website=Internet Live Stats|publisher=Internet Live Stats}}</ref> The Ethiopian government has at times intentionally shut down internet service in the country or restricted access to certain social media sites during periods of political unrest. In August 2016, following protest and demonstration in the Oromia Region, all access to the internet was shut down for a period of two days.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-36940906|title=What is behind Ethiopia's wave of protests?|date=22 August 2016|work=BBC News|access-date=14 August 2017}}</ref> In June 2017, the government shut down access to the internet for mobile users during a period that coincided with the administration of university entrance examination. Although the reason for the restriction was not confirmed by the government,<ref name=":3" /> the move was similar to a measure taken during the same period in 2016, after a leak of test questions.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/2016/07/ethiopia-blocks-social-media-sites-exam-leak-160711183939642.html|title=Ethiopia blocks social media sites over exam leak|date=11 July 2016|website=Al Jazeera|access-date=14 August 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.newsweek.com/ethiopia-blocks-social-media-facebook-twitter-instagram-scandal-479581|title=Ethiopia has shut down social media and here's why|last=Sharkov|first=Damien|date=12 July 2016|work=Newsweek|access-date=14 August 2017}}</ref> ===Science and technology=== {{Main article|Science and technology in Ethiopia}} {{see also|List of Ethiopian scientists}} {{multiple image | align =right | image1 = Portrait-aklilu-lemma-11.jpg | width1 = 125 | caption1 = Pathobiologist [[Aklilu Lemma]]. In 1964, he discovered an [[Alternative medicine|alternative]] treatment for [[schistosomiasis]], known as snail fever.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Aklilu Lemma|url=https://rightlivelihood.org/the-change-makers/find-a-laureate/aklilu-lemma/|access-date=9 January 2022|website=Right Livelihood|language=en}}</ref> | image2 = Zeresenay Alemseged (2013-01).JPG | width2 = 125 | caption2 = Paleoanthropologist [[Zeresenay Alemseged]] in 2013. He was best known for discovering fossilized [[hominin]] called ''[[Selam (Australopithecus)|Selam]]'' or "Lucy's baby" in December 2000.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Zeresenay Alemseged – National Geographic Society|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.org/find-explorers/zeresenay-alemseged|access-date=9 January 2022|website=www.nationalgeographic.org|language=en}}</ref> }} Science and technology in Ethiopia emerging as progressive due to lack of organized institutions. Manufacturing and service providers often place themselves in [[competitive programming]] in order to advance innovative and technological solutions through in-house arenas. The [[Ethiopian Space Science and Technology Institute|Ethiopian Space Science and Technology]] is responsible for conducting multifaceted tasks regarding space and technology. In addition, Ethiopia also launched 70&nbsp;kg ET-RSS1 multi-spectral remote sensing satellite in December 2019. The President Sahle-Work Zewde told prior in October 2019 that "the satellite will provide all the necessary data on changes in climate and weather-related phenomena that would be used for the country's key targets in agriculture, forestry as well as natural resources protection initiatives." By January 2020, satellite manufacturing, assembling, integrating and testing began. This would also incremented facility built by French company funded by European Investment Bank (EIB). The main observatory Entoto Observatory and Space Science Research Center (EORC) allocated space programmes. The Ethiopian Biotechnology Institute is a part of Scientific Research & Development Services Industry, responsible for environmental and climate conservation.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Science And Technology|url=https://www.miceethiopia.com/science-and-technology/|access-date=23 December 2021|website=MICE Ethiopia|language=en-US}}</ref> Numerous profound scientists have contributed degree of honours and reputations. Some are [[Kitaw Ejigu]], [[Mulugeta Bekele]], [[Aklilu Lemma]], [[Gebisa Ejeta]] and [[Melaku Worede]]. Ethiopia is known for use of [[traditional medicine]] since millennia. The first epidemic occurred in Ethiopia was in 849, causing the Aksumite Emperor Abba Yohannes evicted from place due to "God's punishment for misdeeds". The first traditional medicine was claimed to be derived from this catastrophe, but the exact source is debated. Though differ from ethnic groups, traditional medicine often implements herbs, spiritual healing, bone-setting and minor surgical procedures in treating disease.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Ethiopian Traditional Medications and their Interactions with Conventional Drugs|url=https://ethnomed.org/resource/ethiopian-traditional-and-herbal-medications-and-their-interactions-with-conventional-drugs/|access-date=31 January 2022|website=EthnoMed|language=en-US}}</ref> Others fields include conventional [[Mathematics in Ethiopia|mathematics]] used to measure astrology, calendar and unit of measurement. Ethiopia was ranked 126th in the [[Global Innovation Index]] in 2021.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Global Innovation Index 2021 |url=https://www.wipo.int/global_innovation_index/en/2021/|work=[[World Intellectual Property Organization]]|publisher=[[United Nations]]|access-date=5 March 2022 |language=en}}</ref> ===Music=== {{Main|Music of Ethiopia}} {{See also|Ethiopian Golden Age of music}} The [[music of Ethiopia]] is extremely diverse, with each of the country's 80 ethnic groups being associated with unique sounds. Ethiopian music uses a distinct [[Musical mode|modal system]] that is [[Pentatonic scale|pentatonic]], with characteristically long intervals between some notes. As with many other aspects of Ethiopian culture and tradition, tastes in music and lyrics are strongly linked with those in neighbouring Eritrea, Somalia, Djibouti, and Sudan.<ref name="Abdullahi">{{cite book |last=Abdullahi |first=Mohamed Diriye |title=Culture and Customs of Somalia |year=2001 |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |isbn=978-0-313-31333-2 |page=170 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2Nu918tYMB8C&pg=PA170 |quote=Somali music, a unique kind of music that might be mistaken at first for music from nearby countries such as Ethiopia, the Sudan, or even Arabia, can be recognized by its own tunes and styles.}}</ref><ref name="Tekle">{{cite book |last=Tekle |first=Amare |title=Eritrea and Ethiopia: from conflict to cooperation |year=1994 |publisher=The Red Sea Press |isbn=978-0-932415-97-4 |page=197 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xbQTEF0rd7wC&pg=PA197 |quote=Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Somalia and Sudan have significant similarities emanating not only from culture, religion, traditions, history and aspirations&nbsp;... They appreciate similar foods and spices, beverages and sweets, fabrics and tapestry, lyrics and music, and jewellery and fragrances.}}</ref> Traditional singing in Ethiopia presents diverse styles of [[polyphony]], ([[heterophony]], [[drone (music)|drone]], imitation, and [[counterpoint]]). Traditionally, lyricism in Ethiopian song writing is strongly associated with views of patriotism or national pride, romance, friendship, and a unique type of memoire known as ''[[tizita]]''. Saint [[Yared]], a 6th-century Aksumite composer, is widely regarded as the forerunner of traditional music of Eritrea and Ethiopia, creating liturgical music of the Ethiopian and [[Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church]]. He also composed ''[[Zema]]'', subdivided into three chants: Ge'ez, Ezel and Araray. Yared life thought to have been "failure and success" where his was poor performance in education. Yared then fired from the school and went to his uncle birthplace Murade Qal. There his saw caterpillar endeavours to reach a tree's peak. He epitomized to his real life and returned to the school with good spirit, later became prominent to political sphere. During the remaining of his lifetime, he was a friend of Aksumite Emperor Gebre Meskel and the exiled [[Nine Saints]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=About St. Yared – St. Yared Ethiopian Cuisine & Coffeehaus – Indianapolis IN|url=https://www.styaredcuisine.com/about.html|access-date=25 December 2021|website=www.styaredcuisine.com}}</ref> Modern music traced back to the reign of Emperor Haile Selassie, where 40 Armenian orphans called [[Arba Lijoch]] arrived from [[Jerusalem]] to Addis Ababa. By 1924, the band was almost established as orchestral; but after World War II, several similar bands emerged such as Imperial Bodyguard Band, Army Band, and Police Band.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Aga|first=Mark T.|title=Music in Ethiopia — allaboutETHIO|url=https://allaboutethio.com/tmusic.html|access-date=9 January 2022|website=allaboutethio.com|language=en}}</ref> [[File:Mahmoudahmedfeature.jpg|thumb|[[Mahmoud Ahmed]] performing in 2005]] Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1960 na 1970, sumu za ku Ethiopia zikamba kwambaso. Ŵalendo ŵanandi ŵakumanyikwa ŵakafuma, nga ni Tilahun Gessesse, Alemayehu Eshete, Bizunesh Bekele, Muluken Melesse na Mahmoud Ahmed. Kweniso ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito kaluso ako ŵakachemanga tizita. Mu nyengo ya muwuso wa Derg, ŵanthu aŵa ŵakaŵakanizga kuchita maseŵero mu caru ici ndipo kanandi ŵakasuzgikanga kuluta ku caru ca North America na Europe, ndipo ŵakasangananga na sumu za jazz na za funk. Mwaciyelezgero, Roha Band, Walias Band, na Ethio Stars. Pa nyengo iyi, Neway Debebe wakasuskanga boma la Derg.<ref name=":9" /> Sumu za mazuŵa ghano zikamba mu vyaka vya m'ma 1990 na 2000. Mu nyengo iyi, ŵanthu awo ŵakamanyikwanga chomene ŵakaŵa Aster Aweke, Gigi na Teddy Afro. Sumu za ku Etiyopiya zikamba kuwoneka makora mu vyaka 10 vyakulondezgapo. DJ Rophnan wakaŵa wakumanyikwa chifukwa cha kupanga EDM pamanyuma pa kufumiska album yake yakwamba Reflection mu 2018.<ref name=":9" /> ===Vyakuonelela=== {{main article|Cinema of Ethiopia}} [[File:HagerFikirTheatre.jpg|thumb|left|[[Hager Fikir Theatre]] in April 2006]] Sinema yakwamba yikalongoreka mu 1898, pati pajumpha vyaka vitatu kufuma apo sinema yakwamba yikayowoyekera. Vinthu vya pa sinema ivyo vikalembeka na Federico Ciccodicola [it] uyo wakaŵa nduna ya ku Italy. Kukwambilira kwa vyaka vya m'ma 1900, ŵanthu ŵakamba kuwonelera mafilimu gha nkhani za ŵanthu mu 1909. Au de Menilek ndiyo yikaŵa filimu yakwamba iyo yikalongozgeka na Charles Martel. Filimu yakwamba ya 16mm yakufipa na yituŵa yakuyowoya vya kuwuskika kwa Themba Zewditu, ndipo pamanyuma kuwuskika kwa Themba Haile Selassie. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1990, mafilimu gha ku Ethiopia ghakathandazgika chomene pa charu chose. Ŵanthu awo ŵakaŵa na nkharo yiwemi chomene mu nyengo iyi ŵakaŵa Haile Gerima, Salem Mekuria, Yemane Demissie, na Teshome Gabriel. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 2000, mafilimu ghakamba kusinthika ndipo ghakaŵa na chiyowoyero cha Chiamhari. Mafilimu agho ghakapanga ndalama zinandi pa caru cose ni Selanchi, Difret, Lamb, Prince of Love na Lambadina. Mu nyengo yasono, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakwimba, kusazgapo Selam Tesfaye, Fryat Yemane, Hanan Tarik, Mahder Assefa, Amleset Muchie na Ruth Negga.[[File:Abebe Bikila triumphant 1960.jpg|thumb|[[Abebe Bikila]] winning the [[1960 Summer Olympics|summer Olympics]] Italy, Rome in 1960: winning [[Ethiopia at the Olympics|Ethiopia's]] and Africa's first gold metal]] Yimoza mwa masambiro gha mafilimu ghakuzirwa chomene ni Gumma Film Awards agho ghakuchitikira mu Addis Ababa. Mphoto iyi yikamba kupelekeka mu 2014. Pa viphikiro vinyake, nga ni Addis International Film Festival na Ethiopian International Film Festival, ŵakuwoneska mafilimu gha ŵanthu awo ŵakuchita maseŵero ghakusanguluska. Iwo ŵakakhazikiskika mu 2007 na 2005.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ethiopian International Film Festival |url=https://ethiopianfilminitiative.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=470:the-ethiopian-international-film-festival&catid=68&Itemid=113 |access-date=2022-07-05 |website=ethiopianfilminitiative.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Addis International Film Festival {{!}} Human Rights Film Network |url=https://www.humanrightsfilmnetwork.org/filmfestival/addis-international-film-festival |access-date=2022-07-05 |website=www.humanrightsfilmnetwork.org}}</ref> === Maseŵera === {{Main|Sport in Ethiopia}} [[File:Genzebe_Dibaba_Istanbul_2012.jpg|thumb|left|[[Genzebe Dibaba]] wakuchimbira mtunda utali na pakati. Wakawina mendulo ya golide mu mpikisano wa mita 1500 pa mpikisano wa Olimpiki wa 2016 ku Rio.]] Maseŵero ghakurughakuru mu Ethiopia ni maseŵero gha kuthamanga (makamaka kuthamanga mtunda utali) na bola. Ŵaseŵera ŵa ku Ethiopia ŵali kutora mendulo zinandi za golide pa maseŵero gha maseŵero gha ku malo ghakutali. Abebe Bikila wakazgoka wamaseŵera wakwamba kufuma ku chalo cha Sub-Saharan uyo wakatora mendulo ya golide pa maseŵero gha Olympic apo wakatchova marathon pa maseŵero gha Olympic mu 1960 ku Rome mu nyengo ya 2:15:16.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/sport/gallery/2012/apr/25/athletics-olympics-2012|title=50 stunning Olympic moments: Abebe Bikila's 1960 marathon victory – in pictures|last=Bloor|first=Steven|date=25 April 2012|work=The Guardian|access-date=14 October 2019|language=en-GB|issn=0261-3077}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.olympic.org/news/barefooted-bikila-steps-in-for-heroic-marathon-triumph|title=Athletics – Abebe Bikila (ETH)|date=13 October 2019|website=International Olympic Committee|language=en|access-date=14 October 2019}}</ref>[[Haile Gebrselassie,]] Kenenisa Bekele, na Tirunesh Dibaba, wose mbalwani ŵakumanyikwa pa charu chose. Letesenbet Gidey ndiyo wali na mbiri ya pa caru cose pa kuthamanga mamita 5,000 na mamita 10,000. Ŵalendo ŵanyake ŵakuzirwa ŵa ku Ethiopia ni Mamo Wolde, Miruts Yifter, Derartu Tulu, Meseret Defar, Birhane Adere, Tiki Gelana, Genzebe Dibaba, Tariku Bekele, Gelete Burka, na Yomif Kejelcha. Mu chaka cha 2012 na 2013, timu ya mpira ya ku Ethiopia (iyo yikumanyikwa na zina lakuti Walayia Antelopes) yikalemba mbiri pakunjira mu Africa Cup of Nations ya 2012 ndipo yikafika mu timu 10 zakumalizira za mpira wa ku Africa mu chigaŵa chaumaliro cha FIFA World Cup ya 2014. Ŵaseŵera ŵakumanyikwa chomene ni Adane Girma uyo wakaŵa kapitawo wa timu iyi na Saladin Said uyo wakaŵa na vilato vinandi. Charu cha Ethiopia chili na mitheto yitali chomene ya mpira wa basketball mu vyaru vya ku Sub-Saharan Africa.{{clear}} ==Wonaniso== * [[Index of Ethiopia-related articles]] * [[Outline of Ethiopia]] * [[Music and politics in Ethiopia]] ==Vyakulemba== {{notelist}} ==Ukaboni== ===Citations=== {{Reflist |refs = <!-- Not in use <ref name="Mengistu_2018_Zimb">{{cite news |title = Why a photo of Mengistu has proved so controversial |date= 2 August 2018 |website = [[BBC News]] |publisher = BBC | url= https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-45043811 |access-date = 29 June 2019 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190629092237/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-45043811 |archive-date = 29 June 2019 |url-status = live}}</ref> --> }} === General sources=== {{refbegin}} * {{cite book |ref=Abir |author=Abir, Mordechai |title = Ethiopia: The Era of the Princes; The Challenge of Islam and the Re-unification of the Christian Empire (1769–1855) |location = London, England |publisher=Longmans |year= 1968}} * {{cite book |ref=Beshah |author1=Beshah, Girma |author2=Aregay, Merid Wolde |title=The Question of the Union of the Churches in Luso-Ethiopian Relations (1500–1632) |location = Lisbon |publisher= Junta de Investigações do Ultramar and Centro de Estudos Históricos Ultramarinos |year=1964}} *{{cite book |title=Historical Dictionary of Eritrea |url=https://archive.org/details/historicaldictio0000conn |last1=Connel |first1=Dan |last2=Killion |first2=Tom |year=2011 |publisher=The Scarecrow |isbn=978-081085952-4}} * {{cite journal |last=Lyons |first=Terrence |year=1996 |title=Closing the Transition: the May 1995 Elections in Ethiopia |url=https://www.academia.edu/9622394 |journal=The Journal of Modern African Studies |volume=34 |issue=1 |pages=121–42 |doi=10.1017/S0022278X00055233|s2cid=155079488 }} * {{cite book |ref=Munro-Hay |author=Munro-Hay, Stuart |year=1991 |url=http://www.dskmariam.org/artsandlitreature/litreature/pdf/aksum.pdf |title=Aksum: An African Civilization of Late Antiquity |location=Edinburgh |publisher=University Press |isbn=978-0-7486-0106-6 |access-date=3 March 2012 |archive-date=23 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130123223427/http://www.dskmariam.org/artsandlitreature/litreature/pdf/aksum.pdf |url-status=dead}} * {{Cite book |last=Pankhurst |first=Richard |title=The Ethiopian Borderlands: Essays in Regional History from Ancient Times to the End of the 18th Century |year=1997 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zpYBD3bzW1wC |publisher=The Red Sea Press |isbn=9780932415196 |language=en}} * {{cite book |ref=Valdes Vivo|author=Valdes Vivo, Raul |title=Ethiopia's Revolution |url=https://archive.org/details/ethiopiasrevolut0000vald|publisher=International Publishers |location = New York, NY |year= 1977|isbn=978-0-7178-0556-3}} {{refend}} == Vyakulemba vinyake == {{Refbegin}} * {{cite book|last1=Campbell|first1=Gwyn|last2=Miers|first2=Suzanne|last3=Miller|first3=Joseph|title=Women and Slavery: Africa, the Indian Ocean world, and the medieval north Atlantic|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Jgm69dJt4DcC&pg=PA219|year=2007|publisher=Ohio University Press|isbn=978-0-8214-1723-2}} * {{Cite EB1911|wstitle= Abyssinia | volume= 1 |last2= Gleichen |first2= Albert Edward Wilfred |author2-link= Lord Edward Gleichen |last1= Cana |first1= Frank Richardson |author1-link= | pages = 82&ndash;95 |short= 1 }} * Deguefé, Taffara (2006). ''Minutes of an Ethiopian Century'', Shama Books, Addis Ababa, {{ISBN|99944-0-003-7}}. * Hugues Fontaine, ''Un Train en Afrique. African Train'', Centre Français des Études Éthiopiennes / Shama Books. Édition bilingue français / anglais. Traduction : Yves-Marie Stranger. Postface : Jean-Christophe Belliard. Avec des photographies de Matthieu Germain Lambert et Pierre Javelot. Addis Abeba, 2012, {{ISBN|978-99944-867-1-7}}. English and French. [http://www.africantrain.org/ UN TRAIN EN AFRIQUE] * {{Cite book|last=Henze |first=Paul B. |title=Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia |year=2004 |publisher=Shama Books|isbn=978-1-931253-28-4}} * {{cite book |last1=Keller |first1=Edmond |title=Revolutionary Ethiopia From Empire to People's Republic |url=https://archive.org/details/revolutionaryeth00edmo |date=1991 |publisher=Indiana University Press |isbn=9780253206466}} * {{Cite book|last=Marcus |first=Harold G. |title=The Life and Times of Menelik II: Ethiopia, 1844–1913 |year=1975 |publisher=Clarendon |location=Oxford}} Reprint, Trenton, NJ: Red Sea, 1995. {{ISBN|1-56902-009-4}}. * {{Cite book|last=Marcus |first=Harold G. |title=A History of Ethiopia |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofethiopi0000marc |edition=updated |year=2002 |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley |isbn=978-0-520-22479-7}} * Mauri, Arnaldo (2010). ''Monetary developments and decolonization in Ethiopia'', Acta Universitatis Danubius Œconomica, VI, n. 1/2010, pp.&nbsp;5–16. [https://web.archive.org/web/20160303180844/http://journals.univ-danubius.ro/index.php/oeconomica/article/view/337-319 Monetary Developments and Decolonization in Ethiopia] and WP [http://ideas.repec.org./p/mil/wpdepa/2010-15.html Monetary developments and decolonization in Ethiopia] * {{Cite book|last=Mockler |first=Anthony |title=Haile Selassie's War |url=https://archive.org/details/haileselassieswa0000mock |year=1984 |publisher=Random House |location=New York}} Reprint, New York: Olive Branch, 2003. {{ISBN|0-902669-53-2}}. * [[Dervla Murphy|Murphy, Dervla]] (1968). ''[[In Ethiopia with a Mule]]''. London: Century, 1984, cop. 1968. ''N.B''.: An account of the author's travels in Ethiopia. 280 p., ill. with a b&w map. {{ISBN|0-7126-3044-9}} * {{Cite book|last=Rubenson|first=Sven|title=The Survival of Ethiopian Independence|edition=4th|year=2003|publisher=Tsehai|location=Hollywood, CA |isbn=978-0-9723172-7-6}} * {{Cite book|last=Selassie I. |first=Haile |title=My Life and Ethiopia's Progress: The Autobiography of Emperor Haile Selassie I |author-link=Haile Selassie I of Ethiopia |others=Translated by Edward Ullendorff |year=1999 |publisher=Frontline |location=Chicago |isbn=978-0-948390-40-1}} * Siegbert Uhlig, et al. (eds.) (2003). ''[[Encyclopaedia aethiopica]]'', Vol. 1: A–C. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag. * Siegbert Uhlig, et al. (eds.) (2005). ''Encyclopaedia aethiopica'', Vol. 2: D–Ha. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag. * Siegbert Uhlig, et al. (eds.) (2007). ''Encyclopaedia aethiopica'', Vol. 3: He–N. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag. * Siegbert Uhlig & Alessandro Bausi, et al. (eds.) (2010). ''[[Encyclopaedia aethiopica]]'', Vol. 4: O–X. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag. * Alessandro Bausi & S. Uhlig, et al. (eds.) (2014). ''[[Encyclopaedia aethiopica]]'', Vol. 5: Y–Z and addenda, corrigenda, overview tables, maps and general index. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag. * {{Cite book |last=Zewde |first=Bahru |title=A History of Modern Ethiopia, 1855–1991 |edition=2nd |year=2001 |publisher=Ohio University Press |location=Athens, OH |isbn=978-0-8214-1440-8 |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofmoderne00bahr}} * {{Country study}} * {{CIA World Factbook}} {{Refend}} == Vigaŵa vya kuwalo == {{Sister project links|n=Category:Ethiopia|s=Category:Ethiopia|v=no|voy=Ethiopia|species=no|m=no|mw=no|collapsible=collapsed}} {{Scholia|topic}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20210421154941/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/ethiopia/ Ethiopia]. ''[[The World Factbook]]''. [[Central Intelligence Agency]]. * [https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-13349398 BBC Ethiopia Profile] * [http://wits.worldbank.org/CountryProfile/Country/ETH/Year/2012/Summary World Bank Ethiopia Summary Trade Statistics] * {{curlie|Regional/Africa/Ethiopia}} * [http://www.ifs.du.edu/ifs/frm_CountryProfile.aspx?Country=ET Key Development Forecasts for Ethiopia] from [[International Futures]]. * [https://www.state.gov/countries-areas/ethiopia Ethiopia pages – U.S. Dept. of State] (which includes current State Dept. press releases and reports on Ethiopia) {{Ethiopia topics}} {{Navboxes |list= {{World Heritage Sites in Ethiopia}} {{Ethnic groups in Ethiopia}} {{Ethiopian diaspora}} {{Medieval Horn of Africa}} }} {{Authority control}} {{Coord|9|N|38.7|E|display=title}} [[Category:Ethiopia| ]] [[Category:Countries in Africa]] [[Category:East African countries]] [[Category:Federal republics]] [[Category:Horn African countries]] [[Category:Landlocked countries]] [[Category:Least developed countries]] [[Category:Member states of the African Union]] [[Category:Member states of the United Nations]] ig02ckipy33c0543epx60kz9uvdwu94 0 6919 119274 118812 2026-08-13T21:32:59Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260813sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 119274 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Country in Central Africa}} {{About|the country|other uses|Cameroon (disambiguation)}} {{Featured article}} {{pp-protected|small=yes}} {{pp-pc}} {{pp-move|small=yes}} {{Use dmy dates|date=November 2025}} {{Infobox country | conventional_long_name = Republic of Cameroon | common_name = Cameroon | native_name = {{Native name|fr|République du Cameroun}} | image_flag = Flag of Cameroon.svg | alt_flag = Vertical tricolor (green, red, yellow) with a five-pointed gold star in the center of the red | image_coat = Coat of arms of Cameroon.svg | symbol_type = Coat of arms | national_motto = <br />{{Native phrase|fr|"Paix – Travail – Patrie"|italics=off}}<br />"Peace – Work – Fatherland" | national_anthem = <br />{{Native phrase|fr|"Chant de Ralliement"|italics=off|nolink=yes}}<br />"[[The Rallying Song|Rallying Song]]"<br />{{Center| }} | image_map = {{Switcher|[[File:Cameroon (orthographic projection).svg|frameless]]|Show globe|[[File:Location Cameroon AU Africa.svg|upright=1.15|frameless]]|Show map of Africa|default=1}} | alt_map = Location of Cameroon on the globe. | image_map2 = | capital = [[Yaoundé]]<ref name="CIA">{{Cite CIA World Factbook |country=Cameroon |section=People and Society |date=16 May 2022 }}</ref> | coordinates = {{Coord|3|51|41|N|11|31|14|E|type:city}} | largest_city = [[Douala]] | official_languages = [[French language|French]] {{*}} [[English language|English]] | regional_languages = [[Grassfields languages|Grassfields languages]] {{*}}[[Beti languages|Beti]] {{*}}[[Fula language|Fufulde]] {{*}}[[Sawabantu languages|Sawa]] {{*}}[[Hausa language|Hausa]] {{*}}[[Baka language|Baka]] {{*}}[[Basaa language|Bassa]] {{*}}[[Chadian Arabic]] {{*}}[[Bafia languages|Bafia]] {{*}}[[Gbaya languages|Gbaya]] {{*}}[[Cameroonian Pidgin English|Pidgin]] {{*}}[[Camfranglais]] {{*}}[[Biu–Mandara languages|Mandara]] | ethnic_groups_ref = <ref name="CIA"/><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.aa.com.tr/fr/afrique/peuls-du-cameroun-pr%C3%A9server-lethos-suivre-lair-du-temps-/2888983/ |title=Peuls du Cameroun: Préserver l'ethos, suivre l'air du temps |access-date=10 July 2024 |via=Anadolu Agency-FR }}</ref> | ethnic_groups = {{vunblist | {{Nowrap | 22.2% [[Bamileke people|Bamileke]], [[Bamum people|Bamun]] }} | 16.4% [[Biu–Mandara languages|Biu-Mandara]] | 13.5% [[Baggara Arabs|Shuwa Arab]], [[Hausa people|Hausa]] and [[Kanuri people|Kanuri]] | 13.1% [[Beti-Pahuin peoples|Beti]]-[[Bassa people (Cameroon)|Bassa]] | 12.0% [[Fula people|Fulani]] | 9.9% [[Tikar people|Tikar]] | 9.8% [[Adamawa–Ubangi languages|Adamawa-Ubangi]] ([[Mbum languages|Mbum]]-[[Gbaya languages|Gbaya]]) | 4.6% [[Duala people|Sawa people]] | 4.3% [[Manenguba languages|Southwest Bantu]] | 2.3% [[African Pygmies|Pygmy peoples]] | 3.8% others/foreigners }} | ethnic_groups_year = 2022 | religion = {{Ublist |item_style=white-space:nowrap; | {{Tree list}} * 66.3% [[Christianity]] ** 33.1% [[Catholic Church in Cameroon|Catholic]] ** 27.1% [[Protestantism|Protestant]] ** 6.1% other [[Christian]] {{Tree list/end}} | 30.6% [[Islam in Cameroon|Islam]] | 1.3% [[Traditional African religions|traditional faiths]] | 1.1% [[Irreligion|no religion]] | 0.7% other religions }} | religion_year = 2022 | religion_ref = <ref name="CIA"/><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://brilliantmaps.com/country-maps/map-of-cameroon/|title=Map of Cameroon Created By The CIA|access-date=March 11, 2026}}</ref> | demonym = [[Cameroonians|Cameroonian]] | government_type = Unitary [[presidential republic]] under an [[authoritarian]] dictatorship | leader_title1 = [[President of Cameroon|President]] | leader_name1 = [[Paul Biya]] | leader_title2 = [[Vice President of Cameroon|Vice President]] | leader_name2 = ''Vacant''<ref>{{cite news |last1=Atabong |first1=Amindeh Blaise |title=Cameroon approves role of vice president to 93-year-old Biya |url=https://www.msn.com/en-us/news/world/cameroon-approves-role-of-vice-president-to-93-year-old-biya/ar-AA209quQ?ocid=BingNewsVerp |agency=Reuters |date=4 April 2026}}</ref> | leader_title3 = [[Prime Minister of Cameroon|Prime Minister]] | leader_name3 = [[Joseph Ngute]] | leader_title4 = [[Senate (Cameroon)|President of Senate]] | leader_name4 = Aboubakary Abdoulaye | leader_title5 = [[List of presidents of the National Assembly of Cameroon|President of National Assembly]] | leader_name5 = Theodore Datouo | legislature = [[Parliament of Cameroon|Parliament]] | upper_house = [[Senate of Cameroon|Senate]] | lower_house = [[National Assembly of Cameroon|National Assembly]] | sovereignty_type = [[History of Cameroon|Formation]] | established_event1 = Independence of [[French Cameroons]] from [[France]] | established_date1 = 1 January 1960 | established_event2 = Independence of [[Southern Cameroons|British Southern Cameroons]] from the [[United Kingdom]] and establishment of the Federal Republic of Cameroon | established_date2 = 1 October 1961 | established_event3 = [[1972 Cameroonian constitutional referendum|Cameroonian constitutional referendum of 1972]] and establishment of the [[Unitary State]] | established_date3 = 20 May 1972 | established_event4 = Current constitution | established_date4 = 18 January 1996 | area_km2 = 475,442 | area_rank = 53rd <!-- Area rank should match [[List of countries and dependencies by area]] sourced from the UN--> | area_sq_mi = 183,569 <!--Do not remove per [[Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers]]--> | percent_water = 0.57 <ref name="CIA"/> | population_estimate = {{IncreaseNeutral}} 30,987,821<ref>{{Cite CIA World Factbook |country=Cameroon |access-date=22 June 2025 |year=2025 }}</ref> | population_estimate_year = 2025 | population_estimate_rank = 51st | population_density_km2 = 39.7 | population_density_sq_mi = 102,8 <!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]--> | GDP_PPP = {{Increase}} $183.320 billion<ref name="IMFWEO.CM">{{Cite web |url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2025/October/weo-report?c=622,&s=NGDPD,PPPGDP,NGDPDPC,PPPPC,&sy=2020&ey=2028&ssm=0&scsm=1&scc=0&ssd=1&ssc=0&sic=0&sort=country&ds=.&br=1 |title=World Economic Outlook Database, October 2025 Edition. (Cameroon) |publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]] |date=October 2025 |access-date=20 October 2025 |archive-date=18 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240518180456/https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2023/October/weo-report?c=622,&s=NGDPD,PPPGDP,NGDPDPC,PPPPC,&sy=2020&ey=2028&ssm=0&scsm=1&scc=0&ssd=1&ssc=0&sic=0&sort=country&ds=.&br=1 |url-status=live }}</ref> | GDP_PPP_year = 2026 | GDP_PPP_rank = 86th | GDP_PPP_per_capita = {{increase}} $5,960<ref name="IMFWEO.CM" /> | GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 147th | GDP_nominal = {{Increase}} $67.520 billion<ref name="IMFWEO.CM" /> | GDP_nominal_rank = 91st | GDP_nominal_year = 2026 | GDP_nominal_per_capita = {{Increase}} $2,200<ref name="IMFWEO.CM" /> | GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 152nd | Gini = 42.2<!--number only--> | Gini_year = 2021 | Gini_change = decrease <!--increase/decrease/steady--> | Gini_ref = <ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/gini-index-coefficient-distribution-of-family-income/country-comparison/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210204222738/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/gini-index-coefficient-distribution-of-family-income/country-comparison/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=4 February 2021 |title=Gini Index coefficient |publisher=[[The World Factbook]] |access-date=24 September 2024 }}</ref> | HDI = 0.588 <!--number only--> | HDI_year = 2023<!-- Please use the year to which the data refers, not the publication year--> | HDI_change = increase<!--increase/decrease/steady--> | HDI_ref = <ref name="HDR2025">{{Cite report |title=Human Development Report 2025 |url=https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2025reporten.pdf |publisher=[[United Nations Development Programme]] |date=2025 |access-date=9 May 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250509000000/https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2025reporten.pdf |archive-date=9 May 2025 |url-status=live }}</ref> | HDI_rank = 155th | currency = [[Central African CFA franc]] | currency_code = XAF | time_zone = [[West Africa Time|WAT]] | utc_offset = +1 | utc_offset_DST = | time_zone_DST = | calling_code = [[Telephone numbers in Cameroon|+237]] | cctld = [[.cm]] | footnote_a = These are the titles as given in the ''Constitution of the Republic of Cameroon'', Article X ({{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060228030033/http://confinder.richmond.edu/admin/docs/Cameroon.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://confinder.richmond.edu/admin/docs/Cameroon.pdf |archive-date=9 October 2022 |url-status=live |date=28 February 2006 |title=English}} and {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060228030033/http://www.prc.cm/instit/consti.htm |date=28 February 2006 |title=French}} versions). 18 January 1996. The French version of the song is sometimes called {{Lang|fr|Chant de Ralliement}}, as in Swarovski Orchestra (2004). ''National Anthems of the World''. Koch International Classics; and the English version "O Cameroon, Cradle of Our Forefathers", as in [[#DeLancey|DeLancey and DeLancey]] 61. }} '''Cameroon''',{{Efn|{{IPAc-en|audio=En-Cameroon-pronunciation.ogg|ˌ|k|æ|m|ə|ˈ|r|uː|n}} {{Respell|KAM|ə|ROON}}; {{Langx|fr|Cameroun}} {{IPA|fr|kamʁun||LL-Q150 (fra)-Mecanautes-Cameroun.wav}}.}} officially the '''Republic of Cameroon''',{{Efn|{{Langx|fr|République du Cameroun|links=no}}.}} is a country in [[Central Africa]]. It shares boundaries with [[Nigeria]] to the west and north, [[Chad]] to the northeast, the [[Central African Republic]] to the east, and [[Equatorial Guinea]], [[Gabon]], and the [[Republic of the Congo]] to the south. Its coastline lies on the [[Bight of Biafra]], part of the [[Gulf of Guinea]], and the Atlantic Ocean. Due to its strategic position at the crossroads between [[West Africa]] and Central Africa, it has been categorized as being in both geostrategic locations. Cameroon's population of nearly 31 million people speak 250 native languages, in addition to the national tongues of English and French. The capital city of the country is [[Yaoundé]]. Early inhabitants of the territory included the [[Sao civilisation]] around [[Lake Chad]] and the [[Baka people (Cameroon and Gabon)|Baka]] hunter-gatherers in the southeastern rainforest. [[Portuguese discoveries|Portuguese explorers]] reached the coast in the 15th century. [[Fula people|Fulani]] soldiers founded the [[Adamawa Emirate]] in the north in the 19th century, and various ethnic groups of the west and northwest established powerful chiefdoms and [[Fon (title)|fondoms]]. Cameroon became a [[German Empire|German colony]] in 1884 known as [[Kamerun]]. After [[World War I]], it was divided between [[French Third Republic|France]] and the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|United Kingdom]] as [[League of Nations mandate]]s until independence in 1960 and 1961 respectively.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dupraz |first=Yannick |date=September 2019 |title=French and British Colonial Legacies in Education: Evidence from the Partition of Cameroon |url=https://wrap.warwick.ac.uk/119359/1/WRAP-French-British-colonial-Cameroon-Dupraz-2019.pdf |journal=The Journal of Economic History |language=en |volume=79 |issue=3 |pages=628–668 |doi=10.1017/S0022050719000299 |issn=0022-0507 }}</ref> The [[Union of the Peoples of Cameroon]] (UPC) political party advocated independence but was outlawed by France in the 1950s, leading to a [[Bamileke War|national liberation insurgency]] between [[French Armed Forces]] and the Union of the Peoples of Cameroon (UPC) until January 1971. In 1960, the French-administered part of Cameroon became independent, as the Republic of Cameroun, under President [[Ahmadou Ahidjo]]. The [[Southern Cameroons|southern part]] of [[British Cameroon]]s federated with it in 1961 to form the [[Federal republic|Federal Republic]] of Cameroon. The federation was abandoned in 1972. The country was renamed the [[Unitary state|United Republic]] of Cameroon in 1972 and back to the Republic of Cameroon in 1984 by a presidential decree by President [[Paul Biya]]. Biya, the incumbent president, has led the country since 1982 following Ahidjo's resignation; he previously held office as prime minister from 1975 onward. Cameroon is governed as a unitary [[Presidential system|presidential republic]]. Biya is the world's longest-serving non-royal leader, having ruled for over four decades in an [[authoritarian]] manner. Consequently, his [[Cameroon People's Democratic Movement]] governs the country as a ''de facto'' [[one-party state]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Letsa |first1=Natalie Wenzell |title='The people's choice': popular (il)legitimacy in autocratic Cameroon |journal=The Journal of Modern African Studies |date=December 2017 |volume=55 |issue=4 |pages=647–679 |doi=10.1017/S0022278X17000428}}</ref> The [[official language]]s of Cameroon are French and English. Christianity is the majority [[religion in Cameroon]], with significant minorities practising [[Islam in Cameroon|Islam]] and [[Traditional African religions|traditional faiths]]. It has experienced [[Anglophone problem|tensions]] from the English-speaking territories, where politicians have advocated for greater decentralisation and even complete separation or independence (as in the [[Southern Cameroons National Council]]). In 2017, tensions over the creation of an [[Ambazonia]]n state in the English-speaking territories escalated into [[Anglophone Crisis|open warfare]]. Large numbers of Cameroonians live as [[Subsistence agriculture|subsistence farmers]]. The country is often referred to as "Africa in miniature" for its geological, linguistic, and cultural diversity. Its natural features include beaches, [[desert]]s, mountains, [[rainforest]]s, and [[savanna]]s. Cameroon's highest point, at almost {{convert|4100|m|ft}}, is [[Mount Cameroon]] in the [[Southwest Region (Cameroon)|Southwest Region]]. Cameroon's most populous cities are [[Douala]] on the [[Wouri River]], its economic capital and main seaport; [[Yaoundé]], its political capital; and [[Garoua]]. [[Limbé, Cameroon|Limbé]] in the southwest has a natural seaport. Cameroon is well known for its native music styles, particularly [[Makossa]], Njang, and [[Bikutsi]], and its successful [[Cameroon national football team|national football team]]. It is a member state of the [[African Union]], the United Nations, the {{Lang|fr|[[Organisation Internationale de la Francophonie]]}} (OIF), the [[Commonwealth of Nations]], the [[Non-Aligned Movement]], and the [[Organisation of Islamic Cooperation]]. ==Etymology== Originally, Cameroon was the [[exonym]] given by the Portuguese to the [[Wouri River]], which they called {{lang|pt|Rio dos Camarões}} meaning 'river of [[shrimps]]' or 'shrimp river', referring to the then abundant [[Cameroon ghost shrimp]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Cameroon |url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/Cameroon |access-date=6 February 2024 |work=[[Online Etymology Dictionary]] |language=en |archive-date=4 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230104102318/https://www.etymonline.com/word/cameroon |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Camarões: o que os crustáceos têm a ver com o país? |trans-title=Cameroon: what do the crustaceans have to do with the country? |url=https://veja.abril.com.br/blog/sobre-palavras/camaroes-o-que-os-crustaceos-tem-a-ver-com-o-pais/ |first=Sérgio |last=Rodrigues |publisher=[[Veja (magazine)|Veja]] |access-date=21 November 2020 |archive-date=20 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230220050611/https://veja.abril.com.br/coluna/sobre-palavras/camaroes-o-que-os-crustaceos-tem-a-ver-com-o-pais |url-status=live }}</ref> The country's name in Portuguese remains {{lang|pt|Camarões}}.<ref name="h574">{{cite book |last=Ngefac |first=Aloysius |title=Aspects of Cameroon Englishes |publisher=Cambridge Scholars Publishing |date=8 February 2022 |isbn=978-1-5275-8029-9 |page=19 }}</ref> ==History== {{Main|History of Cameroon}} ===Early history=== [[File:Shumom-text.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Bamum script]] is a writing system developed by King Njoya in the late 19th century.]] Evidence from [[archaeological excavation]]s at [[Shum Laka]] in the [[Northwest Region (Cameroon)|Northwest Region]] shows human occupation in Cameroon dating back 30,000 years.<ref name=Lavachery2001>Lavachery, Philippe (2001) The Holocene Archaeological Sequence of Shum Laka Rock Shelter (Grasslands, Western Cameroon). ''African Archaeological Review'' 18(4):213-247.</ref><ref name=Cornelissen2003>Cornelissen, Els (2003) On Microlithic Quartz Industries at the End of the Pleistocene in Central Africa: The Evidence from Shum Laka (NW Cameroon). ''African Archaeological Review'' 20(1):1-24.</ref> The longest continuous inhabitants are groups such as the [[Baka people (Cameroon and Gabon)|Baka]] ([[Pygmy peoples|Pygmies]]).<ref>[[#DeLancey|DeLancey and DeLancey]] 2.</ref> From there, [[Bantu expansion|Bantu migrations]] into eastern, southern and central Africa are believed to have occurred about 2,000 years ago.<ref name="history"/> The [[Sao civilisation|Sao]] culture arose around Lake Chad, {{circa|500 CE}}, and gave way to the Kanem and its successor state, the [[Kanem–Bornu Empire|Bornu Empire]]. Kingdoms, [[Fon (title)|fondoms]], and [[chiefdom]]s arose in the west.<ref name=Njung/> [[Portuguese discoveries|Portuguese sailors]] reached the coast in 1472. They noted an abundance of the ghost shrimp ''[[Lepidophthalmus turneranus]]'' in the [[Wouri River]] and named it {{lang|pt|Rio dos Camarões}} (''Shrimp River''), which became ''Cameroon'' in English.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Pondi |first=J.E. |title=Cameroon and the Commonwealth of nations |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_round-table_1997-10_86_344/page/563 |journal=The Round Table |volume=86 |issue=344 |pages=563–570 |year=1997 |doi=10.1080/00358539708454389 |issn=0035-8533 }}</ref> Over the following few centuries, European interests regularised trade with the coastal peoples, and Christian [[missionaries]] pushed inland.<ref name=Fanso/> In 1896, Sultan [[Ibrahim Njoya]] created the [[Bamum script]], or Shu Mom, for the [[Bamum language]].<ref>[[#DeLancey|DeLancey and DeLancey]] 59</ref><ref name="NMAA">{{cite web |url=http://africa.si.edu/exhibits/inscribing/bamum.html |title=Bamum |publisher=National Museum of African Art, Smithsonian Institution |access-date=29 January 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120101155844/http://africa.si.edu/exhibits/inscribing/bamum.html |archive-date=1 January 2012 }}</ref> It is taught in Cameroon by the [[Bamum Scripts and Archives Project]].<ref name="NMAA"/> ===European colonisation=== ====German Empire==== {{main|Kamerun}} Germany began to establish roots in Cameroon in 1868 when the Woermann Company of Hamburg built a warehouse. It was built on the estuary of the Wouri River. Later, [[Gustav Nachtigal]] made a treaty with one of the local kings to annex the region for the German emperor.<ref name=historyworld>{{cite web |url=http://historyworld.net |title=historyworld |access-date=17 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190407073336/http://historyworld.net/ |archive-date=7 April 2019 }}</ref> The [[German Empire]] claimed the territory as the colony of [[Kamerun]] in 1884 and began a steady push inland; the natives resisted in the [[Bafut Wars]] and [[Adamawa Wars]]. Under the aegis of Germany, commercial companies were local administrations. These [[Concession (contract)|concession]]s used [[Unfree labour|forced labour]] to run profitable banana, rubber, palm oil, and cocoa plantations.<ref name=historyworld/> Even infrastructure projects relied on a regimen of forced labour. This economic policy was much criticised by the other colonial powers.<ref name="DeLancey 125">[[#DeLancey|DeLancey and DeLancey]] 125.</ref> ====French and British Mandates==== {{main|French Cameroon|British Cameroon}} [[File:UPC-LEADERS.jpg|thumb|right|Leaders of the pro-independence [[Union of the Peoples of Cameroon|UPC]]]] With the defeat of Germany in [[World War I]], Kamerun became a [[League of Nations mandate]] territory and was split into [[French Cameroon]] ({{langx|fr|Cameroun}}) and [[British Cameroon]] in 1919. France integrated the economy of Cameroon with that of France<ref name="DeLancey 5">[[#DeLancey|DeLancey and DeLancey]] 5.</ref> and improved the infrastructure with capital investments and skilled workers, modifying the colonial system of [[forced labour]].<ref name="DeLancey 125"/> Britain offered German owned plantations to the highest bidder with the intent of paying the proceeds into a [[World War I reparations]] account. But few investors were willing to buy at the London auctions. Eventually Britain sold the majority of German plantations in British Cameroon back to their original German owners and opened up African maritime ports for German trade. The British also encouraged German investment in the [[Tanganyika Territory]]. German companies built warehouses in [[Douala]] but were not allowed to purchase land.<ref>{{Cite book |author1=Susan Pedersen |title=The Guardians: The League of Nations and the Crisis of Empire |url=https://archive.org/details/guardiansleagueo0000pede |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780190226398 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/guardiansleagueo0000pede/page/234 234]& 236 |year=2015 }}</ref> The British administered their territory from neighbouring Nigeria. Natives complained that this made them a neglected "colony of a colony". Nigerian migrant workers flocked to Southern Cameroons, ending forced labour altogether but angering the local natives, who felt swamped.<ref>[[#DeLancey|DeLancey and DeLancey]] 4.</ref> The League of Nations mandates were converted into [[United Nations Trusteeship Council|United Nations Trusteeships]] in 1946, and the question of independence became a pressing issue in French Cameroon.<ref name="DeLancey 5"/> France outlawed the pro-independence political party, the [[Union of the Peoples of Cameroon]] ({{langx|fr|Union des Populations du Cameroun}}, UPC), on 13 July 1955.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Terretta |first1=M. |title=Cameroonian Nationalists Go Global: From Forest Maquis to a Pan-African Accra |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-african-history_2010_51_2/page/189 |doi=10.1017/S0021853710000253 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=51 |issue=2 |pages=189–212 |year=2010 |s2cid=154604590 }}</ref> This prompted a [[Bamileke War|long guerrilla war]] waged by the UPC and the assassination of several of the party's leaders, including [[Ruben Um Nyobè]], [[Félix-Roland Moumié]] and [[Ernest Ouandie]]. In the British Cameroons, the question was whether to reunify with French Cameroon or join Nigeria; the British ruled out the option of independence.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Takougang |first1=J. |title=Nationalism, democratisation and political opportunism in Cameroon |doi=10.1080/0258900032000142455 |journal=Journal of Contemporary African Studies |volume=21 |issue=3 |pages=427–445 |year=2003 |s2cid=153564848 }}</ref> ===Republic of Cameroon=== On 1 January 1960, French Cameroun gained independence from France under President [[Ahmadou Ahidjo]] as the Republic of Cameroon. The southern part of British Cameroons federated with it in 1961 to form the Federal Republic of Cameroon until 1972, when the federation was abandoned and the country renamed the United Republic of Cameroon. In 1984, President Paul Biya restored the name Republic of Cameroon via presidential decree. ====Federal Republic of Cameroon==== [[File:Flag of Cameroon (1961–1975).svg|thumb|Flag of the Federal Republic of Cameroon]] On 1 October 1961, the British [[Southern Cameroons]] gained independence from the United Kingdom by vote of the UN General Assembly and merged into the Republic of Cameroon to form the Federal Republic of Cameroon. The federal republic was composed of two federated states, [[East Cameroon]] and [[West Cameroon]], each with its own legislature, government, and prime minister. 1 October is now observed as [[Unification Day (Cameroon)|Unification Day]], a [[Public holidays in Cameroon|public holiday]].<ref>{{cite book |author=Diane Cook |title=Cameroon |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jn7TBAAAQBAJ&pg=PT95 |date=2 September 2014 |publisher=Mason Crest |isbn=978-1-4222-9434-5 |page=95 }}</ref> Ahidjo used the ongoing war with the UPC to concentrate power in the presidency, continuing with this even after the suppression of the UPC in 1971.<ref name="DeLancey 6">[[#DeLancey|DeLancey and DeLancey]] 6.</ref> ====United Republic of Cameroon==== [[File:Ahmadou Ahidjo.jpg|thumb|Former president [[Ahmadou Ahidjo]] ruled from 1960 until 1982.]] Ahidjo's political party, the [[Cameroonian National Union|Cameroon National Union]] (CNU), became the sole legal political party on 1 September 1966, and on 20 May 1972, a [[1972 Cameroonian constitutional referendum|referendum]] was passed to abolish the [[Federation|federal system of government]] in favour of a United Republic of Cameroon, headed from [[Yaoundé]].<ref>[[#DeLancey|DeLancey and DeLancey]] 19.</ref> This day is now the country's [[National Day (Cameroon)|National Day]], a public holiday.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.prc.cm/en/multimedia/photo-albums/37-20-may-national-day |title=20 May National Day |website=Presidency of the Republic of Cameroon |access-date=3 May 2019 |archive-date=3 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190503164656/https://www.prc.cm/en/multimedia/photo-albums/37-20-may-national-day |url-status=live }}</ref> Ahidjo pursued an economic policy of [[planned liberalism]], prioritising [[cash crops]] and petroleum development. The government used oil money to create a national cash reserve, pay farmers, and finance major development projects; however, many initiatives failed when Ahidjo appointed unqualified allies to direct them.<ref>[[#DeLancey|DeLancey and DeLancey]] 7.</ref> The [[Flag of Cameroon|national flag]] was changed on 20 May 1975 with the two stars removed and replaced with a large central star as a symbol of national unity.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Smith |first=Whitney |author-link=Whitney Smith |date=27 July 2011 |title=Flag of Cameroon |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/flag-of-Cameroon |access-date=20 May 2026 |website=[[Encyclopedia Britannica]]}}</ref> ====Republic of Cameroon under Biya==== Ahidjo stepped down on 4 November 1982 and left power to his constitutional successor, [[Paul Biya]]. However, Ahidjo remained in control of the CNU and tried to run the country from behind the scenes until Biya and his allies pressured him into resigning. Biya began his administration by moving toward a more democratic government, but a failed [[Cameroonian Palace Guard Revolt|coup d'état]] nudged him toward the leadership style of his predecessor.<ref>[[#DeLancey|DeLancey and DeLancey]] 8.</ref> Biya, the incumbent president, has led the country since 1982 following Ahidjo's resignation; he previously held office as prime minister from 1975 onward, making him the [[List of current state leaders by date of assumption of office|longest consecutively serving current non-royal national leader in the world]] and the [[Lists of state leaders by age|oldest current head of state]] in the world. In 1987, [[Dja Faunal Reserve]], Cameroon's first [[World Heritage Site]], was inscribed on the list by [[UNESCO]].<ref name="b394">{{cite web |title=Dja Faunal Reserve |publisher=[[UNESCO]] |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/407/ |language=rw |access-date=25 October 2024 }}</ref> An [[Cameroonian economic crisis|economic crisis]] took effect in the mid-1980s to late 1990s as a result of international economic conditions, drought, falling petroleum prices, and years of corruption, mismanagement, and [[cronyism]]. Cameroon turned to foreign aid, cut government spending, and [[Privatization|privatised]] industries. With the reintroduction of multi-party politics in December 1990, the former British Southern Cameroons pressure groups called for greater autonomy, and the [[Southern Cameroons National Council]] advocated complete secession as the Republic of [[Ambazonia]].<ref name="DeLancey 9">[[#DeLancey|DeLancey and DeLancey]] 9.</ref> The 1992 Labour Code of Cameroon gives workers the freedom to belong to a trade union or not to belong to any trade union at all. It is the choice of a worker to join any trade union in their occupation since there is more than one trade union in each occupation.<ref>''[https://scholar.google.com/scholar?cluster=2268401385755685468&authuser=2 Ginna Violet Yella. "Freedom of Trade Union Membership: An Appraisal of the 1992 Labour Code of Cameroon" United International Journal for Research & Technology (UIJRT) 1.2 (2019): 18–25.] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220605133204/https://scholar.google.com/scholar?cluster=2268401385755685468&authuser=2 |date=5 June 2022 }}''</ref> [[File:Paul Biya 2014.png|thumb|left|upright|[[Paul Biya]] has ruled the country since 1982.]] In June 2006, talks concerning a territorial dispute over the [[Bakassi]] peninsula were resolved. The talks involved President Paul Biya of Cameroon, then President [[Olusegun Obasanjo]] of Nigeria, and then UN Secretary-General [[Kofi Annan]], and resulted in Cameroonian control of the oil-rich peninsula. The northern portion of the territory was formally handed over to the Cameroonian government in August 2006, and the remainder of the peninsula was left to Cameroon two years later, in 2008.<ref>[http://allafrica.com/stories/200606130612.html Cameroon: Presidents Obasanjo And Biya Shake Hands on Disputed Bakassi Peninsula] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170217063651/http://allafrica.com/stories/200606130612.html |date=17 February 2017 }}, ''Allafrica'', 13 June 2006</ref> The boundary change triggered a [[Bakassi conflict|local separatist insurgency]], as many Bakassians refused to accept Cameroonian rule. While most militants laid down their arms in November 2009,<ref>[https://jamestown.org/program/cameroon-rebels-threaten-security-in-oil-rich-gulf-of-guinea/ Cameroon Rebels Threaten Security in Oil-Rich Gulf of Guinea] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180829000328/https://jamestown.org/program/cameroon-rebels-threaten-security-in-oil-rich-gulf-of-guinea/ |date=29 August 2018 }}, Jamestown Foundation, 24 November 2010. Accessed 28 August 2018.</ref> some carried on fighting for years.<ref>Ngwane, George. "Preventing renewed violence through peacebuilding in the Bakassi peninsula (Cameroon)."</ref> In February 2008, Cameroon experienced its worst violence in 15 years when a transport union strike in Douala escalated into [[2008 Cameroonian anti-government protests|violent protests]] in 31 municipal areas.<ref name=Nkemngu/><ref name=Matthews/> In May 2014, in the wake of the [[Chibok schoolgirls kidnapping]], presidents Paul Biya of Cameroon and [[Idriss Déby]] of Chad announced they were waging war on [[Boko Haram]], and deployed troops to the Nigerian border.<ref> {{cite news |title=Cameroon, Chad Deploy Troops to Fight Boko Haram – Nigeria |work=[[ReliefWeb]] |access-date=10 June 2014 |url=http://reliefweb.int/report/nigeria/cameroon-chad-deploy-troops-fight-boko-haram |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714173813/http://reliefweb.int/report/nigeria/cameroon-chad-deploy-troops-fight-boko-haram |archive-date=14 July 2014}} </ref> Boko Haram launched several attacks into Cameroon, killing 84 civilians in a [[December 2014 Cameroon clashes|December 2014 raid]], but suffering a heavy defeat in a [[January 2015 raid on Kolofata|raid in January 2015]]. Cameroon declared victory over Boko Haram on Cameroonian territory in September 2018.<ref>[https://www.cbc.ca/news/world/cameroon-boko-haram-1.4844513 Boko Haram has been repelled, Cameroon's leader declares] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190514110414/https://www.cbc.ca/news/world/cameroon-boko-haram-1.4844513 |date=14 May 2019 }}, CBC News, 30 September 2018. Accessed 18 June 2019.</ref> Since November 2016, [[2016–17 Cameroonian protests|protesters]] from the predominantly English-speaking [[Northwest Region (Cameroon)|Northwest]] and [[Southwest Region (Cameroon)|Southwest]] regions of the country have been campaigning for continued use of the English language in schools and courts. People were killed and hundreds were jailed as a result of these protests.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.cnn.com/2016/12/15/world/cameroon-protesters-deaths/index.html |title=Rights groups call for probe into protesters' deaths in Cameroon |author=Radina Gigova |website=CNN |date=15 December 2016 |access-date=29 July 2019 |archive-date=27 February 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190227172641/https://www.cnn.com/2016/12/15/world/cameroon-protesters-deaths/index.html |url-status=live }}</ref> In 2017, Biya's government blocked the regions' access to the Internet for three months.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-41468149 |title=Cameroon internet shut for separatists |date=2 October 2017 |newspaper=BBC News |access-date=20 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180920084339/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-41468149 |archive-date=20 September 2018 }}</ref> In September, separatists started [[Anglophone Crisis|a guerilla war]] for the independence of the Anglophone region as the Federal Republic of [[Ambazonia]]. The government responded with a military offensive, and the insurgency spread across the Northwest and Southwest regions. {{As of|2019}}, fighting between separatist guerillas and government forces continues.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-44561929 |title=Burning Cameroon: Images you're not meant to see |date=25 June 2018 |newspaper=BBC News |access-date=20 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180919204526/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-44561929 |archive-date=19 September 2018 }}</ref> During 2020, numerous terrorist attacks—many of them carried out without claims of credit—and government reprisals have led to bloodshed throughout the country.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Ekonde |first1=Daniel |date=18 November 2020 |title=The world's most neglected conflict |url=https://www.newframe.com/the-worlds-most-neglected-conflict/ |access-date=27 November 2020 |website=New Frame |archive-date=30 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201130094247/https://www.newframe.com/the-worlds-most-neglected-conflict/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> Since 2016, more than 450,000 people have fled their homes.<ref name="humanrights">{{cite news |last1=Tisdall |first1=Simon |title=In a world full of wars, why are so many of them ignored? |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/jun/09/world-full-of-wars-so-many-ignored-central-africa-sudan-boko-haram |work=The Guardian |date=9 June 2019 |access-date=9 June 2019 |archive-date=18 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240518180340/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/jun/09/world-full-of-wars-so-many-ignored-central-africa-sudan-boko-haram |url-status=live }}</ref> The conflict indirectly led to an [[Chad Basin campaign (2018–2019)|upsurge]] in Boko Haram attacks, as the Cameroonian military largely withdrew from the north to focus on fighting the Ambazonian separatists.<ref>{{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20190312124436/https://natimesnews.com/2019/02/25/cameroon-national-times-there-has-been-growing-insecurity-in-the-three-northern-regions-of-cameroon-as-both-the-government-and-the-military-concentrate-their-strength-and-might-in-fighting-an-endles/ Insecurity Escalates In North Region As Gov't, Military Concentrate In Anglophone Regions]}}, The National Times, 25 February 2019.Accessed 25 February 2019.</ref> More than 30,000 people in northern Cameroon fled to Chad after ethnic clashes over [[Water conflict|access to water]] between [[Musgum people|Musgum]] fishermen and ethnic [[Chadian Arabic|Arab Choa]] herders in December 2021.<ref>{{cite news |title=Thousands flee northern Cameroon after deadly intercommunal clashes |url=https://www.france24.com/en/africa/20211209-thousands-flee-northern-cameroon-after-deadly-intercommunal-clashes |work=France 24 |date=10 December 2021 |access-date=8 January 2022 |archive-date=8 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220108163838/https://www.france24.com/en/africa/20211209-thousands-flee-northern-cameroon-after-deadly-intercommunal-clashes |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Northern Cameroon bears brunt of inter-ethnic clashes, 22 dead, 30 injured |url=https://www.africanews.com/2021/12/14/northern-cameroon-bears-brunt-of-inter-ethnic-clashes-22-dead-30-injured/ |work=[[Africanews]] |date=14 December 2021 |access-date=8 January 2022 |archive-date=1 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220101223009/https://www.africanews.com/2021/12/14/northern-cameroon-bears-brunt-of-inter-ethnic-clashes-22-dead-30-injured/ |url-status=live }}</ref> In the aftermath of the [[2025 Cameroonian presidential election]], a [[2025 Cameroonian protests|series of protests]] broke out after allegations of electoral fraud were made by the opposition.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Corey-Boulet |first1=Robbie |title=Cameroon security forces killed 48 in election protests, UN sources say |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/cameroon-security-forces-killed-48-election-protests-un-sources-say-2025-11-04/ |access-date=4 November 2025 |work=[[Reuters]] |date=4 November 2025}}</ref> ==Politics and government== {{Main|Politics of Cameroon|Elections in Cameroon}} [[File:YaoundeUnityPalace.png|thumb|Unity Palace – Cameroon Presidency]] The [[List of presidents of Cameroon|President of Cameroon]] is elected and creates policy, administers government agencies, commands the [[Cameroon Armed Forces|armed forces]], negotiates and ratifies treaties, and declares a state of emergency.<ref name="Neba 250">[[#Neba|Neba]] 250.</ref> The president appoints government officials at all levels, from the [[Prime Minister of Cameroon|prime minister]] (considered the official head of government), to the provincial governors and divisional officers.<ref name=msu>{{cite web |url=https://globaledge.msu.edu/countries/cameroon/government |access-date=12 April 2013 |title=Cameroon: Government |publisher=Michigan State University: Broad College of Business |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130507153207/http://globaledge.msu.edu/countries/cameroon/government |archive-date=7 May 2013 }}</ref> The president is selected by popular vote every seven years.<ref name="CIA"/> The [[National Assembly (Cameroon)|National Assembly]] makes legislation. The body consists of 180 members who are elected for five-year terms and meet three times per year.<ref name=msu/> Laws are passed on a majority vote.<ref name="CIA"/> The 1996 constitution establishes a second house of parliament, the 100-seat [[Senate (Cameroon)|Senate]]. The government recognises the authority of traditional chiefs, fons, and [[Lamido|lamibe]] to govern at the local level and to resolve disputes as long as such rulings do not conflict with national law.<ref name="State Dept"/><ref>[[#Neba|Neba]] 252.</ref> Cameroon's legal system is a mixture of [[Civil law (legal system)|civil law]], [[common law]], and [[customary law]].<ref name="CIA"/> Although nominally independent, the judiciary falls under the authority of the executive's [[Ministry of Justice of Cameroon|Ministry of Justice]].<ref name="State Dept"/> The president appoints judges at all levels.<ref name=msu/> The judiciary is officially divided into tribunals, the [[Court of Appeal of Cameroon|court of appeal]], and the [[Supreme Court of Cameroon|supreme court]]. The National Assembly elects the members of a nine-member [[High Court of Justice (Cameroon)|High Court of Justice]] that judges high-ranking members of government in the event they are charged with high treason or harming national security.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.etat.sciencespobordeaux.fr/_anglais/institutionnel/cameroon.html |access-date=12 April 2013 |title=Cameroon: Institutional Situation |publisher=Montesquieu University of Bordeaux |author=Abdourhamane, Boubacar Issa |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100921001254/http://etat.sciencespobordeaux.fr/_anglais/institutionnel/cameroon.html |archive-date=21 September 2010 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.commonwealthofnations.org/sectors-cameroon/government/ |access-date=12 April 2013 |title=Government in Cameroon |publisher=Commonwealth of Nations |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140328164623/http://www.commonwealthofnations.org/sectors-cameroon/government/ |archive-date=28 March 2014 }}</ref> ===Political culture=== [[File:Statue d'un chef coutumier à Bana.jpg|thumb|right|upright|A statue of a chief in [[Bana, Cameroon|Bana]], West Region]] Cameroon [[Corruption in Cameroon|is viewed as rife with corruption]] at all levels of government. In 1997, Cameroon established anti-corruption bureaus in 29 ministries, but only 25% became operational,<ref name="IRIN"/> and in 2012, [[Transparency International]] placed Cameroon at number 144 on a list of 176 countries ranked from least to most corrupt.<ref name=Corruption/> On 18 January 2006, Biya initiated an anti-corruption drive under the direction of the [[National Anti-Corruption Observatory]].<ref name="IRIN"/> There are several high corruption risk areas in Cameroon, for instance, customs, public health sector and public procurement.<ref>{{cite web |title=Business Corruption in Cameroon |url=http://www.business-anti-corruption.com/country-profiles/sub-saharan-africa/cameroon/business-corruption-in-cameroon.aspx |publisher=Business Anti-Corruption Portal |access-date=24 March 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140324190641/http://www.business-anti-corruption.com/country-profiles/sub-saharan-africa/cameroon/business-corruption-in-cameroon.aspx |archive-date=24 March 2014 |url-status=dead }}</ref> However, the corruption has gotten worse, regardless of the existing anti-corruption bureaus, as Transparency International ranked Cameroon 152 on a list of 180 countries in 2018.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.transparency.org/en/cpi/2018 |title=2018 – CPI |website=Transparency.org |date=29 January 2019 |access-date=26 July 2020 |archive-date=13 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200513063746/https://www.transparency.org/cpi2018 |url-status=live }}</ref> President Biya's [[Cameroon People's Democratic Movement]] (CPDM) was the only legal political party until December 1990. Numerous regional political groups have since formed. The primary opposition is the [[Social Democratic Front (Cameroon)|Social Democratic Front]] (SDF), based largely in the Anglophone region of the country and headed by [[John Fru Ndi]].<ref name = "lergai">[[#West|West]] 11.</ref> Biya and his party have maintained control of the presidency and the National Assembly in national elections, which rivals contend were unfair.<ref name="DeLancey 9"/> Human rights organisations allege that the government suppresses the freedoms of opposition groups by preventing demonstrations, disrupting meetings, and arresting opposition leaders and journalists.<ref name="Amnesty"/><ref name="Freedom House"/> In particular, English-speaking people are discriminated against; protests often escalate into violent clashes and killings.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2016/12/15/world/cameroon-protesters-deaths/ |title=Rights groups call for probe into protesters' deaths in Cameroon |author=Radina Gigova |date=15 December 2016 |publisher=CNN |access-date=17 March 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170318083433/http://edition.cnn.com/2016/12/15/world/cameroon-protesters-deaths/ |archive-date=18 March 2017 }}</ref> In 2017, President Biya shut down the Internet in the English-speaking region for 94 days, at the cost of hampering five million people, including [[Silicon Mountain]] startups.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2017/02/03/africa/internet-shutdown-cameroon/ |title=Cameroon goes offline after Anglophone revolt |author=Kieron Monks |date=3 February 2017 |publisher=CNN |access-date=17 March 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170318003526/http://edition.cnn.com/2017/02/03/africa/internet-shutdown-cameroon/ |archive-date=18 March 2017 }}</ref> [[Freedom House]] ranks Cameroon as "not free" in terms of political rights and civil liberties.<ref>Cameroon is rated at six in both categories on a scale of one to seven, with one being "most free" and seven being "least free". [[#House|Freedom House]].</ref> The last [[2020 Cameroonian parliamentary election|parliamentary elections]] were held on 9 February 2020.<ref name=Kandemeh/> ===Foreign relations=== {{Further|Foreign relations of Cameroon}} [[File:Paul Biya with Obamas 2014.jpg|thumb|President [[Paul Biya]] with U.S. President [[Barack Obama]] in 2014]] Cameroon is a member of both the [[Commonwealth of Nations]] and [[Organisation Internationale de la Francophonie|La Francophonie]].<ref>Julia, Marion (December 2008). "La démocratie dans le projet politique de l'Organisation internationale de la Francophonie". ''[[The Round Table Journal|The Round Table]]''. '''97''' (399): 825–838. [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1080/00358530802485825|10.1080/00358530802485825]]. [[S2CID (identifier)|S2CID]] [https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143862365 145202906].</ref> Its [[Foreign relations of Cameroon|foreign policy]] closely follows that of its main ally, France (one of its former colonial rulers).<ref>[[#DeLancey|DeLancey and DeLancey]] 126</ref><ref>Ngoh 328.</ref> Cameroon relies heavily on France for its defence,<ref name="State Dept"/> although military spending is high in comparison to other sectors of government.<ref>[[#DeLancey|DeLancey and DeLancey]] 30.</ref> President Biya has engaged in a decades-long clash with the government of Nigeria over possession of the oil-rich [[Bakassi]] peninsula.<ref name="lergai" /> Cameroon and Nigeria share a 1,000-mile (1,600&nbsp;km) border and have disputed the sovereignty of the Bakassi peninsula. In 1994 Cameroon petitioned the [[International Court of Justice]] to resolve the dispute. The two countries attempted to establish a cease-fire in 1996; however, fighting continued for years. In 2002, the ICJ ruled that the [[Anglo-German Agreement of 1913]] gave sovereignty to Cameroon. The ruling called for a withdrawal by both countries and denied the request by Cameroon for compensation due to Nigeria's long-term occupation.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2002/10/11/world/court-rules-for-cameroon-in-oil-dispute-with-nigeria.html |title=Court Rules for Cameroon In Oil Dispute With Nigeria |last1=Banerjee |first2=Marc |last2=Lacey |first1= Neela |date=11 October 2002 |work=The New York Times |access-date=4 February 2018 |language=en-US |issn=0362-4331 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180205130042/http://www.nytimes.com/2002/10/11/world/court-rules-for-cameroon-in-oil-dispute-with-nigeria.html |archive-date=5 February 2018 }}</ref> By 2004, Nigeria had failed to meet the deadline to hand over the peninsula. A UN-mediated summit in June 2006 facilitated an agreement for Nigeria to withdraw from the region and both leaders signed the [[Greentree Agreement]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.un.org/press/en/2008/sgsm11745.doc.htm |title=Agreement Transferring Authority over Bakassi Peninsula from Nigeria to Cameroon 'Triumph for the Rule of Law' Secretary-General Says in Message for Ceremony |website=United Nations |date=14 August 2008 |language=en |access-date=4 February 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180131052103/http://www.un.org/press/en/2008/sgsm11745.doc.htm |archive-date=31 January 2018 }}</ref> The withdrawal and handover of control was completed by August 2006.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-13148483 |title=Cameroon profile - Timeline |date=1 November 2017 |work=BBC News |access-date=4 February 2018 |language=en-GB |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180209213130/http://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-13148483 |archive-date=9 February 2018 }}</ref> In July 2019, UN ambassadors of 37 countries, including Cameroon, signed a joint letter to the UNHRC defending China's [[Xinjiang re-education camps|treatment of Uyghurs]] in the [[Xinjiang]] region.<ref>{{cite news |title=Which Countries Are For or Against China's Xinjiang Policies? |url=https://thediplomat.com/2019/07/which-countries-are-for-or-against-chinas-xinjiang-policies/ |work=[[The Diplomat (magazine)|The Diplomat]] |date=15 July 2019 |access-date=16 July 2019 |archive-date=16 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190716160658/https://thediplomat.com/2019/07/which-countries-are-for-or-against-chinas-xinjiang-policies/ |url-status=live }}</ref> === Military === {{Main|Cameroonian Armed Forces}} [[File:Vehicules militaires pendant le défilé7.jpg|thumb|Military vehicles during a parade]] The Cameroon Armed Forces (French: ''Forces armées camerounaises'', FAC) consists of the country's army (''Armée de Terre''), the country's navy (''Marine Nationale de la République'' (MNR), including naval infantry), the Cameroonian Air Force (''Armée de l'Air du Cameroun'', AAC), and the [[Gendarmerie]].<ref name="CIA" /> The military is crucial in supporting Cameroon's authoritarian government since independence in 1960. The military has been involved in defeating rebellions, controlling protests for democratic reforms, combating [[Boko Haram insurgency|Boko Haram]] since 2014, and handling the Anglophone separatist movement that began in 2017.<ref name="g211">{{cite book |last=Harkness |first=Kristen A. |title=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Politics |chapter=Cameroon: The Military and Autocratic Stability |publisher=Oxford University Press |date=17 December 2020 |isbn=978-0-19-022863-7 |doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190228637.013.1800 |page= }}</ref> ===Human rights=== {{see also|Human rights in Cameroon}} Human rights organisations accuse police and military forces of mistreating and even torturing criminal suspects, ethnic minorities, [[LGBT rights in Cameroon|homosexuals]], and political activists.<ref name="Amnesty"/><ref name="Freedom House"/><ref name="Human Rights Report"/><ref name="EHRC"/> United Nations figures indicate that more than 21,000 people have fled to neighbouring countries, while 160,000 have been internally displaced by the violence, many reportedly hiding in forests.<ref name = "un">{{cite web |url=https://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=23404&LangID=E |title=OHCHR – UN Human Rights Chief deeply alarmed by reports of serious rights breaches in Cameroon |publisher=Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights |access-date=2 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180803014220/https://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=23404&LangID=E |archive-date=3 August 2018 }}</ref> Prisons are overcrowded with little access to adequate food and medical facilities,<ref name = "Human Rights Report"/><ref name="EHRC"/> and prisons run by traditional rulers in the north are charged with holding political opponents at the behest of the government.<ref name="Freedom House"/> However, since the first decade of the 21st century, an increasing number of police and gendarmes have been prosecuted for improper conduct.<ref name="Human Rights Report"/> On 25 July 2018, the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights [[Zeid Raad Al Hussein|Zeid Ra'ad Al Hussein]] expressed deep concern about reports of violations and abuses in the English-speaking Northwest and Southwest regions of Cameroon.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2018-07-25 |title=Cameroon violence needs urgent investigation, says UN rights chief Zeid |url=https://news.un.org/en/story/2018/07/1015512 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250724215605/https://news.un.org/en/story/2018/07/1015512 |archive-date=2025-07-24 |access-date=2026-05-20 |work=UN News |language=en}}</ref> According to OCHA, more than 1.7 million people require humanitarian assistance in the northwest and southwest regions. OCHA also estimates that at least 628,000 people have been internally displaced by violence in the two regions, while more than 87,000 have fled to Nigeria.<ref>{{cite web |title=Cameroon |url=https://www.globalr2p.org/countries/cameroon/ |access-date=8 June 2023 |archive-date=8 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230608190445/https://www.globalr2p.org/countries/cameroon/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="un"/> [[LGBTQ rights in Cameroon|LGBTQ acts]] are banned by section 347-1 of the penal code with a penalty of from 6 months up to 5 years imprisonment.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ilga.org/statehomophobia/ILGA_State_Sponsored_Homophobia_2008.pdf |title=State-sponsored Homophobia: A world survey of laws prohibiting same-sex activity between consenting adults |last=Ottosson |first=Daniel |date=May 2008 |publisher=International Lesbian and Gay Association (ILGA) |page=11 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090306021141/http://www.ilga.org/statehomophobia/ILGA_State_Sponsored_Homophobia_2008.pdf |archive-date=6 March 2009 }}</ref> Since December 2020, [[Human Rights Watch]] claimed that Islamist armed group Boko Haram has stepped up attacks and killed at least 80 civilians in towns and villages in the Far North region of Cameroon.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2021/04/05/cameroon-boko-haram-attacks-escalate-far-north |title=Cameroon: Boko Haram Attacks Escalate in Far North |date=5 April 2021 |access-date=5 April 2021 |publisher=Human Rights Watch |archive-date=5 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210405134313/https://www.hrw.org/news/2021/04/05/cameroon-boko-haram-attacks-escalate-far-north |url-status=live }}</ref> ===Administrative divisions=== {{main|Regions of Cameroon|Departments of Cameroon}} [[File:Provinces of Cameroon EN.svg|thumb|upright|Cameroon is divided into 10 regions.]] The [[Constitution of Cameroon|constitution]] divides Cameroon into 10 semi-autonomous regions, each under the administration of an elected [[Regional Council (Cameroon)|Regional Council]]. Each region is headed by a presidentially appointed governor.<ref name="Neba 250"/> These leaders are charged with implementing the will of the president, reporting on the general mood and conditions of the regions, administering the civil service, keeping the peace, and overseeing the heads of the smaller administrative units. Governors have broad powers: they may order propaganda in their area and call in the army, [[Gendarmerie|gendarmes]], and police.<ref name="Neba 250"/> All local government officials are employees of the central government's Ministry of Territorial Administration, from which local governments also get most of their budgets.<ref name="history">{{cite web |url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/26431.htm |title=Cameroon |publisher=US Department of State |date=25 August 2011 |access-date=24 September 2011 |archive-date=4 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190604183549/https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/26431.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> The regions are subdivided into 58 divisions (French {{lang|fr|départements}}). These are headed by presidentially appointed divisional officers ({{lang|fr|[[Prefect|préfets]]}}). The divisions are further split into sub-divisions ({{lang|fr|arrondissements}}), headed by assistant divisional officers ({{lang|fr|sous-prefets}}). The districts, administered by district heads ({{lang|fr|chefs de district}}), are the smallest administrative units.<ref name=unhchr>{{cite web |url=http://www.unhchr.ch/tbs/doc.nsf/0/33bb745d595710e3c125693d0035f74b?Opendocument |access-date=12 April 2013 |title=Core document forming part of the reports of States Parties: Cameroon |publisher=UNHCHR |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151023091521/http://www.unhchr.ch/tbs/doc.nsf/0/33bb745d595710e3c125693d0035f74b?Opendocument |archive-date=23 October 2015 }}</ref> The three northernmost regions are the [[Far North Region, Cameroon|Far North]] ({{lang|fr|Extrême Nord}}), [[North Region (Cameroon)|North]] ({{lang|fr|Nord}}), and [[Adamawa Region|Adamawa]] ({{lang|fr|Adamaoua}}). Directly south of them are the [[Centre Region (Cameroon)|Centre]] ({{lang|fr|Centre}}) and [[East Region (Cameroon)|East]] ({{lang|fr|Est}}). The [[South Region (Cameroon)|South Province]] ({{lang|fr|Sud}}) lies on the Gulf of Guinea and the southern border. Cameroon's western region is split into four smaller regions: the [[Littoral Region (Cameroon)|Littoral]] ({{lang|fr|Littoral}}) and [[Southwest Region (Cameroon)|South-West]] ({{lang|fr|Sud-Ouest}}) regions are on the coast, and the [[Northwest Region (Cameroon)|North-West]] ({{lang|fr|Nord-Ouest}}) and [[West Region (Cameroon)|West]] ({{lang|fr|Ouest}}) regions are in the western grassfields.<ref name=unhchr/> ==Geography== {{Main|Geography of Cameroon|Geology of Cameroon}} [[File:Rhumsiki Peak.jpg|thumb|[[Volcanic plugs]] dot the landscape near [[Rhumsiki]], Far North Region.]] At {{convert|475442|km2|sqmi}}, Cameroon is the world's 53rd-largest country.<ref name="Demographic Yearbook"/> The country is located in Central Africa and West Africa, on the [[Bight of Bonny]], part of the [[Gulf of Guinea]] and the Atlantic Ocean.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.international.ucla.edu/africa/countries/ |access-date=12 April 2013 |title=Country Profiles |publisher=UCLA African Studies Center |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130303170914/http://www.international.ucla.edu/africa/countries/ |archive-date=3 March 2013 }}</ref> Cameroon lies between latitudes [[1st parallel north|1°]] and [[13th parallel north|13°N]], and longitudes [[8th meridian east|8°]] and [[17th meridian east|17°E]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Cameroon |url=https://www.google.com/maps/place/Cameroon/ |access-date=2026-05-25 |website=Google Maps |language=en}}</ref> Cameroon controls 12 nautical miles of the Atlantic Ocean.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Nyuimbe |first=Gasu Gideon |last2=Endomo |first2=Herve Endomo |date=June 2023 |title=Ocean Governance Study for Cameroon |url=https://www.un.org/oceancapacity/sites/www.un.org.oceancapacity/files/files/Projects/Norad/OGS/oceangovernancestudy_cameroon_english_0.pdf |website=[[United Nations]]}}</ref> Tourist literature describes Cameroon as "Africa in miniature" because it exhibits all major climates and vegetation of the continent: coast, desert, mountains, rainforest, and savanna.<ref>[[#DeLancey|DeLancey and DeLancey]] 16.</ref> The country's neighbours are Nigeria and the Atlantic Ocean to the west; Chad to the northeast; the Central African Republic to the east; and Equatorial Guinea, Gabon and the Republic of the Congo to the south.<ref name="CIA"/> Cameroon is divided into five major geographic zones distinguished by dominant physical, climatic, and vegetative features. The coastal plain extends {{convert|15|to|150|km|mi|0}} inland from the Gulf of Guinea<ref name=Fomensky/> and has an average elevation of {{convert|90|m|ft|0}}.<ref>[[#Neba|Neba]] 14.</ref> Exceedingly hot and humid with a short [[dry season]], this belt is densely forested and includes some of the [[Debundscha|wettest places]] on earth, part of the [[Cross-Sanaga-Bioko coastal forests]].<ref>[[#Neba|Neba]] 28.</ref><ref name=Extremes/> The [[South Cameroon Plateau]] rises from the coastal plain to an average elevation of {{convert|650|m|ft|0}}.<ref name="Neba 16">[[#Neba|Neba]] 16.</ref> Equatorial rainforest dominates this region, although its alternation between [[wet season|wet]] and dry seasons makes it less humid than the coast. This area is part of the [[Atlantic Equatorial coastal forests]] [[ecoregion]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.unido.org/fileadmin/user_media/Procurement/Ahmed/16001956/16001956ZPaa_TOR_final%20Report.pdf |publisher=UNIDO |title=ICAM of Kribi Campo |access-date=12 April 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130506165602/http://www.unido.org/fileadmin/user_media/Procurement/Ahmed/16001956/16001956ZPaa_TOR_final%20Report.pdf |archive-date=6 May 2013 }}</ref> [[File:Elephants around tree in Waza, Cameroon.jpg|thumb|Elephants in [[Waza National Park]]]] An irregular chain of mountains, hills, and plateaus known as the [[Cameroon line|Cameroon range]] extends from [[Mount Cameroon]] on the coast—Cameroon's highest point at {{convert|4095|m|ft|0}}<ref name="Neba 17"/>—almost to Lake Chad at Cameroon's northern border at 13°05'N. This region has a mild climate, particularly on the [[Western High Plateau]], although rainfall is high. Its soils are among Cameroon's most fertile, especially around volcanic Mount Cameroon.<ref name="Neba 17">[[#Neba|Neba]] 17.</ref> Volcanism here has created [[volcanic crater lake|crater lake]]s. On 21 August 1986, one of these, [[Lake Nyos]], belched carbon dioxide and killed between 1,700 and 2,000 people.<ref>[[#DeLancey|DeLancey and DeLancey]] 161 report 1,700 killed; [[#Hudgens|Hudgens and Trillo]] 1054 say "at least 2,000"; West 10 says "more than 2,000".</ref> This area has been delineated by the [[World Wildlife Fund]] as the [[Cameroonian Highlands forests]] ecoregion.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://wwf.panda.org/about_our_earth/ecoregions/cameroon_highlands_forests.cfm |access-date=12 April 2013 |publisher=WWF |title=Cameroon Highlands Forests |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130501144939/http://wwf.panda.org/about_our_earth/ecoregions/cameroon_highlands_forests.cfm |archive-date=1 May 2013 }}</ref> The southern plateau rises northward to the grassy, rugged [[Adamawa Plateau]]. This feature stretches from the western mountain area and forms a barrier between the country's north and south. Its average elevation is {{convert|1100|m|ft|0}},<ref name="Neba 16"/> and its average temperature ranges from {{convert|22|C|F|1}} to {{convert|25|C|F}} with high rainfall between April and October peaking in July and August.<ref name=Gwanfogbe/><ref>[[#Neba|Neba]] 29.</ref> The [[East Sudanian savanna|northern lowland region]] extends from the edge of the Adamawa to Lake Chad with an average elevation of {{convert|300|to|350|m|ft|0}}.<ref name="Neba 17"/> Its characteristic vegetation is savanna scrub and grass. This is an arid region with sparse rainfall and high median temperatures.<ref name=Green/> Cameroon has four patterns of drainage. In the south, the principal rivers are the [[Ntem River|Ntem]], [[Nyong River|Nyong]], [[Sanaga River|Sanaga]], and Wouri. These flow southwestward or westward directly into the Gulf of Guinea. The [[Dja River|Dja]] and [[Kadéï River|Kadéï]] drain southeastward into the [[Congo River]]. In northern Cameroon, the [[Benue River|Bénoué River]] runs north and west and empties into the [[Niger River|Niger]]. The [[Logon River|Logone]] flows northward into Lake Chad, which Cameroon shares with three neighbouring countries.<ref>{{cite web |title=Country Files: Cameroon |url=https://www.fao.org/docrep/005/T0360E/T0360E04.htm |publisher=UN Food and Agriculture Organization |access-date=3 March 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130611075925/http://www.fao.org/docrep/005/t0360e/T0360E04.htm |archive-date=11 June 2013 }}</ref> ===Wildlife=== {{Main|Wildlife of Cameroon}} Cameroon's wildlife is composed of its [[flora]] and [[fauna]]. It is one of the wettest parts of Africa and records Africa's second-highest level of biodiversity.<ref name="Africa">{{cite web |url=https://www.wcs.org/where-we-work/africa/cameroon.aspx |title=Cameroon |access-date=14 February 2013 |publisher=Wildlife Conservation Society }}</ref><ref name="Regional">{{cite web |url=http://www.worldwildlife.org/bsp/publications/africa/125/125/CentralAfrica.htm |title=Beyond Boundaries:Regional Overview of Transboundary Natural Resource Management in Central Africa |year=2001 |work=Table 1 World Wildlife Organization |access-date=14 February 2013 |publisher=World Wildlife Organization |last1=Wilkie |first1=D. S. |first2=E. |last2=Hakizumwami |first3=N. |last3=Gami |first4=B. |last4=Difara }}</ref> In Cameroon, [[forest cover]] is around 43% of the total land area, equivalent to {{cvt|20,340,480|ha}} of forest in 2020, down from {{cvt|22,500,000|ha}} in 1990. In 2020, naturally regenerating forests covered {{cvt|20,279,380|ha}}, and planted forests covered {{cvt|61,100|ha}}. Around 15% of the forest area was found within protected areas, for the year 2015, 100% of the forest area was reported to be under [[State ownership|public ownership]].<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://openknowledge.fao.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/a6e225da-4a31-4e06-818d-ca3aeadfd635/content |title=Terms and Definitions FRA 2025 Forest Resources Assessment, Working Paper 194 |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations |year=2023 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Global Forest Resources Assessment 2020, Cameroon |url=https://fra-data.fao.org/assessments/fra/2020/CMR/home/overview |website=Food Agriculture Organization of the United Nations }}</ref> To preserve its wildlife, Cameroon has more than 20 protected reserves comprising national parks, zoos, forest reserves, and sanctuaries. The protected areas were first created in the northern region under the colonial administration in 1932; the first two reserves established were [[Mozogo Gokoro Reserve]] and the [[Bénoué National Park|Bénoué Reserve]], which was followed by the [[Waza National Park|Waza Reserve]] on 24 March 1934. The coverage of reserves was initially about 4 percent of the country's area, rising to 12 percent; the administration proposes to cover 30 percent of the land area.<ref name="Cartesia">{{cite web |url=http://www.cartesia.org/geodoc/icc2005/pdf/oral/TEMA10/Session%206/TCHINDJANG%20MESMIN%202.pdf |title=Mapping of Protected Areas Evolution in Cameroon from the Beginning to 2000: Lesson to Learn and Perspectives. |first1=Mesmin |last1=Tchindjang |first2=Clair |last2=Réné Banga |first3=Appolinaire |last3=Nankam |first4=Jean |last4=Sylvestre Makak |year=2001 |work=Table 1 World Wildlife Organization |access-date=14 February 2013 |publisher=World Wildlife Organization }}</ref> Its rich wildlife consists of 8,260 recorded plant species including 156 [[endemic species]], 409 species of [[mammals]] of which 14 are endemic, 690 species of birds which includes 8 endemic species, 250 species of reptiles, and 200 species of [[amphibians]].<ref name="Africa"/><ref name="Regional"/> The habitats of these species include the southern region comprising tropical lowland, coastline on the [[Gulf of Guinea]]. [[Mangrove]] forests, {{convert|270000|ha|acre|sp=us}} in size, are along the coast line. [[Montane forests]] and [[savannahs|savannas]] are in the northern region of the country. Important protected areas for these species are the [[Mbam Djerem National Park]], Benoue National Park, [[Korup National Park]], [[Takamanda National Park]], and the [[Kagwene Gorilla Sanctuary]].<ref name="Africa"/> Cameroon is an important breeding area for marine and freshwater species such as [[crustacean]]s, [[mollusks]], fish, and birds.<ref name="Regional"/> ==Economy and infrastructure== {{Main|Economy of Cameroon}} Cameroon's per capita GDP ([[Purchasing power parity]]) was estimated at US$5.760 in 2025. Major export markets include the Netherlands, France, China, Belgium, Italy, Algeria, and Malaysia.<ref name="CIA"/> Cameroon has its GDP growing at an average of 4% per year. During the 2004–2008 period, public debt was reduced from over 60% of GDP to 10% and official reserves quadrupled to over US$3&nbsp;billion.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mfw4a.org/cameroon/cameroon-financial-sector-profile.html |title=Cameroon Financial Sector Profile |publisher=MFW4A |access-date=24 September 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110513110637/http://www.mfw4a.org/cameroon/cameroon-financial-sector-profile.html |archive-date=13 May 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Cameroon is part of the [[Bank of Central African States]] (of which it is the dominant economy),<ref name="Musa Biya plan"/> the [[Customs and Economic Union of Central Africa]] (UDEAC) and the [[Organization for the Harmonization of Business Law in Africa]] (OHADA).<ref name="ohada.com">{{cite web |url=http://www.ohada.com/index.php |title=The business law portal in Africa |publisher=OHADA |access-date=22 March 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090326033744/http://www.ohada.com/index.php |archive-date=26 March 2009 }}</ref> Its currency is the [[CFA franc]].<ref name="CIA"/> Unemployment was estimated at 3.38% in 2019,<ref>{{cite web |title=Cameroon Unemployment rate – data, chart |url=https://www.theglobaleconomy.com/Cameroon/unemployment_rate/ |website=TheGlobalEconomy.com |access-date=19 May 2020 |archive-date=6 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806185110/https://www.theglobaleconomy.com/Cameroon/unemployment_rate/ |url-status=live }}</ref> and 23.8% of the population was living below the international [[poverty threshold]] of US$1.90 a day in 2014.<ref>{{cite web |title=Poverty headcount ratio at $1.90 a day (2011 PPP) (% of the population) – Cameroon {{!}} Data |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.DDAY?locations=CM |website=data.worldbank.org |access-date=18 May 2020 |archive-date=6 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806173719/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.DDAY?locations=CM |url-status=live }}</ref> Since the late 1980s, Cameroon has been following programmes advocated by the [[World Bank]] and [[International Monetary Fund]] (IMF) to reduce poverty, privatise industries, and increase economic growth.<ref name="State Dept"/> The government has taken measures to encourage [[Tourism in Cameroon|tourism]] in the country.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://nl.nabc.nl/Portals/0/docs/Country%20information%20pdf/CAMEROON%20Fact%20Sheet.pdf |title=Cameroon Business Mission Fact Sheet 2010–2011 |publisher=Netherlands-African Business Council |year=2011 |access-date=3 March 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131013032607/http://nl.nabc.nl/Portals/0/docs/Country%20information%20pdf/CAMEROON%20Fact%20Sheet.pdf |archive-date=13 October 2013 }}</ref> An estimated 70% of the population farms, and agriculture comprised an estimated 16.7% of GDP in 2017.<ref name="CIA"/> Most agriculture is done at the subsistence scale by local farmers using simple tools. They sell their surplus produce, and some maintain separate fields for commercial use. Urban centres are particularly reliant on peasant agriculture for their foodstuffs. Soils and climate on the coast encourage extensive commercial cultivation of bananas, cocoa, oil palms, rubber, and tea. Inland on the South Cameroon Plateau, cash crops include coffee, sugar, and tobacco. Coffee is a major cash crop in the western highlands, and in the north, natural conditions favour crops such as cotton, groundnuts, and rice. Production of [[Fair trade#Textiles|Fairtrade cotton]] was initiated in Cameroon in 2004.<ref>Fairtrade International, University of Greenwich and Institute of Development Studies, [https://web.archive.org/web/20210831045046/https://files.fairtrade.net/publications/2011_FairtradeCotton_ImpactMaliSenegaCameroonIndia_Summary.pdf Fairtrade Cotton: Assessing Impact in Mali, Senegal, Cameroon and India] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831045046/https://files.fairtrade.net/publications/2011_FairtradeCotton_ImpactMaliSenegaCameroonIndia_Summary.pdf |date=31 August 2021 }}, published May 2011, accessed 31 August 2021</ref> [[File:Taureaux et vaches hollandais à wallya Cameroun.jpg|thumb|Dutch bulls and cows at Wallya community during the rainy season in Cameroon]] Livestock are raised throughout the country.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fao.org/ag/AGP/AGPC/doc/Counprof/cameroon/figure10.htm |access-date=12 April 2013 |title=Cameroon livestock production map |publisher=FAO |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130605182824/http://www.fao.org/ag/AGP/AGPC/doc/Counprof/cameroon/figure10.htm |archive-date=5 June 2013 }}</ref> Fishing employs 5,000 people and provides over 100,000 tons of seafood each year.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/X0229E/x0229e05.htm |access-date=12 April 2013 |author=Som, Julienne |title=Women's role in Cameroon fishing communities |publisher=FAO |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130603014448/http://www.fao.org/docrep/X0229E/x0229e05.htm |archive-date=3 June 2013 }}</ref><ref name=awf>{{cite web |url=http://www.awf.org/country/cameroon |access-date=12 April 2013 |title=Cameroon |publisher=AWF |date=28 February 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130416202141/http://www.awf.org/country/cameroon |archive-date=16 April 2013 }}</ref> [[Bushmeat]], long a staple food for rural Cameroonians, is a delicacy in the country's urban centres. The commercial bushmeat trade has now surpassed deforestation as the main threat to wildlife in Cameroon.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/1920391.stm |access-date=12 April 2013 |publisher=BBC |title=UK project tackles bushmeat diet |date=10 April 2002 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140427082156/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/1920391.stm |archive-date=27 April 2014 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/cooking_in_the_danger_zone/7282187.stm |access-date=12 April 2013 |title=Cameroon's bushmeat dilemma |date=14 March 2008 |publisher=BBC |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120529040509/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/cooking_in_the_danger_zone/7282187.stm |archive-date=29 May 2012 }}</ref> The southern rainforest has vast timber reserves, estimated to cover 37% of Cameroon's total land area.<ref name=awf/> However, large areas of the forest are difficult to reach. Logging, largely handled by foreign-owned firms,<ref name=awf/> provides the government US$60&nbsp;million a year in taxes ({{as of|1998|lc=yes}}), and laws mandate the safe and sustainable exploitation of timber. Nevertheless, in practice, the industry is one of the least regulated in Cameroon.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://wwf.panda.org/what_we_do/where_we_work/congo_basin_forests/problems/deforestation/logging/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120608041738/http://wwf.panda.org/what_we_do/where_we_work/congo_basin_forests/problems/deforestation/logging/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=8 June 2012 |publisher=WWF |access-date=12 April 2013 |title=Logging in the Green Heart of Africa }}</ref> Factory-based industry accounted for an estimated 26.5% of GDP in 2017.<ref name="CIA"/> More than 75% of Cameroon's industrial strength is located in [[Douala]] and [[Bonabéri]]. Cameroon possesses substantial mineral resources, but these are not extensively mined (see ''[[Mining in Cameroon]]'').<ref name="State Dept"/> Petroleum exploitation has fallen since 1986, but this is still a substantial sector such that dips in prices have a strong effect on the economy.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/pdp/2006/pdp02.pdf |access-date=12 April 2013 |title=Strengthening Transparency in the Oil Sector in Cameroon |author=Cossé, Stéphane |publisher=IMF |year=2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120606061216/http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/pdp/2006/pdp02.pdf |archive-date=6 June 2012 }}</ref> Rapids and waterfalls obstruct the southern rivers, but these sites offer opportunities for hydroelectric development and supply most of Cameroon's energy. The Sanaga River powers the largest hydroelectric station, located at Edéa. The rest of Cameroon's energy comes from oil-powered thermal engines. Much of the country remains without reliable power supplies.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.climateparl.net/cpcontent/pdfs/Kribi,%202010-03-27,%20Parlementarians.pdf |access-date=12 April 2013 |title=Harnessing Central Africa's Hydropower Potential |author=Prevost, Yves |publisher=Climate Parliament |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140427082535/http://www.climateparl.net/cpcontent/pdfs/Kribi%2C%202010-03-27%2C%20Parlementarians.pdf |archive-date=27 April 2014 }}</ref> Three trans-African automobile routes pass through Cameroon:<ref>{{Cite web |title=Trans-African Highways Network Routes |url=https://au.int/sites/default/files/newsevents/workingdocuments/29736-wd-e_-_tah_annex_i_tah_network.pdf |access-date=May 25, 2026 |website=[[African Union]]}}</ref> * [[File:Schild TAH8.svg|20px]] the [[Lagos-Mombasa Highway]] * [[File:Schild TAH3.svg|20px]] the [[Tripoli-Cape Town Highway]] * [[File:Schild TAH5.svg|20px]] the [[Dakar-N'Djamena Highway]] [[Transport in Cameroon]] is often difficult. Only 6.6% of the roadways are tarred.<ref name="CIA"/> Roadblocks often serve little other purpose than to allow police and gendarmes to collect bribes from travellers.<ref>[[#Hudgens|Hudgens and Trillo]] 1036.</ref> Road banditry has long hampered transport along the eastern and western borders, and since 2005, the problem has intensified in the east as the Central African Republic has further destabilised.<ref name="Musa Gunmen"/> [[File:Bateau au port de Douala1.jpg|thumb|Douala seaport]] [[Intercity bus service]]s run by multiple private companies connect all major cities. They are the most popular means of transportation followed by the rail service ''[[Camrail]]''. Rail service runs from [[Kumba, Cameroon|Kumba]] in the west to [[Bélabo]] in the east and north to [[Ngaoundéré]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.worldtravelguide.net/cameroon/getting-around |access-date=12 April 2013 |publisher=World Travel Guide |title=Getting around Cameroon |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130627051533/http://www.worldtravelguide.net/cameroon/getting-around |archive-date=27 June 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref> International airports are located in [[Douala International Airport|Douala]] and [[Yaoundé Nsimalen International Airport|Yaoundé]], with a third under construction in [[Maroua]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cameroononline.org/2013/04/03/equipments-for-the-future-maroua-international-airport/ |access-date=12 April 2013 |title=Equipment for the Future Maroua International Airport |publisher=Cameroon Online |date=3 April 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130509073605/http://www.cameroononline.org/2013/04/03/equipments-for-the-future-maroua-international-airport/ |archive-date=9 May 2013 }}</ref> Douala is the country's principal seaport<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.soschildrensvillages.ca/where-we-help/africa/cameroon/douala/pages/default.aspx |access-date=12 April 2013 |title=SOS Children's Village Douala |publisher=SOS Children's Villages |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130615075059/http://www.soschildrensvillages.ca/where-we-help/africa/cameroon/douala/pages/default.aspx |archive-date=15 June 2013 }}</ref> and [[Kribi Deepwater Port]] started operations in 2014. In the north, the Bénoué River is seasonally navigable from Garoua across into Nigeria.<ref>[[#DeLancey|DeLancey and DeLancey]] 68.</ref> Cameroon was ranked 116th in the [[Global Innovation Index]] in 2025.<ref>{{Cite web |title=GII Innovation Ecosystems & Data Explorer 2025 |url=https://www.wipo.int/gii-ranking/en/cameroon |access-date=2025-10-16 |website=WIPO}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Dutta |first1=Soumitra |url=https://www.wipo.int/web-publications/global-innovation-index-2025/en/index.html |title=Global Innovation Index 2025: Innovation at a Crossroads |last2=Lanvin |first2=Bruno |publisher=[[World Intellectual Property Organization]] |year=2025 |isbn=978-92-805-3797-0 |page=19 |language=en |doi=10.34667/tind.58864 |access-date=2025-10-17}}</ref> ==Demographics== {{Main|Demographics of Cameroon|List of municipalities of Cameroon by population}} The population of Cameroon was {{UN_Population|Cameroon}} in {{UN_Population|Year}}, up from 4,466,000 in 1950.{{UN_Population|ref}} The life expectancy was 62.3&nbsp;years (60.6&nbsp;years for males and 64&nbsp;years for females).<ref name="CIA"/> [[File:GedWomenDay.JPG|thumb|Cameroonian women on Women's Day Celebration, 2015]] Cameroon has slightly more women (50.5%) than men (49.5%). Over 60% of the population is under age 25. People over 65 years of age account for only 3.11% of the total population.<ref name="CIA" /> Cameroon's population is almost evenly divided between urban and rural dwellers.<ref name="West 3">[[#West|West]] 3.</ref> Population density is highest in the large urban centres, the western highlands, and the northeastern plain.<ref>[[#Neba|Neba]] 109–11.</ref> Douala, Yaoundé, and [[Garoua]] are the largest cities. In contrast, the Adamawa Plateau, southeastern Bénoué depression, and most of the South Cameroon Plateau are sparsely populated.<ref>[[#Neba|Neba]] 111.</ref> According to the [[World Health Organization]] (WHO), the [[fertility rate]] was 4.8 in 2013 with a population growth rate of 2.56%.<ref name=":1" /> People from the overpopulated western highlands and the underdeveloped north are moving to the coastal plantation zone and urban centres for employment.<ref>[[#Neba|Neba]] 105–6.</ref> Smaller movements are occurring as workers seek employment in lumber mills and plantations in the south and east.<ref>[[#Neba|Neba]] 106.</ref> Although the national sex ratio is relatively even, these out-migrants are primarily males, which leads to unbalanced ratios in some regions.<ref>[[#Neba|Neba]] 103–4.</ref> [[File:Maison obus.jpg|thumb|The homes of the [[Musgum dwelling units|Musgum]], in the Far North Region, made of earth and grass]] Both [[monogamy|monogamous]] and [[polygamy|polygamous]] marriage are practised, and the average Cameroonian family is large and extended.<ref>[[#Mbaku|Mbaku]] 139.</ref> In the north, women tend to the home, and men herd cattle or work as farmers. In the south, women grow the family's food, and men provide meat and grow cash crops. Cameroonian society is male-dominated, and violence and discrimination against women are common.<ref name="Freedom House"/><ref name="Human Rights Report"/><ref>[[#Mbaku|Mbaku]] 141.</ref> The number of distinct ethnic and linguistic groups in Cameroon is estimated to be between 230 and 282.<ref>[[#Neba|Neba]] 65, 67.</ref><ref>[[#West|West]] 13.</ref> The Adamawa Plateau broadly bisects these into northern and southern divisions. The northern peoples are [[Central Sudanic languages|''Sudanic'']] groups, who live in the central highlands and the northern lowlands, and the [[Fula people|Fulani]], who are spread throughout northern Cameroon. A small number of [[Baggara|Shuwa]] Arabs live near Lake Chad. Southern Cameroon is inhabited by speakers of [[Bantu languages|Bantu]] and [[Semi-Bantu]] languages. Bantu-speaking groups inhabit the coastal and equatorial zones, while speakers of Semi-Bantu languages live in the Western grassfields. Some 5,000 Gyele and Baka [[Pygmy peoples]] roam the southeastern and coastal rainforests or live in small, roadside settlements.<ref>[[#Neba|Neba]] 48.</ref> Nigerians make up the largest group of foreign nationals.<ref>[[#Neba|Neba]] 108.</ref> Approximately 14,000 non-Africans live in Cameroon, including more than 6,000 [[French people]] and around 1,000 [[Americans]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/outofdate/bgn/cameroon/10294.htm |title=Cameroon (12/99) }}</ref> {{Largest cities of Cameroon}} ===Refugees=== {{Main|Refugees in Cameroon}} [[File:Cameroon Complex Crisis 120625(5) v1.pdf|thumb|250x250px|Map of the [[humanitarian crisis]] in Cameroon]] As of 2025, Cameroon hosted 431,000 [[Refugee|refugees]] and [[Asylum seeker|asylum seekers]], according to [[UNHCR]] figures. Regarding the countries of origin, around 277,888 refugees were from the Central African Republic, 127,090 from Nigeria, and 1,866 from Chad. Political instability and the volatile security situation in neighbouring states, exacerbated by [[Violent non-state actor|non-state armed group]] attacks on [[Civilian|civilians]], have led to mass forced displacement.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025 |title=Cameroon |url=https://www.unhcr.org/where-we-work/countries/cameroon |access-date=11 July 2026 |website=[[United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees]] (UNHCR) |language=en}}</ref> By comparison, Cameroon hosted approximately 97,400 refugees and asylum seekers in 2007. Of these, 49,300 were from the Central African Republic (many driven west by war),<ref name=RCross/> 41,600 from Chad, and 2,900 from Nigeria.<ref name="World Refugee Survey 2008">{{cite news |title=World Refugee Survey 2008 |publisher=U.S. Committee for Refugees and Immigrants |date=19 June 2008 |url=http://www.refugees.org/survey/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081002225617/http://www.refugees.org/survey/ |archive-date=2 October 2008 }}</ref> Kidnappings of Cameroonian citizens by Central African bandits have increased since 2005.<ref name="Musa Gunmen"/> In the first months of 2014, thousands of refugees fleeing the violence in the Central African Republic arrived in Cameroon.<ref> {{cite news |title=Cameroon: Location of Refugees and Main Entry Points (as of 02 May 2014) – Cameroon |work=[[ReliefWeb]] |access-date=8 June 2014 |url=http://reliefweb.int/map/cameroon/cameroon-location-refugees-and-main-entry-points-02-may-2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714220137/http://reliefweb.int/map/cameroon/cameroon-location-refugees-and-main-entry-points-02-may-2014 |archive-date=14 July 2014}} </ref> On 4 June 2014, AlertNet reported: {{blockquote| Almost 90,000 people have fled to neighbouring Cameroon since December and up to 2,000 a week, mostly women and children, are still crossing the border, the United Nations said. "Women and children are arriving in Cameroon in a shocking state, after weeks, sometimes months, on the road, foraging for food," said [[Ertharin Cousin]], executive director of the [[World Food Programme]] (WFP).<ref> {{cite web |last=Nguyen |first=Katie |title=Cameroon: Starving, Exhausted CAR Refugees Stream Into Cameroon – UN |work=allAfrica.com |access-date=8 June 2014 |date=4 June 2014 |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201406051108.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140610095552/http://allafrica.com/stories/201406051108.html |archive-date=10 June 2014}} </ref> }} ===Languages=== {{Further|Languages of Cameroon}} [[File:Nigeria Benin Cameroon languages.png|thumb|Map of the region's indigenous languages|250x250px]] The official percentage of French and English speakers by the Presidency of Cameroon is estimated to be 70% and 30% respectively.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.prc.cm/en/cameroon/presentation |title=Presentation of Cameroon |access-date=29 March 2023 |archive-date=29 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230329093847/https://www.prc.cm/en/cameroon/presentation |url-status=live}}.</ref> German, the language of the original colonisers, has long since been displaced by French and English. [[Cameroonian Pidgin English]] is the lingua franca in the formerly British-administered territories.<ref>[[#Neba|Neba]] 94.</ref> A mixture of English, French, and Pidgin called [[Camfranglais]] has been gaining popularity in urban centres since the mid-1970s.<ref>[[#DeLancey|DeLancey and DeLancey]] 131</ref><ref name=Niba/> In addition to the official languages, there are between 250 and 280 languages spoken by nearly 20&nbsp;million Cameroonians.<ref name=":4">Kouega, Jean-Paul. 'The Language Situation in Cameroon', Current Issues in Language Planning, vol. 8/no. 1, (2007), pp. 3–94.</ref> The number of languages makes Cameroon one of the most linguistically diverse countries in the world.<ref name=":5">{{cite web |url=https://www.languagesoftheworld.info/geolinguistics/linguistic-diversity-in-africa-and-europe.html |title=Linguistic diversity in Africa and Europe – Languages Of The World |date=16 June 2011 |website=languagesoftheworld.info |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120515155945/http://www.languagesoftheworld.info/geolinguistics/linguistic-diversity-in-africa-and-europe.html |archive-date=15 May 2012 |access-date=4 July 2019 |last=Pereltsvaig |first=Asya }}</ref> In 2017, there were language protests by the Anglophone population against perceived oppression by francophone speakers.<ref name=":3">{{cite web |url=https://calrev.org/2019/02/11/african-powder-keg-cameroonian-conflict-and-african-security/ |title=African Powder Keg: Cameroonian Conflict and African Security |last=Genin |first=Aaron |date=11 February 2019 |website=The California Review |language=en-US |access-date=16 April 2019 }}</ref> The military was deployed against the protesters and people were killed, hundreds imprisoned and thousands fled the country.<ref>[https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/jan/03/deaths-and-detentions-as-cameroon-cracks-down-on-anglophone-activists Deaths and detentions as Cameroon cracks down on anglophone activists] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180103125739/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/jan/03/deaths-and-detentions-as-cameroon-cracks-down-on-anglophone-activists |date=3 January 2018}} ''The Guardian'', 2018</ref> This culminated in the declaration of an independent [[Republic of Ambazonia]],<ref>Ani, Kelechi Johnmary, Gabriel Tiobo Wose Kinge, and Victor Ojakorotu. "Political crisis, protests and implications on nation building in Cameroon." African Renaissance 15.Special Issue 1 (2018): 121–139.</ref> which has since evolved into the [[Anglophone Crisis]].<ref name=":3" /> It is estimated that by June 2020, 740,000 people had been internally displaced as a result of this crisis.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://reliefweb.int/report/cameroon/cameroon-humanitarian-dashboard-january-june-2020 |title=Relief Web Humanitarian Dashboard |date=11 November 2020 |access-date=11 August 2021 |archive-date=10 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210810211913/https://reliefweb.int/report/cameroon/cameroon-humanitarian-dashboard-january-june-2020 |url-status=live }}</ref> ===Religion=== {{main|Religion in Cameroon}} {{bar box |title=[[Religion in Cameroon]] (2022 estimate by the [[The World Factbook|CIA]])<ref name="Religion">{{cite web |title=Religion |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/cameroon/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260115101251/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/cameroon/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=15 January 2026 |access-date=22 May 2024 |date=9 August 2023 }}</ref> |titlebar=#ddd |float=right |bars= {{bar percent|[[Roman Catholicism in Cameroon|Catholic Christianity]]|#7D007D|33.1}} {{bar percent|[[Protestant Christianity]]|#BA55D3|27.1}} {{bar percent|Other [[Christians]]|#B695C0|6.1}} {{bar percent|[[Islam in Cameroon|Islam]]|green|30.6}} {{bar percent|[[African traditional religion|Folk religions]]|brown|1.3}} {{bar percent|[[Irreligion|No religion]]|beige|1.2}} {{bar percent|Other religions|lightgrey|0.7}} }} Cameroon has a high level of [[Religion in Cameroon|religious freedom]] and diversity.<ref name="Human Rights Report"/> The majority faith is Christianity, practised by about two-thirds of the population, while [[Islam]] is the second largest religion, adhered to by just under one-third.<ref name="Religion" /> In addition, traditional faiths are practised by many. Muslims are most concentrated in the north, while Christians are concentrated primarily in the southern and western regions, but practitioners of both faiths can be found throughout the country.<ref name=IRFR>{{cite web |url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/2010_5/168393.htm |title=July–December, 2010 International Religious Freedom Report – Cameroon |publisher=US Department of State |date=8 April 2011 |access-date=29 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111105101810/http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2010_5/168393.htm |archive-date=5 November 2011 |url-status=live}}<!--note that this is outdated; the CIA Factbook is from 2018--></ref> Large cities have significant populations of both groups.<ref name=IRFR/> Muslims in Cameroon are divided into [[Sufis]], [[Salafi]]s,<ref name="The Economist">{{cite news |title=The veil in west Africa: Banning the burqa: Why more countries are outlawing the full-face veil |url=https://www.economist.com/news/middle-east-and-africa/21692902-why-more-countries-are-outlawing-full-face-veil-banning-burqa |access-date=15 February 2016 |newspaper=[[The Economist]] |date=13 February 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160214211305/http://www.economist.com/news/middle-east-and-africa/21692902-why-more-countries-are-outlawing-full-face-veil-banning-burqa |archive-date=14 February 2016 }}</ref> [[Shia]]s, and [[non-denominational Muslims]].<ref name="The Economist"/><ref>Pew Forum on Religious & Public life. 9 August 2012. Retrieved 29 October 2013</ref> [[File:Yaoundé_Cathédrale.jpg|left|thumb|[[Our Lady of Victories Cathedral, Yaoundé|Our Lady of Victories Cathedral]], a [[Catholic Church|Catholic]] Church in [[Yaoundé]]]] People from the North-West and South-West provinces, which used to be a part of [[British Cameroons]], have the highest proportion of Protestants. The French-speaking regions of the southern and western regions are largely Catholic.<ref name=IRFR/> Southern ethnic groups predominantly follow Christian or traditional African [[animist]] beliefs or a [[syncretic]] combination of the two. People widely believe in witchcraft, and the government outlaws such practices.<ref name=Geschiere/> Suspected witches are often subject to mob violence.<ref name="Human Rights Report"/> The Islamist jihadist group [[Ansar ul Islam (Western Africa)|Ansar al-Islam]] has been reported as operating in North Cameroon.<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-22538888 Boko Haram timeline: From preachers to slave raiders] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181114221630/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-22538888 |date=14 November 2018}}. BBC News. 15 May 2013. retrieved 19 June 2013</ref> [[File:LamidoGrandMosque.jpg|thumb|[[Lamido Grand Mosque]] in [[Ngaoundéré]]]] In the northern regions, the locally dominant [[Fulani]] ethnic group is almost completely Muslim, but the overall population is fairly evenly divided among Muslims, Christians, and followers of indigenous religious beliefs (called ''[[Kirdi]]'' ("pagan") by the Fulani).<ref name=IRFR/> The [[Bamum people|Bamum]] ethnic group of the West Region is largely Muslim.<ref name=IRFR/> Native traditional religions are practised in rural areas throughout the country but rarely are practised publicly in cities, in part because many indigenous religious groups are intrinsically local.<ref name=IRFR/> ===Education and health=== {{main|Education in Cameroon|Health in Cameroon}} [[File:Cameroonian school children gather around U.S. Army Master Sgt. John Reid, center, for a group photo near Douala, Cameroon, March 19, 2014, during Central Accord 14 140319-A-PP104-039.jpg|thumb|School children in Cameroon in 2014]] In 2013, the total adult [[literacy]] rate in Cameroon was estimated to be 71.3%. Among youths aged 15–24, the literacy rate was 85.4% for males and 76.4% for females.<ref name=":0">{{cite news |url=https://www.unicef.org/infobycountry/cameroon_statistics.html |title=Statistics |work=UNICEF |access-date=4 February 2018 |language=en-US |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171224101348/https://www.unicef.org/infobycountry/cameroon_statistics.html |archive-date=24 December 2017 }}</ref> Most children have access to state-run schools that are cheaper than private and religious facilities.<ref name="Mbaku 15">[[#Mbaku|Mbaku]] 15.</ref> The educational system is a mixture of British and French precedents,<ref>[[#DeLancey|DeLancey and DeLancey]] 105–6.</ref> with most instruction in English or French.<ref>[[#Mbaku|Mbaku]] 16.</ref> Cameroon has one of the highest school attendance rates in Africa.<ref name="Mbaku 15" /> Girls attend school less regularly than boys do because of cultural attitudes, domestic duties, early marriage, pregnancy, and sexual harassment. Although attendance rates are higher in the south,<ref name="Mbaku 15"/> a disproportionate number of teachers are stationed there, leaving northern schools chronically understaffed.<ref name="Human Rights Report"/> In 2013, the primary school enrollment rate was 93.5%.<ref name=":0" /> School attendance in Cameroon is also affected by [[child labour]]. Indeed, the [[United States Department of Labor]] Findings on the Worst Forms of Child Labor reported that 56% of children aged 5 to 14 were working children and that almost 53% of children aged 7 to 14 combined work and school.<ref>[http://www.dol.gov/ilab/reports/child-labor/cameroon.htm 2013 Findings on the Worst Forms of Child Labor -Cameroon] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150303052129/http://www.dol.gov/ilab/reports/child-labor/cameroon.htm |date=3 March 2015 }}. Dol.gov. Retrieved 29 June 2015.</ref> In December 2014, a ''[[List of Goods Produced by Child Labor or Forced Labor]]'' issued by the [[Bureau of International Labor Affairs]] mentioned Cameroon among the countries that resorted to child labor in the production of cocoa.<ref>[http://www.dol.gov/ilab/reports/child-labor/list-of-goods/ List of Goods Produced by Child Labor or Forced Labor] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150610003351/http://www.dol.gov/ilab/reports/child-labor/list-of-goods/ |date=10 June 2015}}. Dol.gov. Retrieved 29 June 2015.</ref> [[File:Life expectancy of Cameroon.svg|thumb|Life expectancy in Cameroon|upright=1.2]] The quality of health care is generally low.<ref name = "yqheor">[[#DeLancey|DeLancey and DeLancey]] 21.</ref> Life expectancy at birth is estimated to be 56 years in 2012, with 48 healthy life years expected.<ref name=":1">{{cite web |url=https://www.who.int/gho/countries/cmr.pdf?ua=1 |title=Cameroon: WHO Statistical Profile |date=January 2015 |website=World Health Organization |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170321113025/http://www.who.int/gho/countries/cmr.pdf?ua=1 |archive-date=21 March 2017 }}</ref> Fertility rate remains high in Cameroon with an average of 4.8 births per woman and an average mother's age of 19.7 years old at first birth.<ref name=":1" /> In Cameroon, there is only one doctor for every 5,000 people, according to the WHO.<ref>{{cite news |title=3 medical marvels saving lives |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2013/11/17/health/cnnheroes-medical-marvels/index.html |access-date=18 November 2013 |newspaper=CNN |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131122034216/http://edition.cnn.com/2013/11/17/health/cnnheroes-medical-marvels/index.html |archive-date=22 November 2013 }}</ref> In 2014, just 4.1% of total GDP expenditure was allocated to healthcare.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://data.un.org/CountryProfile.aspx?crName=cameroon |title=UNdata {{!}} country profile {{!}} Cameroon |website=data.un.org |access-date=4 February 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161104003329/http://data.un.org/CountryProfile.aspx?crName=cameroon |archive-date=4 November 2016 }}</ref> Due to financial cuts in the health care system, there are few professionals. Doctors and nurses who were trained in Cameroon emigrate because in Cameroon the payment is poor while the workload is high. Nurses are unemployed even though their help is needed. Some of them help out voluntarily so they will not lose their skills.<ref>{{cite web |title=The need is so great |author=Rose Futrih N. Njini |work=D+C |publisher=D+C Development and Cooperation/ dandc.eu |date=December 2012 |url=http://www.dandc.eu/en/article/cameroon-too-many-nurses-and-doctors-lack-perspective |access-date=27 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130624235243/http://www.dandc.eu/en/article/cameroon-too-many-nurses-and-doctors-lack-perspective |archive-date=24 June 2013 }}</ref> Outside the major cities, facilities are often dirty and poorly equipped.<ref name="West 64">[[#West|West]] 64.</ref> In 2012, the top three deadly diseases were [[HIV/AIDS]], [[lower respiratory tract infection]], and [[diarrhea]]l diseases.<ref name=":1" /> Endemic diseases include [[dengue fever]], [[filariasis]], [[leishmaniasis]], [[malaria]], [[meningitis]], [[schistosomiasis]], and [[African trypanosomiasis|sleeping sickness]].<ref>[[#West|West]] 58–60.</ref> The HIV/AIDS prevalence rate in 2016 was estimated at 3.8% for those aged 15–49,<ref name=":2">{{cite web |url=http://www.unaids.org/en/regionscountries/countries/cameroon |title=Cameroon |website=www.unaids.org |access-date=4 February 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171223042316/http://www.unaids.org/en/regionscountries/countries/cameroon |archive-date=23 December 2017 }}</ref> although a strong stigma against the illness keeps the number of reported cases artificially low.<ref name = "yqheor"/> 46,000 children under age 14 were estimated to be living with HIV in 2016. In Cameroon, 58% of those living with HIV know their status, and just 37% receive [[Management of HIV/AIDS|ARV]] treatment. In 2016, 29,000 deaths due to AIDS occurred in both adults and children.<ref name=":2" /> [[Breast ironing]], a traditional practice that is prevalent in Cameroon, may affect girls' health.<ref>Joe, Randy. (23 June 2006) [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/5107360.stm Africa | Cameroon girls battle 'breast ironing'] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070211233459/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/5107360.stm |date=11 February 2007}}. BBC News. Retrieved 29 June 2015.</ref><ref>[http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p01pgpzf BBC World Service – Outlook, Fighting 'Breast Ironing' in Cameroon] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140120111044/http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p01pgpzf |date=20 January 2014}}. Bbc.co.uk (16 January 2014). Retrieved 29 June 2015.</ref><ref>[http://www.channel4.com/news/breast-ironing-fgm-victim-girls-chest-cameroon-uk Campaigners warn of 'breast ironing' in the UK – Channel 4 News] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140820113942/http://www.channel4.com/news/breast-ironing-fgm-victim-girls-chest-cameroon-uk |date=20 August 2014 }}. Channel4.com (18 April 2014). Retrieved 29 June 2015.</ref><ref>Bawe, Rosaline Ngunshi (24 August 2011) [http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/HRBodies/CEDAW/HarmfulPractices/GenderEmpowermentandDevelopment.pdf Breast Ironing: A harmful traditional practice in Cameroon] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150226024853/http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/HRBodies/CEDAW/HarmfulPractices/GenderEmpowermentandDevelopment.pdf |date=26 February 2015}}. Gender Empowerment and Development(GeED)</ref> [[Female genital mutilation]] (FGM), while not widespread, is practised among some populations; according to a 2013 UNICEF report,<ref name="UNICEF2013p27">[http://www.unicef.org/media/files/FGCM_Lo_res.pdf UNICEF 2013] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150405083031/http://www.unicef.org/media/files/FGCM_Lo_res.pdf |date=5 April 2015 }}, p. 27.</ref> 1% of women in Cameroon have undergone FGM. Also impacting women's and girls' health, the contraceptive prevalence rate is estimated to be just 34.4% in 2014. [[Traditional medicine|Traditional healers]] remain a popular alternative to [[evidence-based medicine]].<ref name="Lantum" /> In the 2024 Global Hunger Index (GHI), Cameroon ranks 79th out of 127 countries with sufficient data. Cameroon's GHI score is 18.3, which is considered moderate.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Global Hunger Index Scores by 2024 GHI Rank |url=https://www.globalhungerindex.org/ranking.html |access-date=13 December 2024 |website=Global Hunger Index (GHI) - peer-reviewed annual publication designed to comprehensively measure and track hunger at the global, regional, and country levels |language=en }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Culture== {{main|Culture of Cameroon}} ===Music and dance=== {{further|Public holidays in Cameroon}} [[File:Baka dancers June 2006.jpg|thumb|upright|Dancers greet visitors to the East Region, 2006.]] [[Music of Cameroon|Music]] and [[dance in Cameroon|dance]] are integral parts of Cameroonian ceremonies, festivals, social gatherings, and storytelling.<ref>[[#Mbaku|Mbaku]] 189</ref><ref name="West 18"/> Traditional dances are highly choreographed with men and women often participating separately.<ref>[[#Mbaku|Mbaku]] 204.</ref> The dances' purposes range from pure entertainment to religious devotion.<ref name="West 18">[[#West|West]] 18.</ref> Traditionally, music is transmitted orally. In a typical performance, a chorus of singers echoes a soloist.<ref name="Mbaku 189">[[#Mbaku|Mbaku]] 189.</ref> Musical accompaniment may be as simple as clapping hands and stamping feet,<ref>[[#Mbaku|Mbaku]] 191.</ref> but traditional instruments include bells worn by dancers, clappers, drums, and [[talking drum]]s, flutes, horns, rattles, scrapers, stringed instruments, whistles, and xylophones; combinations of these vary by ethnic group and region. Some performers sing complete songs alone, accompanied by a harplike instrument.<ref name="Mbaku 189"/><ref>[[#West|West]] 18–9.</ref> Popular music styles include [[ambasse bey]] of the coast, [[assiko]] of the Bassa, [[mangambeu]] of the [[Bamileke|Bangangte]], and [[tsamassi]] of the Bamileke.<ref>[[#DeLancey|DeLancey and DeLancey]] 184.</ref> [[Music of Nigeria|Nigerian music]] has influenced Anglophone Cameroonian performers, and [[Prince Nico Mbarga]]'s [[highlife]] hit "[[Sweet Mother]]" is the top-selling African record in history.<ref>[[#Mbaku|Mbaku]] 200.</ref> The two most popular music styles are [[makossa]] and [[bikutsi]]. Makossa developed in Douala and mixes folk music, highlife, [[Soul music|soul]], and [[Soukous|Congo music]]. Performers such as [[Manu Dibango]], [[Francis Bebey]], [[Moni Bilé]], and [[Petit-Pays]] popularised the style worldwide in the 1970s and 1980s. Bikutsi originated as war music among the Ewondo. Artists such as [[Anne-Marie Nzié]] developed it into popular dance music beginning in the 1940s, and performers such as [[Mama Ohandja]] and [[Les Têtes Brulées]] popularised it internationally during the 1960s, 1970s, and 1980s.<ref>[[#DeLancey|DeLancey and DeLancey]] 51</ref><ref name= Nkolo/> ===Holidays=== {{further|Public holidays in Cameroon}} The most notable holiday associated with patriotism in Cameroon is [[National Day (Cameroon)|National Day]], also called Unity Day. Among the most notable religious holidays are [[Assumption of Mary|Assumption Day]], and [[Ascension Day]], which is typically 39 days after Easter. In the Northwest and Southwest provinces, collectively called [[Ambazonia]], 1 October is considered a national holiday, a date Ambazonians consider the day of their independence from Cameroon.<ref>Keke, Reginald Chikere. "Southern Cameroons/Ambazonia Conflict: A Political Economy", ''Theory & Event'' 23.2 (2020): 329–351.</ref> ===Cuisine=== {{further|Cameroonian cuisine}} [[File:Ndolè à la viande, morue et crevettes.jpg|thumb|Plantains and "Bobolo" (made from cassava) served with Ndolè (meat and shrimp)]] [[Cuisine of Cameroon|Cuisine]] varies by region, but a large, one-course, evening meal is common throughout the country. A typical dish is based on cocoyams, maize, [[cassava]] (manioc), [[millet]], [[Plantain (cooking)|plantains]], potatoes, rice, or [[Yam (vegetable)|yams]], often pounded into dough-like [[fufu]]. This is served with a sauce, soup, or stew made from greens, [[Peanut|groundnut]]s, [[palm oil]], or other ingredients.<ref>[[#West|West]] 84–5.</ref> Meat and fish are popular but expensive additions, with chicken often reserved for special occasions.<ref name="Mbaku 121-2">[[#Mbaku|Mbaku]] 121–2.</ref> Dishes are often quite spicy; common seasonings include red pepper sauce and [[maggi]] mixes.<ref>[[#Hudgens|Hudgens and Trillo]] 1047</ref><ref>[[#Mbaku|Mbaku]] 122</ref><ref>[[#West|West]] 84.</ref> Cutlery is common, but food is traditionally eaten with the right hand. Breakfast consists of leftovers of bread and fruit with coffee or tea. Generally, breakfast is made from wheat flour in different ways such as puff-puff (doughnuts), accra banana, bean cakes and et cetera. Snacks are popular, especially in larger towns where they may be bought from [[street vendor]]s.<ref>[[#Mbaku|Mbaku]] 121</ref><ref>[[#Hudgens|Hudgens and Trillo]] 1049.</ref> ===Fashion=== [[File:Camerounais en tenue traditionnelle.jpg|thumb|upright|Cameroonian fashion is varied and often mixes modern and traditional elements. Note the wearing of [[sun glasses]], [[monk shoe]]s, [[sandals]], and a [[Smartwatch]].]] Cameroon's relatively large and diverse population is likewise diverse in its fashions. Climate, religious, ethnic, and cultural beliefs, and the influences of colonialism, imperialism, and globalisation are all factors in contemporary Cameroonian dresses. Noteworthy Cameroonian dresses include [[Pagnes]], [[sarong]]s worn by Cameroon women; [[Chechia]], a traditional hat; kwa, a male handbag; and [[Gandura]], male custom attire.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cameroon-today.com/cameroon-clothing.html |title=Cameroon clothing – A description of the traditional attire of Cameroon. |website=Cameroon-Today.com |access-date=26 July 2020 |archive-date=4 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200804232108/https://www.cameroon-today.com/cameroon-clothing.html |url-status=usurped }}</ref> Wrappers and [[loincloths]] are used extensively by both women and men but their use varies by region, with influences from [[Fulani]] styles more present in the north and [[Igbo people|Igbo]] and [[Yoruba people|Yoruba]] styles more often in the south and west.<ref>Culture and Customs of Cameroon, 2000, pg. 135, by, John Mukum Mbaku</ref> [[Imane Ayissi]] is one of Cameroon's most prominent fashion designers and has received international recognition.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.journalducameroun.com/en/cameroonimane-ayissi-detremined-to-project-cameroons-couture/ |title=Cameroon:Imane Ayissi {{as written|detrem|ined [sic]}} to project Cameroon's couture |work=Journal du Cameroun |date=7 April 2020 |access-date=2 May 2020 |archive-date=14 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200414150322/https://www.journalducameroun.com/en/cameroonimane-ayissi-detremined-to-project-cameroons-couture/ |url-status=live }}</ref> ===Local arts and crafts=== [[File:Woman weaving baskets near Lake Ossa.jpg|thumb|A woman weaves a basket near [[Lake Ossa]], Littoral Region. Cameroonians practise such handicrafts throughout the country.]] Traditional arts and crafts are practised throughout the country for commercial, decorative, and religious purposes. Woodcarvings and sculptures are especially common.<ref>[[#West|West]] 17.</ref> The high-quality clay of the western highlands is used for pottery and ceramics.<ref name="West 18"/> Other crafts include [[basket weaving]], [[beadwork]]ing, brass and bronze working, [[calabash]] carving and painting, [[embroidery]], and [[Leather crafting|leather]] working. Traditional housing styles use local materials and vary from temporary wood-and-leaf shelters of nomadic [[Wodaabe|Mbororo]] to the rectangular mud-and-thatch homes of southern peoples. Dwellings of materials such as cement and tin are increasingly common.<ref>[[#Mbaku|Mbaku]] 110–3.</ref> [[Contemporary art]] is mainly promoted by independent cultural organisations ([[Doual'art]], [[Africréa]]) and [[artist-run initiative]]s ([[Art Wash]], [[Atelier Viking]], [[ArtBakery]]).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.postzambia.com/post-read_article.php?articleId=8690 |access-date=12 April 2013 |work=The Post |author=Mulenga, Andrew |date=30 April 2010 |title=Cameroon's indomitable contemporary art |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140311124956/http://www.postzambia.com/post-read_article.php?articleId=8690 |archive-date=11 March 2014 }}</ref> ===Literature=== {{main|Literature of Cameroon}} Cameroonian literature has concentrated on both European and African themes. Colonial-era writers such as [[Louis-Marie Pouka]] and [[Sankie Maimo]] were educated by European missionary societies and advocated [[Cultural assimilation|assimilation]] into European culture to bring Cameroon into the modern world.<ref>[[#Mbaku|Mbaku]] 80–1</ref> After [[World War II]], writers such as [[Mongo Beti]] and [[Ferdinand Oyono]] analysed and criticised colonialism and rejected assimilation.<ref name=Fitzpatrick/><ref>[[#Mbaku|Mbaku]] 77, 83–4</ref><ref name=Volet/> ===Media=== {{main|Mass media in Cameroon|Freedom of Speech in Cameroon|Cameroon Radio Television}} Although press freedoms have improved since the first decade of the 21st century, the press is corrupt and beholden to special interests and political groups.<ref name="Reporters">"Cameroon – Annual Report 2007".</ref> Newspapers routinely self-censor to avoid government reprisals.<ref name="Human Rights Report"/> The major radio and television stations are state-run and other [[communications in Cameroon|communications]], such as land-based telephones and telegraphs, are largely under government control.<ref>[[#Mbaku|Mbaku]] 20.</ref> However, cell phone networks and Internet providers have increased dramatically since the first decade of the 21st century<ref>[[#Mbaku|Mbaku]] 20–1.</ref> and are largely unregulated.<ref name="Freedom House"/> ===Films and literature=== {{further|Cinema of Cameroon}} Shortly after independence, filmmakers such as [[Jean-Paul Ngassa]] and [[Thérèse Sita-Bella]] explored similar themes.<ref>[[#DeLancey|DeLancey and DeLancey]] 119–120</ref><ref>[[#West|West]] 20.</ref> In the 1960s, [[Mongo Beti]], [[Ferdinand Léopold Oyono]] and other writers explored postcolonialism, problems of African development, and the recovery of African identity.<ref>[[#Mbaku|Mbaku]] 85–6.</ref> In the mid-1970s, filmmakers such as [[Jean-Pierre Dikongué Pipa]] and [[Daniel Kamwa]] dealt with the conflicts between traditional and postcolonial society. Literature and films during the next two decades focused more on wholly Cameroonian themes.<ref>[[#DeLancey|DeLancey and DeLancey]] 120.</ref> ===Sports=== {{main|Sport in Cameroon}} [[File:Cameroon vs Germany 2003.jpg|thumb|[[Cameroon national football team|Cameroon]] facing [[Germany national football team|Germany]] at [[Zentralstadion]] in Leipzig, 17 November 2004]] National policy strongly advocates sport in all forms. Traditional sports include canoe racing and wrestling, and several hundred runners participate in the {{convert|40|km|mi|abbr=on}} [[Mount Cameroon Race of Hope]] each year.<ref>[[#West|West]] 127.</ref> Cameroon is one of the few tropical countries to have [[Cameroon at the 2002 Winter Olympics|competed]] in the [[Winter Olympic Games|Winter Olympics]].<ref>{{cite web |author=<!-- not stated --> |date= |title=Isaac Menyoli Skis For A Greater Cause- Impossible Moments |url=https://www.olympics.com/en/original-series/episode/isaac-menyoli-skis-for-a-greater-cause-impossible-moments |website= |location= |publisher=International Olympic Committee |access-date=24 October 2025}}</ref> Sport in Cameroon is dominated by football. Amateur football clubs abound, organised along ethnic lines or under corporate sponsors. The [[Cameroon national football team|national team]] has been one of the most successful in Africa since its strong showing in the [[1982 Football World Cup|1982]] and [[1990 FIFA World Cup]]s. Cameroon has won five [[African Cup of Nations]] titles and the gold medal at the [[Football at the 2000 Summer Olympics – Men's tournament|2000 Olympics]].<ref>[[#West|West]] 92–93, 127.</ref> Cameroon was the host country of the [[Africa Women Cup of Nations|Women Africa Cup of Nations]] in November–December 2016,<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/nov/20/africa-women-cup-of-nations-cameroon-opening-ceremony-football |title=Africa Women Cup of Nations kicks off in Cameroon |date=20 November 2016 |newspaper=The Guardian |last1=Shearlaw |first1=Maeve |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161123163325/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/nov/20/africa-women-cup-of-nations-cameroon-opening-ceremony-football |archive-date=23 November 2016 }}</ref> the [[2020 African Nations Championship]] and the [[2021 Africa Cup of Nations]]. The [[Cameroon women's national football team|women's football team]] is known as the "Indomitable Lionesses", and like their men's counterparts, are also successful on the international stage, although it has not won any major trophy.<ref>{{cite web |last=Nwiki |first=Walter |date=24 August 2023 |title=Cameroon |url=https://forgotten-heroines.com/2023/08/24/cameroon/ |website=Forgotten Heroines |location= |publisher= |access-date=24 October 2025}}</ref> Cricket has also entered into Cameroon as an emerging sport with the Cameroon Cricket Federation participating in international matches.<ref>{{cite web |title=Africa Cricket Association |url=https://africacricket.com/read_more_news.php?id=118 |access-date=25 January 2022 |website=africacricket.com |archive-date=25 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220125180153/https://africacricket.com/read_more_news.php?id=118 |url-status=live }}</ref> Cameroon has produced multiple [[National Basketball Association]] players including [[Pascal Siakam]], [[Joel Embiid]], [[D. J. Strawberry]], [[Ruben Boumtje-Boumtje]], [[Christian Koloko]], and [[Luc Mbah a Moute]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://basketball.realgm.com/national/teams/18/Cameroon/nba_players |title=Cameroon NBA Players – RealGM |publisher=Basketball.realgm.com |date= |access-date=5 May 2022 |archive-date=2 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220502204345/https://basketball.realgm.com/national/teams/18/Cameroon/nba_players |url-status=live }}</ref> The former [[UFC Heavyweight Champion]], [[Francis Ngannou]], hails from Cameroon.<ref>{{cite news |last=Morgan |first=Emmanuel |date=21 January 2022 |title=The Fearsome, Quiet Champion |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/01/21/sports/francis-ngannou-ufc-fight.html |url-access=subscription |access-date=29 April 2022 |issn=0362-4331 |archive-date=26 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220426072359/https://www.nytimes.com/2022/01/21/sports/francis-ngannou-ufc-fight.html |url-status=live }}</ref> ==See also== {{portal|Cameroon|Countries|Africa }} * [[Outline of Cameroon]] * [[Telephone numbers in Cameroon]] {{clear}} ==References== === Notes === {{Notelist}} ===Citations=== <references> <ref name=Fanso>Fanso, V. G. (1989). ''Cameroon History for Secondary Schools and Colleges, Vol. 1: From Prehistoric Times to the Nineteenth Century.'' Hong Kong: Macmillan Education Ltd., p. 84, {{ISBN|0333471210}}.</ref> <ref name=Matthews>Matthews, Andy (12 March 2008). "[https://web.archive.org/web/20081206040327/http://www.africanews.com/site/list_messages/16465 Cameroon protests in USA] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081206040327/http://www.africanews.com/site/list_messages/16465 |date=6 December 2008 }}", Africa News. Retrieved 13 March 2008.</ref> <ref name="IRIN">"[http://www.irinnews.org/report.aspx?reportid=57951 Cameroon: New anti-corruption drive leaves many sceptical] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070421180241/http://irinnews.org/report.aspx?reportid=57951 |date=21 April 2007 }}". 27 January 2006. ''IRIN''. UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. Retrieved 6 April 2007.</ref> <ref name=Njung>Njung, GN, Lucas Tazanu Mangula, and Emmanuel Nfor Nkwiyir (2003). ''Introduction to History: Cameroon''. ANUCAM, pp. 5–6.</ref> <ref name=Corruption>"[http://cpi.transparency.org/cpi2012/results/ Corruption Perceptions Index 2012] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131129013918/http://cpi.transparency.org/cpi2012/results/ |date=29 November 2013 }}". Transparency International.</ref> <ref name=Nkemngu>Nkemngu, Martin A. (11 March 2008). "[http://allafrica.com/stories/200803110765.html Facts and Figures of the Tragic Protests]", ''[[Cameroon Tribune]]''. Retrieved 12 March 2008.{{subscription required}} {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080313004646/http://allafrica.com/stories/200803110765.html |date=13 March 2008 }}</ref> <ref name="Amnesty">{{cite web |url=https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/pol10/0001/2006/en/ |title=Cameroon |access-date=6 April 2007 |work=Amnesty International Report 2006 |date=21 May 2006 |publisher=Amnesty International |archive-date=25 October 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161025065226/http://www.amnesty.de/umleitung/2006/deu01/025?print=1 |url-status=live }}</ref> <ref name="State Dept">"[https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/26431.htm U.S. Relations With Cameroon] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190604183549/https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/26431.htm |date=4 June 2019 }} ". United States Department of State. Retrieved 6 April 2007.</ref> <ref name="Freedom House">{{cite book |ref=House |chapter=Cameroon (2006) |url=http://www.freedomhouse.org/template.cfm?page=22&year=2006&country=6935 |title=Country Report: 2006 Edition |publisher=Freedom House |access-date=6 April 2007 |date=13 January 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070930220940/http://www.freedomhouse.org/template.cfm?page=22&year=2006&country=6935 |archive-date=30 September 2007 }}</ref> <ref name="Human Rights Report">"[https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2006/78723.htm Cameroon] ". Country Reports on Human Rights Practices, 6 March 2007. Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, U.S. Department of State. Retrieved 6 April 2007.</ref> <ref name="EHRC">{{cite web |url=https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/IOR41/006/2006/en/ |title=2006 Elections to the Human Rights Council: Background information on candidate countries |access-date=6 February 2007 |date=30 April 2006 |publisher=Amnesty International |archive-date=11 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150311093310/https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/ior41/006/2006/en/ |url-status=live }}</ref> <ref name=Kandemeh>Kandemeh, Emmanuel (17 July 2007). "[http://fr.allafrica.com/stories/200707170411.html Journalists Warned against Declaring Election Results]", ''Cameroon Tribune''. Retrieved 18 July 2007 {{subscription required}}.</ref> <ref name=Lantum>Lantum, Daniel M., and Martin Ekeke Monono (2005). "Republic of Cameroon", ''Who Global Atlas of Traditional, Complementary and Alternative Medicine''. [[World Health Organization]], p. 14.</ref> <ref name="Demographic Yearbook">[http://unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic/products/dyb/DYB2003/Table03.pdf ''Demographic Yearbook 2004''] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121114040712/http://unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic/products/dyb/DYB2003/Table03.pdf |date=14 November 2012 }}. United Nations Statistics Division.</ref> <ref name=Fomensky>Fomensky, R., M. Gwanfogbe, and F. Tsala, editorial advisers (1985) ''Macmillan School Atlas for Cameroon.'' Malaysia: Macmillan Education, p. 6</ref> <ref name=Extremes>"[http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/oa/climate/globalextremes.html#highpre Highest Average Annual Precipitation Extremes] {{Webarchive |url=https://archive.today/20120525195312/http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/oa/climate/globalextremes.html#highpre |date=25 May 2012 }}". Global Measured Extremes of Temperature and Precipitation, [[National Climatic Data Center]], 9 August 2004. Retrieved 6 April 2007.</ref> <ref name=Gwanfogbe>Gwanfogbe, Mathew; Meligui, Ambrose; Moukam, Jean and Nguoghia, Jeanette (1983). ''Geography of Cameroon.'' Hong Kong: Macmillan Education, p. 20, {{ISBN|0333366905}}.</ref> <!--<ref name=Area>"[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2147rank.html Rank Order – Area] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209041128/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2147rank.html |date=9 February 2014 }}". ''The World Factbook''. United States Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved 6 April 2007.</ref>--> <ref name=Green>Green, RH (1969). "The Economy of Cameroon Federal Republic". In Robson, Peter, and DA Lury (eds). ''The Economies of Africa'', p.&nbsp;239. Allen and Unwin.</ref> <ref name="Musa Biya plan">Musa, Tansa (8 April 2008). "[https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSL08308448 Biya plan to keep power in Cameroon clears hurdle] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924132016/http://www.reuters.com/article/2008/04/08/idUSL08308448 |date=24 September 2015 }}". Reuters. Retrieved 9 April 2008.</ref> <ref name="Musa Gunmen">Musa, Tansa (27 June 2007). "[http://www.alertnet.org/thenews/newsdesk/L27787695.htm Gunmen kill one, kidnap 22 in Cameroon near CAR] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070629170646/http://www.alertnet.org/thenews/newsdesk/L27787695.htm |date=29 June 2007 }}". Reuters. Retrieved 27 June 2007.</ref> <ref name=RCross>International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (28 May 2007). "[http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20070613175522/http://www.reliefweb.int/rw/RWB.NSF/db900SID/EKOI-73N32R?OpenDocument Cameroon: Population Movement; DREF Bulletin no. MDRCM004]". ReliefWeb. Retrieved 18 June 2007.</ref> <ref name=Niba>Niba, Francis Ngwa (20 February 2007). "[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/6376389.stm New language for divided Cameroon] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070221172852/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/6376389.stm |date=21 February 2007 }}". ''BBC News''. Retrieved 6 April 2007.</ref> <ref name=Fitzpatrick>Fitzpatrick, Mary (2002). "Cameroon." ''Lonely Planet West Africa'', 5th ed. China: Lonely Planet Publications Pty Ltd., p. 38</ref> <ref name=Geschiere>Geschiere, Peter (1997). ''The Modernity of Witchcraft: Politics and the Occult in Postcolonial Africa''. Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, pp. 169–170, {{ISBN|0813917034}}.</ref> <ref name=Nkolo>Nkolo, Jean-Victor, and Graeme Ewens (2000). "Cameroon: Music of a Small Continent". ''World Music, Volume 1: Africa, Europe and the Middle East''. London: Rough Guides Ltd., p. 43, {{ISBN|1858286352}}.</ref> <ref name=Volet>Volet, Jean-Marie (10 November 2006). "[http://aflit.arts.uwa.edu.au/CountryCameroonEN.html Cameroon Literature at a glance] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110811215426/http://aflit.arts.uwa.edu.au/CountryCameroonEN.html |date=11 August 2011 }}". ''Reading women writers and African literatures''. Retrieved 6 April 2007.</ref> </references> ===Sources=== {{refbegin}} * {{cite book |ref=DeLancey |author1=DeLancey, Mark W. |author2=DeLancey, Mark Dike |year=2000 |title=Historical Dictionary of the Republic of Cameroon |edition=3rd |place=Lanham, Maryland |publisher=The Scarecrow Press |isbn=978-0810837751}} * {{cite book |ref=Hudgens |author1=Hudgens, Jim |author2=Trillo, Richard |year=1999 |title=West Africa: The Rough Guide |url=https://archive.org/details/westafricaroughg0000hudg |edition=3rd |place=London |publisher=Rough Guides |isbn=978-1858284682}} * {{cite book |ref=Mbaku |author=Mbaku, John Mukum |year=2005 |title=Culture and Customs of Cameroon |url=https://archive.org/details/culturecustomsof0000mbak |place=Westport, Connecticut |publisher=Greenwood Press |isbn=978-0313332319}} * {{cite book |ref=Neba |author=Neba, Aaron |year=1999 |title=Modern Geography of the Republic of Cameroon |edition=3rd |place=Bamenda |publisher=Neba Publishers}} * {{cite book |ref=West |author=West, Ben |year=2004 |title=Cameroon: The Bradt Travel Guide |url=https://archive.org/details/cameroon0000west |place=Guilford, Connecticut |publisher=The Globe Pequot Press |isbn=978-1841620787}} {{refend}} ==Further reading== {{refbegin}} * {{cite web |url=http://www.rsf.org/article.php3?id_article=20731 |title=Cameroon – Annual Report 2007 |access-date=7 February 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070526152356/http://www.rsf.org/article.php3?id_article=20731 |archive-date=26 May 2007}} . Reporters without Borders. Retrieved 6 April 2007. * {{cite web |url=http://hdr.undp.org/hdr2006/statistics/countries/country_fact_sheets/cty_fs_CMR.html |title=Cameroon |access-date=6 January 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070113020758/http://hdr.undp.org/hdr2006/statistics/countries/country_fact_sheets/cty_fs_CMR.html |archive-date=13 January 2007}} . ''Human Development Report 2006''. United Nations Development Programme. Retrieved 6 April 2007. * {{Cite EB1911|wstitle= Cameroon | volume= 5 |last= Cana |first= Frank Richardson |author-link= | pages = 110–113 |short= 1}} * Fonge, Fuabeh P. (1997). ''Modernization without Development in Africa: Patterns of Change and Continuity in Post-Independence Cameroonian Public Service''. Trenton, New Jersey: Africa World Press, Inc. * MacDonald, Brian S. (1997). "Case Study 4: Cameroon", ''Military Spending in Developing Countries: How Much Is Too Much?'' McGill-Queen's University Press. * [[Dorothy L. Njeuma|Njeuma, Dorothy L.]] (no date). "[https://web.archive.org/web/20070609152111/http://www.bc.edu/bc_org/avp/soe/cihe/inhea/profiles/Cameroon.htm Country Profiles: Cameroon]". The Boston College Center for International Higher Education. Retrieved 11 April 2008. * Rechniewski, Elizabeth. "1947: Decolonisation in the Shadow of the Cold War: the Case of French Cameroon." ''Australian & New Zealand Journal of European Studies'' 9.3 (2017). [https://openjournals.library.sydney.edu.au/ANZJES/article/download/15186/13370 online] * Sa'ah, Randy Joe (23 June 2006). "[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/5107360.stm Cameroon girls battle 'breast ironing'] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070211233459/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/5107360.stm |date=11 February 2007 }}". ''BBC News''. Retrieved 6 April 2007. * Tsogang Fossi, Richard. Comment « Cameroons » est devenu allemand. Histoire d'une appropriation par la manipulation et par la force. In: Collective (ed.), [https://www.static.tu.berlin/fileadmin/www/10002011/Forschungsprojekte/Aktuelle_Forschungsprojekte/Umgekehrte_Sammlungen_KAM/ATLAS_DE_L_ABSENCE_version_francaise.pdf Atlas de l'absence. Le patrimoine culturel du Cameroun en Allemagne], Berlin 2023, (English working translation [https://www.static.tu.berlin/fileadmin/www/10002011/Forschungsprojekte/Aktuelle_Forschungsprojekte/Umgekehrte_Sammlungen_KAM/ATLAS_DER_ABWESENHEIT_EN_DeepL.pdf online]) Berlin 2023, p. 31-44. * Wright, Susannah, ed. (2006). ''Cameroon''. Madrid: MTH Multimedia S.L. * "[http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2006/02/data/index.aspx World Economic and Financial Surveys] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090211102523/http://imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2006/02/data/index.aspx |date=11 February 2009 }}". World Economic Outlook Database, International Monetary Fund. September 2006. Retrieved 6 April 2007. {{refend}} ==External links== {{Sister project links|voy=Cameroon|Cameroon}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20260115101251/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/cameroon/ Cameroon]. ''[[The World Factbook]]''. [[Central Intelligence Agency]]. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20140324190641/http://www.business-anti-corruption.com/country-profiles/sub-saharan-africa/cameroon/business-corruption-in-cameroon.aspx Cameroon Corruption Profile] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140324190641/http://www.business-anti-corruption.com/country-profiles/sub-saharan-africa/cameroon/business-corruption-in-cameroon.aspx |date=24 March 2014 }} from Business Anti-Corruption Portal * [https://web.archive.org/web/20080704153516/http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/cameroon.htm Cameroon] from ''UCB Libraries GovPubs'' * [https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-13146029 Cameroon profile] from the [[BBC News]] * {{Wikiatlas |Cameroon}} * [http://www.ifs.du.edu/ifs/frm_CountryProfile.aspx?Country=CM Key Development Forecasts for Cameroon] from [[International Futures]] '''Government''' * [https://www.prc.cm/en/ Presidency of the Republic of Cameroon] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110715013604/http://www.spm.gov.cm/index.php?L=1 Prime Minister's Office] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20090805071905/http://www.assemblenationale.cm/ National Assembly of Cameroon] * [http://www.globalintegrity.org/report/Cameroon/2010/ Global Integrity Report: Cameroon] has reporting on anti-corruption in Cameroon * [https://web.archive.org/web/20081210080443/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/world-leaders-1/world-leaders-c/cameroon.html Chief of State and Cabinet Members] '''Trade''' * [https://wits.worldbank.org/CountryProfile/Country/CMR/Year/2012/Summary Summary Trade Statistics] from World Bank {{Cameroon topics}} {{Navboxes |title = Articles relating to Cameroon |list = {{Countries of Africa}} {{African Union}} {{Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC)|state =collapsed}} {{Commonwealth of Nations}} }} {{Authority control}} {{Coord|6|N|12|E|display=title}} [[Category:Cameroon| ]] [[Category:1960 establishments in Cameroon]] [[Category:Countries in Central Africa]] [[Category:Countries in Africa]] [[Category:Countries and territories where English is an official language]] [[Category:Countries and territories where French is an official language]] [[Category:Member states of the African Union]] [[Category:Member states of the Commonwealth of Nations]] [[Category:Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie]] [[Category:Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation]] [[Category:Member states of the United Nations]] [[Category:Republics in the Commonwealth of Nations]] [[Category:States and territories established in 1960]] [[Category:1960 establishments in Africa]] gi4mh63kagmbbji0v7c3iczmy4e1jlb 0 6923 119301 115456 2026-08-13T22:11:19Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260813sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 119301 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Country in the Horn of Africa}} {{Redirect|Erythrea|other uses|Erythrean (disambiguation)|and|Eritrea (disambiguation)|and|Eritrean (disambiguation)}} {{for|the Greek town|Eretria}} {{Use dmy dates|date=May 2017}} {{Infobox country | conventional_long_name = State of Eritrea | common_name = Eritrea | native_name = | image_flag = Flag of Eritrea.svg | image_coat = Emblem of Eritrea (or argent azur).svg | symbol_type = Emblem | image_map = {{Switcher|[[File:Eritrea (orthographic projection).svg|frameless]]|Show globe|[[File:Location Eritrea AU Africa.svg|upright=1.15|frameless]]|Show map of Africa|default=1}} | map_caption = | image_map2 = | national_anthem = {{native name|ti|ኤርትራ ኤርትራ ኤርትራ}}<br />"[[Eritrea, Eritrea, Eritrea]]"{{parabr}}{{center|[[File:National Anthem of Eritrea by US Navy Band.ogg|center]]}} | official_languages = ''None''<ref name="auto3">{{cite web |url=http://www.shaebia.org/constitution.html#CHAP1_ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110503234856/http://www.shaebia.org/constitution.html#CHAP1_ |archive-date=3 May 2011 |title=Constitution of the State of Eritrea |publisher=Shaebia.org |access-date=2 May 2010}}</ref> | national_languages = {{unbulleted list |[[Tigrinya language|Tigrinya]] |[[Beja language|Beja]] |[[Tigre language|Tigre]] |[[Kunama language|Kunama]] |[[Saho language|Saho]] |[[Bilen language|Bilen]] |[[Nara language|Nara]] |[[Afar language|Afar]] |[[Italian language|Standard Italian]] }} | languages_type = [[Working language]]s | languages = {{unbulleted list|[[Tigrinya language|Tigrinya]]|[[Arabic]]|[[English language|English]]<ref name="MOI Eritrea">{{cite web |url=https://shabait.com/2009/10/01/eritrea-at-a-glance/ |title=Eritrea at a Glance |date=1 October 2009 |publisher=Eritrea Ministry of Information |access-date=9 September 2020}}</ref>}} | demonym = {{Plainlist| * [[Eritreans|Eritrean]]}} | ethnic_groups = {{unbulleted list | 50% [[Tigrinya people|Tigrinya]] | 30% [[Tigre people|Tigre]] | 4% [[Saho people|Saho]] | 4% [[Afar people|Afar]] | 4% [[Kunama people|Kunama]] | 3% [[Bilen people|Bilen]] | 2% Beja | 2% [[Nara people|Nara]] | 1% [[Rashaida people|Rashaida]] }} | ethnic_groups_ref = <ref name="Ciaethn">{{cite web | title = Eritrea | url = https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/attachments/summaries/ER-summary.pdf | work = [[The World Factbook]] | publisher = [[Central Intelligence Agency]] | access-date = 10 June 2020 | archive-date = 27 February 2020 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200227144113/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/attachments/summaries/ER-summary.pdf | url-status = dead }}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Eritrea |date=2022-09-23 |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/eritrea/#people-and-society |work=The World Factbook |publisher=Central Intelligence Agency |language=en |access-date=2022-10-03}}</ref> | ethnic_groups_year = 2021 | capital = [[Asmara]] | coordinates = {{Coord|15|20|N|38|55|E|type:city}} | largest_city = [[Asmara]] | government_type = [[Unitary state|Unitary]] [[One-party state|one-party]] [[presidential republic]] under a [[totalitarian]] [[dictatorship]]<ref name="UNHRC">{{cite web|url= http://www.ohchr.org/EN/HRBodies/HRC/CoIEritrea/Pages/ReportCoIEritrea.aspx| title = Report of the commission of inquiry on human rights in Eritrea | website= UNHRC website | date=8 June 2015 |access-date=9 June 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2017/country-chapters/eritrea |title=World Report 2017: Rights Trends in Eritrea |chapter=Eritrea: Events of 2016 |date=12 January 2017 |website=Human Rights Watch}}</ref><ref name="Eritrea’s Silent Totalitarianism - McGill Journal of Political Studies">{{cite web |url=https://mjps.ssmu.ca/2018/02/21/eritreas-silent-totalitarianism/|title=Eritrea's Silent Totalitarianism |first=Asma |last=Saad |date=21 February 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-44771292 |title=Making peace with 'Africa's North Korea'|first=Fergal|last=Keane|work=BBC News|date=10 July 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Taylor |first1=Adam |title=The brutal dictatorship the world keeps ignoring |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2015/06/12/the-brutal-dictatorship-the-world-keeps-ignoring/ |access-date=20 May 2019 |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |date=12 June 2015 |language=en}}</ref> | leader_title1 = [[List of heads of state of Eritrea|President]] | leader_name1 = [[Isaias Afwerki]] | legislature = [[National Assembly (Eritrea)|National Assembly]] | sovereignty_type = [[Eritrean War of Independence|Independence]] | sovereignty_note = from [[Ethiopia]] | established_event1 = [[Eritrean War of Independence]] | established_date1 = 1 September 1961 | established_event2 = ''[[De facto]]'' | established_date2 = 24 May 1991 | established_event3 = ''[[1993 Eritrean independence referendum|De jure]]'' | established_date3 = 24 May 1993 | area_rank = 97th <!-- Should match [[List of countries and dependencies by area]] --> | area_km2 = 117,600 | area_sq_mi = 45,400 <!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]--> | percent_water = 14.1% | population_estimate = 6,274,796<ref>{{Cite CIA World Factbook|country=Eritrea|access-date=22 June 2023|year=2023}}</ref> | population_estimate_year = 2023 | population_estimate_rank = 111th | GDP_PPP = $6.88 billion<ref name="IMFWEOER">{{cite web |url=https://www.imf.org/en/Countries/ERI#countrydata |title=The State of Eritrea |publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]] |website=IMF.org |access-date=1 December 2021}}</ref> | GDP_PPP_year = 2011 | GDP_PPP_per_capita = $1,910<ref name="IMFWEOER"/> | GDP_nominal = $2.25 billion<ref name="IMFWEOER"/> | GDP_nominal_year = 2011 | GDP_nominal_per_capita = $626<ref name="IMFWEOER"/> | Gini_year = | Gini_change = <!--increase/decrease/steady--> | Gini = <!--number only--> | Gini_ref = | Gini_rank = | HDI_year = 2019<!-- Please use the year to which the data refers, not the publication year--> | HDI_change = increase<!--increase/decrease/steady--> | HDI = 0.459 <!--number only--> | HDI_ref = <ref name="UNHDR">{{cite book|title=Human Development Report 2020 The Next Frontier: Human Development and the Anthropocene|date=15 December 2020|publisher=United Nations Development Programme|isbn=978-92-1-126442-5|pages=343–346|url=http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/hdr2020.pdf|access-date=16 December 2020}}</ref> | HDI_rank = 180th | currency = [[Eritrean nakfa|Nakfa]] | currency_code = ERN | time_zone = [[East Africa Time|EAT]] | utc_offset = +3 | time_zone_DST = not observed | utc_offset_DST = +3 | drives_on = right | calling_code = [[+291]] | cctld = [[.er]] | footnotes = {{notelist}} | religion = See [[religion in Eritrea]] }} {{Contains special characters|Ethiopic|compact=yes}} '''Eritrea''' ({{IPAc-en|audio=Ertra.ogg|ˌ|ɛr|ᵻ|ˈ|t|r|iː|.|ə|,_|-|ˈ|t|r|eɪ|-}}),<ref>{{cite Dictionary.com|Eritrea}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{cite Merriam-Webster|Eritrea|access-date=2010-05-02}}</ref><ref>[http://www.iso.org/iso/nl_vi-13_name_change_for_eritrea.pdf ISO 3166-1 Newsletter VI-13] International Organization for Standardization</ref> panji kuti '''Charu cha Eritrea''', ni chalo icho chili mu chigaŵa cha [[Horn of Africa]] ku [[East Africa]], na msumba wake ukuru ku [[Asmara]]. Charu ichi chili na mphaka na [[Ethiopia]] kumwera, [[Sudan]] kumanjiliro gha dazi, na [[Djibouti]] kumwera kwa kumafumiro gha dazi. Kumpoto ca kumafumiro gha dazi na kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Eritrea kuli mumphepete mwa [[Nyanja Yiswesi]]. Charu ichi chili na malo ghakukwana pafupifupi 117,600 km2 (45,406 sq mi), ndipo chikusazgapo Dahlak Archipelago na virwa vinandi vya Hanish. Vinthu ivyo vikukhalapo vya ŵanthu ivyo vikusangika ku Eritrea ni vyaka pafupifupi 1 miliyoni ivyo vyajumpha. Mazuŵa ghano, charu cha Eritrea chili na ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yinandi. Ŵanthu ŵa mitundu 9 ŵakuyowoya viyowoyero 9 vyakupambanapambana, ndipo chiyowoyero icho chikuyowoyeka chomene ni Chitigrinya, ndipo viyowoyero vinyake ni Tigre, Saho, Kunama, Nara, Afar, Beja, Bilen, na Chiarabic. ChiTigrinya, Chiarabic, na Cingelezi ni viyowoyero vitatu ivyo ŵanthu ŵakuyowoya.<ref name="MOI Eritrea" /><ref>{{cite web|url=https://shabait.com/amp/2021/05/01/national-unity-eritreas-core-value-for-peace-and-stability/|title = National Unity: Eritrea's core value for peace and stability}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://shabait.com/amp/2009/10/01/eritrea-at-a-glance/|title = Eritrea at a Glance}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.unesco.org/education/edurights/media/docs/fd48fdd5dc073aa0a88273489a13921296394304.pdf |title=Eritrea Constitution |publisher=UNESCO |access-date=19 August 2021 }}</ref> Ŵanandi awo ŵakukhala mu chigaŵa ichi ŵakuyowoya viyowoyero vya mu banja la Afroasiatic, panji viyowoyero vya ku Etiyopiya ivyo vikuyowoyeka na ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Semite. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Tigrinyas ndiwo ŵakukhala mu vyaru ivi. Kweniso kuli mitundu yinyake ya ŵanthu ŵakuyowoya chiyowoyero cha Nilo-Saharan. Ŵanthu ŵanandi mu caru ici ŵakusopa Cikhristu panji Cisilamu, ndipo ŵanji ŵakusopa visopa vinyake. Ufumu wa Aksum, uwo ukaŵa mu vigaŵa vinandi ivyo sono ni Eritrea na kumpoto kwa Etiyopiya, ukaŵako mu vyaka vya m'ma 100 panji 200 C.E.<ref name="Munro-Hay57">{{cite book |last=Munro-Hay |first=Stuart |date=1991 |url=http://www.dskmariam.org/artsandlitreature/litreature/pdf/aksum.pdf |title=Aksum: An African Civilization of Late Antiquity |location=Edinburgh |publisher=University Press |page=57 |isbn=0-7486-0106-6 |access-date=24 June 2012 |archive-date=23 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130123223427/http://www.dskmariam.org/artsandlitreature/litreature/pdf/aksum.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="Paul B. Henze 2005">Henze, Paul B. (2005) ''Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia'', {{ISBN|1-85065-522-7}}.</ref> Mu vyaka vya m'ma 300 C.E., ŵanthu ŵa mu msumba uwu ŵakamba kuŵa Ŵakhristu. Mu nyengo za pakati, chigaŵa chikuru cha Eritrea chikaŵa pasi pa ufumu wa Medri Bahri. Charu cha Eritrea icho sono chikuchemeka Eritrea, chikaŵako chifukwa cha kukolerana kwa maufumu ghanyake (nga ni Medri Bahri na Aussa Sultanate). Nkhondo ya ku Italy yikati yamara mu 1942, boma la Britain likamba kulamulira charu cha Eritrea m'paka mu 1952. Kuyana na ivyo Wupu wa United Nations ukadumura mu 1952, charu cha Eritrea chikeneranga kujilamulira na nyumba ya malango ya ku Eritrea, kweni pa nkhani za vyaru vya kuwaro na kuvikilira charu, chikaŵa pasi pa Ethiopia kwa vyaka 10. Ndipouli, mu 1962, boma la Ethiopia likawuskapo boma la Eritrea na kupoka charu ichi. Gulu la ŵanthu ŵakujipatura ku charu cha Eritrea likambiska gulu la Eritrean Liberation Front mu 1961 ndipo likarwa Nkhondo ya Kujiyimira palokha ya Eritrea m'paka apo charu ichi chikapokera wanangwa mu 1991. Mu 1993, charu cha Eritrea chikamba kujiyimira paŵekha. Charu cha Eritrea nchimoza mwa vyaru ivyo vindafike pa msinkhu wakulera ŵana. Boma ili lili na chipani chimoza ndipo palije maungano gha vyamalamulo panji gha pulezidenti.<ref name="gi">{{cite web |title=Eritrea |url=http://www.grassrootsonline.org/what-we-do/partnerships/where-we-work/eritrea |url-status=bot: unknown |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080724164739/http://www.grassrootsonline.org/what-we-do/partnerships/where-we-work/eritrea |archive-date=24 July 2008 |access-date=2008-07-24 |work=Grassroots International}}</ref><ref name="Eritrea’s Silent Totalitarianism - McGill Journal of Political Studies" /> Isaias Afwerki wakuteŵetera nga ni purezidenti kufuma apo charu ichi chikapokera wanangwa wake mu 1993. Wupu wakuwona vya wanangwa wa ŵanthu (Human Rights Watch) ukuti boma la Eritrea lili na wanangwa wa ŵanthu uheni chomene pa charu chose. Boma la Eritrea likukana ivyo boma likuyowoya. Ufulu wa vyalo ku Eritrea ngwakupeleŵera comene. Kufika mu 2022, wupu wa Reporters Without Borders ukuwona kuti charu ichi chili na wanangwa wakuluska wose pa charu chose. Charu cha Eritrea chili mu wupu wa African Union, United Nations, na Intergovernmental Authority on Development, ndipo chili na wupu wa Arab League pamoza na Brazil na Venezuela.<ref name="edition.cnn.com">{{cite web |url=http://edition.cnn.com/2013/07/30/world/meast/arab-league-fast-facts/ |title=Arab League Fast Facts |work=CNN |date=18 March 2016 |access-date=5 June 2016}}</ref> == Zina == Zina lakuti Eritrea lili kufuma ku zina lakale la Chigiriki lakuti Nyanja Yiswesi (Erythra Thalassa, kufuma ku lizgu lakuti ἐρυθρός erythros, "chiswesi"). Mu 1890, charu ichi chikachemeka kuti Italy Eritrea (Colonia Eritrea).<ref name="ConnellKillion2010">{{cite book|author1=Dan Connell|author2=Tom Killion|title=Historical Dictionary of Eritrea|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SYsgpIc3mrsC&pg=PA7|date=14 October 2010|publisher=Scarecrow Press|isbn=978-0-8108-7505-0|pages=7–}}</ref> Zina ili likalutilira mu nyengo ya kuwusa kwa Britain na Ethiopia, ndipo likakhazikiskikaso na referendum ya 1993 na dango la 1997.<ref>"Today, 23 May 1997, on this historic date, after active popular participation, approve and solemnly ratify, through the Constituent Assembly, this Constitution as the fundamental law of our Sovereign and Independent State of Eritrea." [https://web.archive.org/web/20161104131633/http://www.eritrean-embassy.se/government-agencies/eritrea-constitution/ The Constitution of Eritrea (eritrean-embassy.se)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161104131633/http://www.eritrean-embassy.se/government-agencies/eritrea-constitution/ |date=4 November 2016 }}</ref> == Mbili == {{main|History of Eritrea}} === Prehistory === Madame Buya ni zina la cisomba ico ŵasayansi ŵa ku Italy ŵakasanga ku Eritrea. Ŵanthu ŵakuti ni visomba vyakale chomene ivyo vikulongora umo ŵanthu ŵakasinthira kufuma ku vinyama vinyake, ndipo vikulongora kuti pakaŵa kukolerana pakati pa ŵanthu ŵakwambilira ŵa mtundu wa Homo erectus na ŵanthu awo ŵakaŵako kale. Viwangwa vyake vili na vyaka pafupifupi 1 miliyoni. Ni viwangwa vyakale comene vya mtundu uwu ndipo vikulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵakwambilira ŵakaŵa ŵanthu. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakugomezga kuti chigaŵa cha Danakil Depression ku Eritrea ndicho chikawovwira chomene kuti ŵanthu ŵasinthe.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://exn.ca/hominids/pleistocenepark.cfm|title=Pleistocene Park|access-date=2 October 2006|date=8 September 1999|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/19991013050335/http://exn.ca/hominids/pleistocenepark.cfm|archive-date=13 October 1999|last1=Chang|first1=Gloria|website=Hunting Hominids|publisher=Discovery Channel Canada}}</ref> Mu nyengo iyo kukaŵa chiwuvi, ŵanthu ŵakwambilira awo ŵakakhalanga mumphepete mwa Nyanja Yiswesi ku Eritrea ŵakaŵa ŵanthu ŵa mazuŵa ghano. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakugomezga kuti malo agha ghakaŵa pa nthowa yakufumira ku Africa iyo ŵanthu ŵakwambilira ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito pakukhala mu vyaru vinyake. Mu 1999, gulu la ŵasayansi ŵa ku Eritrea, Canada, America, Netherlands, na France, ŵakasanga malo agho pakaŵa vinthu vya malibwe na vya obsidian vyaka vyakujumpha 125,000 kumwera kwa Massawa, mumphepete mwa Nyanja Yiswesi. Ŵanthu ŵakwambilira ndiwo ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito visulo ivi pakusanga vyakurya vya mu nyanja nga ni visomba na oyisitara.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://exn.ca/hominids/outofafrica.cfm|access-date=2 October 2006|title=Out of Africa|date=10 September 1999}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=Zarins, Juris |year=1990|title=Early Pastoral Nomadism and the Settlement of Lower Mesopotamia|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_bulletin-of-the-american-schools-of-oriental-research_1990-11_280/page/n32 |journal=Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research|volume=280 |issue=280|pages=31–65|jstor=1357309|doi=10.2307/1357309|s2cid=163491760}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1126/science.1078208 | last1 = Diamond | first1 = J. | last2 = Bellwood | first2 = P. | title = Farmers and Their Languages: The First Expansions | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_science_2003-04-25_300_5619/page/597 | journal = Science | volume = 300 | issue = 5619 | pages = 597–603 | year = 2003 | pmid = 12714734|bibcode = 2003Sci...300..597D | citeseerx = 10.1.1.1013.4523 | s2cid = 13350469 }}</ref><ref name="Blench143144">{{cite book|last1=Blench|first1=R.|title=Archaeology, Language, and the African Past|date=2006|publisher=Rowman Altamira|isbn=978-0759104662|pages=143–144|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=esFy3Po57A8C}}</ref> === Antiquity === {{main|Gash Group|Land of Punt|Dʿmt}} [[File:Qohaito, Eritrea (33628113490).jpg|thumb|Viwunjiko vyamalibwe ivyo vikaŵa mu Qohaito]] [[File:Adulis.jpg|thumb|[[Adulis]] archeological site]] Kafukufuku wakulongora kuti vinthu ivyo vikusangika mu Dambo la Barka ivyo vikalembeka mu 8000 B.C.E. vikulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵakakhalanga mu chigaŵa ichi. Kafukufuku wakulongora kuti mitundu yinandi ya ku Eritrea ndiyo yikaŵa yakwamba kukhala mu malo agha. Mu charu cha Eritrea, ŵanthu awo ŵakafukura vinthu mu Agordat na kufupi na Agordat ŵakasanga vinthu ivyo vikaŵa mu charu cha Gash. Ŵakasanga vinthu vya dongo ivyo vikalembeka pakati pa 2500 na 1500 B.C.E. Pafupifupi mu 2000 B.C.E., vigaŵa vinyake vya Eritrea vikwenera kuti vikaŵa mu charu cha Punt.<ref>Najovits, Simson (2004) ''Egypt, trunk of the tree, Volume 2'', Algora Publishing, p. 258, {{ISBN|087586256X}}.</ref><ref name="independent.co.uk">{{cite news|title= Baboon mummy analysis reveals Eritrea and Ethiopia as location of land of Punt |access-date= 26 April 2010 |work= The Independent|date= 26 April 2010 |url= https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/history/baboon-mummy-analysis-reveals-eritrea-and-ethiopia-as-location-of-land-of-punt-1954547.html|author=Jarus, Owen}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author1=NATHANIEL J. DOMINY1 |author2=SALIMA IKRAM |author3=GILLIAN L. MORITZ |author4=JOHN N. CHRISTENSEN |author5=PATRICK V. WHEATLEY |author6=JONATHAN W. CHIPMAN |title=Mummified baboons clarify ancient Red Sea trade routes |url=http://meeting.physanth.org/program/2015/session45/dominy-2015-mummified-baboons-clarify-ancient-red-sea-trade-routes.html |publisher=American Association of Physical Anthropologists |access-date=25 June 2016 |archive-date=30 July 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160730055118/http://meeting.physanth.org/program/2015/session45/dominy-2015-mummified-baboons-clarify-ancient-red-sea-trade-routes.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> Msumba uwu ukaŵa wakumanyikwa chifukwa cha kupanga na kutumizga golide, vyakununkhira, makuni gha blackwood, ebony, mino gha zovu, na vinyama vyamuthondo. Chigaŵa ichi chikumanyikwa kufuma ku mabuku gha ku Eguputo ghakale agho ghakulongosora za maulendo gha malonda agho ghakaŵako, comenecomene ulendo wa ku Punt uwo ukacitika mu 1469 B.C.E. apo Hatshepsut wakambaso kwenda mu nthowa za malonda.<ref name="Shaw & Nicholson, p.231">Shaw & Nicholson, p.231.</ref><ref name=":210">{{Cite news|url=https://www.worldhistory.org/punt/|title=Punt|newspaper=World History Encyclopedia|access-date=2017-11-27}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite book|title=Pharmacographia|first1=Friedrich August|last1=Flückiger|first2=Daniel|last2=Hanbury|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9781108069304|date=2014-03-20|page=136|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iTTeAgAAQBAJ&q=opone+punt&pg=PA136}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite book|title=In Search of Myths & Heroes: Exploring Four Epic Legends of the World|first=Michael|last=Wood|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=9780520247246|date=2005|page=[https://archive.org/details/insearchofmythsh00mich/page/155 155]|url=https://archive.org/details/insearchofmythsh00mich|url-access=registration|quote=opone punt.}}</ref> Ku Sembel ŵakasanga ukaboni wakuti kukaŵa ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga mu Asmara. Ŵanthu ŵakugomezga kuti ŵanthu ŵa mu tawuni ya Ona ndiwo ŵakaŵa ŵacekuru comene pa ŵanthu wose ŵa ku East Africa awo ŵakaliskanga viŵeto na kulima. Vinthu vinyake ivyo vikusangika pa malo agha vikulongora kuti vikaŵako pakati pa 800 B.C.E. na 400 B.C.E., ndipo vikaŵako nyengo yimoza na malo ghanyake agho ghakaŵako pambere Aksumite wandababike.<ref name="Schmidt">{{cite journal|last1=Schmidt|first1=Peter R.|title=The 'Ona' culture of greater Asmara: archaeology's liberation of Eritrea's ancient history from colonial paradigms|journal=Journal of Eritrean Studies|year=2002|volume=1|issue=1|pages=29–58|url=http://www.africabib.org/rec.php?RID=270036407&DB=p|access-date=8 September 2014}}</ref><ref name="Avanzini">{{cite book|last1=Avanzini|first1=Alessandra|title=Profumi d'Arabia: atti del convegno|date=1997|publisher=L'ERMA di BRETSCHNEIDER|isbn=978-8870629750|page=280|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3zOlYZmJiiAC}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://www.africabib.org/rec.php?RID=270036407&DB=p|title=The 'Ona' culture of greater Asmara: archaeology's liberation of Eritrea's ancient history from colonial paradigms|first=Peter R.|last=Schmidt|date=24 May 2002|journal=Journal of Eritrean Studies (Asmara)|volume=1|issue=1|pages=29–58|via=www.africabib.org}}</ref> ==== Kingdom of D'mt ==== {{main|Dʿmt}} [[File:Leaping Ibex, Ethiopia (2130266960).jpg|thumb|Nyali ya mafuta ya mkuŵa iyo yikasangika ku Matara, ya mu Ufumu wa Dʿmt (cha m'ma 100 B.C.E. panji kumasinda)]] Dʿmt ukaŵa ufumu uwo ukaŵako kwambira mu vyaka vya m'ma 1000 m'paka 500 B.C.E. mu charu icho sono chikuchemeka Eritrea na kumpoto kwa Ethiopia. Pakuti ku Yeha kukaŵa tempile likuru, malo agha ndigho ghakaŵa msumba ukuru wa ufumu uwu. Qohaito, uyo kanandi wakachemekanga msumba wa Koloe mu nyengo ya ku Nyanja ya Erythraean, kweniso Matara, ukaŵa msumba wakuzirwa wa ufumu wa Dʿmt kumwera kwa Eritrea. Ufumu uwu ukaŵa na vyakumweramo maji, viŵiya vyakupwanthirapo, vyakumera, na kupanga vilwero. Pamanyuma pakuti ufumu wa Dʿmt wabwangandulika mu vyaka vya m'ma 400 B.C.E., chigaŵa ichi chikamba kulamulirika na maufumu ghachoko. Ivi vikalutilira m'paka mu nyengo ya Ŵakhristu ŵakwambilira, ufumu wa Aksum ukamba kulamulira.<ref>Pankhurst, Richard K.P. (17 January 2003) {{cite web |url=http://www.addistribune.com/Archives/2003/01/17-01-03/Let.htm |title=Let's Look Across the Red Sea I |access-date=2006-01-09 |url-status=bot: unknown |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060109162335/http://www.addistribune.com/Archives/2003/01/17-01-03/Let.htm |archive-date=9 January 2006}}, ''Addis Tribune''</ref> ==== Kingdom of Aksum ==== {{main|Kingdom of Aksum}} Ufumu wa Aksum ukaŵa ufumu wa malonda uwo ukaŵa ku Eritrea na kumpoto kwa Ethiopia. Likaŵako kwamba cha m'ma 100-940 C.E., ndipo likakura kufuma mu nyengo ya Iron Age ya mu nyengo ya Akshumi m'ma 400 C.E. m'paka mu nyengo ya 100 C.E. Buku linyake (Liber Axumae) likuti msumba wakwamba wa Aksum, Mazaber, ukazengeka na Itiyopis, mwana wa Kush. Pamanyuma, likuru la caru ici likasamukira ku Axum, kumpoto kwa Ethiopia. Ufumu uwu ukamba kumanyikwa na zina lakuti Etiyopiya mu vyaka vya m'ma 400 C.E. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Aksum ŵakazenga vigongwe vikuruvikuru ivyo ŵakasoperangamo pambere Chikhristu chindafike. Yimoza mwa mizati iyi ni Obelisk of Aksum, iyo yili na mamita 27. Ku Ezana (fl. 320-360), pamanyuma pake Aksum wakazomera Cikristu.<ref name="Munro-Hay">{{cite book|last1=Munro-Hay|first1=Stuart C. |title=Aksum: An African Civilisation of Late Antiquity|date=1991|publisher=[[Edinburgh University Press]]|isbn=978-0748601066|page=77|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RlRzAAAAMAAJ}}</ref> Chikhristu ndicho chikaŵa chisopa chakwamba mu charu cha Eritrea, ndipo nyumba yakale chomene ya ŵasembe mu charu ichi, Debre Sina, yikazengeka m'ma 400 C.E. Ni yimoza mwa nyumba zakuluska mu Africa na caru cose. Debre Libanos, nyumba yachiŵiri yakale comene, yikwenera kuti yikazengeka kuumaliro wa vilimika vya m'ma 400 panji kukwambilira kwa vyaka vya m'ma 500 C.E. Pakwamba yikaŵa mu muzi wa Ham, kweni yikasamukira ku malo ghambura kufikako agho ghakaŵa mumphepete mwa jalawe. Mu chalichi lake muli Baibolo lakwengeka na visulo la Golden Gospel, ilo likalembeka mu vyaka vya m'ma 1300. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 700 C.E., Ŵasilamu ŵakwambilira ŵa ku Mecca, awo ŵakaŵa ŵabwezi ŵa ntchimi Muhammad, ŵakachimbilira ku ufumu wa Qurayshi kuti ŵaleke kutambuzgika. Ŵanyake ŵakuti ndiwo ŵakazenga moski wakwamba wa ku Africa, Mosque of the Companions, Massawa. Ufumu uwu ukuzunulika mu buku la Periplus of the Erythraean Sea kuti ukaŵa msika wakuzirwa wa mino gha zovu, agho ghakatumizgikanga ku vyaru vinyake. Pa nyengo iyi, msumba wa Aksum ukaŵa pasi pa mazaza gha Zoskales, uyo nayo wakalamuliranga dowoko la Adulis. Ŵalongozgi ŵa ku Aksum ŵakaŵanga na ndalama zawo na kucitiska malonda.<ref name="Raffaele2007">{{cite journal |first=Paul |last=Raffaele |url=http://www.smithsonianmag.com/people-places/ark-covenant-200712.html?c=y&page=1 |title=Keepers of the Lost Ark?|journal=Smithsonian Magazine |date=December 2007 |access-date= 5 April 2011}}</ref> === Middle Ages === ==== Medri Bahri ==== {{main|Medri Bahri|Habesh Eyalet|Sultanate of Aussa| Dankali Sultanate}} [[File:Medri Bahri.png|thumb|upright|left|Medri Bahri at its height in the 1520s]] Pamanyuma pakuti Aksum wabwangandulika, chigaŵa cha Eritrea chikaŵa pasi pa Ufumu wa Medri Bahri, uwo ukawusikanga na Bahri Negus (panji Bahri Negash, kung'anamura "themba la nyanja"). Pakwamba malo agha ghakachemekanga Ma'ikele Bahri ("pakati pa nyanja na milonga", kung'anamura charu icho chili pakati pa Nyanja Yiswesi na mlonga wa Mereb).<ref>Tamrat, Taddesse (1972) ''Church and State in Ethiopia (1270–1527)''. Oxford: Clarendon Press. p. 74.</ref> Chigaŵa chose cha mumphepete mwa nyanja cha Ma'ikele Bahri chikaŵa pasi pa Adal Sultanate mu nyengo ya muwuso wa Sultan Badlay ibn Sa'ad ad-Din. Pamanyuma, themba la ku Ethiopia zina lake Zara Yaqob likapoka charu ichi na kuchithya kuti Medri Bahri ("Charu cha mu Nyanja" mu Chitigrinya). Msumba uwu ukaŵa na msumba wa Debarwa. [[File:Bahta Hagos.jpeg|thumb|right|upright|Bahta Hagos wakaŵa mulongozgi wakuzirwa wa ŵanthu ŵa Eritrea awo ŵakakanizganga kuwusika na vyaru vinyake, chomenechomene ŵa kumpoto kwa Ethiopia na Italy.]] Kuzakafika mu 1517, Ŵaotomu ŵakathereska msumba wa Medri Bahri. Ŵakaŵa na mazaza pa chigaŵa chose cha kumpoto cha kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Eritrea, kufuma ku Massawa m'paka ku Swakin mu Sudan. Chigaŵa ichi chikazgoka chigaŵa cha Ottoman, icho chikachemekanga Habesh Eyalet. Msumba wa Massawa ndiwo ukaŵa msumba ukuru wa chigaŵa chiphya ichi. Msumba uwu ukati wamba kuwoneka kuti ngwambura kuzirwa pa nkhani ya vyachuma, likuru la boma likasamukira ku Jeddah. Munthu wakwamba uyo wakafika ku Eritrea wakaŵa Francisco Alvares wa ku Portugal. Mabuku ghake ghakulongosora za ufumu wa Tigray, ufumu wa Axum na Barnagais (fumu ya vyaru vya mumphepete mwa nyanja) Mphepete mwa nyanja ya Eritrea ndiyo yikaŵawovwira kuti ŵalutilire kukolerana na chigaŵa cha Tigray uko Ŵapwitikizi ŵakaŵa na malo ghachoko waka. Mu 1541 ŵasilikari ŵa Cristóvão da Gama ŵakafika ku Massawa, ndipo ŵakathereska ŵasilikari ŵa Adal mu nkhondo ya Wayna Daga mu 1543.<ref>{{cite web|last=Pereira|first=Hugo|title=Uma força Expedicionária Portuguesa na Campanha da Etiópia de 1541-1543|url=https://comum.rcaap.pt/bitstream/10400.26/6888/1/Uma%20for%C3%A7a%20Expedicion%C3%A1ria%20Portuguesa%20na%20Campanha%20da%20Eti%C3%B3pia...pdf}}</ref> Mu 1559, Ŵaturuki ŵakayezga kuti ŵapoke chigaŵa cha Medri Bahri, kweni ŵakakanizgika. Ŵakacimbizgika na ŵasilikari ŵa Bahri Negash na ŵasilikari ŵa ku mapiri. Mu 1578, ŵakayezga kuti ŵalute ku vigaŵa vya mapiri na wovwiri wa Bahri Negash Yisehaq, uyo wakasintha ŵabwezi chifukwa cha kulimbana na ŵamazaza. Muwusi wa ku Etiyopiya, Sarsa Dengel, wakacimbizga ŵasilikari ŵa ku Turkey mu 1588 cifukwa ca kuwukira kwawo vigaŵa vya kumpoto. Paumaliro, Ŵaotomu ŵakaŵachimbizga mu cigaŵa caumaliro ca vilimika vya m'ma 1500. Ndipouli, iwo ŵakalutilira kulamulira mumphepete mwa nyanja m'paka apo charu cha Eritrea chikambira ku Italy m'ma 1800.<ref name="MB01"/><ref name="A10-4">Jonathan Miran [https://books.google.com/books?id=PMFVeWTWF0YC&dq=%22resistance+and+pushed+back+by+the+bahr+negash+and+highland+forces%22+%22the+Turks+remained+relatively+briefly+in+the+highlands%22&pg=PA38 Red Sea Citizens: Cosmopolitan Society and Cultural Change in Massawa]. [[Indiana University Press]], 2009, pp. 38–39 & 91 Google Books</ref><ref name="A10-5">Jonathan Miran [https://books.google.com/books?id=PMFVeWTWF0YC&dq=allied+%22who+had+switched+alliances+due+to+power+struggles%22+%22partly+successful%2C+and+in+1589+they+were+apparently+compelled+to+withdraw+their+forces+to+the+coast.%22+abandoned+ambitions+plateau+coast&pg=PA39 Red Sea Citizens: Cosmopolitan Society and Cultural Change in Massawa]. Indiana University Press, 2009, pp. 38–39 & 91</ref> Mu 1734, mulongozgi wa Afar, Kedafu, wakambiska muwuso wa Mudaito mu Ethiopia, uwo pamanyuma ukakhwaska vigaŵa vya kumwera kwa Denkel ku Eritrea. Caka ca m'ma 1500 cikaŵaso nyengo iyo Ŵaotomu ŵakiza mu caru ca ku Nyanja Yiswesi.<ref name="MB01">{{cite book|author=Okbazghi Yohannes|title=A Pawn in World Politics: Eritrea|url=https://archive.org/details/eritreapawninwor00yoha/page/31|year=1991|publisher=University of Florida Press|isbn=978-0-8130-1044-1|pages=[https://archive.org/details/eritreapawninwor00yoha/page/31 31–32]}}</ref><ref>Abir, Mordechai (1968) ''The era of the princes: the challenge of Islam and the re-unification of the Christian empire, 1769–1855''. London: Longmans. pp. 23–26.</ref><ref name="Pankhurstteb">{{cite book|last=Pankhurst|first=Richard|title=The Ethiopian Borderlands: Essays in Regional History from Ancient Times to the End of the 18th Century|year=1997|publisher=Red Sea Press|isbn=978-0932415196|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MQ1CH3-RMe0C&pg=PA391}}</ref><ref name="Aesna">{{cite book |title=In defence of the Eritrean revolution against Ethiopian social chauvinists |date=1978 |publisher=AESNA |page=38|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=idUtAQAAIAAJ|quote=Later in their history, the Denkel lowlands of Eritrea were part of the Sultanate of Aussa, which came into being towards the end of the sixteenth century.}}</ref><ref>Abir, Mordechai (1968) ''The era of the princes: the challenge of Islam and the re-unification of the Christian empire, 1769–1855''. London: Longmans, p. 23 n. 1.</ref> === Mbili yasono === ==== Italian Eritrea ==== {{main|Italian Eritrea}} [[File:Raheita Incident 1898.jpg|thumb|Ascaris wa ku Eritrea, ŵasilikari ŵa ku Italy, pa cimati ca mu 1898]] [[File:Cartolina dei Carabinieri Reali spedita dalla Colonia Eritrea dell'Asmara (1907).jpg|thumb|Kadi la Carabinieri lakufuma ku Italy ku Eritrea mu 1907]] [[File:Asmara - Piazza Roma - Banca d'Italia.jpg|thumb|Piazza Roma in Italian Asmara]] Vyaru ivyo sono ni Eritrea vikaŵa mu nyengo ya nkhondo ya ku Africa. Mu 1869 panji 1870, mulongozgi wa chigaŵa ichi wakaguliska malo agho ghakazingilizga nyanja ya Assab ku Rubattino Shipping Company. Malo agha ghakaŵanga malo ghakusungiramo malasha agho ghakaŵa mu nthowa za ngalaŵa izo zikaŵa mu Suez Canal. Mu nyengo iyo Themba Yohannes IV likafwa mu 1889, Gen. Oreste Baratieri wakakhalamo mu vigaŵa vya mapiri ivyo vikaŵa mumphepete mwa nyanja ya Eritrea, ndipo Italy yikapharazga kuti charu cha Eritrea, icho chikaŵa pasi pa Ufumu wa Italy, chili na ŵanthu ŵanandi. Mu phangano la Wuchale (It. Mu chaka chenechichi, Themba Menelik la Shewa, ilo likaŵa ufumu wa kumwera kwa Etiyopiya, likazomera kuti charu cha Italy chiŵe pasi pa maboma gha Bogos, Hamasien, Akkele Guzay, na Serae. Nkhondo iyo wakathereska mathemba ghanyake na kukhomeka pa chitengo nga ni Fumu Menelek II (1889-1913) yikapangiska kuti phangano ili liŵe lakukhozga ŵanthu wose ŵa mu caru ici.<ref>{{cite EB1911 |wstitle=Abyssinia |volume=1 |page=94}}</ref> In 1888, the Italian administration launched its first development projects in the new colony. The [[Eritrean Railway]] was completed to Saati in 1888,<ref>Olivieri, Emilio (1888) [https://web.archive.org/web/20131012032531/http://www.ferroviaeritrea.it/la_ferrovia_massauasaati.htm La Ferrovia Massaua-Saati] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131012032531/http://www.ferroviaeritrea.it/la_ferrovia_massauasaati.htm |date=12 October 2013 }} (report on the construction of the Massawa–Saati Railway). ''Ferrovia Eritrea''. {{in lang|it}}</ref> and reached [[Asmara]] in the highlands in 1911.<ref name=f1>"[https://web.archive.org/web/20080203050814/http://www.ferroviaeritrea.it/contenuti.htm Eritrean Railway] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090413211753/http://www.ferroviaeritrea.it/contenuti.htm |date=13 April 2009 }}" at ''Ferrovia Eritrea''. {{in lang|it}}</ref> Msewu wa Asmara-Massawa Cableway ndiwo ukaŵa utali comene pa caru cose, kweni pamanyuma pake ukabwangandulika na ŵa ku Britain mu Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Caru Cose. Padera pa milimo yikuru ya kuzenga vinthu, maboma ghakaŵaso na ndalama zinandi mu vyakurya. Wakapelekaso wovwiri ku ŵanthu ŵa mu tawuni ya Asmara na Massawa, kweniso wakalemba ntchito ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Eritrea mu maofesi gha boma. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Eritrea ŵakalembeskeka ku usilikari mu nyengo ya Nkhondo Yakwamba na Yachiŵiri. Mwakusazgirapo, boma la Italy ku Eritrea likajura mafakitale ghanyake agho ghakapanganga mabotolo, mafuta gha kuphikira, makaroni, vyakuzenga, nyama, hona, vikumba, na vinthu vinyake vya mu nyumba. Mu 1939, ku malo agha kukaŵa mafakitale pafupifupi 2,198 ndipo ŵanandi awo ŵakagwiranga nchito ku mafakitala agha ŵakaŵa ŵa ku Eritrea. Kweniso ŵanthu ŵa ku Italy na Eritrea ŵakamba kukhala mu matawuni. Mu vyaka vinkhondi, chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu ŵa ku Italy awo ŵakakhalanga mu chigaŵa ichi chikakwera kufuma pa 4,600 kufika pa 75,000.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://shabait.com/2009/11/13/italian-administration-in-eritrea/ |title=Italian administration in Eritrea |date=13 November 2009 |publisher=Eritrea Ministry of Information |access-date=9 September 2020}}</ref> Mu 1922, Benito Mussolini wakati waŵa na mazaza mu Italy, boma la ku Eritrea likasintha comene. Il Duce wakati wapharazga kuti Ufumu wa Italy wababika mu Meyi 1936, Eritrea wa ku Italy (wakasazgikira na vigaŵa vya kumpoto kwa Ethiopia) na Somaliland wa ku Italy vikasazgikana na Ethiopia uyo wakaŵa kuti wapokeka waka. Mu nyengo iyi, ufumu wa Ŵaroma ukakura chomene mwakuti ukaŵa nga ni "Ufumu uphya wa Ŵaroma". Boma la Italy likasankha Eritrea kuŵa malo ghakwendeskera vyamalonda ku Italy. Asmara yikapangika makora chomene mu 1935, ndipo yikamba kuwoneka nga ni "mzinda wa Art Deco" (mu 2017 yikapharazgika kuti ni "Mzinda wa UNESCO wa Charu Chose",) uwo uli na vinthu vyakupambanapambana, malo ghakutowa, na nyumba za ŵanthu wose, nga ni mafilimu, mashopu, mabanki, visopa, maofesi gha ŵanthu wose na gha ŵanthu ŵekha, mafakitale, na nyumba za ŵanthu (kuyana na mabuku gha UNESCO). Ŵataliyana ŵakapanga nyumba zakujumpha 400 mu nyengo ya nkhondo iyo yikaŵa kuti yindachitike. Mu nyumba izi mukaŵa nyumba zikuruzikuru za ku Italy nga ni Fiat Tagliero Building na Cinema Impero. ==== British administration ==== Mu 1941, ŵasilikari ŵa Britain ŵakachimbizga Ŵaitaliya na kwamba kuwusa caru.<ref>{{cite web |last=Law |first=Gwillim |title=Regions of Eritrea |url=http://www.statoids.com/uer.html |website=Administrative Divisions of Countries ('Statoids') |access-date=15 August 2011}}</ref> Ŵabali ŵa ku Britain ŵakaŵika charu cha Eritrea mu mawoko gha ŵasilikari ŵa ku Britain m'paka apo ŵasilikari ŵa vyaru vinyake ŵakeneranga kuzomerezgera kuti charu ichi chiwelere. Pakuti ŵasilikari ŵa vyaru vyakupambanapambana ŵakakolerana yayi pa nkhani ya malo gha Eritrea, boma la Britain likalutilira kulamulira mpaka mu 1950. Pakati pajumpha nyengo yichoko waka nkhondo yikati yamara, boma la Britain likati charu cha Eritrea chigaŵike mu vigaŵa viŵiri. Pakuti boma la Soviet Union likaghanaghananga kuti ŵasilikari ŵa boma la Italy ndiwo ŵazamutonda, pakwamba likakolerana kuti charu cha Eritrea chiwelere ku Italy. ==== Annexation with Ethiopia ==== {{main|Federation of Ethiopia and Eritrea}} [[File:Eritrean Independence War Map.png|thumb|[[Eritrean War of Independence]] against Ethiopia 1961–1991]] Mu ma 1950, boma la Ethiopia ilo likalongozgekanga na Themba Haile Selassie likakhumbanga kutora charu cha Eritrea na Somaliland. Mu kalata iyo wakalembera Franklin D. Roosevelt pa ungano wa Paris Peace Conference na pa ungano wakwamba wa United Nations. Mu wupu wa United Nations, ŵanthu ŵakalutilira kudumbiskana vya vyaru ivyo kale vikaŵa pasi pa Italy. Ŵa Britain na America ŵakakhumbanga kupeleka charu chose cha Eritrea ku Ŵaetiyopiya kuti ŵaŵawovwire pa Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Caru Cose.<ref>Top Secret Memorandum of 1949-03-05, written with the UN Third Session in view, from Mr. Rusk to the Secretary of State.</ref> Gulu la vyaru vya ku Eritrea ilo likucemeka Independence Bloc, likapempha wupu wa United Nations General Assembly kuti ucitenge referendum mwaluŵiro. Pamanyuma pakuti U.N. Mu Disembala 1950, kuyana na fundo 390A (V) ya wupu wakulongozga, charu cha Eritrea chikakolerana na Ethiopia. Pa fundo iyi, ŵakakhumbanga kuti charu cha Eritrea na Ethiopia viŵe pamoza. Eritrea wakeneranga kuŵa na boma lake na makhoti ghake, ndembera yake, na kulamulira vinthu vya mu caru, kusazgapo ŵapolisi, boma, na msonkho. Boma la ku Russia ndilo likaŵa na mazaza pa nkhani za malonda, kuvikilira ŵanthu, ndalama, na mendero. Fundo iyi yikasuskana na ivyo ŵanthu ŵa ku Eritrea ŵakakhumbanga, kweni yikaŵapa wanangwa wa demokilase na kujiyimira pawekha. ==== Independence ==== {{main|Eritrean War of Independence|Flag of Eritrea|Eritrea under Isaias Afwerki}} [[File:Asmara panorama, Eritrea.jpg|thumb|right|A view over [[Asmara]] ]] Mu 1958, gulu linyake la ŵanthu ŵa ku Eritrea likambiska gulu lakucemeka Eritrean Liberation Movement (ELM). Gulu ili likaŵa na ŵana ŵa sukulu, ŵanthu ŵa ku Eritrea, na ŵanthu ŵavinjeru. Gulu ili likacitanga vinthu vya ndyali mwakubisilizga kuti likanizge boma la Ethiopia. Pa Seputembala 1, 1961, Eritrean Liberation Front (ELF), pasi pa muwuso wa Hamid Idris Awate, yikamba kulimbana na ŵasilikari. Mu 1962, Fumu Haile Selassie yikawuskamo ŵamazaza mu charu cha Eritrea na kupoka charu ichi. Nkhondo ya wanangwa ya Eritrea yikatora vyaka 30 m'paka mu 1991, apo gulu la Eritrean People's Liberation Front (EPLF) likathereska ŵasilikari ŵa Etiyopiya mu Eritrea. Ku Eritrea, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakazomerezga kuti charu ichi chiŵe na wanangwa wakujiyimira paŵekha. Gulu la EPLF likapoka mazaza, likakhazikiska boma la chipani chimoza na kukanizga milimo yinyake ya ndyali. Mu 2020, pakaŵavya mavoti.<ref>{{cite news |title='Slaughtered like chickens': Eritrea heavily involved in Tigray conflict, say eyewitnesses |url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2020/dec/21/slaughtered-like-chickens-eritrea-heavily-involved-in-tigray-conflict-say-eyewitnesses |work=The Guardian |date=21 December 2020}}</ref><ref name="Voice of America">{{cite news |title=US Says Eritrean Forces Should Leave Tigray Immediately |url=https://www.voanews.com/africa/us-says-eritrean-forces-should-leave-tigray-immediately |work=Voice of America |date=27 January 2021}}</ref><ref name="Bloomberg">{{cite news |title=EU Accuses Eritrean Forces of Fueling Conflict in Ethiopia |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2021-02-09/eu-accuses-eritrea-forces-of-fueling-conflict-in-ethiopia-region |work=Bloomberg |date=9 February 2021}}</ref><ref name="The Washington Post">{{cite news |title=Massacre by Eritrean troops in Ethiopia's Tigray region may constitute crime against humanity, Amnesty says |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2021/02/25/tigray-eritrea-ethiopia-crime-against-humanity/ |newspaper=The Washington Post |date=26 February 2021}}</ref> Pa Meyi 28, 1993, charu cha Eritrea chikaŵa mu wupu wa United Nations. Nkhondo ya Eritrea-Ethiopia kufuma mu 1998 m'paka mu 2000 yikaŵa na nkhondo yikuru pa mphaka, chomenechomene ku Badme na Zalambessa, ndipo paumaliro yikamara mu 2018. Mu 2020, ŵasilikari ŵa Eritrea ŵakanjilirapo pa Nkhondo ya Tigray ku chigaŵa cha boma la Ethiopia.<ref>{{cite news |title=Eritrea heavily involved in Tigray conflict, say eyewitnesses |url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2020/dec/21/slaughtered-like-chickens-eritrea-heavily-involved-in-tigray-conflict-say-eyewitnesses |work=The Guardian |date=21 December 2020}}</ref><ref name="Voice of America"/><ref name="Bloomberg"/><ref name="The Washington Post"/> Mu Epulero 2021, Eritrea yikati ŵasilikari ŵake ŵakurwa nkhondo mu Ethiopia.<ref>{{cite news |title=Eritrea confirms its troops are fighting in Ethiopia's Tigray |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/4/17/eritrea-confirms-its-troops-are-fighting-ethiopias-tigray |work=Al-Jazeera |date=17 April 2021}}</ref> == Makhalilo gha charu == {{main|Geography of Eritrea}} [[File:Un-eritrea.png|thumb|upright=1.35|Map of Eritrea]] Charu cha Eritrea chili kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Africa. Ku mpoto na kumafumiro gha dazi kuli Nyanja Yiswesi, kumanjiliro gha dazi kuli Sudan, kumwera kuli Ethiopia, ndipo kumwera kwa kumafumiro gha dazi kuli Djibouti. Charu cha Eritrea chili pakati pa latitude 12° na 18°N, ndipo longitude 36° na 44°E. Charu ichi chili pakati pa vigaŵa viŵiri vya East African Rift. Ku Eritrea, kumwera kwa Nyanja Yiswesi, ndiko kuli mphinjika. Virwa vya Dahlak na malo ghake ghakukwerapo somba vili mumphepete mwa nyanja.[[File:Dahlak reliefmap.png|thumb|The [[Dahlak Archipelago]]]] Charu cha Eritrea chili mu vigaŵa vitatu. Kumafumiro gha dazi kwa mapiri agha kuli malo ghakuthukira agho ghali mumphepete mwa nyanja. Malo ghakuthukira agho ghali na vyakumera vinandi, agho ghali pa mtunda wa mamita 3,000, ghali na malo ghakupambanapambana. Malo agho ghakukhala ŵanthu ghakupambanapambana, kufuma ku nkhorongo ya Filfil Solomona m'paka ku majalawe na madambo gha kumwera.<ref>{{cite web|title=Eritrea|publisher=fatbirder.com|url=http://www.fatbirder.com/links_geo/africa/eritrea.html}}</ref> Pa malo agha pakaŵa malo ghakupambanapambana. Malo ghapachanya chomene mu charu ichi ni Emba Soira, agho ghali pakatikati pa charu cha Eritrea. Msumba ukuru wa Asmara, uwo uli ku mpoto kwa charu ichi, na tawuni ya Asseb, iyo yili ku mpoto kwa charu ichi, kweniso tawuni ya Massawa, iyo yili kumafumiro gha dazi kwa charu ichi. Charu cha Eritrea chili mu gulu la vyaru 14 ivyo vili mu wupu wa Global Environment Facility, uwo ukukolerana na mawupu gha pa caru cose, mawupu gha wupu wa wupu wakwendakwenda, na mabungwe gha boma kuti ghasange mazgoro gha mafumbo gha pa caru cose ghakukhwaskana na cilengiwa. Vinthu vikusintha pa malo agho kukulokwa vula, ndipo maji ghakukamuka pachoko, ndipo ivi vingapangiska kuti dongo liswe, maji ghatutuke, chilangalanga, charu chivunduke, na kuzgoka mapopa. Mu 2006, charu cha Eritrea chikapharazga kuti chizamuŵa charu chakwamba pa charu chose chapasi kuŵa na malo ghakuvikilirika. Mphepete mwa nyanja ya makilomita 1,347, pamoza na makilomita ghanyake 1,946 (1,209 mi) kuzingilizga virwa vyakujumpha 350, vizamutoleka na boma.{{wide image|2006-11-01_Asmara-Massawa_01.jpg|800px|align-cap=center|Highlands between [[Asmara]] and [[Massawa]]}} {{clear}} ===Wildlife=== {{main|Wildlife of Eritrea}} {{see also|List of mammals in Eritrea|List of birds of Eritrea}} [[File:Eritrean birds - pelicans in Asmara pound.jpg|thumb|[[Pelicans]] in a pond near [[Asmara]]]] Ku Eritrea kuli vyamoyo vinandi ivyo vikwambiska nthenda iyi. Mu charu cha Eritrea muli nyama zinandi za nyama. Malango agho ghalembeka ghakovwira kuti chiŵelengero chawo chikure mu Eritrea mose. Viyuni vinyake ivyo vikuŵako mazuŵa ghano ni mbunda ya ku Abyssinia, mphaka ya ku Africa, mbunda yakuchemeka Black-backed jackal, mphumphi ya golide ya ku Africa, Genet, chiŵiya chakuchemeka Ground squirrel, pale fox, Soemmerring's gazelle, na warthog. Viyuni ivi vikusangika comene mu vigaŵa vya mumphepete mwa nyanja na ku Gash-Barka.[[File:Eri landscape.jpg|thumb|Eritrean landscape near road to Massawa]] Ŵanyake ŵakuti nkhalamu zikukhala mu mapiri gha mu chigaŵa cha Gash-Barka. Mu vigaŵa vinandi muli viyuni vya mtundu uwu. Mbunda ya ku Africa iyo yili pafupi kumara yikusangika mu chigaŵa cha Denakalia. Viyuni vinyake ivyo vikukhala mu malo agha ni viyuni vya bushbuck, duikers, greater kudu, Klipspringer, leopards, oryx, na crocodiles.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.explore-eritrea.com/Wildlife.htm |title=Wild life in Eritrea page |publisher=explore-eritrea.com |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141112050502/http://explore-eritrea.com/Wildlife.htm |archive-date=12 November 2014}}</ref><ref name="ibis.atwebpages.com">{{cite web |url=http://ibis.atwebpages.com/birdwatching_in_eritrea/wildlife.htm |title=Wildlife of Eritrea |publisher=ibis.atwebpages.com |author=Berhane, Dawit}}</ref> Chinyama cha chimbwi ntchikuru chomene. Mu nyengo yakale, njovu za mu munda wa Afrika zikamanyikwanga kuti zikwenda mu vigaŵa vinyake vya charu. Pakati pa 1955 na 2001 pakaŵavya ŵanthu awo ŵakawona viŵeto vya njovu, kweni ŵanthu ŵakaghanaghananga kuti vikapwetekeka na nkhondo ya wanangwa. Mu Disembala 2001, mu malo gha Dambo la Gash mukaŵa viŵeto pafupifupi 30, kusazgapo ŵana 10. Vikawoneka kuti njovu zikamba kuŵa na ubali wakukolerana na njovu za maolive.<ref>{{cite web |publisher=BBC Wildlife Magazine |date=July 2003 |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/animals/features/300feature1.shtml |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060314104912/http://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/animals/features/300feature1.shtml |archive-date=14 March 2006 |title=The rediscovery of Eritrea's elephants |access-date=28 July 2007}}</ref> Ntcheŵe yakucemeka African wild dog (Lycaon pictus) iyo yili pa ngozi yikusangika kale mu Eritrea, kweni sono yikuwoneka kuti yili kumara mu caru cose ici. Ku Gash-Barka, njoka zinandi zikuwoneka. Viyuni ivi vikusangika mu malo ghanandi, nanga nkhu mapiri. Mu vigaŵa vya mumphepete mwa nyanja, mukusangika visomba vya mu nyanja nga ni dolphin, dugong, whale shark, turtles, marlin, swordfish, na manta ray.<ref name="ibis.atwebpages.com"/> === Climate === Chifukwa cha kusintha kwa nyengo, charu cha Eritrea chili mu vigaŵa vitatu. Vinthu vyakupambanapambana ivyo vikuchitika mu charu cha Eritrea vikupangiska kuti charu ichi chiŵe na mphepo yiwemi. Vinthu vyakupambanapambana ivyo vikuwoneka mu malo agha vikupangiska kuti nyengo yiŵe yakupambana mu charu chose. Mu vigaŵa vya mapiri ivi nyengo njakuthukira chaka chose. Vyaru vinandi vya mu vigaŵa vya mapiri ni vyakomira. Kuyana kwa vula na vyakumera vikupambana mu caru cose. Nyengo ya ku Eritrea yikupambana cifukwa ca nyengo na malo agho kuli maji. Kafukufuku uyo wakachitika mu 2022, wakulongora kuti ndalama izo Eritrea yikwenera kulipira kuti yizgoŵere kusintha kwa vinthu na kugega masuzgo agho ghangaŵapo chifukwa cha kusintha kwa nyengo ni zinandi chomene.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Laville |first=Sandra |date=2022-07-13 |title=Climate adaptation bill for African countries to dwarf health spending |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2022/jul/13/climate-adaptation-bill-african-countries-dwarf-health-spending |access-date=2022-07-14 |website=The Guardian |language=en}}</ref>{{Weather box |location = Eritrea in general, based on 14 cities |metric first = yes |single line = yes |temperature colour = pastel |Jan high C = 27.3 |Feb high C = 28.3 |Mar high C = 29.8 |Apr high C = 32.3 |May high C = 33.3 |Jun high C = 33 |Jul high C = 32 |Aug high C = 31.5 |Sep high C = 32.3 |Oct high C = 31.8 |Nov high C = 30 |Dec high C = 28.3 |year high C = 31 |Jan mean C = 20 |Feb mean C = 20.8 |Mar mean C = 22.5 |Apr mean C = 24.3 |May mean C = 25.6 |Jun mean C = 26 |Jul mean C = 25.1 |Aug mean C = 24.7 |Sep mean C = 24.4 |Oct mean C = 23.8 |Nov mean C = 22.1 |Dec mean C = 20.5 |year mean C = 23.3 |Jan low C = 17.8 |Feb low C = 17.3 |Mar low C = 18.3 |Apr low C = 21 |May low C = 23.3 |Jun low C = 24.4 |Jul low C = 24.4 |Aug low C = 24.5 |Sep low C = 23.3 |Oct low C = 22.3 |Nov low C = 20 |Dec low C = 18.3 |year low C = 20.8 |Jan precipitation mm = 6.7 |Feb precipitation mm = 6.9 |Mar precipitation mm = 9 |Apr precipitation mm = 14.8 |May precipitation mm = 20.3 |Jun precipitation mm = 26.5 |Jul precipitation mm = 100 |Aug precipitation mm = 99.7 |Sep precipitation mm = 25.4 |Oct precipitation mm = 8.6 |Nov precipitation mm = 11.9 |Dec precipitation mm = 9.4 |year precipitation mm = 347 |source 1 = weatherbase<ref name= weatherbase>{{cite web | url = http://www.weatherbase.com/weather/city.php3?c=ER&name=Eritrea | title = Eritrea average climate | publisher = weatherbase | access-date = 6 March 2016}}</ref> |date=March 2016 }} == Boma na ndale == {{main|Politics of Eritrea}} [[File:Defense.gov News Photo 021210-D-2987S-057.jpg|thumb|President [[Isaias Afewerki]] with U.S. Secretary of Defense [[Donald Rumsfeld]], December 2002]] Chipani cha People's Front for Democracy and Justice (PFDJ) ndi chipani chokha chovomerezeka ku Eritrea. Magulu ghanyake gha ndyali ghakupokelereka yayi kuwungana, nangauli dango la ndyali la mu 1997 likusambizga kuti pali vyaru vinandi. Nyumba ya Malamulo yili na mipando 150. Pa nyengo na nyengo, maungano gha chigaŵa ghakuŵapo ndipo ghakuŵavya.<ref name="CIA">{{cite web |date=22 September 2021 |title=Eritrea |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/eritrea/ |work=[[The World Factbook]] |publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency]]}}</ref> Pulezidenti Isaias Afwerki wali pa udindo kufuma apo charu chikapokera wanangwa mu 1993. Mu 1993, ŵanthu 75 ŵakasankhika kuŵa mu wupu wa National Assembly. Lipoti la wupu wa United Nations Human Rights Council likati: "Kwamba nyengo iyo, palije maungano gha boma agho ghacitika, ndipo palije maungano gha pulezidenti agho ghacitika. Kufuma mu 2003-2004, paŵavya maungano gha chigaŵa panji gha chigaŵa. Mu 1993, wupu wakuwona vya wanangwa wa ŵanthu (National Assembly) ukasora Isaias Afwerki kuŵa pulezidenti wakwamba wa charu cha Eritrea. Afwerki wakati wasankhika, wakalutilira kulamulira boma la Eritrea". Pulezidenti Isaias Afwerki wakuyowoya kanandi waka kuti wakuyuyura demokilase iyo wakuyichema kuti "ya ku Western". Mwaciyelezgero, mu 2008 mu nkhani iyo wakapeleka ku Al Jazeera, pulezidenti wakati: "Eritrea wazamulindilira vyaka 30 panji 40, panji kujumpha apa, pambere wandacite mavoti. Ni njani wakumanya?"<ref>{{Cite conference |url=https://www.ohchr.org/Documents/HRBodies/HRCouncil/CoIEritrea/A_HRC_32_CRP.1_read-only.pdf |title=Detailed findings of the commission of inquiry on human rights in Eritrea |publisher=Human Rights Council|conference=Thirty-second session, Human rights situations that require the Council’s attention|date=8 June 2016|id=A/HRC/32/CRP.1}}</ref> === National, regional, and local elections === {{main|Elections in Eritrea}} Pakughanaghanira kuti dango la mtende na ubwezi pakati pa Eritrea na Ethiopia lichali kuleka kufiskika, boma la Eritrea likuwona kuti phangano la mtende likufiskika yayi. Ndipouli, maungano gha chigaŵa ghakalutilira mu Eritrea. Chisankho cha boma chaposachedwapa chinachitika mu 2010 na 2011.<!-- On further elections, the President's Chief of Staff, Yemane Gebremeskel said,<ref>Interview of Mr. Brandon Edmonds, Director of the Office of the President of Eritrea, PFDJ (1 April 2004)</ref> {{cquote|The electoral commission is handling these elections this time round so that may be the new element in this process. The national assembly has also mandated the electoral commission to set the date for national elections, so whenever the electoral commission sets the date there will be national elections. It's not dependent on regional elections.}} As of 2022, no national elections have been held since independence.<ref name=CIA />--> === Military === [[File:Eritrean navy.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Eritrean Navy]], branch of the [[Eritrean Defence Forces]] during ceremony]] Ŵasilikari ŵa Eritrea sono ndiwo ŵasilikari ŵa boma la Eritrea. Gulu la ŵasilikari la Eritrea ndimoza mwa ŵasilikari ŵankhongono comene mu Africa. Mu 1995, boma likakanizga ŵanthu kunjira usilikari. Kuyana na dango, ŵanalume na ŵanakazi awo ŵakunjira usilikari ŵakwenera kuteŵetera kwa myezi 18. Ntheura ŵanthu pafupifupi 5% ŵa ku Eritrea ŵakukhala mu nyumba za ŵasilikari mu mapopa ndipo ŵakuzenga misewu. Dango la mu 1995 ilo likukanizga ŵanthu kugwira ntchito zausilikari likuzomerezga yayi. Kuyana na dango la ku Ethiopia ilo likakhazikiskika mu 1957 apo charu cha Eritrea chikapokera wanangwa, para munthu waleka kujilemba usilikari panji kukana kugwira ntchito zausilikari, wakujalirika mu jele kwa myezi 6 m'paka vyaka 5.<ref>{{cite web|title=Eritrea|url=https://www.wri-irg.org/en/programmes/world_survey/country_report/de/Eritrea|publisher=War Resisters' International|access-date=19 December 2017}}</ref> Nyengo iyo munthu wakulembekera usilikari yingaŵa yitali para pali suzgo. Kwambira mu 1998, waliyose uyo wandafike vyaka 50 wakulembeka usilikari kwa nyengo yitali m'paka wafumiskike. Mu kafukufuku uyo wakacitikira ŵanthu 200 awo ŵakacimbira usilikari, ŵakasanga kuti ŵakateŵetera vyaka 6.5 ndipo ŵanyake ŵakateŵetera vyaka vyakujumpha 12.<ref name="National service in Eritrea">[https://www.economist.com/blogs/baobab/2014/03/national-service-eritrea National service in Eritrea]. ''Economist''. 10 March 2014</ref> === Foreign relations === {{main|Foreign relations of Eritrea}}<!--Please add new information to relevant articles of the series--> [[File:The 23d ICSOE Conference for East Africa in Asmara, Eritrea 2019.png|thumb|Msonkhano wa 23 wa ISCOE East Africa ku Asmara mu 2019]] [[File:Vladimir Putin and Isaias Afwerki (2023-05-31).jpg|thumb|Isaias Afwerki na President wa Russia Vladimir Putin ku Kremlin ku Moscow pa 31 May 2023]] Charu cha Eritrea chili mu wupu wa United Nations na African Union. Charu ichi chili mu wupu wa vyaru vya maarabu pamoza na Brazil, Venezuela, na Turkey. Charu ichi chili na mpando mu wupu wa United Nations Advisory Committee on Administrative and Budgetary Questions (ACABQ). Charu cha Eritrea chili mu wupu wa International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, International Finance Corporation, International Criminal Police Organization (INTERPOL), Non-Aligned Movement, Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons, Permanent Court of Arbitration, Port Management Association of Eastern and Southern Africa, na World Customs Organization. Boma la Eritrea likafumiska nthumwi yake ku African Union pakususkana na umo wupu wa African Union ukutondekera kufiska ivyo likukhumba pa m'paka wa Eritrea na Ethiopia. Kwambira mu Janyuwale 2011, boma la Eritrea lasankha thenga, Tesfa-Alem Tekle, ku AU.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sudantribune.com/Eritrea-appoints-AU-envoy-in,37700 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110224084832/http://www.sudantribune.com/Eritrea-appoints-AU-envoy-in,37700 |archive-date=24 February 2011 |author=Tekle, Tesfa-Alem |date= 20 January 2011|title=Eritrea appoints AU envoy in Ethiopia – ''Sudan Tribune'': Plural news and views on Sudan |work=Sudan Tribune |access-date=17 July 2011}}</ref> Ubwezi wawo na Djibouti na Yemen uli palipose chifukwa cha mphindano za vigaŵa vya Doumeira Islands na Hanish Islands. Pa Meyi 28, 2019, boma la United States likafumiska charu cha Eritrea pa "Chikalata cha Awo Ŵakuleka Kovwira pa Nkhani ya Kuthana na Vigeŵenga". Kweniso myezi yiŵiri kumasinda, ŵimiliri ŵa boma la United States ŵakiza ku Eritrea, ndipo aka kakaŵa kakwamba mu vyaka 14.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.voanews.com/a/first-us-congressional-delegation-in-fourteen-years-visits-eritrea/4813583.html|title=1st US Congressional Delegation in 14 Years Visits Eritrea|work=VOA News|date=4 March 2019}}</ref> Pamoza na Belarus, Syria, na North Korea, Eritrea yikaŵa yimoza mwa vyaru vinayi pera kwambura Russia ivyo vikavoterapo ku United Nations General Assembly kuti vikususka ivyo Russia yikacita ku Ukraine mu 2022.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.npr.org/2022/03/02/1083872077/u-n-set-to-hold-vote-that-would-demand-russia-end-war-in-ukraine|title=The U.N. approves a resolution demanding that Russia end the invasion of Ukraine|work=NPR|first=Peter|last=Granitz|date=2 March 2022}}</ref> ==== Relations with Ethiopia ==== {{see also|Eritrea–Ethiopia relations|Eritrean–Ethiopian War}} {{further|Eritrean War of Independence|Eritrean independence referendum, 1993}} [[File:Independence Day of Eritrea.jpg|thumb|Zuŵa la Wanangwa ni holide yakuzirwa comene mu Eritrea.]] Mphepete mwa charu cha Eritrea na Ethiopia ndiko kuli suzgo likuru. Nkhondo ya vyaka 30 iyo yikachitika pakati pa Eritrea na Ethiopia yikati yamara, ubwezi wawo ukakhora chomene. Nkhondo ya pa mphaka yikananga ndalama zinandi. Cifukwa ca kugaŵikana uko kukacitika pamanyuma pa nkhondo iyi, ŵanthu ŵakakhalanga mu suzgo yikuru ndipo nyengo zinyake ŵakasuzgikanga comene na nkhondo.<ref name="horntension1">{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/3457957.stm |title=Horn tensions trigger UN warning |publisher=BBC |date=4 February 2004 |access-date = 7 June 2006}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/4400580.stm |title=Army build-up near Horn frontier |publisher=BBC |date=2 November 2005 |access-date = 7 June 2006}}</ref><ref name="horntension3">{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/4555892.stm |title=Horn border tense before deadline |publisher=BBC |date=23 December 2005 |access-date = 7 June 2006}}</ref> Pa cifukwa ici, pulezidenti wa Eritrea wakaciska wupu wa UN kuti ucitengepo kanthu pa nkhani ya Ethiopia na makalata 11 agho pulezidenti wakalembera wupu wa United Nations Security Council. Vinthu vikulutilira kuhenipa cifukwa cakuti ŵalongozgi ŵa Eritrea na Ethiopia ŵakulutilira kovwirana mu vyaru vinyake.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Ethiopian Prime Minster tries to undermine the arrest of 20 journalists in the country |work=The Low Ethiopian Reports |url=https://lekreports.com/ethiopian-prime-minster-tries-to-undermine-the-arrest-of-20-journalists-in-the-country/}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=Why are Ethiopian leaders calling Eritrea's president 'Hitler'? |work=TRT News |url=https://www.trtworld.com/africa/why-are-ethiopian-leaders-calling-eritrea-s-president-hitler-34158}}</ref> Mu 2011, Etiyopiya wakapa mulandu Eritrea kuti wakazenga mabomba pa ungano wa wupu wa African Union ku Addis Ababa. Kweni charu cha Eritrea chikakana. Pa Julayi 8, 2018, ŵakalayizga kuti ŵaŵenge pa mtende. Zuŵa lakulondezgapo, ŵakasayina chikalata chakulongosora umo nkhondo ya pa mphaka ya Eritrea na Ethiopia yikamalira.<ref>{{cite news |title=Ethiopia's Abiy and Eritrea's Afewerki declare end of war |work=BBC News |date=9 July 2018 |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-44764597 |access-date=9 July 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Ethiopia, Eritrea officially end war |url=https://www.dw.com/en/ethiopia-eritrea-officially-end-war/a-44585296 |publisher={{Lang|de|Deutsche Welle|italic=no}} |access-date=9 July 2018}}</ref> === Legal profession === Kuyana na sukulu ya malango ya NYU, komiti ya malango ya Unduna wa vya Malango yikulaŵilira ivyo vikukhumbikwa kuti munthu waŵe loya mu Eritrea. Nangauli dango la 88/96 likukanizga yayi kukhazikiska wupu wakuyimira pawekha, kweni palije wupu uwu. Ŵeruzgi ŵa khoti ili ŵakusankhika na ŵanthu ŵa mu vigaŵa ivyo khoti ili lili na mazaza. Pa nkhani ya ŵanakazi awo ŵakugwira nchito ya kuzenga milandu, khoti likumanya makora yayi.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nyulawglobal.org/globalex/Eritrea1.html#LawyersandLegalProfession|title=UPDATE: Introduction to Eritrean Legal System and Research|website=[[GlobaLex]]|publisher=New York University School of Law|access-date=27 December 2017}}</ref> === Human rights === {{main|Human rights in Eritrea}} <!-- For brief summary --> [[File:Eritrea - Government building, Asmara.jpg|thumb|right|Building of regional administration in [[Asmara]]]] Eritrea ni boma la chipani cimoza ndipo maungano gha vyaru vyakupambanapambana ghakusintha nyengo zinandi. Wupu wa Human Rights Watch ukati boma ili lili na wanangwa ukuru chomene pa charu chose. Vyaru vinandi vikususka boma la Eritrea kuti likukora na kukaka ŵanthu mwambura kwenelera, kweniso kuti likujalira ŵanthu ŵanandi kwambura kuŵapa mulandu cifukwa ca ivyo ŵakucita. Mu Eritrea, ŵanalume na ŵanakazi awo ŵakugonana na ŵanalume ŵanyawo mbambura kuzomerezgeka. Gulu lakuzirwa la ŵanthu 15 ŵa ku Eritrea, lakucemeka G-15, kusazgapo mamembala ghatatu gha nduna, ŵakakakika mu Seputembala 2001 pamanyuma pa kufumiska kalata yakupharazga ku boma na pulezidenti Isaias Afewerki yakuchema kuti paŵe kudumbiskana kwa demokilase. Gulu ili na ŵanyake ŵanandi awo ŵakayowoyeka kuti ŵali mu gulu ili, ŵali mu jele kwambura mulandu, mulandu, panji cheruzgo.<ref name="guardian">{{Cite news|title='If we don't give them a voice, no one will': Eritrea's forgotten journalists, still jailed after 14 years The country is ranked worst in the world for press freedom, its writers locked in secret jails. Here, PEN Eritrea profiles the men who fought for a free press, and paid the price | url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/aug/19/eritrea-forgotten-journalists-jailed-pen-international-press-freedom |date=20 August 2015|author= Zere, Abraham Tesfalul |publisher= Guardian}}</ref><ref name="Eritrean G-15 advocacy site">{{Cite news|title= Who are the Eritrean G15? And where are they now?|url= http://www.freeourparents-eritrea.com/who-are-the-eritrean-g15-and-where-are-they-now/|date= 4 October 2014 |publisher= Eritrean G-15 advocacy site|url-status=dead|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20151023043119/http://www.freeourparents-eritrea.com/who-are-the-eritrean-g15-and-where-are-they-now/|archive-date= 23 October 2015}}</ref> Kufuma waka apo Eritrea yikakumanira na Ethiopia mu 1998-2001, wupu wa United Nations ukadandawura chomene pa nkhani ya wanangwa wa ŵanthu. Ŵanthu ŵakuti kanandi boma ndilo likuphwanya wanangwa wa ŵanthu. Wanangwa wa kuyowoya, wa kulemba nkhani, kuwungana, na kuwungana uli na mphaka. Awo ŵali mu visopa ivyo "vindalembeke", awo ŵakukhumba kucimbira mu caru, panji awo ŵakukhumba yayi kunjira usilikari, ŵakukakika na kujalirika mu jere. Mu 2009, ciŵelengero ca ŵakayidi ŵa ndyali cikaŵa pakati pa 10,000 na 30,000, kukaŵa nthambuzgo zinandi ndiposo kukoma ŵanthu kwambura mulandu, ndipo "waliyose" pa "cifukwa cilicose panji cara", kusazgapo ŵana ŵa vyaka 8, ŵanthu ŵa vyaka vyakujumpha 80, na ŵalwari, ŵakakakikanga, ndipo Eritrea wakaŵa "imoza mwa vyaru ivyo vili na muwuso wankhongono comene na kuswa wanangwa wa ŵanthu". Pa nyengo ya nkhondo ya ku Eritrea na Nkhondo ya ku Eritrea na Ethiopia mu 1998, boma la Ethiopia likachitira nkhaza ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵambura vilwero.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www1.american.edu/ted/ice/eritrea.htm |title=Eritrean and Ethiopian Civil War |author=Tracey L. Cousin |work=ICE Case Studies |access-date=2007-09-03 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070911212032/http://american.edu/ted/ice/eritrea.htm |archive-date=11 September 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sudantribune.com/imprimable.php3?id_article=9931|title=A critical look into the Ethiopian elections|access-date=19 February 2007 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20061129063002/http://www.sudantribune.com/imprimable.php3?id_article=9931 |archive-date = 29 November 2006}}</ref> [[File:Asmara, mai jah jah 02.JPG|thumb|[[Asmara]], Eritrea in 2015]] [[File:Gash Barkahouses.jpg|thumb|Traditional Eritrean agudo/tukul huts in a village near [[Barentu, Eritrea|Barentu]]]] Mu Juni 2016, lipoti la wupu wa United Nations Human Rights Council la mapeji 500 likati boma la Eritrea likuchita vinthu nga nkhupeleka ŵanthu ku khoti yayi, kutambuzga, kugwira ntchito ya usilikari kwa nyengo yitali (pa avereji vyaka 6.5), na kuchichizga ŵanthu kugwira ntchito.<ref name="UNHRC"/><ref name= guard>{{cite news|last= Jones | first=Sam| title= Eritrea human rights abuses may be crimes against humanity, says UN |url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2015/jun/08/human-rights-abuses-eritrea-may-be-crimes-against-humanity-un-report| access-date= 8 June 2015 |newspaper=The Guardian|quote=The report 'catalogues a litany of human rights violations by the "totalitarian" regime of President Isaias Afwerki "on a scope and scale seldom witnessed elsewhere"' said ''[[The Guardian]]''date=8 June 2015}}</ref> Barbara Lochbihler wa mu Komiti ya Malango gha Ŵanthu mu Nyumba ya Malamulo ya Europe wakati lipoti ili likulongosora "vinthu viheni comene ivyo vikucitika pa nkhani ya wanangwa wa ŵanthu". Unduna wa vya Kunja wa Eritrea ukazgora na kuyowoya kuti lipoti la komiti iyi ni "vinthu vyambura kupulikikwa" ivyo "ni vyambura maukaboni". Awo ŵakwimira boma la United States na China ŵakasuska umo lipoti ili likayowoyekera. Ŵanthu wose ŵa ku Eritrea awo ŵali na vyaka vyapakati pa 18 na 40 ŵakwenera kugwira ntchito zausilikari. Dango ili likakhazikiskika apo charu cha Eritrea chikapokera wanangwa kufuma ku Ethiopia. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakufumamo mu charu ichi kuti ŵaleke kunjira usilikari.<ref name="National service in Eritrea"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://utdailybeacon.com/news/2014/nov/19/professor-lecture-african-refugees-eritrea/ |archive-url=https://archive.today/20141121095314/http://utdailybeacon.com/news/2014/nov/19/professor-lecture-african-refugees-eritrea/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=21 November 2014 |title=Professor to lecture on African refugees of Eritrea |website=The Daily Beacon }}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/05/06/world/africa/migrants-libya.html | title=Young African Migrants, Enticed by Smugglers, End Up Mired in Libya | work=The New York Times | date=5 May 2015 | access-date=6 May 2015 | author=Kirkpatrick, David D.}}</ref> Pakukhumba kunozga vinthu, mu 2006, ŵalara ŵa boma la Eritrea na ŵimiliri ŵa mawupu ghambura vya boma ŵakawungana na kudumbiskana. Pa maungano agha, ŵakazgoranga mafumbo ghakuzirwa nga ni agha: "Kasi wanangwa wa munthu ni vichi?", "Kasi ni njani uyo wakumanya wanangwa wa munthu?", ndiposo "Kasi wanangwa wa munthu panji wa ŵanthu wose ni vichi?" Mu 2007, boma la Eritrea likakanizga kuti ŵanakazi ŵaleke kupika minthumbo. Mu maungano gha vigaŵa na mu visopa, ŵanthu ŵa ku Eritrea ŵakususka comene ukotoli wa ŵanakazi. Para ŵakuyowoya nthena, ŵakuyowoya kuti chakuzirwa comene ni umoyo wawo ndiposo wanangwa wawo. Kweniso ŵakuŵeyelera ŵanthu ŵa ku mizi kuti ŵaleke kucita vinthu ivi. Mu 2009, gulu lakucemeka Citizens for Democratic Rights in Eritrea likapangika kuti liŵawovwire kuti ŵaŵe paubwezi na boma. Gulu ili lili na ŵanthu bweka na ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵali pafupi na boma. Kufuma waka apo gulu ili likambira, boma la Eritrea lindayezgeyezgepo comene kuti liŵe na wanangwa uwu. Mu Julayi 2019, mathenga gha vyaru 37, kusazgapo Eritrea, ghakasayina kalata yakuyana na iyi ku UNHRC kuvikilira umo China yikucitira na ma Uyghur na visopo vinyake mu chigaŵa cha Xinjiang.<ref>{{cite news |title=Which Countries Are For or Against China's Xinjiang Policies? |url=https://thediplomat.com/2019/07/which-countries-are-for-or-against-chinas-xinjiang-policies/ |work=[[The Diplomat]] |date=15 July 2019}}</ref> ==== Media freedom ==== {{Main article|Freedom of press in Eritrea}} {{See also|Mass media in Eritrea}} Mu 2017 Press Freedom Index, Reporters Without Borders yikati vyalo vya ku Eritrea vili pasi pa vyalo 180. Kuyana na BBC, "Eritrea ndiyo ni caru cimoza pera ca ku Africa ico cilije wayilesi", ndipo wupu wa Reporters Without Borders ukayowoya za wayilesi za boma kuti, "[Ŵakucita] cinthu cilicose cara kweni kutandazga nkhani za nkhondo na za kutinkha caru za boma... Palije nanga njumoza [munyamata wakufuma ku vyaru vinyake] uyo sono wakukhala mu Asmara". Wupu wakuwona vya makani wa boma ukuŵa na mazaza pa nkhani za vinthu ivyo vikucitika kuwaro kwa caru. Ŵapharazgi ŵakujiyimira ŵekha ŵakukanizgika kwambira mu 2001. Malipoti ghakulongora kuti boma la Eritrea ndilo lili na ŵapharazgi ŵanandi chomene mu jele kuluska vyaru vinyake.<ref>"[https://www.nytimes.com/2017/12/13/world/europe/journalists-jailed-committee-to-protect-journalists.html Number of Jailed Journalists Hits Record High, Advocacy Group Says]". ''The New York Times.'' 13 December 2017.</ref> == Administrative divisions == {{main|Regions of Eritrea|Districts of Eritrea}} Charu cha Eritrea chili na vigaŵa 6. Vigaŵa ivi vili kugaŵika vigaŵa 58. [[File:Eritrea, administrative divisions - Nmbrs - colored.svg|thumb|upright=1.3|A map of Eritrea regions. 1. Northern Red Sea, 2. Anseba, 3. Gash-Barka, 4. Central (to right), 5. Southern, 6. Southern Red Sea]] {| class="wikitable sortable" |+ Regions of Eritrea |- ! Region ! Area (km²) ! Capital |- | [[Central Region (Eritrea)|Central]] | 1,300 | [[Asmara]] |- | [[Anseba Region|Anseba]] | 23,200 | [[Keren, Eritrea|Keren]] |- | [[Gash-Barka Region|Gash-Barka]] | 33,200 | [[Barentu, Eritrea|Barentu]] |- | [[Southern Region (Eritrea)|Southern]] | 8,000 | [[Mendefera]] |- | [[Northern Red Sea Region|Northern Red Sea]] | 27,800 | [[Massawa]] |- | [[Southern Red Sea Region|Southern Red Sea]] | 27,600 | [[Assab]] |} <br />Vyaru vya Eritrea ni vyaru ivyo boma likwendeskera. Mu vigaŵa vyose vinkhondi na cimoza, muli vigaŵa vya Maekel/Central, Anseba, Gash-Barka, Debub/Southern, Northern Red Sea na Southern Red Sea. Apo charu cha Eritrea chikamba kujiwusa chekha mu 1993, chikaŵa na vigaŵa 10. Vigaŵa ivi vikaŵa vyakuyana na vigaŵa 9 ivyo vikaŵa mu nyengo ya ukoloni. Mu 1996, vigaŵa ivi vikagaŵikana mu vigaŵa vinkhondi na cimoza (zobas). Malire gha vigaŵa ivi ghakukolerana na malo agho maji ghakusangika. {{clear}} == Transportation == {{main|Transport in Eritrea}} [[File:Eritrean mountai road archietcture.jpg|thumb|Eritrean mountain road]] Mu charu ichi muli misewu yikuruyikuru, maofesi gha ndege, njanji, na madoko. Misewu yikuruyikuru ya mu Eritrea yikucemeka kuyana na umo misewu yili kupangikira. Vinthu ivi ni: vyakwamba (P), vyaciŵiri (S), na vyaciŵiri (T). Msewu wapasi chomene ni wacigaŵa caciŵiri ndipo ukuteŵetera ŵanthu ŵa ku malo agha. Kanandi misewu iyi yikuŵa yakutowa chomene ndipo nyengo zinyake yikuŵa yakutowa. Mu nyengo ya vula, misewu iyi yikuŵa yambura kwenda. Msewu wakulondezgapo uwo uli pachanya ni msewu waciŵiri ndipo kanandi ni msewu wa asphalt wa chigaŵa cimoza. Misewu iyo yikuwoneka nga ni misewu yikuru ni iyo yili kuzengeka na asphalt (mu utali wake wose) ndipo yikwendeska magalimoto pakati pa misumba yikuruyikuru na matawuni mu Eritrea.[[File:Train Asmara Eritrea.jpg|thumb|Steam train outside [[Asmara]] on the [[Eritrean Railway]]]] Mu 1999, mu Eritrea mukaŵa njanji ya mtunda wa makilomita 317. Sitima ya ku Eritrea yikazengeka pakati pa 1887 na 1932.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1KBP7QbalX0C&q=eritrean+railroad+km&pg=PA379|title=Africa South of the Sahara 2003|first=Europa Europa|last=Publications|date=31 October 2002|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=9781857431315|via=Google Books}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.internationalsteam.co.uk/trains/eritrea07.htm|title=Eritrean Railway Revival|website=www.internationalsteam.co.uk}}</ref> Mu nyengo ya Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya pa Charu Chose na nkhondo zinyake izo zikachitika pamasinda, ŵakajara chigaŵa na chigaŵa, ndipo ŵakajara mu 1978. Ŵakati ŵafumako ku wuzga, ŵakamba kuzengaso, ndipo chigaŵa chakwamba chikajulika mu 2003. Mu 2009, chigaŵa chakufuma ku Massawa kuya ku Asmara chikazengekaso. Mu vyaka vyasonosono apa, viŵaro vyakukhalapo na vya magalimoto vyazengekaso. Ntchito iyo yikuchitika sono njakudumura comene cifukwa ca unandi wa vinthu vya njanji ivyo viliko sono ndiposo cifukwa cakuti vikusangika bweka yayi. Ŵakunozgekera kuzengaso. Sitima ya pa mtunda wa makilomita pafupifupi 5 iyo yikayaniskanga Agordat na Asmara na dowoko la Massawa yikaleka kugwira ntchito mu 1978. Kale njanji yikendanga kufuma ku Massawa kuluta ku Bishia kwizira ku Asmara, ndipo pasono yikuzengekaso. Nanga ni mu nyengo ya nkhondo, charu cha Eritrea chikamba kupanga misewu yiphya, kunozga madoko, na kunozga misewu iyo yikanangika na nkhondo. Ntchito yikuru comene njakuti kuzenga msewu wa makilomita ghakujumpha 500 uwo ukakolerananga Massawa na Asseb, kweniso kunozga njanji ya Eritrea. Msewu wa njanji pakati pa dowoko la Massawa na msumba wa Asmara uli kuzengekaso, kweni ŵanthu ŵakwendamo viŵi yayi. Nyengo zinyake ŵakugwiliskira nchito magalimoto gha nthukumusi. == Economy == {{main|Economy of Eritrea}} [[File:En visualize explore tree map hs92 export eri all show 2013 (4).png|thumb|upright=1.50|Eritrea's main exports, 2013]] Mu 2020, IMF yikati GDP ya Eritrea ni $2.1 billion, panji $6.4 billion pa PPP. Kufumira mu 2009, ndalama izo ŵanthu ŵakutumizga kufuma ku vyaru vinyake zikaŵa 32 peresenti ya GDP.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{cite web|title=The State of Eritrea and the IMF|url=https://www.imf.org/en/Countries/ERI|access-date=2021-05-26|website=IMF|language=en}}</ref> ===Mining=== Mu 2013, chiŵelengero chikakwera chomene chifukwa chakuti kampani ya Canadian Nevsun Resources yikamba kugwiliskira ntchito migodi ya golide na siliva ya Bisha, yikamba kupanga simenti kufuma ku fakitare ya simenti ku Massawa, kweniso chifukwa cha ndalama izo makampani gha Australia na China ghakugwiliskira ntchito mu migodi ya mkuwa, zinki, na potashi ya Colluli ku Eritrea.<ref name="Bloomberg 2018">{{cite news|date=2018-08-23|title=Chinese Miner to Start Copper Output in Eritrea by Next Year|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2018-08-23/sichuan-road-bridge-to-start-copper-output-in-eritrea-by-2019|access-date=2020-05-30|newspaper=Bloomberg.com}}</ref><ref name="Mining Technology 2019">{{cite web|last=Lempriere|first=Molly|author2=Molly|date=2019-05-22|title=Mining in Eritrea: could a new potash project spur sustainable growth?|url=https://www.mining-technology.com/features/mining-in-eritrea-potash-project/|access-date=2020-05-30|website=Mining Technology &#124; Mining News and Views Updated Daily}}</ref><ref name="afdb">{{Cite web |title=Eritrea Economic Outlook – African Development Bank |url=http://www.afdb.org/en/countries/east-africa/eritrea/eritrea-economic-outlook/ |access-date=30 December 2013 |publisher=Afdb.org}}</ref> === Agriculture === {{Excerpt|Agriculture in Eritrea}} === Tourism === {{Excerpt|Tourism in Eritrea}} == Ŵanthu == {{main|Demographics of Eritrea}} Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakukolerana yayi pa nkhani ya unandi wa ŵanthu awo ŵali mu charu cha Eritrea. Ŵanyake ŵakuti ŵanthu aŵa ŵalipo 3.600,000 ndipo ŵanyake 6.700,000. Boma la Eritrea lindanozgepo ŵanthu.<ref name="PHS2010_full">{{cite web | title= Eritrea – Population and Health Survey 2010 | website= [[National Statistics Office (Eritrea)|National Statistics Office]], [[Fafo Institute for Applied International Studies]] |year = 2010 | url =https://www.unicef.org/eritrea/ECO_resources_populationhealthsurvey2010.pdf | access-date = 2021-03-03 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20190606121847/https://www.unicef.org/eritrea/ECO_resources_populationhealthsurvey2010.pdf |archive-date= 2019-06-06 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="UNDESA_WPP_2019_total_population">{{cite web | title= World Population Prospects 2019 | website= [[United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs|UN DESA]] |year = 2019 | url = https://population.un.org/wpp/Download/Files/1_Indicators%20(Standard)/EXCEL_FILES/1_Population/WPP2019_POP_F01_1_TOTAL_POPULATION_BOTH_SEXES.xlsx | access-date = 2021-02-28 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210227235642/https://population.un.org/wpp/Download/Files/1_Indicators%20(Standard)/EXCEL_FILES/1_Population/WPP2019_POP_F01_1_TOTAL_POPULATION_BOTH_SEXES.xlsx |archive-date= 2021-02-27 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="COMESA_ERpop_2019">{{cite web | title= Eritrea – Indicators – Population (million people), 2018 | website= [[Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa]] |year = 2019 | url = https://comstat.comesa.int/lqpaqnf/comesa-in-figures-2019?tsId=1000510 | access-date = 2021-02-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210228195303/https://comstat.comesa.int/lqpaqnf/comesa-in-figures-2019?tsId=1000510 |archive-date= 2021-02-28 |url-status=live }}</ref> {{Largest cities | country = Eritrea | stat_ref = [http://www.geonames.org/ER/largest-cities-in-eritrea.html Geonames] | list_by_pop = | div_name = Region | div_link = | city_1 = Asmara | div_1 = Maekel Region{{!}}Maekel | pop_1 = 963,000 | img_1 = Asmara_panorama,_Eritrea.jpg | city_2 = Keren, Eritrea{{!}}Keren | div_2 = Anseba Region{{!}}Anseba | pop_2 = 120,000 | img_2 = Keren eritrea.jpg | city_3 = Dekemhare | div_3 = Debub Region{{!}}Debub | pop_3 = 120,000 | img_3 = Dekemhare-eritrea.jpg | city_4 = Massawa | div_4 = Northern Red Sea Region{{!}}Northern Red Sea | pop_4 = 54,090 | img_4 = Historic Center Massawa Panorama.JPG | city_5 = Mendefera | div_5 = Debub Region{{!}}Debub | pop_5 = 53,000 | city_6 = Assab | div_6 = Southern Red Sea Region{{!}}Southern Red Sea | pop_6 = 28,000 | city_7 = Barentu, Eritrea{{!}}Barentu | div_7 = Gash-Barka Region{{!}}Gash-Barka | pop_7 = 15,891 | city_8 = Adi Keyh | div_8 = Debub Region{{!}}Debub | pop_8 = 13,061 | city_9 = Edd, Eritrea{{!}}Edd | div_9 = Southern Red Sea Region{{!}}Southern Red Sea | pop_9 = 11,259 | city_10 = Ak'ordat | div_10 = Gash-Barka Region{{!}}Gash-Barka | pop_10 = 8,857 }} === Ethnic composition === [[File:Barentu2.jpg|thumb|right|A woman and a man in [[Barentu, Eritrea|Barentu]] wearing traditional clothes]] Ku Eritrea kuli mitundu 9 ya ŵanthu awo boma likuŵamanya makora.<ref name="CIA"/><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.eritrean-embassy.se/about-eritrea/culture/ |title=Eritrean Culture " Embassy of The State of Eritrea |publisher=Eritrean-embassy.se |access-date=30 December 2013 |archive-date=13 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131113175050/http://www.eritrean-embassy.se/about-eritrea/culture/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> Ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakukhala mu chigaŵa ichi ŵakuchemeka Tigrinya. Ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakukhala mu chigaŵa ichi ŵakuyowoya chiyowoyero cha ku Asia. Kweniso ku Eritrea kuli mitundu yinyake ya ŵanthu ŵakuchemeka Kunama na Nara. Mtundu uliwose ukuyowoya ciyowoyero cakupambana kweni kanandi ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuyowoya viyowoyero vinandi. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Rashaida awo mba Cirabu ŵalipo pafupifupi 2% pa ŵanthu wose ŵa mu Eritrea.<ref name="Ciaethn"/> Ŵakukhala mu vigaŵa vyamumphepete mwa nyanja vya kumpoto kwa Eritrea na kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Sudan. Ŵanthu ŵa fuko la Rashaida ŵakiza ku Eritrea mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800 kufuma ku Hejaz. Kweniso ku Asmara kuli ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Eritrea awo ŵakukhala ku Italy. Ŵakuŵa ŵenekaya yayi kwambura kutora panji kutengwa panji usange boma likuŵapa wanangwa uwu. Mu 1941, mu Eritrea mukaŵa ŵanthu pafupifupi 760,000, ndipo 70,000 ŵakaŵa ŵa ku Italy. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Italy ŵakafumako ku Eritrea ŵakati ŵajiyimira ŵekha. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakuti ŵanthu 100,000 ŵa ku Eritrea ŵali kufuma ku Italy.<ref>The Italian Ambassador stated at the 2008 Film Festival in Asmara [https://web.archive.org/web/20120218200229/http://www.ambberlino.esteri.it/Ambasciata_Asmara/Menu/Ambasciata/News/] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120218200229/http://www.ambberlino.esteri.it/Ambasciata_Asmara/Menu/Ambasciata/News/|date=18 February 2012}} that nearly 100,000 Eritreans in 2008 have Italian blood, because they have at least one grandfather or great-grandfather from Italy</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Stampato C. 5634 |url=http://www.camera.it/_dati/leg13/lavori/stampati/sk6000/relazion/5634.htm |website=www.camera.it |access-date=20 May 2019 |language=it}}</ref> === Languages === {{main|Languages of Eritrea}} [[File:Population pyramid of Eritrea 2016.png|thumb|Population pyramid of Eritrea 2016]] Charu cha Eritrea chikuyowoya viyowoyero vinandi. Charu ichi chilije chiyowoyero cha boma, chifukwa Dango la charu ichi likuti "viyowoyero vyose vya ku Eritrea ni vyakuyana". Eritrea yili na viyowoyero vinkhondi na viŵiri: Tigrinya, Tigre, Afar, Beja, Bilen, Kunama, Nara, na Saho. ChiTigrinya, Chiarabu, na Chingelezi ni viyowoyero ivyo ŵanthu ŵakugwiliskira ntchito pa sukulu za ku yunivesite. Nangauli Chiitaliya, chiyowoyero icho kale chikaŵa pasi pa maboma, chikumanyikwa na boma yayi mu Eritrea, kweni ŵanthu ŵachoko waka ndiwo ŵakuyowoya chiyowoyero ichi.<ref name=Ethner>{{cite web|title=Eritrea – Languages|url=http://www.ethnologue.com/country/ER/languages|publisher=Ethnologue|access-date=13 October 2016}}</ref> Kweniso, ŵanthu ŵa ku Eritrea ŵakayowoyanga chiyowoyero cha ku Italy ndipo ŵakayowoyanga chiyowoyero cha ku Italy. Viyowoyero vinandi ivyo vikuyowoyeka ku Eritrea ni vya mu banja la viyowoyero vya ku Asia. Viyowoyero vinyake vya ku Asia ivyo vikuzunulika mu Cushitic navyo vikuyowoyeka chomene mu charu ichi. Ŵanyake mwa ŵanthu aŵa ni Afar, Beja, Blin, na Saho. Kweniso viyowoyero vya ku Nilo-Sahara (Kunama na Nara) vikuyowoyeka na ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Kunama na Nara awo ŵakukhala ku chigaŵa cha kumanjiliro gha dazi na kumpoto cha kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa charu ichi. Magulu ghachoko waka ghakuyowoya viyowoyero vinyake vya ku Afroasiatic, nga ni Dahlik na Chiarabic (viyowoyero vya Hejazi na Hadhrami ivyo Rashaida na Hadhrami ŵakuyowoya). === Religion === {{main|Religion in Eritrea}} {| class="wikitable floatright" |+ Eritrea religious groups |- ! U.S Department of State 2019<ref name="webcitation.org">{{cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2019-report-on-international-religious-freedom/eritrea/|title=Eritrea |publisher=U.S. State Department }}</ref>!! Pew Research Center 2020<ref name="Pew">{{cite web|title=Religious Composition by Country, 2010-2050|date=2 April 2015|url=http://www.pewforum.org/2015/04/02/religious-projection-table/2050/percent/all/|publisher=Pew Research Center|access-date=26 October 2017|archive-date=26 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171026213925/http://www.pewforum.org/2015/04/02/religious-projection-table/2050/percent/all/|url-status=dead}}</ref> |- | {{bar box |left1='''Religion''' |right1='''Percent''' |bars= {{bar percent|[[Christianity]]|purple|49}} {{bar percent|[[Islam]]|yellow|49}} {{bar percent|Others|brown|2}} }} || {{bar box |left1='''Religion''' |right1='''Percent''' |bars= {{bar percent|[[Christianity]]|purple|63}} {{bar percent|[[Islam]]|yellow|36}} {{bar percent|Others|brown|1}} }} |} Visopa vikuruvikuru mu Eritrea ni Chikhristu na Chisilamu. Ndipouli, ŵanthu ŵakususkana pa nkhani ya unandi wa ŵanthu awo ŵali mu cisopa cilicose. Kuyana na lipoti la Pew Research Center, mu 2010, ŵanthu 62.9% ku Eritrea ŵakaŵa Ŵakhristu, 36.6% ŵakaŵa Ŵasilamu, ndipo 0.4% ŵakaŵa mu visopa vya ku Africa. Ŵanyake wose ŵakasopanga vya Chiyuda, Chihindu, Chibuda, na visopa vinyake (<0.1%), panji ŵakasopanga vyautesi (0.1%). U.S. Dipatimenti ya vya Charu ya ku Eritrea yikati mu 2011, ŵanthu 50 pa 100 ŵaliwose ku Eritrea ŵakaŵa Ŵakhristu, 48 pa 100 ŵakaŵa Ŵasilamu, ndipo 2 pa 100 ŵakaŵa ŵavisopa vinyake. Chikhristu ndicho ntchisopa chakale chomene mu charu ichi, ndipo nyumba yakwamba ya cisopa ya Debre Sina yikazengeka mu vyaka vya m'ma 300. Kwambira mu Meyi 2002, boma la Eritrea likuzomerezga tchalitchi la Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo (Oriental Orthodox), Sunni Islam, Eritrean Catholic Church (a Metropolitanate sui juris), na Evangelical Lutheran church. Visopa vinyake vyose vikwenera kulembeska. Mwaciyelezgero, boma likukhumba kuti ŵanthu awo ŵali mu cisopa cilicose ŵapeleke maukaboni gha umo ŵaliri kuti ŵaŵe ŵakwenelera kusopa.<ref name="Religious persecution in Eritrea">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3663654.stm|title=Religious persecution in Eritrea|work=BBC News|access-date=11 December 2009|date=17 September 2004|first=Jonah|last=Fisher}}</ref>{{Gallery |title= |width=200 | height=170 |align=right |File:Sheikh Hanafi Mosque (8529064326).jpg |The 15th century Sheikh Hanafi Mosque in [[Massawa]] |File:Asmara, cattedrale cattolica, 01.JPG |[[Church of Our Lady of the Rosary, Asmara|Church of Our Lady of the Rosary]] in the capital [[Asmara]] }} Boma la Eritrea likususka ivyo likuwona kuti ni visopa "vyakusintha" panji "vyakukolerana na visopa vinyake". Ntheura, visopa ivyo ŵanthu ŵakuti ni visopa vya Cisilamu na Cikhristu, Ŵakaboni ŵa Yehova, na visopa vinyake vinandi ivyo ni vyacipharazgi yayi, ni vyambura kuzomerezgeka kusopa. Ŵakaboni ŵa Yehova ŵatatu ŵakumanyikwa kuti ŵali mu jele kwambira mu 1994 pamoza na ŵanji 51.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tdgnews.it/en/2008/10/jehovahs-witnesses%E2%80%94eritrea-country-profile/ |title=Jehovah's Witnesses — Eritrea Country Profile – October 2008 |access-date=25 September 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130930040630/http://www.tdgnews.it/en/2008/10/jehovahs-witnesses%E2%80%94eritrea-country-profile/ |archive-date=30 September 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.jw.org/en/news/legal/by-region/eritrea/jehovahs-witnesses-unjust-imprisonment-20-years/ |title=Twenty Years of Imprisonment in Eritrea—Will It Ever End? |publisher=jw.org |access-date=25 September 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title = UN Report on Eritrea's Human Rights Violations|url = http://www.jw.org/en/news/legal/by-region/eritrea/human-rights-violations-un-report/|website = jw.org|access-date = 21 October 2015}}</ref> Boma likuŵacitira nkhaza comene Ŵakaboni ŵa Yehova, likuŵakanira makadi gha vyakurya na vikalata vya nchito. Mu Okutobala 1994, pulezidenti wakazomerezga kuti Ŵakaboni ŵa Yehova ŵaleke kuŵa ŵenekaya ŵa charu ichi. Lipoti la 2017 la U.S. Dipatimenti Yakuwona vya Vyaru yikati caru ca Eritrea nchakuzirwa comene.<ref>{{cite web|title=International Religious Freedom Report, 2017|url=http://www.uscirf.gov/sites/default/files/2017.USCIRFAnnualReport.pdf|publisher=U.S. Department of State|access-date=26 October 2017}}</ref> === Health care === {{main|Health in Eritrea}} Eritrea yaluta panthazi comene pa nkhani ya cipatala ndipo njimoza mwa vyaru vichoko ivyo vili kufiska vilato vyake vya Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) pa nkhani ya umoyo, comenecomene umoyo wa ŵana. Umoyo wa ŵanthu ukakhira kufuma pa vyaka 39.1 mu 1960 kufika pa vyaka 66.44 mu 2020. Wupu wa vyaumoyo pa charu chose (WHO) mu 2008 ukasanga kuti munthu wakukhala vyaka vyakukwana 63, ndipo mu 2020 wakukhala vyaka 66.44. <ref name="ODI1">{{cite web |last1=Rodríguez Pose |first1=Romina |last2=Samuels |first2=Fiona |date=December 2010 |title=Progress in health in Eritrea: Cost-effective inter-sectoral interventions and a long-term perspective |url=http://www.odi.org.uk/resources/details.asp?id=5179&title=progress-health-eritrea-cost-effective-inter-sectoral-interventions-long-term-perspective |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101228112540/http://www.odi.org.uk/resources/details.asp?id=5179&title=progress-health-eritrea-cost-effective-inter-sectoral-interventions-long-term-perspective |archive-date=28 December 2010 |website=Overseas Development Institute |publisher=[[Overseas Development Institute]] |location=London}}</ref> Wupu wakuwona vya maleriya ku charu chose wa Unduna wa vya Umoyo ukawona kuti kufuma mu 1998 m'paka mu 2006, chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu awo ŵakufwa na maleriya chikakhira kufika pa 85%. Boma la Eritrea lazomerezga yayi kuti ŵanakazi ŵakomeke, chifukwa likuyowoya kuti nkharo iyi njakupweteka ndipo yikuŵika umoyo wa ŵanakazi pangozi. Ndipouli, ku Eritrea kuli masuzgo ghanandi. Nangauli chiŵelengero cha ŵadokotala chikakwera kufuma pa 0.2 mu 1993 kufika pa 0.5 mu 2004 pa ŵanthu 1,000, kweni chichali chichoko chomene. Matenda gha maleriya na chibabira ghakukata yayi. Ŵana ŵa vyaka vyapakati pa 15 na 49 ŵali na HIV. Pa mwanakazi yumoza, ŵakubaba ŵana pafupifupi 4.1. Kufwa kwa ŵamama kukakhira comene kufuma mu 1995 kufika mu 2002, kweni ni viŵi yayi. Mwakuyana waka, kufuma mu 1995 m'paka mu 2002, chiŵelengero cha ŵana awo ŵakubabika na ŵantchito awo ŵakumanya vya munkhwala chikakwera kaŵiri. Cinthu cimoza ico cikukoma comene ŵana awo ŵababika waka ni nthenda yikuru. Ndalama izo munthu waliyose wakugwiliskira nchito pa umoyo ni zicoko.<ref name="afro.who.int">Health profile at [http://www.afro.who.int/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=1029&Itemid=2070 Eritrea WHO Country Office]. afro.who.int</ref> === Education === {{main|Education in Eritrea}} [[File:EritreaInstituteOfTechnology.jpg|thumb|The [[Eritrea Institute of Technology]]]] [[File:Eritrea 13.jpg|thumb|Ŵana ŵa sukulu ŵa ku Eritrea ŵavwara yunifomu]] Ku Eritrea kuli masukulu gha vigaŵa vinkhondi. Ŵana ŵa sukulu pafupifupi 1,270,000 ŵakusambira mu masukulu gha pulayimale, gha sekondale, na gha sekondale. Pali masukulu pafupifupi 824, mayunivesite ghaŵiri, (Yunivesite ya Asmara na Eritrea Institute of Technology), na makoleji ghachoko na masukulu gha vyaumisiri. Ku Eritrea, sukulu njakukakamizga ŵana ŵa vyaka 6 m'paka 13.<ref name="uis.unesco.org">{{cite web |date=27 November 2016 |title=Eritrea |url=http://uis.unesco.org/en/country/er#slideoutmenu |website=uis.unesco.org}}</ref> {| class="wikitable" style="float: center; margin-center: 10px" ! scope="col" style="background:#77B5FE;" |Education system in Eritrea<ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite web|url=http://uis.unesco.org/en/country/er|title=Eritrea|date=27 November 2016|website=uis.unesco.org}}</ref> |- | Basic Education – 7 years |- | Middle – Junior High School (Years included in basic) |- | Secondary – Secondary School – 4 years |- | Post-secondary – Advanced Diploma – 3 years |- | Higher Education – Bachelor – 4/5 years |- | Higher Education – Master – 2 years |} Pa sukulu za pulayimale, ŵana 70 mpaka 90 peresenti ŵakusambira pulayimale. Ŵasambiri na ŵasambizgi ŵali palipose: 45:1 pa sukulu za pulayimale na 54:1 pa sukulu za sekondare. Ŵana ŵa kilasi limoza ŵalipo 63 na 97 pa kilasi limoza pa chigaŵa cha pulayimale na sekondare. Nyengo zinandi para munthu wakusambira pa sukulu wakuŵa na maora ghambura kukwana 6. Vinthu vinyake ivyo vikutondeska ŵanthu kusambira ku Eritrea ni vyakuti ŵanthu ŵakutemwa yayi kusambira, malipiro gha sukulu (ghakukwana pakulembeska na kupeleka vinthu vyakukhumbikwa pa sukulu), kweniso ndalama izo mabanja ghachoko ghalipiranga. Eritrea Institute of Technology (EIT) ni sukulu ya tekinoloje iyo yili kufupi na tawuni ya Himbrti, Mai Nefhi kufupi na Asmara. Sukulu iyi yili na makoleji ghatatu: Science, Engineering and Technology, and Education. Sukulu iyi yikamba na ŵana ŵa sukulu pafupifupi 5,500 mu chaka cha masambiro cha 2003-2004.{{Bar chart | title = Literacy rate Eritrea 2018, source: World bank, UNESCO<ref>{{cite web|url=https://databank.worldbank.org/reports.aspx?source=2&country=ERI#|title=Literacy rate, adult total (% of people ages 15 and above) and youth total (% of people ages 15–24)|website=data.worldbank.org}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA"/> | float = right | label_type = Literacy rate | data_type = Percent (%) | bar_width = 20 | width_units = em | data_max = 100 | label1 = All Adults | data1 = 76.6 | label2 = Age: 15–24 | data2 = 93.3 | color1 = #77B5FE | color2 = #77B5FE }} EIT yikajulika pamanyuma pakuti Yunivesite ya Asmara yasinthika. Kuyana na Unduna wa vya Masambiro, sukulu iyi yikapangika kuti ŵanthu wose ŵasambirenge mwakuyana mu vigaŵa vyakutali na msumba wa Asmara. Ntheura, masukulu ghanyake ghakuyana waka ghakusangika mu vigaŵa vinyake vya caru ici. Eritrea Institute of Technology ni sukulu yikuru ya sayansi, injiniya, na masambiro. Yunivesite ya Asmara ndiyo ni yakale comene mu caru ici ndipo yikajulika mu 1958. Pa nyengo yasono yikugwira nchito yayi. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ku Eritrea ŵakumanya kulemba na kulemba. Pa ŵawukirano ŵa vyaka vyapakati pa 15 na 24, chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu awo ŵakumanya kulemba na kulemba ni 93.3% (93.8% ku ŵanalume na 92.7% ku ŵanakazi).<ref>{{cite web|title=World Development Indicators {{!}} DataBank|url=https://databank.worldbank.org/reports.aspx?source=2&country=ERI#|access-date=2021-05-26|website=databank.worldbank.org}}</ref>{{clear}} == Mwambo == {{main|Culture of Eritrea}} One of the most recognizable parts of Eritrean culture is the [[Coffee ceremony of Ethiopia and Eritrea|coffee ceremony]].<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20111004094605/http://www.networkafricaonline.com/eritrea-coffee-cere.htm It's coffee time] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111004094605/http://www.networkafricaonline.com/eritrea-coffee-cere.htm |date=4 October 2011 }} Network Africa Online, April 2008 interview.</ref> Ŵanthu ŵakumwa khofi (Ge'ez ቡን būn) para ŵaluta kukacezga na ŵabwezi ŵawo, pa viphikiro, panji pa vinthu vinyake. Pa nyengo ya ciphikiro ca khofi, ŵanthu ŵakulondezga mitheto yinyake. Khofi uyu wakupeleka mu vigaŵa vitatu: chigaŵa chakwamba chikuchemeka awel mu Chitigrinya (kung'anamura "wakwamba"), chigaŵa chachiŵiri chikuchemeka kalaay (kung'anamura "chachiŵiri"), ndipo chigaŵa chachitatu chikuchemeka bereka (kung'anamura "wakutumbikika"). Kavwaliro ka ŵanthu ŵa ku Eritrea kakupambana chomene. Mu matawuni ghakurughakuru, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuvwara vyakuvwara vya ku vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi. Mu maofesi, ŵanalume na ŵanakazi wuwo ŵakuvwara masuti. Ŵanakazi awo ŵakukhala mu vigaŵa vya mapiri vya Tigrinya ŵakuvwara malaya ghatuŵa ghakuchemeka zurias, ndipo ŵanalume ŵakuvwara mashati ghatuŵa. Mu vigaŵa vya ku Eritrea, uko kuli Ŵasilamu, ŵanakazi ŵakuvwara vyakuvwara vya mitundu yakutowa. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Eritrea ŵakutemwa chomene sumu na mazgu gha sumu, majowelo, mafuta ghakununkhira, na vyakuvwara nga umo ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuchitira mu charu ichi.<ref name="Tekle197">{{cite book|last=Tekle|first=Amare|title=Eritrea and Ethiopia: From Conflict to Cooperation|year=1994|publisher=The Red Sea Press|isbn=978-0932415974 |page=197 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xbQTEF0rd7wC}}</ref> === Kuphika === {{see also|Eritrean cuisine}} [[File:Eritrean Injera with stews.jpg|thumb|Injera ya ku Eritrea na vyakurya vyakupambanapambana]] Cakurya cikuru comene ca ku Eritrea ni injera, ndipo kanandi ŵakurya nyama ya ng'ombe, nkhuku, mberere, panji somba. Vyakurya vya ku Eritrea vikuyana chomene na vya ku Ethiopia, nangauli vyakurya vya ku Eritrea vikuŵa na vyakurya vya mu nyanja kuluska vya ku Ethiopia chifukwa cha malo agho ghali mumphepete mwa nyanja.<ref name="Kittler"/><ref name="Tekle142">{{cite book|last=Tekle|first=Amare|title=Eritrea and Ethiopia: From Conflict to Cooperation|year=1994|publisher=The Red Sea Press|isbn=978-0932415974 |page=142 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xbQTEF0rd7wC}}</ref> <ref name="Kittler">{{cite book|author1=Goyan Kittler, Pamela |author2=Sucher, Kathryn P. |author3=Nahikian-Nelms, Marcia |title=Food and Culture, 6th ed|year=2011|publisher=Cengage Learning|isbn=978-0538734974|page=202|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R06H7WabJuMC}}</ref><ref name="Kittler" />Kweniso vyakurya vya ku Eritrea kanandi vikuŵa "vyambura kunono" kuluska vya ku Ethiopia. Kweniso ŵakugwiliskira nchito batala na vyakununkhira viŵi yayi, ndipo ŵakugwiliskira nchito tomato comene, nga umo ŵakucitira na tsebhi dorho. Kweniso chifukwa chakuti charu cha Eritrea chikaŵa pasi pa muwuso wa ŵasilikari, vyakurya vya ku Eritrea vikukolerana chomene na vya ku Italy kuluska vya ku Ethiopia. Vyakurya vya ku Italy na Eritrea vikamba kupangika mu nyengo iyo Ufumu wa Italy ukalamuliranga charu ichi. Iwo ndiwo ŵakamba kugwiliskira nchito makaroni mu caru ca Eritrea, ndipo ni cakurya cikuru comene mu Asmara. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakutemwa kurya vyakurya vya ku Eritrea, nga ni "pasta al sugo e berbere" (vyakurya vya ku Eritrea ivyo vili na msuzi wa tomato na vyakununkhira vya berbere), lasagna, na "cotoletta alla Milanese" (mbuzi ya ku Milan). Padera pa khofi, ŵanthu ŵakumwa moŵa. Vinyake mwa vyakurya ivi ni sowa, chakumwa chakukali icho ŵakupanga na balere wakusazgako mafuta, na mies, vinyo la uchi wakusazgako mafuta.<ref name="Mettm">{{cite book|title=Eritrea: Travel Trade Manual|year=2000|publisher=Ministry of Tourism of Eritrea|page=4|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=j11zAAAAMAAJ}}</ref> === UNESCO World Heritage Site === Pa Julayi 8, 2017, msumba wose wa Asmara ukalembeka pa UNESCO World Heritage Site. Mu tawuni iyi muli nyumba zinandi za Art Deco, zamunthazi, za mazuŵa ghano, na za ku Eritrea.<ref name="auto1">{{cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1550/|title=Asmara: A Modernist African City|first=UNESCO World Heritage|last=Centre|website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://qz.com/africa/1026237/eritreas-asmara-is-now-a-unesco-world-heritage-site-and-should-boost-tourism/|title=Eritrea's picturesque capital is now a World Heritage site and could help bring it in from the cold|first=Tom Gardner|last=Commentary|website=Quartz Africa|date=11 July 2017 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.africanews.com/2017/07/12/eritrea-capital-asmara-makes-unesco-world-heritage-list/|title=Eritrea capital, Asmara, makes UNESCO World Heritage list &#124; Africanews|date=11 July 2017|access-date=18 December 2019|archive-date=4 March 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200304162652/https://www.africanews.com/2017/07/12/eritrea-capital-asmara-makes-unesco-world-heritage-list//|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.dw.com/en/eritreas-capital-added-to-unesco-world-heritage-site-list/a-39609655|title=Eritrea's capital added to UNESCO World Heritage site list &#124; DW &#124; 08.07.2017|website=DW.COM}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.apollo-magazine.com/eritrea-italy-modernist-architecture/|title=The modernist marvels of Eritrea|date=19 November 2019|website=Apollo Magazine}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/design/asmara-eritrea-art-deco-unesco-architecture-italy-little-rome-world-heritage-a8040871.html|title=Exploring Eritrea's UNESCO certified Art-Deco wonderland|date=9 November 2017|website=The Independent}}</ref> Msumba wa Asmara, uwo ukaŵa mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800, ukamba kukura mwaluŵiro mu 1889. Kweniso msumba uwu ukaŵa malo ghakugwiliskira ntchito vinthu vyakupambanapambana, chomenechomene vya ku malo ghakusungirako vinthu vyamunthazi. Nangauli ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakapanganga mapulani gha msumba, ŵakuzenga nyumba, na mainjiniya ŵakaŵa ŵa ku Europe, kweni ŵanthu ŵa ku malo agha ndiwo ŵakagwiranga nchito ya kuzenga, kweni ŵanthu ŵa ku Asmarino ŵakumanya kuti msumba wawo ngwakuzirwa.<ref>Jan Körting & Neysan Zölzer (2012): ''Heritage and Daily Life in the Historic Urban Core of Asmara (Original: Erbe und Alltag im historischen Stadtkern Asmaras)'' (Dissertation). Technische Universität Berlin.</ref>{{ multiple image | direction = horizontal | total_width = 250 | footer = | image1 = Asmara, museo nazionale, ingresso.JPG | caption1 = [[National Museum of Eritrea|Eritrean national museum]] in Asmara | caption2 = [[Fiat Tagliero Building|The Fiat Tagliero Building]] | image2 = Fiat tagliero, 07,0.JPG | caption4 = }} Msumba uwu uli na nyumba zinandi za m'ma 1900. Nyumba zinyake zikuwoneka nga ni tchalitchi la Our Lady of the Rosary. Mu msumba wose muli vinthu vya Art Deco. Mu Africa Pension Building na mu nyumba zinyake, muli vinthu vinyake ivyo vikulongora umo vinthu vikaŵira. Nyumba ya Fiat Tagliero yikulongora umo vinthu vikaŵira mu nyengo yakale. Mazuŵa ghano, nyumba zinyake zazengeka makora chomene, ndipo nyengo zinyake zikunanga umo misumba yinyake yikuwonekera. Mu nyengo iyi, ŵakazenga nyumba zinandi, nga ni mahotelo na mafilimu. Nyumba zinyake zakuzirwa ni Art Deco Cinema Impero (iyo yikajulika mu 1937 ndipo ŵanthu ŵakuyiwona kuti ni yimoza mwa nyumba zakutowa chomene pa charu chose) Cubist Africa Pension, Eritrean Orthodox Enda Mariam Cathedral na Asmara Opera, Fiat Tagliero Building, neoclassical Asmara city hall.<ref>Gianluca Rossi, ''Renzo Martinelli inviato de La Nazione'', 2009.</ref> A statement from UNESCO read: {{cquote|It is an exceptional example of early modernist urbanism at the beginning of the 20th century and its application in an African context.|200|50|[[UNESCO]]<ref name="auto1"/>}} === Music === {{main|Music of Eritrea}} [[File:Helen Meles.jpg|thumb|upright|Eritrean artist [[Helen Meles]]]] Mtundu uliwose ku Eritrea uli na sumu na kuvina kwake. Mu chiyowoyero cha Tigrinya, sumu iyo yikumanyikwa chomene ni guaila. <ref name="Blum">{{cite book|last1=Blum|first1=Bruno|title=De l'art de savoir chanter, danser et jouer la bamboula comme un éminent musicien africain: le guide des musiques africaines|date=2007|publisher=Scali|isbn=978-2350121970|page=198|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MNsTAQAAIAAJ}}</ref>Vyakwimbira vya ŵanthu vya ku Eritrea ni krar, kebero, begena, masenqo na wata (mwana wa m'bale wa viyuni). Muwimbi munyake wakumanyikwa chomene wa ku Eritrea ni Helen Meles, uyo wakumanyikwa na mazgu ghake ghakuru. Ŵakwimba ŵanyake ŵakumanyikwa ŵa ku Kunama ni Dehab Faytinga, Ruth Abraha, Bereket Mengisteab, Yemane Ghebremichael na Abraham Afewerki. === Sports === {{see also|Sport in Eritrea}} [[File:Tour of Asmara Cycling race, Asmara Eritrea.jpg|upright=1.1|thumb|Tour of Asmara cycling competition in [[Asmara]], Eritrea.]] <!-- no file jamming per image policy - single file sufficient --> Mu charu cha Eritrea, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakutemwa maseŵero gha bola na njinga. ====Cycling==== Mu charu cha Eritrea, ŵanthu ŵakutemwa kwenda pa njinga ndipo ŵakamba kuchita nthena mu nyengo iyo charu ichi chikaŵa pasi pa ufumu wa Eritrea.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.sbs.com.au/cyclingcentral/article/2017/07/28/cycling-isolated-eritreas-window-world|title=Cycling is isolated Eritrea's window to the world|website=Cycling|date=28 July 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://thebestofafrica.org/content/eritrea-and-cycling-an-unlikely-relationship|title=Eritrea and cycling: An unlikely relationship|website=The Best of Africa}}</ref> Mpikisano wa njinga wa Tour of Eritrea, uwo uli na vigaŵa vinandi, ukachitika kakwamba mu 1946 ndipo ukachitika mu 2013. Magulu gha vyalo vya ŵanalume na ŵanakazi ŵakwenda pa njinga ŵali pa malo ghakwamba mu Africa, ndipo gulu la ŵanalume lili pa malo 16 pa charu chose mu February 2023.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://cqranking.com/men/asp/gen/cqRankingCountry.asp|title=CQ Ranking|website=cqranking.com}}</ref> Gulu la ŵanthu ŵakwenda pa njinga la ku Eritrea laŵa na viwemi vinandi, ndipo vyaka vinandi laŵa pa chiphalizgano cha ku Africa. Mu chaka cha 2013, timu ya ŵanakazi yikapokera mendulo ya golide mu African Continental Cycling Championships kakwamba, ndipo kachiŵiri mu 2015 ndipo kachitatu mu 2019. Gulu la ŵanalume lawina golide kankhondi na kaŵiri mu vyaka 12 ivyo vyajumpha mu Africa continental cycling championships, pakati pa 2010 na 2022.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20160609211448/http://www.raimoq.com/eritrean-cycling-team-wins-the-2015-african-continental-cycling-championships-ttt/ Eritrean Cycling Team Wins the 2015 African Continental Cycling Championships TTT –] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160609211448/http://www.raimoq.com/eritrean-cycling-team-wins-the-2015-african-continental-cycling-championships-ttt/ |date=9 June 2016 }}. Raimoq.com (10 February 2015). Retrieved on 5 June 2016.</ref><ref>[https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2015/aug/17/eritrea-cycling-team-rwanda-tour-de-france 'Next wave of riders is even better' – Eritrean cycling preparing to peak]. The Guardian (17 August 2015). Retrieved on 5 June 2016.</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20160609210517/http://www.raimoq.com/eritrean-national-teams-rank-first-at-the-african-cycling-championship-time-race/ Eritrean national teams rank first at the African Cycling Championship time race –] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160609210517/http://www.raimoq.com/eritrean-national-teams-rank-first-at-the-african-cycling-championship-time-race/ |date=9 June 2016 }}. Raimoq.com (1 December 2013). Retrieved on 5 June 2016.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.procyclingstats.com/race/african-cycling-championships-ttt/2019|title=African Continental Championships - TTT 2019 &#124; Results|website=www.procyclingstats.com}}</ref> {{multiple image | align = left | direction = horizontal | image1 = Professional_Eritrean_cyclist_Mosana_Debesay.jpg | caption1 = [[Mosana Debesay]] is the first female cyclist of African origin to compete in a [[2020 Summer Olympics|Olympics]], representing Eritrea in the [[2020 Summer Olympics|Tokyo 2020 Summer Olympics]] | width1 = 250 | caption2 = Eritreas mens national cycling team, ranked 15th in the world rankings (2023),<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cyclingranking.com/countries/2023|title=Country Ranking 2023 - CyclingRanking.com|website=www.cyclingranking.com|accessdate=4 April 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.procyclingstats.com/rankings/me/uci-nations | title=UCI Nation Ranking }}</ref> and ranked first on the African continent<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.uci.org/discipline/road/6TBjsDD8902tud440iv1Cu?tab=rankings&discipline=ROA | title=Road }}</ref> | image2 = Eritrea_mens_national_cycling_team.jpg | width2 = 240 }} Ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 6 ŵakufuma ku Eritrea ŵali kusaina mapangano na magulu gha pa caru cose, kusazgapo Natnael Berhane na Daniel Teklehaimanot. Berhane wakachemeka African Sportsman of the Year mu 2013, apo Teklehaimanot wakaŵa munthu wakwamba wa ku Eritrea kukwera Vuelta a España mu 2012. Mu 2015, Teklehaimanot wakathereska chiphalizgano cha King of the Mountains mu Critérium du Dauphiné. Teklehaimanot na Merhawi Kudus wa ku Eritrea ndiwo ŵakaŵa ŵakwendeska njinga ŵakwamba ŵa ku Africa kuti ŵapikisane pa Tour de France, apo ŵakasoleka na timu ya Template:Ct pa mpikisano wa 2015. Mu Julayi wa chaka chenechichi, Teklehaimanot wakaŵa wakwamba kufuma ku timu ya ku Africa kuvwara malaya gha polka dot pa Tour de France. Mosana Debesay wakazgoka mwanakazi wakudanga waku Africa uyo wakwendeska njinga wakudanga kupikisana pa Olimpiki, wakwimira Eritrea pa Olimpiki ya Tokyo 2020.<ref>{{cite web | title=Mosana Debesay Biography, Olympic Medals, Records and Age | website=Olympics.com | url=https://olympics.com/en/athletes/mosana-debesay | access-date=4 April 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.bikeaid.de/en/racing/racing_article/title-a_dream_almost_broken_mosana_debesay_on_her_way_to_the_olympics/article-60ecc1a94715b | title=A dream almost broken - Mosana Debesay on her way to the Olympics }}</ref> Ni mwanakazi uyo wakathereska ma African Continental Cycling Championships mu vigaŵa vyakupambanapambana. Mu chaka cha 2022, Biniam Girmay wakaŵa munthu wakudanga wa ku Africa uyo wakathereska Gent-Wevelgem na stage mu Grand Tours. Ndipouli, zuŵa lakulondezgapo wakaleka kuchimbira chifukwa wakabisama mu jiso lake..<ref>{{Cite news |last=Sport |first=Telegraph |date=2022-05-17 |title=Watch: History-making cyclist out of Giro d'Italia after firing Prosecco cork into his own eye |language=en-GB |work=The Telegraph |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/cycling/2022/05/17/watch-history-making-cyclist-taken-hospital-hit-eye-cork-celebrating/ |access-date=2022-05-20 |issn=0307-1235}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=MacLeary |first=John |date=2022-05-17 |title=Biniam Girmay becomes first black African to win grand tour stage with historic Giro d'Italia victory |language=en-GB |work=The Telegraph |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/cycling/2022/05/17/live-giro-ditalia-2022-stage-10-updates-resultsvan-der-poel/ |access-date=2022-05-20 |issn=0307-1235}}</ref> ====Other sports==== Ŵaseŵera ŵa ku Eritrea ŵakutumbikika chomene pa maseŵero ghanyake. Zersenay Tadese wa ku Eritrea, wakaŵa na mbiri ya kucimbira mu mtunda wa mamarafoni. Ghirmay Ghebreslassie ndiyo wakaŵa munthu wakwamba wa ku Eritrea kutora mendulo ya golide pa maseŵero gha ku charu chose. Charu cha Eritrea chikamba kuseŵera pa maseŵera gha Winter Olympic pa 25 February, 2018, apo chikaŵa pa maseŵera gha Winter Olympics mu Pyeongchang, South Korea. Munthu uyo wakimiranga timu ya ku Eritrea wakaŵa Shannon-Ogbnai Abeda, uyo wakathereskanga ŵanthu pa chiphalizgano ichi.<ref>{{cite news |last=Rieger|first=Sarah|date=28 December 2017|title=Calgary skier headed to Winter Olympics... but not with Team Canada |url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/calgary/eritrea-skier-calgary-1.4466978|work=[[CBC News]]|location=Calgary, Alberta, Canada|access-date=31 December 2017}}</ref><ref>[http://www.iaaf.org/news/news/world-records-ratified-21 World records ratified]. Iaaf.org (8 May 2010). Retrieved 20 September 2013.</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.smh.com.au/sport/athletics/world-athletics-championships-2015-eritrean-teen-ghirmay-ghebreslassie-wins-mens-marathon-title-20150822-gj5a4b.html |title=World Athletics Championships 2015: Eritrean teen Ghirmay Ghebreslassie wins men's marathon title |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |date=22 August 2015 |website=[[smh.com.au]] |access-date=22 August 2015}}</ref> {{clear}} == Wonaniso == {{portal|Eritrea|Africa}} *[[Index of Eritrea-related articles]] *[[Outline of Eritrea]] <!-- *[[Bibliography of Eritrea]] --> <!-- *{{wikipedia books link|Eritrea}} -->{{Clear}} == Ukaboni == {{notelist}} {{reflist|refs= <ref name="EHREA_Lasting_Struggle">{{cite web | last1 = Tronvoll | first1 =Kjetil |author1-link = Kjetil Tronvoll | title= The Lasting Struggle for Freedom in Eritrea – Human Rights and Political Development, 1991–2009 | website= [[Eritrean Human Rights Electronic Archive]] |date = 2009-07-22 | url = http://www.ehrea.org/eritrearapport_2_endelig_versjon.pdf | access-date = 2021-02-13 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210213014319/http://www.ehrea.org/eritrearapport_2_endelig_versjon.pdf |archive-date= 2021-02-13 |url-status=live }}</ref> }} *Christine, Owen. "Navigating difference between [[Tigrigna]] and [[Tigrinya]]". [https://ethnomed.org/resource/navigating-differences-tigrigna-vs-tigrinya/ Navigating Differences: Tigrigna vs Tigrinya] December 16, 2010 == Vyakulemba vinyake == {{refbegin|30em}} * Beretekeab, R. (2000); ''Eritrea: The Making of a Nation 1890–1991''. Thesis. Uppsala University, Uppsala. {{ISBN|9789150613872}}. {{OCLC|632423867}}. * Cliffe, Lionel; Connell, Dan; Davidson, Basil (2005), ''Taking on the Superpowers: Collected Articles on the Eritrean Revolution (1976–1982)''. Red Sea Press, {{ISBN|1-56902-188-0}} * Cliffe, Lionel & Davidson, Basil (1988), ''The Long Struggle of Eritrea for Independence and Constructive Peace''. Spokesman Press, {{ISBN|0-85124-463-7}} * Connell, Dan (1997), ''Against All Odds: A Chronicle of the Eritrean Revolution With a New Afterword on the Postwar Transition''. Red Sea Press, {{ISBN|1-56902-046-9}} * Connell, Dan (2001), ''Rethinking Revolution: New Strategies for Democracy & Social Justice: The Experiences of Eritrea, South Africa, Palestine & Nicaragua''. Red Sea Press, {{ISBN|1-56902-145-7}} * Connell, Dan (2004), ''Conversations with Eritrean Political Prisoners''. Red Sea Press, {{ISBN|1-56902-235-6}} * Connell, Dan (2005), ''Building a New Nation: Collected Articles on the Eritrean Revolution (1983–2002)''. Red Sea Press, {{ISBN|1-56902-198-8}} * Firebrace, James & Holand, Stuart (1985), ''Never Kneel Down: Drought, Development and Liberation in Eritrea''. Red Sea Press, {{ISBN|0-932415-00-8}} * Drudi, Emilio (2021). ''Una storia eritrea. Beyan, Adam, Amr''. Calamaro Edizioni. {{ISBN|9788894463927}} * Gebre-Medhin, Jordan (1989), ''Peasants and Nationalism in Eritrea''. Red Sea Press, {{ISBN|0-932415-38-5}} * Hatem Elliesie: ''Decentralisation of Higher Education in Eritrea'', Afrika Spectrum, Vol. 43 (2008) No. 1, p.&nbsp;115–120. * [[Justin Hill (writer)|Hill, Justin]] (2002), ''Ciao Asmara, A classic account of contemporary Africa''. Little, Brown, {{ISBN|978-0-349-11526-9}} * Iyob, Ruth (1997), ''The Eritrean Struggle for Independence: Domination, Resistance, Nationalism, 1941–1993''. [[Cambridge University Press]], {{ISBN|0-521-59591-6}} * Jacquin-Berdal, Dominique; Plaut, Martin (2004), ''Unfinished Business: Ethiopia and Eritrea at War''. Red Sea Press, {{ISBN|1-56902-217-8}} * Johns, Michael (1992), [https://web.archive.org/web/20130823083654/http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/z?r102:E06MY2-393: "Does Democracy Have a Chance", ''Congressional Record'', 6 May 1992] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130823083654/http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/z?r102:E06MY2-393: |date=23 August 2013 }} * [[Thomas Keneally|Keneally, Thomas]] (1990), ''To Asmara'' {{ISBN|0-446-39171-9}} * Kendie, Daniel (2005), ''The Five Dimensions of the Eritrean Conflict 1941–2004: Deciphering the Geo-Political Puzzle''. Signature Book Printing, {{ISBN|1-932433-47-3}} * Killion, Tom (1998), ''Historical Dictionary of Eritrea''. Scarecrow Press, {{ISBN|0-8108-3437-5}} * Mauri, Arnaldo (2004), "Eritrea's Early Stages in Monetary and Banking Development", ''International Review of Economics'', Vol. LI, n. 4. * Mauri, Arnaldo (1998), [https://ideas.repec.org/p/mil/wpdepa/2003-28.html "The First Monetary and Banking Experiences in Eritrea"], ''African Review of Money, Finance and Banking'', n. 1–2. * Miran, Jonathan (2009), ''Red Sea Citizens: Cosmopolitan Society and Cultural Change in Massawa''. Indiana University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-253-22079-0}} * Müller, Tanja R.: ''Bare life and the developmental State: the Militarization of Higher Education in Eritrea'', Journal of Modern African Studies, Vol. 46 (2008), No. 1, p.&nbsp;1–21. * Negash T. (1987); ''Italian Colonisation in Eritrea: Policies, Praxis and Impact'', Uppsala Univwersity, Uppsala. * {{cite web |last=Ogbaselassie |first=G |date=10 January 2006 |url=http://eri24.com/Article_10043.htm |title=Response to remarks by Mr. David Triesman, Britain's parliamentary under-secretary of state with responsibility for Africa |access-date=7 June 2006 |archive-date=16 November 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061116081151/http://eri24.com/Article_10043.htm |url-status=dead }} * Pateman, Roy (1998), ''Eritrea: Even the Stones Are Burning''. Red Sea Press, {{ISBN|1-56902-057-4}} * Phillipson, David W. (1998), ''Ancient Ethiopia''. * Reid, Richard. (2011). ''Frontiers of Violence in North-East Africa: Genealogies of Conflict Since c. 1800''. Oxford: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|978-0199211883}} * Wrong, Michela (2005), ''I Didn't Do It For You: How the World Betrayed a Small African Nation''. Harper Collins. {{ISBN|0-06-078092-4}} {{refend}} {{Sister project links|Eritrea|voy=Eritrea}} {{Scholia|topic}} === Boma === *[http://www.shabait.com/index.php Ministry of Information of Eritrea] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180622190405/http://www.shabait.com/index.php |date=22 June 2018 }} (official government website). *[https://web.archive.org/web/20180818080840/http://eritrea-tv.net/ EriTV News, Music, Movie and Comedy from Eritrea Television] *[https://web.archive.org/web/20210121011902/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/eritrea/ Eritrea]. ''[[The World Factbook]]''. [[Central Intelligence Agency]]. *{{GovPubs|eritrea}} *{{curlie|Regional/Africa/Eritrea}} *[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-13349078 Eritrea profile] from [[BBC News]]. *{{Wikiatlas|Eritrea}} === Others === *[http://www.ohchr.org/EN/HRBodies/HRC/CoIEritrea/Pages/ReportCoIEritrea.aspx Report of the Commission of Inquiry on Human Rights in Eritrea], [[United Nations Human Rights Council]] Report, 8 June 2015 *[http://hrc-eritrea.org/ HRCE – Human Rights Concern – Eritrea] *[https://web.archive.org/web/20101202062456/http://tv.oneworld.net/2008/10/09/ifad-three-sisters-part-1/ Documentary on Women's liberation in Eritrea] *[http://www.tigrinja.com/ Tigrinya online learning with numbers, alphabet and history] (Eritrea and north Ethiopia (Tigray-Province)). *[http://www.ferroviaeritrea.it/ Ferrovia Eritrea Eritrean Railway] {{in lang|it}} *[https://web.archive.org/web/20121015000344/http://gis.calvin.edu/atlas/eritrea.html Atlas of Eritrea] *[http://www.eritreaeritrea.com/ About Eritrea] {{in lang|it}} *[http://www.ifs.du.edu/ifs/frm_CountryProfile.aspx?Country=ER Key Development Forecasts for Eritrea] from [[International Futures]]. === Magazines === *[https://web.archive.org/web/20220815181145/https://speciali.espresso.repubblica.it/interattivi/speciale-eritrea/ Special section about Eritrea from ''Espresso'' online magazine] {{in lang|it}} *[https://web.archive.org/web/20071012135549/http://geschichteinchronologie.ch/afrika/kol/Eritrea-Munzinger-fight-against-colonialism-ENGL.html History of Eritrea: First recordings – Munzinger – exploitation by colonialism and fight against colonialism (Italy, England, Ethiopia, Soviet Union, USA, Israel) – independence] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071012135549/http://geschichteinchronologie.ch/afrika/kol/Eritrea-Munzinger-fight-against-colonialism-ENGL.html |date=12 October 2007 }} {{Eritrea topics}} {{Navboxes |title = Related articles |list = {{Countries of Africa}} {{Countries bordering the Red Sea}} {{African Union}} {{Community of Sahel–Saharan States}} }} {{Authority control}} {{Coord|15|N|39|E|display=title}} [[Category:Eritrea| ]]<!--Keep with [space] index at start of list (eponymous category) --> [[Category:1993 establishments in Eritrea|*]] [[Category:1993 establishments in Africa]] [[Category:Countries in Africa]] [[Category:East African countries]] [[Category:Former Italian colonies]] [[Category:Horn African countries]] [[Category:Least developed countries]] [[Category:Member states of the African Union]] [[Category:Member states of the United Nations]] [[Category:One-party states]] [[Category:States and territories established in 1993]] [[Category:Totalitarian states]] n2xnt1gno5iqjxiiv3l081guw5mtyuq 0 6925 119288 115512 2026-08-13T21:55:49Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260813sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 119288 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Use dmy dates|date=March 2015}} {{Infobox country | conventional_long_name = Kingdom of Lesotho | common_name = Lesotho | native_name = {{native name|st|Naha ea Lesotho}} | image_flag = Flag of Lesotho.svg | image_coat = Coat of arms of Lesotho.svg | coa_size = 90 | national_motto = {{native phrase|st|"Khotso, Pula, Nala"|italics=off|paren=off}}<br />{{small|"Peace, Rain, Prosperity"}} | national_anthem = ''[[Lesotho Fatše La Bontata Rona|Lesōthō Fatše La Bo-Ntat'a Rōna]]''<br />({{Lang-en|"Lesotho, land of our Fathers"}})<br /><div style="display:inline-block;margin-top:0.4em;">{{center|[[File:National_anthem_of_Lesotho,_performed_by_the_U.S._Navy_Band.wav]]}}</div> | image_map = {{Switcher|[[File: Lesotho (orthographic projection).svg|frameless]]|Show globe|[[File: Location Lesotho AU Africa.svg|upright=1.15|frameless]]|Show map of Africa|default=1}} | map_caption = | image_map2 = | capital = [[Maseru]] | coordinates = {{Coord|29|28|S|27|56|E|type:city}} | largest_city = [[Maseru]] | official_languages = {{unbulleted list |[[Sotho language|Sesotho]] | [[South African English|English]]}} | ethnic_groups = {{unbulleted list |99.7% [[Sotho people|Basotho]] |0.3% Others}} | religion = {{ublist |item_style=white-space:nowrap; |52% [[Protestant Christianity]] |41% [[Catholic Church in Lesotho|Roman Catholic]] |7% Others/None }} | religion_year = 2020 | religion_ref = <ref name="United States Department of State 2021">{{cite web | title=Lesotho | website=United States Department of State | date=2021-05-12 | url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2020-report-on-international-religious-freedom/lesotho/ | access-date=2023-04-19}}</ref> | demonym = {{unbulleted list |{{nowrap|Mosotho {{small|([[Singular (grammatical number)|singular]])}}}} |Basotho {{small|(plural)}}}} | government_type = [[Unitary state|Unitary]] [[Parliamentary system|parliamentary]] [[constitutional monarchy]] | leader_title1 = [[King of Lesotho|Monarch]] | leader_name1 = [[Letsie III of Lesotho|Letsie III]] | leader_title2 = [[Prime Minister of Lesotho|Prime Minister]] | leader_name2 = [[Sam Matekane]] | legislature = [[Parliament of Lesotho|Parliament]] | upper_house = [[Senate (Lesotho)|Senate]] | lower_house = [[National Assembly (Lesotho)|National Assembly]] | sovereignty_type = Independence from United Kingdom | established_event1 = Declared | established_date1 = 4 October 1966 | area_km2 = 30,355 | area_rank = 137th <!-- Area rank should match [[List of countries and dependencies by area]] --> | area_sq_mi = 11,720 <!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]--> | percent_water = 0.0032% | population_estimate = {{UN_Population|Lesotho}}{{UN_Population|ref}} | population_census = 2,142,249 | population_estimate_year = {{UN_Population|Year}} | population_estimate_rank = 144th | population_census_year = 2004 | population_density_km2 = 68.1 | population_density_sq_mi = 162.4 <!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]--> | population_density_rank = 138th | GDP_PPP = $5.762 billion<ref name=imf2>{{cite web |url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2021/October/weo-report?c=666,&s=NGDPD,PPPGDP,NGDPDPC,PPPPC,&sy=2020&ey=2022&ssm=0&scsm=1&scc=0&ssd=1&ssc=0&sic=0&sort=country&ds=.&br=1|title=Report for Selected Countries and Subjects: October 2021|publisher=International Monetary Fund }}</ref> | GDP_PPP_year = 2021 | GDP_PPP_per_capita = $2,761<ref name=imf2/> | GDP_nominal = $2.478 billion<ref name=imf2/> | GDP_nominal_year = 2021 | GDP_nominal_per_capita = $1,187<ref name=imf2/> | Gini = 44.9 <!--number only--> | Gini_year = 2017 | Gini_change = decrease<!--increase/decrease/steady--> | Gini_ref = <ref name="wb-gini">{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/gini-index-coefficient-distribution-of-family-income/country-comparison/ |title=Gini Index coefficient |publisher=CIA World Factbook |access-date=10 August 2021}}</ref> | HDI = 0.514<!--number only--> | HDI_year = 2021<!-- Please use the year to which the data refers, not the publication year--> | HDI_change = decrease <!--increase/decrease/steady--> | HDI_ref = <ref name="UNHDR">{{cite book|title=Human Development Report 2020 The Next Frontier: Human Development and the Anthropocene|date=15 December 2020|publisher=United Nations Development Programme|isbn=978-92-1-126442-5|pages=343–346|url=http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/hdr2020.pdf|access-date=16 December 2020}}</ref> | HDI_rank = 168th | currency = [[Lesotho loti|Lesotho Loti]] (LSL)<br />[[South African rand]] (ZAR) | date_format = yyyy-mm-dd<br />dd/mm/yyyy{{ref label|date format|a}} | currency_code = | time_zone = South African Standard Time | utc_offset = +2 | utc_offset_DST = | time_zone_DST = | drives_on = left | calling_code = +266 | cctld = [[.ls]] | footnote_a = {{note|date format}} yyyy-mm-dd in [[Sotho language|Sotho]]; dd/mm/yyyy in English. | today = }} '''Lesotho''' ({{IPAc-en|audio=Lesotho.ogg|l|ɪ|ˈ|s|uː|t|uː}} {{respell|lih|SOO|too}},<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/definition/english/lesotho|title=lesotho noun - Definition, pictures, pronunciation and usage notes {{!}} Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary at OxfordLearnersDictionaries.com|website=www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com|language=en|access-date=2018-03-10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180311081136/https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/definition/english/lesotho|archive-date=11 March 2018|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite LPD|3}}</ref> {{IPA-st|lɪˈsʊːtʰʊ}}), panji kuti Ufumu wa Lesotho, ni charu icho chili ku chigaŵa cha [[South Africa]]. Charu ichi chili mu mapiri gha Maloti ndipo chili na mapiri ghapachanya chomene ku Southern Africa. Charu ichi chili na malo ghakujumpha 30,000 km2 (11,600 sq mi) ndipo chili na ŵanthu pafupifupi 2 miliyoni. Malo agha ghakaŵa pasi pa ufumu wa Britain, ndipo ghakaŵa pasi pa boma la United Kingdom pa Okutobala 4, 1966. Charu ichi chili na mazaza pa chilichose ndipo chili mu wupu wa United Nations, Commonwealth of Nations, African Union, na Southern African Development Community. Zina lakuti Lesotho likung'anamura "charu cha Ŵasotho".<ref>{{cite book|title=No Place Left to Bury the Dead|author=Nicole Itano|publisher=Simon and Schuster|year=2007|page=[https://archive.org/details/noplacelefttobur00itan/page/314 314]|isbn=978-0-7432-7095-3|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/noplacelefttobur00itan/page/314}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Capital Cities around the World: An Encyclopedia of Geography, History, and Culture|author=Roman Adrian Cybriwsky|publisher=ABC-CLIO|year=2013|page=182|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qb6NAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA182|isbn=9781610692489|access-date=4 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180508121735/https://books.google.no/books?id=qb6NAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA182|archive-date=8 May 2018|url-status=live|df=dmy-all}}</ref> ==Mbili== {{Main|History of Lesotho}} === Basutoland === [[File:King Moshoeshoe of the Basotho with his ministers.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Themba Moshoeshoe I pamoza na nduna zake]] Charu cha Basutoland chikaŵa na boma limoza mu 1822. Moshoeshoe, mwana wa Mokhachane, mulongozgi muchoko wa mbumba ya Bakoteli, wakapangiska mbumba yake na kuŵa mulongozgi mu 1804. Pakati pa 1820 na 1823, iyo na ŵalondezgi ŵake ŵakakhazikika pa Phiri la Butha-Buthe, ndipo ŵakakolerana na ŵalwani ŵawo ŵakwambilira kuti ŵathereske Lifaqane awo ŵakakolerana na muwuso wa Shaka Zulu kufuma mu 1818 m'paka 1828. Boma ili likafuma ku nkhondo pakati pa ŵanthu ŵa ku Britain na ŵa ku Netherlands awo ŵakafumako ku Cape Colony pamanyuma pakuti ŵa ku Britain ŵapoka charu ichi mu 1795. Ŵamishonale Thomas Arbousset, Eugène Casalis na Constant Gosselin ŵa ku Paris Evangelical Missionary Society, awo ŵakacemeka na Moshoeshoe I, ŵakaŵikika ku Morija, ndipo pakati pa 1837 na 1855 ŵakasindikizga mabuku mu ciyowoyero ca Sesotho. Casalis, uyo wakaŵa wakung'anamulira mabuku na kupeleka ulongozgi pa nkhani za vyaru vinyake, wakawovwira kuti paŵe ubwezi na ŵasilikari na kusanga vilwero vyakuti ŵarwe na ŵa ku Europe na ŵa ku Griqua. Ŵanthu ŵakufuma ku Cape Colony ŵakafika ku mipaka ya kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Basutoland na kupempha kuti ŵaŵe na wanangwa pa malo agha. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Boer awo ŵakizanga ku malo agha, ŵakayezga kuti ŵakhale pa malo agho ghakaŵa pakati pa milonga yiŵiri iyi na kumpoto kwa mlonga wa Caledon. Pamasinda, Moshoeshoe wakalemba phangano na kazembe wa ku Cape, Sir George Thomas Napier, ilo likapokelera chigaŵa cha Orange River, uko Ŵaburu ŵakakhalanga. Ŵaburu aŵa ŵakakomeka mu 1848. Mu 1851, ŵasilikari ŵa Britain ŵakathereskeka na ŵasilikari ŵa Basotho pa Kolonyama. Ŵakati ŵathereska ŵasilikari ŵa ku Britain mu 1852, Moshoeshoe wakatuma kalata kwa mulongozgi wa ŵasilikari ŵa ku Britain kuti ŵamazge mphindano. Mu 1854, ŵa ku Britain ŵakafumamo mu cigaŵa ici, ndipo mu 1858, Moshoeshoe wakarwa nkhondo zinandi na ŵa ku Boer. Ntheura, Moshoeshoe wakataya chigaŵa chinyake cha kumanjiliro gha dazi. Nkhondo yaumaliro na ŵa Boer yikamara mu 1867 apo Moshoeshoe wakapempha Fumukazi Victoria kuti yizgore Basutoland kuŵa chigaŵa cha Britain mu 1868.[[File:1959 Basutoland National Council stamps.jpg|thumb|left|Masitampu gha 1959 gha Basutoland National Council]] Mu 1869, ŵa ku Britain ŵakasazga phangano na ŵa ku Boer ku Aliwal North ilo likalongosora mphaka za Basutoland. Phangano ili likapangiska kuti ufumu wa Moshoeshoe uchepe na hafu. Pamanyuma, Ŵabritishi ŵakasamuska malo agha kufuma ku msumba wa Moshoeshoe ku Thaba Bosiu kuya ku msasa wa ŵapolisi ku mphaka ya kumpoto na kumanjiliro gha dazi, ku Maseru. Moshoeshoe wakafwa pa March 11, 1870, ndipo ivi vikalongora kuti Basutoland yikamba kulamulira. Mu nyengo ya Cape Colony pakati pa 1871 na 1884, Basutoland yikayendeska mwakuyana waka na vigaŵa vinyake ivyo vikapokeka na nkani, ndipo ŵanthu ŵa Basotho ŵakakhozgeka soni, ndipo ivi vikapangiska kuti paŵe Nkhondo ya Basuto Gun mu 1880-1881..<ref name="cities">{{cite journal|author1=Sam Romaya|author2=Alison Brown|date=April 1999|title=City profile: Maseru, Lesotho|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_cities_1999-04_16_2/page/123|journal=Cities|volume=16|issue=2|pages=123–133|doi=10.1016/S0264-2751(98)00046-8}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Historical Dictionary of the British Empire|author=James S. Olson, Robert S. Shadle (ed.)|publisher=Greenwood Press|year=1996|page=118|isbn=0-313-27917-9}}</ref> Mu 1884, chigaŵa ichi chikazgoka koloni la ufumu la Basutoland. Wakaŵa na kazembe uyo wakawusanga, ndipo ŵalongozgi ŵa mafuko ndiwo ŵakaŵa na mazaza. Mu 1905, ŵakazenga njanji iyo yikakolerananga na masitima gha ku South Africa. === Kujilamulila === Basutoland yikajiyimira pawekha kufuma ku United Kingdom ndipo yikazgoka Ufumu wa Lesotho mu 1966.<ref name="hansenvaa">{{cite book |author=Karen Tranberg Hansen, Mariken Vaa |url=http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn%3Anbn%3Ase%3Anai%3Adiva-103 |title=Reconsidering Informality: Perspectives from Urban Africa |publisher=Nordic African Institute |year=2004 |isbn=91-7106-518-0 |page=[https://archive.org/details/reconsideringinf00hans/page/n179 180] |url-access=limited}}</ref> Chipani cha Basotho National Party (BNP) ndicho chikalamuliranga kwambira mu 1966 m'paka mu 1970. Pamanyuma pake, pakaŵa boma ilo likalongozgekanga na Leabua Jonathan. Mu Janyuwale 1970, chipani cha BNP icho chili na mazaza pa charu chose chikathereska pa mavoti ghakwambilira agho ghakachitika pamanyuma pakuti charu cha Basotho chajiyimira pachekha, ndipo chikaŵa na mavoti 23 ndipo chikathereska chipani cha Basotho Congress Party (BCP) icho chikaŵa na mavoti 36. Mulara wa boma Jonathan wakakana kupeleka mazaza ku BCP, m'malo mwake wakajiphara kuti ni nduna yikuru na kujaliraso ŵalongozgi ŵa BCP. BCP yikayamba kugaluka ndipo yikapokera masambiro mu Libya ku Lesotho Liberation Army (LLA) pasi pa chilato cha kuŵa ŵasilikari ŵa Azanian People's Liberation Army ŵa Pan Africanist Congress (PAC). LLA yakukwana 178 yikapokeka vilwero na vyakukhumbikwa na gulu la PAC la David Sibeko mu 1978, ndipo yikathaskika kufuma ku msasa wawo wa ku Tanzania na wovwiri wa ndalama wa mulara wa PAC wa Maoist ndipo yikamba nkhondo. Gulu linyake likathereskeka kumpoto kwa Lesotho, ndipo pamasinda ŵasilikari ŵakamba kuwukira. Nkhondo iyi yikamara apo mulongozgi wa BCP, Ntsu Mokhehle, wakaluta ku Pretoria. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1980, ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵa ku Basotho awo ŵakakolerananga na BCP ŵakakoleka na boma la Leabua Jonathan. Pa Seputembala 4, 1981, mbumba ya Benjamini Masilo yikakomeka. Muciwukirano ici, muzukuru wake wa vyaka vitatu wakafwa. Pakati pajumpha mazuŵa ghanayi, Edgar Mahlomola Motuba, mulembi wa nyuzipepara ya Leselinyana la Lesotho, ŵakamukora pa nyumba yake pamoza na ŵabwezi ŵake ŵaŵiri na kumukoma.[[File:Lesotho mountain village (5285775857).jpg|thumb|Muzi wa mapiri wa Lesotho]] Jonathan wakati walekeskeka mu 1986, Wupu wa vya Nkhondo uwo ukaŵa na mazaza ghakulongozga ukapeleka mazaza kwa Themba Moshoeshoe II. Mu 1987, fumu yikacicizgika kuluta ku caru cinyake pamasinda pakuti yikiza na kalata ya mapeji 6 yakulongosora umo yikukhumba kuti dango la Lesotho liŵire. Mwana wake wakaŵa Themba Letsie III. Mulara wa boma la ŵasilikari, Major General Justin Metsing Lekhanya wakathereskeka mu 1991 ndipo wakasinthika na Major General Elias Phisoana Ramaema uyo wakapeleka mazaza ku boma la BCP mu 1993. Moshoeshoe II wakawerako ku wuzga mu 1992 nga ni munthu bweka. Themba Letsie III likati lawelera ku boma la demokilase, likayezgayezga kuti boma la BCP liwezge adada ŵake (Moshoeshoe II) kuŵa mutu wa boma. Mu Ogasiti 1994, Letsie III wakapangiska boma la BCP kufuma pa udindo wake, pamanyuma pakuti boma la BCP likakana kuwezgerapo adada ŵake, Moshoeshoe II, kuyana na dango la Lesotho. Vyaru vya ku Southern African Development Community (SADC) vikamba kudumbiskana vya kuwezgerapo boma la BCP. Cimoza mwa vinthu ivyo Letsie III wakakhumbanga kuti awiske ŵambeso kuwusa caru. Pamanyuma pa kudumbiskana kwa nyengo yitali, boma la BCP likakhazikiskikaso ndipo Letsie III wakaleka ufumu mu 1995, ndipo wakambaso kuwusa apo Moshoeshoe II wakafwa na vilimika 57 mu ngozi ya pa msewu apo galimoto yake yikaduka pa msewu wa mu mapiri pa 15 January 1996. Kuyana na ivyo boma likayowoya, Moshoeshoe wakanyamuka pa 1 koloko mulenji kuti wakawone viŵeto vyake ku Matsieng ndipo wakaweleranga ku Maseru kujumpha mu mapiri gha Maluti apo galimoto yake yikafumapo pa msewu.<ref name="nyt">Donald G. McNeil Jr (16 January 1996) [https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9C00E4D91139F935A25752C0A960958260 King of Tiny Land Circled by South Africa Dies in Car Plunge]. [[The New York Times]].</ref> Mu 1997, chipani cha BCP chikagaŵikana cifukwa ca mphindano. Nduna Nkuru Ntsu Mokhehle wakambiska chipani chiphya, Lesotho Congress for Democracy (LCD), ndipo ŵakamulondezga na unandi wa mamembala gha pa pharalamende, ivyo vikamovwira kuti wapange boma liphya. Pakalitha Mosisili wakamusankhira Mokhehle kuŵa mulongozgi wa chipani ndipo LCD yikathereska pa chisankho cha 1998. Ŵanthu ŵakususka ŵakamba kususka, ndipo mu Ogasiti 1998, ŵakachita chipharazgo kuwaro kwa nyumba yachifumu. Nangauli ŵasilikari ŵa boma la Botswana ŵakakondwa chomene, kweni ŵakamba kulimbana na ŵasilikari ŵa boma la South Africa. Ŵanthu ŵakamba kusuzgika chomene apo ŵasilikari ŵa ku South Africa ŵakayegha ndembera. Apo ŵasilikari ŵa SADC ŵakafumanga mu May 1999, msumba ukuru wa Maseru ukaŵa "wakubwanganduka". Mu Disembala 1998, wupu wa Interim Political Authority (IPA) uwo ukaŵa na mulimo wa kuwona umo mavoti ghakacitikira mu caru, ukalengeka. IPA yikapangiska ndondomeko ya mavoti kuti yikovwire kuti ŵanthu awo ŵakususka boma ŵaŵe mu Nyumba ya Malango. Ndondomeko yiphya yikasungilira mipando 80 iyo yikaŵapo mu Nyumba ya Malamulo, ndipo yikasazgako mipando 40 iyo yikeneranga kuzura mwakuyana na ciŵelengero. Mu Meyi 2002, kukaŵa mavoti gha mtundu uwu ndipo LCD yikapokera mavoti 54%. Pali vinthu vyambura kwenelera na vithuzithuzi vya nkhaza kufuma kwa Major General Lekhanya. Pa vipani vyose 40 ivyo vikaŵa mu wupu uwu, vipani 9 vya ku chigaŵa ichi ndivyo vikaŵa na vithuzi vinandi chomene (21). LCD yili na vithuzithuzi 79 pa vithuzithuzi 80. Apo ŵimiliri ŵake ŵakwimba sumu mu Nyumba ya Malango, BNP yikususka pa milandu, kusazgapo kupendesera mavoti. Pa 30 Ogasiti 2014, "kupoka boma" kwa ŵasilikari kukacitika, ndipo Prime Minister Thomas Thabane wakacimbira ku South Africa kwa mazuŵa ghatatu. Pa 19 Meyi 2020, Thomas Thabane wakafumapo pa udindo wa nduna yikuru ya Lesotho pamanyuma pa myezi yinandi ya kukakamizgika pamanyuma pakuti wapika zina la munthu uyo wakukayikika pa kukoma muwoli wake wakale. Moeketsi Majoro, uyo wakaŵa nduna ya vyachuma ndipo wakaŵa nduna yakuwona vya mapulani, wakasankhika kuŵa mulondezgi wa Thabane.<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-29045113 Lesotho PM Thabane returns home after fleeing 'coup'] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181029082641/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-29045113 |date=29 October 2018 }}. BBC. 3 September 2014</ref> Pa 13 Meyi 2020, kuyana na unduna wa vyaumoyo, Lesotho yikaŵa chalo chaumaliro ku Africa kuphalirako munthu wa COVID-19. Pa 28 Okutobala, 2022, Sam Matekane wakalapizga kuŵa Prime Minister wa Lesotho wati wapanga boma liphya. Chipani chake cha Revolution for Prosperity, icho chikapangika kumayambiriro kwa chaka chenechicho, chikapambana pa mavoti gha pa Okutobala 7.<ref>{{cite news |title=Sam Matekane sworn in as Lesotho's New Prime Minister {{!}} Friedrich Naumann Foundation |url=https://www.freiheit.org/sub-saharan-africa/sam-matekane-sworn-lesothos-new-prime-minister |work=www.freiheit.org |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-04-04|title=Majoro ready to take over|url=https://lestimes.com/majoro-ready-to-take-over/|access-date=2021-03-10|website=Lesotho Times|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Charumbira |first1=Silence |title=Lesotho records first coronavirus case a week after lifting lockdown |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/may/13/lesotho-records-first-coronavirus-case-a-week-after-lifting-lockdown |work=The Guardian |date=13 May 2020}}</ref><ref>[https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-28994193 Lesotho 'coup' forces PM Thabane to South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180802202642/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-28994193 |date=2 August 2018 }}. BBC. 30 August 2014.</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-52707752|title=Thomas Thabane resigns as Lesotho prime minister| work=BBC News |date=19 May 2020}}</ref> ==Ndale== {{Main|Politics of Lesotho}} Boma la Lesotho ni boma laparamende. Nduna Yikuru, Sam Matekane, ndiyo ni mulongozgi wa boma ndipo wali na mazaza ghakulongozga. Themba la Lesotho, Letsie III, ni mutu wa boma ndipo likucita milimo ya "mauteŵeti ghaciphikiro". Bungwe la All Basotho Convention (ABC) ndilo likulongozga boma la wupu wakulongozga mu Nyumba ya Malango, iyo ni nyumba ya pasi. Nyumba yikuru ya boma, iyo ni Senate, yili na ŵalongozgi 22 awo ŵakwimikika na themba. Ndondomeko iyi yikupanga khoti lakujiyimira palekha, ilo lili na Khoti Likuru, Khoti la Apilu, makhoti gha Magistrate, na makhoti ghakurughakuru agho ghali mu vigaŵa vya ku mizi. Ŵeruzgi wose ŵa khoti la apilu ni ŵa ku South Africa. Pa mulandu uwu, ŵeruzgi ŵakweruzga ŵekha yayi, panji para mulandu uli mu khoti, ŵeruzgi ŵanyake ŵaŵiri ndiwo ŵakuwona. Ndondomeko iyi yikuvikilira wanangwa wa kuyowoya, kuwungana mwakufwatuka, kusindamira nkhani, kuwungana mwamtende, na chisopa. Charu cha Lesotho chikaŵa pa malo 12 pa vyaru 48 vya ku sub-Saharan Africa mu 2008 Ibrahim Index of African Governance.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20160321114046/http://www.moibrahimfoundation.org/ "Home | Mo Ibrahim Foundation"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160321114046/http://www.moibrahimfoundation.org/ |date=21 March 2016 }}. moibrahimfoundation.org.</ref> {{As of|2010}}, the ''[[People's Charter Movement]]'' called for the practical annexation of the country by South Africa due to the HIV epidemic. Nearly a quarter of the population tests positive for [[HIV]].<ref>{{ cite web | url= http://www.helplesotho.org/lesotho/hivaids-in-lesotho/ | title= HIV/AIDS in Lesotho | website= HelpLesotho.org | quote= Lesotho has the second-highest HIV prevalence rate in the world – more than 23 percent of people, or just under one in four people in the country are living with HIV. | url-status= dead | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20141105165537/http://www.helplesotho.org/lesotho/hivaids-in-lesotho/ | archive-date= 5 November 2014 | df= dmy-all }}</ref>Charu ichi chili na suzgo la kusoŵa nchito, kusuzgika kwa cuma, ndalama zinonono, na kukanizgika kwenda. Lipoti la wupu wa African Union likati caru ca Lesotho cikwenera kukolerana na caru ca South Africa. Mu Meyi 2010, gulu la Charter Movement likapeleka chikalata ku South African High Commission kupempha kuti ŵaŵeso mu wupu uwu. Muyowoyeri wa vya mukati wa South Africa, Ronnie Mamoepa wakakana fundo yakuti Lesotho ndiyo yikwenera kupika mwaŵi wapadera. "Ni caru cakujiyimira pacekha nga ni South Africa. Tikatumizga mathenga ku vyaru vyapafupi nga ni Botswana, Zimbabwe, Swaziland na Lesotho pambere tindakhazikiske dango la pasipoti. Para mwafuma ku Britain kuluta ku South Africa, kasi mukukhumba yayi pasipoti?"<ref>{{cite news |first= Alex Duval|last= Smith |location= Maseru, Lesotho |url= https://www.theguardian.com/world/2010/jun/06/lesotho-independence-south-africa |title= Lesotho's people plead with South Africa to annex their troubled country |work= The Observer |date= 6 June 2010 |access-date= 4 July 2010 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130915013456/http://www.theguardian.com/world/2010/jun/06/lesotho-independence-south-africa |archive-date= 15 September 2013 |url-status= live |df= dmy-all }}</ref> Ŵanyake ŵakugomezga kuti kuŵikapo panji kusintha mphaka za Lesotho kungaŵa kwakovwira. Pa nyengo iyo nthenda ya AIDS yikaŵa kuti yikuru comene, ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 30,000 ŵa ku Lesotho ŵakasayina chikalata cakuti boma la Lesotho liŵawovwire kuti ŵaleke kukhala vyaka 34. Ŵanthu awo ŵakusanda vya ndyali, nga ni Jeffrey Herbst mu buku lake lakuti "War and the State of Africa", ŵakususka kuti cifukwa cakuti vyaru nga ni Lesotho na Eswatini vilije mphindano pa mphaka, vyaru ivi vikalutilira kuŵa vyambura nkhongono. Kupeleŵera uku kukucitika cifukwa cakuti boma la Britain na la Romu-Dutch lili na vinthu vinyake ivyo vikukolerana na dango la Britain. Pa cifukwa ici, boma ilo lilipo sono likuteŵetera ŵanthu ŵa Basotho yayi, kweni likuŵagwiliskira nchito.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Smith |first=Alex Duval |date=2010-06-05 |title=Lesotho's people plead with South Africa to annex their troubled country |language=en-GB |work=The Observer |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2010/jun/06/lesotho-independence-south-africa |access-date=2023-03-03 |issn=0029-7712}}</ref> Pamanyuma pakuti nduna yikuru Tom Thabane wafumapo cifukwa ca kuthya kuti wazamumukomaso na kupeleka dango lakuti muwoli wake wakomeke mu 2020, nduna ya vya ndalama ya South Africa yikayowoya kuti boma la Lesotho, Eswatini, na South Africa liŵe mu umoza. Muhaliri wake, Moeketsi Majoro, wakachitanga mulimo wake kufuma mu 2020 mpaka 2022 mpaka apo nayo wakafumapo pa udindo wake pamanyuma pa kuvota "kwambura kugomezgeka" mu Nyumba ya Malamulo chifukwa cha nkharo yiheni na ŵasilikari kweniso umo wakugwilira ntchito na COVID-19. Apo nduna yikuru ya sono Sam Matekane yikugwira nchito na South African Development Community (SADC) pa kusintha malango, boma lake likulutilira kulongora vimanyikwiro vya vimbundi apo ŵantchito 40,000 ŵa vyakuvwara ŵakasuskanga kuti vinthu viŵe makora ndipo ŵakakumana na nkhaza izo zikakoma ŵanthu ŵaŵiri.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Lesotho: Freedom in the World 2022 Country Report |url=https://freedomhouse.org/country/lesotho/freedom-world/2022 |access-date=2023-03-03 |website=Freedom House |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=ISSAfrica.org |date=2020-01-21 |title=Lesotho's future no clearer as Tom Thabane resigns |url=https://issafrica.org/iss-today/lesothos-future-no-clearer-as-tom-thabane-resigns |access-date=2023-03-03 |website=ISS Africa |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Lesotho government structure and political parties. {{!}} - CountryReports |url=https://www.countryreports.org/country/Lesotho/government.htm |access-date=2023-03-03 |website=www.countryreports.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-10-14 |title=Lesotho Prime Minister Moeketsi Majoro resigns |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/lesotho-prime-minister-moeketsi-majoro-resigns/ |access-date=2023-03-03 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Herbst |first=Jeffrey |date=1990 |title=War and the State in Africa |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2538753 |journal=International Security |volume=14 |issue=4 |pages=117–139 |doi=10.2307/2538753 |jstor=2538753 |s2cid=153804691 |issn=0162-2889}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-05-23 |title=Moeketsi Majoro (1961- ) • |url=https://www.blackpast.org/global-african-history/people-global-african-history/moeketsi-majoro-1961/ |access-date=2023-03-03 |language=en-US}}</ref> ===Ubale na vyaru vinyake=== {{Main|Foreign relations of Lesotho}} Charu cha Lesotho chili mu wupu wa vyalo vinyake, nga ni Southern African Development Community (SADC) na Southern African Customs Union (SACU). Likugwira ntchito mu wupu wa United Nations (UN), African Union (AU), Non-Aligned Movement, Commonwealth, na mawupu ghanyake.<ref name="State" /> Charu cha Lesotho chili na ubwezi na Britain (mwakudumura Wales), Germany, United States na vyaru vinyake vya ku Western. Mu 1990, charu ichi chikadumura ubwezi na China ndipo chikambaso ubwezi na Taiwan. Likuzomera boma la Palestina. Kufuma mu 2014 m'paka mu 2018 yikazomera Republic of Kosovo.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20070812215034/http://www.sadc.int/member_states/index.php?country=Lesotho Lesotho Country profile]. Southern African Development Community</ref> Boma ili likasuskanga chomene muwuso wa katangale wa apartheid mu charu cha South Africa. Mu 2019, charu ichi chikasaina phangano la UN lakukanizga vilwero vya nyukiliya.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://treaties.un.org/Pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=TREATY&mtdsg_no=XXVI-9&chapter=26&clang=_en |title=Chapter XXVI: Disarmament&nbsp;– No. 9 Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons |publisher=United Nations Treaty Collection |date=7 July 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| publisher= Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Republic of Kosovo| url= http://www.mfa-ks.net/?page=1,4,2242| title= Pas njohjes nga Lesoto, Hoxhaj vazhdon lobimin në Afrikë (After recognition of Lesotho, Hoxhaj continues lobbying in Africa)| access-date= 12 December 2014| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20141229124007/http://www.mfa-ks.net/?page=1,4,2242| archive-date= 29 December 2014| url-status= live| df= dmy-all}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/lesotho/|title=The World Factbook — Central Intelligence Agency|website=www.cia.gov|language=en|access-date=2017-09-20|df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sacu.int/ |title=Southern African Customs Union website |publisher=Sacu.int |access-date=4 July 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100903211938/http://www.sacu.int/ |archive-date=3 September 2010 |url-status=live |df=dmy-all }}</ref><ref name="State">{{cite web |url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2831.htm |title=Lesotho US State department |publisher=state.gov |access-date=4 July 2010 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> === Kuvikilira na kukora malango === Gulu la ŵasilikari la Lesotho Defence Force (LDF) ndilo likuvikilira chalo. Mulara wawo wakucemeka Mulara. Gulu la ŵapolisi la Lesotho Mounted Police Service (LMPS) ndilo likuŵa na mulimo wa kuvikilira malango na ndondomeko. Mulara wawo wakucemeka Commissioner. LMPS yikovwira ŵapolisi kuti ŵavware yunifomu, kuti ŵamanye uheni, kweniso kuti ŵachitenge makora pa msewu. Paliso maofesi ghanyake agho ghakovwira pa nkhani ya vigeŵenga, ŵanthu awo ŵakunjira mu vyaru vinyake, vinyama, na uchigeŵenga. Gulu ili likamba kugwira ntchito kwambira mu 1872. Wupu wakuwona vya wanangwa wa ŵanthu (Lesotho National Security Service (LNSS)) ndiwo ukuvikilira wanangwa wa ŵanthu. Nduna yikuru ya wupu uwu yikucemeka Mulara. LNSS ni wupu wa upusikizgi uwo ukupeleka lipoti ku boma. Mulara wa Boma ndiyo wali na mazaza gha kwimika panji kufumiska mulara.<ref>Articles 146 (1) and (2) of the [https://web.archive.org/web/20160303182858/http://library2.parliament.go.th/giventake/content_cons/lesotho.pdf Constitution of Lesotho] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303182858/http://library2.parliament.go.th/giventake/content_cons/lesotho.pdf |date= 3 March 2016 }}.</ref> ===Malango=== Charu cha Lesotho chilije dango limoza ilo lili na malango ghake..<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nyulawglobal.org/globalex/lesotho.htm |title=Millennium Web Catalog |publisher=nyulawglobal.org |access-date=4 July 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100620014058/http://nyulawglobal.org/globalex/Lesotho.htm |archive-date=20 June 2010 }}</ref> Dango la Lesotho likamba kugwira ntchito pamanyuma pakuti dango ili lalembeka. Pa malango gha boma, dango likung'anamura malango agho ghalembeka na nyumba ziŵiri za boma na kuzomerezgeka na fumu (chigaŵa 78 (1)). Dango lakunjilira mu boma likung'anamura malango agho ghakapelekeka na wupu unyake uwo boma lili kupeleka mazaza agha kuyana na chigaŵa cha 70 (2) cha Dango. Vinthu ivi ni mabuku gha boma, malango gha ŵalaŵiliri, malango gha ŵalaŵiliri, na malango gha boma. Nangauli charu cha Lesotho chikukolerana na vyaru vya South Africa, Botswana, Eswatini, Namibia, na Zimbabwe, kweni vili na malango ghakupambanapambana. Charu cha Lesotho chikugwiliskira ntchito dango lakwamba, ilo likung'anamura dango lakulembeka yayi panji ilo likufuma ku malango ghanyake. Vyeruzgo vya makhoti gha ku South Africa vikuŵa vyakukhuŵilizga waka, ndipo makhoti ghakughanaghanira pa ivyo ŵakweruzga. Vyeruzgo ivyo vyapelekeka ku makhoti ghanyake vingaŵa vyakukopa. Pa milandu iyi, makhoti ghaciŵiri ghakupambana na ghaciŵiri. Ŵakukakika na vyeruzgo vya High Court na Court of Appeal. Khoti la Apilu, ilo ni khoti laumaliro pa nkhani zose, ndilo likuwona na kughanaghanira makhoti ghose gha ku Lesotho. Charu cha Lesotho chili na malango ghaŵiri. Malango gha cikaya ghakupangika na mitheto ya Basotho, iyo yili kulembeka mu Malango gha Lerotholi. Kweni dango lakwamba lili kufuma ku malango gha Ŵaroma ŵa ku Netherlands agho ghakafuma ku Cape na Lesotho. Mu 1903, khoti ilo likalongozganga ŵanthu ŵa ku Basotho likakhazikiskika kuti liphalirengeko munthu uyo wakaŵa mulara wa boma la Britain malango agho ghangawovwira ŵanthu ŵa ku Basotho. M'paka pa nyengo iyi, mitheto na malango gha Basotho ghakapelekekanga ku miwiro na miwiro kwizira mu mitheto. Wupu uwu ndiwo ukapangiska malango gha Lerotholi, agho mazuŵa ghano ghakulondezgeka na makhoti gha mu vigaŵa. Mabuku agho ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakalemba ghakaŵa ghakukopa ku makhoti gha ku Lesotho. Mu mabuku agha muli mabuku gha "ŵalaraŵalara ŵa boma kweniso ŵalembi ŵanyake awo ŵakalembako kale". ===Maboma=== {{Main|Districts of Lesotho}} [[File:Map of lesotho.png|thumb|Districts and cities]] Ku Lesotho kuli vigaŵa 10, ndipo chigaŵa chilichose chili na mulongozgi wake. Chigaŵa chilichose chili na msumba ukuru uwo ukuchemeka Camptown. {{Columns-list| * [[Berea District|Berea]] * [[Butha-Buthe District|Butha-Buthe]] * [[Leribe District|Leribe]] * [[Mafeteng District|Mafeteng]] * [[Maseru District|Maseru]] * [[Mohale's Hoek District|Mohale's Hoek]] * [[Mokhotlong District|Mokhotlong]] * [[Qacha's Nek District|Qacha's Nek]] * [[Quthing District|Quthing]] * [[Thaba-Tseka District|Thaba-Tseka]] }} Vigaŵa ivi vili kugaŵika mu vigaŵa 80, ivyo vili na maboma 129. ==Makhalilo== {{Main|Geography of Lesotho}} [[File:South Africa Topography.png|thumb|Topographic map]] [[File:AfriSki.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Afriski]] resort in the [[Maloti Mountains]]]] Charu cha Lesotho chili na malo ghakukwana 30,355 km2. Ni caru cimoza pera pa caru cose ico cili pacanya pa mamita 1,000. Malo ghapachanya chomene pa charu chapasi ghali pa mamita 1,400. Malo ghakujumpha 80% gha charu ichi ghali pa mtunda wa mamita 1,800. Charu cha Lesotho chili kumwera chomene pa charu chose chapasi. Ni caru cikuru comene pa vyaru vitatu vya pa caru cose ico cili na caru cinyake, ndipo caŵiri ni Vatican City na San Marino. Ni boma lacilendo pera kuwaro kwa Italy, ndipo ndilo pera ilo ni boma lichoko. Charu cha Lesotho chili pakati pa latitude 28° na 31°S, ndipo longitude 27° na 30°E. Pafupifupi 12% ya caru ca Lesotho ni malo ghakuliskako vyakumera agho ghakukhuŵazgika na kunangika kwa dongo; ŵanthu ŵakuti matani 40 miliyoni gha dongo ghakunangika caka cilicose cifukwa ca kunangika kwa dongo.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=http://www.lesmet.org.ls/|title=Lesotho Meteorological Services|website=www.lesmet.org.ls|access-date=2019-12-16}}</ref> ===Nyengo=== {{Main|Climate of Lesotho}} Cifukwa cakuti caru ca Lesotho cili pacanya comene, cikuzizima comene kuluska vigaŵa vinyake. Vula yinandi yikuwa mu chihanya. Maseru na malo ghakuzingilizga ghakukwera chomene m'nyengo ya chihanya. Nyengo zinyake mu vigaŵa vya mapiri, matenthedwe ghakufika pa -7 °C. Ku chigaŵa cha mapiri, chiwuvi chikuwira chomene pakati pa mwezi wa Meyi na Seputembala. Ku Lesotho, vula yikulokwa nyengo na malo ghakupambanapambana. Ku malo ghanyake, maji ghakukhira kufuma pa 500 mm kufika pa 1200 mm. Nyengo ya chihanya iyo yikwenda kufuma mu Okutobala m'paka Epulero ndiyo yikuŵa na vula zinandi chomene, ndipo kufuma mu Disembala m'paka Febuluwale, chigaŵa chikuru cha charu ichi chikuŵa na vula yakujumpha 100 mm pa mwezi. Chivula chichoko chomene pa mwezi ku Lesotho chikuŵa mu Juni, apo vigaŵa vinandi vikuŵa na chivula chichoko chomene pa mwezi..<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":1" /> === Chilangalanga === [[File:Early Morning view from Sehlabathebe House - panoramio.jpg|thumb|Hills]] Ku Lesotho, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakukhala ku mizi chifukwa cha chilangalanga. Ku Lesotho kukusuzga comene cifukwa ca kulima. Buku la World Factbook likuzunura vyakumera ivyo vikuchitika nyengo na nyengo mu chigaŵa cha Lesotho.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/lesotho/|title=Africa :: Lesotho — The World Factbook - Central Intelligence Agency|website=www.cia.gov|access-date=2019-12-16}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|date=2007|title=LESOTHO: Severe Drought|journal=Africa Research Bulletin: Economic, Financial and Technical Series|volume=44|issue=6}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Elgoni, A. G.;.|first=Ntsike, M.; Matji, M.|date=1997|title=Quality of Life under Drought Conditions. A Case Study of Children in Lesotho|journal=Quality of Life Research|volume=6|issue=5|pages=456}}</ref> Mu 2007, ku Lesotho kukaŵa chilangalanga ndipo wupu wa United Nations ukamuphalira kuti wapharazge kuti kuli suzgo mwakuti wamanye wovwiri wa mawupu gha pa charu chose.<ref name=":2" /> Wupu wakuchenjezga za njara ukati nyengo ya vula ya 2018/2019 yikamba mwezi umoza kunthazi kuluska umo yikeneranga kuŵira, kweniso vula iyo yikalokwa yikaŵa yakuchepera pa avareji.<ref name=":4">{{Cite web|url=https://reliefweb.int/report/lesotho/lesotho-drought-situation-update-01-2-may-2019|title=Lesotho: Drought Situation Update 01 (as of 2 May 2019) - Lesotho|website=ReliefWeb|language=en|access-date=2019-12-16}}</ref> Malipoti gha Climate Hazards Group InfraRed Precipitation Station (CHIRP) ghakulongora kuti mu Lesotho pakati pa Okutobala 2018 na Febuluwale 2019 vula yikalokwa pafupifupi 55 mpaka 80 peresenti.<ref name=":4" /> Mu Malichi 2019, Komiti ya Kuwona na Kusanda Vinthu mu charu cha Lesotho yikalemba lipoti ilo likayowoyerathu kuti ŵanthu 487,857 mu charu ichi ŵakukhumbikwira wovwiri chifukwa cha chilangalanga.<ref name=":4" /> Pali vifukwa vinandi ivyo vyomira vya mu Lesotho vyapangiskira kuti ŵanthu ŵasangire wovwiri. Vinthu vinyake vyakukhwaskana na utozi ivyo vikucitika cifukwa ca "kusoŵa maji ghakutowa" vingapangiska nthenda ya typhoid na nthenda ya kusulura. Ŵanakazi na ŵasungwana awo ŵakutora maji kuti ŵagwiliskirenge ntchito pa nyumba zawo ŵakuŵa pangozi chifukwa ŵakumalira nyengo yinandi na kwenda mitunda yitali.<ref name=":4" /> Ku Lesotho, chilangalanga chikupangiska ŵanthu ŵanandi kuluta mu matawuni kweniso ku South Africa kuti ŵasangeko mwaŵi unyake kweniso kuti ŵaleke kusoŵa cakurya.<ref name=":3" /> Lipoti ili likati pakati pa Julayi 2019 na Juni 2020 ŵanthu 640,000 ku Lesotho ŵakulindizgika kuti ŵazamukomwa na suzgo la vyakurya chifukwa cha "vyakurya vyambura kupambika kweniso kukwera kwa mitengo ya vyakurya chifukwa cha chilangalanga".<ref name=":4" /> ===Vyamoyo=== {{Main|Wildlife of Lesotho}} {{Category see also|Environment of Lesotho}} [[File:Aloe polyphylla 3.jpg|thumb|upright|''[[Aloe polyphylla]]'']] Ku Lesotho kuli viyuni vyakukwana 339, kusazgapo vyamoyo 10 ivyo vili pangozi pa caru cose ndiposo vyamoyo viŵiri ivyo vikusangika mu vyaru vinyake. Vinyama vya ku Lesotho ni vya mu mapiri. Ku Katse Botanical Gardens kuli vyakumera vyakuti vingachizga matenda.<ref name=golesotho>{{cite web|title=Katse Botanical Garden|url=http://www.golesotho.co.za/Other%20Pages/Botanical%20Garden.html|publisher=St Ives Communications|access-date=9 December 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161227101048/http://www.golesotho.co.za/Other%20Pages/Botanical%20Garden.html|archive-date=27 December 2016|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Flora - Semonkong Lodge|url=http://www.semonkonglodge.com/about-maletsunyane-falls/flora-of-lesotho/|website=Semonkong|access-date=9 December 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220082110/http://www.semonkonglodge.com/about-maletsunyane-falls/flora-of-lesotho/|archive-date=20 December 2016|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Mu vigaŵa vya Lesotho muli vigaŵa vitatu: malo ghakututuŵa gha Drakensberg, malo ghakututuŵa gha Drakensberg, na malo ghakututuŵa gha Highveld.<ref name="DinersteinOlson2017">{{cite journal|last1=Dinerstein|first1=Eric|last2=Olson|first2=David|last3=Joshi|first3=Anup|last4=Vynne|first4=Carly|last5=Burgess|first5=Neil D.|last6=Wikramanayake|first6=Eric|last7=Hahn|first7=Nathan|last8=Palminteri|first8=Suzanne|last9=Hedao|first9=Prashant|last10=Noss|first10=Reed|last11=Hansen|first11=Matt|last12=Locke|first12=Harvey|last13=Ellis|first13=Erle C|last14=Jones|first14=Benjamin|last15=Barber|first15=Charles Victor|last16=Hayes|first16=Randy|last17=Kormos|first17=Cyril|last18=Martin|first18=Vance|last19=Crist|first19=Eileen|last20=Sechrest|first20=Wes|last21=Price|first21=Lori|last22=Baillie|first22=Jonathan E. M.|last23=Weeden|first23=Don|last24=Suckling|first24=Kierán|last25=Davis|first25=Crystal|last26=Sizer|first26=Nigel|last27=Moore|first27=Rebecca|last28=Thau|first28=David|last29=Birch|first29=Tanya|last30=Potapov|first30=Peter|last31=Turubanova|first31=Svetlana|last32=Tyukavina|first32=Alexandra|last33=de Souza|first33=Nadia|last34=Pintea|first34=Lilian|last35=Brito|first35=José C.|last36=Llewellyn|first36=Othman A.|last37=Miller|first37=Anthony G.|last38=Patzelt|first38=Annette|last39=Ghazanfar|first39=Shahina A.|last40=Timberlake|first40=Jonathan|last41=Klöser|first41=Heinz|last42=Shennan-Farpón|first42=Yara|last43=Kindt|first43=Roeland|last44=Lillesø|first44=Jens-Peter Barnekow|last45=van Breugel|first45=Paulo|last46=Graudal|first46=Lars|last47=Voge|first47=Maianna|last48=Al-Shammari|first48=Khalaf F.|last49=Saleem|first49=Muhammad|display-authors=1|title=An Ecoregion-Based Approach to Protecting Half the Terrestrial Realm|journal=BioScience|volume=67|issue=6|year=2017|pages=534–545|issn=0006-3568|doi=10.1093/biosci/bix014|pmid=28608869|pmc=5451287|doi-access=free}}</ref> ==Chuma== {{Main|Economy of Lesotho}} [[File:A vehicle on Sani Pass.jpg|thumb|Ku Sani Pass uko kuli mphaka ndiko kukopa ŵalendo.]] Chuma cha ku Lesotho chikuthemba pa ulimi, viŵeto, kupanga vinthu na migodi, ndipo chikuthemba pa ndalama izo ŵantchito ŵakutumizga na ndalama izo zikufuma ku Southern African Customs Union (SACU).<ref name="worldbank">{{cite web|url=http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/AFRICAEXT/LESOTHOEXTN/0,,menuPK:356039~pagePK:141132~piPK:141107~theSitePK:356029,00.html |title=World bank Lesotho: Country Brief |access-date=3 March 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140331100012/http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/AFRICAEXT/LESOTHOEXTN/0%2C%2CmenuPK%3A356039~pagePK%3A141132~piPK%3A141107~theSitePK%3A356029%2C00.html |archive-date=31 March 2014 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.theodora.com/wfbcurrent/lesotho/lesotho_economy.html|title=CIA Lesotho Economy 2011|access-date=3 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120224071854/http://www.theodora.com/wfbcurrent/lesotho/lesotho_economy.html|archive-date=24 February 2012|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Ŵanandi ŵakukhala mu minda. Ŵanalume awo ŵakugwira ntchito mu migodi ku South Africa kwa myezi yitatu panji yinkhondi na yimoza, kweniso ŵantchito ŵa boma la Lesotho. Malo ghakuthyana gha kumanjiliro gha dazi ndigho ni malo ghakurughakuru gha ulimi. Pafupifupi ŵanthu 50 pa ŵanthu 100 ŵaliwose ŵakulima panji kuŵeta viŵeto, ndipo pafupifupi vigaŵa viŵiri pa vigaŵa vitatu vya ndalama izo charu chikusanga zikufuma ku vyakurya. Chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu awo ŵakukhala pasi pa ndalama zakukwana madola 1.25 pa zuŵa chikakhira kufuma pa 48% kufika pa 44% pakati pa 1995 na 2003.<ref name="worldbank"/> Charu ichi chili pakati pa vyaru ivyo "Vinthu vikwenda makora yayi pa umoyo wa ŵanthu" (chali pa nambara 160 pa nambara 187 pa ndondomeko ya UNDP ya vya umoyo wa ŵanthu), ndipo ŵanthu ŵakukhala vyaka 52 para ŵababika.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://hdrstats.undp.org/en/countries/profiles/LSO.html |title=UNDP Lesotho – Country Profile: Human Development Indicators |access-date=10 March 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130511193855/http://hdrstats.undp.org/en/countries/profiles/LSO.html |archive-date=11 May 2013 }}</ref><ref name=":0" /> Ŵakuŵerenga na kulemba ŵalipo 82%. Pa ŵana awo ŵandakwaniske vyaka 5, ŵana 20 pa 100 ŵalije thupi lakukwana.<ref name="undp">[http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2009_EN_Complete.pdf Human Development Report 2009] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091122115116/http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2009_EN_Complete.pdf |date=22 November 2009 }}. The United Nations. Retrieved 7 March 2012.</ref> Lesotho has taken advantage of the [[African Growth and Opportunity Act]] (AGOA) to become the largest exporter of garments to the US from sub-Saharan Africa.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.centralbank.org.ls/publications/Econo%20Review%20June%202011.pdf|title=Central Bank of Lesotho – Africa Growth and Opportunities Act (AGOA): Economic Impact and Future Prospects|access-date=4 February 2012|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120715041226/http://www.centralbank.org.ls/publications/Econo%20Review%20June%202011.pdf|archive-date=15 July 2012|df=dmy-all}}</ref> US brands and retailers sourcing from Lesotho include Foot Locker, Gap, Gloria Vanderbilt, JCPenney, Levi Strauss, Saks, Sears, Timberland and Wal-Mart.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://insightnews.com/business/5126-purchase-for-africa-an-appeal-for-american-apparel-buys|title=Purchase for Africa: An appeal for American apparel buys|access-date=28 October 2009|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091101064849/http://insightnews.com/business/5126-purchase-for-africa-an-appeal-for-american-apparel-buys|archive-date=1 November 2009|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Pakati pa caka ca 2004, nchito izo ŵakacitanga zikajumpha 50,000, comenecomene ŵanakazi, ndipo aka kakaŵa kakwamba kuti ŵantchito ŵa mu vipatala ŵaŵe ŵanandi kuluska ŵa mu boma. Mu 2008, likaguliska katundu wakukwana madola 487 miliyoni, comenecomene ku United States. Kwambira mu 2004, nchito za mu cigaŵa ici zachepa kufika pa 45,000 mu 2011 cifukwa ca mpikisano wa pa caru cose. Mu 2011, ofesi iyi ndiyo yikaŵa yikuru chomene mu Lesotho.<ref name="smartlessons.ifc.org">{{cite web|url=https://rafiben.files.wordpress.com/2012/09/20110715t110627_smartlesson_lesotho_fdi.pdf|title=World Bank – IFC – Africa Can Compete! The Miracle of Tiny Lesotho—Sub-Saharan Africa's Largest Garment Exporter|access-date=4 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130731130428/https://rafiben.files.wordpress.com/2012/09/20110715t110627_smartlesson_lesotho_fdi.pdf|archive-date=31 July 2013|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref>Mu 2007, malipiro gha munthu uyo wakugwira ntchito mu makampani gha vyakuvwara ghakaŵa $103 pa mwezi. Mu 2008, ndalama izo ŵanthu ŵakasanganga pa mwezi zikaŵa madola 83 gha ku America. Boma ili likambiska pulogiramu yakulimbana na HIV/AIDS yakuchemeka Apparel Lesotho Alliance to Fight AIDS (ALAFA). Ndilo ni pulogiramu ya pa caru cose iyo yikovwira ŵantchito kuti ŵaleke kulwara na kupokera munkhwala.<ref name="alafa">{{cite web|url=http://www.alafa.info/Pages/Default.asp |title=Apparel Lesotho Alliance to Fight AIDS (ALAFA) |access-date=4 February 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110225072316/http://www.alafa.info/Pages/Default.asp |archive-date=25 February 2011 }}</ref><ref name="smartlessons.ifc.org"/> {{multiple image|caption_align=center |align= right |direction= horizontal |total_width = 320 |image1= Katse Dam-001.jpg |caption1=[[Katse Dam]] |image2=Mohale Dam 2008.jpg |caption2= [[Mohale Dam]] |header= |header_align= centre }} Maji na malibwe gha dayamondi ni vinthu vinyake ivyo Lesotho wali navyo. Maji ghakugwiliskirika nchito mu cigaŵa ca Lesotho Highlands Water Project (LHWP), ico cikuŵa na vilimika 21, ndipo cili na ndalama mabiliyoni ghanandi. Ntchito iyi yikamba mu 1986. LHWP yikupangika kuti yikore maji kufuma mu Mlonga wa Orange na kuluta nagho ku chigaŵa cha Free State na Johannesburg. Pakuti chigaŵa chakwamba cha ntchito iyi chafiskika, charu cha Lesotho "chamba kujikora" pakupanga magesi ndipo mu 2010 chikasanga ndalama zakukwana madola 70 miliyoni gha ku United States kufuma pa kuguliska magesi na maji ku South Africa.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lhwp.org.ls/Reports/PDF/Water%20Sales.pdf |title=LHWP Water Sales |access-date=8 March 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110510100115/http://www.lhwp.org.ls/Reports/PDF/Water%20Sales.pdf |archive-date=10 May 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lhwp.org.ls/overview/treaty.htm |title=Lesotho Highlands Water Project: The Treaty |publisher=Lhwp.org.ls |date=24 October 1986 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131219001053/http://www.lhwp.org.ls/overview/treaty.htm |archive-date=19 December 2013 }}</ref><ref name="worldbank" /> Malibwe agha ghakupangika mu migodi ya Letšeng, Mothae, Liqhobong, na Kao, ndipo mu 2014 ghakapanga malibwe gha karati 240,000. Mu mgodi wa Letšeng muli malibwe gha mtengo wa madola 2172/carat. Mu 2008, chifukwa cha suzgo la vyachuma pa charu chose, ntchito iyi yikanangika chomene, ndipo mu 2010 na 2011, yikalutilira makora. Kuguliska dayimani kukakwana madola 230 miliyoni mu 2010.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.centralbank.org.ls/publications/Quart%20Review%20Jun%202011.pdf|title=Central Bank of Lesotho – QUARTERLY REVIEW – June 2011|access-date=6 March 2012|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120209055906/http://www.centralbank.org.ls/publications/Quart%20Review%20Jun%202011.pdf|archive-date=9 February 2012|df=dmy-all}}</ref>Mu 1957, munthu munyake wa ku South Africa, Colonel Jack Scott, pamoza na Keith Whitelock, ŵakaluta kukapenja dayamondi. Ŵakasanga migodi ya dayamondi pa mtunda wa mamita 3,100, pachanya pa mapiri gha Maluti kumpoto kwa Lesotho, makilomita 70 kufuma ku Mokhotlong ku Letšeng. Mu 1967, mwanakazi munyake wa ku Mosotho wakasanga dayamondi (Lesotho Brown) ilo likaŵa na uzito wa magalamu 120.2. Mu Ogasiti 2006, ku Letšeng-la-Terae ŵakasanga libwe la matalente lituŵa la Lesotho Promise ilo likaŵa na uzito wa makara 603. Mu 2008, ku malo agha kukasangikaso dayamondi munyake wa uzito wa magalamu 95.6.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.letsengdiamonds.co.ls/about-us/corporate-profile/|title=Corporate Profile|date=29 September 2016}}</ref> Charu cha Lesotho chajumphapo apo chikaŵa na cuma ico cikugwiliskira nchito ndalama zinandi kuti cikondweske ŵanthu. Vigaŵa vya vyakurya ivyo vikuguliska vyakurya vinyake vya ku vyaru vinyake vyapeleka ndalama zinandi ku ŵanthu ŵanandi. Chifukwa cha suzgo la vyachuma pa caru cose, caru ca Lesotho cikataya nchito zinandi pa nkhani ya vyakuvwara cifukwa ca suzgo la vyachuma ku United States, uko kukaŵa malo ghakwendako. Kuchepa kwa migodi ya dayamondi na katundu uyo wakwendeskeka, kusazgapo kukhira kwa mtengo wa dayamondi na kuchepa kwa ndalama za SACU chifukwa cha suzgo la vyachuma ku South Africa, ndiko kukapangiska suzgo ili. Kuchepa kwa ndalama za ogwira ntchito chifukwa cha "kufooka" kwa chuma cha South Africa ndi kuchepa kwa ntchito ya migodi ndi kutayika kwa ntchito ku South Africa kunathandizira mu 2009, kukula kwa GDP ya Lesotho kuchepa kufika pa 0.9%.<ref>{{cite web |author=Dan Oancea |title=Letseng-la-Terae: The 603 Carat Lesotho Promise Diamond |url=http://technology.infomine.com/articles/1/47/letseng.diamond.lesotho/letseng-la-terae.the.603.aspx |publisher=Technology.infomine.com |access-date=20 May 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100213025641/http://technology.infomine.com/articles/1/47/letseng.diamond.lesotho/letseng-la-terae.the.603.aspx |archive-date=13 February 2010 |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all }}</ref> Ndalama za boma ni loti (m'nthumbo: maloti) izo zingagwiliskirika nchito pamoza na rand ya ku South Africa. Charu cha Lesotho, Eswatini, Namibia, na South Africa vili na ndalama zakuyana na umo ŵanthu ŵakugwilira ntchito. Ndalama iyi yikukolerana na rand.<ref name="worldbank" /><ref name="worldbank" /> == Ŵanthu == {{See also|Demographics of Lesotho}} [[File:Lesotho class.jpg|thumb|Sukulu ya pulayimale]] Chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu ŵa ku Lesotho chili pafupifupi 2,281,454.{{UN_Population|ref}}The population distribution of Lesotho is 25% urban and 75% rural. It is estimated that the annual increase in urban population is 3.5%.<ref name="factbook2">{{cite web |title=Lesotho |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/lesotho/ |access-date=15 May 2007 |work=The World Factbook |df=dmy-all}}</ref> 60.2% of the population is between 15 and 64 years of age.<ref name="factbook" /><ref name="factbook">{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/lesotho/|title=Lesotho|work=The World Factbook|access-date=15 May 2007|df=dmy-all}}</ref> === Mtundu na viyowoyero === {{Main|Languages of Lesotho}} Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Lesotho ŵakuyowoya chiyowoyero cha Basotho. Pa nkhani iyi, Lesotho njimoza mwa vyaru vichoko waka vya mu Africa ivyo vili na ŵanthu ŵa fuko limoza kweniso chiyowoyero chimoza. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Basotho ni Bafokeng, Batloung, Baphuthi, Bakuena, Bataung, Batšoeneng, na Matebele.{{sfn|Boyd|1979|p=1}} === Chisopo === {{Main|Religion in Lesotho}} [[File:St Michaels Cathedral, lesotho.jpg|thumb|St.Michael's Cathedral]] Ŵanthu ŵa ku Lesotho ŵakujumpha 95 peresenti Mbakhristu. Pa ŵanthu aŵa, Ŵaprotesitanti ŵalipo 18.2%, Ŵapentekoste 15.4%, Ŵaanglican 5.3%, ndipo Ŵakhristu ŵanyake ŵalipo 1.8%. Ŵakatolika ŵakwimira 49.4% ya ŵanthu, awo ŵakuteŵetereka na chigaŵa cha Metropolitan Archbishop of Maseru na ŵanthu ŵake ŵatatu (ŵasembe ŵa Leribe, Mohale's Hoek na Qacha's Nek), awo ŵakupangiska ungano wa ŵasembe wa pa caru cose. Visopa ivyo ni vya Cikhristu yayi ni 9.6% vya ŵanthu wose, ndipo awo ŵalije cisopa ni 0.2%.<ref name=ARDA/><ref name="Pew Christians">{{cite web|url=http://www.pewforum.org/2011/12/19/table-christian-population-as-percentages-of-total-population-by-country/|title=Table: Christian Population as Percentages of Total Population by Country| date=19 December 2011 |publisher=Pew Research Center|access-date=21 April 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170511124911/http://www.pewforum.org/2011/12/19/table-christian-population-as-percentages-of-total-population-by-country/|archive-date=11 May 2017|url-status=live|df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref name="ARDA">{{cite web|date=2015|title=Lesotho|access-date=18 May 2020|publisher=[[Association of Religion Data Archives]] |url=http://www.thearda.com/internationalData/countries/Country_130_1.asp}}</ref> === Masambiro na kuŵazga === {{Main|Education in Lesotho}} [[File:National University of Lesotho Administration Block.jpg|thumb|[[National University of Lesotho|Yunivesite Yaboma ya Lesotho]]]] Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakuti pa caru cose, pa ŵanakazi awo ŵali na vyaka vyakujumpha 15, 85 peresenti na ŵanalume awo ŵali na vyaka vyakujumpha 15, 68 peresenti ŵakumanya kuŵazga na kulemba. <ref name="unesco">{{cite web| url=http://stats.uis.unesco.org/unesco/tableviewer/document.aspx?ReportId=143| title=Unesco Institute for Statistics: Date Centre| date=14 September 2007| access-date=28 February 2011| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110130085835/http://stats.uis.unesco.org/unesco/tableviewer/document.aspx?ReportId=143| archive-date=30 January 2011| url-status=live| df=dmy-all}}</ref>Lekani charu cha Lesotho chili na "umoza mwa vyaru vyapachanya chomene mu Africa" chifukwa cha ndalama izo charu ichi chikugwiliskira ntchito pa masambiro. Ŵanakazi awo ŵakumanya kuŵazga na kulemba (84.93%) ŵakuluska ŵanalume awo ŵakumanya kuŵazga na kulemba (67.75%) na 17.18%. Kuyana na kafukufuku uyo wakachitika na wupu wa Southern and Eastern Africa Consortium for Monitoring Educational Quality mu 2000, ŵana 37 pa 100 ŵaliwose ŵa kilasi 6 ku Lesotho (ŵakaŵa na vyaka 14) ŵakaŵazganga makora. Msambiri uyo wakumanya kuŵazga makora wangaŵazga nkhani kufuma kunthazi m'paka kumasinda kuti waŵikeko fundo zinyake. Nangauli sukulu njakukakamizgika yayi, kweni boma la Lesotho likwendeska ndondomeko ya masambiro ghapachanya ghaulere.<ref name="factbook" /> Wupu wa International Telecommunication Union ukati ŵanthu 3.4% pa caru cose ŵakugwiliskira nchito Intaneti. Ntchito ya Econet Telecom Lesotho yikawovwira kuti ŵanthu ŵa mu charu ichi ŵapulikiskenge makora uthenga wa pa e-mail kwizira mu mafoni ghapachanya chomene. African Library Project ikugwira ntchito kukhazikitsa makalata a sukulu ndi midzi mogwirizana ndi US Peace Corps Lesotho ndi Butha Buthe District of Education.<ref name="peacecorps">{{cite web|url=http://www.peacecorps.gov/index.cfm?shell=learn.wherepc.africa.lesotho |title=Peace Corps: Lesotho |date=14 July 2010 |access-date=28 February 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110205042351/http://www.peacecorps.gov/index.cfm?shell=learn.Wherepc.africa.lesotho |archive-date= 5 February 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.education.gov.ls/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=18&Itemid=30 |title=Lesotho Ministry of Education and Training – Basic Education |publisher=Education.gov.ls |date=5 October 2005 |access-date=4 July 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100720222113/http://www.education.gov.ls/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=18&Itemid=30 |archive-date=20 July 2010 |df=dmy-all }}</ref><ref name="sacmeq">{{cite web|url=http://www.sacmeq.org/education-lesotho.htm |title=The SACMEQ II Project in Lesotho: A Study of the Conditions of Schooling and the Quality of Education. Harare: SACMEQ |publisher=Sacmeq |date=2 October 2005 |access-date=4 July 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130425052229/http://www.sacmeq.org/education-lesotho.htm |archive-date=25 April 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://en.unesco.org/countries/lesotho|title=Lesotho|date=2014-11-04|website=UNESCO|language=en|access-date=2019-05-18}}</ref> ===Umoyo=== {{main|Health in Lesotho}} Mu 2016, ŵanthu ŵa ku Lesotho ŵakakhazganga kukhala vyaka 51 kwa ŵanalume na vyaka 55 kwa ŵanakazi. Ŵana ŵachoko waka ndiwo ŵakufwa pa vipatala pafupifupi 8.3%. Mu 2019, vyaka ivyo ŵanalume na ŵanakazi ŵakakhaliranga na umoyo vikaŵa 52.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/globalhealth/countries/lesotho/default.htm|title=CDC Global Health - Lesotho|date=2019-07-22|website=www.cdc.gov|language=en-us|access-date=2019-11-22}}</ref> Mu chaka cha 2018, chiŵerengero cha anthu achikulire omwe ali ndi kachilombo ka HIV/AIDS ku Lesotho chikukwana 23.6% ndipo ndichiwiri kwambiri padziko lonse lapansi, pambuyo pa Eswatini.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Prevalence of HIV, total (% of population ages 15-49) - Lesotho {{!}} Data|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.DYN.AIDS.ZS?locations=LS&most_recent_value_desc=true&view=chart|access-date=2020-07-14|website=data.worldbank.org}}</ref> Mu 2021, charu cha Lesotho chikaŵa na chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu ŵa HIV 22.8% pa ŵanthu ŵa vyaka vyapakati pa 15 na 49.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2015-07-21|title=HIV and AIDS in Lesotho|url=https://www.avert.org/professionals/hiv-around-world/sub-saharan-africa/lesotho|access-date=2022-01-19|website=Avert|language=en}}</ref> Mu caru ici ndimo muli ŵanthu ŵanandi comene awo ŵali na nthenda ya maleriya. Kuyana na kafukufuku uyo wakachitika mu charu cha Lesotho mu 2006, ŵanthu pafupifupi 4 pa ŵanthu 100 ŵaliwose ŵali na suzgo linyake. Ŵanthu ŵakukayikira usange nthowa izo ŵakugwiliskira ntchito ni zakugomezgeka, ndipo ŵakuwona kuti chiŵerengero chaunenesko chili pafupi na 15%. Kuyana na kafukufuku uyo wakacitika na wupu wa Lesotho National Federation of Organizations of the Disabled pamoza na SINTEF, ŵanthu awo ŵali na suzgo mu caru ca Lesotho ŵakukumana na masuzgo agho ghakuŵakanizga kusambira, kupwelelera umoyo, na kusanga nchito mwakuyana na ŵanji. Pa Disembala 2, 2008, charu cha Lesotho chikaŵa cha nambara 42 kusayinira phangano la wupu wa UN lakukhwaskana na wanangwa wa ŵanthu ŵakupendera. Mwakuyana na umo wupu wa vyaumoyo wa pa caru cose ukulongolera, kwambira mu 2008, caru ca Lesotho nchakwamba pa caru cose kuŵa na ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakujikoma.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://apps.who.int/gho/data/node.main.MHSUICIDEASDR?lang=en|title=Suicide rates Data by country|year=2016|publisher=[[World Health Organization]]|access-date=23 September 2018}}</ref><ref>Yusman Kamaleri and Arne H. Eide (eds.) (2011) [https://web.archive.org/web/20150402154124/http://www.lnfod.org.ls/uploads/1/2/2/5/12251792/report_lesotho_3101111.pdf Living Conditions of People with Disability in Lesotho] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402154124/http://www.lnfod.org.ls/uploads/1/2/2/5/12251792/report_lesotho_3101111.pdf |date=2 April 2015 }}. SINTEF Technology and Society. lnfod.org.ls</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Incidence of tuberculosis (per 100,000 people) {{!}} Data|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.TBS.INCD?most_recent_value_desc=true&view=chart|access-date=2020-07-14|website=data.worldbank.org}}</ref> ===Women in Lesotho=== {{Main|Women in Lesotho}} Kuyana na wupu wa UN, caru ca Lesotho ndico cili na ciŵelengero cikuru comene ca ŵanthu awo ŵakukoleka mwankhaza (91.6 pa ŵanthu 100,000 mu 2008). Maofesi gha UNODC ghakasanga kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ku Lesotho ndiwo ŵakakoleka na ŵapolisi mu 2008. Kafukufuku munyake uyo wakachitika ku Lesotho wakalongora kuti ŵanakazi 61 pa 100 ŵaliwose ŵakayowoyapo kuti ŵali kuchitikapo nkhaza.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20131029201559/https://apha.confex.com/apha/133am/techprogram/paper_114115.htm "Magnitude of sexual violence in Lesotho"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029201559/https://apha.confex.com/apha/133am/techprogram/paper_114115.htm |date=29 October 2013 }}. confex.com.</ref> Mu kafukufuku uyo DHS yikachita mu 2009, ŵanalume 15.7% ŵakati mfumu wangachita makora kuti watimbe muwoli wake usange wakana kugonana nayo. Mu kafukufuku munyake, ŵasayansi ŵakuti "pakuti ku Lesotho ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵali na HIV, ŵanakazi ŵakwenera kujisankhira ŵekha vyakuchita". Dango la 2006 lakuyowoya za wanangwa wa ŵanalume na ŵanakazi awo ŵali mu nthengwa likupeleka wanangwa wakuyana ku ŵanakazi na ŵafumu ŵawo. Lipoti la 2020 la World Economic Forum la Gender Gap Report likuŵika Lesotho pa malo gha 88 pa charu chose pa nkhani ya wanangwa wa ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yose, apo charu cha South Africa chili pa malo gha 17.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_GGGR_2020.pdf|title=The Global Gender Gap Report 2020|publisher=World Economic Forum|pages=221, 315}}</ref><ref>[http://www.nationmaster.com/graph/cri_rap_rat-crime-rape-rate "Countries Compared by Crime > Rape rate. International Statistics at NationMaster.com"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111201093758/http://www.nationmaster.com/graph/cri_rap_rat-crime-rape-rate |date=1 December 2011 }}. nationmaster.com.</ref><ref name="unodc1">[http://www.unodc.org/documents/data-and-analysis/Crime-statistics/Sexual_violence_sv_against_children_and_rape.xls "Rape at the National Level, number of police recorded offenses".] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029210321/http://www.unodc.org/documents/data-and-analysis/Crime-statistics/Sexual_violence_sv_against_children_and_rape.xls|date=29 October 2013}} [[United Nations]].</ref><ref>[http://www.measuredhs.com/pubs/pdf/FR241/FR241%5BNEW_completeHHQst_3March2012%5D.pdf Lesotho. Demographic and Health Survey 2009] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029205745/http://www.measuredhs.com/pubs/pdf/FR241/FR241%5BNEW_completeHHQst_3March2012%5D.pdf |date=29 October 2013 }}. Ministry of Health and Social Welfare, Maseru, Lesotho. November 2010</ref><ref>{{cite journal | pmid = 17209284 | volume=37 | issue=4 | title=Sexual violence in Lesotho| url = https://archive.org/details/sim_studies-in-family-planning_2006-12_37_4/page/269 |year=2006 | journal=Stud Fam Plann | pages=269–80|author=L Brown | doi=10.1111/j.1728-4465.2006.00105.x}}</ref><ref>Buhle Angelo Dube. [http://www.nyulawglobal.org/globalex/lesotho.htm The Law and Legal Research in Lesotho] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100620014058/http://nyulawglobal.org/globalex/Lesotho.htm |date=20 June 2010 }}. nyulawglobal.org</ref> ==Mwambo== {{See also|Music of Lesotho|List of African writers by country#Lesotho}} [[File:Parade of Basotho women.jpg|thumb|Women wearing [[Basotho blanket]]s]] Vyakurya vya ku Lesotho ni vya ku Africa kweniso vya ku Britain. Cakurya cikuru ca ku Lesotho ni Motoho, cakurya ca sorghum. Vyakurya vinyake ivyo ŵanthu ŵakutemwa ni vyakurya vya mbuto, ivyo vikuŵa na mpunga. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakutemwa kumwa tiyi na moŵa. Charu cha Lesotho ntchakumanyikwa na moŵa wake wa ginger, ndipo pali mitundu yiŵiri ya moŵa uwu. Kanandi ŵanthu ŵakuguliska mu misewu ya ku Lesotho. <ref>{{cite web |url=http://foodspring.com/content/lesotho/ |title=Lesotho: British influence meets African tradition|work=foodspring |access-date=2014-04-01 |url-status=bot: unknown |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150217042157/http://foodspring.com/content/lesotho/ |archive-date=17 February 2015 |df=dmy-all }}</ref>Sishenyama yikuguliskika mwekha mu charu chose cha Lesotho pamoza na vyakurya vinyake nga ni kabichi, pap, na saladi ya nyungu.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://theculturetrip.com/africa/lesotho/articles/explore-lesothos-bygone-trading-posts/ | title=Explore Lesotho's Bygone Trading Posts | date=27 April 2018 }}</ref> Vinthu ivyo vikulongora kuti Britain yikaŵa na mazaza pa charu cha Lesotho vikulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵakaguliskanga vinthu mu charu ichi kufuma mu vyaka vya m'ma 1700 m'paka m'ma 1900. Ŵali mu mizi ya Roma, Ramabantana, Ha Matela, Malealea na Semonkong. Kale, malo agha ŵakaguliskangamo mafuta, vyakurya, na nyama. Cikaŵa cakuzirwa comene mu nyengo iyo magalimoto ghakaŵa kuti ghandafike. Vikavwara vya fuko la Basotho vikuŵa nga ni bulangete. Mazuŵa ghano, bulangete la Basotho likupangika na salu za acrylic. Kampani yikuru iyo yikupanga mabulangete gha Basotho ni Aranda, iyo yili na fakitare ku South Africa. Chikondwelero cha Morija Arts & Cultural chikuchitika chaka chilichose mu tawuni ya Morija uko ŵamishonale ŵakafika mu 1833.<ref>{{cite web|title=Ethnic Food of Lesotho|url=http://traveltips.usatoday.com/ethnic-food-lesotho-36010.html|website=USA Today|access-date=1 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180310081024/http://traveltips.usatoday.com/ethnic-food-lesotho-36010.html|archive-date=10 March 2018|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Viyelezgero vya ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa San awo ŵakaŵako mu nyengo yakale vikusangika mu mapiri gha ku Basutoland. Pali viyelezgero vinyake mu muzi wa Ha Matela.<ref>{{Cite book | title = The Mountain Bushmen of Basutoland | last = Walsham How | first = Marion | publisher = J. L. Van Schaik Ltd. | year = 1962 | location = Pretoria }}</ref> === Pony ya Basotho === Nkhumba ya Basotho njakuzirwa comene mu cikaya ca Lesotho. Kale, ŵakaŵakweleranga ku nkhondo, ndipo mazuŵa ghano ŵakugwiliskira ntchito ngolo na ulimi. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Lesotho ŵakumanyikwa comene pa nkhani ya kukwera pa mahaci. === Mafilimu na vyakupharazga === Ryan Coogler, uyo wakalongosora filimu ya Black Panther ya mu 2018, wakati wakalemba vya Lesotho pakulongosora vya Wakanda. Chifukwa cha filimu iyi, mabulangete gha Basotho "ghakamanyikwa chomene". Mu Novembala 2020, filimuyi This Is Not a Burial, It's a Resurrection yikaŵa filimu yakwamba ya ku Lesotho iyo yikapelekeka ku Academy Award for Best International Feature Film na charu ichi.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://variety.com/2020/film/global/oscars-lesotho-lemohang-jeremiah-mosese-this-is-not-a-burial-its-a-resurrection-international-feature-film-1234826821/ |title=Oscar Debutant Lesotho Selects 'This Is Not a Burial' for International Feature Film Race |work=Variety |first=Christopher |last=Vourlias |date=10 November 2020 |access-date=10 November 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.vulture.com/2018/02/black-panthers-wakanda-explained.html|title=A Brief History of Wakanda, Black Panther's Fictional Utopia|first=Nate|last=Jones|date=15 February 2018|website=Vulture}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.businessinsider.co.za/black-panther-has-not-real-effect-on-the-south-african-sale-of-basotho-blankts-2018-3|title=Black Panther made Basotho blankets world famous – but you wouldn't be able to tell that from local sales|website=BusinessInsider}}</ref> ==Wonaniso<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.timeslive.co.za/sunday-times/lifestyle/2018-02-17-black-panther-director-ryan-cooglers-a-fan-of-lesotho--isixhosa/|title=How 'Black Panther's' director fell in love with Lesotho & isiXhosa|website=TimesLIVE}}</ref>== {{portal|Africa}} *[[Index of Lesotho-related articles]] *[[Outline of Lesotho]] *[[Telephone numbers in Lesotho]] ==Ukaboni== {{reflist}} *Vigaŵa vya kuwalo {{Sister project links|voy=Lesotho|collapsible=collapsed}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20180408225354/http://gov.ls/ Government of Lesotho] * [http://www.lesotholii.org/ Published Judicial Opinions] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20231102150309/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/lesotho/ Lesotho]. ''[[The World Factbook]]''. [[Central Intelligence Agency]]. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20080607085124/http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/lesotho.htm Lesotho] from ''UCB Libraries GovPubs'' * {{curlie|Regional/Africa/Lesotho}} * [https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-13728324 Lesotho profile] from the [[BBC News]] * {{wikiatlas|Lesotho}} * {{osmrelation-inline|2093234}} * [http://www.ifs.du.edu/ifs/frm_CountryProfile.aspx?Country=LS Key Development Forecasts for Lesotho] from [[International Futures]] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20210308042630/https://www.ilesotho.org/ Introduction of Lesotho] {{Lesotho topics}} {{Navboxes |title = Articles related to Lesotho |list = {{Countries of Africa}} {{SACU}} {{Southern African Development Community}} {{African Union}} {{Commonwealth of Nations}} {{Monarchies|state=collapsed}} {{English official language clickable map}} }} {{Authority control}} {{coord|-29.6|28.3|display=title}} [[Category:Lesotho| ]] [[Category:Southern African countries]] [[Category:Enclaved countries]] [[Category:Member states of the African Union]] [[Category:Countries and territories where English is an official language]] [[Category:Least developed countries]] [[Category:Member states of the Commonwealth of Nations]] [[Category:States and territories established in 1966]] [[Category:Enclaves and exclaves]] [[Category:Member states of the United Nations]] [[Category:Commonwealth monarchies]] [[Category:1966 establishments in Africa]] [[Category:Countries in Africa]] [[Category:Landlocked countries]] f0bbjfiaojjmym7500qy3f6xpzw2bky 0 6941 119291 118878 2026-08-13T21:59:49Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260813sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 119291 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Country in North Africa}} {{about|the country in North Africa}} {{For| the instrument|Maraca}} {{pp-semi-indef}} {{pp-move}} {{Use dmy dates|date=December 2022}} {{Infobox country | conventional_long_name = Kingdom of Morocco | common_name = Morocco | native_name = {{native name list|name1=المملكة المغربية|tag1=ar|name2=ⵜⴰⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵍⵎⵖⵔⵉⴱ|tag2=zgh}} | image_flag = Flag of Morocco (large stroke).svg<!-- Flag of Morocco.svg--> | image_coat = Coat of arms of Morocco.svg | national_motto = <br />{{native phrase|ar|{{lower|0.1em|الله، الوطن، الملك&nbsp;}}|italics=off|nolink=on}}<br />{{native phrase|zgh| ⴰⴽⵓⵛ, ⴰⵎⵓⵔ, ⴰⴳⵍⵍⵉⴷ|italics=off|nolink=on}} | national_anthem = <br />{{native phrase|ar|{{lower|0.1em|النشيد الوطني&nbsp;}}|italics=off|nolink=on}}<br />{{native phrase|zgh|{{lower|0.1em|ⵉⵣⵍⵉ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵔ&nbsp;}}|italics=off|nolink=on}}<br />"[[Cherifian Anthem|National Anthem]]"<br /><div style="display:inline-block;margin-top:0.4em;">{{center|[[File:National Anthem of Morocco.ogg]]}}</div> | image_map = Morocco (orthographic projection, WS claimed).svg | map_caption = Location of Morocco in northwest [[Africa]]<br />Dark green: Undisputed territory of Morocco<br />Lighter green: [[Western Sahara]], a [[United Nations list of non-self-governing territories|territory]] claimed and occupied mostly by Morocco {{nowrap|as its [[Southern Provinces]]}}{{NoteTag|Solve the [[Political status of Western Sahara|status issue]] under the leadership of United Nations' [[United Nations Mission for the Referendum in Western Sahara|MINURSO]]<ref>{{cite web |title=MANDATE |url = https://minurso.unmissions.org/mandate |website=UNITED NATIONS |date=26 October 2016 }}</ref>}} | capital = [[Rabat]] | coordinates = {{Coord|34|02|N|6|51|W|type:city}} | largest_city = [[Casablanca]]<br />{{small|{{coord|33|32|N|7|35|W|display=inline}}}} | official_languages = {{hlist |[[Modern Standard Arabic|Arabic]]|[[Standard Moroccan Amazigh|Amazigh]]}} | languages_type = Spoken languages | languages = {{ublist|class=nowrap |[[Moroccan Arabic]]|[[Hassaniya Arabic]]| [[Berber languages|Berber]]|[[French language|French]]{{NoteTag|[[French language in Morocco]] is also used in official government documents and by the business community, although it has no official status: "French (often the language of business, government, and diplomacy)..."<ref name=CIA>{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/morocco/ |title=Morocco |work=World Factbook |date=12 January 2022 |publisher = Central Intelligence Agency }}</ref><ref name=FR>{{cite web |title = Présentation du Maroc |url = https://www.diplomatie.gouv.fr/fr/dossiers-pays/maroc/presentation-du-maroc/ |website=Ministère de l'Europe et des Affaires étrangères |language = fr }}</ref>}}}} | languages2_type = Foreign languages | languages2 = {{hlist|[[English language|English]]|[[Spanish language|Spanish]]<ref>{{cite journal |title=The teaching of English in Morocco: the place of culture |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_elt-journal_1994-10_48_4/page/295 |last1=Hyde |first1=Martin |journal=ELT Journal |volume=48 |issue=4 |date=October 1994 |pages=295–305 |doi=10.1093/elt/48.4.295}}</ref>}} | ethnic_groups = {{Tree list}} * 67% [[Arabs]] * 31% [[Berbers]] * 2% [[Sahrawi people|Sahrawis]] {{Tree list/end}} | ethnic_groups_ref = <ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fs0Fog7XneUC&pg=PA11 |title=The Report: Morocco 2012 |date=2012 |publisher=Oxford Business Group |isbn=978-1-907065-54-5 |language=en}}</ref> | ethnic_groups_year = 2012 | religion = {{Tree list}} * 99.6% [[Islam in Morocco|Islam]] ([[State religion|official]]) ** 99.23% [[Sunni Islam|Sunni]] ** 0.45% [[Shia Islam|Shia]] * 0.3% [[Religion in Morocco|Others]] ** 0.13% [[Agnosticism|Agnostics]] ** 0.10% [[Baháʼí Faith in Morocco|Baháʼís]] ** 0.09% [[Christianity in Morocco|Christians]] ** 0.01% [[Moroccan Jews|Jews]] {{Tree list/end}} | religion_ref = <ref name=CIA/><ref>{{cite web |title=Regional Profiles: Morocco |url=https://www.thearda.com/world-religion/national-profiles?u=155c&u=23r |website= The Association of Religion Data Archives |publisher= World Religion Database}}</ref> | demonym = [[Moroccans|Moroccan]] | government_type = [[Unitary state|Unitary]] [[Parliamentary system|parliamentary]] [[Constitutional monarchy#Executive monarchy versus ceremonial monarchy|semi-constitutional monarchy]]<ref name="Const1">{{Cite book |url=https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Morocco_2011 |title=Constitution of the Kingdom of Morocco |publisher=William S. Hein & Co., Inc. |quote=First published in the Official Bulletin on July 30, 2011 |year=2012 |location=Getzville |translator-last=Ruchti |translator-first=Jefri J. |language=en}}</ref> | leader_title1 = [[King of Morocco|King]] | leader_name1 = [[Mohammed VI of Morocco|Mohammed VI]] | leader_title2 = [[Prime Minister of Morocco|Prime Minister]] | leader_name2 = [[Aziz Akhannouch]] | legislature = [[Parliament of Morocco|Parliament]] | upper_house = [[House of Councillors (Morocco)|House of Councillors]] | lower_house = {{nowrap|[[House of Representatives (Morocco)|House of Representatives]]}} | sovereignty_type = [[History of Morocco|Establishment]] | established_event1 = [[Idrisid dynasty]] | established_date1 = 788 | established_event2 = [['Alawi dynasty]] {{small|(current dynasty)}} | established_date2 = 1631 | established_event3 = [[French protectorate in Morocco|Protectorate established]] | established_date3 = 30 March 1912 | established_event4 = [[History of Morocco#Independent Morocco (since 1956)|Independence]] | established_date4 = 7 April 1956 | area_km2 = 446,300 | area_footnote = {{nowrap|<br />{{raise|0.15em|or {{cvt|710,850|km2|sqmi}}{{ref label|Territory|a|}}}}}} | area_rank = 39th or 57th <!-- Area rank should match [[List of countries and dependencies by area]] --> | area_sq_mi = 274,460 sq mi<!--Do not remove per [[Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers]]-->{{nowrap|<br />{{raise|0.15em|or 172,413 {{ref label|Territory|b|}}}}}} | percent_water = {{nowrap|0.056 {{small|(250 km{{sup|2}})}}}} | population_estimate = 37,984,655<ref name=HCPclock>{{cite web | title= Horloge de la population | language = fr | url = https://www.hcp.ma/Horloge-de-la-population_a3531.html | year = 2022 | publisher = [[Haut Commissariat au Plan|HCP]] | access-date = 18 December 2022}}</ref> | population_estimate_year = 2022 | population_estimate_rank = 39th | population_census = 33,848,242<ref name=HCP>{{cite web | title = Résultats RGPH 2014 | language = fr | url = http://rgphentableaux.hcp.ma/ | year = 2014 | publisher = [[Haut Commissariat au Plan|HCP]] | access-date = 17 October 2019 | archive-date = 9 May 2020 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200509042714/http://rgphentableaux.hcp.ma/ | url-status = dead }}</ref> | population_census_year = 2014 | population_density_km2 = 50.0 | population_density_sq_mi = 189.3 <!--Do not remove per [[Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers]]--> | population_density_rank = | GDP_PPP = {{increase}}$359.671&nbsp;billion<ref name="imf">{{cite web |url = https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2022/October |title=World Economic Outlook Database: October 2022 Edition |publisher = [[International Monetary Fund]] }}</ref> <!--Do not edit!--> | GDP_PPP_year = 2022 | GDP_PPP_rank = 55th | GDP_PPP_per_capita = {{increase}}$9,808<ref name=imf/> | GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 122th | GDP_nominal = {{increase}}$142.874&nbsp;billion<ref name=imf/> | GDP_nominal_year = 2022 | GDP_nominal_rank = 60th | GDP_nominal_per_capita = {{increase}}$3,896<ref name=imf/> | GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 123th | Gini = 40.3 <!--number only--> | Gini_year = 2015 | Gini_ref = <ref>{{cite book |url= https://read.oecd-ilibrary.org/development/africa-s-development-dynamics-2018_9789264302501-en#page18 |title = Africa's Development Dynamics 2018:Growth, Jobs and Inequalities |publisher=AUC/OECD |access-date=18 December 2020 |page=179 |year=2018 }}</ref> | HDI = 0.683<!--number only--> | HDI_year = 2021<!-- Please use the year to which the data refers, not the publication year--> | HDI_change = increase <!--increase/decrease/steady--> | HDI_ref = <ref name="UNHDR">{{cite book |title=Human Development Report 2021-22: Uncertain Times, Unsettled Lives: Shaping our Future in a Transforming World |date=8 September 2022 |publisher=United Nations Development Programme |isbn=978-9-211-26451-7 |pages=272–276 |website=hdr.undp.org |url=https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2021-22pdf_1.pdf |access-date=8 September 2022 |archive-date=8 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220908114232/http://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2021-22pdf_1.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> | HDI_rank = 123th | currency = [[Moroccan dirham]] | currency_code = MAD | time_zone = <!--Morocco defines its time zone as Greenwich Mean Time + 1 hour, please do not add "Central European Time" or "West Africa Time" without an official source.--> | utc_offset = +1<ref>{{Cite journal |title=Décret royal n° 455-67 du 23 safar 1387 (2 juin 1967) portant loi relatif à l'heure légale |url=http://bdj.mmsp.gov.ma/Fr/Document/10117-D%C3%A9cret-royal-n-455-67-du-23-safar-1387-2-juin-19.aspx?KeyPath=594/596/608/714/10117 |journal=Bulletin Officiel du Royaume du Maroc |issue=2854 |via=Banque de Données Juridiques}}</ref><br />UTC+0 (during [[Ramadan]])<ref>{{Cite web |title=Changements d'heure pour ramadan, quels impacts ? |url=https://telquel.ma/2018/05/14/changements-dheure-pour-ramadan-quels-impacts_1593439?fbrefresh=7 |access-date=2023-01-13 |website=TelQuel |language=fr}}</ref> | drives_on = right | calling_code = [[Telephone numbers in Morocco|+212]] | cctld = [[.ma]]<br />المغرب. <!--Unused: | footnote_? = {{note|French}} 13.5% fluent, 19.5% partially fluent.<ref>"[http://www.francophonie.org/IMG/pdf/La_francophonie_dans_le_monde_2006-2007.pdf La Francophonie dans le monde]." ([https://web.archive.org/web/20121224074425/http://www.francophonie.org/IMG/pdf/La_francophonie_dans_le_monde_2006-2007.pdf Archive]) ''[[Organisation Internationale de la Francophonie]]''. p.&nbsp;16. Retrieved 15 October 2012.</ref>-->| official_website = [https://maroc.ma/ maroc.ma] | footnote_a = {{note|Territory}} The area {{convert|446550|km2|abbr=on}} excludes all disputed territories, while {{convert|710850|km2|abbr=on}} includes the Moroccan-claimed and partially-controlled parts of [[Western Sahara]] (claimed as the [[Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic]] by the [[Polisario Front]]). Morocco also claims [[Ceuta]] and [[Melilla]], making up about {{convert|22.8|km2|abbr=on}} more claimed territory. | footnote_b = | population_rank = | today = }}'''Morocco''' ({{IPAc-en|audio=En-us-Morocco.ogg|m|ə|ˈ|r|ɒ|k|oʊ}}),{{NoteTag|{{lang-ar|المغرب|al-maḡrib|the place where the sun sets; the west}}; {{lang-zgh|ⵍⵎⵖⵔⵉⴱ|lmeɣrib}}; {{lang-fr|Maroc}}, {{IPA-fr|maʁɔk|IPA}}.<!--It is important to keep the French name in the lede, even though it is not official, due to its de facto importance in government-->}} mwalamulo, '''Ufumu wa Morocco''', {{NoteTag|{{lang-ar|links=no|المملكة المغربية|al-mamlaka al-maḡribiyya|the Western kingdom}}; {{lang-zgh|links=no|ⵜⴰⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵍⵎⵖⵔⵉⴱ|tageldit n lmeɣrib}}; {{lang-fr|links=no|Royaume du Maroc}}.}}ni chalo icho chili mu [[chigaŵa cha Maghreb]] kumpoto kwa [[Africa]]. Charu ichi chili na nyanja ya Mediterranean kumpoto na [[Atlantic Ocean]] kumanjiliro gha dazi. Charu cha [[Mauritania]] chili kumwera kwa [[Western Sahara]]. Morocco nayo wakukhumba malo gha [[Ceuta]], [[Melilla]], na [[Peñón de Vélez de la Gomera]], kweniso virwa vichoko ivyo vikulongozgeka na [[Spain]].<ref>{{cite news |url = https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-14114627 |title = Ceuta, Melilla profile |year=2018 |work=BBC News |access-date=13 November 2018 |language=en-GB }}</ref> Charu ichi chili na malo ghakukwana 446,300 km2 panji 710,850 km2{{ref label|Territory|b|}}, ndipo ŵanthu ŵakukwana 37 miliyoni. Chisopa chake ni [[Chisilamu]], ndipo viyowoyero vyake ni [[Chiarabic]] na [[Chiberber]]. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Morocco ŵakusazgako mitheto ya ku [[Arab]], [[Berber]], [[Africa]] na [[Europe]]. Msumba ukuru wa [[Rabat]] ni [[Casablanca]].<ref name="Abun-Nasr1987">{{cite book |author=Jamil M. Abun-Nasr |title = A History of the Maghrib in the Islamic Period |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=jdlKbZ46YYkC |date = 20 August 1987 |publisher = Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-33767-0 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Land area (sq. km) – Morocco {{!}} Data|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/AG.LND.TOTL.K2?locations=MA|access-date=15 February 2022|website=data.worldbank.org}}</ref> Mu chigaŵa icho ŵanthu ŵakakhalanga mu nyengo ya Paleolithiki vyaka vyakujumpha 300,000 ivyo vyajumpha, ufumu wakwamba wa Morocco ukaŵako mu 788. Kufuma apo, ufumu uwu ukawusika na mafumu ghanandi, ndipo ukafika pachanya chomene mu 11 na 12 C.E., mu nyengo ya Almoravid na Almohad.<ref>{{cite book |last1 = Hall |first1 = John G. |author2 = Chelsea Publishing House |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=BhMuc6NacxgC&q=Since+the+foundation+of+the+first+Moroccan+state+by+Idris+I+in+788+AD,+the+country+has+been+ruled+by+a+series+of+independent+dynasties,+reaching+its+zenith+under+Almoravid+and+Almohad+rule,+when+it+spanned+parts+of+Iberia+and+northwestern+Africa.&pg=PA5 |title = North Africa |year = 2002 |publisher = Infobase Publishing |isbn = 978-0-7910-5746-9 }}</ref> Kwamba mu ma 700 C.E., ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Morocco ŵakasamukira ku vyaru vya Maghreb. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1400 na 1500 C.E., caru ca Morocco cikasuzgika cifukwa cakuti caru ca Portugal cikapoka vigaŵa vinyake vya caru ici. Ŵanalume ŵa ku Marinid na Saadi ŵakakananga kuwusika na ŵamitundu yinyake, ndipo Morocco ndiyo yikaŵa charu cha kumpoto kwa Africa icho chikapona ku muwuso wa Ottoman. Mu 1631, muwuso wa 'Alawi, uwo ukuwusa caru mpaka lero, ukayamba kuwusa ndipo mu vilimika viŵiri vyakulondezgapo, ukakura comene mu vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi. Chifukwa chakuti charu cha Morocco chili pafupi na mulomo wa Nyanja ya Meditereniyani, ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe ŵakamba kukhumba kumanya vinandi vya charu ichi. Mu 1912, France na Spain ŵakagaŵa charu ichi mu vigaŵa viŵiri. Pakati pajumpha nyengo, ŵanthu ŵakamba kuwukira boma la Morocco, ndipo mu 1956, charu ichi chikamba kujiwusa chekha. Kufuma apo charu cha Morocco chikapokera wanangwa wake, vinthu vikwenda makora yayi. Charu ichi chili na cuma cikuru cacinkhondi pa vyaru vyose vya mu Africa, ndipo cikuŵa na mazaza pa vyaru vya mu Africa na vyaru vya Ŵaarabu.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Balfour |first=Rosa |date = March 2009 |title = The Transformation of the Union for the Mediterranean |journal = Mediterranean Politics |volume=14 |issue=1|pages=99–105 |doi = 10.1080/13629390902747491 |issn=1362-9395 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Charu cha Morocco chili na boma lachifumu ilo ŵanthu ŵakulikhumba. Boma la Morocco likuwusika na fumu na nduna yikuru, ndipo nyumba ziŵiri za boma ndizo zili na mazaza ghakulongozga.<ref>[https://www.icj.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/02/Morocco-Access-Const-Ct-Advocacy-Position-paper-2018-ENG.pdf#:~:text=The%202011%20Moroccan%20Constitution%20establishes%20a%20Constitutional%20Court.1,of%20the%20members%20of%20the%20Chamber%20of%20Councillors.2 Morocco: Remove Obstacles to Access to the Constitutional Court] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210721222938/https://www.icj.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/02/Morocco-Access-Const-Ct-Advocacy-Position-paper-2018-ENG.pdf#:~:text=The%202011%20Moroccan%20Constitution%20establishes%20a%20Constitutional%20Court.1,of%20the%20members%20of%20the%20Chamber%20of%20Councillors.2 |date=21 July 2021 }}. ''International Commission of Jurists''.</ref> Themba lili na mazaza ghakupambanapambana gha kuwusa na kwendeska malango, comenecomene pa nkhani za ŵasilikari, ndyali za caru cinyake, na za cisopa. Morocco yikuphalira boma la Sahara kuti ndilo likulamulira chigaŵa cha Western Sahara, ndipo yikucichema kuti Southern Provinces. Mu 1975, Spain wakati wazomera kuti malo agha ghapelekekenge ku Morocco na Mauritania, nkhondo ya ŵasilikari yikamba. Mu 1979, charu cha Mauritania chikapoka malo agha, kweni nkhondo yikalutilira. Mu 1991, ŵakakolerana kuti ŵaleke kuwombera lumoza, kweni nkhani ya muwuso yikaŵa kuti yindamalizgike. Mazuŵa ghano, caru ca Morocco cili na vigaŵa viŵiri pa vigaŵa vitatu vya caru ici. == Zina == Zina la ku Morocco lakuti al-Mamlakah al-Maghribiyyah (المملكة المغربية) likung'anamulika kuti 'Ufumu wa Kumadzulo.' M'mbiri yakale, chigaŵa ichi chikaŵa chigaŵa cha al-Maghrib al-Aqṣā [ar] (المغرب الأقصى, 'Chigaŵa chakutali chomene kumanjiliro gha dazi [kwa Chisilamu]' icho chikung'anamura chigaŵa chakufuma ku Tiaret m'paka ku Atlantic) mwakupambana na vigaŵa vya al-Maghrib al-Awsaṭ [ar] (المغرب الأوسط, 'Chigaŵa chapakati cha kumanjiliro gha dazi': Tripoli to Béjaïa) na al-Maghrib al-Adná [ar] (المغرب الأدنى, 'Chigaŵa chakufupi chomene kumanjiliro gha dazi': Alexandria to Tripoli). Charu cha Morocco chikumanyikwaso na mazina ghakupambanapambana agho ghakung'anamura chiharo cha Sharifi cha muwuso wa Alawi, nga ni al-Iyālah ash-Sharīfah (الإيالة الشريفة) panji al-Imbarāṭūriyyah ash-Sharīfah (الإمبراطورية الشريفة).<ref>{{Cite book |last=ملين |first=نبيل |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/994641823 |title=فكرة الدستور في المغرب : وثائق ونصوص (19012011) |year=2017 |isbn=978-9954-28-764-4 |language=ar |oclc=994641823}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Laskier |first=Michael M. |date=1 September 2019 |title=Prelude to Colonialism: Moroccan Muslims and Jews through Western Lenses, 1860–1912 |url=https://www.berghahnjournals.com/view/journals/european-judaism/52/2/ej520209.xml |journal=European Judaism |language=en |volume=52 |issue=2 |pages=111–128 |doi=10.3167/ej.2019.520209 |s2cid=203553804 |issn=0014-3006}}</ref> Lizgu lakuti Morocco lili kufuma ku zina la msumba wa Marrakesh, uwo ukaŵa msumba ukuru wa ufumu wa Almoravid, Almohad, na Saadian. Zina lakuti Marrakech likufuma ku lizgu lakuti amur n Yakuš, ilo likung'anamura "chigaŵa, chigaŵa, layizgo, chivikiliro". Lizgu lakuti amur n Ṛebbi, apo Rebbi ni lizgu linyake la Ciuta (lakufuma ku lizgu la Ciarabu lakuti رَبِّي (rabbī) "Fumu yane") likung'anamura "kuvikilirika na Ciuta".<ref>{{cite book |last=Azdoud |first=Driss |date=2011 |title=Dictionnaire berbère-français |page=65 |language=fr}}</ref>Zina la mazuŵa ghano la Marrakech mu Chiberberi ni Mṛṛakc. Mu Cithuruki, caru ca Morocco cikucemeka Fas, zina ilo lili kufuma ku msumba wakale wa Fes. Ndipouli, mu vigaŵa vinyake vya Chisilamu, nga umo vikaŵira mu mabuku gha Chiarabu gha ku Eguputo na Middle East pambere vyaka vya m'ma 1900 vindakwane, zina ilo ŵanthu ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito pakuyowoya vya Morocco likaŵa Murrakush (مراكش). Zina ili lichali kugwiliskirika nchito mazuŵa ghano mu viyowoyero vinyake nga ni Chiperesiya, Chiurdu, na Chipunjabi. Zina lakuti Morocco ilo lili mu Chingelezi, lili kufuma ku lizgu lakuti Marruecos ilo lili mu Cisipanishi. Zina la Cisipanishi ili ndilo likapangiska kuti mu chiyowoyero cha ku Tuscany ŵalembe lizgu lakuti Morrocco. == Mbili == {{main|History of Morocco}} === Nkhani za mu nyengo yakale === [[File:Ptolemy of Mauretania Louvre Ma1887.jpg|thumb|upright|left|[[Ptolemy of Mauretania]] was the last [[Berbers|Berber]] to rule the [[Kingdom of Mauretania]] prior to [[Roman Empire|Roman]] conquest.]] Chigaŵa icho sono chikuchemeka Morocco chili na ŵanthu kwamba mu nyengo ya Paleolithiki. Buku linyake likulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵakakhalanga mu chigaŵa ichi kale chomene. Mu nyengo ya Paleolithiki, caru ca Maghreb cikaŵa cakupambika comene kuluska umo ciliri mazuŵa ghano. Vyaka vikwi makumi ghaŵiri na viŵiri ivyo vyajumpha, ŵanthu ŵa ku Aterian ŵakalongozgeka na ŵanthu ŵa ku Iberomaurusian. Vinthu vinyake ivyo vikulongora kuti ŵanthu awo ŵakakomeka ku Iberomaurusian "Mechta-Afalou" ŵakayananga na awo ŵakakomeka ku Europe. Chikhalidwe cha Iberomaurusian chinaloŵa m'malo mwa Chikhalidwe cha Beaker ku Morocco. Ŵasayansi ŵati ŵasanda DNA ya mitochondrial, ŵakasanga kuti ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Berber na Saami ŵa ku Scandinavia ŵakukolerana chomene. Ukaboni uwu ukukhozgera fundo yakuti ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵakakhalanga mu chigaŵa cha Franco-Cantabrian kumwera cha kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Europe, ŵakasamukira kumpoto kwa Europe. Mu nyengo yakwambilira ya nyengo yakale, Ŵafenikiya ŵakaguguzira kumpoto cha kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Africa na Morocco mu charu cha Mediterranean, ndipo ŵakakhazikiska malo ghakusungirako ŵanthu. Mogador wakaŵa msumba wa Ŵafenikiya mu vyaka vya m'ma 500 B.C.E.<ref>Moscati, Sabatino (2001) ''The Phoenicians'', Tauris, {{ISBN|1-85043-533-2}}</ref>[[File:Volubilis Longshot II.jpg|thumb|right|upright=0.9|Vinthu vya Ŵaroma ivyo vikaŵa ku Volubilis.]] Pamasinda, caru ca Morocco cikazgoka cigaŵa ca ŵanthu ŵa ku Northwest Africa awo ŵakakhalanga mu caru ca Carthage, ndiposo cigaŵa ca ufumu wa Carthage. Ufumu wakwambilira wa ku Morocco uwo ukaŵa wakujiyimira wekha ukaŵa wa ku Mauretania, pasi pa Themba Baga. Ufumu wakale uwu (wambura kutimbanizgika na Mauritania) ukaŵa wakutowa mu 225 B.C.E. panji kumasinda. Mu 33 B.C.E., Mauretania wakaŵa pasi pa Ufumu wa Roma. Themba Claudius likapoka charu cha Mauretania mu 44 C.E., ndipo chikaŵa chigaŵa cha Ŵaroma icho chikalamuliranga na kazembe wa ufumu. Mu nyengo ya "masoka gha mu vyaka vya m'ma 300 C.E"., vigaŵa vinyake vya Mauretania vikathereskeka na Ŵaberi. Kuumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 300 C.E., Ŵaroma ŵakalamuliranga waka misumba yichoko waka ya mumphepete mwa nyanja, nga ni Septum (Ceuta) mu Mauretania Tingitana na Cherchell mu Mauretania Caesariensis. Mu 429 C.E., apo Ŵandalyos ŵakaparanya chigaŵa ichi, ufumu wa Roma ukataya vinthu ivyo ukaŵa navyo mu Mauretania. Mu ma 530 C.E., Ufumu wa Romu wa kumafumiro gha dazi, uwo ukaŵa pasi pa Ufumu wa Byzantium, ukambaso kulamulira msumba wa Septum na wa Tingi. === Maziko ndi nyengo yoyambirira ya Chisilamu === {{Main|Idrisid dynasty}} [[File:Idrisids coin minted at Al Aliyah Morocco 840 CE.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Ndalama ya Idrisid mu Fes, 840 AD.]] Ŵasilamu ŵakamba kuthereska vyaru vya Maghreb pakati pa vyaka vya m'ma 700 C.E., ndipo ufumu wa Umayyad ukaŵathereska kukwambilira kwa vyaka ivi. Likawovwira kuti chiyowoyero cha Chiarabic na Chisilamu vifike mu chigaŵa ichi. Nangauli Morocco wakaŵa chigaŵa cha ufumu ukuru wa Chisilamu, kweni pakwamba yikaŵa chigaŵa cha Ifriqiya, ndipo ŵakazembe awo ŵakimikikanga na Kairouan ŵakaŵa Ŵasilamu.<ref>Abun-Nasr 1987, p.33</ref> Kwamba mu ma 700 C.E., ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Morocco ŵakasamukira ku vyaru vya Maghreb. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Berber ŵakamba kusopa chisopa cha Chiisilamu, kweni ŵakasungilira malango ghawo. Kweniso ŵakapelekanga msonkho ku boma liphya la Cisilamu. Ufumu wakwamba wa Chisilamu uwo ukaŵa wakujiyimira wekha mu chigaŵa cha Morocco, ukaŵa wa Nekor, uwo ukaŵa mu mapiri gha Rif. Wali kukhazikiskika na Salih I ibn Mansur mu 710, nga ni ufumu wa Umayyad. Pamanyuma pa kuwukira kwa Ŵaberi mu 739, Ŵaberi ŵakapanga vyaru vinyake vyakujiyimira nga ni Miknasa wa Sijilmasa na Barghawata.[[File:29610-Fez (28134041211) (qarawiyyin crop).jpg|thumb|Msumba wa al-Qarawiyyin, uwo ukazengeka mu Fes mu vyaka vya m'ma 900 C.E., ukaŵa msumba ukuru wa vyauzimu, wa mabuku, na wa vinjeru.]] Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakuti Idris ibn Abdallah wakachimbilira ku Morocco apo Ŵababasi ŵakakoma ŵanthu ŵa mu fuko lake ku Iraq. Wakakhorweska mafuko gha Ŵaberi ŵa ku Awraba kuti ghaleke kugomezgeka ku ŵachihalifa ŵa Abbasid ku Baghdad ndipo wakambiska ufumu wa Idrisid mu 788. Ŵa Idrisidi ŵakakhazikiska msumba wa Fes kuŵa msumba wawo ukuru, ndipo Morocco ukazgoka malo ghakusambizgirako Ŵasilamu ndiposo ufumu ukuru wa mu chigaŵa. Mu 927, ufumu wa Fatimid na ŵabwezi ŵawo ŵa Miknasa ŵakawuskapo ufumu wa Idrisid. Miknasa wakati wapatura ubwezi na Ŵafatemidi mu 932, ŵakathereskeka na Maghrawa wa Sijilmasa mu 980. === Maufumu na mafumu gha Ŵaberi === {{Main|Almoravid dynasty|Almohad Caliphate|Marinid Sultanate}} [[File:Empire almohade.PNG|thumb|right|Ufumu wa Almohad ukakura comene mu 1212.]] Kwambira mu ma 1100, ufumu unyake wa Ŵaberi ukawuka.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gGKsS-9h4BYC&pg=PT861|title=Concise Encyclopaedia of World History |isbn=978-81-269-0775-5 |last1=Ramirez-Faria |first1=Carlos |date=2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=http://www.universalis.fr/encyclopedie/almoravides/|title=Almoravides|encyclopedia=Universalis Encyclopedia}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/365388/Marinid-dynasty|title=Marīnid dynasty|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref> Mu nyengo ya ufumu wa Sanhaja Almoravid na wa Masmuda Almohad, Morocco ndiyo wakaŵa na mazaza pa vyaru vya Maghreb, al-Andalus, na Western Mediterranean. Kwambira mu ma 1300, ŵanthu ŵa mafuko gha Banu Hilal ŵakasamukira mu charu ichi. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1300 na 1400, Ŵamarini ŵa ku Berber ku Zenata ndiwo ŵakaŵa na mazaza ku Morocco ndipo ŵakayezgayezga kuti ŵachitenge nga umo ŵakachitiranga Ŵalmohad. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Wattasid ndiwo ŵakaŵalondezga. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1500, nkhondo ya Reconquista yikamara ndipo Ŵasilamu ŵanandi na Ŵayuda ŵakachimbilira ku Morocco. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1500, Ŵapwitikizi ŵakakhumbanga yayi kuti ŵalutilire kuchita malonda mu nyanja ya Atlantic. === Nyengo yakwambilira === {{Main|Saadi Sultanate|'Alawi dynasty}} [[File:Porto April 2019-7.jpg|thumb|left|Ufumu wa Portugal ukaŵako apo Fumu Henry the Navigator yikapoka msumba wa Ceuta.]] Mu 1549, chigaŵa ichi chikathereskeka na mafumu ghachiarabu agho ghakayowoya kuti ghakafuma kwa ntchimi ya Chisilamu, Muhammad. Ku mpoto kwa Morocco kukaŵa nkhondo ya ku Spain, ndipo ŵabwezi ŵa Ufumu wa Ottoman ŵakasuzgikanga kuluta kumanjiliro gha dazi. [[File:Palais El Badii - panoramio.jpg|thumb|Vyakukhalapo vya Nyumba ya Ufumu ya Badii' ya Saadi Sultan Ahmad al-Mansur ya m'ma 1500]] Mu nyengo ya muwuso wa Saadi, charu ichi chikamara muwuso wa Aviz ku Portugal pa Nkhondo ya Alcácer Quibir mu 1578. Ufumu wa Ahmad al-Mansur ukapangiska kuti ufumu wa Sultanate uŵe na usambazi unandi kweniso uchindami. Mu 1591, ufumu wa Songhay ukathereskeka chomene chifukwa cha ulendo ukuru wa ku Africa. Ndipouli, kukaŵa kwakusuzga comene kuti ŵateŵetere mu vigaŵa vyose vya mu Sahara. Al-Mansur wakati wafwa, caru cikagaŵika pakati pa ŵana ŵake. Pamanyuma pa kugaŵikana kwa ndyali na kulimbana mu nyengo ya kuchepa kwa muwuso wa Saadi, Morocco wakakoleranaso na Alawi (panji Alaouite) Sultan al-Rashid mu 1660s, uyo wakatora Fez mu 1666 na Marrakesh mu 1668.<ref name="Abun-Nasr1987" />{{Rp|230}}<ref name=":20">{{Cite book |last=Rivet |first=Daniel |title=Histoire du Maroc: de Moulay Idrîs à Mohammed VI |publisher=Fayard |year=2012}}</ref>{{Rp|225}} Ŵanthu ŵa ku Alawi ŵakakhozga malo ghawo, ndipo nangauli ufumu uwu ukaŵa ucoko kuluska maufumu ghanyake mu cigaŵa ici, kweni ukaŵa usambazi comene. Pakususkana na mafuko gha ku malo agha, Ismail Ibn Sharif (1672-1727) wakamba kupanga boma limoza. Na gulu lake la Jaysh d'Ahl al-Rif (Riffian Army) wakambaso kuwukira Tanger kufuma ku ŵa ku England awo ŵakaleka msumba uwu mu 1684 na kufumiska ŵa ku Spain mu Larache mu 1689. Mu 1769, Ŵapwitikizi ŵakaleka Mazagão, malo ghawo ghaumaliro mu Morocco. Ndipouli, Ŵasipanya ŵakathereska Melilla mu 1775. Morocco ndiyo yikaŵa caru cakwamba kuzomerezga kuti United States ni caru cakujiyimira mu 1777. Apo Nkhondo Yakwamba ya ku America yikambanga, ŵankhondo ŵa ku Barbary ŵakamba kuwukira sitima za ŵamalonda za ku America. Pa Disembala 20, 1777, Sultan Mohammed III wa ku Morocco wakapharazga kuti ngalaŵa za ŵamalonda za ku America zizamuŵa pasi pa muwuso wa boma la Morocco ndipo zizamwenda makora. Phangano la Ubwezi la Morocco na America, ilo likalembeka mu 1786, ndilo ni phangano lakale comene la ubwezi la United States.<ref>Roberts, Priscilla H. and Richard S. Roberts, ''Thomas Barclay (1728–1793): Consul in France, Diplomat in Barbary'', Lehigh University Press, 2008, pp. 206–223 {{ISBN|093422398X}}.</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/s/d/rm/rls/perfrpt/2002/html/18995.htm |title=Milestones of American Diplomacy, Interesting Historical Notes, and Department of State History |access-date=17 December 2007 |work=U.S. Department of State}}</ref> ===French and Spanish protectorates: 1912 to 1956=== {{main|French protectorate in Morocco|Spanish Protectorate in Morocco}} [[File:La Paz de Wad-Ras.jpg|thumb|Phangano la Wad Ras pamanyuma pa Nkhondo ya ku Spain na Morocco (1859-1860) likapangiska kuti ndalama za boma la Morocco zileke kugwira ntchito, ndipo Makhzen ŵakakanizgika kutora ngongoli ku Britain.<ref name=":02">{{Cite book|last=Miller, Susan Gilson.|title=A history of modern Morocco|date=2013|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-139-62469-5|location=New York|pages=25|oclc=855022840}}</ref>]] Apo caru ca Europe cikamba kupanga vinthu vinyake, ŵanthu ŵakamba kuzunura comene vyaru vya kumpoto ca kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Africa cifukwa ca umo vikanjiliranga. Mu 1830, caru ca France cikalongora kuti cikukhumba comene Morocco, cifukwa ca mphaka ya caru cake ca Algeria, kweniso cifukwa ca malo agho caru ici cili nagho. Mu 1860, pakaŵa mphindano pa nkhani ya Ceuta. Spain ndiyo yikathereska msumba uwu, ndipo yikapoka msumba unyake wa Ceuta. Mu 1884, Spain wakapanga malo ghakulondezgana na nyanja ku Morocco.<ref>{{cite book |title=Morocco since 1830: A History|url=https://archive.org/details/moroccosince18300000penn|isbn=978-0814766774 |last=Pennell |first=C. R. |year=2000 |publisher=New York University Press |location=New York |page=[https://archive.org/details/moroccosince18300000penn/page/40 40]}}</ref> [[File:Louis Comfort Tiffany - Market day outside the walls of Tangiers, Morocco.jpg|thumb|left|Mu 1873 mu tawuni ya Tangier mukaŵa Ŵasilamu 40,000, Ŵaciyurope 31,000 na Ŵayuda 15,000.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/judaica/ejud_0002_0019_0_19572.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130501181723/http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/judaica/ejud_0002_0019_0_19572.html |archive-date=1 May 2013 |title=Tangier(s) |encyclopedia=[[Jewish Virtual Library]] |access-date=30 December 2013}}</ref>]] Mu 1904, caru ca France na Spain vikagaŵikana malo mu Morocco. Ufumu wa United Kingdom ukati wamanya kuti France ndiyo yikulongozga caru ca Germany, ufumu uwu ukacita wofi comene. Nkhani iyi yikamara pa ungano wa ku Algeciras mu 1906. Nkhondo ya ku Agadir iyo yikacitika mu 1911, yikanangiska vinthu pakati pa maboma gha ku Europe. Phangano la Fez ilo likachitika mu 1912, likapangiska kuti Morocco waŵe pasi pa boma la France. Spain wakalutilira kulamulira vigaŵa vya mumphepete mwa nyanja. Mu phangano lenelili, Spain wakajilambika kuti ndiyo wavikilirenge vigaŵa vya kumpoto na kumwera kwa Sahara. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakanjira mu Morocco. Ŵanyake ŵakagura malo ghakurughakuru gha vyakurya, apo ŵanyake ŵakanozga vyakusungiramo vinthu na kunozga migodi. Magulu agho ghakaŵa na vilato ivi ghakalutilira kukhuŵilizga caru ca France kuti cikhozge mazaza ghake pa Morocco. Mulara wa boma la France, kazembe mukuru Hubert Lyautey, wakatemwanga comene mitheto ya ku Morocco ndipo wakakhumbanga kuti caru cose ciŵe na sukulu za mazuŵa ghano. Ŵasilikari ŵanandi ŵa ku Morocco (Goumiers panji ŵasilikari na ŵasilikari) ŵakateŵeteranga mu gulu la ŵasilikari ŵa ku France mu Nkhondo Yakwamba na Yachiŵiri ya Caru Cose, kweniso mu gulu la ŵasilikari ŵa ku Spain mu Nkhondo ya pa Caru ya ku Spain na pamanyuma pake. Muzga wakamara mu 1925.<ref>Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada, ''[http://www.refworld.org/docid/3ae6ad6164.html Morocco: Date of the abolishment of slavery in Morocco; whether descendants of ex-slaves are singled out in any way; and fate of the Palace household and grounds staff when King Mohamed V was in exile] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140203121733/http://www.refworld.org/docid/3ae6ad6164.html |date=3 February 2014 }}'', 13 August 1999, MAR32476.E</ref>[[File:Pacification.jpg|thumb|Mapu agho ghakulongora umo charu cha France chikapokelera charu cha Morocco kufuma mu 1907 m'paka 1934]] Pakati pa 1921 na 1926, ŵanthu ŵa ku Berber ŵakagaluka mu mapiri gha Rif, ndipo Abd el-Krim ndiyo wakadangiliranga. Ŵasilikari ŵa ku Spain ŵakagwiliskira nchito mabomba na gasi kuti ŵaleke kuzomerezga kuti charu cha Rif chiŵe na wanangwa. Ŵakaleka ŵasilikari ŵakujumpha 13,000 pa nkhondo ya Annual mu Julayi na Ogasiti 1921 pera. Paumaliro, mu 1927, ŵasilikari ŵa ku France na Spain ŵakaŵakoma. Ŵasilikari ŵa ku Spain na France ŵakakomeka ŵanthu 52,000 ndipo ŵa ku Riffi 10,000 ŵakafwa. Mu 1943, chipani cha Istiqlal (Independence Party) chikapangika kuti chiŵe na wanangwa wa kujiyimira pawekha, na wovwiri wa United States. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Morocco ŵakagwiliskira nchito mawupu gha ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga kutali na vyaru vinyake kuti ŵaŵawovwire kumazga muwuso wa ŵakoloni.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Stenner |first=David |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1082294927 |title=Globalizing Morocco : transnational activism and the post-colonial state |date=2019 |isbn=978-1-5036-0900-6 |location=Stanford, California |pages=15 |oclc=1082294927}}</ref> Chipani cha Istiqlal ndicho chikalongozganga gulu ili. Mu 1953, boma la France likati lafumiska Sultan Mohammed V ku Madagascar na kumupa ufumu Mohammed Ben Aarafa. Nkhaza zikuru comene zikacitikira mu msumba wa Oujda, uko ŵanthu ŵa ku Morocco ŵakasuzga ŵanthu ŵa ku France na ŵa ku Europe. Mu 1955, France likazomerezga kuti Mohammed V wawelere ku Morocco, ndipo chaka chakulondezgapo, ŵakamba kudumbiskana kuti charu cha Morocco chiŵe na wanangwa. Mu Malichi 1956, charu cha Morocco chikamba kujiyimira paŵekha. Pakati pajumpha mwezi umoza, caru ca Spain cikapeleka malo ghake ghakulongozga kumpoto kwa Morocco ku caru ciphya ici, kweni cikalutilira kuŵa na malo ghaŵiri (Ceuta na Melilla) agho ghakaŵa mumphepete mwa nyanja ya Mediterranean. Sultan Mohammed wakaŵa fumu mu 1957. ===Post-independence=== [[File:وثيقة الاستقلال 11 يناير 1944.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Proclamation of Independence of Morocco]] of 1944.]] Pa nyifwa ya Mohammed V, Hassan II wakaŵa fumu ya Morocco pa 3 March 1961. Mu 1963, boma la Morocco likachita mavoti ghakwamba. Ndipouli, Hassan wakapharazga kuti kuli suzgo yikuru ndipo wakalekeska ntchito ya Nyumba ya Malamulo mu 1965. Mu 1971, pakaŵa ciyezgo cakuti ŵathereske fumu na kukhazikiska boma. Komiti ya unenesko iyo yikapangika mu 2005 kuti yamanye umo ŵanthu ŵakasuzgikiranga pa nyengo iyo wakalamuliranga, yikati pali milandu pafupifupi 10,000, kusazgapo nyifwa mu jele na kusunkhunyika. Ŵanthu 592 ŵakakomeka mu nyengo ya muwuso wa Hassan, kuyana na komiti ya unenesko. Mu 1969, chigaŵa cha Ifni icho chikaŵa kumwera kwa Spain chikawezgeka kwa Morocco. Gulu la Polisario likapangika mu 1973, na cilato ca kuzenga boma lakujiyimira mu Sahara. Pa Novembala 6, 1975, Themba Hassan likapempha ŵanthu ŵakujipeleka kuti ŵambukire ku Sahara. Ŵanthu pafupifupi 350,000 ŵakaŵapo pa "Maseŵera Ghakutowa".<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14123260 |title=Morocco profile – Timeline |work=BBC News |date=19 September 2012 |access-date=9 January 2013}}</ref> Pakati pajumpha mwezi umoza, caru ca Spain cikazomera kufumamo mu caru ca Spanish Sahara, ico cikeneranga kuzgoka Western Sahara, na kucitolera ku caru ca Morocco na Mauritania, nangauli Algeria yikaŵasuska. Ŵasilikari ŵa ku Morocco ŵakanjira mu caru ici. Pakati pajumpha nyengo yicoko waka, ŵasilikari ŵa Morocco na Algeria ŵakakumana ku Western Sahara. Morocco na Mauritania ŵakagaŵikana Western Sahara. Nkhondo pakati pa ŵasilikari ŵa Morocco na ŵasilikari ŵa Polisario yikalutilira kwa vilimika vinandi. Nkhondo iyo yikatora nyengo yitali yikatimbanizga ndalama za Morocco. Mu 1983, Hassan wakawuskapo mavoti agho ghakeneranga kucitika cifukwa ca masuzgo gha ndyali na suzgo la vya cuma. Mu 1984, Morocco wakafumamo mu wupu wa African Unity pakususkana na umo SADR yikazomerezgekera. Gulu la Polisario likati likakoma ŵasilikari ŵakujumpha 5,000 ŵa ku Morocco pakati pa 1982 na 1985. Ŵalaraŵalara ŵa boma la Algeria ŵakuti ciŵelengero ca ŵanthu ŵakucimbira kwawo ŵa ku Sahara ku Algeria nchakukwana 165,000. Mu 1988, boma la Algeria likambaso kukolerana na charu ichi. Mu 1991, wupu wa United Nations ukadumura vyakuti ŵanthu ŵaleke kuwukira caru ca Western Sahara, kweni malo agha ghacali pa ngozi. Mu vyaka 10 vyakulondezgapo, pakaŵa mphindano zinandi pa nkhani ya kufumiska ŵanthu ku malo agha, kweni ŵakaleka yayi. Mu ma 1990, boma la Morocco likasintha vinthu ndipo mu 1997 likaŵa na nyumba ziŵiri zakulongozga.[[File:Les Marocains manifestent pour des réformes (5630977929).jpg|thumb|Protestors in [[Casablanca]] demand that authorities honor their promises of political reform.]] Themba Hassan II likafwa mu 1999 ndipo mwana wake, Mohammed VI ndiyo wakatorapo malo ghake. Iyo ni munthu wakusintha vinthu mwamahara, ndipo wacitiska kuti vinthu viŵe makora pa umoyo wa ŵanthu.<ref>{{cite news |title=Morocco's king pardons satirist |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/3376601.stm |work=BBC News |date=7 January 2004}}</ref> Mu 2002, Mohammed VI wakaluta ku Western Sahara. Mu 2007, Morocco wakavumbura ndondomeko ya wupu wa United Nations yakupeleka wanangwa ku Western Sahara. Gulu la Polisario likakana ndondomeko iyi ndipo likapeleka fundo yake. Morocco na Polisario ŵakadumbiskana na UN mu msumba wa New York kweni ŵakakolerana yayi. Mu 2010, ŵasilikari ŵakanjira mu msasa wa ŵanthu awo ŵakasuskanga boma ku Western Sahara. Mu 2002, Morocco na Spain ŵakakolerana kuti ŵaŵepo pa nkhani ya Perejil. Ŵasilikari ŵa ku Spain ŵakatora cirwa ico kanandi ŵanthu ŵakukhalamo yayi pamanyuma pakuti ŵasilikari ŵa ku Morocco ŵafika na kuŵika mahema na ndembera. Mu 2005, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Africa ŵakakhumba kuti ŵanjire mu vigaŵa vya Melilla na Ceuta. Ŵalendo ŵanandi ŵambura kuzomerezgeka ŵakafumiskika ku Morocco. Mu 2006, pulezidenti wa Spain, Zapatero, wakaluta ku vigaŵa vinyake vya Spain. Wakaŵa mulongozgi wakwamba wa Spain mu vilimika 25 kuti walute ku malo agha. Chaka chakulondezgapo, fumu ya Spain, Juan Carlos I, yikiza ku Ceuta na Melilla, ndipo ichi chikakwiyiska chomene Morocco. Mu 2011-2012 ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakalongoreka mu Rabat na mu misumba yinyake kuti ŵapemphe kusintha ndyali na dango liphya ilo lingakanizga mazaza gha fumu. Mu Julayi 2011, Themba likathereska ŵanthu ŵanandi pa kafukufuku wakukhwaskana na dango liphya ilo likayowoya kuti liŵawovwire kumazga vivulupi ivyo vikachitika mu nyengo ya Arab Spring. Nangauli Mohammed VI wakachitanga vyakusintha, kweni ŵanthu ŵakalutilira kukhumba kuti vinthu visinthe. Mu Meyi 2012, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakaluta ku ungano wa ŵamalonda ku Casablanca. Awo ŵakanjira pa ungano uwu ŵakasuska boma chifukwa cha kutondeka kusintha vinthu. == Makhalilo gha charu == {{main|Geography of Morocco}} [[File:Atlas Mountains snow cover.jpg|thumb|[[Toubkal]], the highest peak in Northwest Africa, at {{convert|4167|m|abbr=on|0}}]] [[File:Panorama Djebel el Kest.jpg|thumb|A section of the [[Anti-Atlas]] near [[Tafraout]]]] [[File:Morocco Atlas 01.jpg|thumb|upright|An old [[Cedrus atlantica|Atlas cedar]] tree in the Atlas range]] Morocco wali na mumphepete mwa nyanja ya Atlantic iyo yikuluta ku Nyanja ya Mediterranean. Charu ichi chili na mphaka na Spain kumpoto (mphepete mwa Nyanja ya Mediterranean na mphaka na malo ghatatu gha ku Spain, Ceuta, Melilla, na Peñón de Vélez de la Gomera). Pakuti Morocco ndiyo wakwendeska chigaŵa chikuru cha Western Sahara, mphaka yake ya kumwera yili na Mauritania. Malire gha charu ichi ghakumanyikwa pa charu chose ghali pakati pa latitude 27° na 36°N, na longitude 1° na 14°W. Para tikusazgako Sahara, Morocco yili pakati pa 21° na 36°N, na 1° na 17°W (Chingwe cha Ras Nouadhibou chili kumwera kwa 21° na kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa 17°).<ref name="ISO3166">{{cite web |date=15 May 2008 |title=English country names and code elements |url=http://www.iso.org/iso/country_codes/iso_3166_code_lists/english_country_names_and_code_elements.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721191154/http://www.iso.org/iso/country_codes/iso_3166_code_lists/english_country_names_and_code_elements.htm |archive-date=21 July 2011 |access-date=24 May 2008 |publisher=International Organization for Standardization}}</ref> Charu cha Morocco chili kufuma ku nyanja ya Atlantic m'paka ku mapiri na ku mapopa gha Sahara. Charu cha Morocco chili kumpoto kwa Africa, chili mumphepete mwa nyanja ya North Atlantic na Mediterranean Sea, pakati pa Algeria na Western Sahara. Ni cimoza mwa vyaru vitatu (pamoza na Spain na France) ivyo vili na nyanja za Atlantic na Mediterranean.<ref name="ISO3166" /> Chigaŵa chikuru cha Morocco chili na mapiri. Mapiri gha Atlas ghali pakatikati na kumwera kwa charu ichi. Mapiri gha Rif ghali kumpoto kwa charu ichi. Ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakukhala mu vigaŵa vyose viŵiri ivi mba Ŵaberi. Na makilomita 446,550 (172,414 sq mi), Morocco kwambura Western Sahara ni chalo cikuru ca makumi ghankhondi na ghaŵiri na cinayi pa vyaru vyose. Charu cha Algeria chili kumafumiro gha dazi na kumwera kwa kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Morocco, nangauli mphaka pakati pa vyaru viŵiri ivi yili kujara kufuma mu 1994.<ref name="ISO3166" /> Charu cha Spain icho chili kumpoto cha kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Africa, icho chili pafupi na Morocco, chili na vigaŵa vinkhondi pa nyanja ya Meditereniyani: Ceuta, Melilla, Peñón de Vélez de la Gomera, Peñón de Alhucemas, virwa vya Chafarinas, na Perejil. Ku mphepete mwa nyanja ya Atlantic, virwa vya Canary ni vya Spain, apo kumpoto kwa Madeira ni vya Portugal. Kumpoto, Morocco wali na mphaka na Strait of Gibraltar, uko ŵanthu ŵakwenda pa nyanja za Atlantic na Mediterranean. Mapiri gha Rif ghakutambazga chigaŵa icho chili mumphepete mwa nyanja ya Meditereniyani kufuma kumpoto ca kumanjiliro gha dazi mpaka kumpoto ca kumafumiro gha dazi. Mapiri gha Atlas ghakuthandazga charu ichi kufuma kumpoto cha kumafumiro gha dazi m'paka kumwera cha kumanjiliro gha dazi. Chigaŵa chikuru cha kumwera kwa charu ichi chili mu mapopa gha Sahara. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakukhala kumpoto kwa mapiri agha, apo kumwera kuli Western Sahara, malo agho ghakaŵa ghakukolerana na Spain ndipo ghakaŵako mu 1975 (wonani Green March). Morocco wakuti Western Sahara nchigaŵa cake ndipo wakucichema kuti Southern Provinces. Msumba ukuru wa Morocco ni Rabat, ndipo msumba ukuru chomene ni Casablanca. Mu tawuni zinyake izo zikaŵa na ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 500,000 pa kalembera wa ku Morocco wa mu 2014, mukaŵa Fes, Marrakesh, Meknes, Salé na Tangier. Morocco wakwimira mu ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 geographical coding standard na chimanyikwiro MA. Kode iyi ndiyo yikapangiska kuti paŵe chigaŵa cha pa Intaneti cha.ma.<ref name="ISO3166"/> ===Climate=== [[File:Morocco Köppen.svg|thumb|Köppen climate types in Morocco]] Kuyana na malo agho kuli charu ichi, charu cha Morocco chili na vyaru vya "nyengo yakuzizima ya chihanya" (Csa) na "nyengo yakuzizima ya mu mapopa" (BWh). Mapiri ghapakati na maji ghakuzizima gha ku Canary, agho ghali kufupi na nyanja ya Atlantic, ni vinthu vyakuzirwa comene pa malo ghakupambanapambana gha vyakumera mu Morocco. Mu vigaŵa vya mumphepete mwa nyanja ku Morocco, mu nyengo ya chihanya vinthu vikuŵa makora yayi. Nyengo iyi yikuyana waka na ya ku Southern California. Mu mapiri gha Rif, Middle, na High Atlas, muli nyengo zakupambanapambana: ku Mediterranean mu vigaŵa vya mumphepete mwa nyanja, ndipo nyengo yakuzizima na yakuzizima yikwenda makora chomene. Mu vidika, dongo lakututuŵa na vula zinandi vikupangiska kuti makuni ghakututuŵa ghaŵeko. Nkhorongo za mabingu zili kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa mapiri gha Rif na Middle Atlas. Ku malo ghapachanya chomene, malo agha ghakukhala ŵanthu ŵa ku Alps. Kumwera ca kumafumiro gha dazi kwa mapiri gha Atlas, kufupi na mphaka ya Algeria, nyengo yikuŵa yakomira comene, ndipo cihanya cikuŵa citali ndiposo cakotcha. Ŵanthu ŵakutemwa chomene kutenthema na kuthukira mu mapiri chifukwa cha chisi. Ku vigaŵa vya kumwera kwa Morocco uko kuli kotcha chomene, kuli mapopa ghanandi gha Sahara, agho ghali na dambo na majalawe. Mwakupambana na chigaŵa cha Sahara kumwera, vigaŵa vya mumphepete mwa nyanja ni vyakututuŵa comene mu vigaŵa vya pakati na kumpoto kwa caru ici, ndipo ni malo agho kulimilira ŵanthu ŵanandi comene. Chifukwa chakuti kumpoto kwa charu ichi kuli nyanja ya Atlantic, chili pafupi na Europe, kweniso kuli mapiri gha Rif na Atlas. Ici cikupangiska Morocco kuŵa caru ca mphambano. Malo gha nkhorongo ghakukwana pafupifupi 12 peresenti ya caru, ndipo malo ghakupwanthira ghakukwana 18 peresenti. Pa caru cose ca Morocco, pafupifupi 5% ya malo agha ghakuseŵereskeka.[[File:Merzouga sahara.jpg|thumb|Landscape of the [[Erg Chebbi]]]] [[File:Djebel Toubkal 01.jpg|thumb|[[Atlas Mountains]]]] Kwambura kupambaniska na vigaŵa vya kumwera kwa caru ici (malo agho ghakaŵa pambere Sahara yindambe na mapopa), caru ca Morocco cili na mtende na malo ghakupambanapambana. Ntheura Morocco wali na malo agha: * '''Mediterranean:''' Chigaŵa ichi chili mumphepete mwa nyanja ya Meditereniyani, mumphepete mwa nyanja ya Atlantic. Chilimwe chimakhala chotentha kwambiri komanso chouma, kutentha kwake kumakhala pakati pa 29 ° C (84.2 ° F) ndi 32 ° C (89.6 ° F). Mu nyengo ya chiwuvi, nyengo yakuzizima yikuŵa yakuzizima, ndipo zuŵa lililose ŵakuzizima chomene. Ku chigaŵa ichi kukulokwa maji ghakukwana 600 m'paka 800 m'paka 350 m'paka 500 m'paka kumafumiro gha dazi. Matawuni ghakuzirwa agho ghali mu chigaŵa ichi ni Tanger, Tetouan, Al Hoceima, Nador na Safi. * '''Sub-Mediterranean:'''Likukhwaska misumba iyo yili na malo gha ku Meditereniyani, kweni nyengo zinyake yikukhwaskika na malo ghanyake chifukwa chakuti yili pachanya chomene, panji chifukwa chakuti yili pafupi na Nyanja ya Atlantic. Ntheura pali vinthu viŵiri ivyo vikukhwaska nyengo.: :* ''Oceanic:'' Mu nyengo yakuzizima chomene, mu chigaŵa cha Essaouira, nyengo yakuzizima yikukwana pafupifupi 21 °C. Nyengo yakuzizima yikuŵa yakuzizima chomene. Mvula iyo yikulokwa pa chaka yikupambana pakati pa 400 na 700 mm. Matawuni ghakuzirwa agho ghali mu chigaŵa ichi ni Rabat, Casablanca, Kénitra, Salé na Essaouira. :* ''Continental:''Para nyengo yakuzizima na yakuzizima yikupambana chomene na nyengo yakuzizima, ndipo nyengo yakuzizima na yakuzizima yikupambana chomene na nyengo yakuzizima. Mu nyengo ya chihanya, zuŵa lililose kutentha kwake kukufika pa 40 °C (104.0 °F), kweni kanandi kukuŵa pakati pa 32 °C (89.6 °F) na 36 °C (96.8 °F). Ndipouli, para dazi lanjira, nkhongono zikukwera. Kawirikawiri kutentha kwa usiku kumakhala pansi pa 20 ° C (68.0 ° F), ndipo nthawi zina kumakhala kochepa kwambiri monga 10 ° C (50.0 ° F) pakati pa chilimwe. Mu nyengo ya chiwuvi, mu nyengo ya December na February, nyengo zinyake kuzizipizga kukuchepera. Nyengo zinyake kukuwa chiwuvi. Mwachiyelezgero, mu nyengo ya chiwuvi mu 2005, mu msumba wa Fès mukaŵa chithukivu cha −8 °C. Mvula iyo yikulokwa pa chaka yili pakati pa 500 na 900 mm. Matawuni ghakuzirwa ni Fès, Meknès, Chefchaouen, Beni-Mellal na Taza. * '''Continental:''' Chigaŵa ichi chili kumpoto na pakati pa charu ndipo nyengo ya chihanya yikotcha chomene. Kweni mu nyengo ya chiwuvi, nyengo yakuzizima yikuŵa yakuzizima chomene. Ndipo para mphepo yakuzizima yakufuma kumpoto ca kumanjiliro gha dazi yikwiza ku Morocco, kwa mazuŵa ghacoko waka, nyengo zinyake kuzizima kwake kukuchepera -5°C. Kanandi mu chigaŵa ichi mukuŵa chiwuvi chikuru. Vimaji vikulokwa pakati pa 400 na 800 mm. Matawuni ghakuzirwa ni Khenifra, Imilchil, Midelt na Azilal. * '''Alpine:''' Vikusangika mu vigaŵa vinyake vya mapiri gha Middle Atlas na kumafumiro gha dazi kwa mapiri gha High Atlas. Mu nyengo ya chihanya, m'paka mu nyengo ya chiwuvi, nyengo yakuzizima yikuŵa yitali, yakuzizima, na ya chiwuvi. Vimaji vikulokwa pakati pa 400 na 1200 mm. Mu nyengo ya chihanya, maji ghakuthukira chomene yayi, ndipo ghakuzizima chomene. Mu nyengo ya chiwuvi, mu nyengo ya chiwuvi, maji ghakujumpha 8 °C. Ku chigaŵa ichi kuli malo ghanandi ghakuchitira chiŵembu nga ni Oukaimeden na Mischliefen. Matawuni ghakuzirwa ni Ifrane, Azrou na Boulmane. * '''Semi-arid:''' Nyengo iyi yikusangika kumwera kwa caru na ku vigaŵa vinyake vya kumafumiro gha dazi kwa caru ici, uko kukulokwa maji ghacoko comene. Ndipouli, mu vigaŵa ivi mukuŵa vyakumera vya ku Meditereniyani, nga ni vula izo zikulokwa kweniso malo agho kuli moto. Mu misumba iyi muli Agadir, Marrakesh, na Oujda. Kumwera kwa Agadir na kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Jerada kufupi na mphaka za Algeria, malo ghakomira na gha mu mapopa ghakwamba kuŵa ghakutowa. Chifukwa chakuti charu cha Morocco chili pafupi na mapopa gha Sahara na Nyanja ya North ya Atlantic, pali vinthu viŵiri ivyo vikupangiska kuti nyengo yiŵe yakuzizima. Ndipouli, nyengo zinyake vinthu ivi vikulutilira yayi kujumpha mazuŵa ghaŵiri panji ghankhondi. Vyaru panji vigaŵa ivyo vikuyana waka na Morocco ni Portugal, Spain, Algeria, na California, ku United States. Ŵanthu ŵakukhazga kuti kusintha kwa nyengo kuzamuŵakhwaska chomene ŵanthu ŵa ku Morocco. Pakuti charu ichi chili mumphepete mwa nyanja ndipo nyengo yake njakutentha kweniso njakomira, vingapangiska kuti vinthu vyambuke makora. Kuchokera ku 2019 Climate Change Performance Index, Morocco inali yachiwiri pokonzekera pambuyo pa Sweden .<ref name=":2">{{cite web|title=MOROCCO: Ranked second worldwide in climate change control|url=https://www.afrik21.africa/en/morocco-ranked-second-worldwide-in-climate-change-control/|date=30 April 2020|website=Afrik 21|language=en-US|access-date=29 May 2020}}</ref> ===Biodiversity=== [[File:Portrait of a father.jpg|thumb|An adult male [[Barbary macaque]] carrying his offspring, a behaviour rarely found in other primates.]] [[File:Barbary lion.jpg|thumb|The [[Barbary lion]]]] Vinthu vyakupambanapambana vya mu vyaru vya Morocco ni vinandi. Chigaŵa ichi chili mu nyanja ya Meditereniyani, ndipo pali vyamoyo vinandi chomene ivyo vikukhala mu malo agha. Viyuni vyakupambanapambana vikupambana. Viyuni vya ku Morocco vili na vyamoyo 454, ndipo vinkhondi mwa vyamoyo ivi vikwiza na ŵanthu.<ref name="FLII-Supplementary" /> Nkhalamu za ku Barbary, izo zikupwetekeka chomene mu thengere, zikufuma ku Morocco. Nkhalamu ya Barbary yaumaliro iyo yikaŵa mu thengere yikakomeka mu mapiri gha Atlas mu 1922. Viyuni vinyake viŵiri ivyo vikurya nyama mu kumpoto kwa Africa, ni nkhalamira ya ku Atlas na nyalubwe wa ku Barbary. Viyuni vinyake vya ku West Africa vikaŵa mu mlonga wa Draa m'paka mu ma 1900.<ref name="FLII-Supplementary" /> Nyama ya Barbary macaque, iyo yikukhala ku Morocco na Algeria, nayo yili pafupi kumara cifukwa cakuti ŵanthu ŵakumazga malonda ghake, ŵanthu ŵakwenda mu matawuni ghanandi, makuni na malo ghakurughakuru ghakusakazika.<ref name="FLII-Supplementary" /> Kuguliska vinyama na vyakumera kuti viŵe chakurya, vinyama vyakukhala navyo, munkhwala, vinthu vyakukumbukirapo, na vyakujambura vithuzi ni vyakuzara chomene mu Morocco. Kuguliska viŵeto uku kulije malango ndipo kukupangiska kuti vinyama vyamuthengere vichepeko. Chifukwa chakuti kumpoto kwa Morocco kuli kufupi na Europe, vyamoyo nga ni viyuni vya cacti, visomba, vikumba vya vyamoyo vyakukhwaŵa, na viyuni vyakuzirwa chomene (viyuni vya nkhonyo na viyuni vya nkhonyo) vikukoreka mu vigaŵa vyakupambanapambana vya charu ichi na kutumizgika ku vyaru vinyake.<ref name="FLII-Supplementary" /> Ku Morocco kuli vyaru vinkhondi na cimoza ivyo vili na vyakumera vyakupambanapambana: vyakumera vya mu Mediterranean conifer na vyakumera vyakupambanapambana, vyakumera vya mu Mediterranean High Atlas juniper steppe, vyakumera vya mu Mediterranean acacia-argania dry forests and succulent thickets, vyakumera vya mu Mediterranean dry forests and steppe, vyakumera vya mu Mediterranean dry forests and steppe, vyakumera vya mu Mediterranean Mediterranean woodlands and forests, na vyakumera vya ku North Sahara steppe and woodlands. Chigaŵa ichi chili na chigaŵa cha 6.74/10, ndipo chili pa malo 66 pa vyaru 172.<ref name="FLII-Supplementary">{{cite journal|last1=Grantham|first1=H. S.|last2=Duncan|first2=A.|last3=Evans|first3=T. D.|last4=Jones|first4=K. R.|last5=Beyer|first5=H. L.|last6=Schuster|first6=R.|last7=Walston|first7=J.|last8=Ray|first8=J. C.|last9=Robinson|first9=J. G.|last10=Callow|first10=M.|last11=Clements|first11=T.|last12=Costa|first12=H. M.|last13=DeGemmis|first13=A.|last14=Elsen|first14=P. R.|last15=Ervin|first15=J.|last16=Franco|first16=P.|last17=Goldman|first17=E.|last18=Goetz|first18=S.|last19=Hansen|first19=A.|last20=Hofsvang|first20=E.|last21=Jantz|first21=P.|last22=Jupiter|first22=S.|last23=Kang|first23=A.|last24=Langhammer|first24=P.|last25=Laurance|first25=W. F.|last26=Lieberman|first26=S.|last27=Linkie|first27=M.|last28=Malhi|first28=Y.|last29=Maxwell|first29=S.|last30=Mendez|first30=M.|last31=Mittermeier|first31=R.|last32=Murray|first32=N. J.|last33=Possingham|first33=H.|last34=Radachowsky|first34=J.|last35=Saatchi|first35=S.|last36=Samper|first36=C.|last37=Silverman|first37=J.|last38=Shapiro|first38=A.|last39=Strassburg|first39=B.|last40=Stevens|first40=T.|last41=Stokes|first41=E.|last42=Taylor|first42=R.|last43=Tear|first43=T.|last44=Tizard|first44=R.|last45=Venter|first45=O.|last46=Visconti|first46=P.|last47=Wang|first47=S.|last48=Watson|first48=J. E. M.|display-authors=1|title=Anthropogenic modification of forests means only 40% of remaining forests have high ecosystem integrity – Supplementary Material|journal=Nature Communications|volume=11|issue=1|year=2020|page=5978|issn=2041-1723|doi=10.1038/s41467-020-19493-3|pmid=33293507|pmc=7723057|bibcode=2020NatCo..11.5978G |doi-access=free}}</ref> == Ndale == {{main|Politics of Morocco}} [[File:King Mohammed VI (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright|The [[King of Morocco]], [[Mohammed VI of Morocco|Mohammed VI]].]] Ku Morocco kukaŵa muwuso wankhongono chomene kuyana na Democracy Index ya 2014. Lipoti la 2014 la Freedom of the Press likati "Ndilo Lambura Ufulu". Kweni ivi vyasintha, ndipo charu cha Morocco chalembeka kuti ni charu cha "hybrid regime" na Democracy Index kwambira mu 2015; apo lipoti la Freedom of the Press mu 2017 likalutizga kuwona kuti nyuzipepara ya ku Morocco yikalutilira kuŵa "yambura wanangwa", kweni yikati "nkhwa wanangwa yayi" chifukwa cha "Net Freedom" na "Freedom in the World". Pamanyuma pa mavoti gha mu Malichi 1998, boma la wupu wakulongozga likapangika na mulongozgi wa chipani cha opposition Abderrahmane Youssoufi ndipo likapangika na nduna izo zikafuma ku vipani vya opposition. Boma la Prime Minister Youssoufi likaŵa boma lakwamba ilo likapangika kufuma ku vyaru vyakwimikana na boma, ndipo likaŵa mwaŵi wakwamba kuti maboma gha Socialists, Center-of-left, na Nationalist ghaŵepo mu boma mpaka mu Okutobala 2002. Aka kakaŵa kakwamba mu mdauko wa ndyali wa mazuŵa ghano mu vyaru vya Ŵaarabu kuti ŵakususka ŵambe kuwusa. Boma ili likulongozgeka na Aziz Akhannouch. Ndondomeko ya malango ya Morocco yikulongosora za muwuso wa ufumu uwo uli na Nyumba ya Malamulo na makhoti ghakujiyimira. Mu 2011, Themba la Morocco likalutilira kuŵa na mazaza ghachoko waka, apo nduna yikuru yikalutilira kuŵa na mazaza ghanandi.<ref>Schemm, Paul (17 June 2011) [https://web.archive.org/web/20110623180751/https://news.yahoo.com/s/ap/20110617/ap_on_re_mi_ea/ml_morocco_king King declares Morocco a constitutional monarchy]. Associated Press.</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20121024053618/http://www.irishtimes.com/newspaper/breaking/2011/0702/breaking8.html Moroccan king in referendum win] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121024053618/http://www.irishtimes.com/newspaper/breaking/2011/0702/breaking8.html |date=24 October 2012 }}. ''The Irish Times''. 2 July 2011.</ref> Ndondomeko iyi yikovwira kuti themba liŵe na mazaza ghakupambanapambana. Wakulongozga wupu wa nduna; wakusora nduna yikuru kufuma mu chipani icho capokera vithuzithuzi vinandi pa ma parliamentary election, ndipo pa ulongozgi wa wupu uwu, wakusora mamembala gha boma. Ndondomeko ya malango ya mu 1996 yikatenge themba lingamazga nduna yiliyose, ndipo para lakumana na ŵalongozgi ŵa Nyumba za Ufumu, lingamazga Nyumba ya Malamulo, kulekeska malango gha boma, kuchema ŵanthu kuti ŵachitenge mavoti, panji kulamulira na dango. Ici cikacitika mu 1965. Themba ndilo ni mulara wa ŵasilikari. ===Legislative branch=== [[File:Parliament of morocco.jpg|thumb|The legislature's building in Rabat.]] Kufuma waka apo boma likasinthira malango mu 1996, wupu wakulongozga uli na nyumba ziŵiri. Nyumba ya Wupu Wakulongozga ya Morocco (Majlis an-Nuwwâb/Assemblée des Représentants) yili na mamembara 325 agho ghakusankhika kwa nyengo ya vilimika vinkhondi, 295 ŵakusankhika mu vigaŵa vinandi ndipo 30 mu vyaru vyose. Nyumba ya Malango (Majlis al-Mustasharin) yili na mamembara 270, agho ghakusankhika kwa vilimika vinkhondi na viŵiri. Maluso gha Nyumba ya Malamulo, nangauli ghakaŵa ghakukanizgika, ghakathandazgika mu 1992 na 1996 kweniso mu 2011 ndipo ghakusazgapo nkhani za bajeti, kuzomerezga malango, kufumba ma minisitara, na kukhazikiska makomiti gha ad hoc ghakufufuza ivyo boma likucita. Nyumba ya mafumu yingawuskapo boma mwa kususka. Pa 8 September, 2021 pakachitika chisankho chapulezidenti. Kuvota pa mavoti agha kukaŵa 50.35% ya ŵanthu awo ŵakalembeka. === Ŵankhondo === [[File:FREMM Mohammed VI - Lorient 2013-05.JPG|thumb|''Mohammed VI'', a [[FREMM multipurpose frigate]] of the [[Royal Moroccan Navy]].]] [[File:Lion120051.jpg|thumb|US Marines and Moroccan soldiers during exercise African Lion in [[Tan-Tan]].]] {{main|Royal Moroccan Armed Forces}} Gulu la ŵasilikari la Morocco lili na ŵasilikari ŵa ufumu (Royal Armed Forces). Vinthu vya mukati mwa charu vikuŵa makora, ndipo nkhaza za ndyali zikuchitika viŵi yayi (pakuleka kuphulika kwa bomba ku Casablanca mu 2003 uko kukakoma ŵanthu 45).<ref>Migdalovitz, Carol (3 February 2010). ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20120125150908/http://assets.opencrs.com/rpts/RS21579_20100203.pdf Morocco: Current Issues] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120125150908/http://assets.opencrs.com/rpts/RS21579_20100203.pdf |date=25 January 2012}}'', Congressional Research Service.</ref> Wupu wa UN uli na ŵalaŵiliri ŵachoko waka mu Western Sahara, uko kuli ŵasilikari ŵanandi ŵa ku Morocco. Gulu la Saharawi Polisario lili na ŵasilikari pafupifupi 5,000 mu Western Sahara ndipo likulimbana na ŵasilikari ŵa Morocco kwambira mu ma 1970. ===Foreign relations=== {{main|Foreign relations of Morocco}} Charu cha Morocco chili mu wupu wa United Nations ndipo chili mu wupu wa African Union (AU), Arab League, Arab Maghreb Union (UMA), Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC), Movement of Non-Aligned and the Community of Sahel-Saharan States (CEN_SAD). Vinthu vikupambana comene pakati pa vyaru vya ku Africa, vyaru vya ku Arab, na vyaru vya ku Western. Morocco wali na ubwezi wakukhora na vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi kuti wasangepo candulo pa vya cuma na ndyali. France na Spain ndiwo ŵakwendera lumoza malonda, kweniso ndiwo ŵali na ngongoli zinandi na ndalama za ku vyaru vinyake mu Morocco. Pa ndalama zose izo ŵanthu ŵakufuma ku vyaru vinyake ŵakugwiliskira nchito mu Morocco, ciŵelengero ca caru ca Europe ni 73.5%, apo ca caru ca Arabia ni 19.3%. Vyaru vinandi vya ku Persian Gulf na Maghreb vikunjilirapo comene pa milimo yikuru ya kuzenga mu Morocco.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://memrieconomicblog.org/bin/content.cgi?article=190 |title= GCC Countries Invest Heavily in Morocco |access-date=23 October 2009}}</ref> [[File:Ceuta-melilla.png|thumb|upright=1.3|Morocco claims sovereignty over Spanish enclaves of [[Ceuta]] and [[Melilla]].]] Morocco yikaŵa chalo cimoza pera cha mu Africa icho cikaŵa ciŵaro ca African Union yayi cifukwa ca kufumamo kwake pa 12 Novembala 1984 cifukwa ca kupokelereka kwa Saharawi Arab Democratic Republic mu 1982 na African Union (iyo yikacemekanga Organisation of African Unity) nga ni ciŵaro cakufikapo kwambura kunozga referendum ya kujisankhirathu mu chigaŵa ca Western Sahara. Morocco wakawelera ku AU pa 30 January 2017.<ref name="worldbulletin">{{cite news|url=http://www.worldbulletin.net/todays-news/183967/morocco-rejoins-african-union |title=Morocco rejoins African Union |publisher=Worldbulletin |date=30 January 2017 |access-date=31 January 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-38795676 |title=Morocco to rejoin African Union despite Western Sahara dispute |access-date=31 January 2017 |publisher=bbc.com|work=BBC News |date=30 January 2017}}</ref> Mu Ogasiti 2021, charu cha Algeria chikadumura ubwezi wake na Morocco. Mu 2002, pakaŵa mphindano na Spain pa cirwa cicoko ca Perejil. Vyaru ivi vili mumphepete mwa nyanja ya Meditereniyani ndipo vili kuzingilizgika na Morocco. Boma la George W. Bush likapa Morocco udindo wa kuŵa mubwezi wake wa pa caru cose. Boma la Bush mu 2004. Charu cha Morocco ndicho chikaŵa chakwamba kuzomerezga muwuso wa United States (mu 1777). Charu cha Morocco chili mu ndondomeko ya European Neighbourhood Policy (ENP) ya European Union, iyo yikukhumba kusendelera comene ku vyaru vyapafupi. ===Western Sahara status=== {{main|Legal status of Western Sahara}} [[File:Westernsaharamap.png|thumb|left|Morocco annexed Western Sahara in 1975. The [[Polisario Front]] control the territory east of the [[Moroccan Wall|Moroccan ''berm'' (wall)]].]] Chifukwa cha nkhondo ya ku Western Sahara, malo gha Saguia el-Hamra na Río de Oro ghakukayikira. Nkhondo ya ku Western Sahara yikapangiska kuti gulu la Polisario, gulu lakuwukira boma la Sahara, limaranenge na Morocco na Mauritania pakati pa 1976 na 1991. Wupu wa United Nations, MINURSO, uli na mulimo wa kunozga referendum ya usange malo agha ghaŵe ghakujiyimira payekha panji kughawona kuŵa chigaŵa cha Morocco. Chigaŵa chinyake cha chigaŵa ichi, ni malo ghambura ŵanthu ndipo Polisario Front ndiyo yikuwusa. Malo ghake ghakulongozgera ghali ku Tindouf, Algeria. Kuzakafika mu 2006, pakaŵavya boma la UN ilo likazomera kuti Morocco ndiyo yili na mazaza pa chigaŵa cha Western Sahara. Mu 2020, United States pasi pa muwuso wa Trump yikaŵa chalo chakwambilira cha ku Western icho chikakhozgera mazaza gha Morocco pa chigaŵa cha Western Sahara, pa phangano lakuti Morocco yikambeso kukolerana na Israel. Mu 2006, boma la Morocco likasachizga kuti chigaŵa ichi chiŵe na wanangwa wa kujilongozga, kwizira mu wupu wa Royal Advisory Council for Sahara Affairs (CORCAS). Ntchito iyi yikapelekeka ku wupu wa United Nations Security Council pakati pa Epulero 2007. Ŵabwezi ŵa Morocco nga ni United States, France, na Spain ŵakakondwa comene na fundo iyi. Wupu wakuvikilira wamuchema vyaru kuti viyambiske kudumbiskana mwakudunjika na kwambura fundo kuti vifike pa nthowa yakuzomerezgana.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/missions/minurso/reports.shtml|title=Report of the Secretary-General on the situation concerning Western Sahara |date=13 April 2007|access-date=18 May 2007 |work=UN Security Council}}</ref>{{Clear}} === Administrative divisions === [[File:Administrative Regions of Morocco.jpg|thumb|The administrative regions of Morocco]] Morocco wali kugaŵika vigaŵa 12, ndipo vigaŵa ivi vili kugaŵika vigaŵa 62 na vigaŵa 13.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.statoids.com/yma.html|title=Morocco Prefectures|website=www.statoids.com}}</ref> '''Regions''' # [[Tanger-Tetouan-Al Hoceima]] # [[Oriental (Morocco)|Oriental]] # [[Fès-Meknès]] # [[Rabat-Salé-Kénitra]] # [[Béni Mellal-Khénifra]] # [[Casablanca-Settat]] # [[Marrakesh-Safi]] # [[Drâa-Tafilalet]] # [[Souss-Massa]] # [[Guelmim-Oued Noun]] # [[Laâyoune-Sakia El Hamra]] # [[Dakhla-Oued Ed-Dahab]] === Human rights === {{See also|Human rights in Morocco|LGBT rights in Morocco}} Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1960 m'paka m'ma 1980, mu muwuso wa Hassan II, caru ca Morocco cikaŵa na wanangwa wa ŵanthu uheni comene mu Africa na caru cose. Boma likakanizganga ŵanthu awo ŵakususka ivyo boma likusankha, ndipo likaŵa na mazaza pa ŵanthu wose mu nyengo ya muwuso wa Hassan II, m'paka apo likamalira mu 1990. Vyaka ivyo ŵanthu ŵakasuzgikiranga ŵanyawo vikachemekanga kuti "Vyaka vya Plomb" (Les Années de Plomb). Kuti ŵamanye uheni uwo ukacitikanga mu nyengo ya muwuso wa Themba Hassan II (1961-1999), boma la Themba Mohammed likakhazikiska Komiti ya Mtende na Kuphemana.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20070928230433/http://www.ictj.com/mena/morocco.asp ''ICTJ Activity in Morocco''] – [[International Center for Transitional Justice]] (ICTJ) {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928230433/http://www.ictj.com/mena/morocco.asp|date=28 September 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://hrw.org/reports/2005/morocco1105/6.htm#_Toc119468378|title=Morocco's Truth Commission: Honoring Past Victims during an Uncertain Present: V. Constraints on the ERC|website=hrw.org|access-date=3 June 2017|archive-date=31 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201031020038/https://www.hrw.org/reports/2005/morocco1105/6.htm#_Toc119468378|url-status=dead}}</ref> Kuyana na lipoti lapachaka la Human Rights Watch mu 2016, boma la Morocco likakanizga wanangwa wa kuyowoya vyamtende, kuwungana na kuwungana kwizira mu malango ghanandi. Ŵalara ŵa boma ŵakulutilira kweruzga ŵanthu awo ŵakususka boma panji themba (panji banja lacifumu). Kweniso pali maukaboni ghakukhwaskana na nkhaza izo zikucitikira ŵanthu awo ŵakukhumba kuti caru ca Sahara ciŵe cakukolerana na boma kweniso awo ŵakukolerana na gulu la Polisario ku Western Sahara. Morocco wakususkika kuti wakusunga ŵanthu awo ŵakukhumba kuti Sahara yikhale yekha nga ni ŵakayidi ŵa njuŵi. Kugonana kwa ŵanalume panji ŵanakazi ŵekhaŵekha kweniso kugonana pambere munthu wandatorane ni kwaukazuzi mu Morocco, ndipo munthu wangakakika kwa myezi 6 m'paka vyaka vitatu. Ntchakuzomerezgeka yayi kusopa chisopa chinyake padera pa Chisilamu (Ndime 220 ya Dango la Maroko), ndipo mulandu uwu ukulangika na jele vyaka 15. Kucitira nkhaza ŵanakazi na kuŵatimbanizga vya kugonana kwaŵa mulandu. Ŵangaŵa na cilango ca mwezi umoza mpaka vilimika vinkhondi, kweniso ndalama zakukwana madola 200 mpaka 1,000. Mu Meyi 2020, ŵantchito ŵanandi ŵa ku Morocco ŵakakhala mu Spain chifukwa cha suzgo la COVID-19. Boma la Spain likati likudumbiskana na boma la Morocco vya kuwezga ŵantchito awo ŵafuma ku vyaru vinyake mu caru cawo kwizira mu "ndondomeko ya wovwiri wa ŵanthu".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.latimes.com/world-nation/story/2020-05-24/coronavirus-moroccans-spain-head-home|title=Moroccans trapped in Spain for 2 months due to coronavirus head home at last|access-date=24 May 2020|website=Los Angeles Times|date=24 May 2020}}</ref> == Chuma == {{main|Economy of Morocco}} [[File:CasablancaFAR.jpg|thumb|left|Boulevard des FAR (Forces Armées Royales)]] Chuma cha Morocco chikuwoneka kuti ntchawanangwa ndipo chikulongozgeka na dango la kupempha na kupeleka. Kwambira mu 1993, caru ici cikulondezga ndondomeko ya kusaska vinthu vinyake ivyo vikaŵa mu mawoko gha boma. Charu cha Morocco chazgoka chigaŵa chikuru mu vyakusanguluska vya mu Africa, ndipo ni caru ca nambara 5 mu vyakusanguluska vya mu Africa. Charu cha Morocco ndicho chikaŵa chakwamba mu Africa kuŵa na umoyo uwemi kuyana na Economist Intelligence Unit.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Democracy Index 2020 |url=https://www.eiu.com/n/campaigns/democracy-index-2020/ |access-date=17 May 2022 |website=Economist Intelligence Unit |language=en-GB}}</ref> However, in the years since that first-place ranking was given, Morocco has slipped into fourth place behind [[Egypt]]. [[File:Map of Morocco's exports as of 2017.svg|thumb|Map of Morocco's exports as of 2017]] Boma likasintha vinthu ndipo kufuma mu 2000 m'paka mu 2007, chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu mu charu ichi chikakwera chomene pa chaka. Pa chaka cha 2012, Banki ya Caru Cose yikayowoyerathu kuti caru ca Morocco cizamukulirako na 4%, ndipo mu 2013 cizamukulirako na 4.2%. Vigaŵa vya uteŵeti vikupanga pafupifupi hafu ya GDP, ndipo vigaŵa vya migodi, vyakuzenga, na vyakupangira, vikupanga vigaŵa vinyake vinayi. Vigaŵa ivyo vikakura comene ni vyakusanguluska, vyamafoni, vyakupangapanga, na vyakuvwara. ===Tourism=== {{main|Tourism in Morocco}} [[File:Koutbia.jpg|thumb|The [[Koutoubia Mosque]] in Marrakech.]] Ulendo ni cimoza mwa vyaru vyakuzirwa comene mu caru ca Morocco. Msumba uwu uli na ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakwendakwenda awo ŵakutemwa chomene vyakumera, mitheto, na mbiri ya charu ichi. Mu 2019, ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 13 miliyoni ŵakiza ku Morocco. Vinthu ivi vikupangiska kuti ku Morocco kuŵe ndalama zinandi. Boma la Morocco likuŵika ndalama zinandi pa vyaulendo, mu 2010 boma likamba ntchito ya Vision 2020 iyo yikukhumba kuti Morocco yiŵe yimoza mwa vyalo 20 vyakwendakwenda chomene pa charu chose na kusazgirako kaŵiri chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu awo ŵakwiza kufuma ku vyaru vyakupambanapambana kufika pa 20 miliyoni kufika mu 2020, na chigomezgo kuti pa nyengo iyo, chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu awo ŵakwendakwenda chizamukwera kufika pa 20% ya GDP. Maboma ghakupharazga kuti charu cha Morocco ntchiwemi kukendera, kweni ntchiwemi yayi. Ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakuluta ku Morocco mba ku Europe, ndipo pafupifupi 20% ya awo ŵakuluta ku Morocco mba ku France. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Europe ŵakuluta ku charu ichi mu Epulero na Ogasiti.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.tourisme.gov.ma/en/tourism-figures/dashboards|title=Dashboards|website=Kingdom of Morocco, Ministry of Tourism|access-date=19 April 2020|archive-date=29 March 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200329175651/https://www.tourisme.gov.ma/en/tourism-figures/dashboards}}</ref> Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuluta ku malo agha chifukwa cha malo agho ghalipo. Cifukwa cakuti caru ca Morocco cili pafupi na Spain, ŵanthu awo ŵakuluta ku virwa vya kumwera kwa Spain ŵakuluta ku caru ici kwa zuŵa limoza panji ghatatu. Kufuma waka apo maulendo gha ndege ghakambira pakati pa Morocco na Algeria, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Algeria ŵakuluta ku Morocco kukagura vinthu na kukawona ŵabali na ŵabwezi ŵawo. Chifukwa cha kuchepa kwa mtengo wa dirhamu na kukwera kwa mitengo ya mahotelo ku Spain, malo agha ghalije ndalama zinandi. Morocco wali na misewu yiwemi chomene na njanji izo zikovwira kuti misumba yikuru na malo agho ŵanthu ŵakuluta kukawona vyalo viŵe na virwa. Makampani gha ndege ghakurughakuru ghakupeleka ndege zakudura ku charu ichi.[[File:Fes (5364214781).jpg|thumb|View of the medina (old city) of [[Fez, Morocco|Fes]].]] Ŵalendo ŵanandi ŵakutemwa chomene vinthu vya ku Morocco nga ni misumba yakale. Makampani ghakwendakwenda ghakugwiliskira nchito malo ghakale gha ku Morocco agho ŵanthu ŵa ku Berber, Ŵaroma, na Ŵasilamu ŵakakhalanga. Agadir ni malo ghakurughakuru agho ŵanthu ŵakugona usiku. Ku malo agha ndiko ŵanthu ŵakuluta kukawona mapiri gha Atlas. Malo ghanyake ghakucezgera agho ghali kumpoto kwa Morocco ngakumanyikwa comene. Casablanca ni dowoko likuru la maulendo gha mu nyanja mu Morocco, ndipo lili na msika wakunozgekera makora wa ŵalendo mu Morocco. Munda wa Majorelle uwo uli ku Marrakech ndiwo ŵanthu ŵakutemwa kuluta kukawona. Mu 1980, Yves Saint-Laurent na Pierre Bergé ŵakagura. Ŵanthu aŵa ŵakakhozga chomene msumba uwu kuti uŵe wakutowa ku ŵalendo. Kufumira mu 2006, malo agho ŵanthu ŵakwendakwenda mu mapiri gha Atlas na Rif ndigho ghakwendakwenda mwaluŵiro comene mu Morocco. Ku malo agha, ŵanthu ŵakwenda na kwenda kufuma kuumaliro wa Malichi m'paka pakati pa Novembala. Boma likuŵika ndalama zinandi pa vyaru ivyo ŵanthu ŵakwenda. Kweniso ŵakucita vyakusanguluska mu mapopa kuti ŵacimbanenge na vyaru vya ku Tunisia.<ref name=Shackley>{{cite book |title=Atlas of Travel And Tourism Development |last=Shackley |first=Myra |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VWOw_U8WpZUC |year=2006 |publisher=Butterworth-Heinemann |isbn=978-0-7506-6348-9 |pages=43–44}}</ref> ===Agriculture=== {{main|Agriculture in Morocco}} {{Excerpt|Agriculture in Morocco}} ===Infrastructure=== [[File:Al Boraq RGV2N2 at Tanger Ville.jpg|thumb|left|Al Boraq RGV2N2 high-speed trainset at Tanger Ville railway station in November 2018]] Kuyana na lipoti la Global Competitiveness Report la 2019, Morocco wali pa nambara 32 pa caru cose pa nkhani ya misewu, nambara 16 pa nyanja, nambara 45 pa mlengalenga na nambara 64 pa njanji. Ici cikupangiska Morocco kuŵa pa malo ghapacanya comene pa vyaru vya mu Africa. Boma likuŵika mtima comene pa kupanga vinthu vyamahara, nga ni madoko, viŵanja vya ndege, na njanji. Kuti boma la Morocco lipulikiske ivyo ŵanthu ŵakukhumba, likagwiliskira ntchito ndalama zakukwana madola 15 biliyoni kufuma mu 2010 m'paka mu 2015 pakunozga vinthu vya mu charu ichi. Morocco wali na misewu yiwemi comene pa caru cose. Mu vyaka 20 ivyo vyajumpha, boma la Japan lazenga misewu ya makilomita pafupifupi 1,770 iyo yikukolerana na misumba yikuruyikuru. Unduna wa Vyakovwira Ŵanthu ku Morocco, wa Vyakwendeskera Vinthu, na Maji, ukukhumba kuzengaso misewu yinyake ya makilomita 3380 na misewu yinyake ya makilomita 2100 m'paka mu 2030, pa mtengo wa madola mabiliyoni 9.6. Ntchito iyi yikovwira kuti vigaŵa vya kumwera, chomenechomene misumba ya Laayoune na Dakhla, viŵe paubwezi na vigaŵa vinyake vya Morocco. Mu 2014, Morocco wakamba kuzenga njanji yakwamba ya mu Africa iyo yikudumura tawuni ya Tangiers na Casablanca. Wakajulika mu 2018 na fumu pamanyuma pakunozga na kuzenga kwa vyaka 10 na kampani ya sitima ya ONCF. Ni cigaŵa cakwamba ca cigaŵa ca sitima ya pa liŵiro likuru mu Morocco. Pasono ŵakunozgekera kusazgirako msewu uwu m'paka ku Marrakesh. Kweniso ku Morocco kuli dowoko likuru comene mu Africa na Mediterranean lakucemeka Tanger-Med, ilo lili pa nambara 18 pa caru cose na katundu wakukwana makontena ghakujumpha 9 miliyoni. Malo agha ghali mu chigaŵa cha Tangiers Free Economic Zone, ndipo ni malo ghakwendeskera vinthu ku Africa na vyaru vinyake.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.tmpa.ma/en/activites-services/activite-conteneurs/|title=Tanger Med Port Authority – Containers Activity|access-date=2 September 2021|archive-date=2 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210902203857/https://www.tmpa.ma/en/activites-services/activite-conteneurs/|url-status=dead}}</ref> ===Energy=== {{main|Energy in Morocco}} [[File:Isofoton Marruecos.JPG|thumb|[[Solar cell]] panels in eastern Morocco]] Mu 2008, mafuta ghakukwana 56% gha magesi gha ku Morocco ghakafuma ku malasha. Ndipouli, pakuti vyaru vya Morocco vikukhumba nkhongono zinandi pa chaka kufuma mu 2012 m'paka 2050, dango liphya likukhozga ŵanthu ŵa mu charu ichi kuti ŵapenje nthowa zakupambanapambana zakupangira nkhongono. Boma la Morocco layambiska mulimo wa kuzenga malo ghakupangira magesi ghakufuma ku nkhongono za dazi.<ref name="english.nuqudy.com">{{cite web |title=Natural Gas to Fuel Morocco. Nuqudy.com (2012-04-12) |url=http://english.nuqudy.com/North_Africa/Natural_Gas_to_Fuel-1576 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170630022606/http://english.nuqudy.com/North_Africa/Natural_Gas_to_Fuel-1576 |archive-date=30 June 2017 |access-date=15 April 2012}}</ref> Morocco wamba kuzenga mapulagi ghakurughakuru gha magesi gha dazi kuti ghaleke kugwiliskira nchito mafuta ghakusunkhunyika, kweniso kuti ghapeleke magesi ku Europe. Pa 17 April, 2022, Rabat- wupu wa Morocco wakuwona vya nkhongono ya dazi (Masen) na unduna wa vya nkhongono na chitukuko chakukhazikika ukati wazakambiska chigaŵa chakwamba cha projekiti yikuru ya Nor II, iyo ni projekiti ya nkhongono ya dazi ya malo ghanandi na nkhongono yakujumpha 400 megawatts (MN). ===Narcotics=== [[File:Cannabis Fields in Ketama Tidighine mountain, Morocco.jpg|thumb|Munda wa cannabis pa phiri la Ketama Tidighine, Morocco]] Kufuma mu vyaka vya m'ma 700 C.E., ŵanthu ŵakamba kulima munkhwala wa cannabis mu chigaŵa cha Rif. Mu 2004, kuyana na lipoti la UN World Drugs Report, kulima na kusinthiska cannabis kukaŵa 0.57% ya GDP ya Morocco mu 2002. Kuyana na lipoti la Unduna wa Vyamukati mwa France la mu 2006, 80% ya thovu la cannabis (hashish) ilo likugwiliskirika nchito mu Europe likufuma ku chigaŵa cha Rif ku Morocco, uko kuli mapiri ghanandi kumpoto kwa Morocco, kweniso malo ghakutowa comene agho ghakuthandazgikira kufuma ku mlonga wa Melwiyya na Ras Kebdana kumafumiro gha dazi mpaka ku Tanger na Cape Spartel kumanjiliro gha dazi. Kweniso chigaŵa ichi chili kufuma ku nyanja ya Mediterranean kumwera, uko kuli Mlonga wa Wergha. Kweniso, Morocco ni malo agho ŵanthu ŵakwendakwenda kufuma ku South America kuluta ku Western Europe.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2086.html#mo |title=Central Intelligence Agency |publisher=Cia.gov |access-date=20 December 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101229044611/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2086.html#mo |archive-date=29 December 2010 }}</ref> === Water supply and sanitation === {{Main|Water supply and sanitation in Morocco}} Mu Morocco, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakugwiliskira ntchito maofesi ghakupambanapambana. Vinthu ivi vikusazgapo makampani ghapachanya gha mu tawuni yikuru ya Casablanca, Rabat, na misumba yinyake yiŵiri. Wupu uwu ndiwo ukupeleka maji ghanandi ku mawupu agho ghakuzunurika, ukupeleka maji mu matawuni ghachoko waka pafupifupi 500, kweniso ukupeleka maji ghakwenda makora mu matawuni 60. Mu vyaka 15 ivyo vyajumpha, vinthu vyasintha comene pa nkhani ya maji na malo ghakutowa. Vyakusuzga vinyake ni vyakuti maji ghakwenda makora yayi (pa maji ghakwenda makora 13 peresenti pera), nyumba zikwenda makora yayi mu vikaya vikavu chomene, kweniso vyakumera vikwenda makora yayi (20 peresenti ya vyakumera vikwenda makora yayi). Mu 2005, ŵakazomerezga kuti paŵe pulogiramu ya kuzenga maji ghakwenda makora mu misumba iyo yikukhumba kumazga maji ghakubinkha 60 pa 100 gha mu misumba yose. Nkhani ya kusoŵa maji ku ŵanthu ŵakavu mu matawuni yikuyowoyeka mu ndondomeko ya National Human Development Initiative, iyo yikovwira kuti ŵanthu awo ŵakukhala mu malo ghambura kuzengeka makora ŵapokere katundu wa malo na kulekerathu kulipira ndalama izo ŵakupeleka ku ŵanthu awo ŵakupeleka maji. == Sayansi na tekinoloji == {{Main|Science and technology in Morocco}} Boma la Morocco likuchita vinthu vinyake kuti lisambizge makora ŵanthu na kuŵawovwira kuti ŵasambirenge makora. Mu Meyi 2009, nduna yikuru ya Morocco, Abbas El Fassi, yikapharazga vya wovwiri ukuru ku sayansi pa ungano uwo ukachitikira ku National Centre for Scientific and Technical Research. Cilato cake cikaŵa cakuti maunivesite ghaŵe na wanangwa ukuru wa kusama ku boma mwakuti ghapulikiske makora ivyo vikukhumbikwa pakucita kafukufuku ndiposo kuti ghaŵe na mwaŵi wakukhozga ubwezi wawo na wupu wa ŵekha. Iyo wakapharazga kuti ndalama zakugwilira nchito mu sayansi na vyakupangapanga zizamukulirakulira kufuma pa 620,000 USD mu 2008 kufika pa 8.5 million USD (69 million Moroccan dirhams) mu 2009, mwakuti zakovwire kunozga na kuzenga ma laboratories, masukulu ghakusambizga ŵasayansi mu vya ndalama, pulogiramu ya masambiro gha masambiro gha ku yunivesite na vyakukhuŵirizga mabungwe agho ghakukhumba kupeleka ndalama zakugwilira nchito, nga nkhuŵapa mwaŵi wa kusanga ivyo ŵasayansi ŵasanga kuti ŵagwiliskirenge nchito pakupanga vinthu viphya. Dziko la Morocco lili pa nambala 77 pa Global Innovation Index mu 2021, kuchokera pa 74 mu 2019.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Global Innovation Index 2021 |url=https://www.wipo.int/global_innovation_index/en/2021/|work=[[World Intellectual Property Organization]]|publisher=[[United Nations]]|access-date=5 March 2022 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Global Innovation Index 2019|url=https://www.wipo.int/global_innovation_index/en/2019/index.html|access-date=2 September 2021|website=www.wipo.int|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=RTD – Item|url=https://ec.europa.eu/newsroom/rtd/items/691898|access-date=2 September 2021|website=ec.europa.eu}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=28 October 2013|title=Global Innovation Index|url=https://knowledge.insead.edu/entrepreneurship-innovation/global-innovation-index-2930|access-date=2 September 2021|website=INSEAD Knowledge|language=en|archive-date=2 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210902101622/https://knowledge.insead.edu/entrepreneurship-innovation/global-innovation-index-2930|url-status=dead}}</ref> Ndondomeko ya ku Morocco ya Kupanga Vinthu Viphya yikambiskika pa ungano wakwamba wa ku Morocco uwo ukacitika mu Juni 2009. Ndondomeko ya Maroko ya Kupanga Vinthu Viphya yikayowoya kuti mu 2014, paŵe mapatenti 1,000 gha ku Morocco na kupanga makampani ghaphya gha 200. Mu 2012, ŵanthu ŵa ku Morocco ŵakapempha mapatenti 197, apo vyaka viŵiri kumasinda ŵakaŵa 152. Mu 2011, Unduna wa vya Makampani, Malonda na Maluso Ghaphya ukayambiska gulu la ku Morocco la Kupanga Vinthu Viphya, mwakukolerana na ofesi ya ku Morocco yakuwona vya malonda. Fundo iyi njakuti ŵanthu awo ŵakuchita vinthu vyakupambanapambana, kusazgapo ŵasayansi, ŵamalonda, ŵana ŵa sukulu, na ŵasambizgi, ŵawovwirepo pakupanga mapulojekiti ghaphya. Unduna wa vya Masambiro ghapacanya na Kupenjerezga vya Sayansi ukuwovwira kafukufuku wa vyakupangapanga vyapacanya na kuzenga matawuni ghaphya gha Fez, Rabat na Marrakesh. Boma likuciska maboma kuti ghacitenge vinthu viphya pamoza na ŵanthu. Chiyelezgero chimoza ni Ofesi ya ku Morocco yakuwona vya Phosphate (Office chérifien des phosphates), iyo yikagwiliskira nchito ndalama zakukwana DH 4.7 biliyoni (pafupifupi USD 479 miliyoni) pa mulimo wakuzenga msumba wa King Mohammed VI Green City, kuzingilizga Yunivesite ya Mohammed VI iyo yili pakati pa Casablanca na Marrakesh.<ref name="Agenor">{{Cite book |last1=Zou'bi |first1=Moneef |url=http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0023/002354/235406e.pdf |title=Arab States. In: UNESCO Science Report: towards 2030 |last2=Mohamed-Nour |first2=Samia |last3=El-Kharraz |first3=Jauad |last4=Hassan |first4=Nazar |publisher=UNESCO |year=2015 |isbn=978-92-3-100129-1 |location=Paris |pages=431–469}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Morocco: Growth Strategy for 2025 in an Evolving International Environment|last1=Agénor|first1=P.R.|last2=El-Aynaoui|first2=K.|publisher=Policy Centre of the Office chérifien des phosphates|year=2015|location=Rabat}}</ref> Mu 2015, ku Morocco kukaŵa mapariki ghatatu. Kufuma waka apo paki yakwamba yikambira ku Rabat mu 2005, paki yachiŵiri yikambira ku Casablanca, ndipo mu 2015, paki yachitatu yikambira ku Tanger. Mu malo agha, mukuŵa makampani ghaphya na ghachoko na gha pakati, agho ghakusanga nchito mu vyakupanga vinthu vya pa Intaneti (ICT), vyakupanga vinthu vyamahara (green technologies) na vyakusanguluska. Mu 2012, wupu wa Hassan II Academy of Science and Technology ukawona vigaŵa vinandi ivyo Morocco wali na mwaŵi wa kupambanako na vyaru vinyake kweniso ŵanthu awo ŵali na maluso, kusazgapo migodi, somba, vyakurya na vyakupangapanga. Kweniso likulongosora vyaru vinyake ivyo ni vyakuzirwa, nga ni vyamagetsi, ndipo vikovwira chomene vyamagetsi nga ni photovoltaic, thermal solar energy, mphepo na biomass. Pa Meyi 20, 2015, pati pajumpha chaka chimoza kufuma apo likambira ntchito yake, Wupu Wakulongozga pa Nkhani za Masambiro, Kusambizga na Kupenjerezga vya Sayansi ukapeleka lipoti kwa themba. Lipoti ili likati masambiro ghaŵe ghakuyana waka, mwakuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵasambirenge. Pakuti kuwongolera masambiro kukwendera lumoza na kukhozga kafukufuku na vyakupangiska vinthu, lipoti ili likayowoyeraso kuti paŵe ndondomeko yikuru yakupanga vinthu vyakupangiska vinthu viphya mu vyaru vyose.<ref name="Agenor" /> == Ŵanthu == {{main|Demographics of Morocco|Moroccans}} {{Historical populations | style="width:180px;"|percentages=pagr |title = Populations (in thousands)<!-- milliers=thousands; millions=millions --> |source = {{lower|0.4em|<ref>{{cite web |title=Population du Maroc par année civile (en milliers et au milieu de l'année) par milieu de résidence : 1960 – 2050 |url=http://www.hcp.ma/Population-du-Maroc-par-annee-civile-en-milliers-et-au-milieu-de-l-annee-par-milieu-de-residence-1960-2050_a677.html |publisher=Haut-Commissariat au Plan du Royaume du Maroc |access-date=30 January 2013 |archive-date=27 December 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121227092030/http://www.hcp.ma/Population-du-Maroc-par-annee-civile-en-milliers-et-au-milieu-de-l-annee-par-milieu-de-residence-1960-2050_a677.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>}} |1950 |8986 |1960 |12329 |1970 |16040 |1980 |20072 |1990 |24950 |2000 |28951 |2010 |32108 |2020 |35952 }} Ŵanthu awo ŵakukhala mu charu ichi ŵalipo 37,076,584 (2021 est.). Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakuti ŵanthu ŵa mu tawuni iyi ŵalipo 44% m'paka 67%. Ŵanandi mwa ŵanthu aŵa ni Ŵaharati na Ŵanawa (panji Gnaoua), awo ŵali kufuma ku ŵazga ŵa ku West Africa, kweniso Ŵamorisco, Ŵasilamu ŵa ku Europe awo ŵakachimbizgika ku Spain na Portugal mu ma 1700. Kwamba mu ma 700 C.E., ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Morocco ŵakasamukira ku vyaru vya Maghreb. Kuyana na kalembera wa ŵanthu wa mu 2014, mu Morocco mukaŵa ŵanthu pafupifupi 84,000 awo ŵakafuma ku vyaru vinyake. Ŵanandi mwa ŵanthu aŵa ŵakafuma ku France, ndipo ŵanyake ŵakafuma ku vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Africa na Algeria. Paliso ŵalendo ŵanandi ŵa ku Spain. Ŵanyake mwa ŵanthu aŵa mbana ŵa ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga mu vyaru vinyake, ndipo ŵakugwira nchito ku makampani gha ku Europe. Pambere Maroko wandaŵe na wanangwa, ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe ŵakukwana hafu ya miliyoni ŵakakhalanga mu caru ici. Kweniso pambere charu cha Morocco chindapoke wanangwa wake, mu caru ici mukaŵa ŵanthu 250,000 ŵa ku Spain. Ŵayuda awo ŵakakhalanga ku Morocco ŵakukwana 265,000 mu 1948, kweni sono ŵakukwana 2,500. Morocco yili na ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakufuma ku vyaru vinyake, ndipo ŵanandi mwa ŵanthu aŵa ŵali ku France. Kweniso ku Spain kuli ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Morocco (ŵanthu pafupifupi 700,000), Netherlands (360,000), na Belgium (300,000). Ŵayuda ŵanandi ŵakukhala mu vyaru vya Italy, Canada, United States, na Israel, uko Ŵayuda ŵa ku Morocco ndiwo ni fuko laciŵiri likuru comene.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cbs.gov.il/he/publications/DocLib/2016/2.ShnatonPopulation/st02_08x.pdf|title=Table 2.8 – Jews, by country of origin and age|date=2015|publisher=[[Israel Central Bureau of Statistics]]}}</ref> ===Religion=== {{main|Religion in Morocco}} Mu 2010, bungwe la Pew Forum likati visopa vyose mu charu ichi ni vya Chisilamu ndipo visopa vyose ivyo vikukhala mu charu ichi ni vya Chisilamu. Pa ŵanthu awo ŵakulondezga chisopa cha Ciisilamu, pafupifupi wose Mbakhristu ŵa chisopa ca Sunni, ndipo Ŵasilamu ŵa Cihiya ŵalipo 0.1%. Ndipouli, ŵanthu pafupifupi 15 pa 100 awo ŵakafumbika ŵakajiwonanga kuti Mbakhristu yayi. Kafukufuku munyake uyo wakachitika mu chaka cha 2021 wakalongora kuti ŵanthu 67.8% ŵa ku Morocco ŵakaŵa na chisopa, 29.1% ŵakaŵa na chisopa, ndipo 3.1% ŵakaŵa ŵambura chisopa. Kafukufuku uyo Gallup International wakachita mu 2015, wakalongora kuti ŵanthu 93% ku Morocco ŵakujiwona kuti ŵakusopa.<ref>{{Cite web |date=8 June 2015 |title=Losing Our Religion? Two Thirds of People Still Claim to Be Religious |url=https://www.gallup-international.bg/en/33531/losing-our-religion-two-thirds-of-people-still-claim-to-be-religious/ |access-date=11 November 2022 |website=Gallup International |language=en-US}}</ref> [[File:Inside of a mosque in Fes (5364764412).jpg|thumb|The interior of a mosque in [[Fes]]]] Pambere Maroko wandaŵe na wanangwa, ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 500,000 ŵakaŵa Ŵakhristu (ŵanandi ŵakaŵa ŵa ku Spain na France). Ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakaŵa Ŵakhristu ŵakaluta ku Spain panji France mu 1956. Ŵakhristu awo ŵakukhala mu vyaru vinyake, comenecomene Ŵakatolika na Ŵaprotesitanti, ŵalipo pafupifupi 40,000. Ŵakhristu ŵanandi ŵakufuma ku vyaru vinyake ŵakukhala mu matawuni gha Casablanca, Tangier, na Rabat. Ŵalongozgi ŵanandi ŵa Chikhristu ŵakuyowoya kuti pakati pa 2005 na 2010 pakaŵa Ŵakhristu 5,000 awo ŵakang'anamukira ku Chikhristu. Ŵalongozgi ŵanyake ŵa Cikhristu ŵakuwona kuti mu caru cose muli Ŵakhristu pafupifupi 8,000, kweni ŵanandi ŵakuwungana mwakukhazikika yayi cifukwa ca kopa boma na kutambuzgika. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Morocco awo ŵakazgoka Ŵakhristu (ŵanandi ŵakaŵa ŵakusopa mwakubisilizga) ŵalipo pakati pa 8,000 na 50,000.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.christianitytoday.com/news/2013/may/christian-converts-in-morocco-fear-fatwa-calling-for-their.html |url-access=subscription |title=Christian Converts in Morocco Fear Fatwa Calling for Their Execution |newspaper=Morning Star News |via=Christianity Today}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://news.vice.com/article/house-churches-and-silent-masses-the-converted-christians-of-morocco-are-praying-in-secret|title='House-Churches' and Silent Masses —The Converted Christians of Morocco Are Praying in Secret – VICE News|date=23 March 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-morocco-religion/christians-want-marriages-recognized-in-morocco-idUSKCN1J4231|title=Christians want marriages recognized in Morocco|date=8 June 2018|publisher=reuters}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/03/29/world/africa/pope-francis-morocco-christians.html|title=Pope Francis' Visit to Morocco Raises Hopes for Its Christians|date=29 March 2019|work=The New York Times}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Al-Maghred, the Barbary Lion: A Look at Islam| first=Nat |last= Carnes|year= 2012| isbn= 9781475903423| page =253|publisher=University of Cambridge Press|quote=. In all an estimated 40,000 Moroccans have converted to Christianity}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.africanews.com/2019/03/22/morocco-s-hidden-christians-to-push-for-religious-freedom/|title=Morocco's 'hidden' Christians to push for religious freedom|date=30 January 2017|publisher=AfricanNews|quote=There are no official statistics, but leaders say there are about 50,000 Moroccan Christians, most of them from the Protestant Evangelical tradition.}}</ref> Ŵayuda ŵa ku Casablanca ŵakaŵa pafupifupi 2,500, ndipo ŵa ku Rabat na Marrakesh ŵakaŵa pafupifupi 100. Ŵayuda awo ŵakakhalako ŵakambininikira mu caru cose. Ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakukhala mu caru ici mbacekuru, ndipo ciŵelengero ca ŵawukirano cikumara. Ŵanthu ŵa cisopa ca Bahá'í, awo ŵakukhala mu misumba, ŵalipo 350 m'paka 400.<ref name="irfr2011">{{cite web |title=International Religious Freedom Report for 2011 – Morocco |url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/religiousfreedom/index.htm |publisher=Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=The Jews of Morocco |url=https://dbs.bh.org.il/place/morocco |publisher=The Museum of the Jewish People at Beit Hatfutsot |access-date=27 October 2022 |archive-date=10 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200810080356/https://dbs.bh.org.il/place/morocco |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>Sergio DellaPergola, [http://www.bjpa.org/Publications/downloadPublication.cfm?PublicationID=16432 World Jewish population] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203032451/http://www.bjpa.org/Publications/downloadPublication.cfm?PublicationID=16432 |date=3 December 2013 }}, 2012, p. 62.</ref> ===Languages=== {{main|Languages of Morocco}} [[File:Morocco - Linguistic map.png|upright=1.4|thumb|Linguistic map of Morocco]] Viyowoyero vya boma vya ku Morocco ni Chiarabic na Chiberberber. Chiyowoyero cha ku Morocco icho chikuyowoyeka mu charu ichi chikuchemeka Darija. Pafupifupi ŵanthu 89.8% ŵakuyowoya Chiarabu. Chiyowoyero ichi chili na viyowoyero vitatu (Tarifit, Tashelhit, na Central Atlas Tamazight). Mu 2008, Frédéric Deroche wakati ŵanthu 12 miliyoni ŵakayowoyanga Chiberberi. Pa ŵanthu awo ŵakalembeka mu 2004, ŵanthu 28.1% ŵakayowoyanga Chiberberi. Chifalansa chikugwiliskirika ntchito chomene mu maboma, mu vyakupharazga, mu makampani ghakuru na gha pakati, mu malonda gha pa charu chose na vyaru ivyo vikuyowoya Chifalansa. Cifurenci cikusambizgika nga ni ciyowoyero cakukhumbikwa mu masukulu ghose. Mu 2010, ku Morocco kukaŵa ŵanthu 10,366,000 awo ŵakayowoyanga Cifurenci, panji kuti 32 peresenti ya ŵanthu wose.<ref>{{cite web|title=Le dénombrement des francophones|url=http://www.francophonie.org/IMG/pdf/1e.pdf|publisher=Organisation internationale de la Francophonie|access-date=9 January 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131012052949/http://www.francophonie.org/IMG/pdf/1e.pdf|archive-date=12 October 2013}}</ref><ref name=FR/> Kuyana na kalembera wa mu 2004, ŵanthu 2.19 miliyoni ku Morocco ŵakayowoyanga chiyowoyero chinyake padera pa Chifurenchi. Nangauli ciyowoyero ca Cingelezi cikuluska comene Cifurenci pa nkhani ya ŵanthu awo ŵakuyowoya ciyowoyero ici, kweni cikuŵa ciyowoyero cacilendo cakwamba, cifukwa ici nchakukhumbikwa comene ku ŵawukirano na ŵantchito. Kuyana na Ethnologue, mu 2016, ŵanthu 1,536,590 (panji kuti pafupifupi 4.5% ya ŵanthu) mu Morocco ŵakuyowoya Cisipanishi. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuyowoya Cisipanishi kumpoto kwa Morocco na mu caru ico kale cikacemekanga Sahara. Pa nyengo yeneyiyo, kafukufuku uyo wakachitika mu 2018 na Instituto Cervantes wakalongora kuti ŵanthu 1.7 miliyoni ŵa ku Morocco ŵakayowoyanga makora Cisipanishi. Chigaŵa chikuru cha kumpoto kwa Morocco chikupokera mawayilesi gha Cisipanishi, mawayilesi gha pa wayilesi na pa wayilesi. Nkhwantha za visopa zikati zawona kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuyowoya Chifurenchi na Chiarabu, ŵakamba kusopa mu viyowoyero vinyake.<ref name="Rouchdy71">{{cite book |author=Rouchdy, Aleya |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WWZvxjoU948C&pg=PA71 |title=Language Contact and Language Conflict in Arabic: Variations on a Sociolinguistic Theme |publisher=Psychology Press |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-7007-1379-0 |page=71}}</ref> ===Education=== {{main|Education in Morocco}} [[File:Al Akhawayn Campus.jpg|thumb|[[Al Akhawayn University]] in [[Ifrane]].]] Masambiro gha ku Morocco ngambura kulipira ndipo ngakukhumbikwa m'paka ku pulayimale. Mu 2012, chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu awo ŵakumanya kuŵazga na kulemba chikaŵa 72%. Mu Seputembala 2006, UNESCO yikapeleka chawanangwa ku Morocco pamoza na vyaru vinyake nga ni Cuba, Pakistan, India na Turkey.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ccisabroad.org/program.php?link=morocco_ifrane_summer |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090226185538/http://ccisabroad.org/program.php?link=morocco_ifrane_summer |archive-date=26 February 2009 |title=CCIS Ifrane Morocco Summer Study Abroad Program |publisher=Ccisabroad.org |date=1 April 2010 |access-date=2 June 2010}}</ref> [[File:UIS Literacy Rate Morocco population +15 1980 to 2015.png|thumb|UIS Literacy Rate Morocco population above 15 years of age 1980–2015]] Yunivesite ya al-Qarawiyin, iyo yikazengeka na Fatima al-Fihri mu msumba wa Fez mu 859 nga ni madrasa, ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakuyiwona kuti ni "yunivesite yakale chomene pa charu chose". Morocco nayo yili na masukulu gha masambiro ghapachanya, nga ni: Mohammed VI Polytechnic University, l'Institut national des postes et télécommunications [fr; ar], École Nationale Supérieure d'Électricité et de Mecanique (ENSEM), EMI, ISCAE, INSEA, National School of Mineral Industry, École Hassania des Travaux Publics, Les Écoles nationales de commerce et de management, École supérieure de technologie de Casablanca.<ref>''The Guinness Book Of Records'', 1998, p. 242, {{ISBN|0-553-57895-2}}.</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2019-12-23 |title=Classement meilleurs école d'études supérieures au Maroc |url=http://etudes-superieures.ma/meilleur-etablissement-superieur-au-maroc/ |access-date=2023-01-17 |website=Etudes superieures au Maroc |language=en-US}}</ref> === Health === {{main|Health in Morocco}}Vyaru vinandi vya pa caru capasi, kusazgapo Morocco, vikuyezgayezga kumazga matenda. Umoyo wa ŵana, wa ŵamama, na matenda ni vyakuzirwa comene pa umoyo. Morocco ni caru cakusuzgikira nchito ico cacitapo vinandi kuti viŵe makora. Ndipouli, caru ca Morocco cili na masuzgo ghanandi ghakukhwaskana na umoyo. Kuyana na kafukufuku uyo wakalembeka, mu 2005, ŵanthu 16 pera pa ŵanthu 100 wose ŵa ku Morocco ŵakaŵa na ndopa. Ku Morocco, ŵana ŵanandi ŵakufwa para ŵababa waka.<ref name=":3">{{cite web |title=Morocco {{!}} The Global Youth Wellbeing Index |url=https://www.youthindex.org/country/morocco |access-date=2 October 2018 |website=www.youthindex.org |language=en}}</ref> Boma la Morocco likuŵika ndondomeko ya kulaŵilira umoyo wa ŵanthu kuti liwonenge na kuwunganya vinthu. Masukulu gha ku Morocco ghakusambizga ŵanthu mwakukwana vya utozi. Mu 2005, boma la Morocco likazomerezga kusintha vinthu viŵiri kuti paŵe wovwiri wa munkhwala. Ndondomeko yakwamba yikaŵa yakuti ŵapharazgi ŵa boma na ŵantchito ŵa boma ŵaŵikengepo inshuwalansi ya munkhwala. Ndondomeko yaciŵiri yikapangiska kuti paŵe thumba la wovwiri ku ŵakavu. Vinthu viŵiri ivi vikawovwira kuti ŵapokerenge wovwiri wa munkhwala uwemi. Kufwa kwa ŵana kwachepa comene kwambira mu 1960 apo ŵanthu 144 ŵakafwanga pa ŵanthu 1,000 awo ŵakababika ŵamoyo. Mu 2000, ŵanthu 42 ŵakafwanga pa ŵanthu 1,000 awo ŵakababika ŵamoyo. Chiŵelengero cha ŵana awo ŵakufwa na nthenda iyi chikakhira na 60 peresenti pakati pa 1990 na 2011.<ref name=":3" /> Wupu wa World Bank ukati ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakufwa cifukwa ca matenda agha. Mu 2014, charu cha Morocco chikapanga pulani yakovwira kuti ŵamama na ŵana ŵalutilire kuŵa na umoyo uwemi. Ndondomeko ya ku Morocco yikamba pa 13 November 2013 ku Rabat na nduna ya vyaumoyo ya ku Morocco, El Houssaine Louardi, na Ala Alwan, mulara wa WHO ku Eastern Mediterranean Region. Morocco wachita vinandi comene pa nkhani ya kuchepeska nyifwa ya ŵana na ya ŵamama. Kuyana na ivyo Banki ya Charu Chose yikayowoya, chiŵelengero cha ŵanakazi awo ŵakufwa para ŵababa chikakhira na 67% pakati pa 1990 na 2010. Mu 2014, ndalama izo ŵanthu ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito pa vya umoyo zikaŵa 5.9% ya GDP. Kwambira mu 2014, ndalama izo ŵanthu ŵakugwiliskira ntchito pa nkhani ya vyaumoyo zachepa. Ndipouli, kufuma mu 2000, ndalama izo munthu waliyose wakugwiliskira nchito pa vya umoyo zakwera comene. Mu 2015, ndalama izo ŵanthu ŵa ku Morocco ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito pa vya umoyo zikaŵa $435.29 pa munthu yumoza. Mu 2016, ŵanthu 74.3 ŵakafwanga, ŵanalume 73.3, ŵanakazi 75.4, ndipo pa ŵanthu 10,000, pakaŵa ŵadokotala 6.3, ŵantchito ŵa munesi na ŵasungwana 8.9. Mu 2017, caru ca Morocco cikaŵa pa nambara 16 pa vyaru 29 pa Global Youth Wellbeing Index. Ŵawukirano ŵa ku Morocco ŵakujipweteka ŵekha pachokopachoko kuluska umo vikuŵira pa caru cose, ndipo ŵakukumana na masuzgo pafupifupi 4 pa caka.<ref name=":3" /> == Mwambo == {{main|Culture of Morocco}} [[File:Kasbahs in Aït Benhaddou.JPG|thumb|Kasbah wa ku Aït Benhaddou, uyo wakazengeka na ŵanthu ŵa ku Berber kwambira mu vyaka vya m'ma 1400.]] Morocco ni caru ca mitheto na civilisation. Mu mdauko wa Morocco, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakafuma ku mafumiro gha dazi (Ŵafoinike, Ŵayuda na Ŵaarabu), kumwera (Ŵafrika ŵa ku Sub-Sahara) na kumpoto (Ŵaroma, Ŵandaluzi). Ŵanthu wose aŵa ŵakakhwaska comene umoyo wa ŵanthu ŵa ku Morocco. Kufuma waka apo charu chikapokera wanangwa, vyakujambula na vyakuŵaja, sumu zakutchuka, vyakusanguluska, na mafilimu vikukura comene. Malo ghakusungirako vyakusanguluska gha ku Morocco (ghakaŵako mu 1956) ghakusungirako vyakusanguluska vya ku Morocco na France. Mu nyengo ya chihanya, mu caru cose mukucitika viphikiro vya sumu na vyakusanguluska. Cigaŵa cilicose cili na mikhaliro yake, ntheura cikovwira kuti cikaya cawo ciŵe cakutowa ndiposo kuti ŵanthu ŵakhalenge makora. Chinyake mwa vinthu vyakuzirwa chomene ivyo Morocco wakuchita nkhusungilira vinthu vyakupambanapambana ivyo vili mu caru ici. Kuyana na kakhaliro ka ŵanthu, caru ca Morocco cikuŵa cakukhorweska comene pakusazgapo cikaya cake ca Ciberber, Ciyuda, na Cirabu na vinthu vinyake nga ni Cifurenci na Cisipanishi, kweniso mu vyaka vyasonosono apa, umoyo wa ŵanthu ŵa ku Britain na America.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aljazeera.com/archive/2005/12/2008410151243996817.html|title=Morocco town's Hollywood connection|website=www.aljazeera.com|access-date=27 October 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aljazeera.com/programmes/aljazeeraworld/2015/01/return-morocco-2015120124346751467.html|title=Return to Morocco|website=www.aljazeera.com|access-date=27 October 2017|archive-date=24 September 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170924061207/http://www.aljazeera.com/programmes/aljazeeraworld/2015/01/return-morocco-2015120124346751467.html}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2014/10/boujloud-morocco-unique-halloween-20141013161059822274.html|title=Boujloud: Morocco's unique Halloween|website=www.aljazeera.com|access-date=27 October 2017}}</ref> ===Architecture=== {{main|Moroccan architecture}} {{excerpt|Moroccan architecture|file=1}} ===Literature=== {{main|Moroccan literature}} [[File:Sebastiano del Piombo Portrait of a Humanist.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Leo Africanus]]]] Mabuku gha ku Morocco ghakulembeka chomene mu Chiarabic, Chiberber, Chihebere, na Chifurenchi. Makamaka mu ufumu wa Almoravid na Almohad, mabuku gha ku Morocco ghakaŵa ghakukolerana na mabuku gha ku Al-Andalus, ndipo ghakaŵa na vilembo vyakuzirwa nga zajal, muwashshah, na maqama. Mabuku gha Chisilamu nga ni Koran na mabuku ghanyake gha chisopa nga ni Al-Shifa gha Qadi Ayyad ghakaŵa na nkharo yiwemi. Yunivesite ya al-Qarawiyyin ku Fes yikaŵa malo ghakuzirwa ghakusambizgirako mabuku agho ghakakopanga ŵasambizgi ŵakufuma ku vyaru vinyake, nga ni Maimonides, Ibn al-Khatib, na Ibn Khaldun.<ref name=":0" /> Mu nyengo ya muwuso wa Almohad, caru ca Morocco cikaŵa cakutowa comene. Ŵa Almohad ŵakazenga Mosque wa Kutubiyya ku Marrakesh, uwo ukaŵa na ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 25,000, kweni ukaŵa wakumanyikwa na mabuku, mipukutu, malaibulale, na mashopu gha mabuku. Caliph Abu Yakub wakatemwanga comene mabuku. Wakazenga layibulare yikuru, iyo pamanyuma yikatolekera ku Casbah na kuzgoka layibulare ya ŵanthu wose. Mabuku gha ku Morocco ghakamba mu ma 1930. Pali vinthu viŵiri ivyo vikawovwira kuti mabuku gha mazuŵa ghano ghaŵeko mu Morocco. Ku Morocco, uko kukaŵa boma la France na Spain, ŵanthu ŵavinjeru ŵa ku Morocco ŵakaŵa na mwaŵi wa kusinthana na kupanga mabuku. Miwiro yitatu ya ŵalembi yikapangiska mabuku gha ku Morocco gha m'ma 1900.<ref name=":0">Mohammed Benjelloun Touimi, Abdelkbir Khatibi and Mohamed Kably, ''Ecrivains marocains, du protectorat à 1965'', 1974 éditions Sindbad, Paris and Hassan El Ouazzani, ''La littérature marocaine contemporaine de 1929 à 1999'' (2002, ed. Union des écrivains du Maroc and Dar Attaqafa)</ref> Cakwamba cikaŵa muwiro uwo ukakhalako na kulemba mu nyengo ya muwuso wa boma la Britain (Protectorate) (1912-1956), ndipo munthu wakuzirwa comene uyo wakawovwira ni Mohammed Ben Brahim (1897-1955). Mbadwo wachiŵiri ndiwo ukaŵa wakuzirwa comene pakusintha kuti uŵe wakujiyimira pawekha pamoza na ŵalembi nga ni Abdelkrim Ghallab (1919~2006), Allal al-Fassi (1910~1974) na Mohammed al-Mokhtar Soussi (1900~1963). Muwiro wacitatu ni wa ŵalembi ŵa m'ma 1960. Kufuma apo, mabuku gha ku Morocco ghakaŵa na ŵalembi nga ni Mohamed Choukri, Driss Chraïbi, Mohamed Zafzaf na Driss El Khouri. Awo ŵakalemba mabuku agha ndiwo ŵakakhwaska chomene ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Morocco awo ŵakalembanga mabuku, ŵamasalmo, na ŵalembi ŵa maseŵero. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1950 na 1960, caru ca Morocco cikaŵa malo ghakubisamamo na ghakusanguluskira ndipo cikakopanga ŵalembi nga ni Paul Bowles, Tennessee Williams na William S. Burroughs. Mabuku gha ku Morocco ghakaŵa na ŵanthu ŵavinjeru nga ni Mohamed Zafzaf na Mohamed Choukri, awo ŵakalembanga mu Chiarabu, kweniso Driss Chraïbi na Tahar Ben Jelloun awo ŵakalembanga mu Chifurenchi. Ŵalembi ŵanyake ŵakuzirwa ŵa ku Morocco ni Abdellatif Laabi, Abdelkrim Ghallab, Fouad Laroui, Mohammed Berrada na Leila Abouzeid. Orature (mabuku ghakulembeka na mulomo) ntchigaŵa chakukhumbikwa chomene mu mitheto ya ku Morocco. ===Music=== {{main|Music of Morocco}} Sumu za ku Morocco zikufuma ku vigaŵa vya ku Arabia, Berber, na ku sub-Saharan. Magulu gha chaabi agho ghakukolerana na sumu za rock ghali palipose, nga umo viliri na sumu za trance izo zili kufuma ku sumu za Cisilamu. Ku Morocco ndiko kuli sumu za ku Andalusia izo zikusangika mu vyaru vinandi vya kumpoto kwa Africa. Vikuwoneka kuti sumu iyi yikamba kulizgika na Ŵamor ku Cordoba. Sumu iyi yikumanyikwa kuti Contemporary Andalusian Music and art.[[File:Musicians Jilala music in Morocco, 1900.png|thumb|A group of [[Jilala]] musicians in 1900]] Aita ni sumu ya Ŵabedouin iyo ŵakwimba mu mizi. Chaabi ("popular") ni sumu iyo yili na mitundu yakupambanapambana iyo yili kufuma ku mitundu yakupambanapambana ya sumu za ŵanthu ŵa ku Morocco. Pakwamba, Chaabi ŵakamwimbanga mu misika, kweni sono ŵakumuwonaso pa viphikiro panji pa maungano. Vyakwimba vya ku vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi vikuŵa vyakumanyikwa comene mu Morocco, nga ni fusion, rock, country, metal, na hip hop. Mu 1980, charu cha Morocco chikapokelera sumu za Eurovision Song Contest. ===Media=== {{main|Media of Morocco|Cinema of Morocco}} Sinema ya ku Morocco yili na mdauko utali comene, ndipo yikwamba mu vyaka vyakujumpha 100 kufuma apo Louis Lumière wakawoneskera filimu ya Le chevrier Marocain ("Mucemi wa mbuzi wa ku Morocco") mu 1897. Pakati pa nyengo iyi na 1944, mafilimu ghanandi gha ku vyaru vinyake ghakaŵa mu charu ichi, comenecomene mu Ouarzazate. Mu 1944, wupu wakuwona vya mafilimu wa ku Morocco (Moroccan Cinematographic Center, CCM) ndiwo ukambiska filimu iyi. Kweniso ŵakajura mastudio mu Rabat. Mu 1952, Othello wa Orson Welles wakatora Palme d'Or pa Cannes Film Festival pasi pa ndembera ya Morocco. Ndipouli, ŵakwimba ŵakayimba yayi sumu ya fuko la Morocco, cifukwa pakaŵavya uyo wakamanya umo yikuzunulikira.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wellesnet.com/filming_othello.htm|title=Wellesnet: Filming Othello|website=www.wellesnet.com}}</ref> Pakati pajumpha vilimika vinkhondi na cimoza, Mohammed Ousfour wakalenga filimu yakwamba ya ku Morocco, Le fils maudit ("Mwana Wakutembeka"). Mu 1968, ŵakacitiska ungano wakwamba wa Mediterranean Film Festival mu Tanger. Pa nyengo yasono, ungano uwu ukuchitikira ku Tetouan. Mu 1982, ŵakachitaso chiphikiro chakwamba cha mafilimu ku Rabat. Mu 2001, Chiphikiro chakwamba cha Mafilimu ku Marrakech (FIFM) chikachitikaso ku Marrakech. ===Cuisine=== {{main|Moroccan cuisine}} [[File:Couscous of Fes.JPG|thumb|Moroccan [[Couscous]].]] Vyakurya vya ku Morocco ni vyakupambanapambana chomene pa charu chose. Ici nchifukwa cakuti caru ca Morocco cikukolerana na caru cinyake. Vyakurya vya ku Morocco vikusazga vyakurya vya ku Moorish, Europe, na Mediterranean. Vyakununkhira vikusangika chomene mu vyakurya vya ku Morocco. Nangauli vyakununkhira vikwiza mu Morocco kwa vyaka vinandi, kweni viŵiya vinandi nga ni safuroni wakufuma ku Tiliouine, minthi na maolive ghakufuma ku Meknes, na malalanje na mandimu ghakufuma ku Fez, vikufuma mu charu ichi. Nkhuku ni nyama iyo ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakurya mu Morocco. Mu Morocco, ŵanthu ŵakutemwa kurya nyama ya ng'ombe. Cakurya cikuru comene ca ku Morocco ico ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakucimanya ni couscous, cakurya cakuzirwa comene.<ref>[http://maroccankitchenrecipes.blogspot.com/2014/05/moroccan-couscous.html "Moroccan Couscous Recipe"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140531091005/http://maroccankitchenrecipes.blogspot.com/2014/05/moroccan-couscous.html |date=31 May 2014 }}. [http://maroccankitchenrecipes.blogspot.com/ Maroccan Kitchen Recipes] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140531104957/http://maroccankitchenrecipes.blogspot.com/ |date=31 May 2014 }} (Website). Retrieved 1 April 2014.</ref> Nyama ya ng'ombe ni nyama yakufipirwa iyo ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakurya mu Morocco. Nkhuku nayo yikugwiliskirika nchito comene mu Tagines, pakumanya kuti yimoza mwa tagines yakumanyikwa comene ni Tagine ya Nkhuku, mbatata na maolive. Kweniso ŵanthu ŵakurya mberere, kweni pakuti mberere za ku Northwest Africa zikusunga mafuta ghanandi mu michira yawo, mberere za ku Morocco zikunowa yayi nga umo ziliri mberere za ku Western. Viyuni navyo vikusangika comene, ndipo vyakurya vya mu nyanja vikusangika comene mu vyakurya vya ku Morocco. Kweniso pali nyama zakomira zakomira na zakomira nga ni kliia/khlia na "g'did" izo ŵakugwiliskira nchito pakunozga tagine panji mu "el ghraif" panji kuti "el ghraif", cikhuku ca ku Morocco. Vyakurya vinyake vya ku Morocco ni Couscous, Pastilla, Tajine, Tanjia, na Harira. Nangauli cakumanyuma ici ni supu, kweni cikuwoneka nga ni cakurya cacekha ndipo cikupelekeka nga ni cakurya ici panji pamoza na vikondwelero, comenecomene mu mwezi wa Ramadan. Kulyera nyama ya nkhumba nkhukanizgika mwakuyana na Sharia, malango gha cisopa ca Cisilamu. Cakurya cikuru comene pa zuŵa ni cingwa. Mu Morocco, chingwa chikupangika na tirigu wakuchemeka khobz. Mu Morocco mose muli vyakurya vinandi, ndipo chingwa chiphya ni chakukhumbikwa chomene mu msumba uliwose. Chakurya icho ŵanthu ŵakutemwa chomene ni chingwa cha tirigu panji cha ufu. Paliso vingwa vinyake vyambura nthukumusi. Cakunwa ico cikumanyikwa comene ni "atai", tiyi wambura nthukumusi uwo uli na mahamba gha minthi na vinyake. Mu Morocco, tiyi njakuzirwa comene ndipo yikuwoneka nga ni luso. Ŵakumwapo pa nyengo ya cakurya pera yayi, kweni zuŵa lose. Ŵalendo ndiwo ŵakurya, ndipo ntchiheni kukana. === Maseŵera === {{main|Sport in Morocco}} [[File:Morocco vs Algeria, June 04 2011-10.jpg|thumb|Moroccan football fans]] Mu charu ichi, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakutemwa maseŵero gha bola, comenecomene ŵawukirano awo ŵakukhala mu misumba. Mu 1986, Morocco yikaŵa caru cakwamba ca Ŵaarabu na ca ku Africa kuti ciŵe mu cigaŵa caciŵiri ca FIFA World Cup. Pakwamba Morocco ndiyo yikeneranga kuchitiska Africa Cup of Nations mu 2015, kweni yikakana pa nyengo iyo yikanozgekera chifukwa cha wofi kuti ku Africa kukwambirenge nthenda ya Ebola.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/football/30004279|title=Africa Cup of Nations: Morocco will not host finals over Ebola fears|newspaper=BBC Sport|date=11 November 2014}}</ref>Morocco wakayezgapo kankhondi kuti wakachitire FIFA World Cup kweni wakataya kankhondi ku United States, France, Germany, South Africa na Canada-Mexico-United States. Mu chaka cha 2022, Morocco ndiyo yikaŵa timu yakwamba ya ku Africa na Arabia kufika ku semifinal ndipo yikamalizga pa malo ghachinayi.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://soccernet.espn.go.com/news/story/_/id/872480/morocco-to-stage-the-2015-african-nations-cup?cc=5901 |title=Morocco to stage the 2015 African Nations Cup – ESPN Soccernet |publisher=ESPN FC |date=29 January 2011 |access-date=1 August 2011 |archive-date=29 April 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110429011957/http://soccernet.espn.go.com/news/story/_/id/872480/morocco-to-stage-the-2015-african-nations-cup?cc=5901 }}</ref> Pa maseŵero gha Olimpiki gha mu 1984, ŵanthu ŵaŵiri ŵa ku Morocco ŵakatora mendulo ya golide pa maseŵero gha kucimbira. Nawal El Moutawakel wakathereska pa 400 metres hurdles. Wakaŵa mwanakazi wakwamba kufuma ku chalo cha Arab panji Islamic uyo wakatora mendulo ya golide ku Olimpiki. Saïd Aïdouita ndiyo wakathereska pa mtunda wa mamita 5000 pa maseŵero agha. Hicham El Guerrouj wakatora mendulo za golide kwa Morocco pa maseŵera gha Olimpiki gha mu chihanya cha 2004 pa mamita 1500 na 5000 ndipo wali na ma world records ghanandi pa mtunda wa kilomita. Maseŵero gha ŵanthu awo ŵakuwonelera mu Morocco ghakaŵa gha ŵanthu awo ŵakwera pa mahachi, m'paka apo maseŵero gha ku Europe nga ni bola, polo, kuskamba, na tenisi ghakambira mu ma 1800. Tennis na gofu vyazara comene. Ŵaseŵero ŵanandi ŵa ku Morocco ŵali kucitako maseŵero gha pa caru cose, ndipo caru ici cikaŵa na timu yake yakwamba ya Davis Cup mu 1999. Charu cha Morocco chikaŵa cimoza mwa vyaru ivyo vikaŵa pakwamba kuchita maseŵero gha basketball. Mpira wa rugby ukiza ku Morocco mu vyaka vya m'ma 1900, comenecomene na Ŵacifurenci awo ŵakakhalira mu caru ici. Ntheura, maseŵera gha rugby gha ku Morocco ghakakolerana na gha ku France pa Nkhondo Yakwamba na Yachiŵiri ya Caru Cose. Nga ni vyaru vinyake vinandi vya ku Maghreb, mpira wa rugby wa ku Morocco ukafumanga ku vyaru vya ku Europe. Ku Morocco, maseŵero gha nkhonya ghakumanyikwa chomene. Badr Hari wa ku Morocco-Dutch, heavyweight kickboxer and martial artist, ndi wakale wa K-1 heavyweight champion ndipo K-1 World Grand Prix 2008 and 2009 finalist. == Wonaniso == {{Portal|Morocco|Africa}} * [[Index of Morocco-related articles]] * [[Outline of Morocco]] == Vyakulemba == {{NoteFoot}} == Ukaboni == === Citations === {{Reflist}} === Sources === {{refbegin}} * {{Free-content attribution | title = UNESCO Science Report: towards 2030 | author = UNESCO | publisher = UNESCO Publishing | page numbers = 431–467 | source = | documentURL = http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0023/002354/235406e.pdf | license statement URL = | license = CC BY-SA IGO 3.0 }} {{refend}} == Vyakulemba vinyake == * Pennell, C. R. ''Morocco Since 1830: A History'', New York University Press, 2000. {{ISBN|9780814766774}} * Pennell, C. R. ''Morocco: From Empire to Independence'', Oneworld Publications, 2013. {{ISBN|9781780744551}} ([https://books.google.com/books?id=TYXrAQAAQBAJ preview]) * Stenner, David. ''Globalizing Morocco: Transnational Activism and the Postcolonial State'' (Stanford UP, 2019). [http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showpdf.php?id=54410 online review] * Terrasse, Henri. ''History of Morocco'', Éd. Atlantides, 1952. ; In French * [[Bernard Lugan]], ''Histoire du Maroc'', Éd. Perrin, 2000. {{ISBN|2-262-01644-5}} * Michel Abitbol, ''Histoire du Maroc'', Éd. Perrin, 2009. {{ISBN|9782262023881}} == Vigaŵa vya kuwalo == {{Sister project links|Morocco|voy=Morocco}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20180919194826/http://www.maroc.ma/en Official website of the government of Morocco] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20120620134424/http://www.sgg.gov.ma/ Official bulletins of the government of Morocco] * [http://www.parlement.ma/ Parliament of Morocco] * [https://www.visitmorocco.com/en Official website of the Moroccan National Tourist Office] * [http://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/20190408194812/http://www.lavieeco.com/documents_officiels/Recensement population.pdf Census results of 1994 and 2004] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120724191316/http://www.lavieeco.com/documents_officiels/Recensement%20population.pdf |date=24 July 2012 }} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20221202191738/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/morocco/ Morocco]. ''[[The World Factbook]]''. [[Central Intelligence Agency]]. * {{GovPubs|Morocco}} * {{curlie|Regional/Africa/Morocco}} * [https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14121438 Morocco profile] from the [[BBC News]] * {{Wikiatlas|Morocco}} * [http://www.ifs.du.edu/ifs/frm_CountryProfile.aspx?Country=MA Key Development Forecasts for Morocco] from [[International Futures]] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20150911231847/http://www.enpi-info.eu/countrymed.php?country=6 EU Neighbourhood Info Centre: Morocco] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150911231847/http://www.enpi-info.eu/countrymed.php?country=6 |date=11 September 2015 }} * [http://wits.worldbank.org/CountryProfile/Country/MAR/Year/2012/Summary World Bank Summary Trade Statistics Morocco] {{Morocco topics}} {{Navboxes |list = {{Countries and territories of Africa}} {{Countries and territories of North Africa}} {{Countries and territories bordering the Mediterranean Sea}} {{Countries and territories of the Middle East}} {{Arab League}} {{Organisation of Islamic Cooperation |state=collapsed}} {{Community of Sahel–Saharan States}} {{La Francophonie |collapsed}} {{Monarchies}} }} {{Authority control}} {{coord|32|-6|scale:5000000_type:country_region:MA|display=title}} [[Category:Morocco| ]] [[Category:Countries in Africa]] [[Category:1956 establishments in Africa]] [[Category:1956 establishments in Morocco]] [[Category:Arabic-speaking countries and territories]] [[Category:Maghrebi countries]] [[Category:Member states of the African Union]] [[Category:Member states of the Arab League]] [[Category:Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie]] [[Category:Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation]] [[Category:Member states of the Union for the Mediterranean]] [[Category:Member states of the United Nations]] [[Category:North African countries]] [[Category:Saharan countries]] [[Category:States and territories established in 1956]] 1a0qkba7pg62qbmiwof2rkwfpa70sa0 0 6943 119315 118851 2026-08-13T22:36:53Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Add 3 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260813sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 119315 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Country in Southern Africa}} {{Redirect|Namibian}} {{pp-move|small=yes}} {{Use dmy dates|date=December 2019}} {{Use South African English|date=March 2021}} {{Infobox country | conventional_long_name = Republic of Namibia | common_name = Namibia | native_name = {{collapsible list |titlestyle = background:transparent;text-align:center;line-height:normal;font-size:85%; |title = Name in national languages | {{Infobox | subbox=yes | bodystyle=font-size:78%;font-weight:normal; | rowclass1 = mergedrow | label1 = [[Afrikaans]]: | data1 = {{lang|af|Republiek van Namibië}}<ref>{{cite web |url=http://209.88.21.36/opencms/export/sites/default/grnnet/MLRR/DocArchive/Land-Reform/Communal_Land_Reform_Act_Afrikaans.pdf |title=Communal Land Reform Act, Afrikaans |publisher=Government of Namibia |access-date=18 February 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160225105003/http://209.88.21.36/opencms/export/sites/default/grnnet/MLRR/DocArchive/Land-Reform/Communal_Land_Reform_Act_Afrikaans.pdf |archive-date=25 February 2016 |url-status=dead}}</ref> | rowclass2 = mergedrow | label2 = [[German language|German]]: | data2 = {{lang|de|Republik Namibia}}<ref>{{cite web |url=http://209.88.21.36/opencms/export/sites/default/grnnet/MLRR/DocArchive/land-Reform/Communal_Land_Reform_Act_German.pdf |title=Communal Land Reform Act, German |publisher=Government of Namibia. |access-date=18 February 2016 }} {{dead link|date=February 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> | rowclass3 = mergedrow | label3 = [[Khoekhoe language|Khoekhoegowab]]: | data3 = {{lang|naq|Namibiab Republiki dib}}<ref>{{cite web |url=http://209.88.21.36/opencms/export/sites/default/grnnet/MLRR/DocArchive/Land-Reform/Communal_Land_Reform_Act_Nama.pdf |title=Communal Land Reform Act, Khoekhoegowab |publisher=Government of Namibia |access-date=18 February 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160225104943/http://209.88.21.36/opencms/export/sites/default/grnnet/MLRR/DocArchive/Land-Reform/Communal_Land_Reform_Act_Nama.pdf |archive-date=25 February 2016 |url-status=dead}}</ref> | rowclass4 = mergedrow | label4 = [[Herero language|Otjiherero]]: | data4 = {{lang|hz|Orepublika yaNamibia}}<ref>{{cite web |url=http://209.88.21.36/opencms/export/sites/default/grnnet/MLRR/DocArchive/Land-Reform/Communal_Land_Reform_Act_Herero.pdf |title=Communal Land Reform Act, Otjiherero |publisher=Government of Namibia |access-date=18 February 2016 }} {{dead link|date=February 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> | rowclass5 = mergedrow | label5 = [[Ovambo language|Oshiwambo]]: | data5 = {{lang|kj|Orepublika yaNamibia}}<ref>{{cite web |url=http://baslerafrika.ch/wp-content/uploads/Neuerwerbungsliste-2013.pdf |title=Communal Land Reform Act, Oshiwambo |publisher=Government of Namibia |access-date=18 February 2016 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160301124906/http://baslerafrika.ch/wp-content/uploads/Neuerwerbungsliste-2013.pdf |archive-date=1 March 2016}}</ref> | rowclass6 = mergedrow | label6 = [[Kwangali language|RuKwangali]]: | data6 = {{lang|kwn|Republika zaNamibia}}<ref>{{cite web |url=http://209.88.21.36/opencms/export/sites/default/grnnet/MLRR/DocArchive/Land-Reform/Communal_Land_Reform_Act_Rukwangali.pdf |title=Communal Land Reform Act, Rukwangali |publisher=Government of Namibia |access-date=18 February 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160225104955/http://209.88.21.36/opencms/export/sites/default/grnnet/MLRR/DocArchive/Land-Reform/Communal_Land_Reform_Act_Rukwangali.pdf |archive-date=25 February 2016 |url-status=dead}}</ref> | rowclass7 = mergedrow | label7 = [[Tswana language|Setswana]]: | data7 = {{lang|tn|Rephaboliki ya Namibia}}<ref>{{cite web |url=http://209.88.21.36/opencms/export/sites/default/grnnet/MLRR/DocArchive/Land-Reform/Communal_Land_Reform_Act_Setswana.pdf |title=Communal Land Reform Act, Setswana |publisher=Government of Namibia |access-date=18 February 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160225105008/http://209.88.21.36/opencms/export/sites/default/grnnet/MLRR/DocArchive/Land-Reform/Communal_Land_Reform_Act_Setswana.pdf |archive-date=25 February 2016 |url-status=dead}}</ref> | rowclass8 = mergedrow | label8 = [[Lozi language|siLozi]]: | data8 = {{lang|loz| Namibia ye Lukuluhile}}<ref>{{cite web |url=http://209.88.21.36/opencms/export/sites/default/grnnet/MLRR/DocArchive/Land-Reform/Communal_Land_Reform_Act_Lozi.pdf |title=Communal Land Reform Act, Lozi |publisher=Government of Namibia |access-date=18 February 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160225104949/http://209.88.21.36/opencms/export/sites/default/grnnet/MLRR/DocArchive/Land-Reform/Communal_Land_Reform_Act_Lozi.pdf |archive-date=25 February 2016 |url-status=dead}}</ref> }} }} | image_flag = Flag of Namibia.svg | image_coat = Coat of arms of Namibia.svg | national_motto = "Unity, Liberty, Justice" | national_anthem = "[[Namibia, Land of the Brave]]" <div class="center" style="padding-top:0.5em;"> </div> | image_map = {{Switcher|[[File:Namibia (orthographic projection).svg|frameless]]|Show globe|[[File:Location Namibia AU Africa.svg|upright=1.15|frameless]]|Show map of Africa|default=1}} | map_caption = | capital = [[Windhoek]] | coordinates = {{Coord|22|34|S|17|5|E|type:city_region:NA}} | largest_city = capital | official_languages = [[English language|English]] | national_languages = {{unbulleted list |[[Afrikaans]] |[[German language|German]] |[[Herero language|Otjiherero]] |[[Khoekhoe language|Khoekhoegowab]] |[[Oshiwambo]] |[[Kwangali language|RuKwangali]] |[[Tswana language|Setswana]] |[[Lozi language|siLozi]] }} | regional_languages = {{unbulleted list | [[!Kung language|!Kung]] | [[Gciriku language|Gciriku]] | [[Mbukushu language|Thimbukushu]] }} | ethnic_groups = {{unbulleted list | 49.5% [[Ovambo people|Ovambo]] | 9.2% [[Kavango people|Kavango]] | 8.0% [[Coloured people in Namibia|Coloured]] {{small|(including [[Baster]])}} | 7.0% [[Herero people|Herero]] | 7.0% [[Damara (people)|Damara]] | 7.0% [[White Namibians|White]] | 4.7% [[Nama people|Nama]] | 3.5% [[Lozi people|Lozi]] | 3.0% [[San people|San]] | 0.6% [[Tswana people|Tswana]] | 0.5% others }} | ethnic_groups_year = 2014 | religion = {{ublist |item_style=white-space:nowrap; |87.9% [[Christianity in Namibia|Christianity]] |—43.7% [[Evangelical Lutheran Church in Namibia|Lutheranism]] |—22.8% [[Catholic Church in Namibia|Catholicism]] |—17.0% [[Diocese of Namibia|Anglicanism]] |—4.4% other [[List of Christian denominations|Christian]] |10.2% [[African Traditional Religion|Traditional faiths]] |1.6% [[Irreligion|no religion]] |0.3% others}} | religion_year = 2013 | religion_ref = <ref>{{Cite web | title=Namibia Demographic and Health Survey 2013 | publisher=The Namibia Ministry of Health and Social Services (MoHSS) and ICF International | date=September 2014 | url=https://dhsprogram.com/pubs/pdf/FR298/FR298.pdf | access-date=5 July 2021 | page=30}} Only people between 15 and 49 years of age were surveyed.</ref> | demonym = [[Demographics of Namibia|Namibian]] | government_type = [[Unitary state|Unitary]] [[Dominant-party system|dominant-party]] [[Semi-presidential system|semi-presidential]] [[republic]]<ref name="Dual" /> | leader_title1 = [[President of Namibia|President]] | leader_name1 = [[Netumbo Nandi-Ndaitwah]] | leader_title2 = [[Vice President of Namibia|Vice President]] | leader_name2 = [[Lucia Witbooi]] | leader_title3 = [[Prime Minister of Namibia|Prime Minister]] | leader_name3 = [[Elijah Ngurare]] | leader_title4 = [[Deputy Prime Minister]] | leader_name4 = [[Natangwe Ithete]] | leader_title5 = [[Chief Justice of Namibia|Chief Justice]] | leader_name5 = [[Peter Shivute]] | legislature = [[Parliament of Namibia|Parliament]] | upper_house = [[National Council (Namibia)|National Council]] | lower_house = [[National Assembly (Namibia)|National Assembly]] | sovereignty_type = Independence from [[South Africa]] | established_event1 = [[Constitution of Namibia|Constitution]] | established_date1 = 9 February 1990 | established_event2 = Independence | established_date2 = 21 March 1990 | area_km2 = 825,615 | area_rank = 34th | area_sq_mi = 318,696 <!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]--> | percent_water = negligible | population_estimate = 2,777,232<ref>{{Cite CIA World Factbook|country=Namibia|access-date=22 June 2023|year=2023}}</ref> | population_estimate_year = 2023 | population_estimate_rank = 141th | population_density_km2 = 3.2 | population_density_sq_mi = 6.6 <!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]--> | population_density_rank = 235th | GDP_PPP = {{increase}} $30.2 billion<ref name="imfna">{{cite web |url= https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2023/April/weo-report?c=728,&s=NGDP_R,NGDP_RPCH,NGDP,NGDPD,PPPGDP,NGDP_D,NGDPRPC,NGDPRPPPPC,NGDPPC,NGDPDPC,PPPPC,PPPSH,PPPEX,NID_NGDP,NGSD_NGDP,PCPI,PCPIPCH,PCPIE,PCPIEPCH,TM_RPCH,TMG_RPCH,TX_RPCH,TXG_RPCH,LP,GGR,GGR_NGDP,GGX,GGX_NGDP,GGXCNL,GGXCNL_NGDP,GGXONLB,GGXONLB_NGDP,GGXWDN,GGXWDN_NGDP,GGXWDG,GGXWDG_NGDP,NGDP_FY,BCA,BCA_NGDPD,&sy=2021&ey=2023&ssm=0&scsm=1&scc=0&ssd=1&ssc=0&sic=0&sort=country&ds=.&br=1 |title=Report for Selected Countries and Subjects |publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]] |website=IMF.org |access-date=24 April 2023}}</ref> | GDP_PPP_year = 2023 | GDP_PPP_rank = 146th | GDP_PPP_per_capita = {{increase}} $11,439<ref name=imfna/> | GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 116th | GDP_nominal = {{increase}} $13.4 billion<ref name=imfna/> | GDP_nominal_year = 2023 | GDP_nominal_rank = 146th | GDP_nominal_per_capita = {{increase}} $5,100<ref name=imfna/> | GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 110th | Gini = 59.1 <!-- number only --> | Gini_year = 2015 | Gini_change = <!-- increase/decrease/steady --> | Gini_ref = <ref>{{cite web |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI?locations=NA |title=GINI index (World Bank estimate) |publisher=[[World Bank]] |website=data.worldbank.org |access-date=20 January 2019}}</ref> | Gini_rank = | HDI = 0.615 <!-- number only --> | HDI_year = 2021 <!-- Please use the year to which the data refers, not the publication year --> | HDI_change = decrease <!-- increase/decrease/steady --> | HDI_ref = <ref name="HDI">{{cite web|url=https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2021-22pdf_1.pdf|title=Human Development Report 2021/2022|language=en|publisher=[[United Nations Development Programme]]|date=8 September 2022|access-date=8 September 2022}}</ref> | HDI_rank = 139th | currency = [[Namibian dollar]] <br /> (NAD) <br /> [[South African rand]] (ZAR) | time_zone = [[Central Africa Time|CAST]] | utc_offset = +2 | date_format = dd/mm/yyyy | drives_on = left | calling_code = [[+264]] | cctld = [[.na]] | footnote_a = | today = }} '''Namibia''' ({{IPAc-en|audio=En-us-Namibia.ogg|n|ə|ˈ|m|ɪ|b|i|ə}}, {{IPAc-en|n|æ|ˈ|-}}),<ref>{{citation|last=Wells |first=John C. |year=2008 |title= Longman Pronunciation Dictionary |edition=3rd |publisher= Longman |isbn= 978-1405881180}}</ref><ref>{{citation |last= Roach |first=Peter |year=2011 |title= Cambridge English Pronouncing Dictionary |edition=18th |place=Cambridge |publisher= Cambridge University Press |isbn= 978-0521152532}}</ref> officially the '''Republic of Namibia''', is a country in [[Southern Africa]]. Its western border is the [[Atlantic Ocean]]. It shares land borders with [[Zambia]] and [[Angola]] to the north, [[Botswana]] to the east and [[South Africa]] to the south and east. Although [[Kazungula|it does not]] border [[Zimbabwe]], less than 200 metres (660 feet) of the Botswanan right bank of the [[Zambezi|Zambezi River]] separates the two countries. Namibia gained independence from South Africa on 21 March 1990, following the [[Namibian War of Independence]]. Its capital and largest city is [[Windhoek]]. Namibia is a member state of the [[United Nations]] (UN), the [[Southern African Development Community]] (SADC), the [[African Union]] (AU) and the [[Commonwealth of Nations]]. The driest country in [[sub-Saharan Africa]],<ref>{{cite web |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2012/10/23/world/africa/namibia-eye-on-country-profile/index.html |title=Namibia country profile: moving on from a difficult past |author=Peter Shadbolt |website=CNN |date=24 October 2012}}</ref> Namibia has been inhabited since pre-historic times by the [[San people|San]], [[Damara people|Damara]] and [[Nama people]]. Around the 14th century, [[immigration|immigrating]] [[Bantu peoples]] arrived as part of the [[Bantu expansion]]. Since then, the Bantu groups, the largest being the [[Ovambo people|Ovambo]], have dominated the population of the country; since the late 19th century, they have constituted a majority. Today Namibia is one of the [[List of countries and territories by population density|least densely populated]] countries in the world. It has a population of 2.55&nbsp;million people and is a stable [[multi-party system|multi-party]] [[parliamentary democracy]]. Agriculture, [[Tourism in Namibia|tourism]] and the [[Mining in Namibia|mining industry]]&nbsp;– including mining for gem diamonds, [[Uranium mining|uranium]], [[Gold mining|gold]], [[Silver mining|silver]] and [[base metal]]s&nbsp;– form the basis of its [[Economy of Namibia|economy]], while the manufacturing sector is comparatively small. In 1884, the [[German Empire]] established rule over most of the territory, forming a colony known as [[German South West Africa]]. Between 1904 and 1908, it perpetrated a [[Herero and Namaqua genocide|genocide against the Herero and Nama people]]. German rule ended in 1915 with a defeat by South African forces. In 1920, after the end of [[World War I]], the [[League of Nations]] [[League of Nations mandate|mandated]] administration of the colony to South Africa. As mandatory power, South Africa imposed its laws, including racial classifications and rules. From 1948, with the [[National Party (South Africa)|National Party]] elected to power, this included South Africa applying [[apartheid]] to what was then known as [[South West Africa]]. In the later 20th century, uprisings and demands for political representation by native African political activists seeking independence resulted in the UN assuming direct responsibility over the territory in 1966, but the country of South Africa maintained {{lang|la|de facto}} rule. In 1973, the UN recognised the South West Africa People's Organisation ([[SWAPO]]) as the official representative of the Namibian people. Following continued guerrilla warfare, Namibia obtained independence in 1990. However, [[Walvis Bay]] and the [[Penguin Islands]] remained under South African control until 1994. ==History== {{Main|History of Namibia}} ===Etymology=== The name of the country is derived from the [[Namib]] desert, the oldest desert in the world.<ref name=at1315>Spriggs, A. (2001) {{WWF ecoregion|name=Africa: Namibia|id=at1315}}</ref> The name ''Namib'' itself is of [[nama language|Nama]] origin and means "vast place". That word for the country was chosen by [[Mburumba Kerina]], who originally proposed the name the "Republic of Namib".<ref>{{cite web | url =https://www.namibian.com.na/127811/archive-read/The-Man-Who-Named-Namibia--Mburumba-Kerina |title=The Man Who Named Namibia- Mburumba Kerina|work=The Namibian| access-date =15 June 2021}}</ref> Before its independence in 1990, the area was known first as [[German South-West Africa]] (''Deutsch-Südwestafrika''), then as [[South West Africa]], reflecting the colonial occupation by the Germans and South Africans. ===Pre-colonial period=== The dry lands of Namibia have been inhabited since prehistoric times by the [[San people|San]], [[Damara people|Damara]], and [[Nama people|Nama]]. For thousands of years, the [[Khoisan]] peoples of Southern Africa maintained a [[nomad]]ic life, the [[Khoikhoi]] as pastoralists and the San people as [[hunter-gatherer]]s. Around the 14th century, immigrating [[Bantu people]] began to arrive during the [[Bantu expansion]] from central Africa.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Belda|first=Pascal|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NcsUr8BkqAUC&q=The+dry+lands+of+Namibia+have+been+inhabited+since+early+times+by+San,+Damara,+and+Nama.+Around+the+14th+century,+immigrating+Bantu+people+began+to+arrive+during+the+Bantu+expansion+from+central+Africa.&pg=PA14|title=Namibia|date=May 2007|publisher=MTH Multimedia S.L.|isbn=978-84-935202-1-2|language=en}}</ref> From the late 18th century onward, [[Oorlam people]] from Cape Colony crossed the [[Orange River]] and moved into the area that today is southern Namibia.<ref name="KDA">{{cite web |url=http://www.klausdierks.com/Biographies/Biographies_A.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081015021238/http://www.klausdierks.com/Biographies/Biographies_A.htm |archive-date=15 October 2008 |last=Dierks |first=Klaus |author-link=Klaus Dierks |title=Biographies of Namibian Personalities, A |access-date=24 June 2010}}</ref> Their encounters with the nomadic Nama tribes were largely peaceful. They received the missionaries accompanying the Oorlam very well,<ref name="Dierks">{{cite web |last=Dierks |first=Klaus |author-link=Klaus Dierks |title=Warmbad becomes two hundred years |url=http://www.klausdierks.com/Warm_Bath/index.htm |website=Klausdierks.com |access-date=22 June 2010 |archive-date=21 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190821172028/http://www.klausdierks.com/Warm_Bath/index.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> granting them the right to use waterholes and grazing against an annual payment.{{sfn|Vedder|1997|p=177}} On their way further north, however, the Oorlam encountered clans of the [[OvaHerero people|OvaHerero]] at Windhoek, [[Gobabis]], and [[Okahandja]], who resisted their encroachment. The Nama-Herero War broke out in 1880, with hostilities ebbing only after the [[German Empire]] deployed troops to the contested places and cemented the status quo among the Nama, Oorlam, and Herero.{{sfn|Vedder|1997|p=659}} In 1878, the [[Cape Colony|Cape of Good Hope]], then a British colony, annexed the port of Walvis Bay and the offshore [[Penguin Islands]]; these became an integral part of the new [[Union of South Africa]] at its creation in 1910. The first Europeans to disembark and explore the region were the Portuguese navigators [[Diogo Cão]] in 1485<ref>{{Cite web|last=Observador|title=Padrão português com 500 anos foi roubado da Namíbia no século XIX. Vai ser devolvido|url=https://observador.pt/2019/05/17/padrao-portugues-com-500-anos-foi-roubado-da-namibia-no-seculo-xix-vai-ser-devolvido/|access-date=2020-12-07|website=Observador|language=pt-PT}}</ref> and [[Bartolomeu Dias]] in 1486, but the Portuguese did not try to claim the area. Like most of the interior of [[Sub-Saharan Africa]], Namibia was not extensively explored by Europeans until the 19th century. At that time traders and settlers came principally from Germany and Sweden. In 1870, [[Finland|Finnish]] missionaries came to the northern part of Namibia to spread the [[Lutheranism|Lutheran religion]] among the [[Ovambo people|Ovambo]] and [[Kavango people]].<ref name="finnish-mission"/> In the late 19th century, [[Dorsland Trek]]kers crossed the area on their way from the [[South African Republic|Transvaal]] to Angola. Some of them settled in Namibia instead of continuing their journey. ===German rule=== {{see also|German South West Africa|Herero and Namaqua genocide}} Namibia became a German colony in 1884 under [[Otto von Bismarck]] to forestall perceived British encroachment and was known as [[German South West Africa]] (''Deutsch-Südwestafrika'').<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title=German South West Africa|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9036573/German-South-West-Africa|access-date=15 April 2008}}</ref> The [[Palgrave Commission]] by the British governor in Cape Town determined that only the natural deep-water harbour of Walvis Bay was worth occupying and thus annexed it to the Cape province of British South Africa. In 1897, a [[1890s African rinderpest epizootic|rinderpest epidemic]] caused massive cattle die-offs of an estimated 95% of cattle in southern & central Namibia. In response the German colonizers set up a veterinary [[Cordon sanitaire (medicine)|cordon]] fence known as the [[Red Line (Namibia)|Red Line]].<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Lechler |first1=Marie |last2=McNamee |first2=Lachlan |date=December 2018 |title=Indirect Colonial Rule Undermines Support for Democracy: Evidence From a Natural Experiment in Namibia |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0010414018758760 |journal=Comparative Political Studies |language=en |volume=51 |issue=14 |pages=1864–1871 (p. 7–14) |doi=10.1177/0010414018758760 |s2cid=158335936 |issn=0010-4140 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230515045624/https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0010414018758760 |archive-date=15 May 2023 |access-date=2 June 2023 |url-status=bot: unknown }}</ref> In 1907 this fence then broadly defined the boundaries for the first Police Zone.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Lechler |first1=Marie |last2=McNamee |first2=Lachlan |date=December 2018 |title=Indirect Colonial Rule Undermines Support for Democracy: Evidence From a Natural Experiment in Namibia |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0010414018758760 |journal=Comparative Political Studies |language=en |volume=51 |issue=14 |pages=1865 (p. 8) |doi=10.1177/0010414018758760 |s2cid=158335936 |issn=0010-4140 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230515045624/https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0010414018758760 |archive-date=15 May 2023 |access-date=2 June 2023 |url-status=bot: unknown }}</ref> From 1904 to 1907, the [[Herero people|Herero]] and the [[Nama people|Namaqua]] [[Herero Wars|took up arms]] against brutal German colonialism. In a calculated punitive action by the German occupiers, government officials ordered the extinction of the natives in the [[Herero and Namaqua genocide|OvaHerero and Namaqua genocide]]. In what has been called the "first genocide of the 20th century",<ref>{{cite web |author=David Olusoga |url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2015/apr/18/pope-francis-armenian-genocide-first-20th-century-namibia |title=Dear Pope Francis, Namibia was the 20th century's first genocide |work=The Guardian |date=18 April 2015 |access-date=26 November 2015|author-link=David Olusoga }}</ref> the Germans systematically killed 10,000 Nama (half the population) and approximately 65,000 Herero (about 80% of the population).<ref>Drechsler, Horst (1980). The actual number of deaths in the limited number of battles with the Germany Schutztruppe (expeditionary force) were limited; most of the deaths occurred after fighting had ended. The German military governor [[Lothar von Trotha]] issued an explicit extermination order, and many Herero died of disease and abuse in detention camps after being taken from their land. A substantial minority of Herero crossed the Kalahari desert into the British colony of Bechuanaland (modern-day Botswana), where a small community continues to live in western Botswana near to border with Namibia. ''Let us die fighting'', originally published (1966) under the title ''Südwestafrika unter deutscher Kolonialherrschaft''. Berlin: Akademie-Verlag.</ref><ref name="Adhikari" /> The survivors, when finally released from detention, were subjected to a policy of dispossession, deportation, forced labour, racial segregation, and discrimination in a system that in many ways foreshadowed the [[apartheid]] established by South Africa in 1948. Most Africans were confined to so-called native territories, which under South African rule after 1949 were turned into "homelands" ([[Bantustans]]). Some historians have speculated that the German genocide in Namibia was a model for the [[Nazism|Nazi]]s in [[the Holocaust]].<ref name="Madley" /> The memory of genocide remains relevant to ethnic identity in independent Namibia and to relations with Germany.<ref>{{cite book |first1=Reinhart |last1=Kößler |first2=Henning |last2=Melber |chapter=Völkermord und Gedenken: Der Genozid an den Herero und Nama in Deutsch-Südwestafrika 1904–1908 |lang=de |trans-title=Genocide and memory: the genocide of the Herero and Nama in German South-West Africa, 1904–08 |title=Jahrbuch zur Geschichte und Wirkung des Holocaust |year=2004 |pages=37–75 |isbn=9783593372822 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_b5iRhydlHUC&pg=PA37 }}</ref> The German minister for aid development apologised for the Namibian genocide in 2004, however, the German government distanced itself from this apology.<ref>{{cite web |author=Andrew Meldrum |title=German minister says sorry for genocide in Namibia |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/aug/16/germany.andrewmeldrum |work=The Guardian |date=15 August 2004 |access-date=26 October 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=German minister says sorry for genocide in Namibia |url=Völkermord an Herero und Nama: Abkommen zwischen Deutschland und Namibia |work=bpb |date=22 June 2021 |access-date=24 January 2023}}</ref>{{Clear|left}} ===South African mandate=== {{see also|South West Africa}}[[File:Kirche denkmal nam.jpg|thumb|German church and monument to colonists in Windhoek, Namibia.]]During World War I, South African troops under General [[Louis Botha]] [[South West Africa campaign|occupied the territory]] and deposed the German colonial administration. The end of the war and the [[Treaty of Versailles]] resulted in South West Africa remaining a possession of South Africa, at first as a [[League of Nations mandate]], until 1990.<ref name=Rajagopal>{{cite book|last=Rajagopal|first=Balakrishnan|title=International Law from Below: Development, Social Movements and Third World Resistance|url=https://archive.org/details/internationallaw00raja|url-access=limited|year=2003|pages=[https://archive.org/details/internationallaw00raja/page/n66 50]–68|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=978-0521016711}}</ref> The mandate system was formed as a compromise between those who advocated for an Allied annexation of former German and Ottoman territories and a proposition put forward by those who wished to grant them to an international trusteeship until they could govern themselves.<ref name=Rajagopal/> It permitted the South African government to administer South West Africa until that territory's inhabitants were prepared for political self-determination.<ref name=Louis>{{cite book|last=Louis|first=William Roger|title=Ends of British Imperialism: The Scramble for Empire, Suez, and Decolonization|url=https://archive.org/details/endsofbritishimp0000loui|year=2006|pages=[https://archive.org/details/endsofbritishimp0000loui/page/251 251]–261|publisher=I.B. Tauris & Company, Ltd|location=London|isbn=978-1845113476}}</ref> South Africa interpreted the mandate as a veiled annexation and made no attempt to prepare South West Africa for future autonomy.<ref name=Louis/>{{multiple image | image1 = Witbooi Hendrik.jpg | width1 = 130 | image2 = SamuelMaharero.jpg | width2 = 140 | footer = [[Hendrik Witbooi (Namaqua chief)|Hendrik Witbooi]] (left) and [[Samuel Maharero]] (right) were prominent leaders against German colonial rule. }} As a result of the [[United Nations Conference on International Organization|Conference on International Organization]] in 1945, the League of Nations was formally superseded by the [[United Nations]] (UN) and former League mandates by a trusteeship system. Article 77 of the [[United Nations Charter]] stated that UN trusteeship "shall apply...to territories now held under mandate"; furthermore, it would "be a matter of subsequent agreement as to which territories in the foregoing territories will be brought under the trusteeship system and under what terms".<ref name=Vandenbosch>{{cite book|last=Vandenbosch|first=Amry|title=South Africa and the World: The Foreign Policy of Apartheid|url=https://archive.org/details/southafricaworld00vand|url-access=registration|year=1970|pages=[https://archive.org/details/southafricaworld00vand/page/207 207–224]|publisher=University Press of Kentucky|location=Lexington|isbn=978-0813164946}}</ref> The UN requested all former League of Nations mandates be surrendered to its [[United Nations Trusteeship Council|Trusteeship Council]] in anticipation of their independence.<ref name=Vandenbosch/> South Africa declined to do so and instead requested permission from the UN to formally annex South West Africa, for which it received considerable criticism.<ref name=Vandenbosch/> When the UN General Assembly rejected this proposal, South Africa dismissed its opinion and began solidifying control of the territory.<ref name=Vandenbosch/> The UN Generally Assembly and Security Council responded by referring the issue to the [[International Court of Justice]] (ICJ), which held a number of discussions on the legality of South African rule between 1949 and 1966.<ref name=First>{{cite book|last=First|first=Ruth|editor1-last=Segal|editor1-first=Ronald|title=South West Africa|url=https://archive.org/details/southwestafrica0000firs_r3z3|year=1963|pages=[https://archive.org/details/southwestafrica0000firs_r3z3/page/169 169]–193|publisher=Penguin Books, Incorporated|location=Baltimore|isbn=978-0844620619}}</ref> [[File:Namibia homelands 78.jpeg|thumb|Map depicting the [[Police Zone (South West Africa)|Police Zone]] (in tan) and tribal homelands (in red) as they existed in 1978. Self-governing tribal homelands appear as tan with red stripes.]] South Africa began imposing ''[[apartheid]],'' its codified system of racial segregation and discrimination, on South West Africa during the late 1940s.<ref name="Crawford1">{{cite book|last=Crawford|first=Neta|title=Argument and Change in World Politics: Ethics, Decolonization, and Humanitarian Intervention|url=https://archive.org/details/argumentchangewo00craw|url-access=limited|year=2002|pages=[https://archive.org/details/argumentchangewo00craw/page/n350 333]–336|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=978-0521002790}}</ref> Black South West Africans were subject to [[pass laws]], curfews, and a host of residential regulations that restricted their movement.<ref name="Crawford1" /> Development was concentrated in the southern region of the territory adjacent to South Africa, known as the "[[Police Zone (South West Africa)|Police Zone]]", where most of the major settlements and commercial economic activity were located.<ref name="Devils">{{cite book|title=The Devils Are Among Us: The War for Namibia|url=https://archive.org/details/devilsareamongus00deni|url-access=limited|last1=Herbstein|first1=Denis|last2=Evenson|first2=John|publisher=Zed Books Ltd|year=1989|isbn=978-0862328962|location=London|pages=[https://archive.org/details/devilsareamongus00deni/page/n26 14]–23}}</ref> Outside the Police Zone, indigenous peoples were restricted to theoretically self-governing [[Bantustan#Bantustans in South West Africa|tribal homelands]].<ref name="Devils" /> During the late 1950s and early 1960s, the accelerated [[decolonisation of Africa]] and mounting pressure on the remaining colonial powers to grant their colonies self-determination resulted in the formation of nascent nationalist parties in South West Africa.<ref name="Müller">{{cite book|last=Müller|first=Johann Alexander|title=The Inevitable Pipeline Into Exile. Botswana's Role in the Namibian Liberation Struggle|year=2012|pages=36–41|publisher=Basler Afrika Bibliographien Namibia Resource Center and Southern Africa Library|location=Basel, Switzerland|isbn=978-3905758290}}</ref> Movements such as the [[South West African National Union]] (SWANU) and the [[South West African People's Organisation]] advocated for the formal termination of South Africa's mandate and independence for the territory.<ref name="Müller" /> In 1966, following the ICJ's controversial ruling that it had no legal standing to consider the question of South African rule, SWAPO launched an armed insurgency that escalated into part of a wider regional conflict known as the [[South African Border War]].<ref name="Caprivi">{{cite book|last=Kangumu|first=Bennett|title=Contesting Caprivi: A History of Colonial Isolation and Regional Nationalism in Namibia|year=2011|pages=143–153|publisher=Basler Afrika Bibliographien Namibia Resource Center and Southern Africa Library|location=Basel|isbn=978-3905758221}}</ref>[[File:Foreign Observer identification badge in the 1989 Namibian election.jpg|thumb|Foreign Observer identification badge issued during the 1989 Namibian election]]In 1971 Namibian contract workers led a [[1971–72 Namibian contract workers strike|general strike against the contract system]] and in support of independence.<ref name="Moorsom1979">{{cite journal |last1=Moorsom |first1=Richard |date=April 1979 |title=Labour Consciousness and the 1971–72 Contract Workers Strike in Namibia |journal=Development and Change |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=205–231 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-7660.1979.tb00041.x}}</ref> Some of the striking workers would later join SWAPO's [[People's Liberation Army of Namibia|PLAN]]<ref name="Devils2">{{cite book |last1=Herbstein |first1=Denis |url=https://archive.org/details/devilsareamongus00herb_929 |title=The Devils Are Among Us: The War for Namibia |last2=Evenson |first2=John |publisher=Zed Books Ltd |year=1989 |isbn=978-0862328962 |location=London |pages=[https://archive.org/details/devilsareamongus00herb_929/page/n26 14]–23 |url-access=limited}}</ref> as part of the South African Border War. ===Independence=== As SWAPO's insurgency intensified, South Africa's case for annexation in the international community continued to decline.<ref name=Dobell>{{cite book|last=Dobell|first=Lauren|title=Swapo's Struggle for Namibia, 1960–1991: War by Other Means|year=1998|pages=27–39|publisher=P. Schlettwein Publishing Switzerland|location=Basel|isbn=978-3908193029}}</ref> The UN declared that South Africa had failed in its obligations to ensure the moral and material well-being of South West Africa's indigenous inhabitants, and had thus disavowed its own mandate.<ref name=Yusuf>{{cite book|last=Yusuf|first=Abdulqawi|title=African Yearbook of International Law, Volume I|year=1994|pages=16–34|publisher=Martinus Nijhoff Publishers|location=The Hague|isbn=978-0-7923-2718-9}}</ref> On 12 June 1968, the UN General Assembly adopted a resolution proclaiming that, in accordance with the desires of its people, South West Africa be renamed ''Namibia''.<ref name=Yusuf/> [[United Nations Security Council Resolution 269]], adopted in August 1969, declared South Africa's continued occupation of Namibia illegal.<ref name=Yusuf/><ref name="MAA">{{cite book|last=Peter|first=Abbott|author2=Helmoed-Romer Heitman|author3=Paul Hannon|title=Modern African Wars (3): South-West Africa|pages=5–13|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t9Aj997IO9gC|isbn=978-1-85532-122-9|year=1991|publisher=Osprey Publishing}}{{Dead link|date=February 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> In recognition of this landmark decision, SWAPO's armed wing was renamed the [[People's Liberation Army of Namibia]] (PLAN).<ref name=Camp>{{cite book|last=Williams|first=Christian|title=National Liberation in Postcolonial Southern Africa: A Historical Ethnography of SWAPO's Exile Camps|date=October 2015|pages=73–89|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=978-1107099340}}</ref> Namibia became one of several flashpoints for [[Cold War]] proxy conflicts in southern Africa during the latter years of the PLAN insurgency.<ref name=Hughes>{{cite book|last=Hughes|first=Geraint|title=My Enemy's Enemy: Proxy Warfare in International Politics|year=2014|pages=73–86|publisher=Sussex Academic Press|location=Brighton|isbn=978-1845196271}}</ref> The insurgents sought out weapons and sent recruits to the Soviet Union for military training.<ref name="Betram">{{cite book|last=Bertram|first=Christoph|title=Prospects of Soviet Power in the 1980s|year=1980|pages=51–54|publisher=Palgrave Books|location=Basingstoke|isbn=978-1349052592}}</ref> As the PLAN war effort gained momentum, the Soviet Union and other sympathetic states such as Cuba continued to increase their support, deploying advisers to train the insurgents directly as well as supplying more weapons and ammunition.<ref name=Vanneman>{{cite book|last=Vanneman|first=Peter|title=Soviet Strategy in Southern Africa: Gorbachev's Pragmatic Approach|url=https://archive.org/details/sovietstrategyin00vann|url-access=registration|year=1990|pages=[https://archive.org/details/sovietstrategyin00vann/page/41 41–57]|publisher=Hoover Institution Press|location=Stanford|isbn=978-0817989026}}</ref> SWAPO's leadership, dependent on Soviet, Angolan, and Cuban military aid, positioned the movement firmly within the socialist bloc by 1975.<ref name="Dreyer">{{cite book|title=Namibia and Southern Africa: Regional Dynamics of Decolonization, 1945-90|url=https://archive.org/details/namibiasoutherna0000drey|last=Dreyer|first=Ronald|location=London|publisher=Kegan Paul International|year=1994|isbn=978-0710304711|pages=[https://archive.org/details/namibiasoutherna0000drey/page/73 73]–87, 100–116, 192}}</ref> This practical alliance reinforced the external perception of SWAPO as a Soviet proxy, which dominated Cold War rhetoric in South Africa and the United States.<ref name="Devils"/> For its part, the Soviet Union supported SWAPO partly because it viewed South Africa as a regional Western ally.<ref name=Shultz>{{cite book|last=Shultz|first=Richard|title=Soviet Union and Revolutionary Warfare: Principles, Practices, and Regional Comparisons|url=https://archive.org/details/sovietunionrevo00shul/page/121|url-access=registration|year=1988|pages=[https://archive.org/details/sovietunionrevo00shul/page/121 121–123, 140–145]|publisher=Hoover Institution Press|location=Stanford, California|isbn=978-0817987114}}</ref> [[File:SADF-Operations 4.jpg|thumb|left|South African troops patrol the border region for PLAN insurgents, 1980s.]] Growing war weariness and the reduction of tensions between the superpowers compelled South Africa, Angola, and Cuba to accede to the [[Tripartite Accord (Angola)|Tripartite Accord]], under pressure from both the Soviet Union and the United States.<ref name=SACP>{{cite book |last1=Sechaba |first1=Tsepo |last2=Ellis |first2=Stephen |title=Comrades Against Apartheid: The ANC & the South African Communist Party in Exile |url=https://archive.org/details/bwb_W1-AJK-648 |year=1992 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/bwb_W1-AJK-648/page/184 184]–187 |publisher=Indiana University Press |location=Bloomington |isbn= 978-0253210623}}</ref> South Africa accepted Namibian independence in exchange for Cuban military withdrawal from the region and an Angolan commitment to cease all aid to PLAN.<ref name="James">{{cite book|title=A Political History of the Civil War in Angola: 1974-1990|last=James III|first=W. Martin|location=New Brunswick|publisher=Transaction Publishers|year=2011|orig-date=1992|isbn=978-1-4128-1506-2|pages=207–214, 239–245}}</ref> PLAN and South Africa adopted an informal ceasefire in August 1988, and a [[United Nations Transition Assistance Group]] (UNTAG) was formed to monitor the Namibian peace process and supervise the return of refugees.<ref name="Sitkowski">{{cite book |last=Sitkowski |first=Andrzej |title=UN peacekeeping: myth and reality |url=https://archive.org/details/unpeacekeepingmy0000sitk |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |location=Westport, Connecticut |year=2006 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/unpeacekeepingmy0000sitk/page/80 80]–86 |isbn=978-0-275-99214-9}}</ref> The ceasefire was broken after PLAN made a final incursion into the territory, possibly as a result of misunderstanding UNTAG's directives, in March 1989.<ref name="Clairborne">{{cite news|title=SWAPO Incursion into Namibia Seen as Major Blunder by Nujoma |last=Clairborne |first=John |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1989/04/07/swapo-incursion-into-namibia-seen-as-major-blunder-by-nujoma/7182b414-2fd3-4036-b3f8-be9debd58840/ |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |location=Washington DC |date=7 April 1989 |access-date=18 February 2018}}</ref> A new ceasefire was later imposed with the condition that the insurgents were to be confined to their external bases in Angola until they could be disarmed and demobilised by UNTAG.<ref name="Sitkowski"/><ref name=Demob>{{cite book |last1=Colletta |first1=Nat |last2=Kostner |first2=Markus |last3=Wiederhofer |first3=Indo |title=Case Studies of War-To-Peace Transition: The Demobilization and Reintegration of Ex-Combatants in Ethiopia, Namibia, and Uganda |year=1996 |pages=127–142 |publisher=[[World Bank]]|location=Washington DC |isbn=978-0821336748}}</ref> [[File:South Africa Border War Map.png|thumb|South African-occupied [[South West Africa]] (1915–1990) and maximum extent of [[South African Border War|South African]] and [[UNITA]] operations in Angola and Zambia during the [[South African Border War]].]] By the end of the 11-month transition period, the last South African troops had been withdrawn from Namibia, all political prisoners granted amnesty, racially discriminatory legislation repealed, and 42,000 Namibian refugees returned to their homes.<ref name="Dreyer"/> Just over 97% of eligible voters participated in the country's first [[Namibian parliamentary election, 1989|parliamentary elections]] held under a [[universal franchise]].<ref name="NYT1989">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1989/11/15/world/namibia-rebel-group-wins-vote-but-it-falls-short-of-full-control.html|title=Namibia Rebel Group Wins Vote, But It Falls Short of Full Control|work=The New York Times|date=15 November 1989|access-date=20 June 2014}}</ref> The United Nations plan included oversight by [[Election monitoring|foreign election observers]] in an effort to ensure a [[Election#Difficulties with elections|free and fair election]]. SWAPO won a plurality of seats in the [[Members of the Constituent Assembly of Namibia|Constituent Assembly]] with 57% of the popular vote.<ref name="NYT1989"/> This gave the party 41 seats, but not a two-thirds majority, which would have enabled it to draft the constitution on its own.<ref name="NYT1989"/> The Namibian Constitution was adopted in February 1990. It incorporated protection for human rights and compensation for state expropriations of private property and established an independent judiciary, legislature, and an executive presidency (the constituent assembly became the national assembly). The country officially became independent on 21 March 1990.<ref>[https://www.sahistory.org.za/dated-event/namibia-gains-independence Namibia gains Independence] – South African History Online</ref><ref name="finnish-mission"/> [[Sam Nujoma]] was sworn in as the first [[President of Namibia]] at a ceremony attended by [[Nelson Mandela]] of South Africa (who had been released from prison the previous month) and representatives from 147 countries, including 20 heads of state.<ref>{{cite web | last=Dierks | first=Klaus | author-link=Klaus Dierks | url=http://www.klausdierks.com/Chronology/132.htm |title=7. The Period after Namibian Independence | publisher=Klausdierks.com |access-date=21 August 2020}}</ref> In 1994, shortly before the first multiracial elections in South Africa, that country ceded Walvis Bay to Namibia.<ref>{{cite web|title=Treaty between the Government of the Republic of South Africa and the Government of the Republic of Namibia with respect to Walvis Bay and the off-shore Islands, 28 February 1994|url=https://www.un.org/Depts/los/LEGISLATIONANDTREATIES/PDFFILES/TREATIES/ZAF-NAM1994OI.PDF|website=United Nations}}</ref> ===After independence=== Since independence Namibia has completed the transition from white minority apartheid rule to parliamentary democracy. [[Multiparty democracy]] was introduced and has been maintained, with local, regional and [[Elections in Namibia|national elections]] held regularly. Several registered political parties are active and represented in the National Assembly, although the [[SWAPO]] has won every election since independence.<ref>{{cite web|title=Country report: Spotlight on Namibia |publisher=[[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]] Secretariat |url=http://www.thecommonwealth.org/news/34580/34581/224187/250510spotlightonnamibia.htm |date=25 May 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100705012456/http://www.thecommonwealth.org/news/34580/34581/224187/250510spotlightonnamibia.htm |archive-date=5 July 2010 }}</ref> The transition from the 15-year rule of President [[Sam Nujoma|Nujoma]] to his successor [[Hifikepunye Pohamba]] in 2005 went smoothly.<ref name="IRIN">{{cite news |title=IRIN country profile Namibia |agency=[[The New Humanitarian|IRIN]] |url=http://www.irinnews.org/country.aspx?CountryCode=NA&RegionCode=SAF |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100217173041/http://www.irinnews.org/country.aspx?CountryCode=NA&RegionCode=SAF |archive-date=17 February 2010 |access-date=12 July 2010|date=March 2007}}</ref> Since independence, the Namibian government has promoted a policy of national reconciliation. It issued an amnesty for those who fought on either side during the liberation war. The civil war in Angola spilled over and adversely affected Namibians living in the north of the country. In 1998, [[Namibia Defence Force]] (NDF) troops were sent to the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] as part of a [[Southern African Development Community]] (SADC) contingent. In 1999, the national government quashed a secessionist attempt in the northeastern [[Caprivi Strip]].<ref name="IRIN"/> The [[Caprivi conflict]] was initiated by the [[Caprivi Liberation Army]] (CLA), a [[Rebellion|rebel]] group led by [[Mishake Muyongo]]. It wanted the Caprivi Strip to secede and form its own society. In December 2014, Prime Minister [[Hage Geingob]], the candidate of ruling SWAPO, won the [[2014 Namibian general election|presidential elections]], taking 87% of the vote. His predecessor, President [[Hifikepunye Pohamba]], also of SWAPO, had served the maximum two terms allowed by the constitution.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-30285987|title = Namibian presidential election won by Swapo's Hage Geingob|work = BBC News|date = December 2014}}</ref> In December 2019, President Hage Geingob was [[2019 Namibian general election|re-elected]] for a second term, taking 56.3% of the vote.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-50618516|title = Namibia's President Hage Geingob wins re-election|work = BBC News|date = December 2019}}</ref> ==Geography== {{Main|Geography of Namibia}} [[File:Namib Desert Namibia(2).jpg|thumb|Sand dunes in the [[Namib]], Namibia]] [[File:Namibia Natural Earth 1.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|Shaded relief map of Namibia]] [[File:Koppen-Geiger_Map_NAM_present.svg|350 px|thumb|[[Köppen climate classification|Köppen climate types]] of Namibia]] At {{convert|825615|km2|sqmi|0|abbr=on}},<ref>{{cite web|title=Rank Order&nbsp;– Area|publisher=CIA World Fact Book|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2147rank.html|access-date=12 April 2008|archive-date=9 February 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209041128/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2147rank.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> Namibia is the world's thirty-fourth largest country (after Venezuela). It lies mostly between latitudes [[17th parallel south|17°]] and [[29th parallel south|29°S]] (a small area is north of 17°), and longitudes [[11th meridian east|11°]] and [[26th meridian east|26°E]]. Being situated between the [[Namib]] and the [[Kalahari Desert|Kalahari]] deserts, Namibia has the least rainfall of any country in sub-Saharan Africa.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Land degradation causes poverty |last=Brandt |first=Edgar |newspaper=[[New Era (Namibia)|New Era]] |date=21 September 2012 |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201209211357.html}}</ref> The Namibian landscape consists generally of five geographical areas, each with characteristic [[Abiotic component|abiotic conditions]] and vegetation, with some variation within and overlap between them: the Central Plateau, the Namib, the [[Great Escarpment, Southern Africa|Great Escarpment]], the [[Bushveld]], and the Kalahari Desert. The Central Plateau runs from north to south, bordered by the [[Skeleton Coast]] to the northwest, the Namib Desert and its coastal plains to the southwest, the [[Orange River]] to the south, and the Kalahari Desert to the east. The Central Plateau is home to the highest point in Namibia at [[Königstein, Namibia|Königstein]] elevation {{convert|2606|m|ft|0}}.<ref name="elevation">{{cite web |url=http://landsat.usgs.gov/gallery/detail/367/ |title=Landsat.usgs.gov |publisher=Landsat.usgs.gov |access-date=26 June 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080907062948/http://landsat.usgs.gov/gallery/detail/367/ |archive-date=7 September 2008}}</ref> The Namib is a broad expanse of hyper-arid gravel plains and dunes that stretches along Namibia's entire coastline. It varies between {{convert|100|and|200|km|mi|-1}} in width. Areas within the Namib include the Skeleton Coast and the [[Kaokoveld]] in the north and the extensive Namib Sand Sea along the central coast.<ref name=at1315/> The Great Escarpment swiftly rises to over {{convert|2000|m|ft|-3}}. Average temperatures and temperature ranges increase further inland from the cold Atlantic waters, while the lingering coastal fogs slowly diminish. Although the area is rocky with poorly developed soils, it is significantly more productive than the Namib Desert. As summer winds are forced over the Escarpment, moisture is extracted as precipitation.<ref>Spriggs, A. (2001) {{WWF ecoregion|name=Africa: Namibia|id=at1316}}</ref> The Bushveld is found in north-eastern Namibia along the Angolan border and in the Caprivi Strip. The area receives a significantly greater amount of precipitation than the rest of the country, averaging around {{convert|400|mm|in|0|abbr=on}} per year. The area is generally flat and the soils sandy, limiting their ability to retain water and support agriculture.<ref name="Cowling, S. 2001">Cowling, S. 2001. {{WWF ecoregion|id=at1322|name=Succulent Karoo}}</ref> The Kalahari Desert, an arid region that extends into South Africa and Botswana, is one of Namibia's well-known geographical features. The Kalahari, while popularly known as a desert, has a variety of localised environments, including some verdant and technically non-desert areas. The [[Succulent Karoo]] is home to over 5,000 species of plants, nearly half of them [[Endemism|endemic]]; approximately 10 percent of the world's [[succulents]] are found in the Karoo.<ref>Van Jaarsveld, E. J. 1987. The succulent riches of South Africa and Namibia. Aloc, 24: 45–92</ref><ref>Smith et al 1993</ref> The reason behind this high productivity and endemism may be the relatively stable nature of precipitation.<ref>Spriggs, A. (2001) {{WWF ecoregion|name=Southern Africa: including parts of Botswana, northeastern Namibia, Zimbabwe, and northern South Africa |id=at0709}}</ref> Namibia's Coastal Desert is one of the oldest deserts in the world. Its sand dunes, created by the strong onshore winds, are the highest in the world.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nasa.gov/multimedia/imagegallery/image_feature_540.html |title=NASA&nbsp;– Namibia's Coastal Desert |publisher=nasa.gov |access-date=9 October 2009}}</ref> Because of the location of the shoreline, at the point where the Atlantic's cold water reaches Africa's hot climate, often extremely dense fog forms along the coast.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.geographia.com/namibia/ |title=An Introduction to Namibia |publisher=geographia.com |access-date=9 October 2009}}</ref> Near the coast there are areas where the dune-hummocks are vegetated.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nacoma.org.na/Our_Coast/WalkOnOurCoastline.htm |title=NACOMA&nbsp;– Namibian Coast Conservation and Management Project |publisher=nacoma.org.na |access-date=9 October 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090721154939/http://www.nacoma.org.na/Our_Coast/WalkOnOurCoastline.htm |archive-date=21 July 2009}}</ref> Namibia has rich coastal and marine resources that remain largely unexplored.<ref name=Sparks/> [[File:SAC Namibia-cactus.jpg|thumb|[[Fish River Canyon]]]] The [[Caprivi Strip]] extends east from the northeastern corner of the country. ===Climate=== [[File:Namibia-1113.jpg|thumb|Namibia is primarily a large desert and semi-desert plateau.]] Namibia extends from 17°S to 25°S latitude: climatically the range of the sub-Tropical High Pressure Belt. Its overall climate description is arid, descending from the Sub-Humid [mean rain above {{cvt|500|mm|in|0}}] through Semi-Arid [between {{cvt|300 and 500|mm|in|0}}] (embracing most of the waterless Kalahari) and Arid [from {{cvt|150 to 300|mm|in|0}}] (these three regions are inland from the western [[Great Escarpment, Southern Africa|escarpment]]) to the Hyper-Arid coastal plain [less than {{cvt|100|mm|in|0}}]. Temperature maxima are limited by the overall elevation of the entire region: only in the far south, [[Warmbad, Namibia|Warmbad]] for instance, are maxima above {{cvt|40|C|F}} recorded.<ref>"Paper and digital Climate Section". Namibia Meteorological Services</ref> Typically the sub-Tropical High Pressure Belt, with frequent clear skies, provides more than 300 days of sunshine per year. It is situated at the southern edge of the tropics; the [[Tropic of Capricorn]] cuts the country about in half. The winter (June&nbsp;– August) is generally dry. Both rainy seasons occur in summer: the small rainy season between September and November, the big one between February and April.<ref>{{cite web |publisher=Real Namibia |title=The Rainy Season |url=http://www.realnamibia.com/rn_028rainyseason.htm |access-date=28 July 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100906094745/http://www.realnamibia.com/rn_028rainyseason.htm |archive-date=6 September 2010}}</ref> Humidity is low, and average [[rain]]fall varies from almost zero in the [[Skeleton Coast|coastal desert]] to more than {{cvt|600|mm|in|0}} in the Caprivi Strip. Rainfall is highly variable, and droughts are common.<ref name="EBClimate">{{cite encyclopedia |title=Namibia |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/402283/Namibia/43996 |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |access-date=28 July 2010}}</ref> In the summer of 2006/07 the rainfall was recorded far below the annual average.<ref name="Olszewski1">{{Cite news |last=Olszewski |first=John |newspaper=[[Namibia Economist]] |title=Climate change forces us to recognise new normals |url=http://www.economist.com.na/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&catid=531:weather&id=14308:climate-change-forces-us-to-recognise-new-normals&Itemid=54 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110513062850/http://www.economist.com.na/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&catid=531:weather&id=14308:climate-change-forces-us-to-recognise-new-normals&Itemid=54 |archive-date=13 May 2011 |date=13 May 2009}}</ref> In May 2019, Namibia declared a state of emergency in response to the drought,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.africanews.com/2019/05/06/namibia-declares-national-state-of-emergency-over-drought/|title=Namibia declares national state of emergency over drought|last=AfricaNews|date=2019-05-06|website=Africanews|language=en|access-date=2019-05-20}}</ref> and extended it by additional 6 months in October 2019.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Namibian|first=The|title=State of drought emergency extended|url=https://www.namibian.com.na/index.php?page=archive-read&id=193796|access-date=2020-11-24|website=The Namibian|language=en|archive-date=10 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210310104544/https://www.namibian.com.na/index.php?page=archive-read&id=193796|url-status=dead}}</ref> Weather and climate in the coastal area are dominated by the cold, north-flowing [[Benguela Current]] of the Atlantic Ocean, which accounts for very low [[Precipitation (meteorology)|precipitation]] ({{cvt|50|mm|in|0}} per year or less), frequent dense fog, and overall lower temperatures than in the rest of the country.<ref name="EBClimate"/> In Winter, occasionally a condition known as ''{{lang|de|[[Bergwind]]}}'' (German for "mountain wind") or ''{{lang|af|Oosweer}}'' ([[Afrikaans]] for "east weather") occurs, a hot dry wind blowing from the inland to the coast. As the area behind the coast is a desert, these winds can develop into sand storms, leaving sand deposits in the Atlantic Ocean that are visible on satellite images.<ref name="Olszewski2">{{Cite news |last=Olszewski |first=John |newspaper=Namibia Economist |title=Understanding Weather&nbsp;– not predicting it |url=http://www.economist.com.na/index.php?option=com_content&view=category&layout=blog&id=575&Itemid=54&limitstart=5 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101207061033/http://www.economist.com.na/index.php?option=com_content&view=category&layout=blog&id=575&Itemid=54&limitstart=5 |archive-date=7 December 2010 |date=25 June 2010}}</ref> The Central Plateau and Kalahari areas have wide [[Diurnal temperature variation|diurnal]] temperature ranges of up to 30C (54F).<ref name="EBClimate"/> ''Efundja'', the annual seasonal flooding of the northern parts of the country, often causes not only damage to infrastructure but loss of life.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.unmultimedia.org/radio/english/2011/04/debilitating-floods-hit-northern-and-central-namibia/ |title=Debilitating floods hit northern and central Namibia |last=Adams |first=Gerry |date=15 April 2011 |publisher=United Nations Radio |access-date=19 February 2012 |archive-date=20 December 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220185613/http://www.unmultimedia.org/radio/english/2011/04/debilitating-floods-hit-northern-and-central-namibia/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> The rains that cause these floods originate in Angola, flow into Namibia's [[Cuvelai-Etosha Basin]], and fill the ''oshanas'' ([[Oshiwambo]]: flood plains) there. The worst floods {{As of|2012|alt=so far}} occurred in March 2011 and displaced 21,000 people.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.namibian.com.na/index.php?id=28&tx_ttnews%5Btt_news%5D=79689&no_cache=1 |title=Heaviest floods ever in Namibia |last=van den Bosch |first=Servaas |date=29 March 2011 |work=[[The Namibian]]}}</ref> ===Water sources=== {{Main|Water supply and sanitation in Namibia}} Namibia is the driest country in [[sub-Saharan Africa]] and depends largely on groundwater. With an average rainfall of about {{cvt|350|mm|in|0}} per annum, the highest rainfall occurs in the Caprivi Strip in the northeast (about {{cvt|600|mm|in|0}} per annum) and decreases in a westerly and southwesterly direction to as little as {{cvt|50|mm|in|0}} and less per annum at the coast. The only perennial rivers are found on the national borders with South Africa, Angola, Zambia, and the short border with Botswana in the Caprivi Strip. In the interior of the country, surface water is available only in the summer months when rivers are in flood after exceptional rainfalls. Otherwise, surface water is restricted to a few large storage dams retaining and damming up these seasonal floods and their run-off. Where people do not live near perennial rivers or make use of the storage dams, they are dependent on groundwater. Even isolated communities and those economic activities located far from good surface water sources, such as mining, agriculture, and tourism, can be supplied from groundwater over nearly 80% of the country.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.iwrm-namibia.info.na/iwrm/fundaments-in-iwrm/groundwater-in-namibia/index.php |title=Groundwater in Namibia |website=Integrated Water Resource Management |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160729155617/http://www.iwrm-namibia.info.na/iwrm/fundaments-in-iwrm/groundwater-in-namibia/index.php |archive-date=29 July 2016 }}</ref> More than 100,000 [[borehole]]s have been drilled in Namibia over the past century. One third of these boreholes have been drilled dry.<ref>{{cite book |title=Groundwater in Namibia |url=http://www.namhydro.com/downloads.html |editor1=Greg Christelis |name-list-style=amp |editor2=Wilhelm Struckmeier |via=Namibian Hydrogeological Association |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-86976-571-5 |access-date=10 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150404091336/http://namhydro.com/downloads.html |archive-date=4 April 2015 |url-status=dead }}</ref> An [[aquifer]] called Ohangwena II, on both sides of the Angola-Namibia border, was discovered in 2012. It has been estimated to be capable of supplying a population of 800,000 people in the North for 400 years, at the current (2018) rate of consumption.<ref name=aqui>{{cite web|last=McGrath |first=Matt |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-18875385 |title=Vast aquifer found in Namibia could last for centuries |publisher=BBC World |date=20 July 2012 |access-date=10 September 2013}}</ref> Experts estimate that Namibia has {{convert|7,720|km3|cumi|abbr=on}} of underground water.<ref name=afr>{{cite web|last=McGrath |first=Matt |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-17775211 |title='Huge' water resource exists under Africa |publisher=BBC World Service |date=20 April 2012 |access-date=10 September 2013}}</ref><ref name=aqmap/> According to [[African Folder,]] a sewage-to-water treatment project in Namibia not only provides citizens with safe drinking water but also boosts productivity by 6% per year. All pollutants and impurities are removed using cutting-edge "multi-barrier" technology, which includes residual chlorination, ozone treatment, and ultra membrane filtration. Strict bio-monitoring methods are also used throughout the process to ensure high-quality, safe drinking water.<ref>{{cite web |title=How Namibia Is Recycling Drinking Water From Toilet To Tap |url=https://africanfolder.com/how-namibia-is-recycling-drinking-water-from-toilet-to-tap/|website=African Folder|last=Jayeoba |first=Deborah|date=16 January 2023 |access-date=12 March 2023}}</ref> ===Communal Wildlife Conservancies=== [[File:SAC Namibia-bushveld.jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|[[Quivertree]] Forest, [[Bushveld]]]] {{Main|Communal Wildlife Conservancies in Namibia}} Mu vyaru vichoko waka pa caru cose capasi, dango la boma la Namibia likuyowoyapo comene za kuvikilira na kuvikilira vinthu vyakuthupi. Ndime ya 95 yikuti, "Boma likulimbikira kukhozga na kusungilira umoyo uwemi wa ŵanthu pakutolera ndondomeko ya vyaru ivyo vikulondezga fundo izi: kusungilira vyamoyo, vinthu ivyo vikukhumbikwa pa umoyo wa ŵanthu, na vinthu ivyo vikukhumbikwa pa umoyo wa ŵanthu ku Namibia, kweniso kugwiliskira ntchito vinthu ivyo vikukhumbikwa pa umoyo wa ŵanthu ku Namibia kuti ŵanthu wose ŵa mu charu ichi ŵasange chandulo sono na munthazi". Mu 1993, boma liphya la Namibia likapokera ndalama kufuma ku wupu wa United States Agency for International Development (USAID) kwizira mu pulogiramu yawo ya Living in a Finite Environment (LIFE). Unduna wa vya Munda na Ulendo, na wovwiri wa ndalama kufuma ku mawupu nga ni USAID, Endangered Wildlife Trust, WWF, na Canadian Ambassador's Fund, wose pamoza ŵakuzenga ndondomeko ya kovwira ŵanthu pa nkhani ya kulongozga vinthu vyakuthupi (CBNRM). Cholinga chachikulu cha polojekitiyi ndikuthandizira kusamalira zachilengedwe mwa kupereka ufulu kwa anthu ammudzi kuti azisamalira zachilengedwe ndi zokopa alendo.<ref name=UNEP/> == Government and politics == [[File:Tintenpalast-Windhoek.jpg|thumb|{{center|[[Tintenpalast]], the centre of Namibia's government}}]] {{Main|Politics of Namibia|Elections in Namibia}} Namibia ni chalo icho chili na nduna yimoza. Pulezidenti wa ku Namibia wakusankhika kwa vyaka vinkhondi ndipo ni mulongozgi wa boma. Wose awo ŵali mu wupu wa boma ŵakuŵa na udindo ku wupu wa malango.{{refn|Article 41 of the Constitution of the Republic of Namibia.<ref name=CN/>}}<ref name="ECN">{{cite web|url=http://www.ecn.na/web/ecn/elections|title=How to Register as a Voter|publisher=Electoral Commission of Namibia|access-date=22 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180721014311/http://www.ecn.na/web/ecn/elections|archive-date=21 July 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref> The [[Constitution of Namibia]] outlines the following as the organs of the country's government:<ref name="Bösl">{{Cite book |last1=Shivute |first1=Peter |author-link1=Peter Shivute |editor1-last=Bösl |editor1-first=Anton |editor2-last=Horn |editor2-first=Nico |chapter-url=http://www.kas.de/wf/doc/kas_15058-544-2-30.pdf |chapter=Foreword |page=10 |title=The Independence of the Judiciary in Namibia |publisher=[[Macmillan Publishers|Macmillan Education Namibia]] |series= Publications sponsored by [[Konrad Adenauer Stiftung]] |isbn=978-99916-0-807-5 |year=2008 }}</ref> *Executive: executive power is exercised by the President and the [[Cabinet of Namibia|Government]]. *Legislature: Namibia has a [[Bicameralism|bicameral]] [[Parliament of Namibia|Parliament]] with the [[National Assembly of Namibia|National Assembly]] as [[lower house]], and the [[National Council of Namibia|National Council]] as the [[upper house]].<ref name="parliament153">{{cite web|title=National Council|url=http://www.parliament.gov.na/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=153&Itemid=1264|website=Parliament.gov.na|language=en|access-date=21 August 2020}}</ref> *[[Judiciary]]: Namibia has a system of courts that interpret and apply the law in the name of the state. While the constitution envisaged a [[multi-party system]] for Namibia's government, the [[SWAPO]] party has been [[Dominant-party system|dominant]] since independence in 1990.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.swapoparty.org/throw_out_nyamu_motion.html |title=SWAPO:Dominant party? |publisher=Swapoparty.org |access-date=26 August 2017 |archive-date=3 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303222946/http://www.swapoparty.org/throw_out_nyamu_motion.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> ===Foreign relations=== {{Main|Foreign relations of Namibia}} [[File:Russia-Africa Summit in Sochi (2019-10-24).jpg|thumb|Namibian President [[Hage Geingob]] with African leaders and Russian President [[Vladimir Putin]] at the [[Russia–Africa Summit]] in Sochi, 24 October 2019]] Boma la Namibia likulondezga ndondomeko ya vyaru vyakupambanapambana, ndipo likulutilira kukolerana na vyaru ivyo vikawovwira pa nkhondo ya wanangwa, kusazgapo Cuba. Boma la Namibia lili na ŵasilikari ŵacoko waka kweniso ndarama zakusuzga, ntheura likukhumba kukhozga ubali wake na vyaru vya kumwera kwa Africa. Nga ni membala wa wupu wa Southern African Development Community, caru ca Namibia cikukhumba kuti ciŵe cakukolerana na vyaru vinyake. Pa 23 Epulero 1990, caru ici cikaŵa ciŵaro ca nambara 160 ca UN. Pa zuŵa ilo likapokelera wanangwa wake, likaŵa chalo cha nambara 50 mu Commonwealth of Nations. ===Military=== {{Main|Namibian Defence Force}} Kukwambilira kwa chaka cha 2020, The Global Firepower Index (GFP) yikayowoya kuti ŵasilikari ŵa ku Namibia ŵali pa malo gha 126 pa vyaru 137. Pa vyaru 34 vya mu Africa, Namibia nayo yili pa malo gha 28. Nangauli vikaŵa nthena, ndalama izo boma likagwiliskiranga nchito pa mulimo wa kuvikilira caru zikaŵa N$5,885 miliyoni (kuyana na ndalama izo zikaŵapo mu cilimika cakwambilira, zikakhira na 1.2%). Pafupifupi madola 6 biliyoni gha ku Namibia (US$411 miliyoni mu 2021) Unduna wa Chivikiliro ukupokela ndalama zinayi kufuma ku boma pa unduna uliwose. Ku Namibia kulije ŵalwani mu cigaŵa ici, nangauli kuli kukwesana pa nkhani ya mphaka na mapulani gha kuzenga. Ndondomeko ya boma la Namibia yikulongosora kuti mulimo wa ŵasilikari ni "kuvikilira caru na vinthu vya caru". Namibia yikapanga gulu la ŵasilikari (NDF), ilo likapangika na ŵasilikari awo ŵakasuzgikanga na nkhondo iyo yikacitika kwa vilimika 23: gulu la ŵasilikari la People's Liberation Army of Namibia (PLAN) na South West African Territorial Force (SWATF). Ŵabritishi ŵakanozga pulani ya umo ŵasilikari aŵa ŵakeneranga kukolerana, ndipo ŵakamba kusambizga ŵasilikari ŵa NDF, awo ŵakaŵa na likuru la ŵasilikari na magulu ghankhondi. Ŵasilikari ŵa ku Kenya awo ŵakagwiranga nchito na gulu la United Nations Transitional Assistance Group (UNTAG) ŵakakhala ku Namibia kwa myezi yitatu kuti ŵasambizge ŵasilikari ŵa NDF kweniso kuti ŵakhazikiske mtende ku mpoto kwa charu ichi. Kuyana na ivyo Unduna wa Vyankhondo wa ku Namibia ukayowoya, ŵanalume na ŵanakazi ŵakukwana 7,500 ndiwo ŵanjirenge usilikari. Mkulu wa Nkhondo ya Namibia ndi Air Vice Marshal Martin Kambulu Pinehas (kuyambira pa 1 April 2020). Mu 2017, charu cha Namibia chikasayinira phangano la UN lakukanizga kugwiliskira nchito vilwero vya nyukiliya.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://treaties.un.org/Pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=TREATY&mtdsg_no=XXVI-9&chapter=26&clang=_en |title=Chapter XXVI: Disarmament&nbsp;– No. 9 Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons |publisher=United Nations Treaty Collection |date=7 July 2017}}</ref> ===Administrative divisions=== [[File:Namibia_14_regions-numbered.svg|340px|thumb|right|upright=1.8|[[Regions of Namibia]]]] {{Main|Administrative divisions of Namibia}} Charu cha Namibia chili kugaŵikana mu vigaŵa 14, ivyo navyo vili kugaŵikana mu vigaŵa 121. Kugaŵikana kwa Namibia kukupangika na ma komiti agho ghakupanga mphaka ndipo ghakupokelereka panji kukanizgika na wupu wa National Assembly. Kufuma apo boma ili likambira, makomiti ghanayi ghakupanga mphaka ya vigaŵa ghakapeleka mulimo wawo, ndipo laumaliro likaŵa mu 2013 ndipo likalongozgekanga na Mweruzgi Alfred Siboleka. Ŵalaraŵalara ŵa vigaŵa ŵakusoleka mwakudunjika na ŵanthu awo ŵakukhala mu vigaŵa vyawo. Boma la ku Namibia lingaŵa na maboma gha vigaŵa viŵiri (mabungwe gha chigaŵa chakwamba na chigaŵa chachiŵiri), maboma gha tawuni panji gha muzi.<ref name=alan>{{cite web |title=Local Authorities |url=http://www.alan.org.na/?q=localauthorities/list |publisher=Association of Local Authorities in Namibia |access-date=10 September 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130610203011/http://www.alan.org.na/?q=localauthorities%2Flist |archive-date=10 June 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref>{{clear|left}} ===Human rights=== {{Main|Human rights in Namibia}} Namibia njimoza mwa vyaru vya mu Africa ivyo vili na wanangwa ndiposo vya demokarasi, ndipo boma lake likuvikilira wanangwa wa ŵanthu. Ndipouli, nkhani zikuru zikusazgapo vimbundi vya mu boma na unandi wa ŵakayidi. Kweniso ŵanthu awo ŵachimbira kwawo ŵakuzomerezgeka yayi kwenda mwakufwatuka. Dango ili likwendera yayi, kweni kugonana kwa ŵanalume panji ŵanakazi ŵekhaŵekha nkhukanizgika mu Namibia. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakutemwera yayi panji kutinkhana na ŵanthu awo ŵakugonana na ŵanalume panji ŵanakazi ŵanyawo. Ŵalaraŵalara ŵanyake ŵa boma la Namibia na ŵanthu ŵakumanyikwa, nga ni Mulongozgi wa Boma la Namibia, John Walters, na mwanakazi wakwamba, Monica Geingos, ŵakukhumba kuti kugonana kwa ŵanalume panji ŵanakazi ŵekhaŵekha kulekerethu ndipo ŵakukhumba kuti ŵanalume panji ŵanakazi ŵekhaŵekha ŵaŵe na wanangwa wakuyana na wanangwa wawo.<ref name=":4">{{Cite web |date=2021-03-30 |title=2020 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices: Namibia |url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2020-country-reports-on-human-rights-practices/namibia/ |access-date=2021-05-24 |website=United States Department of State |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | title=Sodomy law's days numbered - Geingos | last=Beukes | first=Jemima | date=14 June 2019 | newspaper=[[Namibian Sun]] | url=https://www.namibiansun.com/news/sodomy-laws-days-numbered-geingos2019-06-13}}</ref> Mu Novembala 2018, vikalembeka kuti 32% ya ŵanakazi ŵa vyaka vyapakati pa 15 na 49 ŵakasuzgika na nkhaza na nkhaza za mu nyumba izo ŵakachitikanga na ŵawoli panji ŵabwezi ŵawo, ndipo 29.5% ya ŵanalume ŵakagomezganga kuti nkhaza izo ŵakachitiranga ŵawoli panji ŵabwezi ŵawo zikaŵa zakwenelera. Ndondomeko ya boma la Namibia yikupanga wanangwa, wanangwa na wanangwa wakuyana kwa ŵanakazi mu Namibia ndipo gulu la SWAPO, ilo liri pa mazaza mu Namibia, lakhazikiska ndondomeko yakuti ŵanakazi wose ŵaŵe na wanangwa wakuyana mu boma.<ref>{{cite news | title=Namibia's 'zebra' politics could make it stand out from the global herd | last=O'Riordan | first=Alexander | date=8 July 2014 | newspaper=[[The Guardian]] | url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2014/jul/08/namibia-gender-equality-zebra-politics}}</ref><ref name="USDOS">Human Rights In Namibia (November 2021). [https://www.state.gov/reports/2021-country-reports-on-human-rights-practices/namibia/#:~:text=Significant%20human%20rights%20issues%20included,or%20elsewhere%20in%20the%20government. 2021 Country Report on Human Rights: Namibia]. state.gov</ref> ==Economy== {{Main|Economy of Namibia}} [[File:GDP per capita development in Southern Africa.svg|thumb|Historical GDP per capita development in southern African countries, since 1950]] [[File:Downtown Windhoek, Independence Avenue.jpg|thumb|Downtown [[Windhoek]]]] Namibia's economy is tied closely to [[Economy of South Africa|South Africa]]'s due to their shared history.<ref name="Intelligence1">[https://web.archive.org/web/20210110010829/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/namibia Namibia]. ''[[The World Factbook]]''. [[Central Intelligence Agency]].</ref><ref name="Department1">{{cite web |url=http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/namibia.htm |title=Namibia |publisher=UCB Libraries GovPubs |access-date=26 August 2017 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303221805/http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/namibia.htm |archive-date=3 March 2016}}</ref> The largest economic sectors are mining (10.4% of the gross domestic product in 2009), agriculture (5.0%), manufacturing (13.5%), and tourism (14.5%).<ref name=usds>{{cite web |url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5472.htm |title=Background Note:Namibia |publisher=[[United States Department of State|US Department of State]] |date=26 October 2010|access-date=26 August 2017}}</ref> Namibia has a highly developed banking sector with modern infrastructures, such as online banking and cellphone banking. The [[Bank of Namibia]] (BoN) is the central bank of Namibia responsible for performing all other functions ordinarily performed by a central bank. There are five BoN authorised commercial banks in Namibia: Bank Windhoek, First National Bank, Nedbank, Standard Bank and Small and Medium Enterprises Bank.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bon.com.na|title=Bank of Namibia (BoN)|access-date=3 April 2011}}</ref> Namibia's economy is characterised by a divide between the formal and the informal economies, which is in part aggravated by the legacy of apartheid spatial planning.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Laufs |first=Johannes |date=2011 |title=Document: Bridging the Economic Divide in Urban Areas of Namibia: Townships within the Local Economic Development Framework |url=http://rgdoi.net/10.13140/RG.2.1.1825.5600 |doi=10.13140/RG.2.1.1825.5600}}</ref> According to the Namibia Labour Force Survey Report 2012, conducted by the [[Namibia Statistics Agency]], the country's unemployment rate is 27.4%.<ref>{{cite web |date=9 April 2013 |url=http://www.microdata.nsa.org.na/index.php/catalog/9 |title=Namibia Labour Force Survey 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131019214139/http://www.microdata.nsa.org.na/index.php/catalog/9 |archive-date=19 October 2013 |publisher=Namibia Statistics Agency }}</ref> "Strict unemployment" (people actively seeking a full-time job) stood at 20.2% in 2000, 21.9% in 2004 and spiralled to 29.4% in 2008. Under a broader definition (including people who have given up searching for employment) unemployment rose to 36.7% in 2004. This estimate considers people in the [[Informal sector|informal economy]] as employed. Labour and Social Welfare Minister [[Immanuel Ngatjizeko]] praised the 2008 study as "by far superior in scope and quality to any that has been available previously",<ref>Duddy, Jo-Mare (4 February 2010) [http://www.namibian.com.na/indexx.php?archive_id=62453&page_type=archive_story_detail&page=2592 "Half of all Namibians unemployed"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131002115959/http://www.namibian.com.na/indexx.php?archive_id=62453&page_type=archive_story_detail&page=2592 |date=2 October 2013 }}. ''The Namibian''</ref> but its methodology has also received criticism.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201111180890.html |title=Mwinga speaks out on his findings |last=Ndjebela |first=Toivo |date=18 November 2011 |newspaper=[[New Era (Namibia)|New Era]]}}</ref> In 2004 a labour act was passed to protect people from job discrimination stemming from pregnancy and HIV/AIDS status. In early 2010 the Government [[tender board]] announced that "henceforth 100 per cent of all unskilled and semi-skilled labour must be sourced, without exception, from within Namibia".<ref>Mongudhi, Tileni (3 February 2010 ) [http://www.namibian.com.na/indexx.php?archive_id=62400&page_type=archive_story_detail&page=2597 "Tender Board tightens rules to protect jobs"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131002120324/http://www.namibian.com.na/indexx.php?archive_id=62400&page_type=archive_story_detail&page=2597 |date=2 October 2013 }}. ''The Namibian''</ref> In 2013, global business and financial news provider, [[Bloomberg L.P.|Bloomberg]], named Namibia the top emerging market economy in Africa and the 13th best in the world. Only four African countries made the Top 20 Emerging Markets list in the March 2013 issue of Bloomberg Markets magazine, and Namibia was rated ahead of [[Morocco]] (19th), South Africa (15th), and Zambia (14th). Worldwide, Namibia also fared better than Hungary, Brazil, and Mexico. Bloomberg Markets magazine ranked the top 20 based on more than a dozen criteria. The data came from Bloomberg's own financial-market statistics, IMF forecasts and the World Bank. The countries were also rated on areas of particular interest to foreign investors: the ease of doing business, the perceived level of corruption and economic freedom. To attract foreign investment, the government has made improvement in reducing red tape resulted from excessive government regulations, making Namibia one of the least bureaucratic places to do business in the region. Facilitation payments are occasionally demanded by customs due to cumbersome and costly customs procedures.<ref>{{cite web|title=Snapshot of Namibia Country Profile|url=http://www.business-anti-corruption.com/country-profiles/sub-saharan-africa/namibia/snapshot.aspx|publisher=Business Anti-Corruption Portal|access-date=6 February 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140220022104/http://www.business-anti-corruption.com/country-profiles/sub-saharan-africa/namibia/snapshot.aspx|archive-date=20 February 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref> Namibia is also classified as an Upper Middle Income country by the [[World Bank]], and ranks 87th out of 185 economies in terms of ease of doing business.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.doingbusiness.org/data/exploreeconomies/namibia/ |title=Namibia |publisher=Doingbusiness.org |date=10 January 2013 |access-date=10 September 2013 |archive-date=26 September 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130926174152/http://www.doingbusiness.org/data/exploreeconomies/namibia/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> The [[cost of living in Namibia]] is relatively high because most goods, including cereals, need to be imported. Its capital city, Windhoek, is the 150th most expensive place in the world for expatriates to live.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.xpatulator.com/outside.cfm?lid=142|title=Namibia, Windhoek Cost of Living|website=Apatulator.com|access-date=26 August 2017}}</ref> [[Taxation in Namibia]] includes personal income tax, which is applicable to the total taxable income of an individual. All individuals are taxed at progressive marginal rates over a series of income brackets. The value-added tax (VAT) is applicable to most of the commodities and services.<ref>PAYE12 Volume 18 published by The Ministry of Finance in Namibia</ref> [[File:Sandstorm while driving from Swakopmund to Walfish Bay, 2005.jpg|thumb|The [[B2 road (Namibia)|B2]] between [[Swakopmund]] and [[Walvis Bay]], Namibia]] Despite the remote nature of much of the country, Namibia has seaports, airports, highways, and [[Rail transport in Namibia|railways]] (narrow-gauge). It seeks to become a regional transportation hub; it has an important seaport and several landlocked neighbours. The Central Plateau already serves as a [[transportation corridor]] from the more densely populated north to South Africa, the source of four-fifths of Namibia's imports.<ref name="World Almanac 2004" /> ===Agriculture=== {{Main|Agriculture in Namibia}} [[File:Schildburgsdorf.jpg|thumb|Welcoming sign of the ''Burgsdorf'' farm in [[Hardap Region|Hardap]]]] Pafupifupi hafu ya ŵanthu ŵa mu Namibia ŵakuthemba ulimi kuti ŵasange vyakukhumbikwa pa umoyo, kweni nanga ni sono ŵakukhumbikwira kunjizga vyakurya vinyake mu charu. Nangauli ciŵelengero ca ŵanthu awo ŵakukhala mu caru ici cikujumpha ciŵelengero ca ŵanthu awo ŵakukhala mu vyaru vikavu comene vya mu Africa, kweni ŵanthu ŵanandi mu caru ici ŵakukhala mu mizi ndipo ŵakukhumbikwira ndalama zinandi kuti ŵasange vyakukhumbikwa pa umoyo. Ku Namibia ndiko kuli ŵanthu ŵanandi chomene ŵambura kupokera ndalama zakukwana, cifukwa cakuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakukhala mu matawuni, ndipo ŵanandi ŵakukhala mu mizi. Ntheura, pa mdauko uwu, pali ŵanthu awo ŵakuthemba yayi chuma kuti ŵasange vyakukhumbikwa pa umoyo. Nangauli charu cha Namibia chili na vyakurya vyakukwana 1 peresenti yayi, kweni ŵanthu pafupifupi hafu ya ŵanthu wose ŵali mu ulimi..<ref name="World Almanac 2004">World Almanac. 2004.</ref> Pafupifupi hafu ya minda ya ku Namibia yili mu mawoko gha ŵalimi pafupifupi 4,000. Mu 2004, boma la United Kingdom likapeleka ndalama zakukwana madola 180,000 ku boma la Namibia kuti lipeleke ndalama zakovwilira pa mulimo wa kunozga malo. Germany yapeleka ndalama zakukwana €1.1billion mu 2021 kwa vyaka 30 kuti yilute ku ŵanthu awo ŵakakomeka mu vyaka vya m'ma 1900, kweni ndalama izi zilute ku vinthu vyakuzenga, vyaumoyo, na masambiro, kuti zikagwirenge ntchito pa vinthu vya malo yayi. Mu vyaru vinyake, ŵanthu ŵakughanaghana kuti vinthu viheni ivyo vikuchitika mu caru vingapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵaleke kugwiliskira nchito vinthu ivi. Kweni ndalama izo zikufuma ku ŵanthu awo ŵakugwiliskira nchito vinthu ivi zikovwira kuti ŵanthu ŵaleke kusanga ndalama zinandi. Cimoza mwa vinthu ivyo vikukura comene mu caru ca Namibia ni malo ghakusungirako vinyama. Vinthu ivi ni vyakuzirwa comene ku ŵanthu awo ŵakukhala ku mizi, awo kanandi ŵakusoŵa nchito. ===Mining and electricity=== {{main|Mining in Namibia}} Munda wa migodi ndiwo ukupeleka ndalama zinandi chomene ku charu cha Namibia. Namibia ni caru cacinayi pa vyaru ivyo vikupanga mafuta ghakununkhira mu Africa, ndipo pa vyaru vyose ivyo vikupanga uranium, ico cikaŵa cacinayi. Pali ndalama zinandi izo zaŵikika mu migodi ya uranium ndipo Namibia wakunozgekera kuti yiŵe charu chikuru icho chikufumiska uranium mu 2015. Ndipouli, mu chaka cha 2019, charu cha Namibia chikalutilira kupanga matani 750 gha uranium pa chaka, ndipo ichi chikapangiska kuti charu ichi chiŵe na vyakurya vinandi yayi pa charu chose chapasi.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.mining.com/web/70-years-of-global-uranium-production-by-country/ |title=70 years of global uranium production by country |first=Govind |last=Bhutada |date=September 23, 2021 |publisher=Visual Capitalist Elements |via=Mining.Com}}</ref> Pakuti ku Namibia kuli malibwe ghanandi gha dayamondi, ndiko kukusangika malibwe gha mtengo wapatali comene. Nangauli charu cha Namibia chikumanyikwa kuti chili na malibwe gha dayamondi na uranium, kweni ŵanthu ŵakufumiskamo vinthu vinyake nga ni tungsten, golide, tin, fluorspar, manganese, marble, mkuŵa, na zinc. Mu nyanja ya Atlantic muli mafuta ghanandi agho ŵanthu ŵaghanaghanenge kughagura kunthazi. Kuyana na buku la "The Diamond Investigation", ilo likuyowoya za malonda gha dayamondi pa caru cose, kufuma mu 1978, De Beers, kampani yikuru comene ya dayamondi, yikaguranga dayamondi zinandi za ku Namibia, ndipo yikalutilira kucita nthena, cifukwa cakuti "ufumu uliwose uwo uzamwiza ku muwuso uzamukhumbikwira ndalama izi kuti uŵe na umoyo". Vuto la magetsi m'nyumba ndi 220 V AC. Magesi ghakufumira ku malo ghakupangira magesi agho ghakupanga mphepo na maji. Nthowa zinyake zakupangira magesi nazo zikovwira. Mu 2010, boma la Namibia likakhumba kuzenga malo ghakugwilira nchito ya nyukiliya mu 2018. Ŵakapangaso ndondomeko yakuti pa malo agha paŵikikikenge vyakununkhira vya uranium.<ref name=Saveorsink>{{cite news|title=Uranium: Saving or sinking Namibia? |last=Weidlich |first=Brigitte |newspaper=[[The Namibian]] |date=7 January 2011 |url=http://www.namibian.com.na/news/full-story/archive/2011/january/article/uranium-saving-or-sinking-namibia |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110113120601/http://www.namibian.com.na/news/full-story/archive/2011/january/article/uranium-saving-or-sinking-namibia |archive-date=13 January 2011 }}</ref> ===Diamonds=== Nangauli malibwe ghanandi gha dayamondi ghakufuma ku Africa, kweni ku Namibia kulije nkhondo, kupoka, na kukoma ŵanthu nga umo viliri mu vyaru vinyake vya mu Africa. Vinthu ivi vikuchitika chifukwa cha umo vinthu viliri pa ndyali, umo chuma chiliri, masuzgo agho ŵanthu ŵakukumana nagho, umo vinthu viliri pa ndyali, kweniso chifukwa cha umo vinthu viliri mu vigaŵa vinyake.<ref>{{cite journal|journal=South African Security|title=Diamonds Without Blood: A Look at Namibia|author=Nathan Munier|date=1 March 2016|volume=9|issue=1|pages=21–41|doi=10.1080/19392206.2016.1132903|s2cid=147267236}}</ref> ===Oil and natural gas=== Vikuwoneka kuti mu 2022, visimi viŵiri vya ku Orange vingaŵa na mafuta ghakukwana 2 biliyoni na 3 biliyoni. Ndalama izo ŵakulindizga kuti ŵazakasange zingawovwira kuti vinthu visinthe mu charu cha Namibia na kovwira kuti vinthu viŵe makora.<ref name="bra1">{{cite news |last1=Brandt |first1=Edgar |title=Namibia: Orange Basin potential shoots up to billions of barrels |url=https://allafrica.com/stories/202204080598.html |access-date=13 April 2022 |agency=allafrica.com |publisher=AllAfrica, New Era |date=8 April 2022}}</ref> ===Tourism=== {{Main|Tourism in Namibia}} [[File:Equus burchelli 4.jpg|thumb|An example of Namibian wildlife, the [[plains zebra]], is one focus of tourism.]] Ntchito zaulendo zikovwira comene (14.5%) pa GDP ya Namibia, ndipo zikupangiska nchito zinandi (18.2% za nchito zose) mwakudunjika panji mwakudunjika yayi, kweniso zikovwira ŵalendo ŵakujumpha miliyoni pa caka. Caru ici nchakudokeka comene mu Africa ndipo cikumanyikwa kuti ŵanthu ŵakuwona malo agho kuli vinyama na vinyama. Ku malo agha kuli malo ghanandi agho ŵanthu awo ŵakukhumba kuwona malo ghakupambanapambana ŵakugona. Kusanga vyakurya na vyakurya vyakukhumbikwa pa ulendo wa ku Namibia ni vigaŵa vikuru na vyakukhora vya ndalama za ku Namibia. Mu 2000, vyakurya ivi vikawovwira kuti kuŵe na vyakurya vyakukhumbikwa pa ulendo wa ku Namibia. Kweniso, maseŵero ghanyake ghakofya nga ni kujumpha mu maji, kuduka kufuma pasi, na kukwera galimoto ya 4x4 ghakumanyikwa chomene, ndipo mu misumba yinandi muli makampani agho ghakwendeska ŵanthu. Malo agho ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuluta ni Windhoek, Caprivi Strip, Fish River Canyon, Sossusvlei, Skeleton Coast Park, Sesriem, Etosha Pan na matawuni gha Swakopmund, Walvis Bay na Lüderitz.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.namibiatourism.com.na/namibia-top-attractions/ |title=Namibia top tourist destinations |publisher=Namibiatourism.com.na |access-date=26 August 2017 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161227102320/http://www.namibiatourism.com.na/namibia-top-attractions/ |archive-date=27 December 2016}}</ref> Windhoek ni malo ghakuzirwa chomene ku Namibia chifukwa cha malo agho ghakusangika kweniso chifukwa chakuti yili pafupi na Hosea Kutako International Airport. Malinga ndi kafukufuku wa The Namibia Tourism Exit Survey, omwe adapangidwa ndi Millennium Challenge Corporation ku Namibian Directorate of Tourism, 56% ya alendo onse omwe adapita ku Namibia mu 2012 ⁇ 13 adapita ku Windhoek. Maofesi ghanandi gha boma na mawupu agho ghakwendakwenda nga ni Namibia Wildlife Resorts na Namibia Tourism Board kweniso mabungwe agho ghakwendakwenda nga ni Hospitality Association of Namibia ghali na ofesi yawo yikuru ku Windhoek. Mu tawuni iyi muli malo ghanandi ghakukhala ŵanthu nga ni Windhoek Country Club Resort na malo ghanyake ghakukhala ŵanthu nga ni Hilton Hotels and Resorts. Wupu wakuwona vya maulendo ku Namibia, wakuchemeka kuti Namibia Tourism Board (NTB), ukakhazikiskika na dango la chalo cha Namibia la 2000 (Act 21 of 2000). Chilato chake nchakuti boma liŵikenge malango ghakwendeskera vyamwendekero ndiposo kuti Namibia yiŵe malo ghakwendera vyamwendekero. Ku Namibia kuli mabungwe ghanandi agho ghakwendakwenda, nga ni Federation of Namibia Tourism Associations (bungwe ilo likwimira mabungwe ghose agho ghakwendakwenda), Hospitality Association of Namibia, Association of Namibian Travel Agents, Car Rental Association of Namibia na Tour and Safari Association of Namibia. ===Water supply and sanitation=== {{Main|Water supply and sanitation in Namibia}} Ku Namibia, maji ghakukwana ghakupelekeka na kampani ya NamWater, iyo yikuguliska maji ku matawuni agho ghakuguliska maji kwizira mu magesi. Mu vigaŵa vya ku mizi, Dipatimenti Yakupeleka Maji ku Vigaŵa vya ku Mizi mu Unduna wa vya Vyakurya, Vyakumwa na Vyamuthengere ndiyo yikupanga maji ghakumwa. Mu 2011, wupu wa UN ukawona kuti kufuma waka apo charu cha Namibia chikamba kujiwusa mu 1990, maji ghakwenda makora chomene. Kweni ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakutondeka kugwiliskira nchito maji agha cifukwa cakuti ghalije nchito ndiposo cifukwa cakuti malo ghakusungiramo maji ghali kutali comene na ku mizi. Lekani ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Namibia ŵakutemwa visimi vya mu mphepete mwa nyanja m'malo mwa visimi vya maji ivyo vili kutali.<ref name=":1">{{Cite news|url = http://www.namibian.com.na/news/full-story/archive/2011/july/article/red-alert-on-sanitation-and-safe-drinking-water/|title = Red alert on sanitation and safe drinking water|last = Smith|first = Jana–Mari|date = 12 July 2011|work = [[The Namibian]]|url-status=dead|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120531123557/http://www.namibian.com.na/news/full-story/archive/2011/july/article/red-alert-on-sanitation-and-safe-drinking-water/|archive-date = 31 May 2012|df = dmy-all}}</ref> Kuyana na umo ŵanthu ŵakucitira kuti ŵaŵe na maji ghawemi, mu Namibia mulije maji ghawemi. Pa sukulu izi pali masukulu 298 agho ghalije vimbuzi. Pafupifupi ŵana 50 pa 100 awo ŵakufwa, ŵakufwa cifukwa ca kusoŵa maji ghawemi, malo ghawemi ghakusungira vyakurya, panji cifukwa ca kulwaralwara; ndipo 23 pa 100 ŵakufwa cifukwa ca kusulura pera. Wupu wa UN ukayowoya kuti mu caru ici muli "kusoŵa maji". Ku vigaŵa vinandi, nyumba za ŵanthu ŵakuzirwa na ŵanthu ŵapakati ndizo zikukhalanga makora yayi. Vipinda vya ŵanthu ŵekha ni vyakudura comene ku ŵanthu wose mu matawuni cifukwa ca maji agho ŵakugwiliskira nchito na ndalama izo ŵakugwiliskira nchito pakuvizenga. Pa vigaŵa vya ku mizi, ŵanthu 13 pa ŵanthu 100 ŵali na maji ghawemi, apo mu 1990 ŵanthu 8 pera ndiwo ŵakaŵa na maji ghawemi. Ŵanandi awo ŵakukhala ku Namibia ŵakugwiliskira nchito "vipinda vyamumphepete", ivyo ni mathumba gha pulasitiki agho ŵakugwiliskira nchito para ŵakukhumba kukazuzga, ndipo para ŵaghagwiliskira nchito ŵakughataya mu thengere. Kugwiliskira nchito malo ghambura kuvunduka pafupi na malo ghakukhalamo kuti munthu wanjiremo na kukhalamo ni suzgo likuru ku ŵanthu.<ref name=":2">{{Cite news|url=http://www.namibian.com.na/indexx.php?id=11284&page_type=story_detail&category_id=1|title=More than 1 million Namibians defecate in open|last=Tjihenuna|first=Theresia|date=2 April 2014|work=[[The Namibian]]|access-date=26 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140407103151/http://www.namibian.com.na/indexx.php?id=11284&page_type=story_detail&category_id=1|archive-date=7 April 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref> ==Demographics== {{Main|Demographics of Namibia}} [[File:Namibia Population Density (2011).jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.5|Population density in Namibia by regions (census 2011)]] Pa vyaru vyose ivyo vili na wanangwa wakujiwusa, Namibia ndiyo yili na ŵanthu ŵachoko chomene, kufuma pa Mongolia. Mu 2017 ŵanthu ŵakaŵapo pafupifupi 3.08 pa km2. Kuyana na UN, mu 2015 mwanakazi yumoza wakababanga ŵana 3.47.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://datacatalog.worldbank.org/dataset/world-development-indicators|title=World Development Indicators (WDI) {{!}} Data Catalog|website=datacatalog.worldbank.org|access-date=9 July 2019}}</ref> ===Ethnic groups=== Ŵanandi mwa ŵanthu ŵa ku Namibia ŵakuyowoya ciyowoyero ca Bantu, comenecomene ŵa fuko la Ovambo, ilo ni hafu ya ŵanthu wose ŵa ku Namibia, ndipo ŵakukhala kumpoto kwa caru ici. Mitundu yinyake ni Herero na Himba, awo ŵakuyowoya ciyowoyero cakuyana na ici, na Damara, awo ŵakuyowoya ciyowoyero ca Khoekhoe nga ni Nama. Padera pa ŵantu ŵa mtundu wa Bantu, paliso magulu ghanandi gha ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Khoisan (nga ni Nama na San), awo mbana ŵa ŵanthu ŵa ku Southern Africa. Kweniso mu caru ici muli ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵakacimbira ku Angola. Paliso magulu ghaŵiri gha ŵanthu ŵamitundu yakupambanapambana, awo ŵakucemeka kuti "Coloureds" na "Basters", ndipo wose pamoza ŵali na ciŵelengero ca 8.0% (ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yakupambanapambana ŵakuluska ŵa mitundu yakupambanapambana). Ku Namibia kuli ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku China, ndipo mu 2006 ŵanthu aŵa ŵakaŵa 40,000.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.migrationinformation.org/Feature/display.cfm?id=690 |title=China and Africa: Stronger Economic Ties Mean More Migration |author=Malia Politzer |publisher=Migration Information Source |date=August 2008 |access-date=10 September 2013}}</ref>[[File:Himba Woman and Family.JPG|thumb|[[Himba people]] in northern Namibia]] Ŵazungu (ŵakufuma ku Afrika, Germany, Britain na Portugal) ŵali pakati pa 4.0 na 7.0% mwa ŵanthu wose. Nangauli ciŵelengero ca ŵanthu aŵa cikakhira pamasinda pa kupokera wanangwa cifukwa ca kufumako ku vyaru vinyake ndiposo cifukwa ca kucepa kwa ŵana awo ŵakubabika, kweni ŵacali kuŵa ŵaciŵiri pa ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe, mu viŵelengero vyawo na viŵelengero vyawo, mu vyaru vya kumwera kwa Sahara (pamanyuma pa South Africa).<ref name=CIA>{{cite web|author=Central Intelligence Agency |author-link=CIA |work=[[The World Factbook]]|title=Namibia |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/namibia/ |year=2009|access-date=23 January 2010}}</ref> Ŵazungu ŵanandi ŵa ku Namibia na ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵa mitundu yakupambanapambana ŵakuyowoya ciyowoyero ca Afrikaans ndipo ŵali na mitheto yakuyana na ya ŵanthu ŵa ku South Africa. Ŵazungu ŵanandi (pafupifupi 30,000) ŵali kufuma ku ŵa German awo ŵakakhalanga ku Namibia pambere ŵandambe kuwukira caru ca South Africa pa Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Caru Cose, ndipo ŵali na masukulu na masukulu gha ku Germany. Pafupifupi ŵanthu wose ŵa ku Portugal awo ŵakakhalanga mu caru ici ŵakafuma ku Angola, uko kale kukaŵa caru ca Portugal. Mu 1960, ku South-West Africa kukaŵa ŵanthu 526,004, ndipo 73,464 ŵakaŵa ŵazungu (14 peresenti).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Singh |first= Lalita Prasad |title = The United Nations and Namibia |publisher=East African Publishing House |year = 1980}}</ref> [[File:Toutrek.jpg|thumb|[[Afrikaner]] children in Namibia]] ===Censuses=== Ku Namibia, pakuŵa kalembera wa ŵanthu para pajumpha vilimika khumi. Ŵakati ŵaŵa na wanangwa, ŵakalemba ŵanthu na nyumba zawo mu 1991. Ŵakalembaso mu 2001, 2011, na 2023 (ŵakacedwa vyaka viŵiri cifukwa ca nthenda ya COVID-19 kweniso cifukwa ca suzgo la ndalama). Nthowa yakupimira ni kupenda ŵanthu wose awo ŵakukhala mu Namibia pa zuŵa ilo ŵakalembeka, kulikose uko ŵakukhala. Nthowa iyi yikucemeka de facto. Kuyana na ndondomeko ya kalembera iyi, caru ici cagaŵika mu vigaŵa 4,042. Malo agha ghakupambana yayi na mphaka za malo ghakusankhirapo kuti ŵasange fundo zakugomezgeka zakukhwaskana na mavoti. Mu 2011, ŵanthu ŵakakwana 2,113,077. Pakati pa 2001 na 2011 chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu icho chikakwera chaka chilichose chikaŵa 1.4%, kuyana na 2.6% mu vyaka 10 vyakumasinda.<ref name=snapshot>{{cite news |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201303280355.html?page=2 |title=Census gives snapshot of Namibia's population |last=Duddy |first=Jo Maré |date=28 March 2013 |newspaper=[[The Namibian]]|access-date=26 August 2017}}</ref> ===Urban settlements=== {{Main|List of cities and towns in Namibia}} Ku Namibia kuli matawuni 13, agho ghakulamulirwa na ma municipalities na matawuni 26, agho ghakulamulirwa na town councils.<ref name=EW15>{{Cite news | title=Know Your Local Authority | publisher=Institute for Public Policy Research | newspaper=Election Watch | year = 2015 | issue=3 | page=4}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | last=Hartman | first=Adam | title=Town regrading a 'sad move' | newspaper=[[The Namibian]] | date=27 Aug 2010 | page=1 | url=https://www.namibian.com.na/index.php?id=69963&page=archive-read | url-status=live | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120317023725/http://www.namibian.com.na/news-articles/national/full-story/archive/2010/august/article/town-regrading-a-sad-move/ | archive-date=2012-03-17}}</ref> Windhoek, uwo ni msumba ukuru, ndiwo ni msumba ukuru comene mu Namibia. {{Largest cities | country = Namibia | stat_ref = According to the 2011 Census<ref>{{cite web |url=http://citypopulation.de/Namibia.html |title=Namibia |website=citypopulation.de |access-date=16 February 2022}}</ref> | list_by_pop = | div_name = Region | div_link = | city_1 = Windhoek | div_1 = Khomas Region{{!}}Khomas | pop_1 = 325,858 | img_1 = Klein-Windhoek 01.jpg | city_2 = Rundu | div_2 = Kavango Region{{!}}Kavango | pop_2 = 63,431 | img_2 = Rundu, Namibia, Okavango-River, Angola (2018).jpg | city_3 = Walvis Bay | div_3 = Erongo Region{{!}}Erongo | pop_3 = 62,096 | img_3 = Walvis Bay aerial.jpg | city_4 = Swakopmund | div_4 = Erongo Region{{!}}Erongo | pop_4 = 44,725 | img_4 = Mole, Jetty and Lighthouse Swakopmund, Namibia.jpg | city_5 = Oshakati | div_5 = Oshana Region{{!}}Oshana | pop_5 = 36,541 | city_6 = Rehoboth, Namibia{{!}}Rehoboth | div_6 = Hardap Region{{!}}Hardap | pop_6 = 28,843 | city_7 = Katima Mulilo | div_7 = Zambezi Region{{!}}Zambezi | pop_7 = 28,362 | city_8 = Otjiwarongo | div_8 = Otjozondjupa Region{{!}}Otjozondjupa | pop_8 = 28,249 | city_9 = Ondangwa | div_9 = Oshana Region {{!}}Oshana | pop_9 = 22,822 | city_10 = Okahandja | div_10 = Otjozondjupa Region{{!}}Otjozondjupa | pop_10 = 22,639 }} ===Religion=== {{Main|Religion in Namibia}} [[File:Swakopmund ev-luth Kirche 1.jpg|thumb|right|Lutheran church in [[Swakopmund]]]] Ŵanthu ŵanandi ku Namibia Mbakhristu, ndipo pafupifupi 75 pa ŵanthu 100 ŵaliwose ni Mapulotesitanti, ndipo 50 pa ŵanthu 100 ŵaliwose ni Malutere. Ŵanthu ŵa chisopa cha Lutheran ndiwo mbachoko chomene mu charu ichi, ndipo ŵali kufuma ku ŵanthu ŵa ku Germany na ŵa ku Finland awo ŵakambiska visopa ivi mu nyengo iyo charu ichi chikaŵa pasi pa Britain. Mu virimika vya m'ma 1800, ŵamishonale ŵakayamba nchito ya kupharazga, ndipo ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Namibia ŵakamba kuŵa Ŵakhristu. Mazuŵa ghano, Ŵakhristu ŵanandi mba Lutheran, kweni paliso Ŵakatolika ŵa Roma, ŵa Methodist, ŵa Anglican, ŵa African Methodist Episcopal, ŵa Dutch Reformed, ŵa Latter-day Saints, na Ŵakaboni ŵa Yehova. Ŵanandi mwa ŵanthu aŵa mba Nama, ndipo ŵalipo pafupifupi 9,000. Ku Namibia kuli Ŵayuda ŵacoko waka pafupifupi 100.<ref name="jewishvirtuallibrary1">{{cite web|url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/vjw/namibia.html |title=Namibia: Virtual Jewish History Tour |publisher=Jewishvirtuallibrary.org |access-date=1 August 2013}}</ref> ===Languages=== {{Main|Languages of Namibia}} {{bar box |title=Languages in Namibia |titlebar=#ddd |left1=Languages |right1=percent |float=right |bars= {{bar percent|Oshiwambo|darkgreen|48.9}} {{bar percent|Khoekhoegowab|purple|11.3}} {{bar percent|Afrikaans|red|10.4}} {{bar percent|Otjiherero|black|8.6}} {{bar percent|RuKwangali|orange|8.5}} {{bar percent|siLozi|green|4.8}} {{bar percent|English|blue|3.4}} {{bar percent|German|teal|0.9}} {{bar percent|San|darkred|0.8}} {{bar percent|Setswana|gray|0.3}} {{bar percent|Other African|tan|1.2}} {{bar percent|Other European|lime|0.7}} {{bar percent|Asian|violet|0.1}} }} M'paka mu 1990, Cingelezi, Cijeremani, na Cifrikaans zikaŵa viyowoyero vya boma. Pambere caru ca Namibia cindafumeko ku South Africa, gulu la SWAPO likagomezganga kuti caru ici cikwenera kuŵa na ciyowoyero cimoza, ndipo likapambananga na caru ca South Africa (co cikapeleka mazaza ku viyowoyero vikuruvikuru vyose 11 vya mu caru ici), ico cikati "nthowa ya kusankhana mitundu na viyowoyero yikamanyikwa makora". Mwantheura, wupu wa SWAPO ukasora Cingelezi kuŵa ciyowoyero ca boma, nangauli ŵanthu pafupifupi 3 pa ŵanthu 100 ŵaliwose ndiwo ŵakuyowoya Cingelezi. Ndondomeko iyi yikugwira nchito pa nchito za boma, masambiro na pa wayilesi, comenecomene pa wayilesi ya boma ya NBC.<ref name=kriger>{{cite book |last1=Kriger |first1=Robert & Ethel |title=Afrikaans Literature: Recollection, Redefinition, Restitution. |date=1996 |publisher=Rodopi Bv Editions |isbn=978-9042000513 |pages=66–67}}</ref> Viyowoyero vinyake vya mu vyaru ivi vyazomerezgeka kusambizgika mu masukulu gha pulayimale. Masukulu ghapadera ghakwenera kulondezga fundo zakuyana waka na za boma, ndipo "Chingelezi" ni sambiro lakucicizgika. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakususka kuti, nga umo vikaŵira mu vyaru vinyake vya mu Africa, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuluta ku sukulu za chiyowoyero chimoza. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuluta ku sukulu za chiyowoyero chimoza. Kuyana na census ya mu 2011, viyowoyero ivyo vikuyowoyeka chomene ni Oshiwambo (chiyowoyero icho chikuyowoyeka na ŵanthu ŵanandi mu nyumba 49%), Khoekhoegowab (11.3%), Afrikaans (10.4%), RuKwangali (9%), na Otjiherero (9%). Ciyowoyero ico ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakucimanya ni ciyowoyero ca Afrikaans, ico cikuyowoyeka mu caru ici. Viyowoyero vyose viŵiri, Cingelezi na Ciafrikaans, vikuyowoyeka pa caru cose. Kuyana na census ya mu chaka cha 2011, viyowoyelo vyose ivyo vikuyowoyeka ni 48.9% Oshiwambo, 11.3% Khoekhoegowab, 10.4% Afrikaans, 8.6% Otjiherero, 8.5% RuKwangali, 4.8% siLozi, 3.4% English, 1.2% Other African languages, 0.9% German, 0.8% San, 0.7% Other European languages, 0.3% Setswana, and 0.1% Asian languages. Ŵazungu ŵanandi ŵakuyowoya ciyowoyero ca Afrikaans panji Cigerman. Pakati pajumpha vilimika vyakujumpha 100 kufuma apo boma la Germany likamalira kulamulira caru ici, ciyowoyero ca Cijeremani cikulutilira kuŵa cakovwira comene pa malonda. Afrikaans yikuyowoyeka na 60% ya ŵazungu, German na 32%, English na 7% ndipo Portuguese na 4 ⁇ 5%. Pakuti charu ichi chili pafupi chomene na Angola, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuyowoya Chiphwitikizi.<ref>{{Cite news | first=Catherine | last=Sasman | date=15 August 2011 | url= https://www.namibian.com.na/83964/archive-read/Portuguese-to-be-introduced-in-schools | title=Portuguese to be introduced in schools | newspaper=[[The Namibian]] | url-status=live | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121222082932/http://www.namibian.com.na/index.php?id=28&tx_ttnews%5Btt_news%5D=85817&no_cache=1 | archive-date=22 December 2012}}</ref> ===Health=== {{Main|Health in Namibia}} {{See also|HIV/AIDS in Namibia}} Mu 2017 ŵanthu ŵakakhala na umoyo vyaka 64, ndipo ichi ntchigaŵa cha ŵanthu ŵachoko chomene pa charu chose. Mu 2012, boma la Namibia likambiska pulogiramu ya National Health Extension Program. Mu pulogiramu iyi mukaŵa ŵanthu ŵakukwana 1,800 (2015), ndipo ŵanthu aŵa ŵakasambizgika umo ŵangapwelelera umoyo wawo kwa myezi 6. Mu pulogiramu iyi mukaŵaso ntchito ya kovwira ŵalwari, kupwelelera umoyo wawo, kupwelelera maji, kupwelelera umoyo wawo, kupima HIV, na kupwelelera ŵanthu awo ŵali na majeremusi. Namibia yikukumana na nthenda zakwambukira yayi. Kafukufuku wa Demographic and Health (2013) wakulongosora ivyo ŵasanga pa nkhani ya kuthamanga kwa ndopa, kuthamanga kwa ndopa, nthenda ya shuga, na kunenepa chomene:<ref>{{cite web |title=Going the extra mile to deliver health care |url=https://www.unicef.org/namibia/Health_Worker_HIS_print.pdf |publisher=unicef |date=7 August 2015 |access-date=11 July 2018 |archive-date=11 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180711093332/https://www.unicef.org/namibia/Health_Worker_HIS_print.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> * Among eligible respondents age 35–64, more than 4 in 10 women (44 percent) and men (45 percent) have elevated blood pressure or are currently taking medicine to lower their blood pressure. * Forty-nine percent of women and 61 percent of men are not aware that they have elevated blood pressure. * Forty-three percent of women and 34 percent of men with hypertension are taking medication for their condition. * Only 29 percent of women and 20 percent of men with hypertension are taking medication and have their blood pressure under control. * Six percent of women and 7 percent of men are diabetic; that is, they have elevated fasting plasma glucose values or report that they are taking diabetes medication. An additional 7 percent of women and 6 percent of men are prediabetic. * Sixty-seven percent of women and 74 percent of men with diabetes are taking medication to lower their blood glucose. * Women and men with a higher-than-normal body mass index (25.0 or higher) are more likely to have elevated blood pressure and elevated fasting blood glucose.<ref name=":3">{{citation-attribution|1={{cite web |title=Namibia Demographic and Health Survey 2013 |url=https://dhsprogram.com/pubs/pdf/FR298/FR298.pdf |publisher=Ministry of Health and Social Services |date=September 2014 |access-date=16 February 2022}}}}</ref> [[File:AIDS and HIV prevalence 2008.svg|thumb|upright=1.3|Estimated percentage of HIV among young adults (15–49) per country {{as of|2011|lc=y}}.<ref>{{cite web|title=AIDSinfo|url=http://www.unaids.org/en/dataanalysis/datatools/aidsinfo/|website=UNAIDS|access-date=4 March 2013|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130305203900/http://www.unaids.org/en/dataanalysis/datatools/aidsinfo/|archive-date=5 March 2013}}</ref> {{Col-begin}} {{Col-break}} {{legend|#b00000|<small>15–50</small>}} {{col-end}}]] Nthenda ya HIV yikulutilira kuŵa suzgo likuru ku Namibia nangauli Unduna wa vya Umoyo na Wovwiri pa vya Umoyo wa Ŵanthu wachita vinandi pa nkhani ya kovwira ŵanthu awo ŵali na nthenda iyi. Mu 2001, ŵanthu pafupifupi 210,000 ŵakaŵa na HIV/AIDS, ndipo ciŵelengero ca awo ŵakafwa mu 2003 cikaŵa 16,000. Kuyana na lipoti la UNAIDS la mu 2011, nthenda iyi mu Namibia "yikuwoneka kuti yikumara". Pakuti nthenda ya HIV/AIDS yacepeska ŵanthu awo ŵakugwira nchito, ciŵelengero ca ŵana ŵambura ŵapapi cikusazgikira. Boma ndilo likwenera kusambizga ŵana aŵa, kuŵapa cakurya, nyumba na vyakuvwara. Kafukufuku wakukhwaskana na umo ŵanthu ŵakukhalira na umoyo wawo, uyo wali na kachilombo ka HIV wakamara mu 2013 ndipo ukaŵa kachinayi pa kafukufuku wakukhwaskana na umo ŵanthu ŵakukhalira na umoyo wawo mu charu chose cha Namibia. DHS yikayowoya vinthu vyakuzirwa ivyo vikuchitika para ŵanthu ŵali na HIV: * Overall, 26 percent of men age 15–49 and 32 percent of those age 50–64 have been circumcised.&nbsp;HIV prevalence for men age 15–49 is lower among circumcised (8.0 percent) than among uncircumcised men (11.9 percent). The pattern of lower HIV prevalence among circumcised than uncircumcised men is observed across most background characteristics. For each age group, circumcised men have lower HIV prevalence than those who are not circumcised; the difference is especially pronounced for men age 35–39 and 45–49 (11.7 percentage points each). The difference in HIV prevalence between uncircumcised and circumcised men is larger among urban than rural men (5.2 percentage points versus 2.1 percentage points). * HIV prevalence among respondents age 15–49 is 16.9 percent for women and 10.9 percent for men. HIV prevalence rates among women and men age 50–64 are similar (16.7 percent and 16.0 percent, respectively). * HIV prevalence peaks in the 35–39 age group for both women and men (30.9 percent and 22.6 percent, respectively). It is lowest among respondents age 15–24 (2.5–6.4 percent for women and 2.0–3.4 percent for men). * Among respondents age 15–49, HIV prevalence is highest for women and men in Zambezi (30.9 percent and 15.9 percent, respectively) and lowest for women in Omaheke (6.9 percent) and men in Ohangwena (6.6 percent). * In 76.4 percent of the 1,007 cohabiting couples who were tested for HIV in the 2013 NDHS, both partners were HIV negative; in 10.1 percent of the couples, both partners were HIV positive; and 13.5 percent of the couples were discordant (that is, one partner was infected with HIV and the other was not).<ref name=":3" /> Mu 2015, Unduna wa vya Umoyo na Wovwiri ku Ŵana na UNAIDS ukalemba lipoti la umo matenda gha HIV ghakuthandazgikira mu ŵanthu ŵa vyaka 15 kufika 49, ndipo likati ŵanthu pafupifupi 210,000 ŵakukhala na HIV. Suzgo ya maleriya yikuwoneka kuti yikusazgikira cifukwa ca nthenda ya AIDS. Kafukufuku wakulongora kuti ku Namibia, para munthu wali na HIV, wakulwaraso maleriya pafupifupi 14.5 peresenti. Kweniso para munthu wali na HIV, wakufwa na maleriya pafupifupi pa nyengo yimoza. Mu 2002 mu caru ici mukaŵa ŵadokotala 598 pera.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.afro.who.int/home/countries/fact_sheets/namibia.pdf |title=WHO Country Offices in the WHO African Region |publisher=Afro.who.int |access-date=26 June 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100107105806/http://www.afro.who.int/home/countries/fact_sheets/namibia.pdf |archive-date=7 January 2010}}</ref> ==Mwambo== ===Sport=== {{Main|Sport in Namibia|Rugby union in Namibia}} [[File:Namibia Rugby Team.jpg|right|thumb|upright|The [[Namibia national rugby union team|Namibia rugby team]]]] Maseŵero ghakumanyikwa comene mu Namibia ni mpira. Timu ya mpira ya ku Namibia yikaluta ku Africa mu 1998, 2008 na 2019, kweni yichali yayi ku World Cup. Timu ya rugby ya ku Namibia ndiyo yikwenda makora comene pa nkhonyo zose, ndipo yalutapo pa nkhonyo zinkhondi na yimoza ya caru cose. Mu 1999, 2003, 2007, 2011, 2015 na 2019 Namibia yikaŵapo pa mpikisano wa Rugby World Cup. Charu cha India chikupanga maseŵero ghakupambanapambana, nga ni maseŵero gha Cricket World Cup 2003, ICC T20 World Cup 2021 na ICC Men's T20 World Cup 2022. Mu Disembala 2017, Namibia Cricket yikafika pa final ya Cricket South Africa (CSA) Provincial One Day Challenge kwa nyengo yakwamba.<ref name="NCYR">{{cite web |author=Helge Schütz |date=19 December 2017 |title=Namibia Cricket Year Review |url=https://www.namibian.com.na/62702/read/Namibia-Cricket-Year-Review |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171222051115/https://www.namibian.com.na/62702/read/Namibia-Cricket-Year-Review |archive-date=22 December 2017}}</ref> Mu Febuluwale 2018 ku Zimbabwe kukachitika chiphikiro cha ICC World Cricket League Division 2 icho chikachitikanga na Namibia, Kenya, UAE, Nepal, Canada na Oman. Kweniso Namibia yikafika pa malo ghakwenelera kuti yilute ku ICC T20 World Cup 2021 ndipo yikaluta ku Super 12. Munthu wakumanyikwa comene wa ku Namibia ni Frankie Fredericks, uyo wakucimbilira mtunda wa mamita 100 na 200. Wakawina mendulo zinayi za siliva pa maseŵero gha Olimpiki (1992, 1996) ndipo wali na mendulo zinandi pa maseŵero gha pa caru cose gha maseŵero ghakukhozga thupi. Trevor Dodds ndiyo wakawina mpikisano wa Greater Greensboro Open mu 1998, ndipo uwu ukaŵa mpikisano umoza mwa mipikisano 15 iyo wakachitapo pa umoyo wake. Mu 1998, wakaŵa pa nambara 78 pa caru cose. Dan Craven wakayimira Namibia pa maseŵero gha Olimpiki gha 2016 mu mpikisano wa pa msewu na mpikisano wa munthu payekha. Boxer Julius Indongo ni mulongozgi wa WBA, IBF, na IBO mu gulu la light welterweight. Munthu munyake wakumanyikwa comene wa ku Namibia ni Jacques Burger, uyo kale wakaseŵeranga rugby. Burger wakaseŵera mu timu ya Saracens na Aurillac ku Europe, kweniso wakaseŵera mu timu ya caru cose ya Spain maulendo 41. ===Media=== {{see also|Media of Namibia}} Nangauli caru ca Namibia cili na ŵanthu ŵacoko waka, kweni pali vinthu vinandi ivyo ŵanthu ŵakuyowoya. Pali ma TV ghaŵiri, mawayilesi 19 (kwambura kupenderako mawayilesi gha ŵanthu wose), na manyuzipepara 5 gha zuŵa na zuŵa, kweniso magazini ghanandi gha sabata yiliyose. Kweniso pali nkhani zinandi izo zikufuma ku vyaru vinyake, comenecomene ku South Africa. Ŵapharazgi ŵa pa Intaneti ŵakugwiliskira nchito mabuku ghakupulintira. Boma la Namibia lili na wupu wakulemba nkhani wakucemeka NAMPA. Ŵapharazgi pafupifupi 300 ŵakugwira nchito mu caru ici. Nyuzipepara yakwamba ya ku Namibia yikaŵa Windhoeker Anzeiger ya ciyowoyero ca Cijeremani, iyo yikamba mu 1898. Mu nyengo ya kuwusa kwa Germany, manyuzipepara ghakalongosoranga comene ivyo vikacitikanga nadi ndiposo maghanoghano gha ŵazungu awo ŵakayowoyanga Cigerman. Ŵazungu ŵanandi ŵakaŵayuyuranga panji ŵakaŵawonanga kuti mbakofya. Mu nyengo ya boma la South Africa, ŵanthu ŵacisungu ŵakalutilira kuŵa na maghanoghano ghambura kwenelera, ndipo boma la Pretoria likalutilira kuŵa na nkhongono pa nkhani za nyuzipepara za ku South West Africa. Ŵapharazgi ŵa nyuzipepara ŵakawonekanga nga kuti ŵakutimbanizga wupu uwo ukaŵako, ndipo kanandi ŵakawofyanga ŵanthu awo ŵakasuskanga boma.<ref name="Rothe">Rothe, Andreas (2010): Media System and News Selection in Namibia. p. 14–96</ref><ref>von Nahmen, Carsten (2001): Deutschsprachige Medien in Namibia</ref><ref name=Links>Links, Frederico (2006): ''We write what we like: The role of independent print media and independent reporting in Namibia''</ref> Manyuzipepara gha mazuŵa ghano ni The Namibian (Chingelezi na viyowoyero vinyake), Die Republikein (Chiafrikaans), Allgemeine Zeitung (Chijeremani) na Namibian Sun (Chingelezi) kweniso New Era (Chingelezi). Kupatulapo nyuzipepara yikuru ya The Namibian, iyo yili na ŵanthu awo ŵakugomezga, nyuzipepara zinyake izo zili mu gulu la Democratic Media Holdings. Ŵapharazgi ŵanyake awo ŵakulembeka mu manyuzipepara ni: Informanté, la TrustCo, Windhoek Observer, Namibia Economist, na Namib Times. Mu magazini ya Current Affairs muli mabuku nga ni Insight Namibia, Vision2030 Focus magazine na Prime FOCUS. Magazini ya Sister Namibia ndiyo yikugwira nchito kwa nyengo yitali mu Namibia, ndipo magazini ya Namibia Sport ndiyo yikupharazga vya maseŵero pa caru cose. Kweniso, mabuku ghakusindikizgika ghakulembeka na gulu la chipani, nyuzipepara za ŵana ŵa sukulu, na mabuku ghakuyowoya vya ŵanthu. Wayilesi yikamba mu 1969, ndipo TV yikamba mu 1981. Mulimo wa pa wayilesi na wa pa wayilesi lero ukucitika na wupu wa boma wa Namibia Broadcasting Corporation (NBC). Wupu uwu ukupeleka wayilesi ya TV na wayilesi ya "National Radio" mu Cingelezi na viyowoyero vinyake 9. Masiteshoni gha pa wayilesi ghakukwana 9 ghakupharazga comene Cingelezi, kupaturako Radio Omulunga (Oshiwambo) na Kosmos 94.1 (Afrikaans). TV ya One Africa yakhala ikulimbana ndi NBC kuyambira m'ma 2000.<ref name=Rothe/><ref name="oneafricabackground">[https://web.archive.org/web/20100928202233/http://www.oneafrica.tv/node/2 One Africa Television]. oneafrica.tv. 25 May 2010</ref> Kuyana na vyaru vyapafupi, ku Namibia kuli wanangwa wakuyowoya na ŵanthu. Mu vyaka vyakumasinda, caru ici cikaŵanga pa malo ghapacanya pa mapulogiramu gha Reporters Without Borders ghakulongosora vya wanangwa wa ŵanthu wakulemba nkhani. Mu 2010, cikaŵa pa malo gha 21. Kafukufuku wakukhwaskana na vyakupharazga ku Africa wakulongora kuti vinthu vili makora. Ndipouli, nga ni umo viliri mu vyaru vinyake, mu Namibia ŵimiliri ŵa boma na ŵamalonda ŵakulutilira kuŵa na mazaza pa nkhani ya nkhani za nyuzipepara. Mu 2009, boma la Namibia likaŵa pa malo gha 36 pa nkhani ya wanangwa wa ŵanthu wakuyowoyapo. Mu 2013 yikaŵa pa malo 19, mu 2014 yikaŵa pa malo 22 ndipo mu 2019 yikaŵa pa malo 23. Ichi chikung'anamura kuti sono ni charu icho chili pa malo ghapachanya chomene pa vyaru vya mu Africa pa nkhani ya wanangwa wa ŵanthu wakuyowoya. Ŵapharazgi na manyuzipepara ku Namibia ŵakwimikika na chaputara cha ku Namibia cha Media Institute of Southern Africa na Editors' Forum of Namibia. Mu 2009, boma likasora munthu wakujiyimira payekha kuti waŵavikilire.<ref name=Rothe/> ===Education=== [[File:42817 06.JPG|thumb|Secondary school students]] {{Main|Education in Namibia}} {{See also|List of schools in Namibia}} Ku Namibia kuli masambiro gha mahala gha pulayimale na gha sekondale. Ŵana ŵa sukulu ŵa giredi 1 kufika ku 7 ni awo ŵali mu kilasi la pulayimale, ndipo ŵana ŵa sukulu ŵa giredi 8 kufika ku 12 ni awo ŵali mu kilasi la sekondare. Mu 1998, ku Namibia kukaŵa ŵana 400,325 ŵa sukulu za pulayimale na 115,237 ŵa sukulu za sekondare. Mu 1999, chiŵerengero cha ŵana ŵa sukulu na ŵasambizgi chikaŵa 32:1, ndipo pafupifupi 8% ya GDP yikagwiranga nchito pa masambiro. Mulimo wakunozga visambizgo, kafukufuku wa masambiro, na kusambizga ŵasambizgi ukuchitika na National Institute for Educational Development (NIED) ku Okahandja.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nied.edu.na/ |title=National Institute for Educational Development |publisher=Nied.edu.na |access-date=26 June 2010}}</ref> Pa vyaru vya kumwera kwa Sahara, caru ca Namibia nchimoza mwa vyaru ivyo vili na ŵanthu ŵanandi comene awo ŵakumanya kuŵazga na kulemba. Kuyana na CIA World Factbook, mu 2018 ŵanthu 91.5% ŵa vyaka 15 kuya munthazi ŵakumanya kuŵazga na kulemba. Masukulu ghanandi ku Namibia ghakupharazgika na boma, kweni ghanyake ni ghapadera. Masukulu agha ghakukolerana na masambiro gha mu caru ici. Pali masukulu ghanayi ghakusambizga ŵasambizgi, masukulu ghatatu gha vya ulimi, na masukulu gha polisi. Masukulu agha ni: University of Namibia (UNAM), International University of Management (IUM) na Namibia University of Science and Technology (NUST). Namibia yikaŵa pa malo gha 100 pa Global Innovation Index mu 2021.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Global Innovation Index 2021 |url=https://www.wipo.int/global_innovation_index/en/2021/|work=[[World Intellectual Property Organization]]|publisher=[[United Nations]]|access-date=2022-03-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Release of the Global Innovation Index 2020: Who Will Finance Innovation?|url=https://www.wipo.int/global_innovation_index/en/2020/index.html|access-date=2021-09-02|website=www.wipo.int|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Global Innovation Index 2019|url=https://www.wipo.int/global_innovation_index/en/2019/index.html|access-date=2021-09-02|website=www.wipo.int|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=RTD - Item|url=https://ec.europa.eu/newsroom/rtd/items/691898|access-date=2021-09-02|website=ec.europa.eu}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2013-10-28|title=Global Innovation Index|url=https://knowledge.insead.edu/entrepreneurship-innovation/global-innovation-index-2930|access-date=2021-09-02|website=INSEAD Knowledge|language=en|archive-date=2 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210902101622/https://knowledge.insead.edu/entrepreneurship-innovation/global-innovation-index-2930|url-status=dead}}</ref> ==Wonaniso== *[[Index of Namibia-related articles]] *[[Outline of Namibia]] == Ukaboni == ===Notes=== {{Reflist |refs = <ref name=Adhikari>{{cite journal |last = Adhikari |first= Mohamed |title = 'Streams of Blood And Streams of Money': New Perspectives on the Annihilation of the Herero and Nama Peoples of Namibia, 1904–1908 |journal=Kronos |jstor=41056613 |year = 2008 |volume=34|issue=34|pages=303–320}}</ref> <ref name=aqmap>{{cite journal |vauthors = MacDonald AM, Bonsor HC, Dochartaigh BÉ, Taylor RG |doi=10.1088/1748-9326/7/2/024009 |title = Quantitative maps of groundwater resources in Africa |journal=Environ. Res. Lett. |volume=7 |page=024009 |year=2012 |issue=2 |bibcode=2012ERL.....7b4009M |citeseerx=10.1.1.693.4081 |s2cid=154336728 }}</ref> <ref name="finnish-mission">{{cite web|url=https://felm.suomenlahetysseura.fi/namibia-30-vuotta-suomalaisilla-oli-merkittava-rooli-namibian-itsenaistymisessa/|title=Namibia 30 vuotta – Suomalaisilla oli merkittävä rooli Namibian itsenäistymisessä|publisher=[[Finnish Evangelical Lutheran Mission]]|date=20 March 2020|access-date=11 February 2023|language=fi}}</ref> <!-- <ref name=Gerwarth>{{cite journal |last = Gerwarth |first = Robert |title = L'Antichambre de l'Holocauste? A propos du Debat sur les Violences Coloniales et la Guerre d'Extermination Nazie |language = fr |journal=Vingtième Siècle|year= 2008 |volume=99|pages=143–159 |JSTOR = 20475396 |doi=10.3917/ving.099.0143 |last2=Malinowski |first2=Stephan|issue=3 }} says most scholars think it did not influence the Nazis.</ref> --> <ref name=Humavindu>{{cite journal |last1 = Humavindu |first1 = Michael N. |last2 = Barnes |first2 = Jonothan I. |title= Trophy Hunting in the Namibian Economy: An Assessment. Environmental Economics Unit, Directorate of Environmental Affairs, Ministry of Environment and Tourism, Namibia |journal= South African Journal of Wildlife Research |volume=33|issue=2|pages= 65–70 |date=October 2003 }}</ref> <ref name=Korenromp>{{cite journal |pmid=16229771|last1=Korenromp |first1= E.L. |last2=Williams |first2= B.G. |last3=de Vlas |first3= S.J. |last4=Gouws |first4= E. |last5=Gilks |first5= C.F. |last6=Ghys |first6= P.D. |last7=Nahlen |first7= B.L. |year=2005 |title=Malaria Attributable to the HIV-1 Epidemic, Sub-Saharan Africa |journal= Emerging Infectious Diseases|volume= 11|issue= 9|pages= 1410–1419 |doi=10.3201/eid1109.050337|pmc=3310631}}</ref> <ref name=Lange>{{cite journal |doi=10.1007/s10640-004-4045-z |last = Lange |first = Glenn-marie |title= Wealth, Natural Capital, and Sustainable Development: Contrasting Examples from Botswana and Namibia|url=https://archive.org/details/environmental-and-resource-economics_2004-11_29_3/page/257 |journal= Environmental & Resource Economics|year=2004|volume=29 |issue = 3 |pages=257–83 |s2cid = 155085174 }}</ref> <ref name=Madley>{{cite journal |last = Madley |first = Benjamin |title = From Africa to Auschwitz: How German South West Africa Incubated Ideas and Methods Adopted and Developed by the Nazis in Eastern Europe |url = https://archive.org/details/european-history-quarterly_2005-07_35_3/page/429 |journal=European History Quarterly |year=2005 |volume=35 |issue=3 |pages=429–464 |doi=10.1177/0265691405054218 |s2cid = 144290873 }} says it influenced Nazis.</ref> <ref name=Sparks>{{cite journal |title=Namibia's Coastal and Marine Development Potential |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_african-affairs_1984-10_83_333/page/477 |volume=83 |issue=333|page=477 |journal=African Affairs |last=Sparks |first=Donald L. |doi=10.1093/oxfordjournals.afraf.a097645 |year=1984 }}</ref> <ref name="Stefanova">Stefanova, Kristina (August 2005). [https://web.archive.org/web/20080110052258/http://usinfo.state.gov/journals/ites/0805/ijee/stefanova.htm Protecting Namibia's Natural Resources]. usinfo.state.gov</ref> <ref name=UNEP>[https://web.archive.org/web/20121113190527/http://www.wri.org/publication/content/7600 Nature in Local Hands: The Case for Namibia's Conservancies] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121113190527/http://www.wri.org/publication/content/7600 |date=13 November 2012 }}. UNEP, UNDP, WRI, and World Bank. 2005.</ref> }} === Literature === ; Works cited {{refbegin}} * {{cite book |last = Vedder |first = Heinrich |author-link = Heinrich Vedder |title = Das alte Südwestafrika. Südwestafrikas Geschichte bis zum Tode Mahareros 1890 |trans-title = The old South-West Africa. South-West Africa's history until Maharero's death 1890 |language = de |year = 1997 |edition = 7th |publisher = Namibia Scientific Society |location = Windhoek |isbn = 978-0-949995-33-9 }} * {{cite book |last1 = Olusoga |first1 = David |author1-link = David Olusoga |last2 = Erichsen |first2 = Casper W. |title = The Kaiser's Holocaust: Germany's Forgotten Genocide |url = https://archive.org/details/kaisersholocaust0000unse |year = 2010 |publisher = Farber and Farber |location = London, England |isbn = 978-0-571-23142-3 }} * {{cite journal |last = Besenyo |first = Molnar |url = http://knbsz.gov.hu/hu/letoltes/szsz/2013_1_spec.pdf |title = UN peacekeeping in Namibia |journal = Tradecraft Review |publisher = Military National Security Service |location = Budapest, Hungary |year = 2013 |issue = 2013/1. Special Issue |pages = 93–109 |access-date = 8 November 2014 |archive-date = 17 December 2014 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20141217203716/http://knbsz.gov.hu/hu/letoltes/szsz/2013_1_spec.pdf |url-status = dead }} {{refend}} ; General references {{refbegin}} * Christy, S. A. (2007). ''Namibian Travel Photography''. * Horn, N/Bösl, A (eds.). ''Human rights and the rule of law in Namibia'', Macmillan Namibia, 2008. * Horn, N/Bösl, A (eds.). ''The independence of the judiciary in Namibia'', Macmillan Namibia, 2008. * KAS Factbook Namibia, Facts and figures about the status and development of Namibia, Ed. Konrad-Adenauer-Stiftung e.V. * [[:fr:Jean-Claude Fritz|Fritz, Jean-Claude]]. ''La Namibie indépendante. Les coûts d'une décolonisation retardée'', Paris: [[L'Harmattan]], 1991. * ''World Almanac''. 2004. New York, NY: World Almanac Books. {{refend}} == Vigaŵa vya kuwalo == {{Spoken Wikipedia|Namibia spoken word.ogg|date=2009-08-31}} {{Sister project links|voy=Namibia|collapsible=collapsed}} <!-- *********************** ({{No More Links}}) *************************** * Please be cautious in adding more links to this article. 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[[Central Intelligence Agency]]. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20160303221805/http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/namibia.htm Namibia] from ''UCB Libraries GovPubs'' (archived 3 March 2016) * {{curlie|Regional/Africa/Namibia}} * {{Wikiatlas|Namibia}} * [http://www.ifs.du.edu/ifs/frm_CountryProfile.aspx?Country=NA Key Development Forecasts for Namibia] from [[International Futures]] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20121204101417/http://www.grnnet.gov.na/ Republic of Namibia] Government Portal (archived 3 December 2012) *[https://web.archive.org/web/20081210072855/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/world-leaders-1/world-leaders-n/namibia.html Chief of State and Cabinet Members] (archived 10 December 2008) {{Namibia topics}} {{Navboxes |title = Articles relating to Namibia |list = {{Countries of Africa}} {{Former German colonies}} {{Southern African Development Community}} {{African Union}} {{English official language clickable map}} {{Commonwealth of Nations}} }} {{Portalbar|Africa}} {{Authority control}} {{Coord|22|S|17|E|type:country_region:NA|display=title}} [[Category:Namibia| ]] [[Category:Southern African countries]] [[Category:Member states of the African Union]] [[Category:Countries and territories where English is an official language]] [[Category:Member states of the Commonwealth of Nations]] [[Category:States and territories established in 1990]] [[Category:Member states of the United Nations]] [[Category:Republics in the Commonwealth of Nations]] [[Category:Former German colonies]] [[Category:1990 establishments in Africa]] [[Category:Countries in Africa]] cuwpfboe234d4txo5r0zfish07ozkga 0 6945 119295 115476 2026-08-13T22:04:51Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260813sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 119295 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|Country in West Africa}} {{about|charu}}{{Redirect|Naijá|the language sometimes referred to by the same name|Nigerian Pidgin}}{{distinguish|text=the neighbouring country [[Niger]]}} {{Coord|8|N|10|E|region:NI_type:country_source:dewiki|display=title}} {{Use dmy dates|date=April 2022}} {{Infobox country | conventional_long_name = Charu cha Naijeriya | common_name = Nigeria | native_name = {{smalldiv|{{unbulleted list|{{native name|ha|Jamhuriyar Tarayyar Najeriya}} |{{native name|ig|Ọ̀hàńjíkọ̀ Ọ̀hànézè Naìjíríyà}}|{{native name|yo|Orílẹ̀-èdè Olómìniira Àpapọ̀ Nàìjíríà}}}}}} | image_flag = Flag of Nigeria.svg | flag_size = 130 | image_coat = Coat of arms of Nigeria.svg | coa_size = 90 | national_motto = "Unity and Faith, Peace and Progress" | national_anthem = "[[Arise, O Compatriots]]"{{parabr}}{{center|[[File:Former national anthem of Nigeria (1978–2024).oga]]}} | image_map = {{Switcher|[[File:Nigeria (orthographic projection).svg|frameless]]|Show globe|[[File:Location Nigeria AU Africa.svg|upright=1.15|frameless]]|Show map of Africa|default=1}} | map_caption = | image_map2 = | capital = [[Abuja]] | coordinates = {{Coord|9|4|N|7|29|E|type:city}} | largest_city = [[Lagos]] | official_languages = [[English language|English]] | languages_type = [[National languages]] | languages = {{hlist|[[Hausa language|Hausa]]|[[Igbo language|Igbo]]|[[Yoruba language|Yoruba]]}} | languages2_type = [[Regional languages]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=ng |title=Languages of Nigeria |publisher=[[Ethnologue]] |access-date=12 September 2010}}</ref> | languages2 = Over [[Languages of Nigeria|525 languages]]<ref>{{Cite book|title=An Atlas Of Nigerian Languages|last=Blench|first=Roger|publisher=Kay Williamson Educational Foundation|year=2014|location=Oxford}}</ref> | demonym = [[Nigerians|Nigerian]] | government_type = [[Federation|Federal]] [[Presidential system|presidential]] [[republic]] | leader_title1 = [[President of Nigeria|President]] | leader_name1 = [[Bola Tinubu]] | leader_title2 = [[Vice President of Nigeria|Vice President]] | leader_name2 = [[Kashim Shettima]] | leader_title3 = [[President of the Senate of Nigeria|Senate President]] | leader_name3 = [[Ahmed Lawan]] | leader_title4 = [[Speaker of the House of Representatives of Nigeria|House Speaker]] | leader_name4 = [[Femi Gbajabiamila]] | leader_title5 = [[Chief Justice of Nigeria|Chief Justice]] | leader_name5 = [[Olukayode Ariwoola]] | legislature = [[National Assembly (Nigeria)|National Assembly]] | upper_house = [[Senate of Nigeria|Senate]] | lower_house = [[House of Representatives (Nigeria)|House of Representatives]] | sovereignty_type = [[History of Nigeria|Independence]] | sovereignty_note = from the [[British Empire|United Kingdom]] | established_event1 = [[Northern Nigeria Protectorate]] | established_date1 = 1 January 1900 | established_event2 = [[Southern Nigeria Protectorate]] | established_date2 = 1 January 1900 | established_event3 = [[Colonial Nigeria|Unification of Nigeria]] | established_date3 = 1 January 1914 | established_event4 = [[Federation of Nigeria|Declared independent as a sovereign state]] | established_date4 = 1 October 1960 | established_event5 = [[Nigerian First Republic|Became a republic]] | established_date5 = 1 October 1963 | established_event6 = [[Constitution of Nigeria|Current constitution]] | established_date6 = 29 May 1999 | area_km2 = 923,769 | area_rank = 31st | area_sq_mi = 356,667 <!--Do not remove per [[Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers]]--> | percent_water = 1.4 | population_estimate = 230,842,743<ref>{{Cite CIA World Factbook|country=Nigeria|access-date=4 March 2023|year=2022}}</ref> | population_estimate_year = 2023 | population_estimate_rank = 6th | population_density_km2 = 218 | population_density_sq_mi = 565 <!--Do not remove per [[Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers]]--> | population_density_rank = 42nd | GDP_PPP = {{increase}} $1.360 trillion<ref name="imf2">{{cite web |title= World Economic Outlook database: October 2022 |publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]] |url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2022/October/weo-report?c=694,&s=NGDP_RPCH,NGDPD,PPPGDP,NGDPDPC,PPPPC,&sy=2020&ey=2023&ssm=0&scsm=1&scc=0&ssd=1&ssc=0&sic=0&sort=country&ds=.&br=1 |access-date=4 June 2023}}</ref> | GDP_PPP_year = 2023 | GDP_PPP_rank = 27th | GDP_PPP_per_capita = {{increase}}$6,122<ref name=imf2/> | GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 141st | GDP_nominal = {{increase}}$574.271 billion<ref name=imf2/> | GDP_nominal_year = 2023 | GDP_nominal_rank = 31st | GDP_nominal_per_capita = {{increase}} $2,584<ref name=imf2/> | GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 145th | Gini = 35.1 <!-- number only --> | Gini_year = 2020 | Gini_change = decrease <!--increase/decrease/steady--> | Gini_ref = <ref>{{cite web |title=Poverty and Inequality Index |url=https://www.nigerianstat.gov.ng/download/1092 |access-date=2020-06-08 |website=National Bureau of Statistics}}</ref> | Gini_rank = | HDI = 0.535 <!-- number only --> | HDI_year = 2021<!-- Please use the year to which the data refers, not the publication year--> | HDI_change = increase <!--increase/decrease/steady--> | HDI_ref = <ref name="UNHDR">{{cite web|url=https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2021-22pdf_1.pdf|title=Human Development Report 2021/2022|language=en|publisher=[[United Nations Development Programme]]|date=8 September 2022|access-date=8 September 2022}}</ref> | HDI_rank = 163rd | currency = [[Nigerian naira|Naira]] (₦) | currency_code = NGN | time_zone = [[West Africa Time|WAT]] | utc_offset = +01:00 | utc_offset_DST = | time_zone_DST = | drives_on = right<ref>{{cite web |author=Akinbode, Ayomide |title=Why Nigeria changed from Right-Hand Drive to Left-Hand Drive in 1972 |url=https://www.thehistoryville.com/nigeria-left-hand-drive-right-hand-drive/ |website=www.thehistoryville.com |quote=The terms 'right- and left-hand drive' refer to the position of the driver in the vehicle and are the reverse of the terms 'right- and left-hand traffic'. |date=2 April 2019 |accessdate=9 July 2021}}</ref> | calling_code = [[Telephone numbers in Nigeria|+234]] | cctld = [[.ng]] | today = | ethnic_groups_ref = <ref name="Africa: Nigeria">{{cite web|work=[[The World Factbook]] |publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency]] |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/nigeria/|access-date=2020-06-21 |title=Africa: Nigeria}}</ref> | ethnic_groups_year = 2018 | ethnic_groups = {{plainlist| * 30% [[Hausa people|Hausa]] * 15.5% [[Yoruba people|Yoruba]] * 15.2% [[Igbo people|Igbo]] * 6% [[Fula people|Fulani]] * 2.4% [[Tiv people|Tiv]] * 2.4% [[Kanuri people|Kanuri]] * 1.8% [[Ibibio people|Ibibio]] * 1.8% [[Ijaw people|Ijaw]] * 24.9% [[List of ethnic groups in Nigeria|Other]] }} | religion = <!--There's a consensus against including religious figures due to lack of actual official data from the government, and different estimates from different sources keep leading to editwars.--> | religion_year = | religion_ref = |latm=|latNS=|longd=|longm=|longEW=|leader_name6=|leader_name7=|leader_name8=|leader_name9=|FR_total_population_estimate_year=|FR_foot=|FR_total_population_estimate=|FR_total_population_estimate_rank=|FR_metropole_population_estimate_rank=}} '''Naijeriya''', mwalamulo '''''Wupu wa Charu cha Nigeria''''', ntcharu icho chili ku [[West Africa]]. Charu ichi chili pakati pa [[nyanja ya Sahel]] kumpoto na [[Gulf of Guinea]] kumwera. Charu ichi chili na malo ghakukwana 923,769 square kilometres (356,669 sq mi), ndipo chili na ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 230 million. Charu cha Nigeria chili kumpoto na [[Niger]], kumpoto na kumafumiro gha dazi na [[Chad]], kumafumiro gha dazi na [[Cameroon]], ndipo kumanjiliro gha dazi na [[Benin]]. Charu cha Nigeria chili na vigaŵa 36 na [[chigaŵa cha Federal Capital Territory]]. Msumba ukuru comene wa ku Nigeria ni [[Lagos]], uwo ni msumba ukuru comene pa caru cose ndiposo waciŵiri mu [[Africa]]. Ku Nigeria kukaŵa vyaru vinandi ivyo vikaŵako pambere charu chindambe kuwusa. Boma la mazuŵa ghano ili likaŵako mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800 apo [[Britain]] likakolerana na charu cha Nigeria. Ŵanalume ŵa ku Britain ŵakambiska maboma gha ku Nigeria ndipo ŵakamba kulamulira mwauryarya.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Achebe |first=Nwando |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/707092916|title=The female king of colonial Nigeria : Ahebi Ugbabe |isbn=978-0-253-00507-6|location=Bloomington|oclc=707092916}}</ref>Pa Okutobala 1, 1960, charu cha Nigeria chikaŵa paubwezi. Kufuma mu 1967 m'paka mu 1970, charu ichi chikaŵa na nkhondo ya pawenenawene. Chisankho cha 2015 chikaŵa chakwamba kuti [[purezidenti]] uyo walipo watondeke kuwuskika.<ref>{{Cite news|date=2015-03-31|title=Nigeria's Buhari wins historic election landslide|language=en|work=Reuters|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-nigeria-election-idUSKBN0MR0VN20150331|access-date=2020-05-25}}</ref> Ku Nigeria kuli mitundu yakupambanapambana, ndipo kuli mafuko ghakujumpha 250.<ref>{{cite web|title=Ethnicity in Nigeria|url=https://www.pbs.org/newshour/updates/africa-jan-june07-ethnic_04-05/|date=5 April 2007|publisher=PBS|access-date=9 May 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Nigeria|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/country/NG|website=Ethnologue|language=en|access-date=4 July 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Linguistic diversity in Africa and Europe – Languages Of The World|url=http://www.languagesoftheworld.info/geolinguistics/linguistic-diversity-in-africa-and-europe.html|date=16 June 2011|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120515155945/http://www.languagesoftheworld.info/geolinguistics/linguistic-diversity-in-africa-and-europe.html|archive-date=15 May 2012|access-date=4 July 2019|last=Pereltsvaig|first=Asya}}</ref>Mtundu ukuru chomene ni wa [[Hausa]] kumpoto, Yoruba kumanjiliro gha dazi, na Igbo kumafumiro gha dazi. Chiyowoyero cha boma ni [[Cingelezi]], ico cikusoleka kuti paŵe umoza wa viyowoyero pa caru cose. Dango la Nigeria likupeleka wanangwa wa kusopa, ndipo mu charu ichi ndimo muli Ŵasilamu na Ŵakhristu ŵanandi.<ref>{{cite web|title=The countries with the 10 largest Christian populations and the 10 largest Muslim populations|url=https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2019/04/01/the-countries-with-the-10-largest-christian-populations-and-the-10-largest-muslim-populations/|website=Pew Research Center|language=en-US|access-date=2020-05-25}}</ref> Charu cha Nigeria chili kugaŵika pakati pa Ŵasilamu awo ŵakukhala kumpoto na Ŵakhristu awo ŵakukhala kumwera.<ref name="USEN">{{cite web|title=Nigeria Fact Sheet|url=https://photos.state.gov/libraries/nigeria/487468/pdfs/Nigeria%20overview%20Fact%20Sheet.pdf|publisher=United States Embassy in Nigeria|access-date=23 September 2018|archive-date=18 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201018101915/https://photos.state.gov/libraries/nigeria/487468/pdfs/Nigeria%20overview%20Fact%20Sheet.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> Nigeria ni boma la ku Africa ndipo lili na mazaza ghapakati na ghapachanya pa nkhani za caru cose. Charu cha Nigeria chili na chuma chikuru chomene mu Africa, ndipo ni cha nambara 31 pa charu chose. Boma la Nigeria likucemeka kuti [[Giant of Africa]] cifukwa ca unandi wa ŵanthu na cuma cake. Ndipouli, charu ichi chili pasi chomene pa vyaru ivyo vili na vimbundi chomene pa charu chose.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cfr.org/blog/perceptions-corruption-nigeria-remain-high-according-ngo|title=Perceptions of Corruption in Nigeria Remain High, According to NGO|work=[[Council on Foreign Relations]]|first=John |last=Campbell|date=29 January 2020|access-date=12 April 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.csmonitor.com/Commentary/the-monitors-view/2020/1016/A-light-shines-on-Nigerian-corruption|title=A light shines on Nigerian corruption|work=[[The Christian Science Monitor]]|date=16 October 2020|access-date=12 April 2020}}</ref> Nigeria ni chalo icho chili kukhazikiska African Union ndipo chili mu wupu wa [[United Nations]], [[Commonwealth of Nations]], [[NAM]], [[Economic Community of West African States]], [[Organisation of Islamic Cooperation]] na [[OPEC]]. Kweniso nchigaŵa ca [[MINT]], ndipo nchimoza mwa vyaru 11 ivyo vikulondezgapo. == Kwiza kwa zina == Zina lakuti Nigeria lili kufuma ku zina la [[Mlonga wa Niger]]. Zina ili likapangika pa Janyuwale 8, 1897, na mulembi wa nyuzipepara wa ku [[Britain]], [[Flora Shaw]]. Charu cha Niger icho chili pafupi na charu ichi, chili na zina ili. Zina lakuti [[Niger]], ilo pakwamba likang'anamuranga chigaŵa chapakati pera cha Mlonga wa Niger, likamanyikwa makora yayi. Lizgu ili likwenera kuti lili kufuma ku lizgu lakuti egerew n-igerewen ilo ŵanthu ŵa ku [[Tuareg]] ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito mu chigaŵa chapakati cha mlonga uwo ukazingilizga Timbuktu pambere ŵandambe kulamulira charu cha [[Europe]] mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800.<ref>The Arabic name ''nahr al-anhur'' is a direct translation of the Tuareg.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=Niger |title=''Online Etymological Dictionary'' |publisher=Etymonline.com |access-date=28 July 2014}}</ref> == Mbili == {{Main|Mbili ya Nigeria|Nyengo ya mbili ya Nigeria}} === Mbili yakale (pambere 1500) === {{Further|Early history of Nigeria|History of Nigeria before 1500}} [[File:Nok sculpture Louvre 70-1998-11-1.jpg|thumb|Chakuŵaja cha [[Nok]], terracotta]] Ku Kainji, ŵanthu ŵakagwiranga ntchito ya kupanga visulo m'ma 2 [[B.C.E]]. Mu nyengo ya Neolithic kukafika mu [[nyengo ya Iron Age]], ŵanthu ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito mkuŵa yayi. Ŵanyake ŵakugomezga kuti sayansi iyi yikamba kumanjiliro gha dazi kufuma ku Dambo la Nayelo, nangauli nyengo ya Iron Age mu dambo la Mlonga wa Niger na mu nkhorongo zikuwoneka kuti yikaŵa vyaka vyakujumpha 800 pambere ŵandambe kupanga visulo mu chipalamba. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Nok ku Nigeria ŵakakhalanga pakati pa 1500 B.C.E. na 200 C.E. Mu malo agha mukaŵa vithuzithuzi vyakutowa chomene ivyo ŵanthu ŵakavipanganga ku Africa<ref name="PB 2014">Breunig, Peter. 2014. Nok: African Sculpture in Archaeological Context: p. 21.</ref><ref>Nicole Rupp, Peter Breunig & Stefanie Kahlheber, "[http://www.antiquity.ac.uk/projgall/kahlheber/ Exploring the Nok Enigma] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304112232/http://www.antiquity.ac.uk/projgall/kahlheber/ |date=4 March 2016 }}", ''Antiquity'' 82.316, June 2008.</ref><ref>B.E.B. Fagg, "The Nok Culture in Prehistory", ''Journal of the Historical Society of Nigeria'' 1.4, December 1959.</ref><ref name="archaeology">{{Cite book|last1=Kleiner|first1= Fred S.|first2=Christin J. |last2=Mamiya |title=Gardner's Art Through the Ages: Non-Western Perspectives|publisher=[[Cengage Learning]]|edition=13, revised|year=2009|page=194|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TlVeuxIgjwQC&q=Nok+terracotta+earliest|isbn=978-0-495-57367-8}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/nok/hd_nok.htm |title=Nok Terracottas (500 B.C.–200 A.D.) &#124; Thematic Essay &#124; Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History &#124; The Metropolitan Museum of Art |publisher=Metmuseum.org |date=2 June 2014 |access-date=16 July 2014}}</ref>ndipo wakawotcha visulo mu 550 B.C. panji vyaka vinandi kumasinda.<ref>Tylecote 1975 (see below)</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Nok: African Sculpture in Archaeological Context|last=Eggert|first=Manfred|publisher=Africa Magna Verlag Press|year=2014|editor-last=Breunig|editor-first=P|location=Frankfurt, Germany|pages=51–59|chapter=Early iron in West and Central Africa}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Nok: African Sculpture in Archaeological Context|last=Eggert|first=Manfred|publisher=Africa Magna Verlag Press|year=2014|isbn=9783937248462|editor-last=Breunig|editor-first=P|location=Frankfurt, Germany|pages=53–54|chapter=Early iron in West and Central Africa|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BBn1BQAAQBAJ&q=Nok+Breunig&pg=PA38}}</ref>Ukaboni wa kusongonora visulo ukusangikaso ku malo ghanyake mu chigaŵa cha Nsukka kumwera cha kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Nigeria. Buku la Kano Chronicle likulongosora mbiri yakale ya tawuni ya Kano iyo yikaŵa mu chigaŵa cha Hausa Sahelian, m'ma 999, kweniso misumba yinyake yikuru ya Hausa (panji Hausa Bakwai) ya Daura, Hadeija, Kano, Katsina, Zazzau, Rano, na Gobir. Apo chisopa cha Chisilamu chikamba kuthandazgika mu vyaka vya m'ma 700 C.E., chigaŵa ichi chikachemekanga kuti Sudan panji Bilad Al Sudan. Pakuti ŵanthu aŵa ŵakakhalanga ku chigaŵa cha kumpoto kwa Africa, ŵakamba kuchita malonda mu charu cha Sahara, ndipo awo ŵakayowoyanga [[Chiarabu]] ŵakaŵachemanga kuti Al-Sudan (kung'anamura "Ŵachikuda"). Ŵasayansi ŵa mdauko wa Ŵarabu na Ŵasilamu ŵakuyowoyapo vya [[ufumu wa Kanem-Bornu]]. Ufumu wa Nri wa ŵanthu ŵa ku Igbo ukakhazikika mu vyaka vya m'ma 1000 ndipo ukalutilira m'paka apo ukafwira mu mawoko gha Ŵanung'una mu 1911.<ref name="Juang3">{{cite book|last=Juang|first=Richard M.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wFrAOqfhuGYC&pg=PA597|title=Africa and the Americas: culture, politics, and history: a multidisciplinary encyclopedia, Volume 2|publisher=ABC-CLIO|year=2008|isbn=978-1-85109-441-7|page=597}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Hrbek|first=Ivan|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qDFcD0BuekQC&pg=PA254|title=Africa from the seventh to the eleventh Century|publisher=James Currey Publishers|year=1992|isbn=978-0-85255-093-9|page=254}}</ref> Nri wakawusikanga na Eze Nri, ndipo msumba wa Nri ndiwo ukuwoneka kuti ndiwo ukaŵa wakwamba wa ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Igbo. Nri na Aguleri, uko kuli nthano ya kulenga ya [[Ŵaigbo]], ni vigaŵa vya fuko la Umeuri. Ŵanthu ŵa mu mbumba iyi ŵali kufuma ku fuko la Eri. Mu vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Africa, vinthu vyakale chomene ivyo ŵakavipanganga na minofu vikafuma ku Igbo-Ukwu, msumba uwo ukaŵa pasi pa mazaza gha Nri.<ref name="Juang3" /> Ufumu wa Yoruba wa Ife na Oyo, uwo ukaŵa kumwera kwa Nigeria, ukaŵa wankhongono comene mu vyaka vya m'ma 1200 na 1400. Vinthu vyakale chomene ivyo vikulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵakakhalanga mu msumba wa Ife ni vya m'ma 900 C.E. Vinthu ivi ni vithuzithuzi vya terracotta na vya mkuŵa. === Nyengo iyo ŵanthu ŵakakhalanga mu vyaru vinyake pambere ŵandambe kuwusa (1500–1850) === {{Further|Mbiri ya Nigeria (1500-1800)}} [[File:Ancient_Benin_city.JPG|thumb|Chithuzithuzi cha msumba wa Benin icho munthu munyake wa ku Netherlands wakalemba mu 1668. Charu cha Benin chikwenera kuti chili na viliŵa vyakupambanapambana.]] Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1500 C.E., ŵanthu ŵa ku Portugal ndiwo ŵakamba kuchita malonda na ŵanthu ŵa kumwera kwa Nigeria. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe ŵakaguliskanga vinthu na ŵanthu ŵa mumphepete mwa nyanja.<ref name="diverse-slavery">{{cite book|last=Gordon|first=April A.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H26pO3vwmHoC&pg=PA54|title=Nigeria's Diverse Peoples: A Reference Sourcebook|publisher=ABC-CLIO|year=2003|isbn=978-1-57607-682-8|pages=44–54|access-date=29 March 2015}}</ref>Ku Calabar uko kukaŵa dowoko la ku Biafra (uko sono kukuchemeka Bonny) ndiko kukaŵa malo ghakurughakuru ghakuguliskako ŵazga ku West Africa. Maboti ghanyake ghakurughakuru agho ŵakagwiliskiranga nchito ŵazga ku Nigeria ghakaŵa ku Badagry, Lagos, Benin, na Bonny Island, ku Biafra. Ŵanandi awo ŵakatolekera ku malo agha ŵakaŵa ŵazga. Kanandi ŵanthu aŵa ŵakaŵatoranga na kuluta nawo ku malo agho ŵakakhalanga. Ŵanthu ŵakendanga mu misewu ya ŵazga mu charu chose cha Nigeria. Maufumu ghanyake agho ghakatemwanga chomene kuguliska ŵazga agho ghakachitanga malonda agha ghakakolerananga na Ufumu wa Benin wa ku Edo kumwera, Ufumu wa Oyo kumwera cha kumanjiliro gha dazi, na ufumu wa Aro kumwera kwa kumafumiro gha dazi.<ref name="diverse-slavery" /><ref name="slave-trade">{{cite book |last1=Falola |first1=Toyin |url=https://archive.org/details/historicaldictio0000falo |title=Historical Dictionary of Nigeria |last2=Genova |first2=Ann |publisher=Scarecrow Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-8108-6316-3 |page=[https://archive.org/details/historicaldictio0000falo/page/n373 328] |access-date=29 March 2015 |url-access=registration}}</ref> Boma la Benin likaŵa na mazaza pakati pa vyaka vya m'ma 1500 na 1900. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1600 na m'ma 1800, boma la Oyo likaŵa pa malo ghapacanya comene.[[File:Queen Mother Pendant Mask- Iyoba MET DP231460.jpg|upright|thumb|Chisoti cha ku Benin, icho chili na minofu ya zovu, nchimoza mwa vinthu vyakuzirwa comene mu Nigeria. Ufumu wa Benin, m'ma 1500|left]]Kumpoto, nkhondo iyo yikaŵa pakati pa misumba ya Hausa na ufumu wa Bornu yikapangiska kuti Ŵafulani ŵanjire mu chigaŵa ichi. Kufika pa nyengo iyi, ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Fulani ŵakendanga mu chipalamba cha Saheli kumpoto kwa Sudan na viŵeto vyawo. Kukwambilira kwa vyaka vya m'ma 1800, Usman dan Fodio wakadangilira nkhondo yakususkana na maufumu gha Hausa. Ufumu uwu, uwo chiyowoyero chake chikaŵa Chiarabic, ukakura mwaluŵiro apo iyo na mphapu yake ŵakalongozganga. Ufumu uwu ukakolerananga kumafumiro gha dazi na kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa charu cha Sudan, ndipo ukambukira kumwera na kuthereska vigaŵa vinyake vya Ufumu wa Oyo (uno ni Kwara). Chigaŵa icho ufumu uwu ukalamuliranga chikaŵa kumpoto na pakati pa Nigeria. Fumu yikatumanga mafumu kuti ghazakalamulire vigaŵa ivyo yikapoka na kukhozgera chisopa cha Cisilamu. Kuzakafika mu ma 1890, ŵazga ŵanandi comene pa caru, pafupifupi mamiliyoni ghaŵiri, ŵakaŵa mu vigaŵa vya ufumu wa Sokoto. Ŵanthu ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito ŵazga, chomenechomene pa ulimi. Mu 1903, ufumu wa Sokoto ukagaŵikana mu vyaru vyakupambanapambana vya ku Europe.<ref>Adam, Abba Idris, "Re-inventing Islamic Civilization in the Sudanic Belt: The Role of Sheikh Usman Dan Fodio." ''Journal of Modern Education Review'' 4.6 (2014): 457–465. [https://web.archive.org/web/20210415060148/https://tweb.cjcu.edu.tw/journal_abstract/2014_10_02_12_32_45.99.pdf#page=63 online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415060148/https://tweb.cjcu.edu.tw/journal_abstract/2014_10_02_12_32_45.99.pdf#page=63 |date=15 April 2021 }}</ref> Chifukwa cha kusintha kwa malango (kukanizgika kwa malonda gha ŵazga mu nyanja ya Atlantic mu 1807) kweniso chifukwa cha suzgo la vyachuma (kukhumba kuti vinthu visinthe pa ndyali na pa umoyo wa ŵanthu), ŵamazaza ŵanandi ŵa ku Europe ŵakamba kulima chomene vyakurya nga ni makuni gha maolive. Makampani gha ku Europe ghakagwiranga nchito ya kuguliska ŵazga mu nyanja ya Atlantic m'paka mu 1807 apo boma la Britain likakanizga. Para boma lakanizga kuguliska ŵazga, ŵanthu ŵakalutilira kuguliska ŵazga. Gulu la ŵasilikari ŵa ku Britain la ku West Africa likakhumbanga kukora ŵanthu awo ŵakaguliskanga vinthu mu nyanja. Ŵazga awo ŵakaponoskeka ŵakaŵatolera ku Freetown, malo agho ghakaŵa ku West Africa, agho Litanenti John Clarkson ndiyo wakazenga. === Ukoloni wa Britain (1850-1960) === {{Main|Nigeria wakulongozgeka na ŵakoloni}} Boma la Britain likachitapo kanthu pa nkhondo ya ufumu wa Lagos mwa kuwukira boma la Lagos mu 1851, kuwuskapo Oba Kosoko uyo wakatemwanga chomene malonda gha ŵazga, kovwira kuti ŵaŵe na boma la Oba Akitoye na kusazga phangano pakati pa Britain na Lagos pa 1 January 1852. Mu Ogasiti 1861, boma la Britain likapoka msumba wa Lagos kuŵa wake. Ŵamishonale ŵa ku Britain ŵakasazgirako uteŵeti wawo ndipo ŵakalutanga ku vyaru vinyake. Mu 1864, Samuel Ajayi Crowther wakaŵa bishopu wakwamba wa ku Africa wa mpingo wa Anglican.<ref>[[Derek R. Peterson|Peterson, Derek R.]], ed., ''Abolitionism and imperialism in Britain, Africa, and the Atlantic'' (Ohio University Press, 2010).</ref> [[File:Flag of Lagos Colony (1888–1906).svg|thumb|Ndembera ya Chikoloni cha Lagos]] Mu 1885, pa ungano uwo ukachitikira ku Berlin, ŵamitundu ŵanyake ŵa ku Europe ŵakamanya kuti Britain njumoza wa vyaru ivyo vili na mazaza ku West Africa. Chaka chakulondezgapo, likapeleka katundu wake ku kampani yinyake yakuchemeka Royal Niger Company, iyo yikalongozgekanga na Sir George Taubman Goldie. Kuumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1800 na kukwambilira kwa vyaka vya m'ma 1900, kampani iyi yikatonda kuthereska maufumu gha kumwera agho ghakaŵa ku chigaŵa cha Mlonga wa Niger. Boma la Britain likamba kulamulira chigaŵa cha Niger chifukwa cha kuthereskeka kwa maboma agha. Mu 1900, boma la Britain likamba kulamulira chigaŵa ichi ndipo likakhazikiska boma la Southern Nigeria Protectorate. Kuzakafika mu 1902, ŵasilikari ŵa ku Britain ŵakamba kunozgekera kuti ŵalute kumpoto ku Sokoto. Ofesi ya Colonial Office yikapeleka mulimo kwa mulara wa ŵasilikari ŵa Britain, Frederick Lugard, kuti wafiske ivyo ŵakakhumbanga. Lugard wakagwiliskira nchito mphindano pakati pa ma emirs ghanandi agho ghakaŵa kumwera kwa caliphate na boma la Sokoto kuti waleke kuvikilira msumba uwu. Apo ŵasilikari ŵa Britain ŵakasendeleranga ku msumba wa Sokoto, Sultan Muhammadu Attahiru I wakanozga vyakuti ŵasilikari ŵa boma la Britain ŵavikilire msumba uwu. Mwaluŵiro ŵasilikari ŵa Britain ŵakathereska ŵasilikari aŵa, ndipo ŵakatuma Attahiru I na ŵalondezgi ŵake ŵanandi kuti ŵakambe ulendo wa ku Mahdist. Ku chigaŵa cha kumpoto na kumafumiro gha dazi, ufumu wa Bornu ukamara ndipo ufumu wa Borno uwo ukaŵa pasi pa Britain ukamba kulamulira.[[File:Emir of Kano-1911.jpg|thumb|[[Emir wa Kano]] pamoza na ŵasilikari ŵake, 1911|left]]Mu 1903, Ŵabritishi ŵati ŵathereska nkhondo ya ku Kano, ŵakaŵawovwira kuti ŵathereske ŵanthu ŵa mu ufumu wa Sokoto na vigaŵa vinyake vya ufumu wa Bornu. Pa Malichi 13, 1903, pa msika ukuru wa Sokoto, mulara waumaliro wa ufumu wa Caliphate wakazomera kuwusika na Britain. Ŵanalume ŵa ku Britain ŵakimika Muhammadu Attahiru II kuŵa kalifa. Lugard wakawuskapo ufumu wa Caliphate kweni wakasungilira zina lakuti sultan. Cinthu ici cikacemeka "Sokoto Sultanate Council". Mu Juni 1903, ŵasilikari ŵa Britain ŵakathereska ŵasilikari ŵa Attahiru. Kuzakafika mu 1906, ŵanthu ŵakaleka kuwukira boma la Britain. Pa Janyuwale 1, 1914, ŵa ku Britain ŵakakolerana na boma la Southern Nigeria Protectorate na Northern Nigeria Protectorate. Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Caru Cose yikati yamara, ŵanthu ŵa ku Nigeria ŵakamba kutemwa caru cawo ndipo ŵakakhumbanga kuti ŵajiyimire ŵekha. Pakati pa vyaka vya m'ma 1900, ŵanthu ŵanandi mu Africa ŵakakhumbanga kuti charu chawo chiŵe na wanangwa.[[File:Stamp Cameroons 2d-600px.jpg|thumb|Sitampu ya 1953 iyo yili na cithuzithuzi ca Fumukazi Elizabeth II]]Ŵalongozgi ŵa visopa ŵakakhazikiska masukulu gha ku vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi. Ku Britain, ŵanthu ŵakalondezganga yayi visambizgo vya Chisilamu, ndipo boma likakhozgeranga yayi kuti Ŵakhristu ŵambe kupharazga ku chigaŵa cha kumpoto kwa charu ichi. Ŵana ŵanyake ŵa ŵanthu ŵakufuma ku vyaru vya kumwera ŵakaluta ku Britain kuti ŵakasambire masambiro ghapacanya. Apo caru cikaŵa cakupatura wanangwa wake mu 1960, pakaŵa mphambano yikuru comene pakati pa vigaŵa ivyo visambizgo vikusangika. Nangauli ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuleka kupulikira, kweni ŵakulutilira kupulikira m'paka sono. Mu vyaru vinyake vya ku Nigeria, ŵanthu ŵakamanyanga yayi umo kumpoto na kumwera vikuŵira. Mwaciyelezgero, kumpoto kwa Nigeria, ŵazga ŵakazomerezgeka yayi m'paka mu 1936, apo mu vigaŵa vinyake vya Nigeria, ŵazga ŵakazomerezgeka yayi pamanyuma pa muwuso wa ŵazga.<ref>{{cite web|title=The end of slavery|work=The Story of Africa|publisher=BBC News|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/specials/1624_story_of_africa/page56.shtml|access-date=28 May 2011}}</ref><ref name="slave-trade" /> === Repabuliki Yakwamba, Nkhondo ya Ŵeneco na Nkhondo za Boma (1960-1977) === {{Main|Charu Chakwamba cha Nigeria||Nkhondo ya ku Nigeria}}Boma likalutilira kugaŵika mu vigaŵa viŵiri, kumpoto na kumwera, kweniso ku Lagos. Ŵanthu ŵa ku mizi ya kumwera ŵakakhalanga na ŵanthu ŵa ku Britain kweniso ŵa ku Europe chifukwa cha umo vinthu vikaŵira mumphepete mwa nyanja.<ref>Falola, Toyin, and Matthew M. Heaton, ''A History of Nigeria'' (2008), pp. 85–109.</ref> [[File:Tafawa Balewa.jpg|thumb|Cikozgo ca Abubakar Tafawa Balewa]] Boma la Nigeria likamba kujilongozga lekha mu 1954, ndipo likamba kujiyimira palokha pa 1 Okutobala 1960. Mu Novembala 1960, Azikiwe wakanjira mu malo gha kazembe mukuru uyo wakaŵa mu koloni. Pa nyengo iyo boma la Nigeria likapokera wanangwa wake, ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yakupambanapambana mu Nigeria ŵakaŵa na mitheto yakupambana. Ndondomeko ya boma ya ku Westminster yikalutilira, ntheura mazaza gha pulezidenti ghakaŵa ghacilendo.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.dawodu.com/const63.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210818121408/https://www.dawodu.com/const63.pdf |archive-date=18 August 2021 |title=The Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria |date=1963}}</ref> Boma laparamende likaŵa na Abubakar Tafawa Balewa kuŵa nduna yikuru na Nnamdi Azikiwe kuŵa pulezidenti. Boma ilo likambiska boma ili likaŵa la vipani vyakukolerana: Northern People's Congress ilo likalongozgekanga na Sir Ahmadu Bello, chipani icho chikaŵa na ŵanthu ŵa ku mpoto awo ŵakaŵa Ŵasilamu, na National Council of Nigeria na Cameroons, ivyo vikaŵa na ŵanthu ŵa ku Nigeria awo ŵakaŵa Ŵakhristu. Chipani ichi chikaŵa cha Action Group, icho chikaŵa na ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa mtundu wa Yoruba. Mu 1961, pakaŵaso suzgo la ndyali. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Cameroon ŵakasankha kuti ŵanjire mu charu cha Cameroon apo ŵa ku Northern Cameroon ŵakasankha kuti ŵanjire mu charu cha Nigeria. Chigaŵa cha kumpoto kwa charu ichi chikaŵa chikuru kuluska cha kumwera. Vinthu vikaŵa makora yayi pa nyengo ya maungano gha vyaru vyakupambanapambana. Nkhondo yakwamba yikacitika mu Janyuwale 1966 ndipo yikalongozgekanga na ŵasilikari awo ŵakalongozgekanga na Majors Emmanuel Ifeajuna (wa fuko la Igbo), Chukwuma Kaduna Nzeogwu (wa kumpoto wa kumafumiro gha dazi) na Adewale Ademoyega (mu Yoruba wakufuma kumanjiliro gha dazi). Awo ŵakakhumbanga kupoka boma ŵakacita makora kukoma Sir Ahmadu Bello na Sir Abubakar Tafawa Balewa pamoza na ŵalongozgi ŵakumanyikwa ŵa Northern Region kweniso Prime Minister Samuel Akintola wa Western Region, kweni awo ŵakakhumbanga kupoka boma ŵakafwilirapo kuti ŵapange boma likuru. Pulezidenti wa Senate Nwafor Orizu wapeleka mazaza gha boma ku Army, pasi pa muwuso wa mulara munyake wa boma la Igbo, Major General Johnson Aguiyi-Ironsi. Pamasinda, boma likapoka mazaza gha ŵasilikari ŵa ku Northern, ndipo Yakubu Gowon wakaŵa mulongozgi wa ŵasilikari. Nkhondo yikakura pakati pa kumpoto na kumwera; Ŵaigbo mu misumba ya kumpoto ŵakatambuzgika ndipo ŵanandi ŵakachimbilira ku chigaŵa cha kumafumiro gha dazi.<ref>Falola and Heaton, ''A History of Nigeria'' (2008) pp 158–59.</ref>[[File:Biafra independent state map-en.svg|thumb|Republic of Biafra mu Juni 1967, apo yikapharazga kuti njambura kukolerana na vyaru vinyake vya Nigeria|left]] Mu Meyi 1967, Kazembe wa chigaŵa cha kumafumiro gha dazi Lt. Colonel Emeka Ojukwu wakapharazga kuti chigaŵa ichi ntchakujiyimira pawekha kufuma ku wupu wa Biafra, nga ni boma lakucemeka Republic of Biafra, cifukwa ca kuwukira ŵanthu ŵa ku Igbos na awo ŵakafuma ku vigaŵa vya kumafumiro gha dazi. Phangano ili likapangiska kuti nkhondo ya ku Nigeria yambe, ndipo yikamba apo boma la Nigeria likapoka charu cha Biafra pa Julayi 6, 1967, ku Garkem. Nkhondo iyo yikatora myezi 30, yikaŵa ya nyengo yitali, ndipo yikaŵa kuti yindapangiske kuti Biafra yende makora, kweniso yikaŵa kuti yindapelekenge vinthu vyakukhumbikwa. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakuti ŵanthu awo ŵakafwa mu chigaŵa icho kale chikaŵa kumafumiro gha dazi mu nyengo ya nkhondo iyi ŵakaŵa pakati pa 1 na 3 miliyoni. Ku France, Egypt, Soviet Union, Britain, Israel, na vyaru vinyake, nkhondo iyi yikacitika mwakubisika. Britain na Soviet Union ndiwo ŵakateŵeteranga boma la Nigeria. Boma la Congo, pasi pa muwuso wa pulezidenti Joseph-Désiré Mobutu, likambapo kale kulimbana na boma la Biafra, ndipo likapeleka wovwiri wakukwana ku boma la Nigeria na kutumizga ŵasilikari ŵanandi kuti ŵarwe na ŵasilikari aŵa.<ref>Stearns, Jason K. ''Dancing in the Glory of Monsters: The Collapse of the Congo and the Great War of Africa'' (2011), p. 115</ref><ref>Wrong, Michela. ''In the Footsteps of Mr. Kurtz: Living on the Brink of Disaster in Mobutu's Congo'' (2000), p. 266</ref>[[File:Yakubu Gowon (cropped).jpg|thumb|Yakubu Gowon mu 2007]] Nkhondo yikati yamara, mu ma 1970, ku Nigeria kukaŵa kunotha kwa mafuta. Nangauli boma la ŵasilikari likaŵa na ndalama zinandi, kweni likawovwira yayi ŵanthu kuti ŵakhalenge makora, kovwira mabizinesi ghachoko na ghapakati, panji kupanga vinthu vinyake. Pakuti ndalama izo ŵakasanganga kufuma ku mafuta zikakhozga ndalama izo boma likapelekanga ku vyaru vinyake, boma likamba kuŵa na mazaza pa ndyali. Apo mafuta ghakaŵanga ghanandi, boma la Nigeria likamba kuthemba chomene mafuta na malonda gha vyakurya vyamtundu unyake.<ref>Watts, Michael (1987) ''State, Oil and Agriculture in Nigeria'', Institute of International Studies, University of California, {{ISBN|0-87725-166-5}}.</ref> Mu Julayi 1975, ŵasilikari ŵa Shehu Musa Yar'Adua na Joseph Garba ŵakawuskapo Gowon, uyo wakachimbilira ku Britain. Awo ŵakakhumbanga kuwukira boma ŵakakhumbanga kusintha muwuso wa Gowon na kuŵa na ŵasilikari ŵatatu. Ŵakaphalira Jenerale Murtala Muhammed kuti waŵe mulongozgi wa ŵasilikari, ndipo Jenerale Olusegun Obasanjo wakaŵa wachiŵiri kwa iyo, ndipo Jenerale Theophilus Danjuma wakaŵa wacitatu. Wose pamoza, ŵakawovwira kuti ndalama zileke kunjira mu boma, ŵakambiska wupu wakuwona vya vimbundi, ŵakawuskapo ŵalongozgi wose ŵa ŵasilikari na ŵasilikari ŵaphya, ndipo ŵakambiska "Operation Deadwood". Colonel Buka Suka Dimka wakayezga kutimbanizga boma mu Febuluwale 1976, apo Jenerale Murtala Muhammed wakakomeka. Dimka wakaŵavya ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakamovwiranga, ndipo boma lake likathera. Pamanyuma pa chiyezgo cha kuwukira boma, Jenerale Olusegun Obasanjo wakasankhika kuŵa mulongozgi wa boma. Pakuŵa mutu wa boma, Obasanjo wakalayizga kuti walutilirenge na ndondomeko ya Murtala. Pakumanya kuti ŵanthu ŵa kumpoto kwa Nigeria ŵangasuzgika, Obasanjo wakatora Jenerale Shehu Yar'Adua kuŵa mulongozgi wa ŵasilikari, ndipo wakaŵa wachiŵiri kwa iyo.<ref>African Concord (1990). The New Helmsmen. Concord Press, Ikeja, Lagos. 13 August 1990</ref> === Republic Yachiŵiri na kupoka boma (1977-1992) === {{Main|Charu Chachiŵiri cha Nigeria}} [[File:Shehu Shagari 1980-10-07.jpg|thumb|Shehu Shagari wakaŵa purezidenti wakwamba wa Nigeria kufuma mu 1979 mpaka 1983.]] Mu 1977, wupu wakulongozga ukaŵa na mulimo wa kulemba dango liphya, ilo likalembeka pa Seputembala 21, 1978. Ŵasilikari ŵakanozga mwakupwelelera kuti ŵambeso kulamulira ŵanthu. Mu 1979, vyaru vinkhondi vikathereskeka pa viphikiro ivyo Alhaji Shehu Shagari wa National Party of Nigeria (NPN) wakasankhika kuŵa pulezidenti. Maboma ghose ghankhondi agha ghakapika mazaza mu Nyumba ya Ufumu. Pa 1 Okutobala 1979, Shehu Shagari wakalapizga kuŵa purezidenti wakudanga na mulara wa ŵasilikari ŵa chalo cha Nigeria. Obasanjo wakapeleka mazaza kwa Shagari, ndipo wakaŵa munthu wakwamba mu mbiri ya Nigeria kuleka mazaza. Boma la Shagari likamba kuwoneka kuti ndakuzura na vimbundi. Mu 1983, ŵalaŵiliri ŵa wupu wakuwona vya mafuta ku Nigeria ŵakamba kuwona kuti "maji gha mu caru ici ghakwamba kunangika". Mu Ogasiti 1983 Shagari na NPN ŵakawelera ku mazaza mu kuwina kwa charu chose, na vithuzithuzi vinandi mu National Assembly na kuwusa maboma gha vigaŵa 12. Kweni pa nyengo iyi kukaŵa vivulupi vinandi, ndipo ŵanthu ŵakamba kulimbana chifukwa cha ivyo vikachitika. Pakaŵaso vinthu vinyake ivyo vikaŵa vyambura kupulikikwa, nga umo vikaŵira mu nyengo ya boma la Republic lakwamba. Nkhondo ya kuwukira boma ya ŵasilikari ya mu 1983 yikacitika pa Zuŵa la Caka Ciphya. Ŵalaraŵalara ŵa ŵasilikari ŵa ku Nigeria ndiwo ŵakalongozga kuti boma lipasuke na kwimika Mulara Mukuru Muhammadu Buhari kuŵa mulongozgi wa boma. Nkhondo ya boma ya Muhammadu Buhari pamanyuma pa kuwuskika kwa boma mu 1984 yikawonekanga kuŵa yiweme.<ref>"Nigeria, Military Faces Daunting Challenges", AP Press International, 3{{nbsp}}March 1984. Retrieved 22 February 2007.</ref> === Charu Chachitatu na kupoka boma (1992-1998) === {{Main|Charu chachitatu cha Nigeria}} [[File:Ambassador Bob Dewar with Ernest Shonekan (3509232597) (cropped).jpg|thumb|Ernest Shonekan, interim [[Head of State of Nigeria]] from August to November 1993]] Mu 1985, Ibrahim Babangida wakawuskapo Buhari mu boma. Mu 1986, Babangida wakambiska Nigerian Political Bureau iyo yikapeleka fundo zakwendeskera chalo ku Third Nigerian Republic. Mu 1989, Babangida wakamba kupanga mapulani gha kusintha chalo ku chalo cha Third Nigerian Republic. Babangida wakapona apo boma la Nigeria likayezga kutimbanizga boma mu 1990, ndipo wakalekera papo yayi kuti ŵanthu ŵawelere ku demokilase mu 1992. Wakazomerezga kuti maboma gha vyaru viŵiri ghaŵepo, ndipo wakambiska ndondomeko ya vyaru viŵiri pamoza na Social Democratic Party na National Republican Convention pambere vyalo viŵiri ivi vindasankhike mu 1992. Wakachiska ŵanthu wose ŵa ku Nigeria kuti ŵanjire chipani chilichose, icho Mulara Bola Ige wakati ni "mawoko ghaŵiri gha wavyoni". Boma la vyaru viŵiri likaŵa fundo ya Political Bureau. Pamanyuma pa kupenda ŵanthu, wupu wa National Electoral Commission (NEC) ukati pa 24 January 1992, mavoti gha Ndondomeko iyi yikayowoya kuti munthu waliyose uyo wakukhumba kunjira usilikari wakeneranga kuzomera mauteŵeti ghose agho boma likukhumba. Pa Juni 12, 1993, kukacitika mavoti gha pulezidenti. Chiwerengero cha mavoti, ngakhale kuti sichikudziwika ndi National Electoral Commission, chikuwonetsa kuti a Moshood Abiola ndi Baba Gana Kingibe ochokera ku Social Democratic Party adagonjetsa Bashir Tofa ndi Sylvester Ugoh ochokera ku National Republican Convention ndi mavoti opitilira 2.3 miliyoni. Ndipouli, Babangida wakawuskapo mavoti, ndipo ivi vikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵambe kususka. Mu Ogasiti 1993, Babangida wakasunga layizgo lake lakuti wapelekenge mazaza ku boma la ŵanthu bweka, kweni pambere wandasankhe Ernest Shonekan kuŵa mulongozgi wa boma la kanyengo. Boma la Babangida likuwoneka kuti ndakuzura na vimbundi ndipo ndilo likupangiska vimbundi mu Nigeria.<ref>Diamond, Larry; [[Kirk-Greene, Anthony]]; [[Oyeleye Oyediran]] (1997) ''Transition without End: Nigerian Politics and Civil Society Under Babangida'', Vantage Publishers, {{ISBN|978-2458-54-6}}.</ref> Boma la Shonekan, ilo likaŵa la nyengo yifupi comene mu mdauko wa ndyali wa caru ici, likathereskeka mu 1993 na boma la Sani Abacha. Mu 1995, boma likadumura kuti Ken Saro-Wiwa uyo wakumanya vya umoyo wa ŵanthu wakomeke pa mulandu wa kukoma ŵalara ŵanayi ŵa Ogoni. Milandu yakulimbana na Royal Dutch Shell na Brian Anderson, mulara wa kampani ya Shell ku Nigeria, yikamara mu khoti.<ref>{{cite web|title=Wiwa et al v. Royal Dutch Petroleum et al.|url=http://wiwavshell.org/|work=Center for Constitutional Rights}}</ref>Mu 1999, ŵakasanga ndalama zakukwana madola mamiliyoni ghanandi pa akaunti za Abacha. Mu 1998, muwuso wa boma ili ukamara apo muwusi uyu wakafwira mu nyumba iyi. Wakaba ndalama mu mabanki gha ku vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Europe ndipo wakathereska awo ŵakakhumbanga kuti ŵamukome. Muwukirano wake, Jenerale Abdulsalami Abubakar, wakazomera dango liphya pa 5 Meyi 1999, ilo likapelekanga mavoti gha vyaru vinandi. === Republic Yachinayi (1999-paka sono) === {{Main|Charu Chachinayi cha Nigeria}} [[File:Olusegun Obasanjo DD-SC-07-14396-cropped.jpg|upright|thumb|[[Olusegun Obasanjo]] wakaŵa purezidenti wa Nigeria kufuma mu 1999 mpaka 2007.]] Dada Abacha wakafwa mu 1998 pa "phwando" linyake. Muhaliri wake, Abdulsalami Abubakar, wakazomera dango pa Meyi 5, 1999, ilo likalembeka vyaka 10 kumasinda. Pa Meyi 29, 1999, Abubakar wakapeleka mazaza kwa uyo wakathereska pa chisankho cha 1999, General Olusegun Obasanjo. Obasanjo wakaŵa mu jere mu nyengo ya muwusi wa nkhaza Abacha. Kusankhika kwa Obasanjo kukapharazga kwamba kwa Repubulika lachinayi la Nigeria, ilo likukhalilira mpaka lero (2023). Ici cikamara vilimika 39 vya demokilase, kuwukira boma na kuwukira boma. Ndondomeko ya malango gha boma ya mu 1999, iyo yili na vyaru vyakuyana waka 37, Nyumba ya Malamulo ya ku America iyo yili na ŵanthu ŵatatu kufuma ku chigaŵa chilichose, ndiposo vyaru 13 ivyo vili na ŵanthu ŵachoko waka pa chisankho cha pulezidenti, yikwenera kuwoneka nga yikaŵa yiwemi chomene chifukwa cha mitundu na visopa ivyo vikupambana mu charu ichi. Kufuma waka pa nyengo iyi, munthu waliyose uyo wakukhumba kuŵa pulezidenti wakuŵikapo mtima kuti waŵe mwimiliri wa mtundu wake pera yayi, kweniso wa ŵanthu wose ŵa ku Nigeria. Nangauli mavoti agho ghakapeleka mazaza kwa Obasanjo na kumuzomerezga kuti wazakaŵepo kachiŵiri pa mavoti gha 2003 ghakaŵa ghambura wanangwa ndiposo ghambura urunji, kweni Nigeria yikasintha chomene vinthu mu nyengo ya Obasanjo. Fundo yakuti nyumba ya malango yikatondeska pulezidenti kuti waleke kuwusa kwa nyengo yacitatu nangauli wakaŵa na mazaza pa ŵasilikari na ŵasilikari, mbukaboni wakuti parliamentarism yikakhora comene mu Nigeria kwambira mu 2000. Mu Okutobala 2005, Nigeria na ŵakukongozga ŵa Paris Club ŵakafika pa phangano lakuti Nigeria yigowokere ngongoli yake pa mtengo wa 60%. Boma la Nigeria likagwiliskira nchito ndalama zinyake izo likasanganga kufuma ku mafuta kuti lilipire ndalama zakukwana 40 peresenti. Mu Epulero 2006, charu cha Nigeria chikaŵa chakwamba ku Africa kulipira ngongoli yake ya madola mabiliyoni 30. Pa mavoti gha mu 2007, Umaru Yar'Adua wa People's Democratic Party wakiza ku mazaza. Wupu wa vyaru vyakupambanapambana, uwo ukawoneleranga ivyo vikacitika pa maungano gha ku Nigeria kuti viwovwire kuti paŵe wanangwa na urunji, ukasuska maungano agha. Pulezidenti Olusegun Obasanjo uyo wafumapo wakazomera upusikizgi na "vinthu vinyake viheni" ivyo vikacitika pa mavoti, kweni wakati ivyo vikacitika vikukolerana na ivyo ŵanthu ŵakuyowoya. Mu nkhani iyo yikayowoyeka pa TV mu 2007, wakasazgirapo kuti usange ŵanthu ŵa ku Nigeria ŵakakondwa yayi na muwuso wa munthu uyo wakamusankhira, ŵakeneranga kuzakavotaso mu vilimika vinayi.<ref>{{cite news|last=McGreal|first=Chris|date=24 April 2007|title=Ruling party named winner in disputed Nigerian election|work=The Guardian|location=London|url=https://www.theguardian.com/international/story/0,,2064068,00.html|access-date=21 November 2008}}</ref> Umoyo wa Yar'Adua ukati wanangika, ici cikaŵa cambura nchito.[[File:Goodluck Jonathan 2014.jpg|thumb|202x202px|[[Goodluck Jonathan]], purezidenti 2010-2015|left]] Yar'Adua wakafwa pa 5 May 2010, ndipo Vice President Goodluck Jonathan wakaŵa kuti walapa myezi yitatu kumasinda kuti watore malo gha Yar'Adua, uyo wakalwara comene ndipo wakapokera munkhwala ku caru cinyake. Mu 2011, Jonathan ndiyo wakathereska pa chisankho chapulezidenti ndipo ŵapharazgi ŵa pa charu chose ŵakalemba kuti, mwakupambana na ivyo vikachitika kale, mavoti ghakaŵa ghawemi ndipo pakaŵavya nkhaza panji upusikizgi. Mu nyengo iyo wakaŵa mu boma, Jonathan wakawovwira kuti Ebola yimare kweniso kuti vinthu vyende makora mu vyaru vya ku Africa. Muwuso wa Jonathan ukakhozga mafilimu agho ghakaŵa ghapacanya comene, ndipo ivi vikapangiska kuti mafilimu gha ku Nigeria ghaŵe ghakwendakwenda makora. Ku chigaŵa chinyake, chiwawa cha Boko Haram, icho chikatora ŵasungwana 200 ku Chibok mu 2014, chikulongora kuti boma la Nigeria lilije nkhongono (ŵasungwana 100 ŵa iwo ŵachali kubura mu 2022). Ndipouli, pa vyose ivi, udindo wa Jonathan ukuyana waka na uheni wa ndalama za boma. Ubuli ukaŵa wakukwana chomene pa chisankho cha 2015 apo "munthu wakutowa" Muhammadu Buhari wakanjira mu malo mwa Jonathan uyo wakakhumbanga kuwuskika. Ili ndilo (kufika mu 2022) chiyelezgero chimoza pera mu Republic yachinayi apo ŵanthu ŵa ku Nigeria ŵakakana kusankhaso pulezidenti uyo walipo. Chipani cha Jonathan, PDP, chatayika mphamvu pambuyo pa zaka 16 za boma.<ref>{{Cite web |last=vanguard |date=2015-04-01 |title=Obama praises Nigeria's president for conceding defeat |url=https://www.vanguardngr.com/2015/04/obama-praises-nigerias-president-for-conceding-defeat/ |access-date=2022-10-05 |website=Vanguard News |language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Anyaoku Praises Jonathan For Conceding Defeat |url=https://www.channelstv.com/2015/03/31/anyaoku-praises-jonathan-for-conceding-defeat/ |access-date=2022-10-05 |website=Channels Television}}</ref>[[File:Muhammadu Buhari, President of the Federal Republic of Nigeria (cropped).jpg|upright|thumb|[[Muhammadu Buhari]] wakaŵa purezidenti wa 15 wa Nigeria, uyo wakawusa kwambira 2015 mpaka 2023.]] Pamaso pa chisankho cha 2015, chipani chikuru cha opposition - Action Congress of Nigeria, Congress for Progressive Change, All Nigeria Peoples Party (chipani cha All Progressives Grand Alliance), na chipani chiphya cha PDP (chipani cha ma governors gha chipani cha People's Democratic Party) - chikasazgikana na kupanga All Progressives Congress. Munthu uyo ŵakamusankhanga, Muhammadu Buhari, uyo wakachitapo mavoti mu 2003, 2007, na 2011, wakathereska pa mavoti ghakujumpha mamiliyoni ghaŵiri. Ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakawonanga ivyo vikachitika ŵakatenge vikaŵa vyaurunji.<ref>{{cite news|title=Nigeria election: Muhammadu Buhari wins|newspaper=BBC|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-32139858|access-date=31 March 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=1 April 2015|title=Obama praises Nigeria's president for conceding defeat|url=http://www.vanguardngr.com/2015/04/obama-praises-nigerias-president-for-conceding-defeat/|access-date=4 April 2015|publisher=Vanguard}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine|title=APC praises Jonathan for conceding defeat|url=http://thenationonlineng.net/new/apc-praises-jonathan-for-conceding-defeat/|magazine=The Nation|access-date=4 April 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=31 March 2015|title=Anyaoku Praises Jonathan For Conceding Defeat|url=http://www.channelstv.com/2015/03/31/anyaoku-praises-jonathan-for-conceding-defeat/|access-date=4 April 2015|publisher=Channels Television}}</ref> Pa chisankho cha 2019 cha purezidenti, Buhari adasankhidwanso kachiwiri paudindo wake pogonjetsa mdani wake wapamtima Atiku Abubakar. Ku Nigeria, chifukwa cha gulu la ku America la Black Lives Matter, mu 2020 ŵanthu ŵaciwukirano ŵakasuska ivyo ŵapolisi ŵakacita. Gulu la Special Anti-Robbery Squad (SARS) likadandawura comene. Boma likawuskamo ŵasilikari aŵa ndipo likaŵalayizga kuti lizamunozga vinthu. Ndipouli, pa ungano wa mu Okutobala 2020, ŵasilikari ŵakakoma ŵanthu ŵanandi. Vinthu vikamba kwenda makora mu 2022, apo gulu la Boko Haram, ilo likawofya ŵanthu kumpoto kwa Nigeria kwa vyaka vinandi, likamara. Ŵasilikari 40,000 ŵa Boko Haram ŵakajipeleka. Kwa nyengo yakwamba mu Republic yachinayi, ŵanthu ŵatatu ŵazamukumana pa mavoti gha February 2023: Bola Tinubu wa chipani cha neoliberal All Progressives, Atiku Abubakar wa People's Democratic Party na Peter Obi wa Labour Party. Kweniso, aka kakaŵa kakwamba mu nyengo ya Repubulika lacinayi kuti palije mulara wa ŵasilikari panji uyo wakweruzga ŵasilikari uyo wali kwimikika kuŵa pulezidenti. Peter Obi, yemwe kale anali kazembe wopambana wa Anambra State, akutsogola kwambiri pakufufuza malingaliro (kuyambira Okutobala 2022). Wakutemwa comene ŵanthu ŵaciwukirano awo ŵakukhala mu matawuni, ndipo wakukhala ku South East. Pa 27 February 2023, mazuŵa ghaŵiri pamanyuma pa chisankho, ma results ghakafumiskika na Electoral Commission INEC ghakulongora kuti chipani cha Labour Party na munthu wake Peter Obi, yayi, kweni mulwani wake Bola Tinubu ndiyo watonda. Wupu wakuwona vya mavoti wa EU ukayowoya kuti mavoti agha ghakaŵa ghambura kujima. Ŵankhungu awo ŵakaŵa na vilwero ŵakawotcha panji kuparanya mabokosi gha mavoti ghanandi. Ku malo ghanyake, ŵanthu ŵakaguliskanga mavoti. Ma servers agho ghakapelekanga ma results gha mavoti ghakaŵa kuti ghandagwirenge nchito kwa mazuŵa ghanandi. Kweniso vikaŵa vyambura machitiko kuti ŵapharazge pa foni. Ndipouli, makomiti ghakusora ghakafumiska mavoti agho ghakapambananga na ivyo ŵanthu ŵakaghanaghananga. Pulezidenti wakale Obasanjo wakalongosora mwakudumura ivyo vikachitika pa chisankho cha pa 25 February mu uthenga wa pa vidiyo.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Tinubu Campaign demands arrest of Dino, Momodu, Pastor Enenche |url=https://www.vanguardngr.com/2023/02/polls-tinubu-campaign-demands-arrest-of-dino-momodu-pastor-enenche/ |archive-date=2023-02-27 |access-date=2023-02-27 |website=Vanguard Nigeria}}</ref> == Makhalilo gha charu == {{Main|Malo gha Nigeria|Nkhaka ya Nigeria}} [[File:Nigeria Topography.png|thumb|Malo gha Nigeria]] Charu cha Nigeria chili mu chigaŵa cha kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Africa pa Gulf of Guinea ndipo chili na malo ghakukwana 923,768 km2 (356,669 sq mi). Malire ake ndi makilomita 4,047, ndipo amagawana malire ndi Benin (773 km kapena 480 mi), Niger (1,497 km kapena 930 mi), Chad (87 km kapena 54 mi), ndi Cameroon (kuphatikiza Ambazonia) 1,690 km kapena 1,050 mi. Mphepete mwa nyanja yake ni mtunda wa makilomita 853. Charu cha Nigeria chili pakati pa latitude 4° na 14°N, ndipo longitude 2° na 15°E. Malo ghapacanya comene mu Nigeria ni Chappal Waddi pa mamita 2,419 (7,936 ft). Mlonga ukuru ni Niger na Benue, ndipo ukukumana na kunjira mu Niger Delta. Ili ni limoza mwa milonga yikuru comene pa caru cose ndipo kuli vyakumera vinandi vya mu Central Africa. Chigaŵa chikuru chomene cha ku Nigeria ni chipalamba cha milonga ya Niger na Benue (iyo yikukumana na kuzgoka Y).<ref name="encarta22">{{cite encyclopedia |title=Nigeria |encyclopedia=[[Encarta]] |publisher=[[Microsoft]] |url=http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761557915/Nigeria.html |access-date=19 July 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20031111170137/http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761557915/Nigeria.html |archive-date=11 November 2003 |url-status=dead}}</ref>Kumwera ca kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Niger kuli mapiri ghatali. Kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Benue kuli tumapiri na tumapiri uto tukupangiska Mambilla Plateau. Malo agha ghali pafupi na mphaka ya charu cha Cameroon. === Nyengo === [[File:Koppen-Geiger Map NGA present.svg|thumb|alt=|Mapu gha nyengo ya ku Nigeria]] Charu cha Nigeria chili na malo ghakupambanapambana. Kumwera kwenikweni kuli nkhalango zamvula, ndipo kukulokwa maji ghanandi chomene. Kumwera kwa charu ichi kuli chigaŵa cha Obudu. Malo gha mumphepete mwa nyanja ghakusangika kumwera kwa charu ichi. Ku mumphepete mwa nyanja kuli vyakumera vya mangrove.<ref name="gai42">{{cite web |title=The Human and Physical Characteristics of Nigeria |url=http://www.uni.edu/gai/Nigeria/Background/Standard4.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100328172528/http://www.uni.edu/gai/Nigeria/Background/Standard4.html |archive-date=28 March 2010 |access-date=13 August 2007 |work=Geographical Alliance of Iowa |publisher=[[University of Northern Iowa]]}}</ref> Chigaŵa icho chili pafupi na mphaka na Cameroon, kufupi na mumphepete mwa nyanja, chili na nkhorongo zinandi ndipo chili mu chigaŵa cha nkhorongo za mumphepete mwa nyanja cha Cross-Sanaga-Bioko. Mu chigaŵa ichi ndimo mukukhala viyuni vya mtundu wa drill, ivyo vikusangika mu malo agha pera kweniso ku Cameroon. Malo agho ghali kufupi na Calabar, mu chigaŵa cha Cross River State, nagho ghali mu nkhorongo iyi. Chigaŵa cha kumwera kwa Nigeria pakati pa Mlonga wa Niger na wa Cross River chataya nkhorongo zake zinandi chifukwa cha kukura kwa vinthu na kukorako chifukwa cha unandi wa ŵanthu. Vinthu vyose ivyo vili pakati pa kumwera na kumpoto ni nkhorongo. Vikuŵa kuti pa chaka kukulokwa maji ghanandi yayi, kweni ghakujumpha 500 m'paka 1,500. Vigaŵa vitatu vya savannah ni Guinea, Sudan, na Sahel. Nkhorongo ya ku Guinea yili na utheka utali uwo uli na makuni. Charu cha Sudan nacho chili nga ni malo agha, kweni chili na utheka na makuni ghafupi. Mu chigaŵa cha kumpoto na kumafumiro gha dazi, muli utheka na mchenga. Mu cigaŵa ca Sahel, vula yikujumpha 500 mm pa caka, ndipo mapopa gha Sahara ghakwamba kunjira. Ku chigaŵa chakumafumiro gha dazi kwa charu ichi kuli Nyanja ya Chad. === Kuwona maji === [[File:Megachad en disappearance of lake chad.jpg|thumb|Kuchepa kwa Nyanja ya Chad kumpoto ca kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Nigeria, na kuyelezgera ukuru wa virwa vya Britain]] Nigeria wali kugaŵika vigaŵa viŵiri: Nyanja ya Chad na Niger. Chigaŵa cha Niger chili na maji ghakukwana 63% gha charu ichi. Mlonga ukuru wa Niger ni Benue, uwo ukwenda kujumpha mu Cameroon na kunjira mu Chad. Malo agha ghakuthika na maji kufuma kumpoto kwa Nigeria. Malo gha Bauchi ghakupambana na mabwiwi gha maji gha Niger/Benue na Komadugu Yobe. Mapiri gha kumpoto ca kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Nigeria ghali ku chigaŵa cha Chad Basin, uko mlonga wa El Beid ndiwo uli mphaka na Cameroon, kufuma ku mapiri gha Mandara m'paka ku Nyanja ya Chad. Mlonga wa Komadugu Yobe ndiwo ukupangiska malo ghakuchemeka Hadejia-Nguru na nyanja za Ox-bow kuzingilizga nyanja ya Nguru mu nyengo ya vula.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gbolagade |first=Lameed |title=Species diversity and richness of wild birds in Dagona Waterfowl Sanctuary, Nigeria |work=African Journal of Environmental Science and Technology |year=2011 |edition=5 |pages=855–866 |language=en |issn=1996-0786}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2013-10-02 |title=Chad Basin National Park |url=http://cbnp.nigeriaparkservice.org/sectors.php |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131002082125/http://cbnp.nigeriaparkservice.org/sectors.php |archive-date=2013-10-02 |access-date=2022-10-22 }}</ref> Mlonga unyake uwo uli kumpoto kwa charu ichi ni Ngadda na Yedseram. Mlonga uwo uli kumpoto ca kumafumiro gha dazi nawo ngukuru.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2016-03-04 |title=TRANSBOUNDARY DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS OF THE LAKE CHAD BASIN |url=http://lakechad.iwlearn.org/publications/reports/lake-cha-basin-tda-report-english |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304105554/http://lakechad.iwlearn.org/publications/reports/lake-cha-basin-tda-report-english |archive-date=2016-03-04 |access-date=2022-10-22}}</ref> Kweniso ku Nigeria kuli milonga yinandi mumphepete mwa nyanja. Nyanja ya Chad, iyo yili kumpoto ca kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Nigeria, yili na mbiri yakusuzga comene mu vilimika ivi. Mu vyaka vyasonosono apa, malo agha ghachepa comene, ndipo ici cingaŵa cifukwa cakuti ŵanthu ŵakumwa maji kufuma mu malo agha kuti ŵamwepo. ===Makuni na mauteka=== [[File:The Mambilla Plateau, Nigeria 01.jpg|thumb| Malo gha Mambilla Plateau agho ghali kumpoto ca kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Nigeria.]] Ku Nigeria kuli vyakumera vyakupambanapambana vitatu: nkhorongo (uko kuli makuni ghanandi), viŵaya (uko kuli makuni ghanandi yayi, ndipo pakati pa makuni pali vyakumera na maluŵa), na mapiri (uko kuli vyakumera vinandi yayi, kweni chomenechomene mu mapiri kufupi na mphaka ya Cameroon). Malo gha nkhorongo na gha savani ghakupambana mu vigaŵa vitatu. Malo ghanyake agho ghali kumwera kwa nkhorongo iyi, comenecomene kuzingilizga Mlonga wa Niger na Cross River, ghali na vivwati vya mangrove. Kumpoto kwa malo agha kuli chipalamba cha maji ghawemi, icho chili na vyakumera vyakupambana na vyakumera vya mangrove, ndipo kumpoto kwa malo agha kuli nkhorongo. Vigaŵa vitatu vya savannah vili kugaŵika mu vigaŵa vitatu: nkhorongo ya ku Guinea, iyo yili na utheka utali uwo uli na makuni ghanandi, ndipo yikusangika mu vyaru vinandi.<ref name="gai4">{{cite web |title=The Human and Physical Characteristics of Nigeria |url=http://www.uni.edu/gai/Nigeria/Background/Standard4.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100328172528/http://www.uni.edu/gai/Nigeria/Background/Standard4.html |archive-date=2010-03-28 |access-date=2007-08-13 |work=Geographical Alliance of Iowa |publisher=[[University of Northern Iowa]]}}</ref> === Nkhani za Umoyo === {{Further|Deforestation in Nigeria|Environmental issues in the Niger Delta}}[[File:Nigerian-deforrestation-b.jpg|alt=Nigerian deforrestation 1981 - 2020|thumb|Kutowa kwa nkhalango ku Nigeria 1981 ∼2020<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fashae |first=Olutoyin |date=2017 |title=Geospatial Analysis of Changes in Vegetation Cover over Nigeria |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/321953126 |journal=Bulletin of Geography |issue=13 |pages=17–27}}</ref>]] Ku Nigeria, suzgo likuru comene ndakuti ŵanthu ŵakugwiliskira nchito viswaswa, kusazgapo maji ghaheni. Mu misumba yikuru-yikuru nga ni Lagos na misumba yinyake yikuru-yikuru ya ku Nigeria, suzgo la kunozga vyakusakazika likusazgikira cifukwa ca suzgo la vya cuma, unandi wa ŵanthu, kweniso cifukwa cakuti maboma ghakutondeka kunozga vyakusakazga vyakusakazika. Suzgo ili likuŵapo chifukwa cha umoyo wambura kukhazikika wa ŵanthu ŵa mu chigaŵa cha Kubwa ku Federal Capital Territory, uko ŵakutemwa kuwuskamo viswaswa mwambura kupambaniska. Ŵanthu ŵakughanaghana kuti cifukwa cikuru ca kunangika kwa vinthu mu misumba yikuru ya mu caru ici nchakuti ŵanthu ŵakucita mapulani mwambura kwenelera, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakukhala mu matawuni ghakurughakuru, ŵanthu mbaukavu, ndipo maboma gha vigaŵa vyawo ghakumanya yayi. Vinthu vinyake ivyo ŵanthu ŵakuchita pa nkhani iyi, vikunanga malo agho ŵanthu ŵakukhala.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ogbonna |first1=D.N. |last2=Ekweozor |first2=I.K.E. |last3=Igwe |first3=F.U. |year=2002 |title=Waste Management: A Tool for Environmental Protection in Nigeria |url=https://archive.org/details/ambio_2002-02_31_1/page/55 |journal=Ambio: A Journal of the Human Environment |volume=31 |issue=1 |pages=55–57 |doi=10.1639/0044-7447(2002)031[0055:wmatfe]2.0.co;2 |jstor=4315211}}</ref> Wupu wa United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization ukati mu 2005, caru ca Nigeria ndico cikaŵa cakusuzga comene kuti makuni ghamare. Mu caka ici, mu caru ici mukaŵa makuni ghakukwana 12,2%, panji kuti mahekitala 11,089,000. Pakati pa 1990 na 2000, caru ca Nigeria cikaluza makuni ghakukwana mahekitala 409,700 pa caka. Pakati pa 1990 na 2005, nkhorongo ya ku Nigeria yikamara pa 35.7% panji kuti mahekitala pafupifupi 6,145,000. Charu cha Nigeria chili na chiŵelengero cha 6.2/10 pa charu chose pa vyaru 172. Mu 2010, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakasangika na dongo ilo lili na sulefure kufuma ku migodi ya golide ku Zamfara. Nangauli ŵanthu ŵakuyowoya vyakupambanapambana pa nkhani iyi, kweni ŵakuwona kuti ŵana ŵakujumpha 400 ŵakafwa na ulwari wa kulwara na ulozi. Chigaŵa cha Delta ku Nigeria, uko kuli makampani ghakurughakuru gha mafuta, kuli mafuta ghanandi agho ghatutuka na masuzgo ghanyake agho ghakuchitiska nkhondo. Malo ghakusangirapo mafuta ghambura kuzomerezgeka, agho ŵanthu ŵakugwiliskira nchito pakusintha mafuta ghakubisika kuŵa petulo na mafuta gha dizilo, ghakuwoneka kuti "ngaheni, ngaheni ndiposo ghakupeleka ndalama zinandi". Kaŵirikaŵiri, ŵanthu ŵakutondeka kuwona umo vinthu viliri pa nkhani ya chivikiliro na vyendendendeko (nga ni umo vikuŵira para sulfure yikufumamo yayi mu mafuta agho ŵakugwiliskira ntchito). Kweniso para munthu wakusazgako mafuta gha mafuta ghakufumira mu mafuta ghakuru, agho ghakuŵa nga ni mafuta ghapusu, ghakuŵa nga ni mafuta ghakupwantha. Malo ghakupangira mafuta ghambura kuzomerezgeka na dango ghalije nthowa izi ndipo "ghakuponya" mafuta agho ghakusangika. Kweni para mafuta ghamara (methane kuya ku butane, isobutane) ghakuŵa na ngozi yakuti ghangaphulika. Mu 2022, ŵanthu ŵakukwana 125 ŵakafwa cifukwa ca kuphulika kwa vyakupangira mafuta ku Nigeria.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Onukwue |first=Alexander |date=2022-04-25 |title=Nigeria's illegal oil refineries keep killing people |url=https://qz.com/africa/2158492/nigerias-illegal-oil-refineries-keep-killing-people/ |access-date=2022-10-10 |website=Quartz |language=en}}</ref> == Ndyali == {{Main|Ndyali za Nigeria}} === Boma === [[File:National_Assembly_Building,_Abuja,_Nigeria.jpg|thumb|[[National Assembly (Nigeria)|Nigerian National Assembly]], Abuja]]Charu cha Nigeria chili na vigaŵa 36 ndipo msumba ukuru ni Abuja. Pulezidenti ndiyo wakufiska mazaza. Mulongozgi wa boma wakuŵa mutu wa boma na wa boma. Mazaza gha pulezidenti ghakulongozgeka na wupu wa Senate na House of Representatives, uwo ukuŵa na nyumba ziŵiri, zina lake National Assembly. Bungwe la Senate lili na mipando 109, ndipo lili na mamembala ghatatu kufuma ku chigaŵa chilichose na yumoza kufuma ku msumba wa Abuja. Nyumba ya Malango yili na vithuzithuzi 360, ndipo chiŵelengero cha vithuzithuzi pa chigaŵa chilichose chikuthemba pa unandi wa ŵanthu. Pulezidenti wa Nigeria wakusankhika mu ndondomeko ya vigaŵa viŵiri. Kuti munthu wasankhike mu cigaŵa cakwamba, wakwenera kupokera mavoti ghanandi ndiposo mavoti ghakujumpha 25% mu vigaŵa 24 pa 36.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-09-04 |title=Patrick Obahiagbon: Labour Party won't get 25% of votes in 24 states |url=https://www.thecable.ng/patrick-obahiagbon-labour-party-wont-get-25-of-votes-in-24-states |access-date=2022-10-15 |website=TheCable |language=en-US}}</ref>Usange palije uyo wakufiska chilato ichi, ŵakuvota kachiŵiri pakati pa uyo wakulongozga na uyo wapokera mavoti ghanandi mu vigaŵa vinandi. Awo ŵakukhumba kuŵa pulezidenti ŵakuŵa na munthu munyake uyo wakuyana yayi na iwo pa nkhani ya fuko na chisopa: Mkhristu wa ku South wakusankha munthu wa ku North uyo ni Musulumani. Palije dango ilo likukanizga ivi, kweni ŵanthu wose awo ŵakukhumba kuŵa ŵalongozgi ŵa boma kufuma waka apo boma la France likambira ŵakulondezga dango ili. Ndipouli, fundo iyi yakuti ŵanthu ŵavisopa na mafuko ghakupambanapambana ndiwo ŵalongozgenge ŵanyawo yikasuskika pa Chisankho cha 2023, apo Bola Ahmed Tinubu, uyo wakaŵa Musulumani, wakasankha Musulumani munyake, Senator Kashim Shettima kuti waŵe mulongozgi. Ŵalara ŵa boma, nga ni pulezidenti, ŵakusankhika kwa vyaka vinayi. === Kugawikana kwa boma === {{Main|Vigaŵa vya Nigeria}} [[File:Political map of Nigeria.svg|thumb|alt=|Map of Nigeria with administrative divisions|upright=1.4]]Charu cha Nigeria chili na vigaŵa 36 na chigaŵa chimoza cha Federal Capital Territory. Mu vigaŵa vinyake, vyaru ivi vili mu vigaŵa vinkhondi na cimoza: Kumpoto kwa kumanjiliro gha dazi, kumpoto kwa kumafumiro gha dazi, kumpoto kwa pakati, kumwera kwa kumanjiliro gha dazi, kumwera kwa kumafumiro gha dazi, na kumwera kwa kumwera.<ref>{{cite web |date=4 November 2012 |title=Constitution amendment: What the people want |url=http://www.vanguardngr.com/2012/11/constitution-amendment-what-the-people-want/ |access-date=14 December 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=6 December 2012 |title=Constitutional review: Nigeria needs broader representation |url=http://www.ngrguardiannews.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=106778:constitutional-review-nigeria-needs-broader-representation-&catid=203:youth-speak&Itemid=730 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130511123924/http://www.ngrguardiannews.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=106778%3Aconstitutional-review-nigeria-needs-broader-representation-&catid=203%3Ayouth-speak&Itemid=730 |archive-date=11 May 2013 |access-date=14 December 2012}}</ref> Mu Nigeria muli misumba yinkhondi iyo muli ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 1 miliyoni (kufuma ku yikuru kuluta ku yichoko): Lagos, Kano, Ibadan, Benin City na Port Harcourt. Msumba wa Lagos ndiwo ni ukuru comene mu Africa, uli na ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 12 miliyoni. Kumwera kwa charu ichi kuli misumba yinandi chomene. Kafukufuku munyake wakulongora kuti mu 2015, mu Nigeria mukaŵa misumba 20 iyo mukaŵa ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 500,000. === Vipani === Mu chaka cha 2022, Nyumba ya Mafumu na Nyumba ya ŵimiliri mu Nigeria yikulongozgeka na magulu ghatatu: * [[Chipani cha Democratic People's Party (Nigeria)|Chipani cha Democratic People's Party]] ndicho chikaŵa na mazaza pa charu chose mu vyaka 16 vyakwambilira vya Repubulika Yachinayi. Likukhumba kuwezgerapo nkharo yake yiheni iyo yikaŵapo mu nyengo ya Jonathan pambere paŵavye mavoti gha 2015. Uyo wakulongozga, Abubakar, wakuwoneka kuti wakukumana na maboma gha chigaŵa cha chipani chake (makamaka Governor Wike) m'malo mwa ŵalwani ŵake ŵa ndyali.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Iroanusi |first=QueenEsther |date=2022-08-09 |title=2023: How rift between Wike, Atiku started - Lawmaker |url=https://www.premiumtimesng.com/news/top-news/547684-2023-how-rift-between-wike-atiku-started-lawmaker.html |access-date=2022-10-15 |website=Premium Times Nigeria |language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-09-21 |title=Atiku Abubakar response to Governor Nyesom Wike and im team wey pull out of PDP Presidential Campaign Council |url=https://www.bbc.com/pidgin/articles/cp948vln8r4o |access-date=2022-10-15 |website=BBC News Pidgin}}</ref> * [[Chipani cha All Progressives Congress (Nigeria)|Wupu wa All Progressives Congress]] ni wupu wa vipani vichoko ivyo vikususkana na pulezidenti Jonathan. Chipani cha Progressive chikapeleka Muhammadu Buhari ku mpando wa president mu 2015 ndipo chakhala chipani chakulongozga kwambira nyengo iyo. Na nduna zakumanyikwa comene za boma, Fashola (Public Works) na Amaechi (Transport), ŵanthu ŵakulondezga fundo za boma ŵakujiwona kuti mbankhongono. * Pa nyengo iyi, ŵa Labour ŵakaŵa ŵambura kuzomerezgeka na boma. === Malango === {{Main|Malango gha Nigeria}} Ndondomeko ya malango ya ku Nigeria ndiyo njakwenelera. Ku Nigeria kuli malango ghanayi ghakupambanapambana, nga ni malango gha Chingelezi, common law, common law, na Sharia law: * Dango la ku England mu Nigeria lili na malango gha ku Britain agho ghakaŵako mu nyengo ya ukoloni. * Dango lakwendera lumoza ni malango gha boma agho ghalembeka mu charu icho munthu wali kukhalamo. (Ndondomeko iyi yikusangika comene mu vyaru vya Anglo-Saxon; kweni mu caru ca Europe, malango gha boma agho ghali kulembekeka makora, ndiposo agho ghakusangika mwakupepuka, ndigho ghakulongozga, nga ni umo viliri mu Code Napoléon mu France). * Malango gha cikaya ghakafuma ku malango na maluso gha cikaya, kusazgapo maungano gha kumazga mphindano agho ghakaŵako pambere caru ca Yoruba cindaŵeko. * Dango la Chisilamu likagwiranga ntchito ku Northern Nigeria, uko chisopa cha Chisilamu ndicho chikulongozga. Ŵasilamu ŵakugwiliskiraso ntchito chiyowoyero ichi mu chigaŵa cha Lagos, Oyo, Kwara, Ogun, na Osun. Malamulo gha visopo gha visopo ghakupambana mu vyaru vyose ndipo ghakupambana pa mulandu wa kusopa (nga nkhumwa na kupeleka moŵa). Mu charu ichi muli makhoti gha milandu, ndipo khoti likuru chomene ni Khoti Likuru Chomene mu Nigeria.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/nigeria/ |title=Africa :: Nigeria |publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency]] (United States) |work=[[The World Factbook]]|date=12 September 2022 }}</ref> === Ubale na vyaru vinyake === {{Main|Foreign relations of Nigeria}} [[File:MinForeignAffairs.jpg|alt=|thumb|Unduna wa Vyachilendo, [[Abuja]]]] Apo charu cha Nigeria chikapokera wanangwa mu 1960, chikaŵika mtima comene pa umoza wa Africa. Chimoza mwa vinthu ivyo vikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa ŵaleke kughanaghanira chomene vya charu ichi ni ubwezi uwo ukaŵa pakati pa Nigeria na Israyeli mu ma 1960. Israyeli ndiyo wakawovwira na kulaŵilira mulimo wa kuzenga Nyumba za Ufumu. Ndondomeko ya vyaru vinyake ya Nigeria yikayezgeka mu ma 1970 apo caru cikafumamo mu nkhondo ya cikaya. Gulu ili likawovwiranga ŵanthu awo ŵakasuskanga maboma gha ŵazungu ku Southern Africa. Nigeria yikakhozgera African National Congress mwa kuŵa na maghanoghano ghakusuzga pa boma la South Africa. Nigeria yikaŵa yumoza wa awo ŵakambiska wupu wakucemeka Organisation for African Unity (uyo sono ni African Union). Nigeria ndiyo yikambiska vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Africa, ndipo ndiyo yikendeskanga vyaru vya ECOWAS (Economic Community of West African States) na ECOMOG (makamaka pa nyengo ya nkhondo za ku Liberia na Sierra Leone). Chifukwa cha maghanoghano agha, Nigeria yikatuma ŵasilikari ku Congo mwaluŵiro, kuyana na umo wupu wa United Nations ukayowoyera, pamanyuma pakuti charu ichi chafwatuka. Nigeria yikagwiraso nchito zinandi za Pan-African na pro-self-government mu ma 1970, kusazgapo kuvikilira MPLA ya Angola, SWAPO mu Namibia, na kovwira ŵakususkana na maboma gha banthu ba ku Portugal Mozambique, na Rhodesia. Nigeria yikulutilira kuŵa mu gulu la vyaru vyambura kukolerana. Kuumaliro wa Novembala 2006, likanozga ungano wa Africa-South America Summit ku Abuja kuti likhozge ivyo ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵakiza ku ungano uwu ŵakachema kuti "South-South" pa vigaŵa vyakupambanapambana. Nigeria nayo wali mu wupu wa International Criminal Court na Commonwealth of Nations. Ŵakaŵachimbizga mu 1995 apo boma la Abacha likaŵalongozganga. [[File:President_Barack_Obama_and_First_Lady_Michelle_Obama_greet_His_Excellency_Goodluck_Ebele_Jonathan,_President_of_the_Federal_Republic_of_Nigeria.jpg|thumb|Purezidenti wakale wa Nigeria Goodluck Jonathan (pakati) ndi Purezidenti wa [[United States]] [[Barack Obama]] na First Lady [[Michelle Obama]] mu Ogasiti 2014]] Kufuma waka mu ma 1970, Nigeria yikulutilira kuŵa na nkharo yiwemi pa nkhani ya mafuta. Charu ichi chikupanga mafuta ghanandi comene cifukwa cakuti nyengo zinyake chikuŵa na mphindano na vyaru vyakupambanapambana, comenecomene na vyaru vya ku United States. Kwambira mu 2000, malonda gha pakati pa China na Nigeria ghakusazgikira comene. Kufuma mu 2000 m'paka mu 2016, malonda gha vyaru viŵiri ivi ghakwera pa madola 10,384 miliyoni. Ndipouli, umo vinthu viliri pakati pa China na Nigeria vyazgoka nkhani yikuru ya ndyali. Fundo iyi yikulongora kuti vyakurya ivyo vikufuma ku China vikupanga pafupifupi 80 peresenti ya malonda ghose agho ghakuchitika pakati pa vyaru viŵiri ivi. Ivi vyapangiska kuti malonda ghaleke kwenda makora, cifukwa Nigeria yikuguliska vinthu vinandi comene kuluska ivyo yikuguliska ku China. Ntheura, chuma cha ku Nigeria chikuthemba chomene vinthu vyakukhora ivyo vikunjira mu charu ichi, ndipo ivi vyapangiska kuti makampani gha ku Nigeria ghasuzgike. Pakulutilira na ndyali yake ya ku Africa, Nigeria yikamba kupanga ndalama yimoza ya ku West Africa yakucemeka Eco. Kweni pa Disembala 21, 2019, Pulezidenti wa Ivory Coast Alassane Ouattara, Emmanuel Macron, na vyaru vinyake vinandi vya UEMOA vikapharazga kuti ŵasinthenge waka zina la CFA franc m'malo mwa kusintha ndalama nga umo ŵakaghanaghaniranga pakwamba. Kufumira mu 2020, ndalama za Eco zalekeskeka kufika mu 2025.<ref>{{cite web |last=Smith |first=Elliot |date=2020-09-29 |title=West Africa's new currency could now be delayed by five years |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2020/09/29/west-africas-new-currency-could-now-be-delayed-by-five-years.html |access-date=2020-11-17 |website=CNBC |language=en}}</ref> === Chitetezo === {{Main|Nigerian Armed Forces}} [[File:ZSU-23-4_Shilka_01.jpg|thumb|Futi yakulimbana na ndege ya ŵasilikari ŵa Nigeria]] Gulu la ŵasilikari la Nigeria ni gulu la ŵasilikari ŵa Nigeria. Gulu ili lili na magulu ghatatu: Gulu la ŵasilikari ŵa ku Nigeria, Navy, na Air Force. Pulezidenti wa Nigeria wakuŵa mulongozgi wa ŵasilikari, ndipo wakuchita milimo yake kwizira mu Unduna wa vya Vyankhondo. Mulongozgi wa AFN ni Chief of the Defence Staff, uyo wali pasi pa Minister of Defence wa Nigeria. Ŵasilikari ŵa ku Nigeria ŵali na ŵasilikari ŵakujumpha 223,000. Kuyaniska ŵasilikari ŵa ku Nigeria (kumazere) na ŵa ku Belgium (kumalyero) kuyana na ŵanthu na ndalama izo ŵakagwiliskira ntchito mu 2022 Boma la Nigeria lili na ŵasilikari 143,000 mu ŵasilikari (asilikari 100,000, ŵasilikari 25,000, ŵasilikari 18,000) na ŵasilikari 80,000 ŵa "gendarmerie & paramilitary" mu 2020, kuyana na International Institute for Strategic Studies. Kuyaniska na ici, Poland wali na ŵasilikari 114,500 mu mawoko gha ŵasilikari na "ŵasilikari" ndipo Germany wali na ŵasilikari 183,500, mwakuyana na buku lenelili. Boma la Nigeria likagwiliskira nchito ndalama zakukwana 0.4 peresenti ya ndalama izo likagwiliskira nchito mu 2017. Mu chaka cha 2022, boma la Nigeria lili na bajeti ya ndalama zakukwana madola mabiliyoni ghaŵiri na mabiliyoni ghaŵiri gha ku United States. Mulara wa mawupu ghakuvikilira kufuma mu Janyuwale 2021 ni Jenerale Lucky Irabor, nkhwantha ya nkhondo yakulimbana na uchigeŵenga. Ŵalongozgi ŵa ŵasilikari ŵa nkhondo, Lt. General Faruk Yahaya, Air Staff Air Marshal Isiaka Oladayo Amao na Navy Staff Vice Admiral Awwal Zubairu Gambo nawo ŵalipo.<ref name=":8">{{Cite book |last=The International Institute for Strategic Studies (IISS) |title=The Military Balance 2022 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |year=2022 |isbn=9781032279008 |location=London |language=en}}</ref> === Nkhani za kukhazikika === ==== Police and millitant violence ==== Kulimbana na gulu la Boko Haram, ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵakutemwa visambizgo vyautesi, na vigeŵenga, kukusazgikira cifukwa cakuti ŵapolisi ŵakuŵawukira. Bungwe la Council on Foreign Relations' Nigeria Security Tracker likati ŵanthu 1,086 ŵakafwa chifukwa cha kugaluka kwa Boko Haram na 290 ŵakafwa chifukwa cha nkhaza za ŵapolisi mu myezi 12 yakwambilira kufuma apo likambira mu Meyi 2011. Mu myezi 12 kufuma mu Okutobala 2021, ŵanthu 2,193 ŵakafwa na nkhaza za ŵapolisi ndipo 498 ŵakafwa na Boko Haram na ISWAP, kuyana na NST. Ŵapolisi ŵa ku Nigeria ŵakumanyikwa comene cifukwa ca urunji wawo. Chigaŵa cha Niger Delta chikaŵa na ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakasuzgikanga na nkhondo mu 2016. Pakuzgora, boma liphya la Buhari likagwiliskira nchito nthowa ziŵiri za kukanizga ŵanthu na kuyowoyeskana. Paumaliro wa 2016, boma la Nigeria likapeleka ndalama zakukwana naira 4.5 biliyoni (US$144 miliyoni) ku magulu agha kuti ghavikilire mafuta. Ŵanandi ŵakuzomera. Phangano ili likasazgikaso mu Ogasiti 2022, kweni pakaŵa mphindano pakati pa magulu agha. Awo ŵakwimira boma ŵakuyowoya za "nkhondo" - kwimikana. Ŵanthu ŵakopa kuti magulu agha, nangauli ghali na mazina ghapachanya, ghaleka kuŵa na udindo pa chigaŵa chawo na mafuko ghawo, ndipo ghazgokera ku vyakusanguluska na kujiwovwira. Mulimonsemo, mapaipi mu Niger Delta si "otetezedwa" moyenera - kuipitsa kwa Niger Delta ndi mafuta obedwa ndi mafuta olemera omwe amapangidwa mosaloledwa akupitilirabe osatsekedwa pambuyo pa 2016.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2017-11-03 |title=Niger Delta Avengers group says ends ceasefire in Nigeria oil hub - website |language=en |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/nigeria-oil-idUSL8N1N93JA |access-date=2022-10-15}}</ref> ==== Kuwukira boma kwa Boko Haram ==== [[File:BokoHaram deaths by state.jpg|thumb|Kuwukira kwa Boko Haram, 2011 mpaka lero (kufikira Okutobala 2022), chiŵerengero chilichonse chikuyimira imfa 1,000.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |title=Nigeria Security Tracker |url=https://www.cfr.org/nigeria/nigeria-security-tracker/p29483 |access-date=2022-10-15 |website=Council on Foreign Relations |language=en}}</ref> ]] Gulu la Boko Haram ndilo likucitiska kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakomeke kufuma mu 2010. Kufuma apo, kuyana na Council on Foreign Relations' Nigeria Security Tracker, ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 41,600 ŵali kufwa cifukwa ca nkhondo iyi (kufika mu Okutobala 2022). Wupu wa United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) ukuti ŵanthu pafupifupi 1.8 miliyoni ŵali kufumamo mu vikaya vyawo ndipo ŵanthu pafupifupi 200,000 ŵa ku Nigeria ŵali kufumamo mu vyaru vyapafupi. Maboma agho ghakhwaskika na Boko Haram ghakakolerana mu Febuluwale 2015 kuti ghaŵike gulu la ŵanthu 8,700 kuti ŵarwe na Boko Haram. Kuzakafika mu Okutobala 2015, gulu la Boko Haram likaŵa kuti lafumiskikapo mu misumba yose iyo likaŵa pasi pa mazaza ghake kweniso pafupifupi mu vigaŵa vyose vya kumpoto kwa Nigeria. Mu 2016, gulu la Boko Haram likagaŵikana ndipo mu 2022, ŵasilikari 40,000 ŵakajipeleka. Gulu lakugaŵikana la ISWAP (Islamic State in West Africa) lichalipo.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Report |first=Agency |date=2022-03-24 |title=Over 40,000 terrorists surrender to troops – DHQ |url=https://www.premiumtimesng.com/news/top-news/519364-over-40000-terrorists-surrender-to-troops-dhq.html |access-date=2022-10-15 |website=Premium Times Nigeria |language=en-GB}}</ref> ==== Nkhondo pakati pa ŵaliska na ŵalimi ==== Mu chigaŵa chapakati cha Nigeria, nkhondo yikambaso pakati pa ŵalongozgi ŵa visopa ŵa Hausa na Fulani na ŵalimi ŵa Chikhristu, comenecomene mu vigaŵa vya Kaduna, Plateau, Taraba na Benue. Mu vigaŵa vinyake, nkhondo izi zakoma ŵanthu ŵanandi. Nkhondo za pa caru ndiposo za pa vinthu vyakuthupi zikuŵa zinandi cifukwa ca kuzgoka kwa mapopa kumpoto kwa Nigeria, kusazgikira kwa ŵanthu ndiposo suzgo la vya cuma. Padera pa masuzgo agho Ŵakhristu ŵakukumana nagho na magulu gha Boko Haram na ISWAP, Ŵakhristu ŵakudandawuraso kuti ŵaliska ŵa Fulani, awo ŵanandi mwa iwo Mbasilamu, ŵakuŵatambuzga chomene ŵalimi awo Mbakhristu. Ŵalongozgi ŵa cisopa na ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakugomezgeka nawo ŵakukoleka na magulu gha vigeŵenga. Mu nkhani iyo wakayowoya mu Nyumba ya Malamulo ya ku Europe, mu Okutobala 2022, bishopu Wilfred Chikpa Anagbe, wa Roman Catholic Diocese of Makurdi, wakayaniska umo vinthu viliri ku Ŵakhristu mu caru cake na "ciŵembu ca Jihad ico cili na mazina ghanandi: uchigeŵenga, kukora ŵanthu, kukoma ŵaliska, vigeŵenga, magulu ghanyake gha ŵasilikari". Kuyana na Aid to the Church in Need, ŵasembe 4 ŵa Katolika ŵakakomeka mu Nigeria mu 2022 pera, ndipo ŵasembe 23 na munthu yumoza wa ku seminare ŵakakoleka mu chaka ichi, panji ŵakakoleka kale kweni ŵakakhala mu wuzga mu 2022. Ŵasembe ŵanandi awo ŵakakoleka ŵakafwatulika, kweni ŵatatu ŵakakomeka ndipo mu Novembala 2022, ŵatatu ŵakaŵa kuti ŵachali kusoŵa, kusazgapo Dada John Bako Shekwolo, uyo ŵakakoleka mu Malichi, 2019. Ŵasembe ŵanyake ŵanayi ŵakakoleka mu 2022, ndipo pamanyuma ŵakafumiskika. Ŵasembe awo ŵakakomeka ŵakaŵa Dada Vitus Borogo, Dada Joseph Bako, Dada John Mark Cheitnum, na Dada Christopher Odia. Wupu uwu, uwo uli na milimo yinandi ku Nigeria, ukadandawura comene cifukwa ca nkhaza izo zikucitika. Pa ungano wa pa Intaneti, mu Juni 2022, bishopu Matthew Man-Oso Ndagaoso, wa ku Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Kaduna, wakalongosora masuzgo agho Ŵakhristu ŵakukumana nagho mu charu ichi. "Kwa vilimika 14 ivyo vyajumpha, caru cikulondezgapo na Boko Haram, comene comene kumpoto ca kumafumiro gha dazi. Apo tikagwiranga nchito iyi, tikaŵa na suzgo la vigeŵenga ku mpoto ca kumanjiliro gha dazi. Apo tikadumbiskananga nkhani iyi, tikadumbiskana nkhani ya kukora ŵanthu na kupempha chiwombolero. Apo tikusuzgika na suzgo ili, tikusuzgikaso na ŵaliska ŵa Fulani". Pakuyowoya za kukoma na kukora ŵasembe ku Nigeria, bishopu uyu wakati: "Waliyose wali na wofi. Tose, ŵasembe, ŵanthu bweka, waliyose. Ŵanthu ŵakopa, ndipo nchakwenelera nadi. Ŵanthu ŵakusuzgika maghanoghano, ndipo nchakwenelera nadi. Para vinthu vili nthena, palije uyo wangaŵa wakuvikilirika. Usange mwafuma mu nyumba yinu, nanga pangaŵa muhanya, m'paka muwelere, mulije chivikiliro". Mu Juni 2022, mu msumba wa St. Louis, mu Georgia, mukachitika ngozi ya kukoma ŵanthu. Tchalitchi la Francis Xavier, ku Owo. Boma likati ISWAP ndiyo yikakoma ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 50, kweni ŵanthu ŵakukayika kuti ŵaliska ŵa Fulani ndiwo ŵakakomeka..<ref>{{Cite web |last=ACN |date=2022-06-07 |title=ACN statement about the Pentecost massacre in St. Francis Xavier Church in Owo, Nigeria |url=https://acninternational.org/massacre-in-owo-nigeria/ |access-date=2022-11-18 |website=ACN International |language=en-US}}</ref> == Chuma == {{Main|Chuma cha Nigeria}} [[File:GDP-per-capita West-Africa 2019.jpg|thumb|GDP pa munthu mu West Africa, 2019<ref>{{Cite web |title=Log Gross National Income per capita 2019 - Maps - Global Data Lab |url=https://globaldatalab.org/shdi/maps/lgnic/NGA/ |access-date=2022-10-17 |website=globaldatalab.org}}</ref>|300x300px]] [[File:Nigeria Product Exports (2019).svg|thumb|Chiŵelengero cha vyakurya ivyo vyatumizgika ku Nigeria, 2019|300x300px]]Charu cha Nigeria chili na chuma chikuru chomene mu Africa, ndipo ni cha nambara 31 pa charu chose. GDP (PPP) pa munthu waliyose ni US$9,148 (kufika mu 2022), iyo njichoko chomene kuluska South Africa, Egypt panji Morocco, kweni njichoko chomene kuluska Ghana panji Ivory Coast. Pambere caka ca 1999 cindafike, vinthu vikasuzganga comene cifukwa ca muwuso wa ŵasilikari, vimbundi, na uheni. Kuwezgerapo demokilase na kusintha kwa vinthu vya cuma kwawovwira kuti Nigeria yambe kucita makora vinthu pa nkhani ya vya cuma. Pamasinda pa 2015, chuma cha ku Nigeria chikasintha. Padera pa mafuta na gasi, Nigeria yikuguliska vyakununkhira na simenti, vinthu vya polypropylene (pulasitiki), vinthu vyakovwira munthu kuŵa wakutowa. Nigeria ndiyo yikulongozga mu vyamalonda, vyakurya, na vyakusanguluska mu Africa. Lipoti la Banki ya Charu chose la 2017 pa malo ghakwendeskera vinthu mu Africa likaŵika chalo ichi pa malo ghachinayi, kuseri kwa Côte d'Ivoire, Senegal, na Sao Tome, kweni mu 2021, Nigeria yikaba mu gulu la World Logistics Passport, gulu la banthu bakugwira nchito kuti ŵasazgireko malonda pa charu chose. Nigeria yikupanga cithuzi cimoza pa vithuzi vinkhondi na cimoza vya Britain. Pamanyuma pa mafuta, ndalama izo ŵanthu ŵa ku Nigeria ŵakutumira ku caru cawo ni izo ŵakutumira ku caru cawo. Charu cha Nigeria chili na ŵanthu ŵachoko chomene awo ŵakukhala mu vyaru vinyake. Vinthu vinandi ivyo vikusangika mu charu ichi ni malasha, bauxite, tantalite, golide, tini, njere ya visulo, malibwe gha malibwe, niobium, lead, na zinc. Nangauli ku Nigeria kuli vinthu vinandi vyakuthupi ivi, kweni nchito ya migodi yili kwamba waka.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ekene |first=Mfon Abel |date=2020-03-12 |title=Natural resources in Nigeria and their locations |url=https://www.makemoney.ng/natural-resources-in-nigeria-and-their-locations-full-list/ |access-date=2022-12-11 |website=MakeMoney.ng |language=en-GB}}</ref> === Ulimi === {{Further|Ulimi mu Nigeria}} [[File:Palm nuts put out to dry.jpg|thumb|Vikuyu vya ku Nigeria vyatoleka kuti viwomire]] Mu 2021, pafupifupi 23.4% ya GDP ya Nigeria yikupangika na ulimi, nkhalango na somba. Nigeria ndiyo yikupanga chomene maniyu pa caru cose. Vyakumera vinyake vikuru ni chimanga, mpunga, mphoza, mpunga wa yamsisi, na chimanga. Cacao ndiyo yikuguliskika comene mu vyaru vinyake. Charu cha Nigeria nacho chili pakati pa vyaru 20 ivyo vikuguliska mphira wakuthupi pa charu chose. Pambere nkhondo ya pawenenawene ya ku Nigeria yindambe ndiposo pambere mafuta ghandambe kunjira mu caru ici, caru ici cikaŵa cakurya cakukwana. Kale, vyakurya ndivyo vikasanganga ndalama zinandi mu Nigeria. Ku Nigeria, kulimi kuli kumara cifukwa ca kusazgikira kwa ŵanthu. Chaka chilichose charu ichi chikugwiliskira nchito ndalama zakukwana madola mabiliyoni 6.7 pa kunjizga vyakurya mu vyaru vinyake. Mu ma 1970, boma la Nigeria likamba kugwiliskira ntchito vyakurya vyambura kukhazikika. Chiŵelengero cha mpunga ku Nigeria chikakwera na 10% kufuma mu 2017/18 kufika mu 2021/22 kufika pa matani 5 miliyoni pa chaka, kweni chikaŵa chakusuzga kuti chikwaniske. Ntheura, mpunga uwo ukatoleka ku vyaru vinyake ukakhala waka pa mtunda wa matani 2 pa chaka. Mu Ogasiti 2019, Nigeria yikajara mphaka yake na Benin na vyaru vinyake vyapafupi kuti yikanizge kusaska mpunga mu charu ichi. Mpaka sono, Nigeria likaguliskanga mpunga wambura kuyuyulika, kweni likatoranga mpunga wambura kuyulika, uwo ni cakurya cikuru comene mu caru ici. Para mulimo uwu wamara mu 2022, malo agha, agho ngakuru comene kumwera kwa Sahara, ghazamovwira ŵanthu 250,000 na kupanga mphunga zakukwana makilogiramu 50 pa chaka.<ref>{{cite web |date=2022-05-04 |title=Lagos today: Like Tinubu like Sanwo-Olu |url=https://www.thecable.ng/lagos-today-like-tinubu-like-sanwo-olu |access-date=2022-05-26 |website=TheCable |language=en-US}}</ref> === Mafuta ghakufula === {{Further|Makampani gha mafuta mu Nigeria|Mndandanda wa vyaru kuyana na katundu wa mafuta}} Nigeria ndiyo yikupangiska mafuta ghanandi pa caru cose, ndipo ndiyo yikupanga mafuta ghanandi pa caru cose. Mafuta ghakovwira comene pa cuma ca ku Nigeria, ndipo ghakupanga 40% ya GDP na 80% ya ndalama za boma. Ndipouli, ŵanthu awo ŵakukhumba kuti vinthu viŵe makora mu chigaŵa cha Niger Delta, icho ni chigaŵa chikuru cha mafuta, ŵakususka mulimo wa kupanga mafuta. Malo gha mafuta gha Niger Delta Nembe Creek ghakasangika mu 1973 ndipo ghakupanga malibwe gha mchenga gha mu Miocene mu malo agho ghakusangika pa mtunda wa makilomita 2 mpaka 4. Mu Juni 2013, kampani ya Shell yikapharazga kuti yikunozgaso umo yikugwilira ntchito mu Nigeria. Nangauli makampani ghanandi gha mafuta gha pa charu chose ghakachitanga ntchito mu charu ichi kwa vyaka vinandi, kweni mu 2014 ghakaŵa kuti ghaleka kugwiliskira ntchito ndalama izi. Mu Ogasiti 2014, kampani ya Shell yikati yikumalizga kugura malo ghanayi gha mafuta ku Nigeria. Ku Nigeria kuli malo gha mafuta 159 na visimi 1,481 ivyo vikugwira nchito kuyana na Dipatimenti ya vya Mafuta. Chigaŵa chakupambika chomene mu charu ichi ni Niger Delta Basin, icho chili mumphepete mwa nyanja. Mafuta ghanandi agho ghakusangika ku Nigeria ghakaŵa ghacoko comene, ndipo mu 1990, mafuta agha ghakaŵa 62.1% ya mafuta ghose gha ku Nigeria. Ivi vikupambana comene na malo ghakuru 16 agho ghakapanga mafuta gha 37.9% mu Nigeria. Mafuta ghakaŵa katundu uyo wakunjira mu Nigeria m'paka mu 2021, ndipo ghakaŵa 24 peresenti ya katundu uyo wakunjira mu charu ichi. Pakuti caru ca Europe cikusuzgika na nkhondo ya ku Ukraine, ŵanthu ŵakughanaghana vya kwendeska gasi kufuma ku Nigeria kuya ku Morocco panji Algeria. Kweni mu Meyi 2022, pakaŵavya icho chikachitika.<ref>{{cite web |title=Nigeria's president launches new gas pipeline project |url=https://www.aa.com.tr/en/energy/natural-gas/nigerias-president-launches-new-gas-pipeline-project/29750 |access-date=2022-05-26 |website=www.aa.com.tr}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Morocco closer to activating the gas pipeline with Nigeria |url=https://atalayar.com/en/content/morocco-closer-activating-gas-pipeline-nigeria |access-date=2022-05-26 |website=Atalayar |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=2022-05-09 |title=Nigeria-Morocco Gas Pipeline (NMGP) Project Updates |url=https://constructionreviewonline.com/project-timelines/nigeria-morocco-gas-pipeline-nmgp-project-updates/ |access-date=2022-05-26 |website=Construction Review Online |language=en-us}}</ref> === Kupanga na luso === {{Further|Automotive industry in Nigeria|Pharmaceutical industry in Nigeria}} [[File:Nigeria EduSat-1.jpg|thumb|Nigeria EduSat-1, satellite yakwamba yakuzengeka na Nigeria na Federal University of Technology Akure]] Nigeria yili na makampani gha kupanga vinthu nga ni vikumba na vyakuvwara (ku Kano, Abeokuta, Onitsha, na Lagos), pulasitiki na vyakurya. Ogun wakuwoneka kuti ni msumba ukuru wa mafakitale wa Nigeria, chifukwa mafakitale ghanandi ghali mu Ogun ndipo makampani ghanandi ghakusamukira kwenekuko. Msumba wa Aba, uwo uli kumwera kwa charu ichi, ukumanyikwa na vinthu vya mawoko na skapato. Nigeria yili na msika wa magalimoto 720,000 pa caka, kweni magalimoto ghambura kukwana 20% ghakupangika mu caru. Mu 2016 (chaka chaumaliro icho tikasangirapo maukaboni), Nigeria ndiyo yikapanganga simenti yikuru chomene kumwera kwa Sahara. Aliko Dangote, munthu musambazi comene wa ku Nigeria, wakaŵa musambazi cifukwa ca kupanga simenti na vyakurya vinyake. Kuyana na umo iyo wakughanaghanira, Ajaokuta Steel Company Limited yikupanga matani 1.3 miliyoni gha nchero pa caka. Ivi vikayananga na chigaŵa chimoza pa vigaŵa vinkhondi na cimoza vya vyakufumiska vya UK mu 2021. Kweni vikuwoneka kuti mafakitale gha Katsina, Jos na Osogbo ghaleka kugwira ntchito. Mu Juni 2019, Nigeria EduSat-1 yikatumika kufuma ku International Space Station. Iyi yikaŵa satelayiti yakwamba kuzenga ku Nigeria, ndipo yikati yaŵa na satelayiti zinandi za ku Nigeria izo zikapangika na vyaru vinyake. Mu chaka cha 2021, chalo cha Nigeria chili na ma pharmaceutical production capacity pafupifupi 60 peresenti mu Africa, makampani ghakurughakuru gha pharmaceutical ghali ku Lagos. Kampani yakupanga munkhwala iyo yili na ŵanthu ŵanandi ku Nigeria ni Emzor Pharmaceutical Industries Ltd. Nigeria yili na makompyuta ghanandi nga ni Zinox, makompyuta ghakwambilira gha ku Nigeria, kweniso makompyuta ghanyake nga ni mapiritsi. Kufika mu Januwale 2022, Nigeria ndiyo yikupanga makampani 5 pa 7 gha unicorn mu Africa.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-01-26 |title=Nigeria produces five of seven unicorns in Africa |url=https://guardian.ng/technology/nigeria-produces-five-of-seven-unicorns-in-africa/ |access-date=2022-10-17 |website=The Guardian Nigeria News - Nigeria and World News |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Yahaya |first=Abdulwali |date=2019-09-19 |title=Top 10 Best Pharmaceutical Companies in Nigeria & Their Products |url=https://nigerianinfopedia.com.ng/registered-pharmaceutical-companies-in-nigeria/ |access-date=2022-06-02 |website=Nigerian Infopedia |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Onyesi |first=Chika |date=2021-10-06 |title='Nigeria's pharmaceutical sector dwindling despite 60 percent production capacity' |url=https://dailypost.ng/2021/10/06/nigerias-pharmaceutical-sector-dwindling-despite-60-percent-production-capacity/ |access-date=2022-06-05 |website=Daily Post Nigeria |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=2014-04-28 |title=Nigeria to revive steel rolling mills – Official {{!}} Premium Times Nigeria |url=https://www.premiumtimesng.com/business/159578-nigeria-revive-steel-rolling-mills-official.html |access-date=2022-05-26 |language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=About Emzor Pharmaceutical Industries Limited |url=https://www.emzorpharma.com/about-emzor/ |access-date=2022-06-02 |website=Emzor |language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=Okonji, Emma |date=24 October 2013 |title=Zinox Introduces Tablet Range of Computers, Plans Commercial Launch |url=http://www.thisdaylive.com/articles/zinox-introduces-tablet-range-of-computers-plans-commercial-launch/162517/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131027075729/http://www.thisdaylive.com/articles/zinox-introduces-tablet-range-of-computers-plans-commercial-launch/162517 |archive-date=27 October 2013 |access-date=14 March 2014 |work=This Day |publisher=This Day Live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=5 May 2013 |title=Ogun State's rising investment profile |url=http://www.mydailynewswatchng.com/2013/05/05/ogun-states-rising-investment-profile/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20140314202910/http://www.mydailynewswatchng.com/2013/05/05/ogun-states-rising-investment-profile/ |archive-date=14 March 2014 |access-date=14 March 2014 |publisher=Daily NewsWatch}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=19 June 2013 |title=Industrial hub: Why more companies are moving to Ogun |newspaper=Vanguard Nigeria |url=http://www.vanguardngr.com/2013/06/why-more-companies-are-moving-to-ogun/ |access-date=14 March 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=27 November 2012 |title=Ogun State: Nigeria's new Industrial hub |url=http://news2.onlinenigeria.com/news/top-stories/219914-ogun-state-nigeria%E2%80%99s-new-industrial-hub.html |access-date=14 March 2014 |publisher=Online Nigeria News |archive-date=29 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131129151508/http://news2.onlinenigeria.com/news/top-stories/219914-ogun-state-nigeria%E2%80%99s-new-industrial-hub.html |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="Naijalitz">{{cite web |title=Nigeria now generates 13,000mw of power, says Minister – Chukwuma |url=https://naijalitz.com/nigeria-now-generates-13000mw-of-power-says-minister/ |access-date=28 October 2020 |publisher=Naijalitz – No 1 Entertainment Portal }}{{Dead link|date=April 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref name=":3">{{cite news |last=Polycarp |first=Nwafor |date=18 May 2017 |title=Nigeria to launch Africa's 1st nanosatellite |work=Vanguard |url=https://www.vanguardngr.com/2017/05/nigeria-launch-africas-1st-nanosatellite/ |access-date=17 February 2018}}</ref> === Mauthenga gha pa Intaneti na Mauteŵeti === [[File:Wikidata for Libraries and Librarians in Nigeria 69.jpg|thumb|Awo ŵakulemba mabuku ku Nigeria ŵakunozga database ya [[Wikidata]]]] Boma la Nigeria lili na mabungwe gha vya ndalama agho ghakusanga ndalama zinandi chomene, nga ni mabanki gha mu charu ichi na gha pa charu chose, makampani ghakwendeska katundu, makampani ghakuchitiska malonda, makampani gha inshuwalansi, na mabungwe ghanyake. Chifukwa chakuti Nigeria yili pakatikati pa Africa, vyakuthupi vikovwira comene pa mulimo wa kuzenga. Boma la Buhari likamba kunozga vinthu vya mu charu ichi mu 2015. Ŵakuzenga misewu yiphya na kunozga misewu yinandi, comenecomene cifukwa cakuti boma likupeleka ndalama zinandi. Chinthu chinyake icho chikulongora kuti vinthu vyasintha ni Second Niger Bridge kufupi na Onitsha, iyo yikamara kuzengeka mu 2022. Msika wa tumafoni wa ku Nigeria ndiwo ukukura mwaluŵiro comene pa caru cose, ndipo ŵamalonda ŵakumanyikwa comene (nga ni MTN, 9mobile, Airtel na Globacom) ŵali na malo ghakuru comene na ghakovwira comene mu caru ici. Chigaŵa cha ICT ku Nigeria chikukura chomene, ndipo chikaŵa na 10% ya GDP ya charu mu 2018 pakuyaniska na 1% mu 2001. Msumba wa Lagos ukuwoneka kuti ni umoza mwa malo ghakurughakuru gha vya sayansi mu Africa. Kuyana na kafukufuku uyo wakacitika na wupu wa GSM Association, ŵanalume ŵakukwana 92% na ŵanakazi 88% mu Nigeria ŵakaŵa na foni. Pakugwiliskira nchito nthowa zakupambanapambana, kusazgapo kweni kuti zikumalira waka pa kukakika mwambura kuzomerezgeka, kudumura mawebusayiti, kutora pasipoti, na kukanizga ŵanthu kugura maakaunti gha ku banki, boma la Nigeria likulanga ŵanthu chifukwa cha kujilongora pa intaneti na kukanizga wanangwa wa pa intaneti.<ref>{{cite web |last=Paul |first=Emmanuel |date=2019-11-28 |title=Everything you need to know about Nigeria's Social Media Bill and what you can do about it |url=https://techpoint.africa/2019/11/28/nigerias-social-media-bill/ |access-date=2021-05-20 |website=Techpoint Africa |language=en-US}}</ref> === Ulendo === {{Main|Ulendo ku Nigeria}} [[File:Òwú Waterfalls.jpg|thumb|Chipopoma cha Òwú, icho ŵana ŵa sukulu ŵa ku Nigeria ŵakaluta]] Ulendo wa ku Nigeria ukwendera chomene vinthu vyachilendo chifukwa cha mitundu yinandi iyo yili mu charu ichi. Ku Abuja kuli mapaki ghanandi na malo ghanyake. Malo ghakuru chomene, agho ni Millennium Park, ghakalembeka na Manfredi Nicoletti ndipo ghakajulika mu Disembala 2003. Pambuyo pa ntchito ya kukonzanso yomwe idakwaniritsidwa ndi boma la Bwanamkubwa Raji Babatunde Fashola, Lagos pang'onopang'ono ikukhala malo ofunikira alendo. Sono msumba wa Lagos ukucita vinthu vinyake kuti uŵe msumba wa caru cose. Chikondwerero cha Eyo cha 2009 (chikondwerero chapachaka chochokera ku Iperu Remo, Ogun State) chinali sitepe yopita ku mzinda wa dziko. Mazuŵa ghano, msumba wa Lagos ukumanyikwa na ŵanthu awo ŵakutemwa bizinesi. Ku Lagos kukaŵa malo ghakuzirwa chomene pa nkhani ya ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa na ŵa fuko la ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yinyake. Ku Lagos kuli maji gha mchenga agho ghali mumphepete mwa nyanja ya Atlantic, nga ni Elegushi Beach na Alpha Beach. Lagos nayo wali na malo ghanandi ghakusungirako ŵanthu, kusazgapo Inagbe Grand Beach Resort na ghanyake ghanandi agho ghali kufupi na msumba uwu. Lagos yili na mahotelo ghakupambanapambana kufuma ku mahotelo gha nyenyezi zitatu mpaka nyenyezi zinkhondi, pamoza na mahotelo gha ku malo agha nga ni Eko Hotels and Suites, Federal Palace Hotel na ma franchises gha vyalo vinandi nga ni Intercontinental Hotel, Sheraton, na Four Points by Sheraton. Malo ghanyake agho mungasanga ni Tafawa Balewa Square, tawuni ya Festac, The Nike Art Gallery, Freedom Park, na Cathedral Church of Christ.<ref>{{cite book|first1=Anthony|last1=Appiah|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A0XNvklcqbwC&pg=PA53|title=Encyclopedia of Africa, Volume 2|first2=Henry Louis|last2=Gates|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2010|isbn=978-0-19-533770-9|page=53}}</ref> === Magesi === {{Main|Energy in Nigeria}} [[File:Abuja road.jpg|thumb|Kamupani ya magesi ku Abuja]]Mu 2011, Nigeria yikagwiliskiranga ntchito magesi ghakukwana 108 Mtoe. Nkhongono zinandi zikufuma ku vyakumera vya viŵeto na vyakuseluska, ivyo vikupangiska kuti pakhale vyakumera vyakudura 83%. Vinyake vyose vikufuma ku mafuta (16%) na maji (1%). Kufuma waka apo charu cha Nigeria chikapokera wanangwa, chikuyezgayezga kupanga vyakupangira nkhongono za nyukiliya. Kwambira mu 2004, Nigeria yili na malo ghakucitira kafukufuku gha ku China pa Yunivesite ya Ahmadu Bello ndipo yapempha wovwiri ku International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) kuti lipange mapulani ghakukwana 4,000 MWe gha nyukiliya m'paka mu 2027 kuyana na pulogiramu ya caru ya kugwiliskira nchito nyukiliya pakupanga magesi. Mu 2007, Pulezidenti Umaru Yar'Adua wakachiska charu ichi kuti chigwiliskirenge ntchito nkhongono za nyukiliya. Mu 2017, charu cha Nigeria chikalemba chikalata cha UN pa nkhani ya kukanizga vilwero vya nyukiliya. Mu Epulero 2015, Nigeria yikamba kudumbiskana na kampani ya Russia yakuchemeka Rosatom kuti yikambiske kupanga, kuzenga na kwendeska vyalo vinayi vya nyukiliya m'paka mu 2035. Mu Juni 2015, charu cha Nigeria chikasankha malo ghaŵiri ghakupangira majini agha. Boma la Nigeria na la Rosatom ŵakayowoyapo yayi uko malo agha ghali, kweni ŵakugomezga kuti malo agha ghali mu chigaŵa cha Akwa Ibom na Kogi. Pa malo agha pali kupangaso malo ghaŵiri. Mu 2017, ŵakalembeska mapangano gha kuzenga chingalaŵa cha Itu..<ref>{{cite web |date=7 July 2017 |title=Chapter XXVI: Disarmament – No. 9 Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons |url=https://treaties.un.org/Pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=TREATY&mtdsg_no=XXVI-9&chapter=26&clang=_en |publisher=United Nations Treaty Collection}}</ref> == Vyakuzenga == === Misewu === [[File:Aerial-shot-of-makoko-community-in-lagos-2.jpg|thumb|Mlatho wacitatu wa ku Niger]] Ku Nigeria kuli misewu yikuru comene mu vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Africa. Msewu uwu uli na mtunda wa makilomita pafupifupi 200,000, ndipo makilomita 60,000 mwa mtunda uwu ghali na asphalt. Misewu na misewu yikuruyikuru ya ku Nigeria yikwendeskeka na ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 90 peresenti. Likupeleka N2.4 trillion ($6.4 billion) ku GDP mu 2020. Makilomita 35,000 gha misewu iyi ghali pasi pa boma. Mu boma lachiwiri la a Buhari, bajeti yakusungirako na kupangira misewu ya makilomita 35,000 iyi yikasazgikira kaŵiri kufuma pa 295 billion naira ($819 million) mu 2018 kufika pa 563 billion naira ($1.3 billion) mu 2022. Uyo wakuwona vya bajeti iyi (kufika mu Seputembala 2022) ni nduna Fashola, yumoza wa ŵandyali ŵakuchindikika chomene mu Nigeria. Mu nyengo ya muwuso wake, misewu yikuruyikuru iyo yikwendeska vyaru vyakuzirwa nga ni Lagos-Ibadan, Lagos-Badagry na Enugu-Onitsha yikasintha. Msewu unyake wose ni nkhani ya boma, ntheura uli na kawonekero kakupambana na ka boma ako muli. Boma la Lagos, Anambra, na Rivers, ilo ndakukhora pa nkhani ya vyachuma, likutondeka chomene. Misewu yinandi yikazengeka mu vyaka vya m'ma 1980 na 1990. Chifukwa chakuti misewu iyi yikuwoneka makora yayi kweniso yili na vinthu viheni chomene. Ntchipusu yayi kwenda. Kanandi mu nyengo ya vula, misewu yinyake yikuŵa yakusuzga kuyendamo chifukwa cha vibulunga. Kanandi vigeŵenga vikugwiliskira nchito uheni uwu.<ref>{{cite web |title=UPDATED: Motorists List Nigeria's Most Dangerous Roads, Say Bandits Built Dens Along Them {{!}} Sahara Reporters |url=https://saharareporters.com/2020/12/16/updated-motorists-list-nigerias-most-dangerous-roads-say-bandits-built-dens-along-them |access-date=2022-09-14 |website=saharareporters.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Babangida |first=Mohammed |date=2022-05-18 |title=Bandits abduct motorists on Abuja - Kaduna highway |url=https://www.premiumtimesng.com/news/top-news/530677-bandits-abduct-motorists-on-abuja-kaduna-highway.html |access-date=2022-09-14 |website=Premium Times Nigeria |language=en-GB}}</ref> === Njanji === Msewu wa njanji uwu uli kunozgekaso chomene ndipo uli na mapulojekiti nga ni Lagos-Kano Standard Gauge Railway. === Kwenda mu ndege === {{Main|List of airports in Nigeria}} [[File:Untitled (Aviogenex) Boeing 737-200; YU-ANU@ZRH;23.12.1995 (6172558774).jpg|thumb|Ndege ya Boeing 737-200 ya Chanchangi Airlines]] Gulu la ndege la boma la Nigeria Airways likaŵa na ngongoli zinandi mu 2003 ndipo likagulika na British Virgin Group; kwambira pa 28 Juni 2005 likwenda pasi pa zina lakuti Virgin Nigeria Airways. Paumaliro wa chaka cha 2008, Virgin Group yikapharazga kuti yikufumamo mu ndege iyi, ndipo kufuma mu Seputembala 2009 ndege iyi yikugwira ntchito nga ni Nigerian Eagle Airlines. Ndege yikuru comene ya ku Nigeria ni Arik Air, iyo yikaŵa mu 2004. Lili na ndege zakujumpha 20 ndipo likwendeskanga maulendo gha pa charu chose. Makampani opanga ndege ku Nigeria adapanga ma naira 198.62 biliyoni (€ 400 miliyoni) mu 2019, zomwe zikuyimira gawo la 0.14 peresenti ya GDP. Ndilo likakura chomene mu Nigeria mu 2019. Chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu awo ŵakendanga pa sitima chikakwera kufuma pa 9,358,166 mu 2020 kufika pa 15,886,955 mu 2021, ndipo ichi chikukwana 69 peresenti. Kufuma mu 2020 m'paka mu 2021, chiŵelengero cha ndege chikakwera na 46 peresenti. Chiŵelengero cha katundu chikaŵa matani 191 mu 2020 kweni chikakwera kufika matani 391 mu 2021. Mu Disembala 2021, Anambra International Cargo Airport yikamba kugwira ntchito. Mu Epulero 2022, chipatala chachiŵiri cha ku chipatala cha ndege cha Murtala Muhammed International Airport chizamunjira mu ntchito. Ntchito iyi yingawovwira kuti chiŵanja cha ndege ichi chiŵe na ŵanthu 14 miliyoni pa chaka..<ref>{{cite web |title=Lagos Airport's Terminal 2 opens – the Nigerian president wants concessions 'fast tracked' |url=https://centreforaviation.com/analysis/reports/lagos-airports-terminal-2-opens--the-nigerian-president-wants-concessions-fast-tracked-602197 |access-date=2022-05-30 |website=CAPA - Centre for Aviation |language=en}}</ref> Ku Nigeria kuli ma [[eyapoti]] 54. * [[Murtala Muhammed International Airport]] ku Lagos, * [[Nnamdi Azikiwe International Airport]] ku Abuja, * [[Mallam Aminu Kano International Airport]] ku Kano, * [[Akanu Ibiam International Airport]] ku Enugu na * [[Port Harcourt International Airport]] ku Port Harcourt. == Ŵanthu == {{Main|Demographics of Nigeria}} {{See also|Social class in Nigeria}} [[File:Population density map of Nigerian states - English.png|thumb|upright=1.4|Unandi wa ŵanthu (ŵanthu pa kilomita yimoza) ku Nigeria|alt=]] Wupu wa United Nations ukati ŵanthu ŵa ku Nigeria mu 2021 ŵakaŵa 213,401,323, ndipo 51.7% ŵakaŵa ŵa ku mizi ndipo 48.3% ŵakaŵa ŵa mu matawuni. Ŵanthu pafupifupi 42.5% ŵakaŵa na vyaka 14 panji kujumphirako, 19.6% ŵakaŵa na vyaka vyapakati pa 15 na 24, 30.7% ŵakaŵa na vyaka vyapakati pa 25 na 54, 4.0% ŵakaŵa na vyaka vyapakati pa 55 na 64, ndipo 3.1% ŵakaŵa na vyaka vyapakati pa 65 na 65. Mu 2017, ŵanthu awo ŵakaŵa na vyaka vyapakati pa 18.4. Nigeria ni caru ca nambara sikisi pa vyaru ivyo vili na ŵanthu ŵanandi comene. Chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu ŵakubabika chikaŵa 35.2 pa ŵanthu 1,000, ndipo chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu ŵakufwa chikaŵa 9.6 pa ŵanthu 1,000. Kufuma mu 1990 kufika mu 2008, chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu ku Nigeria chikakwera na 57 miliyoni. Charu cha Nigeria ndicho chili na ŵanthu ŵanandi chomene mu Africa, ndipo pa ŵanthu wose awo ŵakukhala mu charu ichi, ŵanthu 17 pa ŵanthu 100 ŵalipo mu 2017.<ref name="auto12">{{cite web |title=Human Development Data (1990–2017) |url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/data |access-date=17 October 2018 |publisher=United Nations Development Programme}}</ref> Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Nigeria ŵali kusamira ku vyaru vinyake, comenecomene ku Europe, North America, na Australia. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakuti ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 1 miliyoni ŵa ku Nigeria ŵali kusamira ku United States. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa mu vyaru ivi ŵali kujoyinako gulu la "Egbe Omo Yoruba", ilo ni wupu wa ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Yoruba ku North America. Msumba ukuru comene wa Nigeria ni Lagos. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Lagos ŵakukura kufuma pa 300,000 mu 1950 kufika pa 13.4 miliyoni mu 2017. {|class="wikitable" style="float: right; margin-left: 10px" ! colspan="4" style="text-align:center; background:#cfb;"|Population in Nigeria<ref name="IEApop2011">[http://www.iea.org/co2highlights/co2Highlights.XLS CO2 Emissions from Fuel Combustion] Population 1971–2008 IEA [https://web.archive.org/web/20120106205757/http://iea.org/co2highlights/co2highlights.pdf pdf] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120106205757/http://iea.org/co2highlights/co2highlights.pdf|date=6 January 2012}} pp. 83–85</ref><ref name="auto1">{{cite web |title=Human Development Data (1990–2017) |url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/data |publisher=United Nations Development Programme |access-date=17 October 2018}}</ref> |- ! style="background:#cfb;"|Year ! style="background:#cfb;"|Million |- |style="text-align:left;"|1971 ||style="text-align:right;"|55 |- |style="text-align:left;"|2000 ||style="text-align:right;"|125 |- |style="text-align:left;"|2017 ||style="text-align:right;"|191 |- |} Ku Nigeria kuli mafuko ghakujumpha 250, ndipo ŵanthu ŵakuyowoya viyowoyero na mitheto yakupambanapambana. Mtundu ukuru chomene ni wa Hausa, Yoruba, na Igbo, ndipo ŵanthu awo ŵalipo ŵakujumpha 60 peresenti, apo ŵa Edo, Ijaw, Fulɓe, Kanuri, Urhobo-Isoko, Ibibio, Ebira, Nupe, Gbagyi, Jukun, Igala, Idoma, Ogoni, na Tiv ŵalipo 35 na 40 peresenti. Chigaŵa chapakati cha Nigeria chikumanyikwa na mitundu yakupambanapambana, nga ni Atyap, Berom, Goemai, Igala, Kofyar, Pyem, na Tiv. Ŵanyake mwa ŵanthu aŵa mba ku Britain, America, India, China (pafupifupi 50,000), Zimbabwe, Japan, Greece, Syria, na Lebanon. Ŵalendo awo ŵakufuma ku vyaru vinyake vya kumanjiliro gha dazi panji kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Africa.<ref name="felix2">{{cite news|last=Onuah|first=Felix|date=29 December 2006|title=Nigeria gives census result, avoids risky details|agency=Reuters|url=http://www.alertnet.org/thenews/newsdesk/L29819278.htm|url-status=dead|access-date=23 November 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090126015018/http://www.alertnet.org/thenews/newsdesk/L29819278.htm|archive-date=26 January 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Lewis |first=Peter |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T4-rlVeb1n0C&pg=PA132 |title=Growing Apart: Oil, Politics, and Economic Change in Indonesia and Nigeria |publisher=University of Michigan Press |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-472-06980-4 |page=132}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Simpson |first=Sarah |date=August 2008 |title=Why white Zimbabwean farmers plan to stay in Nigeria |url=http://www.csmonitor.com/2008/0502/p04s01-woaf.html |access-date=7 June 2011 |work=[[The Christian Science Monitor]]}}</ref><ref name="Major Urban Areas: Population">{{cite web |title=Major Urban Areas: Population |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/nigeria/ |access-date=17 October 2018 |website=The World Fact Book |publisher=Central Intelligence Agency}}</ref> === Viyowoyero === {{Main|Viyowoyero vya ku Nigeria}} [[File:Nigeria linguistical map 1979.svg|thumb|upright=1.45|right|Mapu gha viyowoyero vya ku Nigeria]] Ŵanthu ŵakuyowoya viyowoyero 525 ku Nigeria, ndipo viyowoyero 8 pa viyowoyero ivi vili kumara. Mu vigaŵa vinyake vya Nigeria, ŵanthu ŵakuyowoya viyowoyero vinandi. Chiyowoyero cha boma cha ku Nigeria, Chingelezi, chikasankhika kuti ŵanthu ŵaŵeso ŵakukolerana mu viyowoyero vyawo chifukwa cha umo charu cha Britain chikakhalira mu 1960. Ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakuyowoya Chifurenchi ŵakufuma mu vyaru vyapafupi na charu ichi ŵali kusintha chiyowoyero cha Chingelezi icho chikuyowoyeka mu vigaŵa vya kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Nigeria. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Nigeria ŵakuyowoya Cifurenci na Cingelezi. Viyowoyero vikuruvikuru ivyo vikuyowoyeka mu Nigeria ni viyowoyero vitatu vikuruvikuru vya mu Africa: viyowoyero vikuruvikuru ni Niger-Congo, nga ni Igbo, Yoruba, Ibibio, Ijaw, Fulfulde, Ogoni, na Edo. Chiyowoyero cha Kanuri chikayowoyeka kumpoto cha kumafumiro gha dazi kwa charu ichi, chomenechomene ku Borno na Yobe. Nangauli ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakutemwa kuyowoya viyowoyero vyawo, kweni ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuyowoya Chingelezi pa nkhani ya masambiro, bizinesi, na vinthu vinyake. Ŵanthu ŵachoko waka mu misumba ya mu charu ichi ndiwo ŵakuyowoya Chingelezi. Pa viyowoyero vitatu vikuruvikuru ivyo vikuyowoyeka mu Nigeria, chiyowoyero cha Hausa ndicho chikuyowoyeka chomene. Pakuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ku Nigeria ŵakukhala ku mizi, viyowoyero vikuruvikuru ivyo ŵanthu ŵakuyowoya mu charu ichi ni viyowoyero vya ku mizi. Viyowoyero vinyake vikuruvikuru nga ni Chiyoruba na Chiigbo, vili kufuma ku viyowoyero vyakupambanapambana. Chingelezi cha Pidgin cha ku Nigeria, icho kanandi chikuchemeka waka kuti "Pidgin" panji "Broken" (Chingelezi chakuphwanyika), ndicho chikuyowoyeka chomene ku Nigeria. Ŵanthu ŵanandi mu chigaŵa cha Niger Delta ŵakuyowoya Chingelezi.<ref>{{cite book |last=Adegbija |first=Efurosibina E. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=auI_WuBrWncC&pg=PA55 |title=Multilingualism: A Nigerian Case Study |publisher=Africa World Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-1-59221-173-9 |location=Last paragraph |page=55 |access-date=26 December 2008}}</ref> === Chisopo === {{Main|Religion in Nigeria}}{{Multi image | image1 = Catedral Nacional em Abuja, Nigéria.jpg | image2 = Abuja Central mosque.jpg | direction = vertical | caption1 = [[National Christian Centre|National Church of Nigeria, Abuja]] | caption2 = [[Abuja National Mosque]] | total_width = 250 }} Ŵanthu ŵa mu Nigeria ŵakutemwa visopa vyakupambanapambana. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Nigeria ŵali kugaŵikana pafupifupi mwakuyana waka mu visopa vya Cisilamu na Cikhristu, ndipo ŵanthu ŵachoko waka ndiwo ŵakulondezga visopa vya mu Africa. Chiŵelengero cha Ŵakhristu ku Nigeria chikukhilira pasi cifukwa ca unandi wa ŵana awo ŵakubabika para ŵakuyaniskika na Ŵasilamu. Nga umo viliri mu vigaŵa vinyake vya mu Africa, uko Chisilamu na Chikhristu ni visopa vikuru comene. Lipoti la mu 2012 pa nkhani ya chisopa na umoyo wa ŵanthu ilo likalembeka na Pew Research Center likati mu 2010, ŵanthu 49.3% ku Nigeria ŵakaŵa Ŵakhristu, 48.8% ŵakaŵa Ŵasilamu, ndipo 1.9% ŵakaŵa ŵalondezgi ŵa visopa vinyake (nga ni Bori ku North) panji ŵambura kukolerana na visopa vinyake. Ndipouli, lipoti la Pew Research Center ilo likafuma mu 2015, likati ŵanthu Ŵasilamu ŵalipo 50 peresenti, ndipo mu 2060, Ŵasilamu ŵazamuŵa 60 peresenti ya ŵanthu mu charu ichi. Mu 2010, pa kafukufuku uyo wakachitika ku Association of Religion Data Archives, ŵakasanga kuti ŵanthu 48.8% ŵakaŵa Ŵakhristu. Ndipouli, ŵanthu ŵakwenera kuŵa maso chomene na ivyo ŵakuyowoya chifukwa vigaŵa vinandi vya kumwera uko kuli ŵanthu ŵanandi awo Mbakhristu.<ref name="Regional Distribution of Christians2">{{cite web |date=19 December 2011 |title=Regional Distribution of Christians |url=http://www.pewforum.org/2011/12/19/global-christianity-regions/ |access-date=28 July 2014 |publisher=Pewforum.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.pewforum.org/2012/12/18/global-religious-landscape-muslim/Regional|title=Distribution of Christians}}{{Dead link|date=January 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=27 January 2011 |title=The Future of the Global Muslim Population |url=http://www.pewforum.org/2011/01/27/the-future-of-the-global-muslim-population/ |access-date=28 July 2014 |publisher=Pewforum.org}}</ref> Chisilamu chikusangika chomene kumpoto cha kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Nigeria (Hausa, Nupe, Fulani na ŵanyake), ndipo ŵanthu 99% mbasilamu. Ku vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi, ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Yoruba ŵali na visopa vinandi. Chikhristu cha Chiprotesitanti na Chikhristu cha ku malo agha chikuchitika chomene ku vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi, apo Chikhristu cha Katolika cha ku Romu ndicho chikuwoneka chomene ku South Eastern Nigeria. Ŵanthu ŵa mu vigaŵa vya kumwera nga ni Ibibio, Efik, Ijo, na Ogoni ŵakugomezga Chikatolika na Chiprotesitanti. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Igbos (ŵanandi ŵakukhala kumafumiro gha dazi) na Ibibio (kumwera) ŵalipo 98 peresenti Mbakhristu, ndipo 2 peresenti ŵakuchita visopa vyawo. Chigaŵa chapakati cha Nigeria chili na ŵanthu ŵanandi chomene ŵa mafuko ghachoko waka, ndipo ŵanandi mwa ŵanthu aŵa Mbakhristu ndipo ŵakulondezga visopa vyaunenesko..<ref>{{cite web |date=29 November 2004 |title=The Middle Belt: History and politics |url=http://www.nasarawastate.org/newsday/news/culture/11129114540.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120229202021/http://www.nasarawastate.org/newsday/news/culture/11129114540.html |archive-date=29 February 2012 |access-date=13 March 2012 |publisher=Nasarawastate.org}}</ref> ==== Chongo ==== Kwambira mu 2010, gulu la Boko Haram likuwukira kumpoto kwa Nigeria. Mu vyaka 12 vyakulondezgapo, kuyana na "Nigeria Security Tracker" ya Council on Foreign Relations, ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 41,600 ŵakafwa cifukwa ca gulu ili (kufika mu Okutobala 2022). Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakachimbilira kumwera panji ku misumba yikuruyikuru, nga ni Maiduguri. Gulu la Boko Haram likakhwaskaso matchalitchi. Kweni fundo yakuti "Ŵasilamu ŵakususkana na Ŵakhristu" njambura kupulikikwa. Nangauli gulu la Boko Haram likuŵatinkha Ŵakhristu, kweni ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵali kufwa Mbasilamu. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakugomezga kuti cifukwa cakuti gulu la Boko Haram likakoma Ŵasilamu ŵanandi comene, likamba kupatukana mu 2016. Malipoti gha Nigeria Security Tracker (NST) ghakulongora kuti (kwambira mu Malichi 2022) kuti kuukira kwa Boko Haram ku matchalitchi kwachepa, apo kuukira kwa masisiteri kwasazgikira. Ciŵelengero cicoko ca Ŵakhristu awo ŵakakomeka na Boko Haram cikulongora kuti ŵanandi ŵa iwo ŵali kucimbira. Gulu la Boko Haram lakhala likuchepa kufuma mu Malichi 2022. Kufuma mu 2021, gulu la Islamic State in West Africa (ISWAP) likuwoneka kuti ndakuzirwa chomene kuluska Boko Haram. Mwachiyelezgero, ISWAP ndiyo yikapangiska kuti mpingo wa Owo ukomeke pa Pentekoste mu 2022.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Okogba |first=Emmanuel |date=2022-08-16 |title=Arrest of Owo church massacre suspects |url=https://www.vanguardngr.com/2022/08/arrest-of-owo-church-massacre-suspects/ |access-date=2022-10-21 |website=Vanguard News |language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Sunday |first=Ochogwu |date=2022-08-11 |title=Owo Church massacre: Two more ISWAP terrorists arrested, identities revealed |url=https://dailypost.ng/2022/08/11/owo-church-massacre-two-more-iswap-terrorists-arrested-identities-revealed/ |access-date=2022-10-21 |website=Daily Post Nigeria |language=en-US}}</ref> === Umoyo === {{Further|Umoyo mu Nigeria}} [[File:Paediatric ward, General hospital, Ilorin.jpg|thumb|Ŵana ku chipatala cha Ilorin.]] Kupeleka wovwiri wa vyaumoyo mu Nigeria ni udindo wa maboma ghatatu mu chalo ichi pamoza na maboma gha wanangwa. Boma la Nigeria likamba kunozgaso ndyali zake kufuma waka apo likacitira ndondomeko ya ku Bamako mu 1987, iyo yikakhozga nthowa zakovwira ŵanthu kuti ŵasangenge munkhwala na wovwiri wa munkhwala. Ndondomeko yiphya iyi yikawovwira kuti ŵanthu ŵaŵe na mwaŵi wa kupokera wovwiri wa munkhwala mu vigaŵa vyawo. Ndondomeko yikuru yikasazgikira ku vigaŵa vyose vya wovwiri wa munkhwala, ndipo pamasinda vinthu vikamba kwenda makora pa nkhani ya wovwiri wa munkhwala. Viŵelengero vya HIV/AIDS ku Nigeria ni vichoko chomene pakuyaniska na vyaru vinyake vya mu Africa nga ni Botswana na South Africa. Kufumira mu caka ca 2019, ciŵelengero ca ŵanthu ŵakukoma HIV pa ŵanthu ŵalara msinkhu ŵa vyaka 15-49 cikaŵa 1.5 peresenti. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ku Nigeria ŵakukhala vyaka 54,7, ndipo ŵanthu 71% na 39% ŵali na maji ghawemi kweniso malo ghawemi ghakukhala. Kufika mu 2019, chiŵelengero cha ŵana awo ŵakufwa ni 74.2 pa ŵana 1,000. Mu 2012, Yunivesite ya Nigeria yikambiska pulogiramu yiphya ya kupeleka viwangwa ku ŵanthu awo ŵali na nthenda ya leukemia, lymphoma, panji sickle cell disease. Nigeria yikaŵa caru caciŵiri mu Africa kucita opareshoni iyi. Mu chaka cha 2014, nthenda ya Ebola yikati yayamba, charu cha Nigeria ndicho chikaŵa chakwamba kumazga nthenda iyi mu vyaru vinyake vitatu vya kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Africa. Boma la Nigeria likusuzgika comene na suzgo la ŵadokotala cifukwa cakuti ŵadokotala ŵanandi ŵa ku Nigeria ŵakuluta ku North America na Europe. Mu 1995, ku United States pera kukaŵa ŵadokotala ŵakukwana 21,000 ŵa ku Nigeria. Boma lili na chilato chakuti ŵanthu aŵa ŵalutilire kugwira ntchito.<ref>{{cite web |last = Anekwe |first = Mike Chinedu |title = BRAIN DRAIN: THE NIGERIAN EXPERIENCE (1) |publisher =[[Niger Delta Congress]] |date = April 2003 |url = http://www.nigerdeltacongress.com/barticles/brain_drain_the_nigerian_experie.htm |access-date = 7 June 2011 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110527134510/http://www.nigerdeltacongress.com/barticles/brain_drain_the_nigerian_experie.htm |archive-date = 27 May 2011 |url-status = dead }}</ref> === Masambilo === {{Main|Masambilo ku Nigeria}} [[File:Abisogun Leigh Science Building, Faculty of Science, Lagos State University.jpg|thumb|Abisogun Leigh Science Building, ya Yunivesite ya Lagos State's Faculty of Science]] Unduna wa vya masambiro ndiwo ukuwona vya masambiro mu Nigeria. Ŵalara ŵa boma ŵakulongozga masukulu gha boma na gha boma. Masukulu agha ghakupangika mu vigaŵa viŵiri: sukulu za ŵana ŵa sukulu, pulayimale, sekondare, na masukulu ghapachanya. Pamanyuma pa kuphulika kwa mafuta mu ma 1970, masambiro gha visukulu vikuru vikuru ghakaŵa makora mwakuti ghafike ku vigaŵa vyose vya Nigeria. Boma la Nigeria likupeleka masambiro kwawanangwa, kweni palije dango lakuti munthu waliyose wakwenera kusambira sukulu. Masambiro agha ghakukhala vyaka vinkhondi na cimoza, vyaka vitatu vya sukulu ya sekondare, vyaka vitatu vya sukulu ya sekondare, na vyaka vinayi, vinkhondi, panji vinkhondi na cimoza vya masambiro gha ku yunivesite agho ghakovwira munthu kuti waŵe na digiri. Boma ndilo likulongozga masambiro gha pa yunivesite. Masambiro gha ku sekondare mu Nigeria ghali na maunivesite (ghaweni na ghapadera), ma polytechnics, ma monotechnics, na makoleji gha masambiro. Mu charu ichi muli masukulu ghakusambizga masukulu ghapachanya 138, ndipo 40 ghali mu mawoko gha boma, 39 ghali mu mawoko gha boma, ndipo 59 ghali mu mawoko gha ŵekha. Dziko la Nigeria lili pa nambala 114 pa Global Innovation Index mu 2022, kufuma pa nambala 118 mu 2021.<ref>{{cite web |title=Global Innovation Index 2021 |url=https://www.wipo.int/global_innovation_index/en/2021/|work=[[World Intellectual Property Organization]]|publisher=[[United Nations]]|access-date=2022-03-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Global Innovation Index 2019|url=https://www.wipo.int/global_innovation_index/en/2019/index.html|access-date=2021-09-02|website=www.wipo.int|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=RTD - Item|url=https://ec.europa.eu/newsroom/rtd/items/691898|access-date=2021-09-02|website=ec.europa.eu}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=2013-10-28|title=Global Innovation Index|url=https://knowledge.insead.edu/entrepreneurship-innovation/global-innovation-index-2930|access-date=2021-09-02|website=INSEAD Knowledge|language=en|archive-date=2 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210902101622/https://knowledge.insead.edu/entrepreneurship-innovation/global-innovation-index-2930|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=WIPO |title=Global Innovation Index 2022, 15th Edition |url=https://www.wipo.int/global_innovation_index/en/2022/index.html |access-date=2023-05-12 |website=www.wipo.int |language=en}}</ref> === Chiwawa === {{Main|Viwawa mu Nigeria}} [[File:Nigerian_female_police.jpg|thumb|220x220px|Wapolisi wa ku Nigeria pa chikondwelero cha Eyo ku Lagos]]Ku Nigeria kuli vigeŵenga vinandi ivyo vikwendeska malonda gha minkhwala yakuzweteska wongo. Mabungwe ghakupambanapambana gha ku Nigeria panji "masukulu ghakusambizga vya chisopa" ghakuchitako vinthu vyaupusikizgi na nkhaza za ndyali kweniso ghakwendeska vimbundi mu Nigeria. Pakuti mabungwe agha ghakukolerana chomene na ŵandyali na ŵasilikari, ghakupeleka mwaŵi ku ŵana ŵa sukulu kuti ŵamanye vinandi. Mwaciyelezgero, wupu wa Supreme Vikings Confraternity ukuyowoya kuti ŵanthu 12 ŵa mu Nyumba ya Malango ya ku Rivers State ŵali mu gulu la cisopo. Mu vigaŵa vya pasi, muli "ŵasepuka ŵa mu chigaŵa", magulu gha vigeŵenga agho ghakucita vinthu vinandi mu Lagos. Ku Lagos, ŵanthu 273 na ŵapolisi 84 ŵakakomeka kufuma mu Ogasiti 2000 m'paka Meyi 2001. Ku Gulf of Guinea kuli ŵankhungu, ndipo ŵakukoma ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yose. Chifukwa chakuti ku Nigeria ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakukopeka, ŵanthu 28 pa ŵanthu 30 awo ŵakakoleka pakati pa Janyuwale na Juni 2013 ŵakaŵa ŵa ku Nigeria. Pa caru cose, Nigeria njakumanyikwa cifukwa ca upusikizgi wa ku banki uwo ukucemeka 419, mtundu wa upusikizgi wa kulipira ndalama zakwendakwenda (wakucemeka kuyana na cipaturo 419 ca Dango la Nkhaza la Nigeria) pamoza na "upusikizgi wa ku Nigeria", mtundu wa upusikizgi uwo ukucitika na ŵanthu na magulu gha vigeŵenga. Vinthu ivi ni banki ya ku Nigeria iyo yikukolerana nayo (malango ghakukanizga ivi) kweniso munthu munyake uyo wakuti wali na ndalama izo wakukhumba kutorako ku banki iyi. Munthu uyo wapika ndalama wakughanaghana kuti wangapokera ndalama izo ŵamutuma ndipo waŵenge nazo. Mu malo mwake, ŵakutora ndalama, panji ŵakukanizga kulipira ndalama zinandi (izo zikuwoneka nga ni zichoko pakuyaniska na usambazi uwo ŵanthu ŵakughanaghana kuti ŵangasanga). Mu 2003, wupu wakuwona vya vigeŵenga wa ku Nigeria (Nigerian Economic and Financial Crimes Commission) ukapangika kuti uwovwire pa nkhani iyi na zinyake.<ref>{{cite web |title=EFCC recovers and returns $4.48m to 86 year old Hong Kong woman |url=http://www.efccnigeria.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=686&Itemid=2 |website=[[Economic and Financial Crimes Commission]] |access-date=1 July 2021 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20061007150402/http://www.efccnigeria.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=686&Itemid=2 |archive-date=7 October 2006 |date=13 October 2005 |url-status=dead}}</ref> === Ukavu === {{Main|Ukavu mu Nigeria}} Kuyana na International Monetary Fund, 32% ya ŵanthu ŵa ku Nigeria ŵakukhala mu ukavu (kufika mu 2017), ŵakukhala na ndalama zakukwana US$2.15 pa zuŵa. Banki ya Charu chose yikati mu Malichi 2022 chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu ŵakavu ku Nigeria chikakwera na 5 million kufika pa 95.1 million mu nyengo ya Covid. Ntheura, ŵanthu 40 pa ŵanthu 100 wose ŵa ku Nigeria ŵakukhala pasi pa ukavu wa US$1.90 nga umo Banki ya Caru Cose yikulongolera. Ndalama izo IMF na World Bank ŵakugwiliskira nchito pa caru cose, zikugwiliskira nchito nkhongono zakugulira za dola ya ku America yayi. Ntheura, nthowa iyi njakususkana. Mwaciyelezgero, nangauli ku Nigeria kuli malo ghakusangika ŵanthu ŵambura nchito, kweni fundo yakuti ŵanalume 92% na ŵanakazi 88% mu Nigeria ŵali na foni njakusuzga kuyilondezga na unandi wa ukavu uwo walembeka na IMF na World Bank.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Perspective {{!}} The official U.S. poverty rate is based on a hopelessly out-of-date metric |language=en-US |newspaper=Washington Post |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/outlook/2019/09/16/official-us-poverty-rate-is-based-hopelessly-out-of-date-metric/ |access-date=2022-10-12 |issn=0190-8286}}</ref> === Wanangwa wa Munthu === {{Main|Wanangwa wa ŵanthu mu Nigeria}} [[File:Protesters at the endSARS protest in Lagos, Nigeria 19.jpg|thumb|Kumazga SARS ni gulu la ŵanthu awo ŵakususkana na nkhaza za ŵapolisi ku Nigeria.]] Ŵanthu ŵa ku Nigeria ŵakutondeka kulondezga malango gha boma. Kuyana na U.S. Dipatimenti ya Boma, masuzgo ghakuru gha wanangwa wa ŵanthu ni kugwiliskira nchito nkongono zinandi na mawupu gha kuvikilira wanangwa wa ŵanthu, kuleka kulangika cifukwa ca kuyuzgika na mawupu gha kuvikilira wanangwa wa ŵanthu, kukakika mwambura kwenelera, kukakika kwa nyengo yitali, vimbundi vya ŵeruzgi na mazaza gha ŵalara ŵa boma pa wupu wa vyeruzgi, kukaka, kutambuzgika na vinthu vinyake vyakofya, vyambura urunji panji vyakukhozga soni ŵanthu awo ŵali mu jele, ŵakukakika na ŵakukayikira; vinthu vyakofya na vyakofya mu jele na malo ghakusungirako ŵanthu; kusuzga ŵanthu kuti ŵaŵe mahule na kugwira nchito mwankhongono, nkhaza za mu cikaya na kukoma ŵanthu, kugwira nchito kwa ŵana, kuyuzga ŵana na kuŵagwiliskira nchito uheni, nkhaza za mu mbumba, kusankhana chifukwa ca mtundu, cigaŵa na cisopa. Boma la Nigeria ndilo likukolerana na phangano lakumazga nkhanza zose izo zikucitikira ŵanakazi. Kusankhana chifukwa cha kugonana ni nkhani yikuru ya wanangwa wa ŵanthu. Nthengwa zacicicizgo zikucitika comene. Nthengwa za ŵana zichali zakutchuka ku Northern Nigeria; 39% ya ŵasungwana ŵakutengwa pambere ŵandafike vyaka 15, nangauli dango lakukanizga nthengwa za ŵana ŵasungwana ŵa vyaka vyakukwana 18 likakhazikiskika mu 2008. Ku Northern Nigeria ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakutora mitala. Kujilambika kwa muwoli kwa mfumu wake ndiposo nkhaza za pa nyumba ni vyakuzara. Ŵanakazi ŵalije wanangwa wa kupoka malo. Mu 2015, pa ŵanthu 100,000 awo ŵakababika, 814 ŵakafwanga. Nangauli mu 2015 boma likakanizga kuti ŵanakazi ŵachitikenge viŵaro vya mu viŵaro vyawo. Ku Nigeria, ŵanthu pafupifupi hafu ya miliyoni ŵali na nthenda iyi, comenecomene cifukwa ca kusoŵa munkhwala. Nthengwa zaciwukirano zingapangiska kuti munthu waŵe na nthenda iyi. Ŵanakazi ŵakukumana na suzgo likuru comene pa ndyali mu Nigeria, cifukwa cakuti ŵakusuzgika na kusankhana mitundu ndipo ŵakukhozga suzgo lawo mu vigaŵa vya cikaya, vya cuma, na vyandyali. Mu 1979, ŵanakazi wose mu caru ici ŵakafwatuka. Ndipouli, ŵanakazi ŵanandi ku Nigeria, uko kuli muwuso wa ŵafumu, ŵakulutilira kupika mazaza na ŵafumu ŵawo. Ŵanakazi ndiwo ŵakugwira nchito zinandi mu vipatala. Ŵanakazi ŵacoko comene mu boma kufuma apo ŵakafwatukira ku Britain. Ŵanakazi ŵali kucepa comene mu mauteŵeti ghose gha mu boma, ndipo ŵachali na maudindo ghacoko comene. Kweni mazuŵa ghano, cifukwa cakuti ŵanthu ŵakusambira comene, ŵanakazi ŵa ku Nigeria ŵakucita vinthu vinyake kuti ŵateŵetere makora mu boma. Kuyana na dango la Sharia ilo likugwira ntchito ku Ŵasilamu mu vyaru 12 vya kumpoto kwa charu ichi, ŵanthu awo ŵakumwa moŵa, kugonana ŵanalume panji ŵanakazi ŵekhaŵekha, ŵambura kugomezgeka, na kwiba ŵakulangika chomene. Kuyana na kafukufuku uyo wakachitika mu 2013, ŵanthu 98% ku Nigeria ŵakugomezga kuti ŵanthu ŵakwenera yayi kuzomera kugonana kwa ŵanalume panji ŵanakazi pera. Mu vyaka 23 ivyo vyajumpha (kufika mu Seputembala 2022), ŵantchito ŵa pa yunivesite ku Nigeria ŵakanjiramo mu sitiroko maulendo 17. Pa cifukwa ici, sukulu ya cihanya ya mu 2022 yikanikika mu caru cose.<ref>{{cite web |last=AfricaNews |date=2022-09-06 |title=Nigeria: students abandoned as teachers' strike drags on |url=https://www.africanews.com/2022/09/06/nigeria-students-abandoned-as-teachers-strike-drags-on/ |access-date=2022-09-29 |website=Africanews |language=en}}</ref> == Mwambo == {{Main|Chikhalidwe cha Nigeria}} === Nkhani za mabuku === {{Main|Nigerian literature}} [[File:Chinua Achebe, 1966 (cropped).jpg|thumb|150px|Chinua Achebe, uyo wakapokera chawanangwa cha Booker Prize mu 2007 na Peace Prize of the German book trade mu 2002]] Mabuku ghanandi gha ku Nigeria ghakulembeka mu Chingelezi, chifukwa ŵanthu ŵanandi ku Nigeria ŵakulipulikiska. Ndipouli, mabuku gha mu viyowoyero vya Yoruba, Hausa na Igbo (ŵanthu ŵatatu awo ŵakukhala chomene mu Nigeria) ghalipo. Na Wole Soyinka, Nigeria yingapeleka uyo wapokera chawanangwa cha Nobel cha mabuku. Chinua Achebe wakapokera chawanangwa cha Booker mu 2007 ndipo Ben Okri mu 1991. Mu 2002, Achebe wakapokera chawanangwa cha German Book Trade. Lola Shoneyin wali kupokera vyawanangwa vinandi cifukwa ca buku lake lakuti The Secret Lives of Baba Segi's Wives (novel). === Music === {{Main|Sumu za ku Nigeria}} Ŵakwimba ŵanandi ŵa kuumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1900 nga ni Fela Kuti ŵakasazga sumu za ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa na za ku America kuti ŵapange sumu za Afrobeat. Sumu ya JuJu, iyo ni sumu ya viwoneskero iyo yikusazgikana na sumu za ku Yoruba ndipo yikumanyikwa na Themba Sunny Adé, yikufuma ku Nigeria. Nyimbo za Fuji, mtundu wa Yoruba percussion, zinalengeka na kutchuka na Mr. Fuji, Alhaji Sikiru Ayinde Barrister. Sumu ya Afan yikapangika na kuthandazgika na mulembi na wakwimba Umuobuarie Igberaese. Muzika wa Kennis ndiwo ukayambiska gulu la Afrobeats ku Nigeria. Kennis Music yikumanyikwa kuti ndiyo yikapangiska kuti sumu za ku Nigeria zisinthe chomene. Mu Novembala 2008, nyimbo za ku Nigeria (na za ku Africa) zikapokera mahara gha pa charu chose apo MTV yikapeleka mashopu ghakwamba gha mashopu gha mashopu gha ku Africa ku Abuja.<ref>{{cite news|date=22 November 2008|title=AP/CNN: MTV launches first-ever African music award show|publisher=CNN|url=http://www.cnn.com/2008/SHOWBIZ/Music/11/22/MTV.Africa.ap/index.html|access-date=26 November 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081209102925/http://www.cnn.com/2008/SHOWBIZ/Music/11/22/MTV.Africa.ap/index.html|archive-date=9 December 2008}}</ref> === Cinema === {{Main|Cinema of Nigeria}} {{Quote box | quote = Top five [[List of highest-grossing Nigerian films|highest grossing Nigerian films]]: * ''[[Omo Ghetto: The Saga]]'' (₦636 million)<ref name="Top 20 films 9th 15th April 2021 - Cinema Exhibitors Association of Nigeria">{{cite web |url=https://www.ceanigeria.com/box-office/206-top-20-films-report-9th-15th-april-2021|title=Top 20 Films Report 9th-15th April 2021 | publisher=CEAN | location=Nigeria | accessdate=10 August 2021}}</ref> * ''[[The Wedding Party (2016 film)|The Wedding Party]]'' (₦452 million)<ref name="premiumtimesng.com">{{cite web |url=https://www.premiumtimesng.com/entertainment/nollywood/371619-wedding-party-1-named-highest-grossing-nollywood-movie-of-the-decade.html |title=Wedding Party 1' named highest-grossing Nollywood movie of the decade | newspaper=Premium Times | date=7 January 2020 | first=Jayne | last=Augoye| access-date=6 September 2020}}</ref> * ''[[The Wedding Party 2]]'' (₦433 million)<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.vanguardngr.com/2018/01/wedding-party-2-destination-dubai-costs-n300m-producer/ |title='The Wedding Party 2 -Destination Dubai" costs N300m–Producer|date=31 January 2018|accessdate=3 July 2021}}</ref> * ''[[Chief Daddy]]'' (₦387 million)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ceanigeria.com/box-office/120-top-20-films-27th-december-2019-2nd-january-2020|title=Top 20 films 27th December 2019 2nd January 2020 - Cinema Exhibitors Association of Nigeria|website=www.ceanigeria.com}}</ref> * ''[[King of Thieves (2022 film)|King of Thieves]]'' (2022, ₦321 million)<ref name="Top 20 films 24th 26th June 2022 - Cinema Exhibitors Association of Nigeria">{{Cite web|url=https://www.ceanigeria.com/box-office/324-top-20-films-weekend-24th-26th-june|title=Top 20 films 24th - 26th June 2022 - Cinema Exhibitors Association of Nigeria|website=www.ceanigeria.com}}</ref> }} Makampani gha mafilimu gha ku Nigeria ghakumanyikwa na zina lakuti Nollywood. Mu India pera ndimo muli mafilimu ghakurughakuru. Ma studio gha mafilimu gha ku Nigeria ghali ku Lagos, Kano, na Enugu, ndipo ghakupanga ndalama zinandi mu misumba iyi. Mafilimu gha ku Nigeria ndigho ni ghapacanya comene mu Africa pa nkhani ya mtengo na unandi wa mafilimu agho ghakupangika pa caka. Nangauli mafilimu gha ku Nigeria ghapangika kwamba m'ma 1960, kweni makampani gha mafilimu gha mu charu ichi ghakovwira chomene chifukwa cha kupanga mafilimu na kupanga vinthu vinyake. Mu 2009, filimu ya The Figurine yikapangiska kuti ŵapharazgi ŵamanye vinandi vya sinema ya ku Nigeria. Filimu iyi yikaŵa yakukondweska chomene ku Nigeria, kweniso yikayowoyeka pa viphikiro vya pa charu chose. Filimu ya Ijé ya Chineze Anyaene ya mu 2010, yikapambana na The Figurine kuŵa filimu ya ku Nigeria iyo yikasanga ndalama zinandi chomene. Mu 2016, filimu iyi yikaŵa The Wedding Party, yakulembeka na Kemi Adetiba. Kuumaliro wa 2013, makampani gha mafilimu ghakapanga ndalama zakukwana ₹1.72 trillion (US$4.1 billion). Mu 2014, makampani agha ghakaŵa na ndalama zakukwana mabiliyoni 853.9 (US$5.1 billion), ndipo ghakaŵa ghacitatu pa vyaru vyose pa caru capasi pamanyuma pa United States na India. Vinthu ivi vikapangiska kuti ndalama izo ŵanthu ŵakaguliskiranga mafilimu zikure. T.B. Joshua's Emmanuel TV, yakufuma ku Nigeria, njimoza mwa mawayilesi agho ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuwonelera mu Africa.<ref>{{cite news|last=Manasa|first=Makweembo|date=11 February 2010|title=TB Joshua – 21st Century Prophet in Our Midst?|work=Zambian Watchdog|url=http://www.zambianwatchdog.com/2010/02/11/tb-joshua-21st-century-prophet-in-our-midst/|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100710080804/http://www.zambianwatchdog.com/2010/02/11/tb-joshua-21st-century-prophet-in-our-midst/|archive-date=10 July 2010|df=dmy-all}}</ref> === Festival === {{Main|Festivals in Nigeria}}{{Multi image | image1 = Eyo Iga Jump.jpg | image2 = Global Hausa Culture.jpg | caption2 = [[Durbar festival|From the yearly Kano Durbar festival]] | direction = vertical | caption1 = [[Eyo festival|An Eyo Iga Olowe Salaye masquerade jumping]] | total_width = 270 }} Ku Nigeria kuli viphikiro vinandi, ndipo vinyake vikaŵako pambere visopa vikuruvikuru vindafike mu charu ichi. Kanandi vikondwelero vikuruvikuru vya Chisilamu na Chikhristu vikukondwelereka mu nthowa izo ŵanthu ŵa ku Nigeria ŵakutemwa. Bungwe la Nigeria Tourism Development Corporation lakhala likugwira ntchito ndi maboma kuti liwongolere zikondwerero zachikhalidwe zomwe zingakhale zofunikira kwambiri pazachuma cha zokopa alendo.<ref name="Oxford20102">{{cite book | title=The Report: Nigeria 2010 |publisher=Oxford Business Group |isbn=978-1-907065-14-9 |page=243 |chapter=Patchwork of Celebration |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VFONkYzHco8C&pg=PA243}}</ref> === Kuphika === Vyakurya vya ku Nigeria, nga ni vyakurya vya ku West Africa, vikumanyikwa na unandi wake. Vyakununkhira vinandi, vyakumera, na vyakununkhira vikugwiliskirika nchito pamoza na mafuta gha makuni gha maolive panji mafuta gha phesulu kuti vipangiske soseji zakunowa comene. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Nigeria ŵakutemwa kurya vyakurya vyakupambanapambana. Kanandi Suya wakuguliskika mu matawuni, comenecomene usiku.<ref>Anthonio, H.O. and Isoun, M. (1982), ''Nigerian Cookbook'', Macmillan, Lagos, {{ISBN|0-333-32698-9}}.</ref> === Fashion === {{Main|Fashion in Nigeria}} Makampani gha mafashoni mu Nigeria ghakovwira chomene pa vyachuma. Kanandi ŵanthu ŵakuvwara vyakuvwara vyambura kujitozga, kweni ŵakuvwara vyakuvwara vya mu nyengo iyo. Charu cha Nigeria chikumanyikwa cifukwa ca vyakuvwara na vyakuvwara ivyo vili mu mafashoni pera yayi, kweniso cifukwa ca ŵanthu awo ŵakupanga vyakuvwara. Wupu wa Euromonitor ukati msika wa mafashoni wa ku Sub-Saharan uli na ndalama zakukwana madola 31 biliyoni. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Nigeria ŵakumanyikwa na vinthu vinandi vya mafashoni na vyakuvwara ivyo ni vyakubisika yayi. Ŵakafumiskaso ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakulemba mafashoni awo ŵali kupanga nthowa zinandi na bizinesi zinandi.<ref>{{cite web |last=None |date=2019-06-11 |title=The state of Nigeria's Fashion Industry |url=https://www.stearsng.com/article/the-state-of-nigerias-fashion-industry/ |access-date=2022-06-19 |website=www.stearsng.com}}</ref> === Sports === {{Main|Sports in Nigeria}} [[File:NIG-ARG_(2).jpg|thumb|[[Nigeria national football team|Nigeria]] at the [[2018 FIFA World Cup]]]] Mpira wa makara ndiwo ni maseŵero ghakurughakuru mu Nigeria. Gulu la mpira wa ku Nigeria, ilo likumanyikwa kuti "Super Eagles", lafika pa World Cup kankhondi na kamoza mu 1994, 1998, 2002, 2010, 2014, na 2018. Mu Epulero 1994, Super Eagles yikaŵa na malo gha nambara 5 mu FIFA World Rankings, malo ghapachanya chomene agho timu ya mpira wa ku Africa yikasanga. Ŵakatora nkhonya ya Africa mu 1980, 1994, na 2013, ndipo ŵakakondweleraso nkhonya ya U-17 na U-20 World Cup. Ŵakawina mendulo ya golide mu mpira pa maseŵera gha Olympic a 1996 (uko ŵakathereska Argentina) ndipo ŵakazgoka timu yakwamba ya mpira ya ku Africa kuwina golide mu maseŵera gha Olympic. [[File:NIG-ARG_(9).jpg|thumb|Wolondezga bola ku Nigeria pa 2018 FIFA World Cup ku Russia]] Nigeria nayo wakuchitako maseŵero ghanyake nga ni basketball, cricket na track and field. Ku Nigeria, maseŵero gha nkhonya nagho ngakuzirwa. Gulu la mpira la ku Nigeria ndilo likaŵa lakwamba kuthereska timu ya ku United States. Mu vyaka vyakumasinda, charu cha Nigeria chikakhumba kunjira mu maseŵera gha Olimpiki gha 2012 apo chikathereska vyaru vinyake nga ni Greece na Lithuania. Ku Nigeria kuli ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakuchita maseŵero gha basketball mu vyaru vya America, Europe na Asia. Ŵaseŵero aŵa ni Hakeem Olajuwon, uyo wali ku Basketball Hall of Famer, ndipo pamasinda wakaŵa mu NBA. Mpikisano wa mpira wa ku Nigeria wafika pa malo ghakuru chomene mu Africa. Maseŵera agha ghakaŵa pa TV ya Kwese ndipo ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 1 miliyoni ŵakawonelera. Boma la Nigeria likalemba mbiri pakutola timu yakwamba ya banthu ŵa banthu ŵaŵili kufuma ku Africa kuti yikwane pa maseŵero gha Olympic gha nyengo yakuzizima. Kukwambilira kwa m'ma 1990, Scrabble yikaŵa maseŵero gha boma mu Nigeria. Kuumaliro wa chaka cha 2017, mu charu ichi mukaŵa magulu ghakujumpha 100 agho ghakaŵa na ŵasepuka pafupifupi 4,000. Mu chaka cha 2018, wupu wa Nigeria Curling Federation ukakhazikiskika kuti uŵike maseŵero gha Curling mu charu ichi. Pa 2019 World Mixed Doubles Curling Championship ku Norway, Nigeria yikathereska France na 8-5 pakutonda chiphalizgano chakwamba. Nigeria yikaŵa na timu za ŵanakazi na ŵanalume mu mpira wa beach volleyball izo zikathereskana pa 2018-2020 CAVB Beach Volleyball Continental Cup. Wupu wa U21 wa chalo ichi wafika pa chigaŵa cha 2019 FIVB Beach Volleyball U21 World Championships. Ku Nigeria ndiko kukababikira maseŵero agha. Ni maseŵero agho ghakucitikira mu magulu agho ghakucitika mwa kuponya bola pa mukwawu.<ref>{{Cite web |title=About Loofball |url=https://www.topendsports.com/sport/new/loofball.htm |access-date=2023-05-03 |website=www.topendsports.com}}</ref> == Wonaniso == {{Portal|Nigeria}} * [[Index of Nigeria-related articles]] * [[Outline of Nigeria]] == Vyakulemba == {{notelist}} == Ukaboni == {{reflist|colwidth=30em}} == Wonani vinandi == * {{cite web|language=en|title=Black China: Africa's First Superpower Is Coming Sooner Than You Think|website=Newsweek|date=15 January 2020|first=Sam |last=Hill|url=https://www.msn.com/en-us/news/world/black-china-africas-first-superpower-is-coming-sooner-than-you-think/ar-BBYYOwW?ocid=spartanntp}} * Dibua, Jeremiah I. ''Modernization and the crisis of development in Africa: the Nigerian experience'' (Routledge, 2017). * Ekundare, Olufemi R. ''An Economic History of Nigeria 1860-1960'' (Methuen & Co Ltd, 1973). * Falola, Toyin; and Adam Paddock. ''Environment and Economics in Nigeria'' (2012). * Falola, Toyin and Ann Genova. ''Historical Dictionary of Nigeria'' (Scarecrow Press, 2009) * Falola, Toyin, and Matthew M. Heaton. ''A History of Nigeria'' (2008) * Shillington, Kevin. ''Encyclopedia of African History''. (U of Michigan Press, 2005) p.&nbsp;1401. * Metz, Helen Chapin, ed. ''Nigeria: a country study'' (U.S. Library of Congress. Federal Research Division, 1992) [https://www.loc.gov/item/92009026/ online free], comprehensive historical and current coverage; not copyright. * Jones, Cunliffe-Peter. ''My Nigeria: Five Decades of Independence. (Palgrave Macmillan, 2010).'' * Achebe, Chinua. ''The Trouble with Nigeria. (Fourth Dimension, 1983)'' == Vyakuwalo == {{Sister project links|voy=Nigeria}} * {{Official website|http://www.nigeria.gov.ng}} * {{Wikiatlas|Nigeria}} * {{OSM relation|192787}} * [https://www.theinfostride.com/forum/index.php?topic=257 Know More about Nigeria] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20210109223449/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/nigeria Nigeria]. ''[[The World Factbook]]''. [[Central Intelligence Agency]]. <!--http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:External_links#Occasionally_acceptable_links 2. 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Please start a conversation at the talk page to reach a consensus before adding Bengali language to this parameter. --> | religion_ref = <ref name=religions /> | demonym = Sierra Leonean | languages_type = Spoken and national languages<ref>{{cite web |editor1-first=M. Paul |editor1-last=Lewis |editor2-first=Gary F. |editor2-last=Simons |editor3-first=Charles D. |editor3-last=Fennig |year=2015 |title=Liberia |website=[[Ethnologue]] |edition=18th |location=Dallas, Texas |publisher=SIL International |url=http://www.ethnologue.com/country/lr/languages}}</ref> | ethnic_groups = {{unbulleted list |35.5% [[Mende people|Mende]] |33.2% [[Temne people|Temne]] |6.4% [[Limba people (Sierra Leone)|Limba]] |4.4% [[Kono people|Kono]] |3.4% [[Fula people of Sierra Leone|Fula]] |2.9% [[Susu people|Susu]] |2.9% [[Loko people|Loko]] |2.8% [[Koranko people|Koranko]] |2.6% [[Sherbro people|Sherbro]] |2.4% [[Mandingo people of Sierra Leone|Mandingo]] |1.3% [[Sierra Leone Creole people|Krio]] }} | ethnic_groups_year = 2015<ref>{{cite web|url=https://sierraleone.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/National%20Analytical%20Report.pdf |title=Sierra Leone 2015 Population and Housing Census National Analytical Report |access-date=28 March 2020 |website=Statistics Sierra Leone| df=dmy }}</ref> | religion = [[Islam in Sierra Leone|Islam]] (78.5%)<br /> [[Christianity in Sierra Leone|Christianity]] (20.4%)<br /> Others (1.1%) | government_type = [[Unitary state|Unitary]] [[Presidential system|presidential]] [[republic]] | leader_title1 = [[President of Sierra Leone|President]] | leader_name1 = {{nowrap|[[Julius Maada Bio]]}} | leader_title2 = [[Vice-President of Sierra Leone|Vice-President]] | leader_name2 = {{nowrap|[[Mohamed Juldeh Jalloh]]}} | leader_title3 = [[Chief Minister of Sierra Leone|Chief Minister]] | leader_name3 = {{nowrap|[[Jacob Jusu Saffa]]}}<ref>{{cite web|title=Big shake-up in Sierra Leone's cabinet |url=https://politicosl.com/articles/big-shake-sierra-leones-cabinet |first=Alpha|last=Abu|date=4 May 2021 |website=Politico SL |access-date=6 May 2021}}</ref> | leader_title4 = [[Speaker of the House of Parliament of Sierra Leone|Speaker of Parliament]] | leader_name4 = {{nowrap|[[Abass Bundu|Abass Chernor Bundu]]}} | legislature = [[Parliament of Sierra Leone|Parliament]] | sovereignty_type = [[Independence]] | sovereignty_note = from the [[United Kingdom]] | established_event1 = [[Sierra Leone (1961–1971)|Dominion]] | established_date1 = 27 April 1961 | established_event2 = [[Republic]] | established_date2 = 19 April 1971 | area_km2 = 71,740 | area_rank = 117th <!-- Area rank should match [[List of countries and dependencies by area]] --> | area_sq_mi = 27,699 | percent_water = 1.1 | population_estimate = 8,908,040<ref>{{Cite CIA World Factbook|country=Sierra Leone|access-date=22 June 2023|year=2023}}</ref> | population_estimate_year = 2023 | population_estimate_rank = 100th | population_density_km2 = 112 | population_density_rank = 114th^a | population_density_sq_mi = 291 | GDP_PPP = {{decrease}}$16.4 &nbsp;billion <ref name="imf2">{{cite web|url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2022/October|title=World Economic Outlook Database, October 2022|date=October 2022|website=IMF.org|publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]]|access-date= October 11, 2022}}</ref> | GDP_PPP_year = 2022 | GDP_PPP_rank = 152nd | GDP_PPP_per_capita = {{decrease}}$1,972<ref name=imf2/> | GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 185th | GDP_nominal = {{increase}}$4.1 &nbsp;billion<ref name=imf2/> | GDP_nominal_year = 2022 | GDP_nominal_rank = 170th | GDP_nominal_per_capita = {{increase}}$494<ref name=imf2/> | GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 193th | Gini = 35.7 <!--number only--> | Gini_year = 2018 | Gini_change = <!--increase/decrease/steady--> | Gini_ref = <ref name="wb-gini">{{cite web |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI?locations=SL |title=GINI index (World Bank estimate) – Sierra Leone |website=[[World Bank]] |access-date=22 March 2020}}</ref> | HDI = 0.477 <!--number only--> | HDI_year = 2021<!-- Please use the year to which the data refers, not the publication year--> | HDI_change = increase <!--increase/decrease/steady--> | HDI_ref = <ref name="HDI">{{cite web|url=https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2021-22pdf_1.pdf|title=Human Development Report 2021/2022|language=en|publisher=[[United Nations Development Programme]]|date=8 September 2022|access-date=30 September 2022}}</ref> | HDI_rank = 181st | currency = [[Sierra Leonean leone|Leone]] | currency_code = SLL | utc_offset = {{sp}} | time_zone = GMT | date_format = dd/mm/yyyy | drives_on = right | calling_code = +232 | cctld = [[.sl]] | footnote_a = Rank based on 2007 figure | religion_year = 2020 | national_languages = [[Krio language|Krio]] }} <!-- DO NOT make the lead longer; it is already too long. (December 2017) --> '''Sierra Leone''',{{NoteTag|[{{IPAc-en|audio=En-us-Sierra Leone.ogg|s|i|ˌ|ɛr|ə|_|l|i|ˈ|oʊ|n|(|i|)}}, <small>also</small> {{IPAc-en|UK|s|i|ˌ|ɛər|ə|_|-}}, {{IPAc-en|US|ˌ|s|ɪər|ə|_|-}},<ref>{{citation|last=Wells|first=John C.|year=2008|title=Longman Pronunciation Dictionary|edition=3rd|publisher=Longman|isbn=9781405881180}}</ref><ref>{{Cite Merriam-Webster|Sierra Leone|access-date=22 April 2019}}</ref> ({{lang-kri|Salone}})].<ref name="Salone">{{citation|title=Salone Definition|url=https://glosbe.com/kri/en/Salone}}</ref>}} mwalamulo '''Charu cha Sierra Leone''', ni chalo icho chili ku mpoto kwa [[Africa]]. Kumwera kwa charu ichi kuli Liberia, ndipo kumpoto kwake kuli charu cha [[Guinea]]. Malo ghose agho ghakukwana 71,740 km2 (27,699 sq mi),<ref name="Sierra Leone">{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761563681/Sierra_Leone.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080228134322/http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761563681/Sierra_Leone.html|archive-date=28 February 2008|title=Sierra Leone (country) |encyclopedia=Encarta Encyclopedia|access-date=19 February 2008|url-status=dead}}</ref> Ku Sierra Leone kuli mphepo yakotcha, ndipo kuli malo ghakupambanapambana. Ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga mu charu ichi ŵakaŵa 7,092,113.<ref name =Census2015>{{cite web|url=https://sierraleone.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/National%20Analytical%20Report.pdf |title=Sierra Leone 2015 Population and Housing Census National Analytical Report |access-date=28 March 2020 |website=Statistics Sierra Leone| df=dmy }}</ref> Msumba wa [[Freetown]] ndiwo ni msumba ukuru chomene. Charu chili na vigaŵa vinkhondi, ndipo vigaŵa ivi vili mu vigaŵa 16.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://necsl.org/index_files/2017_Press_Releases/Completed_RegistrationPressRelease2017.pdf|title=National Electoral Commission – Press Release|date=6 September 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171114202122/http://necsl.org/index_files/2017_Press_Releases/Completed_RegistrationPressRelease2017.pdf|archive-date=14 November 2017|url-status=dead|access-date=1 February 2018}}</ref><ref name=":02">{{Cite news|url=http://www.africareview.com/news/Sierra-Leone-unveils-new-geographical-map/979180-4041036-4x8dfaz/index.html|title=Sierra Leone unveils new geographical map|work=Africa Review|access-date=1 February 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180221142807/http://www.africareview.com/news/Sierra-Leone-unveils-new-geographical-map/979180-4041036-4x8dfaz/index.html|archive-date=21 February 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref> Sierra Leone ni charu icho chili na dango lakuyana na malango ndipo chili na nyumba yimoza ya maparamendi. Pulezidenti wa sono ni J[[ulius Maada Bio]]. Sierra Leone ni caru ico cikulondezga yayi visambizgo vya boma. Ŵasilamu ŵalipo pafupifupi vigaŵa vitatu pa vigaŵa vinayi vya ŵanthu wose ŵa mu charu ichi. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ku Sierra Leone ŵakutemwa kusopa mwakufwatuka, ndipo ichi ntchimanyikwiro cha ŵanthu ŵa mu charu ichi.<ref>United Nations (5 July 2013), [https://news.un.org/en/story/2013/07/443992-inter-religious-cooperation-can-be-vital-asset-rebuilding-sierra-leone-un "Inter-religious cooperation can be vital asset for rebuilding Sierra Leone – UN expert"]. [https://news.un.org/en/story/2013/07/443992-inter-religious-cooperation-can-be-vital-asset-rebuilding-sierra-leone-un Archived]. Retrieved October 26, 2021.</ref><ref>OFFICE OF INTERNATIONAL RELIGIOUS FREEDOM (May 12, 2021) [https://www.state.gov/reports/2020-report-on-international-religious-freedom/sierra-leone/ 2020 Report on International Religious Freedom: Sierra Leone]. [[United States Department of State|U.S. Department of State]]. Retrieved October 25, 2021.</ref> Chigaŵa ichi chikaŵa na ŵanthu kwa vyaka vinandi, kweni Sierra Leone, nga umo charu ichi na mphaka zake vikumanyikwira mazuŵa ghano, chikazengeka na ufumu wa [[Britain]] mu vigaŵa viŵiri: chakwamba, Sierra Leone Colony mu 1808 (pakuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa ŵakawelera kwawo chifukwa cha kulekeska wuzga); chachiŵiri, Protectorate mu 1896 (pakuti ufumu ukakhumbikwiranga kuwusa chomene mu charu chifukwa cha ivyo vikachitika pa ungano wa ku Berlin mu 1884-1885). Lekani charu ichi chikachemekanga Sierra Leone Colony and Protectorate panji British Sierra Leone.<ref>Hargreaves, J. D. (December 20, 2011), [https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/cambridge-historical-journal/article/abs/iv-the-establishment-of-the-sierra-leone-protectorate-and-the-insurrection-of-18981/3AF7D282B682C6DF80D06C0ED396E68A "The Establishment of the Sierra Leone Protectorate and the Insurrection of 1898"]. ''[[The Historical Journal|Cambridge Historical Journal]]'' Vol. 12(1). Retrieved 26 October 2021.</ref><ref>UNITED NATIONS INTEGRATED PEACEBUILDING OFFICE IN SIERRA LEONE. [https://unipsil.unmissions.org/about-sierra-leone-history ABOUT SIERRA LEONE: HISTORY.] [https://unipsil.unmissions.org/about-sierra-leone-history Archived]. Retrieved October 26, 2021.</ref> Sierra Leone yikamba kujiyimira pawekha pa 27 Epulero, 1961, ndipo yikazgoka chigaŵa cha Commonwealth pa zuŵa lenelili. Milton Margai wakaŵa nduna yikuru yakwamba ya Sierra Leone.<ref name="Humphrey">Humphrey J. Fisher (1969), "Elections and Coups in Sierra Leone, 1967". ''[[Journal of Modern African Studies|The Journal of Modern African Studies]]'' Vol. 7, No. 4 (December 1969), pp. 611–636 (26 pages). Published By: [[Cambridge University Press]]. [https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-modern-african-studies/article/abs/elections-and-coups-in-sierra-leone-1967/F7F447FA2BE820E80298249E540C2DC4 Archived]. Retrieved October 22, 2021.</ref> Mu vyaka vyakumasinda, Sierra Leone yikaŵa na masuzgo gha ndyali, kusinthika kwa vinthu, vivulupi, kweniso masuzgo gha vya ŵanthu. Charu ichi chikaŵa na mavoti ghakwamba pa 27 May 1961. Chipani cha Sierra Leone People's Party (SLPP) cha Margai chikapokera vithuzithuzi vinandi mu Nyumba ya Malamulo ndipo wakasankhikaso kuŵa nduna yikuru. Mu 1971, pakaŵa dango liphya ilo likawovwira kuti Sierra Leone waŵe charu cha demokilase. Stevens wakasunga udindo uwu kwa virimika 14 (m'paka 1985) mu boma la chipani cimoza ilo likaŵa na fundo zakususkana na malango gha mu 1978. Ndipouli, Joseph Saidu Momoh, uyo wakasankhika na Stevens, wakalayizga kuti wazamuwezgera caru ku ndondomeko ya vyaru vinandi. <ref name="Kandeh">Kandeh, J. D. (September, 1998), [https://www.jstor.org/stable/524828 "Transition without Rupture: Sierra Leone's Transfer Election of 1996"]. ''[[African Studies Review]]'' Flight. 41, No. 2 (September 1998), pp. 91–111. [[Cambridge University Press]]. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/524828 Archived]. Retrieved October 25, 2021.</ref>Mu chaka chenechichi, pakawuka nkhondo ya pawenenawene iyo yikatora vyaka 11. Mu 1992, pati pajumpha waka cilimika cimoza nkhondo yati yayamba, Pulezidenti Momoh wakawuskika pa udindo mu boma na kugalukira boma. Nyengo yikati yajumphapo, mulara wa ŵasilikari, Julius Maada Bio, wakawuskapo Strasser pa udindo wake cifukwa wakatondeka kusintha vinthu mwaluŵiro. Bio wakaweleraso ku boma la demokilase mu 1996 kwizira mu maungano gha chalo.<ref name="Kandeh" /> Kuuyambiro wa 1996, nangauli caru cikaŵa mu nkhondo ya cikaya, kweni ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Sierra Leone ŵakaŵa na cilindizga ciwemi cakuti ŵazakawelere ku boma la demokilase. Paumaliro, fundo yakuti, "Visola pambere mtende undaŵeko" ndiyo yikaluska. Mu 1996, Ahmad Tejan Kabbah ndiyo wakathereska mavoti ndipo wakaŵa pulezidenti wakwamba wa Sierra Leone uyo wakasankhika na maboma ghanandi. Kufuma waka pa nyengo iyi, ŵanthu ŵakuluta ku maungano mwakukolerana. Mu 1997, Kabbah wakawuskika pa udindo mu boma na mulara wa ŵasilikari wa Sierra Leone, Johnny Paul Koroma. Kabbah wakaluta ku charu cha Guinea. Wakawezgekeramo mu uteŵeti wake pamanyuma pa myezi yinkhondi na umoza cifukwa ca kunjilirapo kwa ŵasilikari ŵa ECOMOG. Mulimo wa Kabbah ukaŵa wakwamba kwa Sierra Leone yiphya, iyo yikaŵa na umaliro wa nkhondo ya pa cikaya mu 2002, kughanaghanira comene za kukhozga umoza na kuphemana, kugomezga boma, mtende na kukhazikika, kusintha ubwezi na vyaru vinandi, na kuwuskapo ŵasilikari ŵa Sierra Leone.<ref name="University">University of Central Arkansas. [https://web.archive.org/web/20220525095205/https://uca.edu/politicalscience/dadm-project/sub-saharan-africa-region/sierra-leone-1961-present/ 41. Sierra Leone (1961-Present)]. [https://web.archive.org/web/20220525095205/https://uca.edu/politicalscience/dadm-project/sub-saharan-africa-region/sierra-leone-1961-present/ Archived]. Retrieved 22 October 2021.</ref><ref>Davis, Dickie (20 November 2017), [https://web.archive.org/web/20230531215354/https://cco.ndu.edu/News/Article/1375921/12-the-british-experience-in-africa-and-oman/ "The British Experience in Africa and Oman"]. ''The Journal of Complex Operations''. [[National Defense University]]. [https://web.archive.org/web/20230531215354/https://cco.ndu.edu/News/Article/1375921/12-the-british-experience-in-africa-and-oman/ Archived]. Retrieved October 29, 2021.</ref> Ku Sierra Leone kuli mafuko pafupifupi 18. Pa ŵanthu wose ŵa mu charu ichi, ŵanthu ŵaŵiri pa ŵaŵiri ŵali mu mtundu wa Creole. Chingelezi ndicho chikuyowoyeka pa sukulu na mu boma. Chiyowoyero cha Krio ndicho chikuyowoyeka chomene mu Sierra Leone. Sierra Leone njakuzura na vinthu vyakuthupi, comenecomene dayamondi, golide, bauxite na aluminiyamu. Charu ichi chili mu wupu wa United Nations, African Union, Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), Mano River Union, Commonwealth of Nations, IMF, World Bank, WTO, African Development Bank, na Organisation of Islamic Cooperation. Ku Sierra Leone ndiko kuli yunivesite yakwamba ya ku Western ku sub-Saharan Africa: Fourah Bay College (iyo yikambika mu 1827).<ref>Nwauwa, Apollos O. (2003), Book review: "The Athens of West Africa: A History of International Education at Fourah Bay College, Freetown, Sierra Leone by Daniel J. Paracka Jr. New York: Routledge". ''[[Comparative Education Review]]'', Vol. 49(4). [https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/498200 Archived]. Retrieved 29 October 2021.</ref> ==Zina== Zina la charu ichi lili kufuma ku mapiri gha Lion Mountains agho ghali kufupi na Freetown. Mu 1462, Pedro de Sintra, uyo wakaŵa mulendo wa ku Portugal, wakambiska chigaŵa ichi, ndipo wakachichema kuti Sierra Leoa..<ref>{{cite web |url=https://reignministries.org/5-things-know-sierra-leone/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200326125346/https://reignministries.org/5-things-know-sierra-leone/ |archive-date=26 March 2020 |title=5 Thing to Know About Sierra Leone |website=reignministries.org |access-date=14 July 2021}}</ref> == Mbili == {{Main|History of Sierra Leone}} === Mbiri yakwambilira === [[File:Prehistoric pottery shards, Sierra Leone.jpg|thumb|Vigaŵa vya dongo lakale kufuma ku Kamabai Rock Shelter]] [[File:The slave fort on Bunce Island, at the mouth of the Sierra Leone River in West Africa.jpg|thumb|right|Cirwa ca Bunce, 1805, mu nyengo iyo fakitare ya ŵazga yikendeskekanga na John na Alexander Anderson]] [[File: slaves sierra leone.jpg|thumb|Cithuzithuzi ca mu 1835 ca ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa awo ŵakiza ku Sierra Leone]] [[File: Freetown, Sierra Leone ca 1856.jpg|thumb|Msumba wa Freetown mu 1856]] [[File:Houses at Sierra-Leone (May 1853, X, p.55) - Copy.jpg|thumb|Nyumba za ku Sierra Leone (Meyi 1853, X, p. 55)<ref name="Juvenile1853">{{cite journal|title=Houses at Sierra-Leone|journal=The Wesleyan Juvenile Offering: A Miscellany of Missionary Information for Young Persons|date=May 1853|volume=X|page=55|url=https://archive.org/details/wesleyanjuvenil19socigoog|access-date=29 February 2016}}</ref>]] Ivyo ŵanthu ŵakufukura vinthu vyakale ŵasanga vikulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Sierra Leone ŵakukhalapo vyaka 2,500. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 900 C.E., ŵanthu ŵakamba kugwiliskira ntchito visulo, ndipo mu 1000 C.E., ŵalimi ŵakamba kulima mumphepete mwa nyanja. Nyengo yikati yajumphapo, nyengo yikasintha comene, ndipo mphaka pakati pa malo ghakupambanapambana zikasintha.<ref name="brooks"/> Nkhorongo ya Sierra Leone na malo ghake ghakubinkha ghakawonekanga kuti munthu wangakanjiramo yayi. Malo agha ghakavikiliranga ŵanthu ŵake ku ŵanthu ŵa ku Mandinka na maufumu ghanyake gha ku Africa, ndipo ghakaŵa na mazaza gha Ufumu wa Mali. Chisilamu chikapharazgika na ŵamalonda ŵa ku Susu, na awo ŵakasamukira ku vyaru vya kumpoto na kumafumiro gha dazi.<ref name="rainforest">[[#Utting|Utting]] (1931), p. 8.</ref><ref name="brooks">[[Christopher Fyfe|Fyfe, Christopher]], [https://web.archive.org/web/20160306014052/http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=2789148 "Weighing the Probabilities"], Review: ''Landlords and Strangers: Ecology, Society and Trade in Western Africa, 1000–1630'', By George E. Brooks. Boulder: Westview Press, 1994. ({{ISBN|0-8133-1263-9}}).</ref><ref name="protected from influence">[[#Utting|Utting]] (1931), p. 33.</ref> <!--Expand this section to tell about the culture of indigenous peoples and how and why they became Muslim. Also, describe paramount chiefs, the tribal organisation as they influenced colonial and early national history--> === Kuguliska vinthu ku Europe === Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1400, ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe ndiwo ŵakamba kufika ku Sierra Leone. Mu 1462, Pedro de Sintra, uyo wakafumanga ku Portugal, wakalemba mapu gha mapiri agho ghali kuzingilizga Freetown Harbour. Mu Cisipanishi, zina ili ŵali kung'anamura kuti Sierra Leone, ndipo pamasinda ŵakasintha zina ili na kulemba mwakubudika. Nangauli Pulofesa C. Magbaily Fyle, ivi vingaŵa kuti vikaŵa viheni waka. Pulofesa Fyle wakati, pali ukaboni wakuti ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakachemanga chigaŵa ichi kuti Serra Lyoa pambere chaka cha 1462 chindafike. Ichi chikung'anamura kuti uyo wakalemba zina la Sierra Leone tikumanya yayi. Pakati pajumpha nyengo yicoko waka kufuma apo Sintra wakendera, ŵamalonda ŵa ku Portugal ŵakamba kwiza ku dowoko ili. Kuzakafika mu 1495, ŵakaŵa kuti ŵazenga malo ghakukhora gha malonda mumphepete mwa nyanja. Ŵamalonda ŵakufuma ku vyaru vya ku Europe nga ni Netherlands, England, na France nawo ŵakamba kwiza ku Sierra Leone na kukhazikiska malo ghakuguliskirako. Mwaluŵiro, malo agha ghakamba kuguliska ŵazga, awo ŵakiza na ŵamalonda ŵakufuma mu vyaru vinyake. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe ŵakapelekanga ndalama za renti, msonkho, na malonda kwa fumu ya mu cigaŵa. Ŵamalonda ŵa ku Africa na ku Europe ndiwo ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito nga ni ŵimiliri. Sir Francis Drake wakafika ku Sierra Leone pa Julayi 22, 1580. Chirwa cha Bunce, icho chili mumphepete mwa Mlonga wa Sierra Leone, ndicho ŵakaguliskanga ŵazga ku Europe. Kufikira apo dango la malonda gha ŵazga likakhazikiskikira mu 1807, cirwa ici cikendeskekanga na kampani ya ku London yakucemeka Grant, Oswald & Company, iyo yikakhalanga pa cirwa ici mu 1748.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Bury the Chains|last=Hochschild|first=Adam|author-link=Adam Hochschild|publisher=Mariner Books|year=2006|isbn=978-0-618-10469-7|pages=[https://archive.org/details/burychainsprophe00hoch/page/25 25]|url=https://archive.org/details/burychainsprophe00hoch/page/25}}</ref><ref name="Sibthorpe">{{Cite book |last =Sibthorpe |first =A. B. C. |title =The History of Sierra Leone |page=7|publisher=Routledge |isbn =978-0-7146-1769-5 |year =1970}}</ref><ref> Christopher Fyfe, ''A History of Sierra Leone'', Introduction.</ref> === Ŵakavu ŵa ku London === Kuumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1800, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Africa na America ŵakakhumbanga kuvikilirika na boma la Britain. Pakaŵa vikwi na vikwi vya ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Black Loyalists, ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa awo ŵakanjira usilikari wa Britain pa nyengo ya Nkhondo ya ku America. Ŵanandi mwa ŵanthu aŵa ŵakaŵa ŵazga awo ŵakachimbira kuti ŵakateŵetere ku Britain. Buku la ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Negro likulongosora za ŵazga ŵanandi awo ŵakafwatuka ku wuzga ku United States. Awo ŵakakolerananga na wuzga ŵakasuskanga ŵanthu ŵakavu ŵa mtundu wa Black kuti ndiwo ŵakapangiska vigeŵenga vinandi ku London. Nangauli mu muzi uwu mukaŵa ŵanakazi ŵanandi, kweni ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga mu chigaŵa ichi ŵakaŵa ŵanalume pera. Edward Long, uyo wakaŵa mweneko wa ŵazga, wakasuskanga nthengwa za ŵanalume ŵazungu na ŵanakazi ŵazungu. Ndipouli, pa ulendo wa pakati pa Plymouth, England, na Sierra Leone, ŵanakazi na ŵawoli 70 ŵa ku Europe ŵakaluta nawo. Ŵanandi ku London ŵakaghanaghananga kuti para ŵangaluta ku Sierra Leone mbwenu ŵazamuleka ukavu. Nkhwantha yinyake yakuchemeka Henry Smeathman ndiyo yikalemba ndondomeko iyi ndipo yikakondweska ŵanthu nga ni Granville Sharp. Nyengo yichoko waka, ŵalara ŵa boma nawo ŵakamba kunjilirapo pa ndondomeko iyi, nangauli ŵakakondwa comene cifukwa cakuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakavu ŵakeneranga kusamira kunyake. William Pitt Muwukirano, nduna yikuru ndiposo mulongozgi wa chipani cha Tory, wakakhumbanga comene kuti ndondomeko iyi yikwendere makora cifukwa wakawonanga kuti ni nthowa yakuwezgera ŵakavu ku Africa, cifukwa "ŵakaŵa ŵakukhumbikwa kuti ŵatumizgike ku malo ghanyake, mwakuti ŵaleke kutangwanika comene mu misewu ya London".<ref name="Siva2021">{{cite journal|first1=Michael|last1=Siva|title=Why Did the Black Poor of London Not Support the Sierra Leone Resettlement Scheme?|journal=History Matters Journal|volume=1|issue=2|date=Winter 2021|pages=25–47}}</ref> === Chigaŵa cha Ufulu === Mu Janyuwale 1787, sitima ya Atlantic na ya Belisarius zikanyamuka kuluta ku Sierra Leone, kweni nyengo yiheni yikapangiska kuti ŵalute ku Plymouth. Ŵanyake 24 ŵakafumiskika, ndipo ŵanyake 23 ŵakacimbira. Paumaliro, mu Epulero 1787, ŵanthu 411 ŵakaluta ku Sierra Leone. Pa ulendo wa pakati pa Plymouth na Sierra Leone, ŵanthu 96 ŵakafwa.<ref name=Siva2021/><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://blackloyalist.com/canadiandigitalcollection/story/exodus/company.htm |title=&#124; Black Loyalist Heritage Society |access-date=19 October 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928222047/http://blackloyalist.com/canadiandigitalcollection/story/exodus/company.htm |archive-date=28 September 2007 |url-status=bot: unknown }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.plymouth.gov.uk/gustavusvassa |title=Gustavus Vassa: Olaudah Equiano |publisher=Plymouth City Council |access-date=19 October 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071013064927/http://www.plymouth.gov.uk/gustavusvassa |archive-date=13 October 2007 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sjsu.edu/faculty/watkins/sierraleone.htm|title=Economic History of Sierra Leone|access-date=10 October 2016|archive-date=3 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303200704/http://www.sjsu.edu/faculty/watkins/sierraleone.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref> Mu 1787, boma la Britain likakhazikiska malo ghanyake mu Sierra Leone agho ghakachemekanga "Chigaŵa cha Wanangwa". Pa Meyi 15, 1787, ŵanthu pafupifupi 400 ŵa mitundu yinyake na 60 ŵa mitundu yinyake ŵakafika ku Sierra Leone. Ŵakati ŵakhazikiska tawuni ya Granville, ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakakhalanga mu tawuni iyi ŵakafwa chifukwa cha matenda na nkhondo izo ŵakachitanga na ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa (Temne). Apo ngaraŵa zikafumanga mu Seputembala, unandi wawo ukaŵa "ŵanthu 276, ŵanalume ŵaŵisi 212, ŵanakazi ŵaŵisi 30, ŵanalume ŵazungu 5 na ŵanakazi ŵazungu 29". Ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalako ŵakacicizga mulongozgi munyake wa ku Africa kuti waŵapoke caru, kweni iyo wakawezgera, wakawukira cigaŵa ici, ico cikaŵa na ŵanthu 64 pera. Ŵamalonda ŵambura mahara ŵakakoranga ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yinyake na kuŵaguliska nga mbazga. Ŵanthu 64 awo ŵakakhalako ŵakakhazikiska tawuni yaciŵiri ya Granville.<ref>{{Cite book |last = Pham |first = John-Peter |title = Child Soldiers, Adult Interests: The Global Dimensions of the Sierra Leonean Tragedy |publisher = Nova Publishers |year = 2005 |pages = 4–8 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=ZnPFKpwoIkIC&pg=PA4 |isbn = 978-1-59454-671-6 |access-date = 17 June 2014}}</ref><ref>Michael Sivapragasam, ''Why Did Black Londoners Not Join the Sierra Leone Resettlement Scheme 1783–1815?'' London: Open University, 2013.</ref> === Ŵanthu ŵa ku Nova Scotia === {{Main|Nova Scotian Settlers}} Pamanyuma pa Nkhondo Yakwamba ya ku America, ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 3,000 awo ŵakaŵa ŵakugomezgeka ku ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yinyake ŵakakhalanga ku Nova Scotia. Ŵakazenga tawuni ya Birchtown, kweni ŵakasuzgika na nyengo yakuzizima ya ku mpoto kweniso kusankhana mitundu. Thomas Peters wakapempha boma la Britain kuti liŵawovwire; pamoza na John Clarkson, uyo wakawovwirapo pa nkhani ya kuswa malango, ŵakakhazikiska kampani ya Sierra Leone Company kuti yikawovwire ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Black Loyalists awo ŵakakhumbanga kuluta ku West Africa. Mu 1792 ŵanthu pafupifupi 1,200 ŵakufuma ku Nova Scotia ŵakambuka Nyanja ya Atlantic kuti ŵakazenge cigaŵa caciŵiri ca Sierra Leone. Ku Sierra Leone ŵakacemekanga kuti New Scotian Settlers, New Scotians, panji Settlers. Pakwamba Clarkson wakazomerezga yayi kuti ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalapo mu tawuni ya Granville ŵanjire mu tawuni yiphya iyi. Ŵanthu aŵa ŵakazenga msumba wa Freetown mwakuyana na umo ŵakachitiranga kumwera kwa America. Kweniso ŵanthu ŵanandi mu Freetown ŵakalutilira kusopa ŵa Methodist. Mu ma 1790, ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga mu tawuni iyi, kusazgapo ŵanakazi, ŵakavota kakwamba. Mu 1792, mu Britain, ŵanakazi ndiwo ŵakamba kuŵa na wanangwa wa kuvota. Ŵanthu ŵafipa awo ŵakakhalanga ku Sierra Leone ŵakaŵa na wanangwa ukuru kuluska ŵazungu awo ŵakakhalanga ku Europe. Ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yinyake ŵakasankhanga ŵimiliri ŵa ndyali ŵa vigaŵa vyakupambanapambana, awo ŵakamanyikwanga kuti 'ŵanthu ŵa chakhumi,' awo ŵakimiranga ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakakhalanga mu charu ichi. Mu Nova Scotia mukaŵavya ndondomeko iyi. Pakwamba, chikaŵa chakusuzga chomene kuti ŵanthu ŵaŵe mu Freetown. Boma likapeleka yayi vinthu vyakukhumbikwa pa umoyo wa ŵanthu, ndipo ŵakukhalamo ŵakasuzgikanga comene na malonda gha ŵazga na uheni wa kuzgoka ŵazga.<ref>{{Cite book |last = Fyfe |first = Christopher |title = Our Children Free and Happy: Letters from Black Settlers in Africa in the 1790s|publisher = Edinburgh University Press |year = 1992}}</ref> === Ŵanthu ŵa ku Jamaica na Ŵafrika Awo Ŵakafwatuka === Wupu wa Sierra Leone Company, uwo ukendeskekanga na ŵanthu ŵakufuma ku London, ukakana kuzomerezga ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga mu charu ichi kuti ŵatore malo agha. Mu 1799, ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakagaluka. Boma la Jamaica likathereska ŵanthu awo ŵakagalukira boma ili, ndipo likaŵawovwira na ŵasilikari ŵakujumpha 500 awo ŵakafuma ku Cudjoe's Town (Trelawny Town) na kuluta ku Nova Scotia mu 1800. Pakulongozgeka na Koloneli Montague James, mbumba iyi yikawovwira ŵasilikari kuti ŵamazge chigaluka. Pa 1 Janyuwale, 1808, Thomas Ludlam, kazembe wa Sierra Leone Company na munthu wakulongozga pa nkhani ya kufumiska vigeŵenga, wakapeleka chikalata cha kampani iyi. Ici cikapangiska kuti ŵaleke kwendeska koloni kwa vilimika 16. Boma la Britain likambaso kuzenga kampani ya Sierra Leone Company kuti yiŵe wupu wakuwona vya ku Africa. Ŵabali ŵake ŵakaŵa ŵa ku Britain, awo ŵakakhumbanga kukhuŵilizga ŵamalonda ŵa ku Sierra Leone, kweniso awo ŵakakhumbanga kuti ŵagwirenge ntchito mu kampani ya Macauley & Babington Company. Pa nyengo yeneyira (panyuma pakuti malonda gha ŵazga ghalekeskeka mu 1807), ŵasilikari ŵa Royal Navy ŵakaluta na ŵazga ŵanandi ŵa ku Africa ku Freetown. Ŵanthu aŵa ŵakaŵaguliskanga ndalama zakukwana madola 20 pa munthu yumoza. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Africa awo ŵakafwatuka ŵakaŵacitiranga nkhaza comene cifukwa ŵanji awo ŵakakhalanga mu caru ici ŵakaŵawonanga kuti mbanthu ŵawo. Ŵakati ŵafumako ku vyaru vyawo na mitheto yawo, ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa ŵakacicizgika kuzgoŵerana na ŵanthu ŵa ku Western. Mwaciyelezgero, ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵa ku Africa ŵakacicizgika kusintha zina lawo na kulizunura ku ŵanthu ŵa ku Western. Nangauli ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakakondwa chomene na kusintha uku chifukwa ŵakawonanga kuti ntchigaŵa cha ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga nawo, kweni ŵanyake ŵakakondwa yayi na kusintha uku ndipo ŵakakhumbanga kulutilira kuŵa ŵekha. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Africa awo ŵakafwatuka ku wuzga ŵakaŵa ŵambura kukondwa mwakuti ŵakaleka Sierra Leone na kuwelera ku vikaya vyawo. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa awo ŵakafwatuka, ŵakasintha mitheto yawo kuti yikolerane na ya ŵanthu ŵa ku Nova Scotia, Maroons, na ŵa ku Europe. Apo ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa awo ŵakafwatuka ku wuzga ŵakendanga makora na kuthandazga Chikhristu mu vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Africa, ŵakatorana na ŵanthu ŵa ku Nova Scotia na Maroons. Ŵanthu aŵa ŵakafuma ku vigaŵa vinandi vya mu Africa, kweni comene ŵakaŵa ŵa ku mizi ya kumanjiliro gha dazi. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800, ŵanthu ŵakufuma ku vyaru vya ku Africa na ku Liberia awo ŵakaŵa ŵakufwatuka ku wuzga, kweniso ŵanthu ŵakufuma ku vyaru vya ku Caribbean, chomenechomene ŵa ku Jamaica, nawo ŵakaluta ku Freetown. Ŵanthu aŵa pamoza ndiwo ŵakapangiska mtundu wa Krio na chiyowoyero cha Cireole chakuchemeka English (Krio), icho ni chiyowoyero icho ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuyowoya mu charu ichi.<ref name=Thayer>{{cite book|last=Thayer|first=James Steel |year=1991 |title=A Dissenting View of Creole Culture in Sierra Leone|pages= 215–230}} https://www.persee.fr/doc/cea_0008-0055_1991_num_31_121_2116</ref><ref name=Browne-Davies>{{cite book|last= Browne-Davies|first=Nigel |year=2014 |title=A Precis of Sources relating to genealogical research on the Sierra Leone Krio people}} Journal of Sierra Leone Studies, Vol. 3; Edition 1, 2014 https://www.academia.edu/40720522/A_Precis_of_Sources_relating_to_genealogical_research_on_the_Sierra_Leone_Krio_people</ref><ref name=Walker>{{cite book|last=Walker |first=James W |year=1992 |chapter=Chapter Five: Foundation of Sierra Leone |title=The Black Loyalists: The Search for a Promised Land in Nova Scotia and Sierra Leone, 1783–1870 |location=Toronto |publisher=University of Toronto Press |pages=[https://archive.org/details/blackloyalistsse0000walk/page/94 94]–114 |url=https://archive.org/details/blackloyalistsse0000walk |url-access=registration |isbn=978-0-8020-7402-7}}, originally published by Longman & Dalhousie University Press (1976).</ref><ref name="Taylor">{{cite book |last=Taylor |first=Bankole Kamara |title=Sierra Leone: The Land, Its People and History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I__jAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA68 |date=February 2014 |publisher=New Africa Press |isbn=9789987160389 |page=68}}</ref> === Nyengo ya Chikoloni (1800-1961) === {{Main|Sierra Leone Colony and Protectorate}} [[File: Bai Bureh.jpg|thumb|upright=0.99|Bai Bureh, Mulongozgi wa Temne wa Nkhondo ya msonkho ya mu 1898 yakususkana na boma la Britain]] Ŵanthu ŵa ku Sierra Leone awo ŵakakhalanga mu charu ichi m'ma 1800, ŵakaŵa ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa awo ŵakiza mu charu ichi mu 1807. Para ŵafika ku Sierra Leone, waliyose ŵakapelekanga nambara yake ya kulembeska, ndipo uthenga wakukhwaskana na umo waliri ukalembekanga mu buku la ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa awo ŵakafwatuka. Kanandi mabuku agha ghakaŵanga gha ŵanthu yayi ndipo ghakaŵanga na malemba ghambura kwenelera. Kweniso, mphambano pakati pa Register of Liberated Africans of 1808 na List of Captured Negroes of 1812 (iyo yikayananga na chikalata cha 1808) yikulongora kuti pakaŵa mphambano pakati pa mazina gha ŵanthu awo ŵakakoleka; ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakakoleka ŵakasankha kusintha mazina ghawo kuti ghaŵe gha Chingelezi. Kukwambilira kwa vyaka vya m'ma 1800, Freetown yikaŵa malo ghakukhala kazembe wa Britain uyo wakalamuliranga chigaŵa cha Gold Coast (lero ni Ghana) na Gambia. Sierra Leone ndiyo yikaŵa likuru la masambiro mu Britain West Africa. Mu 1827, ŵa ku Britain ŵakambiska koleji ya Fourah Bay, iyo yikatora ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Africa awo ŵakayowoyanga Chingelezi. Kwa vyaka vyakujumpha 100, yunivesite iyi ndiyo yikaŵa ya ku Europe pera ku Africa. Samuel Ajayi Crowther wakaŵa musambiri wakwamba ku Fourah Bay. Nyengo yichoko waka, kholeji la Fourah Bay likakopa ŵanthu ŵa ku Sierra Leone na ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵa ku Africa awo ŵakakhumbanga kusambira masambiro ghapachanya ku British West Africa. Ŵanthu aŵa ŵakaŵa ŵa ku Nigeria, Ghana, Ivory Coast na ŵanyake ŵanandi, comenecomene awo ŵakasambiranga vya cisopa na masambiro. Msumba wa Freetown ukuchemeka "Athens wa ku Africa" chifukwa cha masukulu ghanandi ghawemi agho ghakaŵa mu msumba uwu.<ref>Nwauwa, Apollos O. (2003) Book review: "The Athens of West Africa: A History of International Education at Fourah Bay College, Freetown, Sierra Leone by Daniel J. Paracka Jr. New York: Routledge". ''[[Comparative Education Review]]'', Vol 49(4). [https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/498200 Archived]. Retrieved 29 October 2021.</ref>[[File: Bai Bureh (1898).jpg|thumb|Mulongozgi wa Temne, Bai Bureh, wakuwoneka apa mu 1898 wati wajipeleka, wakukhala mwakufwasa mu munjilira wake wa cikaya na thumba mu mawoko, apo msilikari wa Sierra Leone West African Frontier Force wakwimilira pafupi nayo ]] Ŵanthu ŵa ku Britain ŵakenderananga chomene na ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Krio awo ŵakakhalanga ku Freetown. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Krios awo ŵakaŵa ŵasambizgi, ŵakaŵa na maudindo ghanandi mu boma la ku malo agha, ndipo ŵakaŵanga na maudindo ghapacanya. Pamanyuma pa ungano wa ku Berlin wa mu 1884-1885, ŵa ku Britain ŵakaghanaghana kuti ŵakwenera kuwusa vigaŵa vya mukati mwa charu kuti ŵafiske ivyo ŵamazaza ŵa ku Europe ŵakavizunura kuti "kuwusa makora". Mu 1896, charu ichi chikamba kulamulira vigaŵa ivi na kuvizgora vigaŵa vya Sierra Leone. Ntheura, Ŵanung'una ŵakamba kusazgirako mazaza ghawo mu chigaŵa ichi. Ŵakalembapo ŵanthu ŵa ku Britain kuti ŵateŵeterenge mu maofesi agha. Pa nyengo iyo ŵasilikari ŵa Britain ŵakatoranga Sierra Leone, ŵalongozgi ŵanandi ŵa kumpoto na kumwera kwa charu ichi ŵakasuskanga "msonkho wa nyumba" uwo ŵakakolerana nawo. Ku mpoto, kwambira mu 1820 m'paka mu 1906, kukaŵa mulongozgi wa Limba zina lake Almamy Suluku uyo wakalamuliranga chigaŵa chake kwa vyaka vinandi, wakarwa kuti wavikilire chigaŵa chake, uku wakuchita vinthu mwauryarya kuti wapusike ŵalongozgi ŵa boma apo wakatumanga ŵasilikari kuti ŵawovwire Bai Bureh, mulongozgi wakuzirwa wa Temne mu Kasseh uyo wakarwa na "msonkho wa nyumba" wa ŵalongozgi ŵa vyaru. Nkhondo iyi yikamanyikwa kuti Nkhondo ya Msonkho. Munthu munyake wakumanyikwa mu mbiri ya Sierra Leone ni Bai Sherbro (c. 1830–1912). Bai Sherbro wakaŵa mulongozgi wa ŵasilikari ndipo wakakhalanga pa cirwa ca Bonthe, kumwera ca kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa caru ici. Nga ni Bai Bureh, nayo wakalimbana na ŵa ku Britain. Sherbro wakatumaso ŵasilikari ŵake kuti ŵawovwire Bai Bureh pakurwa nkhondo na ŵa ku Britain. Sherbro wakaŵa wankhongono comene ndipo Ŵanandi ŵakamopanga comene. Bai Sherbro ŵakamukora ndipo pamoza na Bai Bureh, ŵakaluta ku Gold Coast (uko sono ni Ghana). Nyagua (c. 1842-1906), uyo wakumanyikwaso kuti "Traking King", wakaŵa fumu yankhongono iyo yikapoka vigaŵa vinandi ndipo ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakiza kuti ŵamuvikilire. Nyagua nayo wakalimbana na Ŵanandi. Pakumanya kuti wakaŵa na nkhongono yayi, wakacita uryarya. Pa nyengo yeneyiyo pera, wakatuma ŵasilikari ŵake kuti ŵakawovwire Bai Bureh kulimbana na Ŵabritani. Nyengo yikati yajumphapo, ŵa ku Britain ŵakapoka msumba wa Nyagua, ndipo nayo ŵakamujalira ku Gold Coast. Madam Yoko (c. 1849-1906) wakaŵa mwanakazi wa maluso ndiposo wakujiŵikamo. Wakagwiliskira nchito luso lake la kuyowoyeskana makora na ŵanthu kuti waŵakhorweske kuti ŵamupe mazaza gha Kpaa Mende. Wakagwiliskira ntchito vyamaseŵera kuti wayowoye na ŵalongozgi ŵanandi ŵa mu chigaŵa ichi awo ŵakagomezganga yayi kuti wali paubwezi na Ŵanandi. Cifukwa cakuti Madam Yoko wakawovwira ŵa ku Britain, ŵalongozgi ŵanyake ŵakagaluka, ndipo Yoko wakabisama mu nyumba za ŵapolisi. Chifukwa cha kugomezgeka kwake, Fumukazi Victoria yikamupa mendulo ya siliva. M'paka mu 1906, Madam Yoko ndiyo wakaŵa mulongozgi mu ufumu uphya wa Britain. Vikuwoneka kuti wakajikoma apo wakaŵa na vilimika 55, panji cifukwa cakuti ŵanthu ŵakwake ŵakamovwira yayi.[[File:SierraLeoneP016.tiff|thumb|Mlonga wa Moa, Sierra Leone. Ŵabali Lisk-Carew, ku Freetown, Sierra Leone]] Ŵanji awo ŵakakhalanga mu vigaŵa ivi ŵakasuzgikanga chomene chifukwa chakuti Ŵamboni ŵa ku Britain ŵakakanizganga ŵalongozgi ŵa vigaŵa ivi. Ŵakapanga ŵalongozgi kuti ŵaŵe ŵamazaza, m'malo mwa kucita nawo mwakudumura nga umo ŵakacitiranga kale. Ŵakalutilira yayi kukolerana na ŵabwezi ŵawo, nga ni Bai Bureh, uyo pamasinda ŵakamuzunura kuti ndiyo wakambiska nkhondo ya msonkho.<ref name="Abraham">{{cite journal |title = Bai Bureh, The British, and the Hut Tax War |last = Abraham |first = Arthur |journal = [[The International Journal of African Historical Studies]] |issn = 0361-7882 |volume = 7 |issue = 1 |year = 1974 |pages = 99–106 |doi = 10.2307/216556 |jstor = 216556}}</ref> [[File: British Expeditionary Force in Freetown, 1919.jpg|thumb|Ŵasilikari ŵa Britain ŵa ku West Africa ku Freetown, 1914-1916. Mazgu gha pa kapepara aka ghakuti: "Ŵasilikari ŵa ku Britain ŵakunozgekera kunjira mu Freetown kuti ŵarwe na ŵa German Cameroons, ndipo chiŵiya chikuru cha nkhondo iyi chikaŵa dowoko la Duala. Ŵalwani ŵakagwiliskiranga nchito ŵasilikari ŵa ku Africa".]] Mu 1898, Koloneli Frederic Cardew, kazembe wa ŵasilikari ŵa ku Britain, wakaŵika msonkho uphya pa nyumba ndipo wakapempha ŵalongozgi kuti ŵagwiliskirenge ntchito ŵanthu ŵawo pakunozga misewu. Kanandi misonkho yikaŵanga yikuru kuluska mtengo wa nyumba izo ŵakakhalanga, ndipo ŵalongozgi 24 ŵakalemba chikalata ku Cardew, kulongora kuti ivi vikaŵa vyakupweteka chomene. Ŵanthu ŵakakhalanga mu mizi iyi ŵakakhalanga yayi. Ŵakakananga kupeleka msonkho, ŵakamba kukayikira awo ŵakaŵalongozganga, ndipo ivi vikapangiska kuti paŵe nkhondo ya msonkho ya mu 1898. Ŵabali ŵa ku Britain ndiwo ŵakamba kuwombera. Gulu la kumwera ilo likaŵa na ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Mende, likamba kurwa nkhondo pamanyuma pa nkhondo iyi. Kwa myezi yinandi, ŵasilikari ŵa Bureh ŵakaluska ŵasilikari ŵa Britain awo ŵakaŵa ŵankhongono comene, kweni wose ŵakafwa. Bureh wakajipeleka pa Novembala 11, 1898, kuti wamazge kuparanyika kwa malo na nyumba za ŵanthu ŵake. Nangauli boma la Britain likakhumbanga kuti ŵasilikari ŵaleke kuŵachitira nkhaza, kweni Cardew wakalutilira kutuma mulongozgi na ŵabwezi ŵake ŵaŵiri ku caru ca Gold Coast. Bureh wakazomerezgeka kuwelera mu 1905, apo wakambiraso kuwusa Kasseh. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Temne na Mende ŵakati ŵathereskeka mu nkhondo ya Hut Tax, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakamba kulimbana na boma la Colonial, kweni nyengo zinyake kukaŵanga vivulupi na vivulupi. Mu 1955 na 1956, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Sierra Leone ŵakakhwaskika na vivulupi.<ref>Killson, Martin (1966), ''Political Change in a West African State: A Study of the Modernization Process in Sierra Leone'', Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA, pp. 60; also pp. 106, 107, 110, 111, 186–188 on other riots and strikes.</ref>[[File: The Royal Navy during the Second World War A24465.jpg|thumb|Ŵalongozgi ŵa ŵasilikari ŵa ku Africa ŵakiza kwa kazembe wa Sierra Leone, Sir Hubert Stevenson.]] Mu 1928, ŵazga awo ŵakakhalanga mu nyumba za ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa ŵakamara.<ref>{{cite web |author=The Committee Office, House of Commons |url=https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm200506/cmselect/cmintdev/923/923m21.htm |title=House of Commons – International Development – Memoranda |publisher=Publications.parliament.UK |date=6 March 2006 |access-date=17 June 2014 |archive-date=22 July 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150722035235/http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm200506/cmselect/cmintdev/923/923m21.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref>Cinthu cinyake ico cikacitika mu 1935, nchakuti De Beers wakapeleka wanangwa wa kunozga vinthu vyakuthupi ku Sierra Leone Selection Trust. Iyo wakakhumbanga kuti boma ili liŵepo kwa vyaka 98. Ku chigaŵa cha kumafumiro gha dazi, ŵanthu ŵakamba kuguliska dayamondi na vinthu vinyake vyakuthupi. Mu 1924, boma la Britain likagaŵa charu cha Sierra Leone kuŵa vigaŵa viŵiri. Malo agha ghakaŵa Freetown na chigaŵa cha mumphepete mwa nyanja. Mu 1947, ŵanthu ŵakamba kudumbiskana chomene nkhani za ndyali pakati pa vyaru viŵiri ivi. Ŵalongozgi ŵanandi ŵa boma ili ndiwo ŵakaŵaphalira kuti ŵanozge nthowa iyi. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Krio, awo ŵakalongozgekanga na Isaac Wallace-Johnson, ŵakasuska fundo izi, cifukwa mphanyi zikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Krio ŵaleke kuŵa na mazaza pa ndyali. Mu 1951, Lamina Sankoh (wakubabika Etheldred Jones) wakakolerana na ŵalongozgi ŵakusambira ŵa vigaŵa vyakupambanapambana, kusazgapo Sir Milton Margai, Siaka Stevens, Mohamed Sanusi Mustapha, John Karefa-Smart, Kande Bureh, Sir Albert Margai, Amadu Wurie na Sir Banja Tejan-Sie ŵakakolerana na ŵalongozgi ŵankhongono mu vigaŵa ivi kuti ŵapange chipani cha Sierra Leone People's Party panji SLPP nga ni chipani cha vigaŵa ivi. Ŵalongozgi ŵa SLPP, awo ŵakalongozgekanga na Sir Milton Margai, ŵakadumbiskana na ŵa ku Britain na ŵa ku Krio awo ŵakakhalanga ku Freetown kuti ŵaŵe na wanangwa. Cifukwa ca ndyali za Milton Margai, ŵanthu ŵakusambira comene ŵa mu caru ca Protectorate ŵakakolerana na ŵalongozgi ŵacikulu comene ŵa mu caru ici. Pamasinda, Margai wakagwiliskira nchito maluso agha kuti wapusike ŵalongozgi ŵa visopa vyautesi na ŵanthu ŵa Krio kuti ŵaŵe ŵakujiyimira pawekha. Mu Novembala 1951, Margai wakawoneseska kuti palembeke dango liphya, ilo likakolerana na maboma ghaŵiri, la Colonial na Protectorate. Mu 1953, boma la Sierra Leone likapika mazaza gha ŵalara ŵa boma ndipo Margai wakasankhika kuŵa nduna yikuru ya boma. Ndondomeko yiphya ya malango yikawovwira kuti Sierra Leone yiŵe na boma laparamende. Mu Meyi 1957, ku Sierra Leone kukachitika chisankho chakwamba. Gulu la SLPP ndilo likaŵa la ndyali lakutchuka chomene mu Sierra Leone kweniso likaŵa na ŵakaronga ŵankhongono mu vigaŵa. === Ungano wa 1960 === Pa Epulero 20, 1960, Milton Margai wakalongozga gulu la ŵanthu 24 ŵa ku Sierra Leone pa ungano wa malango uwo ukachitikira ku London pamoza na Queen Elizabeth II na Secretary of Colonial Affairs Iain Macleod.<ref name="Murtala Mohammed Kamara">{{cite web |url=http://news.sl/drwebsite/publish/printer_200517413.shtml |title=Sierra Leone was ripe for Independence: Exclusive interview with Reginald Boltman |publisher=News.sl |date=28 February 2011 |author=Murtala Mohammed Kamara |access-date=17 June 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131126085732/http://news.sl/drwebsite/publish/printer_200517413.shtml |archive-date=26 November 2013 }}</ref><ref name="Momoh">{{cite web|last=Momoh |first=John |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201105040814.html |title=Sierra Leone: Viewpoint – Celebrating a New Nation! |publisher=allAfrica.com |date=4 May 2011 |access-date=20 May 2012}}</ref> Paumaliro wa kudumbiskana ku London pa 4 Meyi 1960, United Kingdom yikazomera kupeleka wanangwa ku Sierra Leone pa 27 Epulero 1961.<ref name="Murtala Mohammed Kamara"/><ref name="Momoh"/> === Kujiyimira pawekha (1961) na Margai Administration (1961~1964) === Pa Epulero 27, 1961, Milton Margai wakalongozga Sierra Leone kuti wapoke wanangwa kufuma ku Britain ndipo wakaŵa nduna yikuru yakwamba ya charu ichi. Sierra Leone yikaŵa na nyumba yake ya malango na nduna yikuru, ndipo yikaŵa na wanangwa wa kupanga malango ghake, kweni nga ni vyaru nga ni Canada na Australia, Sierra Leone yikaŵa "Dominion" ndipo Fumukazi Elizabeth yikaŵa Fumukazi ya Dominion ya Sierra Leone.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Kargbo|first1=Michael S.|title=British Foreign Policy and the Conflict in Sierra Leone, 1991–2001|date=2006|publisher=Peter Lang|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tfW5ACrYksQC&pg=PA70|pages=70|isbn=9783039103324|access-date=19 November 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Fyle|first=Magbaily C.|title=Historical Dictionary of Sierra Leone|date=2006|publisher=Scarecrow Press|location=Lanham, Maryland|isbn=978-0-8108-5339-3|pages=XVII–XXII|url=https://archive.org/details/historicaldictio0000fyle}}</ref> Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Sierra Leone ŵakiza mu misewu kuti ŵakondwe. Charu cha Sierra Leone chikaŵa na boma laparamendi ndipo chikaŵa mu wupu wa Commonwealth of Nations. Mulongozgi wa chipani cha All People's Congress (APC), Siaka Stevens, pamoza na Isaac Wallace-Johnson, uyo nayo wakususka boma la SLPP, ŵakakakika na kuŵikika mu jele ku Freetown, pamoza na ŵanthu ŵanyake 16 awo ŵakapika mulandu wa kunanga viphikiro vya wanangwa. Mu Meyi 1962, ku Sierra Leone kukachitika chisankho chakwamba. Chipani cha Sierra Leone People's Party (SLPP) chikapokera vithuzi vinandi mu nyumba ya malango, ndipo Milton Margai wakasankhikaso kuŵa nduna yikuru. Mu nyengo iyo Margai wakaŵa na mazaza, ŵanthu ŵa ku Sierra Leone ŵakamutemwanga chomene. Wakacitanga vimbundi yayi nesi kujilongora kuti wali na nkhongono. Iyo wakambiska boma lakwendera dango na kugaŵikana kwa maufumu, na maboma gha vyaru vinandi na mawupu ghakwimira ŵanthu. Margai wakagwiliskira nchito maghanoghano ghake kuti walongozge Sierra Leone. Wakimika ŵalara ŵa boma kuti ŵimilire mafuko ghakupambanapambana. Margai wakagwiliskiranga ntchito ndyali, kugaŵana mazaza pakati pa magulu gha ndyali na magulu gha vyakukhumba vya ŵanthu; comenecomene ŵakaronga ŵankhongono mu vigaŵa, awo ŵanandi ŵakaŵa ŵabwezi ŵa boma lake. === Pamanyuma pa nyifwa ya Milton Margai na Albert Margai (1964-1967) === Milton Margai wakati wafwa mwamabuci mu 1964, nyumba ya boma yikamusankha kuti waŵe nduna yikuru. Ulongozgi wa Sir Albert ukasuskika na nduna ya vyaru vya kuwaro John Karefa-Smart, uyo wakadandawura kuti Sir Albert ndiyo wakeneranga kulongozga SLPP. Karefa-Smart wakalongozga chipani chichoko chomene mukati mwa chipani cha SLPP pakususkana na Albert Margai pakuŵa Prime Minister. Ndipouli, Karefa-Smart wakatondeka kusanga wovwiri ukuru mukati mwa SLPP mu kuyezga kwake kufumiska Albert Margai nga ni mulongozgi wa SLPP na Prime Minister. Ŵabali ŵanandi ŵa SLPP ŵakakolerana na Albert Margai kuluska Karefa-Smart. Mwaluŵiro Albert Margai wakati walapa kuŵa Nduna Yikuru, wakachimbizga ŵalaraŵalara ŵanandi ŵa boma awo ŵakateŵeteranga mu boma la mukuru wake, Sir Milton. Sir Albert wakachitanga vinthu mwakukolerana na ivyo ŵanthu ŵakayowoyanga, ndipo wakapangiska malango ghanandi kuti wakanizge chipani cha All People's Congress.<ref name="Murtala Mohammed Kamara"/><ref name="Momoh"/> Sir Albert wakasuskanga fundo yakuti ŵalara ŵa boma ndiwo ŵaŵe na mazaza gha kuwusa, ndipo ŵanandi mwa iwo ŵakaŵa ŵabwezi ŵa mukuru wake Milton. Ntheura, ŵakamba kuwona kuti Sir Albert ni munthu uyo wangatimbanizga maboma gha mu caru cose. Margai wakasora ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakaŵa ŵa mtundu wa Creole yayi kuti ŵateŵeterenge boma mu Freetown. Ntheura, ŵanthu ŵa ku Creole ŵakamutemwanga yayi Albert Margai. Margai ŵakamupusikizgira kuti wakutemwa ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wake wa Mende. Mu 1967, mu Freetown mukawuka vivulupi chifukwa cha ivyo Margai wakachitanga. Sir Albert ŵakamusanga na mulandu wa vimbundi kweniso wa kutemwera mtundu wa Mende. Sir Albert Margai wakatora mazaza ndipo wakakhumbanga kuti ŵasilikari ŵa Mende ŵaŵe ŵakukolerana. Kweniso wakayezga kusintha Sierra Leone kufuma ku boma la demokilase kuya ku boma la chipani cimoza. Nangauli wakaŵa na wovwiri wose wa ŵasilikari ŵa caru ici, kweni wakacema kuti paŵe maungano ghakufwatuka na ghakugomezgeka.<ref name="Time">{{cite magazine |title=End of The Exception |url=https://content.time.com/time/subscriber/article/0,33009,941075,00.html |magazine=Time |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110629005010/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,941075,00.html?iid=chix-sphere |archive-date=29 June 2011 |date=31 March 1967 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|title=SAGE Journals: Your gateway to world-class journal research|journal=Journal of Conflict Resolution|volume=60|issue=4|pages=587–616|doi=10.1177/0022002714545332|year = 2016|last1 = Harkness|first1 = Kristen A.|hdl=10023/9391|s2cid=54538341|hdl-access=free}}</ref> === 1967 Masankhiro gha Wupu Wakulongozga na vimbundi vya ŵasilikari (1967~1968) === Chipani cha APC, pamoza na mulongozgi wake Siaka Stevens, chikapokera vithuzithuzi vinandi mu Nyumba ya Malamulo kuluska chipani cha SLPP mu 1967 pa mavoti gha mavoti gha mavoti. Stevens wakalapa kuŵa nduna yikuru pa March 21, 1967. Pakati pajumpha maora ghacoko waka kufuma apo wakambira kuwusa, Stevens wakawuskika pa udindo mu boma mwa kuwukira boma kwambura kuthiska ndopa. Wakaŵa mubwezi wa Albert Margai, uyo wakamusankha mu 1964. Lansana wakamujalira Stevens mu nyumba yake ku Freetown ndipo wakakhumbanga kuti nduna yikuru yilindilire pambere ŵandyali ŵa fuko ili ŵandaŵepo pa maungano. Pamanyuma pake Steven wakafwatuka ndipo wakafumamo mu caru ici na kuluta ku caru ca Guinea. Ndipouli, pa March 23, 1967, gulu la ŵasilikari ŵa ku Sierra Leone Army awo ŵakalongozgekanga na Brigadier General Andrew Juxon-Smith, ŵakachita chipani chakususkana na Mulara Lansana. Ŵakapoka boma, ŵakakora Lansana, na kukanizga dango la boma. Gulu ili likambiska National Reformation Council (NRC), ndipo Andrew Juxon-Smith ndiyo wakaŵa mulongozgi wake kweniso mulongozgi wa boma. Pa 18 Epulero 1968 gulu la ŵasilikari ŵa pasi mu gulu la ŵasilikari la Sierra Leone awo ŵakajichemanga kuti Anti-Corruption Revolutionary Movement (ACRM), awo ŵakalongozgekanga na Brigadier General John Amadu Bangura, ŵakawuskapo boma la NRC. Boma la ACRM likakaka ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa mu NRC. Ŵakawezgerapo malango gha boma na kuwezgera mazaza kwa Stevens, uyo paumaliro wakaŵa nduna yikuru. Mu 1970, Stevens wakakaka Bangura na kumupa mulandu wa uryarya. Wakasangika na mulandu na kweruzgika kuti wakomeke, nangauli wakaŵa Bangura uyo wakacitiska kuti Stevens wawelere ku mazaza. Brigadier Lansana na Hinga Norman, ŵalara ŵa ŵasilikari awo ŵakacitako nkhondo yakwamba (1967), ŵakafumiskika mu usilikari ndipo ŵakakakika. Norman wakaŵa msilikari wa kazembe mukuru, Sir Henry Lightfoot-Boston. Nyengo yikati yajumphapo, Lansana wakeruzgika ndipo ŵakamusanga na mulandu wa upusikizgi, ndipo ŵakamuphalira kuti wakomeke mu 1975.<ref name="Humphrey" /> === Boma la chipani cimoza na kwamba kwa "Republic" (1968-1991) === [[File: All People's Congress political rally Sierra Leone 1968.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|Msonkhano wa ndale wa APC kumpoto kwa tawuni ya Kabala kunja kwa nyumba ya othandizira chipani cha SLPP mu 1968]] Mu 1968, Stevens wakambaso kuwusa nga ni nduna yikuru, pamanyuma pa vimbundi vinandi. Ŵanthu ŵakamugomezganga comene cifukwa cakuti wakacitanga ndyali. Stevens wakacitanga kampeni ya kuwunjika mafuko ghose pamoza mwakuyana na fundo za cisopa. Mu vyaka 10 vyakwambilira apo wakaŵa na mazaza, Stevens wakambiraso kudumbiskana vinthu vinyake ivyo wakavichema kuti "ndondomeko zambura ntchito" izo ŵakamuteŵeterapo, Albert Margai wa SLPP na Juxon-Smith wa NRC. Maboma ghanyake gha SLPP na NRC ghakayowoya kuti ghapangiska kuti caru ciŵe mu suzgo.<ref name="Humphrey" /> Stevens wakambaso kunozga malo ghakupangira mafuta, hotelo ya Cape Sierra iyo yikaŵa ya boma, na fakitare ya simenti. Wakakanaso mulimo wa Juxon-Smith wa kuzenga tchalitchi na mosque pa malo gha Victoria Park (lero ghakumanyikwa kuti Freetown Amusement Park) kwambira mu 2017. Nyengo yikati yajumphapo, Stevens wakamba kovwira kuti ŵanthu ŵende makora pakati pa vigaŵa ivi na msumba wa Freetown. Ŵakazenga misewu na vipatala mu vigaŵa ivi, ndipo ŵalongozgi na ŵanthu ŵa mu vigaŵa ivi ŵakaŵa na mazaza chomene mu Freetown. Pakuti ŵanthu ŵakayezga kumugalukira, Stevens wakalutilira kuŵa na mazaza, ndipo ubwezi wake na ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵakamukhozganga ukakhora. Ŵanyake ŵakagomezganga kuti wakawuskapo chipani cha SLPP mu ndyali mwa kugwiliskira nchito nkhaza na kucitiska wofi. Kuti ŵasilikari ŵalutilire kumovwira, Stevens wakasankha John Amadu Bangura kuŵa mulongozgi wa ŵasilikari ŵa Sierra Leone. Pamanyuma pakuti boma la ŵanthu ŵambura mulandu lawelera ku boma, mavoti ghacigaŵa ghakacitika (kwamba mu 1968), ndipo boma la APC likimikika. Kweni pakaŵavya mtende. Mu Novembala 1968, masuzgo agho ghakaŵapo mu vigaŵa vikuruvikuru vikapangiska Stevens kuti wapharazge kuti mu charu chose muli suzgo. Ŵalaraŵalara ŵanandi ŵa ŵasilikari ŵa Sierra Leone ŵakakhuŵara chomene na ivyo Stevens wakachitanga kweniso umo wakachitiranga na ŵasilikari ŵa Sierra Leone, kweni pakaŵavya uyo wakalimbana nayo. Mulara wa ŵasilikari, Bangura, uyo wakawezgerapo Stevens kuŵa nduna yikuru, wakawonekanga kuti ndiyo yekha wangawusa Stevens. Gulu la ŵasilikari likaŵa lakujipeleka comene kwa Bangura, ndipo ici cikapangiska kuti waŵe wakofya comene kwa Stevens. Mu Janyuwale 1970, Bangura ŵakamukora na kumupa mulandu wa kuwukira boma la Stevens. Bangura wakati wapika mulandu kwa myezi yicoko waka, ŵakamusanga na mulandu ndipo ŵakamuphalira kuti wakomeke. Pa Malichi 29, 1970, Brigadier Bangura wakakomeka mu Freetown. Bangura wakati wakomeka, gulu la ŵasilikari awo ŵakagomezgeka kwa mulara wa ŵasilikari uyo wakakomeka, ŵakagalukira boma la Stevens mu Freetown na mu vigaŵa vinyake. Ŵasilikari ŵanandi ŵakakakika na kweruzgika na khoti la ku Freetown chifukwa cha kunjilirapo pa kuwukira pulezidenti. Pakati pa ŵasilikari awo ŵakakakika pakaŵa mulara wa ŵasilikari uyo wakamanyikwanga viŵi yayi, Foday Sankoh, uyo wakaŵa wakugomezgeka kwa Bangura, ndipo pamanyuma pake wakambiska gulu la Revolutionary United Front (RUF). Kaboni Sankoh wakasangika na mulandu ndipo wakakakika vyaka vinkhondi na viŵiri mu jele la Pademba Road mu Freetown. Mu Epulero 1971, ŵakalemba dango liphya ilo likazomerezga kuti Stevens waŵe pulezidenti. Mu ma 1972 by-elections, chipani cha opposition SLPP chikadandaula kuti chipani cha APC na chipani cha militia vikamuwopsya na kumukanizga. Masuzgo agha ghakaŵa ghakofya comene mwakuti SLPP yikasuskanga mavoti gha mu 1973; ntheura APC yikasanga vithuzithuzi 84 pa vithuzithuzi 85. Mu 1974, ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakakhumbanga kuwuskapo pulezidenti Stevens, kweni ŵakatondeka ndipo ŵalongozgi ŵake ŵakakomeka. Pakati pa 1974, ŵasilikari ŵa ku Guinea ŵakaŵikika mu charu ichi kuti ŵawovwirepo pa mazaza ghake, pakuti Stevens wakaŵa mubwezi wa pulezidenti wa ku Guinea, Ahmed Sékou Touré. Mu Malichi 1976, Stevens wakasankhika kuŵa pulezidenti kwa nyengo yaciŵiri. Pa 19 Julayi, 1975, ŵalaraŵalara ŵa boma na ŵasilikari ŵakukwana 14, kusazgapo David Lansana, nduna yakale ya boma Mohamed Sorie Forna (wiske wa mulembi Aminatta Forna), Brigadier General Ibrahim Bash Taqi na Lieutenant Habib Lansana Kamara ŵakakomeka pamanyuma pakususka kuti ŵakayezga kutimbanizga boma la pulezidenti Stevens. In 1977, a nationwide student demonstration against the government disrupted Sierra Leone politics. The demonstration was quickly put down by the army and Stevens' own personal Special Security Division (SSD), a heavily armed paramilitary force he had created to protect him and maintain his hold on power.<ref>Tam-Baryoh, David, [http://www.newstimeafrica.com/archives/1669 "Politicized security forces or tribalized national politics; which is which?"] ''Newstime Africa''. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120901024455/http://www.newstimeafrica.com/archives/1669 |date=1 September 2012 }}. Retrieved 26 February 2013.</ref> SSD officers were loyal to Stevens and were deployed across the country to clamp down on any rebellion or protest against Stevens' government. [[Sierra Leonean parliamentary election, 1977|A general election]] was called later that year in which corruption was again endemic; the APC won 74 seats and the SLPP 15. In 1978, the APC-dominant parliament approved a new constitution making the country a one-party state. The 1978 constitution made the APC the only legal political party in Sierra Leone.<ref name=Gberie>Gberie, Lansana (1998). ''[http://scholars.wlu.ca/etd/30/ War and state collapse: The case of Sierra Leone]'' (M.A. thesis) Wilfrid Laurier University</ref> Ivi vikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵambe kususka boma mu vigaŵa vinandi vya charu ichi, kweni ŵasilikari na gulu la Stevens la SSD ŵakaŵakoma. Stevens wakususkika cifukwa ca maluso ghake gha ucigaluka na vimbundi vya mu boma, kweni wakawovwira kuti caru ciŵe cakukhora ndiposo kuti cileke kunjira mu nkhondo. Wakambiska maboma ghanandi agho ghachali kugwira ntchito m'paka sono. Stevens wakachepeskaso mphatukano wa mafuko mu boma mwa kunjizga ŵanthu ŵa mafuko ghakupambanapambana mu boma lake la APC. Siaka Stevens wakafumapo pa ndyali mu Novembala 1985 wati waŵa na mazaza vyaka 18. Pa ungano waumaliro wa ŵimiliri wa chipani ichi, uwo ukachitikira ku Freetown mu Novembala 1985, chipani ichi chikimika munthu munyake kuti wanjire mu malo gha Stevens. Munthu uyo wakasankhika wakaŵa Major General Joseph Saidu Momoh, mulongozgi wa ŵasilikari ŵa Sierra Leone. Pakuŵa mulongozgi wa ŵasilikari, Jenerale Momoh wakaŵa wakugomezgeka kwa Stevens, uyo wakamusankha. Nga ni Stevens, Momoh nayo wakaŵa wa fuko la Limba. Pakuŵa uyo wakaŵa yekha, Momoh wakasankhika kuŵa pulezidenti kwambura kususkika ndipo wakalapizga kuŵa pulezidenti wachiŵiri wa Sierra Leone pa Novembala 28, 1985 ku Freetown. Mu Meyi 1986, pakaŵa chisankho cha chipani chimoza pakati pa ŵa APC. Pulezidenti Momoh wakasora mulara wa ŵasilikari na mubwezi wake, Major General Mohamed Tarawalie kuti waŵe mulongozgi wa ŵasilikari ŵa Sierra Leone. Jenerale Tarawalie nayo wakaŵa wakugomezgeka comene ndipo wakawovwiranga comene Momoh. Pulezidenti Momoh wakimika James Bambay Kamara kuŵa mulara wa ŵapolisi ŵa Sierra Leone. Bambay Kamara nayo wakaŵa wakugomezgeka comene kwa Momoh. Momoh wakapatukana na pulezidenti wakale Siaka Stevens mwa kunjizga gulu lankhongono la SSD mu polisi ya Sierra Leone nga ni gulu lapadera la ŵasilikari. Pa nyengo ya Pulezidenti Stevens, gulu la SSD likaŵa lankhongono comene ndipo likagwiliskiranga nchito nkhongono zake kuti liŵe na mazaza. Ŵapolisi ŵa Sierra Leone awo ŵakalongozgekanga na Bambay Kamara ŵakasuskika kuti ŵakachitiranga nkhaza ŵanthu awo ŵakasuskanga boma la Pulezidenti Momoh. Chifukwa cha kukolerana na ŵasilikari kweniso kususka vimbundi, pulezidenti Momoh wakamba kukhozgeka na ŵanthu ŵa ku Sierra Leone. Chifukwa cha kusoŵa kwa visko viphya mu nduna ziphya za APC pasi pa purezidenti Momoh na kuwelera kwa visko vinandi vya kale kufuma mu boma la Stevens, mwaluŵiro ŵanthu ŵakamba kumususka kuti Momoh wakalutilira waka kuwusa kwa Stevens. Vyaka vichoko waka vyakulondezgapo mu muwuso wa Momoh vikaŵa na vimbundi, ndipo Momoh wakawuskapo vimbundi ivi mwa kufumiska nduna zinandi. Kuti walongore kuti wakulimbana na vimbundi, Pulezidenti Momoh wakapharazga za "Ndondomeko ya Makhaliro ya Ŵalongozgi ŵa Ndyali na Ŵateŵeti ŵa Boma". Pamanyuma pa kuyezga kuwuskapo pulezidenti Momoh mu Malichi 1987, ŵalongozgi ŵa boma ŵakujumpha 60 ŵakakakika, kusazgapo Francis Minah, wachiŵiri kwa pulezidenti, uyo wakawuskika pa udindo wake, wakasangika na mulandu wa kunozga chiwukirano, ndipo wakakomeka na kukakika mu 1989, pamoza na ŵanyake ŵankhondi. === Nkhondo ya ku Sierra Leone (1991-2002) na boma la NPRC (1992-1996) === {{Further|Sierra Leone Civil War}} [[File: School destroyed by Sierra Leone Civil War.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|Sukulu yinyake ku Koindu yikanangika pa nyengo ya Nkhondo ya pa Mbumba; masukulu ghakwambilira 1,270 ghakanangika pa nyengo ya nkhondo.<ref name="ilab"/>]] Mu Okutobala 1990, cifukwa ca kukhuŵilizgika comene na ŵanthu ŵa mu caru na ŵakuwaro kuti ŵanozge ndyali na vya cuma, pulezidenti Momoh wakimika komiti ya kunozgaso malango gha boma kuti yilanje malango gha boma la chipani cimoza. Pakugwiliskira nchito ulongozgi wa komiti iyi, dango la boma ilo likakhazikiskaso ndondomeko ya vyaru vinandi likapokelereka na Nyumba ya Malamulo ya APC. Pakaŵa kukayika kukuru kuti pulezidenti Momoh wakakhumbanga yayi kusintha vinthu pa ndyali, cifukwa boma la APC likalutilira kusuzgika na mazaza. Nkhondo ya pawenenawene iyo yikaŵa mukati mu charu cha Liberia ndiyo yikapangiska kuti ku Sierra Leone kuŵe nkhondo. Charles Taylor uyo pa nyengo iyo wakaŵa mulongozgi wa National Patriotic Front of Liberia, vikayowoyeka kuti wakawovwira kupanga Revolutionary United Front (RUF) pasi pa muwuso wa Foday Saybana Sankoh, uyo wakaŵa mulara wa ŵasilikari ŵa Sierra Leone. Sankoh wakaŵa mulara wa ŵasilikari wakale wa ku Britain uyo wakasambizgikaso nkhondo ku Libya. Cakulinga ca Taylor cikaŵa cakuti RUF yikome ŵasilikari awo ŵakakhalanga mu Sierra Leone. Pa 29 Epulero 1992, gulu la ŵasilikari ŵawukirano ŵa ku Sierra Leone Army, awo ŵakalongozgekanga na ŵasilikari 7 ŵa ku Sierra Leone, Lt. Sahr Sandy, Captain Valentine Strasser, Lt. Solomon "SAJ" Musa, Captain Komba Mondeh, Lt. Tom Nyuma, Captain Julius Maada Bio na Captain Komba Kambo, ŵakachitiska chivundungwele cha ŵasilikari icho chikapangiska kuti pulezidenti Momoh wapelekeleke ku Guinea. Wupu wa NPRC ukayimiska mwaluŵiro dango la boma, kukanizga vipani vyose vya ndyali, kukanizga wanangwa wa kuyowoya na wa manyuzipepara, ndipo ukakhazikiska dango lakuti ŵasilikari ŵaŵikenge mu jele kwambura mulandu panji kweruzgika. SAJ Musa, mubwezi wa Strasser wa pa ubonda, wakazgoka wachiŵiri wa pulezidenti na mulongozgi wa boma la NPRC. Strasser wakaŵa mulongozgi wa boma muwukirano comene pa caru cose apo wakayamba kuwusa mazuŵa ghatatu pera kufuma apo wakafiskira vilimika 25. Boma la NPRC likakhazikiska National Supreme Council of State nga ni boma la ŵasilikari na mazaza ghaumaliro pa vinthu vyose ndipo likaŵa na ŵasilikari ŵa NPRC ŵankhongono comene, kusazgapo Strasser na ŵasilikari ŵakwambilira awo ŵakathereska pulezidenti Momoh.<ref name="blogspot1">{{cite web |title=SIERRA LEONE NOW: Attempts To Launder Maada Bio's Battered Image Fail... We Were Not Supreme Council Members – Civilians In NPRC Deny Involvement In Atrocities |url=http://salonenow.blogspot.com/2011/08/attempts-to-launder-maada-bios-battered.html#!/2011/08/attempts-to-launder-maada-bios-battered.html |access-date=20 March 2014 |publisher=Salonenow.blogspot.com}}</ref> Yumoza wa ŵasilikari ŵakuzirwa comene ŵa NPRC Junta, Lt. Sahr Sandy, mubwezi wakugomezgeka wa Strasser, wakakomeka na Major S.I.M. Turay, uyo wakaŵa wakugomezgeka kwa pulezidenti Momoh. Gulu la ŵasilikari ilo likaŵa na vilwero vikuru vikapenja munthu uyo wakakoma Mulara Sandy. Ndipouli, wakukayikiska comene ni Major S.I.M. Turay wakabisama na kucimbira mu caru ca Guinea, cifukwa wakawopanga umoyo wake. Ŵasilikari ŵanandi ŵakugomezgeka kwa pulezidenti Momoh ŵakakakika, kusazgapo Colonel Kahota M. Dumbuya na Major Yayah Turay. Mulara wa ŵasilikari, Lt. Sandy, ŵakamusunga pa dindi la boma ndipo ŵasilikari ŵanandi ŵa NPRC ŵakaluta ku dindi ili. Boma la NPRC likalutilira kukolerana na wupu wa ECOWAS ndipo likakhozga wovwiri wa ŵasilikari ŵa ECOMOG awo ŵakakhalanga ku Sierra Leone. Pa 28 Disembala 1992, boma likayezga kupoka boma kwa boma la NPRC la Strasser, pakukhumba kufwatura Colonel Yahya Kanu, Colonel Kahota M.S. Dumbuya na uyo kale wakaŵa Inspector General wa ŵapolisi Bambay Kamara, ŵakakanizgika. Ŵalaraŵalara ŵa ŵasilikari ŵaciŵiri awo ŵakalongozgekanga na Sergeant Mohamed Lamin Bangura ŵakamanyikwa kuti ndiwo ŵakapangiska chiŵembu ici. Ŵasilikari 17 ŵakakomeka chifukwa cha chiŵembu ichi. Ŵanyake mwa ŵanthu awo ŵakakomeka ni Colonel Kahota Dumbuya, Major Yayah Kanu na Sergeant Mohamed Lamin Bangura. Ŵalaraŵalara ŵanandi ŵa boma la Momoh awo ŵakaŵa mu jele la Pa Demba Road, kusazgapo uyo kale wakaŵa mulara wa ŵapolisi Bambay Kamara, nawo ŵakakomeka. Pa 5 Julayi 1994 SAJ Musa, uyo wakaŵa wakutemweka comene pakati pa ŵanthu, comenecomene mu Freetown, wakakakika na kutumizgika ku caru cinyake pamasinda pakuti wakasoleka kuti wakakhumbanga kuwuskapo Strasser. Strasser wakasintha Musa kuŵa wachiŵiri wa pulezidenti wa NPRC na Captain Bio, uyo nyengo yeneyiyo Strasser wakamukwezga kuŵa brigadier. Ntchito ya NPRC yikaŵa yambura ntchito chifukwa boma la Momoh likathereskeka. Kuzakafika mu 1994, ŵasilikari ŵa RUF ŵakamba kuwusa chigaŵa chikuru cha chigaŵa cha kumafumiro gha dazi icho chikaŵa na malibwe gha dayamondi ghanandi. Pakuzgora, NPRC yikagwiriska nchito Executive Outcomes, kampani ya ŵasilikari ya ku South Africa, kuti yigeziske ŵasilikari ŵakugwilira nchito ŵankhondo ŵakukwana mahandiredi ghanandi. Pakati pajumpha mwezi umoza, ŵasilikari aŵa ŵakachimbizga ŵasilikari ŵa RUF mu vigaŵa ivyo vikaŵa kufupi na mphaka za Sierra Leone. Chifukwa chakuti ŵasilikari ŵaŵiri ŵa NPRC, Lt. Sahr Sandy na Lt. Solomon Musa ŵakaŵavya mwaŵi wa kumuvikilira, utsogoleri wa Strasser mukati mwa NPRC ukaŵa wambura nkhongono. Pa 16 January 1996, pamanyuma pa vilimika vinayi pa mazaza, Strasser wakakakika mu nyumba ya boma iyo yikapangika na ŵasilikari ŵanyake ŵa NPRC awo ŵakalongozgekanga na Brigadier Bio ku likuru la Defence ku Freetown. Nyengo yeneyiyo, Strasser wakatolekera ku Conakry, ku Guinea. Mu nkhani yake yakwamba ya pa wumba pamanyuma pa boma kuwukira mu 1996, Brigadier Bio wakayowoya kuti wovwiri wake wa kuwezgerapo Sierra Leone.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thefreelibrary.com/How+Sierra+Leone+fell+into+the+hands+of+young+soldiers.-a0254314002 |title=How Sierra Leone fell into the hands of young soldiers|publisher=Thefreelibrary.com |access-date=20 May 2012}}</ref> === Nyengo ya Kabbah: boma, "kuwuka kwa boma liphya", AFRC na umaliro wa Nkhondo Yachiŵeniŵeni (1996~2007) === Bio wakafiska ivyo wakalayizga kuti wazamuwusa ŵanthu. Pambere mavoti ghandambe, ŵanthu ŵa ku Sierra Leone na ŵanyakhe ŵa pa caru cose ŵakadumbiskana usange chalo ici cikwenera kumazga nkhondo ya pawenenawene iyo yikalutilira kwa nyengo yitali, panji usange cikwenera kucita mavoti na kuwezgeraso muwuso ku boma la ŵanthu na ndondomeko ya vyaru vinandi. Pamanyuma pa ungano wa 1995 wa National Consultative Conference ku Bintumani Hotel ku Freetown, wakucemeka "Bintumani I", uwo ukaŵa upharazgi wa Strasser, ungano unyake wa National Consultative Conference ku Bintumani Hotel ku Freetown, wakucemeka "Bintumani II", ukambiska na boma la Bio ilo likakhwaska ŵanyakhe ŵa ku charu na ŵanyakhe ŵa ku vyaru vinyake, mu kuyezga kusanga nthowa yakufumiskirapo masuzgo agho ghakuwira chalo. "Mtende pambere mavoti ghandambe na mavoti pambere mtende undafike" ghakazgoka nkhani yikuru ya kudumbiskana ndipo nkhani iyi yikamba kudumbiskana pa caru cose. Paumaliro, ŵakadumbiskana na ŵanthu ŵanandi, kusazgapo boma la Bio na UN, ndipo ŵakakolerana kuti apo ŵakuyezgayezga kusanga nthowa ya mtende yakumazgira nkhondo, ŵakwenera kuchitiska mavoti mwaluŵiro. Bio wakapeleka mazaza kwa Ahmad Tejan Kabbah wa SLPP, pamanyuma pa mavoti agho ghakacitika kuuyambiro wa chaka cha 1996 agho Kabbah wakathereska. Pulezidenti Kabbah wakatora mazaza na cilato cakuti wamalizge nkhondo ya pa cikaya. Wakati wapokera mazaza, Pulezidenti Kabbah mwaluŵiro wakamba kudumbiskana na RUF ndipo wakacemera mulongozgi wawo Foday Sankoh kuti wazakadumbiskane za mtende.<ref name="University"/> Pa 25 Meyi 1997, ŵasilikari 17 mu gulu la ŵasilikari ŵa Sierra Leone awo ŵakalongozgekanga na Corporal Tamba Gborie, ŵakugomezgeka kwa Major Johnny Paul Koroma uyo wakaŵa mu jele, ŵakambiska boma la nkhondo ilo likatuma Pulezidenti Kabbah ku ukapolo ku Guinea ndipo ŵakambiska wupu wa Armed Forces Revolutionary Council (AFRC). Kaboni Gborie wakaluta mwaluŵiro ku ofesi yikuru ya Sierra Leone Broadcasting Services ku New England, Freetown, kuti wakapharazge vya boma ilo likapoka mazaza na kucenjezga ŵasilikari wose ŵa mu caru kuti ŵize kuzakavikilira. Mwaluŵiro ŵasilikari ŵakamufumiska Koroma mu jere na kumwimika kuŵa pulezidenti wawo na mulongozgi wa boma. Koroma wakayimiska dango la chalo, wakakanizga viwoneskero, wakajarapo mawayilesi ghose gha palekha mu chalo ichi ndipo wakacemera RUF kuti wanjire mu boma liphya la junta, na mulongozgi wake Foday Sankoh kuŵa Vice-Chairman wa boma liphya la AFRC-RUF. Pakati pajumpha mazuŵa ghachoko waka, ŵasilikari ŵanandi ŵa RUF ŵakiza mu msumba wa Freetown. Gulu la ŵasilikari awo ŵakakhalanga mu vigaŵa vya kumwera kwa Sierra Leone, awo ŵakalongozgekanga na Samuel Hinga Norman, ŵakalutilira kugomezgeka kwa Pulezidenti Kabbah. Pakati pajumpha myezi yinkhondi na umoza, ŵasilikari awo ŵakalongozgekanga na boma la Nigeria ŵakawuskapo boma ili. Pa 19 Okutobala 1998, ŵasilikari ŵa Sierra Leone 24 (mwakusazgapo Gborie, Brigadier Hassan Karim Conteh, Colonel Samuel Francis Koroma, Major Kula Samba na Colonel Abdul Karim Sesay) ŵakakomeka na gulu la ŵasilikari ŵa boma ku Freetown. Mu Okutobala 1999, wupu wa United Nations ukazomera kutuma ŵasilikari kuti ŵakhazikiske mtende na kufumiska vilwero ku ŵakugaluka. Gulu lakwamba la ŵasilikari 6,000 likamba kwiza mu Disembala, ndipo mu Febuluwale 2000, wupu wa UN Security Council ukazomerezga kusazgirako ŵasilikari aŵa kufika pa 11,000. Kweni mu Meyi, apo pafupifupi ŵasilikari wose ŵa ku Nigeria ŵakafumako ndipo ŵasilikari ŵa UN ŵakayezga kuti ŵaleke kuvikilira RUF ku mafumiro gha dazi kwa Sierra Leone, ŵasilikari ŵa Sankoh ŵakakumana na ŵasilikari ŵa UN, ndipo ŵasilikari 500 ŵakakoleka nga mbanthu awo ŵakakanizgika. Nkhondo iyi yikapangiska kuti paŵe nkhondo zinandi pakati pa RUF na boma apo ŵasilikari ŵa UN ŵakambiska ntchito ya Khukri kuti ŵamalizge nkhondo iyi. Ntchito iyi yikaŵa yakukondweska comene, ndipo ŵasilikari ŵa ku India na Britain ndiwo ŵakalongozganga. Vinthu vikafika paheni comene mu caru ici mwakuti ŵasilikari ŵa ku Britain ŵakatumika kuti ŵafumiske ŵanthu ŵa ku vyaru vinyake. Kweni ŵasilikari ŵa ku Britain ŵakaleka mulimo wawo ndipo ŵakamba nkhondo kuti ŵathereske ŵakugaluka. Ŵanalume ŵa ku Britain ndiwo ŵakapangiska kuti nkhondo yimare. Ŵasilikari ŵa boma la Britain, pamoza na ŵalara ŵa boma na ŵandyali, ŵakakhalapo kuti ŵasambizge ŵasilikari, kunozga vinthu vya mu caru, na kupeleka wovwiri wa ndalama na vinthu vinyake. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Sierra Leone ŵakuwona kuti Tony Blair, uyo wakaŵa nduna yikuru ya Britain pa nyengo iyo ŵasilikari ŵa Britain ŵakanjilirapo, ni munthu wankhongono. Kufuma mu 1991 m'paka mu 2001, ŵanthu pafupifupi 50,000 ŵakafwa pa nkhondo ya pawenenawene ku Sierra Leone. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakachimbizgika mu nyumba zawo ndipo ŵanandi ŵakachimbilira ku Guinea na Liberia. Mu 2001, ŵasilikari ŵa UN ŵakanjira mu vigaŵa ivyo ŵakugaluka ŵakakhalanga na kwamba kuwuskamo vilwero vya ŵasilikari aŵa. Mu Janyuwale 2002, nkhondo yikamara. Mu Meyi 2002, Kabbah wakasankhikaso kuŵa pulezidenti. Mu 2004, mulimo wa kufumiska vilwero ukaŵa kuti wamara. Kweniso mu 2004, khoti lakuvikilirika na wupu wa UN likamba kweruzga ŵalongozgi ŵa vigaŵa vyose viŵiri vya nkhondo. Mu Disembala 2005, ŵasilikari ŵa UN ŵakafumamo mu Sierra Leone. === Chisankho cha 2007 ndi kubwereranso kwa APC === Mu Ogasiti 2007, ku Sierra Leone kukachitika chisankho cha pulezidenti na chaparamendi. Ndipouli, palije uyo wakatora mazaza gha 50% pamoza na kura yimoza iyo yikaŵa mu dango la boma. Chisankho chachiwiri chinachitika mu Seputembala 2007, ndipo Ernest Bai Koroma, woyimira chipani chachikulu chotsutsa cha APC, adasankhidwa kukhala purezidenti. Koroma wakasankhika kuŵa purezidenti kachiŵiri mu Novembala 2012. === Kulimbana na nthenda ya Ebola (2014~2016) === Mu 2014, ku Sierra Leone kukabuka nthenda ya Ebola iyo yikatimbanizga vinthu mu charu chose. Kuumaliro wa 2014, ku Sierra Leone kukafwa ŵanthu pafupifupi 3,000 ndipo ŵanthu 10,000 ŵakaŵa na nthenda iyi. Kweniso nthenda iyi yikapangiska kuti mu Seputembala 2014, ŵanthu ŵaŵikike mu charu chose kwa mazuŵa ghatatu. Nthenda iyi yikamba chifukwa cha Ebola iyo yikathandazgika chomene ku West Africa. Mu Ogasiti 2014, charu cha Sierra Leone chikaleka kuseŵera maseŵera gha mpira chifukwa cha Ebola. Pa Malichi 16, 2016, wupu wa vyaumoyo pa charu chose (WHO) ukati Sierra Leone njambura Ebola.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.auswaertiges-amt.de/de/aussenpolitik/laender/sierraleone-node/sierraleonesicherheit/203500#content_6|title=Auswärtiges Amt – Sierra Leone: Reise- und Sicherheitshinweise|last=Amt|first=Auswärtiges|work=Auswärtiges Amt DE|access-date=16 March 2018|language=de}}</ref><ref name="internationalsos.com">[https://www.internationalsos.com/ebola/index.cfm?content_id=397&language_id=ENG Sierra Leone]. Internationalsos.com. Retrieved 24 February 2017.</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Sierra Leone launches three-day, door-to-door Ebola prevention campaign|url=http://www.unicef.org/media/media_75963.html|publisher=UNICEF|access-date=24 September 2014|archive-date=7 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200907112713/https://www.unicef.org/media/media_75963.html|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="internationalsos.com" /> ===14 August 2017 mudslides=== {{main|2017 Sierra Leone mudslides}} Pa August 14, 2017, mu msumba wa Freetown na kufupi na msumba uwu mukachitika chivundungwele. ===2018 General election=== {{main|2018 Sierra Leonean general election}} Mu 2018, ku Sierra Leone kukaŵa maungano gha chigaŵa. Pa maungano gha ku malo gha boma, palije uyo wakafika pa 55%, ndipo maungano ghaciŵiri ghakacitika.<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=2018-03-15|title=7 March 2018 Election in Sierra Leone by numbers|url=http://necsl2018.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/03/Election-Figures_1403.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180315070525/http://necsl2018.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/03/Election-Figures_1403.pdf|archive-date=15 March 2018|access-date=2021-02-08}}</ref> == Makhalilo gha charu == {{Main|Geography of Sierra Leone}} [[File:UNsierraleone.PNG|thumb|upright=1.5|A map of Sierra Leone]] [[File:Koppen-Geiger Map SLE present.svg|thumb|Sierra Leone map of Köppen climate classification]] Charu cha Sierra Leone chili kumwera cha kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Africa. Charu ichi chili na mphaka na Guinea kumpoto na kumafumiro gha dazi, Liberia kumwera kwa kumafumiro gha dazi, na Atlantic Ocean kumanjiliro gha dazi na kumwera kwa kumanjiliro gha dazi. Sierra Leone yili na malo ghakukwana 71,740 km2 (27,699 sq mi), ndipo yili kugaŵika mu malo ghakukwana 71,620 km2 (27,653 sq mi) na maji ghakukwana 120 km2 (46 sq mi). Charu ichi chili na vigaŵa vinayi. Ku chigaŵa cha kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Sierra Leone, phiri ili lili na mapiri ghatali, ndipo Phiri la Bintumani lili na m'paka mamita 1,948. Chigaŵa chakunena cha mlonga wa Moa chili kumwera kwa chigaŵa ichi. Pakati pa charu ichi pali malo gha chipalamba agho ghali na makuni, vivwati, na malo ghakurya. Chigaŵa chakumpoto cha charu ichi chili kugawika na wupu wa World Wildlife Fund kuŵa chigaŵa cha nkhorongo ya ku Guinea, apo chigaŵa chakumwera chili na makuni ghakututuŵa na minda. Kumanjiliro gha dazi, Sierra Leone yili na mtunda wa makilomita pafupifupi 400 kufuma ku Atlantic Coastline, ndipo yili na vinthu vinandi vya mu nyanja. Ku mumphepete mwa nyanja kuli vyakumera vya mangrove. Msumba ukuru wa Freetown uli mumphepete mwa nyanja pafupi na dowoko la Sierra Leone. Nyengo ya mu charu ichi njakotcha, ndipo nyengo ziŵiri zikupangiska kuti kulimilirenge: nyengo ya vula kufuma mu Meyi m'paka Novembala, kweniso nyengo ya chihanya kufuma mu Disembala m'paka Meyi, apo mphepo yakuzizima yikuputa kufuma ku mapopa gha Sahara. Pa avereji, mu charu muli kutentha kwapakati pa 26 °C na 36 °C.<ref>{{Cite book |last =Blinker |first =Linda |date =September 2006 |title =Country Environment Profile (CEP) Sierra Leone |publisher =Consortium Parsons Brinckerhoff |location =Freetown, Sierra Leone |url =http://www.sliip.org/index.php?option=com_docman&task=doc_download&gid=46 |archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20130927112254/http://www.sliip.org/index.php?option=com_docman&task=doc_download&gid=46 |url-status =dead |archive-date =27 September 2013 |page =12 |access-date =2 July 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last =LeVert |first =Suzanne |title =Cultures of the World: Sierra Leone |pages =[https://archive.org/details/sierraleone0000leve/page/8 8–9] |publisher =Marshall Cavendish |isbn =978-0-7614-2334-8 |year =2006 |url =https://archive.org/details/sierraleone0000leve/page/8 }}</ref> === Biodiversity === {{See also|Wildlife of Sierra Leone}} Ku Sierra Leone kuli vyaru vinayi: nkhorongo za ku Guinea, nkhorongo za ku Western Guinea, nkhorongo za ku Guinea, na makuni gha mangrove. Vinthu ivyo ŵanthu ŵakuyowoya kuti ndivyo vikupangiska kuti charu cha Sierra Leone chiheni chomene panji kuti vikupangiska kuti charu chiheni chomene, ni vyakurya vyambura kukhazikika, kusamalira makora yayi dongo na maji, kudumulizga makuni, kusisita vyakumera, kurya nkhuni, kweniso kulimilira chomene viŵeto na kuzenga misumba. Kutowa kwa makuni, cifukwa ca makuni gha malonda ndiposo cifukwa ca vyakurya, ni suzgo likuru comene ndipo kukupangiska kuti caru ciŵe na uheni ukuru. Kuzenga migodi, kudumura na kotcha malo kuti ghazgoke malo ghakuliskako viŵeto, kwapangiska kuti makuni ghachepe chomene mu Sierra Leone kwambira m'ma 1980. Charu ichi chili na nkhorongo zinandi chifukwa cha kuchepa kwa makuni. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakopa kuti makuni ghanandi ghachali kukomeka mu malo ghakuchemeka Tama-Tonkoli Forest Reserve kumpoto. Awo ŵakuguliska makuni ŵasazgirako ntchito yawo ku Nimini, District ya Kono, Eastern Province; Jui, Western Rural District, Western Area; Loma Mountains National Park, Koinadougu, Northern Province; ndipo ŵali na mapulani ghakwamba kugwira ntchito mu Kambui Forest reserve mu Kenema District, Eastern Province. Charu ichi chili na chiŵerengero cha 2.76/10 pa charu chose pa vyaru 172. Mu Sierra Leone, ŵanthu ŵakuloŵa comene somba. Ntcheŵe yakucemeka Lycaon pictus ya ku Africa yikanangika comene mwakuti yikuwoneka kuti yili kumara mu Sierra Leone. M'paka mu 2002, Sierra Leone yikaŵavya ndondomeko yakwendeskera nkhorongo chifukwa cha nkhondo ya pawenenawene iyo yikakoma ŵanthu ŵanandi. Kufuma waka apo nkhondo ya pawenenawene yikamalira, makuni agho ghakuparanyika ghasazgikira na 7.3%. Mu 2003, mu Sierra Leone mukaŵa malo ghakuvikilirika 55. Mu caru ici muli vyakumera vinandi, vinyama 147, viyuni 626, vinyama vyakukhwaŵa 67, vinyama vyakukhala pasi na pasi 35, na somba 99. Wupu wa Environmental Justice Foundation ukulongora kuti mu vyaka vyasonosono apa, unandi wa maboti agho ghakuloŵa mwambura kuzomerezgeka mu maji gha ku Sierra Leone wawonjezeka comene. Ŵalwani ŵa visomba ŵamba kukora visomba vinandi chomene. Vinthu vyafika paheni comene cifukwa cakuti somba ndizo zikovwira ŵanthu ŵanandi mu caru ici kusanga ndalama. Mu Juni 2005, wupu wa Royal Society for the Protection of Birds (RSPB) na BirdLife International ŵakakolerana kuti ŵawovwirepo pa ntchito ya kunozga nkhorongo ya Gola Forest ku Sierra Leone.<ref>[[BBC News]], [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7136606.stm ''Sierra Leone sets up forest park''], 10 December 2007 </ref><ref>{{cite web |publisher=Environmental Justice Foundation |url=http://www.ejfoundation.org/page370.html |title=Sierra Leone |date=17 September 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081010165129/http://www.ejfoundation.org/page370.html |archive-date=10 October 2008}}</ref><ref name="rainforests.mongabay.com">Butler, Rhett (2005). [http://rainforests.mongabay.com/20sierraleone.htm ''Sierra Leone: Environmental Profile''], mongabay.com</ref> == Boma na ndale == {{Main|Politics of Sierra Leone}} {{multiple image |width=230 |perrow=1/1 |image1= |caption1=[[Julius Maada Wonie Bio]], current president of Sierra Leone (12 May 2018 - present) |image2= |caption2=Official seal of the President of the Republic of Sierra Leone }} Sierra Leone ni charu icho chili na boma ilo likusankhika na ŵanthu. Ndondomeko ya boma ya Sierra Leone yikukolerana na Dango la Sierra Leone la 1991. Sierra Leone yili na boma likuru ilo likulamulira ndipo boma lakunjilirapo ndambura nkhongono. Boma la Sierra Leone, ilo likulongozgeka na pulezidenti, lili na mazaza ghanandi. Pulezidenti ni munthu wankhongono comene mu Sierra Leone. Kuyana na Dango la mu 1991, boma la Britain ndilo lili na mazaza ghakulongozga vinthu. Boma likuru comene lili na pulezidenti na mamembara gha boma lake, kweniso ŵeruzgi. Pulezidenti ni mulara wa boma, mulara wa boma, ndiposo mulongozgi wa ŵasilikari ŵa Sierra Leone. Pulezidenti wakusora na kulongozga nduna izo zikwenera kuzomerezgeka na Nyumba ya Malango. Pulezidenti wakusankhika na ŵanthu wose kuti waŵepo nyengo ziŵiri. Pulezidenti ndiyo wali na mazaza ghakuru chomene mu boma la Sierra Leone. Kuti munthu wasankhike kuŵa pulezidenti wa Sierra Leone, wakwenera kusanga mavoti pafupifupi 55 peresenti. Usange palije uyo wapokera 55%, paŵenge chigaŵa chachiŵiri pakati pa ŵalongozgi ŵaŵiri. Pulezidenti wa sono wa Sierra Leone ni Julius Maada Bio, uyo wakaŵa mulongozgi wa gulu la ŵasilikari. Bio wakathereska Samura Kamara wa chipani cha All People's Congress (APC) mu chisankho cha purezidenti cha 2018. Bio wakasintha pulezidenti Ernest Bai Koroma pamanyuma pakuti Bio wakalapizga pa 4 April 2018 na Chief Justice Abdulai Cham. Bio ni mulongozgi wa chipani cha Sierra Leone People's Party, chipani icho chili na mazaza mu Sierra Leone. Pamanyuma pa pulezidenti pakuŵa wachiŵiri kwa pulezidenti, uyo ni mulara waciŵiri mu boma la Sierra Leone. Nga umo Dango la Sierra Leone likulongolera, wachiŵiri wa pulezidenti ndiyo wakuŵa pulezidenti wa Sierra Leone para pulezidenti wafwa, wafumapo, panji wafumiskika.<ref name=":1">{{Cite news|url=https://edition.cnn.com/2018/04/04/africa/sierra-leone-presidential-election-intl/index.html|title=Sierra Leone declares former junta head president|first=Bukola |last=Adebayo|work=CNN|access-date=5 April 2018}}</ref> === Parliament === Nyumba ya Malamulo ya Sierra Leone njimoza pera, ndipo yili na mipando 146. Chigaŵa chilichose mwa vigaŵa 14 vya charu ichi chili na ŵimiliri mu nyumba ya malango. Nyumba ya malango ya Sierra Leone yikulongozgeka na Mulara wa Nyumba ya Malamulo, uyo ni mulongozgi wa Nyumba ya Malamulo ndipo wakusankhika na ŵanthu awo ŵalipo. Mulara wa sono wa nyumba ya malango ya Sierra Leone ni Abass Bundu, uyo wakasankhika na mamembala gha nyumba ya malango pa 21 January 2014. Ŵabali awo ŵalipo sono mu Nyumba ya Malamulo ya Sierra Leone ŵakasankhika pa mavoti gha mu 2012. Pasono chipani cha APC chili na vithuzithuzi 68 pa vithuzithuzi 132 ivyo vili mu nyumba ya malango ndipo chipani cha Sierra Leone People's Party (SLPP) chili na vithuzithuzi 49 pa vithuzithuzi 132. Maphwando awiri opambana kwambiri ku Sierra Leone, APC ndi SLPP, pamodzi adagonjetsa mipando yonse yosankhidwa ku Nyumba Yamalamulo mu chisankho cha nyumba yamalamulo ku Sierra Leone cha 2012. Kuti munthu waŵe mu Nyumba ya Malamulo, wakwenera kuŵa mwenekaya wa Sierra Leone, wakwenera kuŵa na vyaka vyakujumpha 21, wakwenera kuyowoya, kuŵazga na kulemba Cingelezi mwakuti waŵe na mwaŵi wakucitako milimo ya mu Nyumba ya Malamulo; ndipo wakwenera kuŵa na mulandu yayi. Kufuma apo Sierra Leone yikapokera wanangwa mu 1961, vyaru ivi vili na vipani vikuruvikuru viŵiri: SLPP na APC. Pakaŵaso magulu ghacoko waka agho ghakaŵavya ŵanthu ŵanandi.<ref>{{cite news |title=Sierra Leone National Election Commission Bulletin |date=September–December 2011 |url=http://www.nec-sierraleone.org/Bulletin.html |access-date=25 February 2012 }}</ref> === Judiciary === {{main|Judiciary of Sierra Leone}} [[File: Freetown Court 1984.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|The Sierra Leone [[Supreme Court of Sierra Leone|Supreme Court]] in the capital [[Freetown]], the highest and most powerful court in the country]] Boma la Sierra Leone lili na ŵeruzgi awo ŵakulongozgeka na Chief Justice of Sierra Leone. Makhoti ghanyake ni Khoti Likuru la Vyamalango, Khoti la Apilu, makhoti gha ŵeruzgi, na makhoti gha ku mizi. Pulezidenti wakusora na kuzomerezga ŵeruzgi ŵa makhoti ghose ghatatu. Ŵeruzgi ŵali na mazaza pa milandu yose ya ŵanthu wose ndiposo ya milandu ya milandu mu caru cose. Mulara wa milandu wa sono wa Sierra Leone ni Desmond Babatunde Edwards === Foreign relations === {{Main|Foreign relations of Sierra Leone}} Unduna wa Vyalo vya ku Sierra Leone na Wupu Wakovwira Ŵanthu ŵa ku vyaru Vinyake ndiwo ukuwona vya ndyali za ku Sierra Leone. Charu cha Sierra Leone chili paubwezi na vyaru nga ni China, Russia, Libya, Iran, na Cuba. Sierra Leone wali na ubwezi uwemi na vyaru vya ku Western Europe, na United States. Kufuma waka apo boma la United Kingdom likakanira nkhondo ya pawenenawene mu 2000, likawovwira chomene charu ichi. Boma la pulezidenti wakale Siaka Stevens likakhumbanga kukolerana na vyaru vinyake vya kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Africa mu wupu wa Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS). Sierra Leone, pamoza na Liberia, Ivory Coast na Guinea, ni vyaru ivyo vikukolerana na vyaru vinyake. Ntchito yake yikuru njakuti yikhazikiske mapulojekiti ghakovwira kuti vinthu vyende makora mu vyaru vinayi ivi. Sierra Leone nayo njumoza wa wupu wa United Nations na wupu unyake, African Union, African Development Bank (AFDB), Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC), na Non-Aligned Movement (NAM). Sierra Leone njumoza wa ŵeruzgi ŵa International Criminal Court awo ŵali kukolerana kuti ŵasilikari ŵa United States ŵavikilirikenge (kulingana na ndime 98).<ref name=foreign>{{cite encyclopedia |year =2007 |title =Ministry of Foreign Affairs and International Relations |encyclopedia =Sierra Leone Encyclopedia |url =http://www.daco-sl.org/encyclopedia/1_gov/1_2mfa.htm |archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20090223182542/http://www.daco-sl.org/encyclopedia/1_gov/1_2mfa.htm |archive-date =23 February 2009 |access-date =7 October 2008 |url-status =dead |df =dmy-all }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date =October 2008 |title =Background Note: Sierra Leone |publisher=U.S. Department of State |url =https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5475.htm |access-date =7 October 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |year =2006 |title =Welcome to the Mano River Union Website |publisher =Mano River Union |url =http://www.manoriverunion.org/ |access-date =7 October 2008 |archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20080706124624/http://www.manoriverunion.org/ |archive-date =6 July 2008 |url-status =dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Ambassade de la Fédération de Russie en République de Guinée|title=Russia and Sierra Leone diplomatic relations|url=http://guinea.mid.ru/web/guinee-fr/actualites-de-l-ambassade/-/asset_publisher/u42vl5IwZdlL/content/55th-anniversary-of-diplomatic-relations-between-russia-and-sierra-leone?inheritRedirect=false&redirect=http%3A%2F%2Fguinea.mid.ru%2Fweb%2Fguinee-fr%2Factualites-de-l-ambassade%3Fp_p_id%3D101_INSTANCE_u42vl5IwZdlL%26p_p_lifecycle%3D0%26p_p_state%3Dnormal%26p_p_mode%3Dview%26p_p_col_id%3Dcolumn-1%26p_p_col_count%3D1|website=mid.ru|access-date=2 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170816063823/https://guinea.mid.ru/web/guinee-fr/actualites-de-l-ambassade/-/asset_publisher/u42vl5IwZdlL/content/55th-anniversary-of-diplomatic-relations-between-russia-and-sierra-leone?inheritRedirect=false&redirect=http%3A%2F%2Fguinea.mid.ru%2Fweb%2Fguinee-fr%2Factualites-de-l-ambassade%3Fp_p_id%3D101_INSTANCE_u42vl5IwZdlL%26p_p_lifecycle%3D0%26p_p_state%3Dnormal%26p_p_mode%3Dview%26p_p_col_id%3Dcolumn-1%26p_p_col_count%3D1|archive-date=16 August 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref> === Military === {{Main|Military of Sierra Leone}} Gulu la ŵasilikari la Sierra Leone, ilo likucemeka Republic of Sierra Leone Armed Forces (RSLAF), ni gulu la ŵasilikari la Sierra Leone ilo likuvikilira vigaŵa vya Sierra Leone na kuvikilira vyandulo vya Sierra Leone. Gulu la ŵasilikari ili likapangika pamanyuma pa kujithemba mu 1961, kufuma ku British Royal West African Frontier Force. Gulu la ŵasilikari la Sierra Leone lili na ŵanthu pafupifupi 15,500, ndipo lili na ŵasilikari ŵanandi chomene ŵa Sierra Leone. Pulezidenti wa Sierra Leone ndiyo ni mulara wa ŵasilikari, ndipo nduna ya vya kuvikilira ndiyo yikulaŵilira vya kuvikilira caru na kupanga ŵasilikari. Nduna ya vya kuvikilira ya Sierra Leone ni Major Alfred Paolo Conteh. Gulu la ŵasilikari la Sierra Leone lili na Chief of the Defence Staff, uyo ni mulara wa ŵasilikari uyo wakuŵa na udindo wa kwendeska na kwendeska ŵasilikari ŵa Sierra Leone. Brigadier General Alfred Nelson-Williams uyo wakasankhika na President Koroma wakasintha Major General Edward Sam M'boma pa 12 September 2008 pakuŵa Chief of Defence Staff wa Army. Apo Sierra Leone yikapokera wanangwa mu 1961, ŵasilikari ŵa Royal Sierra Leone Military Force ŵakapangika kufuma ku Sierra Leone Battalion of the West African Frontier Force. Mu 1968, ŵasilikari ŵakamba kuwusa, ndipo ŵakaŵika wupu wa National Reformation Council. Pa 19 Epulero 1971, apo Sierra Leone yikazgoka charu, Royal Sierra Leone Military Forces yikasintha zina kuŵa Republic of Sierra Leone Military Force (RSLMF).<ref name="Kaplan">[https://books.google.com/books?id=tv9yAAAAMAAJ&dq=Royal+Sierra+Leone+Military+Force&pg=PA337 ''Area Handbook for Sierra Leone''], Irving Kaplan, U.S. Government Printing Office, 1976, page 337</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.daco-sl.org/encyclopedia/1_gov/1_6rslaf.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100111070308/http://www.daco-sl.org/encyclopedia/1_gov/1_6rslaf.htm |archive-date=11 January 2010 |title=Partners: Sierra Leone Armed Forces |publisher=Daco-sl.org |access-date=20 May 2012 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Wupu wa RSLMF ukalutilira kuŵa na gulu limoza m'paka mu 1979, apo boma la Sierra Leone likakhazikiska mawumba gha ŵasilikari ŵa nkhondo. Mu 1995, likuru la ŵasilikari likakhazikiskika, ndipo gulu la ŵasilikari la Sierra Leone Air Wing likapangika. Gulu la RSLMF likasinthika zina kuŵa Armed Forces of the Republic of Sierra Leone (AFRSL). === Law enforcement === Boma la Sierra Leone likulongozgeka na ŵapolisi awo ŵakwimikika na pulezidenti. Ŵapolisi ŵa ku Sierra Leone ŵakakhazikiskika na Britain mu 1894. Likovwira kugega vigeŵenga, kuvikilira umoyo wa ŵanthu na katundu wawo, kusanga na kweruzga ŵakuswa malango, kukhazikiska bata na mtende, kuvikilira umoyo na chivikiliro, kweniso kovwira ŵanthu kuti ŵeruzgike makora. Wapolisi wa ku Sierra Leone ni Inspector General of Police, uyo ni mulongozgi wa ŵapolisi ŵa ku Sierra Leone. Chigaŵa chilichose cha vigaŵa 14 vya Sierra Leone chili na mulara wa ŵapolisi uyo ni mulara wa chigaŵa. Ŵapolisi aŵa ŵakuteŵetera ku ofesi ya ŵapolisi ya ku Freetown. Mulaŵiliri wa ŵapolisi sono ni Brima Acha Kamara, uyo wakasankhika na pulezidenti wakale Ahmad Tejan Kabbah. === Wanangwa wa '''ŵa'''nthu === {{Main|Human rights in Sierra Leone}} Male [[LGBT rights in Sierra Leone|same-sex sexual activity]] is illegal under Section 61 of the [[Offences against the Person Act 1861]], and imprisonment for life is possible.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://old.ilga.org/Statehomophobia/ILGA_State_Sponsored_Homophobia_2012.pdf| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120611181908/http://old.ilga.org/Statehomophobia/ILGA_State_Sponsored_Homophobia_2012.pdf |archive-date=11 June 2012 |title=State Sponsored Homophobia: A world survey of laws criminalising same-sex sexual acts between consenting adults |publisher=The International Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Trans and Intersex Association |editor= Lucas Paoli Itaborahy |date=May 2012 |page=35}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |first=Daniel |last=Avery |title=71 Countries Where Homosexuality is Illegal |url=https://www.newsweek.com/73-countries-where-its-illegal-be-gay-1385974 |work=Newsweek |date=4 April 2019}}</ref> Ŵapolisi ŵakusuzga comene ŵanthu. Ŵalwani ŵakomeka na ŵasilikari, kweniso ŵanthu awo ŵakachitanga vivulupi mu jele (mu jele la Pademba Road, ŵakayidi 30 na msilikari yumoza ŵakafwa). Pa nyengo ya COVID-19, ŵapolisi ŵakawukira ŵanthu awo ŵakakhumbanga kusanga vinthu vyakukhumbikwa.<ref>{{cite web|title=SIERRA LEONE 2020|url=https://www.amnesty.org/en/location/africa/west-and-central-africa/sierra-leone/report-sierra-leone/|website=Amnesty International|access-date=28 January 2022}}</ref> === Administrative divisions === {{Main|Administrative divisions of Sierra Leone}} [[File:Districts in Sierra Leone 2018.svg|thumb|upright=1.6|The 14 districts and 2 areas of Sierra Leone]] Chigaŵa cha Sierra Leone chili na vigaŵa vinkhondi: chigaŵa cha kumpoto, chigaŵa cha kumpoto cha kumanjiliro gha dazi, chigaŵa cha kumwera, chigaŵa cha kumafumiro gha dazi, na chigaŵa cha kumanjiliro gha dazi. Vigaŵa vinayi vili kugaŵika vigaŵa 14. Vigaŵa vya vigaŵa ivi vili kugaŵika mu vigaŵa 186, ivyo kanandi vikulongozgeka na ŵalongozgi ŵakuchindikika, awo boma la Britain likaŵamanya mu 1896. Ŵalongozgi aŵa ŵali na mazaza comene, comenecomene mu mizi na matawuni ghacoko. Ŵalongozgi ŵa mafuko wose ŵakaŵa na mafuko agho ghakamanyikwanga pa nyengo iyo. Kanandi ŵalongozgi ndiwo "ŵakupeleka misonkho, ŵeruzgi, na kugaŵa malo, agho ngakukhumbikwa chomene ku mizi". Mu vigaŵa vya boma, vigaŵa vikulamulirika nga ni malo. Chigaŵa chilichose chili na wupu wa chigaŵa uwo ukusankhika mwakudunjika.<ref name="Renner-Thomas 2010 6–7">{{Cite book |last =Renner-Thomas |first = Ade |title = Land Tenure in Sierra Leone: The Law, Dualism and the Making of a Land Policy |publisher =AuthorHouse |year =2010 |pages = 6–7 |url =https://books.google.com/books?id=RiIpW6vWVPoC&pg=PA5|isbn=978-1-4490-5866-1|access-date=17 June 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title = ActionAid launches Perception survey as new local councils struggle to survive |publisher = ActionAid |url = http://www.actionaid.org/tanzania/index.aspx?PageID=3925 |access-date = 26 February 2011 |archive-date = 25 September 2022 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20220925152420/http://www.actionaid.org/tanzania/index.aspx?PageID=3925 |url-status = dead }}</ref> Pafupifupi, pali maboma 19: maboma 13 gha vigaŵa, limoza pa vigaŵa 12 na limoza pa vigaŵa vya kumanjiliro gha dazi. Mu matawuni agha muli Freetown, ilo ni boma la Western Area Urban District, kweniso Bo, Bonthe, Kenema, Koidu, na Makeni.<ref name="Renner-Thomas 2010 6–7"/><ref>{{cite web|title=Sierra Leone|url=http://www.clgf.org.uk/regions/clgf-west-africa/sierra-leone/|website=Commonwealth Local Government Forum|access-date=12 January 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Sierra Leone Human Development Report 2007 – Empowering Local Government for Sustainable Development and Poverty Reduction – The District Focus Approach to Development |url=http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/sierraleone_nhdr_20071.pdf|website=[[United Nations Development Programme]]|access-date=12 January 2018}}</ref> Nangauli makonsili gha vigaŵa ghakulongozgeka na maboma gha vigaŵa, kweni maboma agha ghakwendeskeka na Unduna wa Vyaru na Wupu Wakulongozga. {|class="wikitable" style="float:left;" !District!!Capital|!!Area (km²)||Province||Population<br /> (2004 census)<ref name=SSL>{{cite web |title =Final Results 2004 population and housing census |publisher=Statistics Sierra Leone |url=http://www.sierra-leone.org/Census/ssl_final_results.pdf|page=3|access-date=17 June 2014}}</ref><!--These are the official figures please do not change without discussion-->||Population<br /> (2015 census)<ref name=census2015>{{cite web |url=https://www.statistics.sl/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/2015-Census-Provisional-Result.pdf |title=Provisional Results |work=Sierra Leone 2015 Population and Housing Census |date=March 2016 |publisher=Statistics Sierra Leone}}</ref> |- |[[Bombali District]] ||[[Makeni]]||align="right"|7,985||rowspan="5"|[[Northern Province, Sierra Leone|Northern<br /> Province]]||align="right"|408,390||align="right"|606,183<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.world-gazetteer.com/wg.php?x=&men=gpro&lng=en&des=wg&srt=npan&col=adhoq&msz=1500&geo=-6636 |title=Bombali – profile of geographical entity including name variants |publisher=World Gazetteer |access-date=20 May 2012 }}{{dead link|date=July 2021|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref> |- ||[[Koinadugu District]] ||[[Kabala, Sierra Leone|Kabala]]||align="right"|12,121||align="right"|265,758||align="right"|408,097<ref name="Port Loko">{{cite web|url=http://www.world-gazetteer.com/wg.php?x=&men=gpro&lng=en&des=wg&srt=npan&col=adhoq&msz=1500&geo=-6644 |title=Port Loko |publisher=World-gazetteer.com |access-date=20 May 2012 }}{{dead link|date=July 2021|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref> |- |[[Port Loko District]] ||[[Port Loko]]||align="right"|5,719||align="right"|453,746||align="right"|614,063<ref name="Port Loko"/> |- |[[Tonkolili District]] ||[[Magburaka]]||align="right"|7,003||align="right"|347,197||align="right"|530,776<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.world-gazetteer.com/wg.php?x=&men=gpro&lng=en&des=wg&srt=npan&col=adhoq&msz=1500&geo=-6647 |title=Tonkolili – profile of geographical entity including name variants |publisher=World Gazetteer |access-date=20 May 2012 }}{{dead link|date=July 2021|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref> |- |[[Kambia District]] ||[[Kambia, Sierra Leone|Kambia]]||align="right"|3,108||align="right"|270,462||align="right"|343,686<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.world-gazetteer.com/wg.php?x=&men=gpro&lng=en&des=wg&srt=npan&col=adhoq&msz=1500&geo=-6639 |title=Kambia – profile of geographical entity including name variants |publisher=World Gazetteer |access-date=20 May 2012 }}{{dead link|date=July 2021|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref> |- |[[Kenema District]] ||[[Kenema]]||align="right"|6,053||rowspan="3"|[[Eastern Province, Sierra Leone|Eastern<br /> Province]]||align="right"|497,948||align="right"|609,873<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.world-gazetteer.com/wg.php?x=&men=gpro&lng=en&des=wg&srt=npan&col=adhoq&msz=1500&geo=-6640 |title=Kenema – profile of geographical entity including name variants |publisher=World Gazetteer |access-date=20 May 2012 }}{{dead link|date=July 2021|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref> |- |[[Kono District]] ||[[Koidu|Koidu Town]] ||align="right"|5,641||align="right"|335,401||align="right"|505,767<ref name="World Gazetteer">{{cite web|url=http://www.world-gazetteer.com/wg.php?x=&men=gpro&lng=en&des=wg&srt=npan&col=adhoq&msz=1500&geo=-6638 |title=Kailahun – profile of geographical entity including name variants |publisher=World Gazetteer |access-date=20 May 2012 }}{{dead link|date=July 2021|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref> |- |[[Kailahun District]] ||[[Kailahun]] ||align="right"|3,859||align="right"|358,190||align="right"|525,372<ref name="World Gazetteer"/> |- |[[Bo District]] ||[[Bo, Sierra Leone|Bo]] ||align="right"|5,219||rowspan="4"|[[Southern Province, Sierra Leone|Southern<br /> Province]]||align="right"|463,668||align="right"|574,201<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.world-gazetteer.com/wg.php?x=&men=gpro&lng=en&des=wg&srt=npan&col=adhoq&msz=1500&geo=-6635 |title=Bo – profile of geographical entity including name variants |publisher=World Gazetteer |access-date=20 May 2012 }}{{dead link|date=July 2021|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref> |- |[[Bonthe District]] ||[[Mattru Jong]] ||align="right"|3,468||align="right"|139,687||align="right"|200,730<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.world-gazetteer.com/wg.php?x=&men=gpro&lng=en&des=wg&srt=npan&col=adhoq&msz=1500&geo=-6637 |title=Bonthe |publisher=World-gazetteer.com |access-date=20 May 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.is/20121216134834/http://www.world-gazetteer.com/wg.php?x=&men=gpro&lng=en&des=wg&srt=npan&col=adhoq&msz=1500&geo=-6637 |archive-date=16 December 2012 }}</ref> |- |[[Pujehun District]] ||[[Pujehun]] ||align="right"|4,105||align="right"|228,392 ||align="right"|345,577 |- |[[Moyamba District]] ||[[Moyamba]] ||align="right"|6,902||align="right"|260,910 ||align="right"|318,064 |- |[[Western Area Urban District]] ||[[Freetown]] ||align="right"|13||rowspan="2"|[[Western Area|Western<br /> Area]]||align="right"|772,873||align="right"|1,050,301 |- |[[Western Area Rural District]] ||[[Waterloo, Sierra Leone|Waterloo]] ||align="right"|544||align="right"|174,249||align="right"|442,951 |} {{Clear}} == Chuma == {{Main|Economy of Sierra Leone}} [[File:GDP per capita development in Sierra Leone.svg|thumb|right|Historical GDP per capita development]] [[File:Sierra Leone Product Exports (2019).svg|thumb|right|A proportional representation of Sierra Leone exports, 2019]] Kuzakafika m'ma 1990, vinthu vikamba kunangika chomene mu vyaru ivi. Mu vyaka 10 vyakulondezgapo, vinthu vinandi vya mu charu ichi vikamara chifukwa cha nkhondo. Kufuma waka apo nkhondo yikamalira mu Janyuwale 2002, wovwiri ukuru wakufuma ku vyaru vinyake wawovwira kuti Sierra Leone yambe kunozgeka. Kuti vinthu viŵeko makora pa charu, boma likwenera kulimbana na vimbundi. Cinthu cimoza ico cikulongora kuti caru ici cizamuŵa cakukondwa ni umo boma likwendeskera makora vyakupangira dayamondi. Pali ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵambura nchito, comenecomene ŵawukirano na awo kale ŵakaŵa ŵasilikari. Ŵalara ŵa boma ŵakutondeka kufiska makora ndondomeko ya kunozga vinthu mu boma, ndipo ndondomeko ya kupanikizgira vinthu ku boma nayo yikucepa. Ndalama izo ŵakugwiliskira nchito ni leone. Banki yikuru ni Banki ya Sierra Leone. Sierra Leone yili na ndondomeko ya kusintha ndalama, ndipo ndalama za caru cinyake zingasinthika pa banki yiliyose, maofesi gha visulo vya visulo na mu mahotelo ghanandi. Ku Sierra Leone, ŵanthu ŵakugwiliskira ntchito makadi gha ngongoli bweka yayi, nangauli ŵakugwiliskira ntchito mu mahotelo na malo ghanyake ghakurya. Mu Freetown muli mashini ghapachanya agho ghakupokelera makadi gha Visa. === Agriculture === {{Further|Agriculture in Sierra Leone}} [[File:Sierra Leone rice farmer.jpg|thumb|A farmer with his rice harvest in Sierra Leone. Two-thirds of Sierra Leone's population are directly involved in [[subsistence agriculture]].<ref name = "future">{{cite web |title = Settling for a future in Sierra Leone |publisher = New Agriculture |date = November 2007 |url = http://www.new-ag.info/focus/focusItem.php?a=291 |access-date = 20 February 2011 |archive-date = 4 August 2020 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200804200645/http://www.new-ag.info/en/focus/focusItem.php?a=291 |url-status = dead }}</ref>]] Ŵanthu ŵa ku Sierra Leone ŵakukwana vigaŵa viŵiri pa vigaŵa vitatu. Mu 2007, vyakurya vikaŵa 58 peresenti ya GDP. Vyaru ni vyeneivyo vikugwilira nchito ŵanthu ŵanandi comene. Mpunga ndiwo ni vyakurya vyakuzirwa comene mu Sierra Leone, ndipo ŵalimi 85 pa 100 ŵali na mpunga mu nyengo ya vula, ndipo munthu yumoza wakurya makilogiramu 76 pa caka.<ref name="rice facts">{{Cite book |title =Rice today, Volume 3:Rice facts |publisher =International Rice Research|year =2004|page =48 |url =https://books.google.com/books?id=3PZjte6EADYC&q=rice+sierra+leone&pg=PA48}}</ref><ref name = "tour">{{Cite book |last=König|first=Dirk |title =Linking Agriculture to Tourism in Sierra Leone – a Preliminary Research |publisher =GRIN Verlag|year =2008|page =67 |url =https://books.google.com/books?id=ChOkCqPu_QMC&q=agriculture+economy+sierra+leone&pg=PA65|isbn=978-3-638-94680-3}}</ref><ref name = "deep rice">{{Cite book |last=Catling|first=David|title = Rice in deep water|publisher =Int. Rice Res. Inst.|year =1992|page = 372 |url =https://books.google.com/books?id=N5JxwKx1RAgC&q=rice+sierra+leone&pg=PA372|isbn=978-971-22-0005-2}}</ref><ref name="AFEC">{{Cite book |first=OECD – Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development|last= African Development Bank|title =African Economic Outlook 2009: Country Notes: Volumes 1 and 2|publisher=OECD Publishing|year =2009|pages =561–562|isbn=978-92-64-07618-1}}</ref> === Mining === {{Further|Mining in Sierra Leone}} Charu cha Sierra Leone chili na vinthu vinandi vyakuthupi. Charu ichi chili pakati pa vyaru 10 ivyo vikupanga dayamondi zinandi chomene. Vinthu vyakuzirwa comene ivyo vikusangika pa caru capasi ni vyakununkhira. Charu cha Sierra Leone ndicho chikupanga dayamondi zinandi. Nangauli charu ichi chili na dayamondi zinandi, kweni kanandi chikuŵa na suzgo la kupanga na kutumizga dayamondi. Sierra Leone yikumanyikwa cifukwa ca malibwe gha ndopa agho ghakasangika na kuguliskika ku mabungwe gha malibwe gha ndopa mu nyengo ya nkhondo ya pawenenawene. Mu ma 1970, na kukwambilira kwa ma 1980, vinthu vikamba kwenda makora yayi pa charu chifukwa cha kunangika kwa migodi kweniso vimbundi ivyo vikachitikanga na ŵalara ŵa boma.<ref>{{cite news|title=UN targets 'blood diamonds' trade|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3117421.stm|work=[[BBC News]]|access-date=28 April 2011|date=1 August 2003}}</ref> {|class="wikitable infobox" style="margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align:right;" |+ style="font-size: 115%;" |Percentage of GDP by sector (2007)<ref name="AFEC"/> |- ! scope="col" |Rank ! scope="col" |Sector ! scope="col" |Percentage<br /> of GDP |- ! scope="row" |1 |Agriculture |58.5 |- ! scope="row" |2 |Other services |10.4 |- ! scope="row" |3 |Trade and tourism |9.5 |- ! scope="row" |4 |Wholesale and retail trade |9.0 |- ! scope="row" |5 |Mining and quarrying |4.5 |- ! scope="row" |6 |Government Services |4.0 |- ! scope="row" |7 |Manufacturing and handicrafts |2.0 |- ! scope="row" |8 |Construction |1.7 |- ! scope="row" |9 |Electricity and water |0.4 |} Malibwe gha daimondi gha ku Sierra Leone ghakupangika pa chaka pa ndalama zakukwana madola 250 miliyoni na 300 miliyoni. Vinyake mwa ndalama izi ŵakuvipeleka mwakubisilizga, ndipo vingaŵa kuti ŵakugwiliskira nchito pakuguliska ndarama panji kupeleka ndalama. Kufuma waka pa nyengo ya nkhondo ya pawenenawene, vyakurya ivyo vikutolekera ku vyaru vinyake vyasintha comene. Mu Okutobala 2000, wupu wa UN ukazomerezga vyakupimira ma diamondi agho ghakuguliskika ku vyaru vinyake. Mu 2001, boma likapangiska kabungwe kakuwona vya kusambizga ŵanthu vya migodi (DACDF), ako kakuwezgera chigaŵa cha misonkho iyo ŵanthu ŵakupeleka ku migodi. Ndalama iyi yikapangika kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku malo agha ŵagulire malibwe gha dayamondi. Ku Sierra Leone kuli malibwe ghanandi chomene gha rutile, agho ghakugwiliskirika ntchito pa kupanga utoto. === Transport infrastructure === {{Main|Transport in Sierra Leone}} [[File:Kenema-Kailahun Road.jpg|thumb|The road from [[Kenema]] to [[Kailahun District]]]] Ku Sierra Leone kuli nthowa zinandi zakwendeskera vinthu. Mu Sierra Leone muli misewu ya makilomita 11,300 (7,000 miles), ndipo misewu ya makilomita 904 (562 mi) njakukhoma. Misewu yikuruyikuru ya ku Sierra Leone yikukolerana na ya ku Conakry, Guinea, na Monrovia, Liberia. Sierra Leone yili na dowoko likuru chomene pa charu cha Africa, ndipo likovwira ŵanthu kuti ŵende pa dowoko la Queen Elizabeth II Quay mu chigaŵa cha Cline Town, kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Freetown. Mu Sierra Leone muli misewu ya maji ya makilomita 800, ndipo 600 mwa misewu iyi njakwenda chaka chose. Matawuni ghakurughakuru agho ghali na dowoko ni Bonthe, Freetown, Sherbro Island, na Pepel. Ku Sierra Leone kuli ma eyapoti 10 gha chigaŵa na ya charu chose. Ndege ya Freetown International Airport, iyo yili mu tawuni ya Lungi kumpoto kwa Sierra Leone, ndiyo yikwendeskeka na ŵanthu ŵa ku Sierra Leone. Awo ŵakwenda ŵakwambuka mlonga uwu kuluta ku Aberdeen Helicopters mu Freetown na ndege, boti, panji ndege. Kweniso pali ndege zakufumira ku chiŵanja cha ndege kuluta ku misumba yinyake yikuruyikuru ya mu charu ichi. Malo agha ghali na misewu yitali yakujumpha mamita 3,047. Malo ghanyake gha ndege ghali na misewu yambura kujintha, ndipo ghankhondi na ghaŵiri ghali na misewu ya mamita 914 m'paka 1,523 mu utali. Sierra Leone wali pa ndandanda wa vyaru ivyo vikukanizgika kupeleka vyakupharazga ku ndege. Ichi chikung'anamura kuti palije ndege iyo yili kulembeka mu charu cha Sierra Leone iyo yingachita uteŵeti uliwose mu charu cha Europe. Ici nchifukwa cakuti malango ghakwendeskera vinthu ghakwenda makora yayi. Kufumira mu Malichi 2023, chiŵanja chimoza pera cha vyaru vya pasi pose mu charu ichi chikaŵa na ndege zakuluta ku Istanbul, Paris, Brussels na misumba yikuruyikuru ya ku West Africa. Mu Seputembala 2014 kukaŵa vigaŵa vinandi ivyo vikakanizgika kwenda nga ni Kailahun, Kenema, Bombali, Tonkolili, na Port Loko chifukwa cha Ebola.<ref>[http://news.sl/drwebsite/publish/article_200526223.shtml Sierra Leone News : Africell Presents Second Consignment of Food to all Quarantined Homes] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006141855/http://news.sl/drwebsite/publish/article_200526223.shtml|date=6 October 2014}}. News.sl. Retrieved 24 February 2017.</ref> === Energy in Sierra Leone === [[File:Sierra Leone electricity production.svg|thumb|Sierra Leone electricity production by source|300px]] ==== Overview ==== Mu 2016, ŵanthu pafupifupi 12% mu Sierra Leone ŵakaŵa na magesi. Pa ŵanthu 12 aŵa, 10 ŵakaŵa mu msumba wa Freetown, ndipo ŵanthu 90 awo ŵakakhalako ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito magesi gha 2 peresenti. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakugwiliskira ntchito makuni na malasha kuti ŵasange vyakukhumbikwa zuŵa na zuŵa. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakuti para ŵanakazi na ŵana ŵakumalira nyengo yinandi pa moto uwu, ŵakuŵa na matenda. Kafukufuku munyake uyo wakachitika mu 2012, wakalongosora umo matenda gha nthenda ya kupumura ghakugwilira ntchito pa nyumba. Ŵakasanga kuti pa ŵana awo ŵakagwiliskiranga nchito vyoto vya nkhuni, 64% ŵakaŵa na ARI, ndipo awo ŵakagwiliskiranga nchito vyoto vya makara ŵakaŵa 44%. Kugwiliskira nchito malasha na nkhuni kwapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵaleke kughanaghanira comene vya cilengiwa, cifukwa vyose vikuyana yayi na umo ŵanthu ŵakughanaghanira vya kusanga nkhongono zakukwana. Pa cifukwa ici, ŵanthu ŵakususkana comene na awo ŵakupeleka wovwiri na mawupu gha boma nga ni Unduna wa vya Magesi na Maji na Dipatimenti ya Vipinda. Ŵanthu ŵakukhumba kuti nkhongono ya dazi na nkhongono ya maji viŵe vyakukhumbikwa chomene ku Sierra Leone chifukwa cha vilato vya Wupu wa United Nations pa nkhani ya vyamunthazi. Pakuti ku Sierra Leone kuli mphepo yakotcha, vula yikuru yikulokwa chaka chilichose, kweniso kuli milonga yinandi, nchiwemi kuti ŵanthu ŵagwiliskirenge nchito nkhongono za dazi na za maji.<ref name=":7">{{Cite web|url=http://www.undp.org/content/dam/sierraleone/docs/focusareadocs/undp_sle_energyprofile.pdf|title=NATIONAL ENERGY PROFILE OF SIERRA LEONE [JUNE, 2012]|website=www.undp.org|access-date=16 December 2018|archive-date=7 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200807083545/http://www.undp.org/content/dam/sierraleone/docs/focusareadocs/undp_sle_energyprofile.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last1=Taylor|first1=Eldred Tunde|last2=Nakai|first2=Satoshi|date=19 June 2012|title=Prevalence of Acute Respiratory Infections in Women and Children in Western Sierra Leone due to Smoke from Wood and Charcoal Stoves|journal=International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health|volume=9|issue=6|pages=2252–2265|doi=10.3390/ijerph9062252|pmid=22829802|pmc=3397376|issn=1660-4601|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last1=Munro|first1=Paul|last2=van der Horst|first2=Greg|last3=Healy|first3=Stephen|date=June 2017|title=Energy justice for all? Rethinking Sustainable Development Goal 7 through struggles over traditional energy practices in Sierra Leone|journal=Energy Policy|volume=105|pages=635–641|doi=10.1016/j.enpol.2017.01.038|issn=0301-4215}}</ref> ==== Solar energy ==== Sierra Leone pamoza na Dipatimenti ya vya Vyakusazgirako Vyaru ya ku UK (DFID), ŵali na cilato cakuti mu 2025, ŵanthu wose ŵa mu caru ici ŵazakaŵe na magesi gha dazi. Chilato chikuru ichi chagaŵika mu vigaŵa vichoko. Cakwamba nchakuti mu 2016, nyumba 50,000 zizakapike nkhongono ya dazi. Caciŵiri, kuzakapeleka nkhongono ya dazi ku nyumba 250,000 mu 2017, ndipo caumaliro kuzakapeleka nkhongono ya dazi ku ŵanthu 1,000,000 mu 2020. Ndondomeko iyi yikukolerana na ndondomeko ya Energy Africa Access Campaign iyo yikukhumba kupeleka magesi ku vyaru 14 vya mu Africa m'paka mu 2030. Pambere ndondomeko iyi yindakhazikiskike, boma la Sierra Leone likaŵa na nkhongono yichoko pa nkhani ya magesi gha dazi. Chifukwa chimoza ntchakuti ŵakaŵavya malango ghakwendeskera vinthu. Kuti viwovwire kukwaniska chilato cha Energy Africa, charu cha Sierra Leone chazomera kuwuskapo msonkho pa vinthu ivyo vikupangika na nkhongono ya dazi. Kusintha uku kukovwira kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku vyaru vinyake ŵagwiliskirenge ntchito nkhongono ya dazi. Ŵakuwona kuti para palije msonkho na misonkho, mtengo wa vinthu vya zuŵa ungakhira na 30 panji 40 peresenti.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |title=Energy Africa Access Campaign Policy Compact Sierra Leone Final Report |url=https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5aec17b7ed915d42f7c6beab/Energy_Africa_Access_Campaign_-_Policy_Compact_Sierra_Leone_Final_Report.pdf |access-date=2018-12-16 |website=assets.publishing.service.gov.uk}}</ref> ==== Hydroelectric power ==== Mu 2012, Sierra Leone wakaŵa na magesi ghakukwana 3. Yachiŵiri ni ya Dodo iyo yili mu chigaŵa cha kumafumiro gha dazi, ndipo yaumaliro ni ya Bumbuna. Kweniso pali vyalo vinandi ivyo vingazenga magesi pa mlonga wa Sewa, Pampana, Seli, Moa, na Little Scarcies. Pa milimo yose iyi, iyo yili kumalizgika na iyo yikwenera kucitika, damu la Bumbuna ndilo lichali likuru comene pa maofesi gha maji mu Sierra Leone. Malo agha ghali pafupi na Mlonga wa Seli na Freetown, ndipo ghakupanga magesi pafupifupi 50 megawati. Mu 2017, ŵakakhumbanga kusazgirako nkhongono ya sitima iyi kufika pa ma megawati 400. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakughanaghana kuti chiziŵa cha Bumbuna chingachepeska ndalama izo ŵanthu ŵakugwiliskira ntchito pakugura mafuta kufuma ku vyaru vinyake. Kale, nchito iyi yikapokera ndalama zakujumpha madola 200 miliyoni kufuma ku Banki ya Caru Cose, Banki ya vya Vyakusazgirako ya ku Africa, na kampani ya ku Italy yakucemeka Salini Impregilo.<ref name=":9">{{Cite web |title=The endgame of the Bumbuna hydroelectric plant project |url=https://www.centreforpublicimpact.org/case-study/bumbuna-hydroelectric-plant/ |access-date=2018-12-16 |website=Centre for Public Impact (CPI)}}</ref><ref name=":7" /> == Ŵanthu == {{Main|Demographics of Sierra Leone|Languages of Sierra Leone}} [[File:Sierra-Leone-demography.png|thumb|Sierra Leone's total population, from 1961 to 2013]] Mu 2019 Sierra Leone yikaŵa na ŵanthu 7,813,215 ndipo yikakuranga 2.216% pa chaka. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa mu charu ichi mbawukirano, ndipo ŵanthu 41.7% ŵali na vyaka vyakukwana 15. Chifukwa cha kusamukira ku misumba, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakukhala mu matawuni, ndipo ŵanthu ŵakuwona kuti matawuni agha ghakusazgikira na 2.9% pa chaka.<ref name="CIA">{{cite web |title=Sierra Leone |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/sierra-leone/ |access-date=15 September 2011 |work=[[The World Factbook]] |publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]]}}</ref><ref name="Renner-Thomas 2010 5">{{Cite book |last =Renner-Thomas |first = Ade |title = Land Tenure in Sierra Leone: The Law, Dualism and the Making of a Land Policy |publisher =AuthorHouse |year =2010 |page = 5 |url =https://books.google.com/books?id=RiIpW6vWVPoC&pg=PA5|isbn=978-1-4490-5866-1|access-date=17 June 2014}}</ref> Mu Sierra Leone, ŵanthu ŵakupambana chomene. Chigaŵa cha Western Area Urban District, icho chikusazgapo Freetown, msumba ukuru na ukuru chomene, chili na ŵanthu 1,224 pa km2. Chigaŵa chikuru chomene cha Koinadugu chili na ŵanthu ŵachoko chomene, ŵanthu 21.4 pa km2. Cingelezi ni ciyowoyero ca boma, ndipo cikuyowoyeka mu masukulu, mu boma na mu vyakupharazga. Chiyowoyero cha Krio (chakufuma ku Chingelezi na viyowoyero vinyake vya ku Africa, kweniso chiyowoyero cha ŵanthu ŵa ku Sierra Leone) ndicho chikuyowoyeka chomene mu vigaŵa vyose vya Sierra Leone. Pakuti chiyowoyero cha Krio chikayowoyeka na ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 90 peresenti, chikovwira kuti ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yose ŵakoleranenge. Pamanyuma pa wovwiri wa gulu la United Nations Peacekeeping Force la ku Bangladesh mu Nkhondo ya ku Sierra Leone, boma la Ahmad Tejan Kabbah likati chibengali ni chiyowoyero chakuzirwa mu Disembala 2002. Kuyana na lipoti la World Refugee Survey 2008, ilo Komiti ya ku United States yakuwona vya ŵanthu ŵakuchimbira kwawo na awo ŵiza mu charu ichi yikalemba, ku Sierra Leone kukaŵa ŵanthu 8,700 awo ŵakachimbilira ku charu ichi. Mu 2007, ŵanthu pafupifupi 20,000 ŵakufuma ku Liberia ŵakawelera ku Liberia. Pa ŵanthu wose awo ŵakakhalako mu Sierra Leone, pafupifupi wose ŵakaŵa ŵa ku Liberia.<ref name="World Refugee Survey 2008">{{cite news|title=World Refugee Survey 2008|publisher=U.S. Committee for Refugees and Immigrants|date=19 June 2008|url=http://www.refugees.org/resources/refugee-warehousing/archived-world-refugee-surveys/2008-world-refugee-survey.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121228132236/http://www.refugees.org/resources/refugee-warehousing/archived-world-refugee-surveys/2008-world-refugee-survey.html|archive-date=28 December 2012}}</ref>{{Largest cities | name = Largest cities of Sierra Leone | country = Sierra Leone | stat_ref = Government of Sierra Leone 2004 Census<ref>{{Cite web | title = Final Results 2004 population and housing census | publisher = Government of Sierra Leone| year = 2006 | url =http://www.sierra-leone.org/Census/ssl_final_results.pdf| access-date = 26 February 2011}}</ref><!--These are the official figures; please do not change without discussion--> | list_by_pop = List of cities in Sierra Leone | div_name = District | city_1 = Freetown | div_1 = Western Area Urban District | pop_1 = 853,651 | img_1 = Freetown-aerialview.jpg | city_2 = Bo, Sierra Leone {{!}} Bo| div_2 =Bo District|pop_2 = 149,957 |img_2=Bo-City-Sierra-Leone.jpg | city_3 = Kenema| div_3 =Kenema District |pop_3 = 128,402|img_3=Kenema.jpg | city_4 = Makeni| div_4 = Bombali District|pop_4 = 82,940 | city_5 = Koidu {{!}} Koidu Town| div_5 = Kono District|pop_5 = 80,025|img_4=KoiduStreet.jpg | city_6 = Lunsar| div_6 = Port Loko District|pop_6 = 24,450 | city_7 = Port Loko| div_7 =Port Loko District |pop_7 = 23,195 | city_8 = Pandebu-Tokpombu |div_8 = Kenema District|pop_8 = 20,219 | city_9 = Kabala, Sierra Leone {{!}} Kabala| div_9 =Koinadugu District |pop_9 = 19,074 | city_10 =Waterloo, Sierra Leone {{!}} Waterloo| div_10 = Western Area Urban District|pop_10 = 18,579 }} Ŵanthu awo ŵali mu misumba yikuruyikuru yinkhondi ŵali kupendeka mu 2004. Chiŵelengero cha Freetown chikulongora chigaŵa cha Western Urban Area (Greater Freetown). Viŵelengero vinyake ni ivyo vyafuma ku ŵanthu awo ŵakuzunulika. Ŵanthu ŵakuyowoya vyakupambanapambana. Ŵanyake ŵakuti Magburaka wakwenera kuŵikika pa ndondomeko iyi, kweni pali mphambano yikuru pakati pa mabuku agha. Buku linyake likuti ŵanthu aŵa ŵalipo 14,915, apo linyake likuti ŵalipo 85,313. "Pandebu-Tokpombu" panji ni tawuni ya Torgbonbu, iyo yikaŵa na ŵanthu 10,716 pa kalembera wa 2004. Mu tawuni iyi mukaŵa ŵanthu 12,139. Kuyana na kalembera wa mu 2004, mu tawuni ya Waterloo mukaŵa ŵanthu 34,079.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://population-of.com/en/Sierra-Leone/02/Magburaka |title=Population of Magburaka |publisher=Population-of.com |access-date=22 August 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.exaf.eu/exaf/page.php?pid=210 |title=Exaf |publisher=Exaf.EU |access-date=22 August 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720161721/http://www.exaf.eu/exaf/page.php?pid=210 |archive-date=20 July 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref> {{Clear}} === Chisopo === {{main|Religion in Sierra Leone}} {{bar box |float=right |titlebar=#ddd |title=[[Religion in Sierra Leone]] (2020)<ref name=religions>{{cite web | url=http://www.globalreligiousfutures.org/countries/sierra-leone#/?affiliations_religion_id=0&affiliations_year=2010&region_name=All%20Countries&restrictions_year=2015 | title=Religions in Sierra Leone &#124; PEW-GRF}}</ref> |left1=Religion |right1=percent |bars= {{bar percent|[[Islam]]|green|78.5}} {{bar percent|[[Christianity]]|Blue|20.4}} {{bar percent|Other faiths|black|1.1}} }} [[File: Pendemdu Mosque and Church.JPG|thumb|A mosque and a church in Sierra Leone]] Ku Sierra Leone kulije visopa. Chisilamu na Chikhristu ni visopa vikuruvikuru mu caru ici. Dango la Sierra Leone likuti ŵanthu ŵaŵenge na wanangwa wakusopa, ndipo boma likuwuvikilira. Boma la Sierra Leone likukanizgika na dango kwamba chisopa cha boma, nangauli ŵanthu ŵa chisopa cha Chisilamu na Chikhristu ŵakutemwa kulomba pa nyengo ya viphikiro vikuruvikuru vya ndyali. Ŵanthu ŵa visopa vyakupambanapambana mu Sierra Leone, nangauli Ŵasilamu ndiwo ŵanandi. Ku Sierra Leone, ŵanthu 77% mbasilamu, 22% Mbakhristu, ndipo 1% ŵakusopa chisopa cha ku Africa. Kuyana na kafukufuku wa Pew Research Center wa mu 2020, 78.5% ya ŵanthu ŵa ku Sierra Leone mba Chisilamu (kanandi Ŵasuni), 20.4% mba Chikhristu (kanandi Ŵaprotesitanti) ndipo 1.1% ŵali mu chisopa cha ku Africa. Wupu wa Inter-Religious Council of Sierra Leone ukati ŵanthu 77% ku Sierra Leone Mbakhristu, 21% Mbasilamu, ndipo 2% Mbalondezgi ŵa visopa vya ku Africa. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Sierra Leone mba Chislamu, kusazgapo ŵanthu ŵa mitundu ya Mende na Temne. Charu cha Sierra Leone chili na ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakutemwa kusopa.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.economist.com/news/middle-east-and-africa/21603015-sierra-leone-bucks-west-african-trend-celebrating-its-religious-tolerance-all|title=All things happily to all men|newspaper=The Economist}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Major Religions of Sierra Leone|url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/what-religions-are-practised-in-sierra-leone.html|access-date=2021-04-30|website=WorldAtlas|date=4 April 2018|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://ayvnewspaper.com/index.php/k2-categories/politics/item/849-sierra-leone-hailed-for-religious-tolerance|title=Sierra Leone Hailed for Religious Tolerance|date=March 3, 2016|website=AYV Newspaper|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190401123817/http://ayvnewspaper.com/index.php/k2-categories/politics/item/849-sierra-leone-hailed-for-religious-tolerance|archive-date=1 April 2019|url-status=dead}}</ref> Maholide ghanandi gha Cisilamu na Cikhristu ni maholide gha caru, ndipo nkhondo za cisopa zikucitika viŵi yayi. Ku Sierra Leone kuli wupu wa Inter-Religious Council, uwo uli na ŵalongozgi ŵa visopa vya Chikhristu na Chisilamu, ndipo ukovwira kuti mu charu chose muŵe mtende.<ref>{{cite press release |url=http://www.unicef.org/wcaro/2009_5743.html |title=Media Centre – In Sierra Leone, partnerships with religious leaders help combat child mortality |publisher=UNICEF |date=29 November 2010 |access-date=20 March 2014 |archive-date=22 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180822014727/https://www.unicef.org/wcaro/2009_5743.html |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.religionsforpeaceinternational.org/what-we-do/stop-war/conflict-transformation |title=Conflict Transformation |publisher=Religions for Peace International |access-date=20 March 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140228053733/http://www.religionsforpeaceinternational.org/what-we-do/stop-war/conflict-transformation |archive-date=28 February 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://gbgm-umc.org/umcor/emergency/ircsl.stm |title=Interreligious Community Advocates for Peace in Sierra Leone with photos |publisher=Gbgm-umc.org |access-date=20 March 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130717070939/http://gbgm-umc.org/umcor/emergency/ircsl.stm |archive-date=17 July 2013}}</ref> Maholide gha Chisilamu gha Eid al-Fitr, Eid al-Adha na Maulid-un-Nabi (Zuŵa lakubabikira nchimi ya Chisilamu Muhammad) ghakuwoneka nga ni maholide gha chalo mu Sierra Leone. Maholide gha Chikhristu gha Khisimasi, Boxing Day, Good Friday na Easter nagho ni maholide gha charu cha Sierra Leone. Pa nkhani za ndyali, ŵanthu ŵanandi ku Sierra Leone ŵakuvotera munthu munyake, kwali ni Muslamu panji Mkhristu. Ŵalongozgi wose ŵa boma la Sierra Leone ŵakaŵa Ŵakristu padera pa Ahmad Tejan Kabbah, uyo wakaŵa Musilamu. Ŵasilamu ŵanandi ŵa ku Sierra Leone ŵakulondezga chisopa cha Sunni. Masisiteri ghanandi na masukulu gha Cisilamu mu Sierra Leone ghali na visopa vya Cisilamu. Ŵasilamu ŵa Ahmadiyya ŵalipo pafupifupi 10 peresenti. Mu Sierra Leone muli ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa chisopa cha Ahmadiyya, chomenechomene mu tawuni ya Bo, iyo yili kumwera kwa charu ichi. Mu Sierra Leone mose muli masisiteri 500 gha Ahmadiyya. Mu Sierra Leone mulije chisopa cha Chishiya, ndipo mu charu ichi mulije Ŵasilamu. Ŵasilamu ŵanandi ŵa ku Sierra Leone ŵa chisopa cha Sunni na Ahmadiyya ŵakulombera lumoza mu mzikiti umoza.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://sierraleone365.com/feature-stories/ahmadiyya-movement-goes-mainstream-in-sierra-leone|title=Ahmadiyya Movement Goes Mainstream in Sierra Leone|last=Bah|first=Hadi|website=sierraleone365.com|access-date=6 December 2016|archive-date=25 April 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170425100138/http://sierraleone365.com/feature-stories/ahmadiyya-movement-goes-mainstream-in-sierra-leone|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20160101131640/http://ahmadiyyatimes.blogspot.com/2010/03/bo-ahmadiya-muslim-secondary-school.html Sierra Leone: Bo Ahmadiya Muslim Secondary School Golden Jubilee, Former Principal and Secretary-General Honoured]. ''Ahmadiyya Times'' (23 March 2010)</ref> Ŵasilamu ŵanandi ku Sierra Leone ŵakulondezga chisopa cha Maliki. Sukulu ya Maliki ndiyo yikuluska mu vyaru vyose vya Sierra Leone. Ŵasilamu ŵanandi ŵa Ahmadiyya mu Sierra Leone ŵakulondezga fundo za Maliki. Wupu wa Islamic Supreme Council wa Sierra Leone ni wupu wa chisopa cha Chisilamu ku Sierra Leone. Sheikh Muhammad Taha Jalloh ni purezidenti wa Supreme Islamic Council ya Sierra Leone. Wupu wa United Council of Imams, ni wupu wa cisopa wa Islamic mu Sierra Leone, uwo uli na ŵaliska wose ŵa masisiteri mu Sierra Leone. Mulongozgi wa United Council of Imam ni Sheikh Alhaji Muhammad Habib Sheriff. Masisiteri ghaŵiri ghakuru chomene mu Sierra Leone ni Freetown Central Mosque na Gaddafi Central Mosque (ghakazengeka na Muammar Gaddafi), ghose ghali mu msumba wa Freetown. Ŵakhristu ŵanandi ŵa ku Sierra Leone Mbaprotesitanti, ndipo ŵa mpingo wa Wesleyan ndiwo mbanandi comene.<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite web|url=http://www.umc.org/site/apps/nlnet/content3.aspx?c=lwL4KnN1LtH&b=5794273&ct=6470237&notoc=1 |title=United Methodists elect bishop for Sierra Leone |publisher=UMC.org |date=22 December 2008 |access-date=23 September 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100506164251/http://www.umc.org/site/apps/nlnet/content3.aspx?c=lwL4KnN1LtH&b=5794273&ct=6470237&notoc=1 |archive-date=6 May 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.oikoumene.org/en/member-churches/methodist-church-sierra-leone |title=Methodist Church Sierra Leone — World Council of Churches |publisher=Oikoumene.org |date=28 January 2013 |access-date=23 September 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.xpointumc.org/missions/report-of-sierra-leone/ |title=Crosspoint United Methodist Church – Welcome » Sierra Leone |publisher=Xpointumc.org |access-date=23 September 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130927081948/http://www.xpointumc.org/missions/report-of-sierra-leone/ |archive-date=27 September 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.efsl.evang.org/about-efsl/our-history |title=The History of the Evangelical Fellowship of Sierra Leone |publisher=Efsl.evang.org |date=24 August 1959 |access-date=23 September 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130928003048/http://www.efsl.evang.org/about-efsl/our-history |archive-date=28 September 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://tectsl.org/ |title=The Evangelical College of Theology Sierra Leone |publisher=Tectsl.org |access-date=23 September 2013}}</ref> Matchalitchi ghanyake gha Cikhristu gha Ciphwitikizi agho ghalipo comene mu caru ici ni Presbyterians, Baptists, Seventh-day Adventists Anglicans, Lutherans, na Pentecostals. Wupu wa Council of Churches ni wupu wa cisopa wa Cikhristu uwo uli na matchalitchi gha Ciphwitikizi mu Sierra Leone. Sonosono apa, matchalitchi gha Pentekoste ghakusazgikira, comenecomene mu Freetown. Mu Seputembala 2017, muliska Wachikhristu wa ku Sierra Leone wakuchemeka Victor Ajisafe wakakakika na ŵapolisi ŵa ku Sierra Leone ndipo ŵakamujalira mu jele pamanyuma pakuti wakayowoya mazgu ghakwimikana na Chisilamu na Ŵasilamu ŵa ku Sierra Leone. Ajisafe wakwenera kuti wakakwiya comene cifukwa Mufti Menk, muliska wa cisopa ca Ciislamu wa ku Zimbabwe, wakaluta ku Sierra Leone na kupharazga ku ŵanthu ŵanandi. Magulu ghanandi gha Chikhristu mu Sierra Leone, kusazgapo Wupu wa Matchalitchi, ghakakanizga nkhani ya Ajisafe yakususkana na Chisilamu na Ŵasilamu. Boma la Sierra Leone likajara tchalitchi la Ajisafe ndipo likalekeskaso kusopa. Nkhani iyi yikapangiska kuti mu Sierra Leone muŵe masuzgo gha visopa, chifukwa ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Sierra Leone awo Mbasilamu, ŵakakhumbanga kuti Ajisafe wawelere ku Nigeria. Muliska uyu apo wakaŵa mu jele wakaphepiska ku Ŵasilamu ŵa ku Sierra Leone na ku boma la Sierra Leone. Wakati wakhala mu jele mazuŵa ghanandi, Ajisafe ŵakamufumiska, ndipo ŵakamuwezgera layisensi ya mpingo wake. Ŵaprotesitanti awo ŵali mu visopa vinyake ndiwo mbanandi chomene mu Sierra Leone. Ŵanthu ŵanandi awo Mbakhristu ku Sierra Leone mbakatolika. Ŵakaboni ŵa Yehova na ŵa Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints ndiwo Mbakhristu ŵakumanyikwa chomene mu Sierra Leone. Mu msumba wa Freetown mukukhala Ŵakhristu ŵa Orthodox.<ref>Tsolakidou, Stella, [http://world.greekreporter.com/2013/01/30/troubled-orthodox-mission-in-sierra-leone/ "Troubled Orthodox Mission in Sierra Leone"]. GreekReporter.com. Retrieved 24 February 2017.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://newsroom.churchofjesuschrist.org/facts-and-statistics/country/sierra-leone |title=Sierra Leone – LDS Statistics and Church Facts &#124; Total Church Membership |publisher=churchofjesuschrist.org |date=24 July 2007 |access-date=23 September 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |first=Gerry |last=Avant |url=http://www.deseretnews.com/article/765616902/Historic-milestone-Sierra-Leone-stake-marks-LDS-Churchs-3000th.html?pg=all |title=Historic milestone: Sierra Leone stake marks LDS Church's 3,000th |newspaper=Deseret News |date=2 December 2012 |access-date=23 September 2013 |archive-date=27 September 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130927114817/http://www.deseretnews.com/article/765616902/Historic-milestone-Sierra-Leone-stake-marks-LDS-Churchs-3000th.html?pg=all |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.jw.org/en/jehovahs-witnesses/offices/sierra-leone/ |title=Visitors & Tours: Jehovahs Witnesses Office in Sierra Leone |publisher=Jw.org |access-date=23 September 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131005142744/http://www.jw.org/en/jehovahs-witnesses/offices/sierra-leone/ |archive-date=5 October 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.catholicculture.org/news/headlines/index.cfm?storyid=11887 |title=Sierra Leone: in wake of brutal war, churches full: News Headlines |publisher=Catholic Culture |date=28 September 2011 |access-date=23 September 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.catholicchurchsl.org/ |title=catholicchurchsl.org |publisher=catholicchurchsl.org |access-date=20 March 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170504130803/http://www.catholicchurchsl.org/ |archive-date=4 May 2017 |url-status=dead }}</ref> === Ethnic groups === {{Further|Ethnic groups in Sierra Leone}} [[File: Sierra Leone ethnic groups.svg|thumb|upright=1.6|The distribution of [[Ethnic groups in Sierra Leone|major ethnic groups within Sierra Leone]]]] {|class="wikitable infobox" style="margin-right:0; margin-left:1em;" |- |'''Ethnic groups<br />of Sierra Leone'''<ref name =Census2015/> |- |[[Temne people|Temne]] | 32.5% |- |[[Mende people|Mende]] | 30.2% |- |[[Fula people (Sierra Leone)|Fula]] | 12.4% |- |[[Limba people (Sierra Leone)|Limba]] | 4.4% |- |[[Kono people|kono]] | 3.4% |- |[[Susu people|Susu]] | 2.9% |- |[[Loko people|Loko]] | 2.9% |- |[[Koranko people|Koranko]] | 2.8% |- |[[Sherbro people|Sherbro]] | 2.6% |- |[[Mandingo people of Sierra Leone|Mandingo]] | 2.4% |- |[[Sierra Leone Creole people|Krio]] | 1.3% |- |} Mu Sierra Leone muli mitundu pafupifupi 16 ndipo yimoza yili na chiyowoyero chake. Yikulu chomene na yakukhora chomene ni Temne, iyo yili na 35.5% ndipo Mende, iyo yili pafupi na 33.2%. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Temne mbasilamu, 85%; ndipo Ŵakhristu mbanandi chomene. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Mende nawo mbasilamu pafupifupi 70%, nangauli ŵali na Ŵakhristu ŵanandi chomene.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thenewpeople.com/national-news/politics/item/1764-sierra-leone-the-temnes-and-the-politics-of-the-all-peoples%E2%80%99-congress-apc |title=Sierra Leone: The Temnes and the Politics of the All Peoples' Congress (APC) |publisher=Thenewpeople.com |access-date=17 June 2014}}</ref> Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Mende awo ŵakugomezga kuti mbana ŵa mtundu wa Mane, ndiwo ŵakakhalanga mu charu cha Liberia. Ŵakamba kwiza ku Sierra Leone mwakuzika kweniso mwamtende mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakuti Ŵatemne ŵakafuma ku Futa Jallon, uko sono ni Guinea. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Limba ndiwo ŵali pa nambara yacitatu pa ŵanthu wose ŵa mu caru ici. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Limba ŵakukhala ku Sierra Leone. Ŵanthu aŵa ŵalije mitheto yakulongora kuti ŵakafuma ku vyaru vinyake, ndipo ŵakugomezga kuti ŵakakhalanga ku Sierra Leone pambere ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe ŵandafike. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Limba ŵakukhala ku Northern Sierra Leone, chomenechomene ku Bombali, Kambia na Koinadugu District. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Limba ŵalipo 60 peresenti Mbakhristu ndipo 40 peresenti Mbasilamu. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Limba ŵakukolerana comene na ŵa ku Temne. Kufuma waka apo charu cha Sierra Leone chikapokera wanangwa wake, Ŵalimba ŵakulongozga ndyali pamoza na Ŵamende. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Limba ŵakukolerana na chipani cha All People's Congress (APC). Pulezidenti wakwamba na wachiŵiri wa Sierra Leone, Siaka Stevens na Joseph Saidu Momoh, wose ŵakaŵa ŵa fuko la Limba. Alfred Paolo Conteh, uyo wakaŵa nduna ya vya kuvikilira Sierra Leone, ni wa fuko la Limba. Gulu linyake la ŵanthu ŵachoko chomene ni Ŵafula, awo ŵalipo 3.8%. Ŵanthu aŵa ŵali kufuma ku Fula awo ŵakakhalanga mu chigaŵa cha Fouta Djalon ku Guinea. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Fula ŵalipo 99 peresenti awo Mbasilamu. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa mtundu wa Fula mbazamalonda, ndipo ŵanandi ŵakukhala mu nyumba za ŵanthu ŵakuzirwa. Chifukwa cha malonda ghawo, Ŵafula ŵakusangika pafupifupi mu vigaŵa vyose vya charu ichi. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu uwu ni Mandingo (awo ŵakuchemekaso kuti Mandinka). Iwo mbana ŵa ŵamalonda kufuma ku Guinea awo ŵakasamira ku Sierra Leone mu vyaka vya m'ma 1900. Ŵanyake mwa ŵanthu awo ŵakukhala mu chigaŵa ichi ni Kono, awo ŵakukhala chomene mu chigaŵa cha Kono ku Sierra Leone. Ŵanyake mwa iwo ni Kono, ndipo ŵali kufuma ku Guinea. Ŵanthu ŵachoko chomene awo ŵali mu gulu la ŵanthu ŵa ku Creole panji Krio (ŵeneawo ni ŵazga ŵa ku Africa, West Indies, na Free African Slaves awo ŵakakhalanga mu Freetown pakati pa 1787 na 1885) ŵali pa ŵanthu pafupifupi 3%. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Sierra Leone ndiwo ŵakalongozganga chomene boma la Sierra Leone kweniso ŵanthu ŵa ku Freetown. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Creole ndiwo ŵakamba kusambizgika ku vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Oku mbana ŵa ŵanthu ŵa ku Nigeria, awo ŵakafuma ku maufumu gha ku Southwest Nigeria ndipo ŵakasamira ku Sierra Leone nga mbanthu ŵa ku Africa. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Okun ŵakukhala mu vigaŵa vya Fourah Bay, Fula Town, na Aberdeen. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵa mitundu iyi ni Ŵakurankoko, awo ŵali na mbumba ya ku Mandingo ndipo ni Ŵasilamu. Ŵanthu aŵa ŵakamba kufika ku Sierra Leone kufuma ku Guinea mu 1600 ndipo ŵakakhazikika kumpoto, chomenechomene mu chigaŵa cha Koinadugu. Ŵakurankolo ni ŵalimi; ŵalongozgi pakati pawo ŵali na maudindo ghanandi mu ŵasilikari. Loko kumpoto ni ŵanthu ŵakwambilira ŵa Sierra Leone, awo ŵakugomezga kuti ŵakakhala mu Sierra Leone kufuma nyengo ya kukumana kwa Europe. Nga ni Temne, Ŵagineya Bissau, na Guinea Conakry, awo ŵakukhala kumpoto kwa Sierra Leone. Ŵasusu na Yalunka awo ŵakukolerana nawo mbamalonda. Magulu ghose ghaŵiri ghakusangika kumpoto chomene ku Kambia na chigaŵa cha Koinadugu kufupi na mphaka na Guinea. Iwo ni Ŵasulumane wose. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Jonkeka, Jonkeka , Djissa, Djilima, panji kuti Jankeka, ŵakukhala ku chigaŵa cha kumpoto kwa Guinea. Ŵasekuru ŵa ŵanthu ŵa ku Jankeka na Jankeka ŵakukhala ku Northern Guinea. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Kissi ŵakukhala mu chigaŵa cha kumwera kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Sierra Leone. Ŵakufuma ku chigaŵa cha Koindu na vigaŵa vya kunthazi kwa chigaŵa cha Kailahun. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu uwu mbanandi chomene. Ŵanthu ŵa mitundu ya Vai na Kru ŵakusangika chomene mu chigaŵa ichi. Ku chigaŵa cha Bonthe kumwera kuli Sherbro. Ŵakufuma ku Sierra Leone, ŵakukhala pa Chirwa cha Sherbro kufuma apo chikaŵikika. Ŵakuŵa ŵalimi na ŵalovi, ndipo ŵanandi ŵakuŵako mu chigaŵa cha Bontee. Ŵanthu ŵachoko waka ŵa ku Sierra Leone mba fuko la ku Lebanon, awo mbana ŵa ŵamalonda awo ŵakamba kwiza ku Lebanon mu vyaka vya m'ma 1900. ===Gender equality=== ==== Household ==== Nangauli mu Sierra Leone ŵanakazi ndiwo ŵali na ciŵelengero ca ŵanthu pafupifupi 50 pa ŵanthu 100, kweni 28 pera pa ŵanthu 100 ŵaliwose ndiwo ŵakulongozga mbumba. Nga umo viliri mu vyaru vinyake, masambiro ngakukhumbikwa comene kuti munthu waŵe na nchito yiwemi na nyumba. Mu vigaŵa vya mizi ndimo ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakutondeka kusambira, ndipo ŵanalume pera ndiwo ŵali na masambiro ghapachanya. Mu Sierra Leone, ŵanalume ndiwo ŵakuŵa mitu ya mbumba, ndipo ŵakuŵa ŵambura kutengwa nangauli nthengwa yawo yingasintha. Ndipouli, mbumba ya ŵanakazi yikusintha kuyana na umo nthengwa yawo yiliri. Mwanakazi wangaŵa mutu wa mbumba pekha usange waŵenge wambura kutengwa umoyo wake wose. Kweni para mwanakazi watora, wakuŵa na mazaza yayi pa nyumba. Ŵanakazi ndiwo ŵangaŵa mutu wa mbumba usange ŵafumu ŵawo ŵafwa panji ŵapatika. Pa nkhani ya ntchito, ŵanthu ŵakukhazga kuti mbumba ndiyo yivikilirenge mbumba. Ndipouli, ŵanakazi ŵakusuzgika cifukwa ca kusankhana mitundu. Ŵanakazi ndiwo ŵakupokera malipiro ghanandi kuluska ŵanalume (15.2).<ref name=":03">{{Cite web |last=Fatou Taqi |first=Fatou, Marian, Alimatu |author2=Marian Vinnie-Wilson |author3=Alimatu Vandi |date=2015 |title=Sierra Leone 2015 Population and Housing Census Thematic Report on Gender |url=https://www.statistics.sl/images/StatisticsSL/Documents/Census/2015/sl_2015_phc_thematic_report_on_gender.pdf}}</ref> ==== War ==== Ku Sierra Leone, ŵana awo ŵakakanizgika kurwa nkhondo ŵakusuzgika maghanoghano na maghanoghano. Ndipouli, uheni wa nkhondo na umo ŵangamazgira vikuthemba pa mtundu wa ŵana. Ŵanalume na ŵanakazi wose ŵakacitikanga nkhaza zinandi. Ŵanakazi awo ŵakacizgika comene, ŵakamba kusuzgika maghanoghano na kwenjerwa comene. Kweni ŵanalume ndiwo ŵakafipanga mtima comene na vinthu ivi. Ŵanalume nawo ŵakusuzgika chomene maghanoghano para munthu uyo wakuŵapwelelera wafwa.<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|date=2011-07-01|title=Sierra Leone's Child Soldiers: War Exposures and Mental Health Problems by Gender|journal=Journal of Adolescent Health|volume=49|issue=1|pages=21–28|doi=10.1016/j.jadohealth.2010.09.021|pmid=21700152|pmc=3124662|issn=1054-139X|last1=Betancourt|first1=Theresa S.|last2=Borisova|first2=Ivelina I.|last3=de la Soudière|first3=Marie|last4=Williamson|first4=John}}</ref> ==== Female economy ==== Ŵanakazi ŵakutambuzgika para ŵakukhumba wovwiri wa ndalama, wovwiri wa ŵanthu, na wovwiri wakukhwaskana na kakhaliro ka ŵanthu. Ntchakusuzga kugega suzgo la vyachuma mu Sierra Leone cifukwa cakuti ŵanakazi ndiwo ŵakupanga hafu ya ŵanthu wose mu caru ici. Cifukwa cakuti ŵanakazi ŵakutondeka kusambira masambiro ghapacanya, ndiwo ŵakumanya makora yayi umo ŵangapokera makalata gha bizinesi, kulembeska mazina ghawo, panji kupanga mapangano. Kuleka kuŵa na ndalama zakukwana kuti ŵambe bizinesi yiphya ni suzgo likuru comene ku ŵanakazi. Chifukwa cha kusoŵerwa kwa vinthu vya tekinoloje, comenecomene mu Sierra Leone mose, nchakusuzga kovwira bizinesi kuti yendenge makora.<ref name=":4" /> === Education === {{Main|Education in Sierra Leone}} [[File:Classroom at a seconday school in Pendembu Sierra Leone.jpg|thumb|left|A secondary school class in [[Pendembu]], [[Kailahun District]]]] Ku Sierra Leone, dango likuti ŵana wose ŵasambirenge vyaka vinkhondi na cimoza vya pulayimale (P1-P6) na vyaka vitatu vya sekondare. Kweni chifukwa cha kusoŵa kwa masukulu na ŵasambizgi, sukulu izi zingachitika yayi. Ŵanandi awo ŵakukhala mu charu ichi ŵakumanya yayi kuŵazga na kulemba. Nkhondo ya pawenenawene ya ku Sierra Leone yikapangiska kuti masukulu gha pulayimare 1,270 ghasakazgike, ndipo mu 2001, ŵana 67 pa ŵana 100 ŵaliwose awo ŵakaŵa ku sukulu ŵakaluta yayi ku sukulu. Kufuma waka pa nyengo iyi, vinthu vikwenda makora chomene, ndipo chiŵelengero cha ŵana ŵa sukulu ŵakwamba chikukwera kaŵiri kufuma mu 2001 m'paka mu 2005, kweniso sukulu zinandi zili kuzengekaso kufuma apo nkhondo yikamalira. Ŵana ŵa sukulu za pulayimale kanandi ŵakuŵa na vyaka vyapakati pa 6 na 12. Masukulu gha boma ghakupeleka masambiro ghapachanya kwambura kulipira. Charu ichi chili na ma yunivesite ghatatu: Fourah Bay College, ilo likakhazikiskika mu 1827 (yunivesite yakale chomene ku West Africa), University of Makeni (iyo yikakhazikiskika mu Seputembala 2005 nga The Fatima Institute, yunivesite iyi yikapika udindo wa yunivesite mu Ogasiti 2009, ndipo yikatora zina la University of Makeni, panji UNIMAK), na Njala University, iyo yili mu chigaŵa cha Bo. Yunivesite ya Njala yikamba mu 1910 ndipo yikazgoka yunivesite mu 2005. Mu vigaŵa vinandi vya caru ici muli masukulu ghakusambizgira ŵasambizgi na masukulu gha cisopa.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |date =July 2007 |title =Njala University College (Nuc) |location =Sierra Leone |encyclopedia =Sierra Leone Encyclopedia |url =http://www.daco-sl.org/encyclopedia/1_gov/1_7njala.htm |archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20070311011418/http://www.daco-sl.org/encyclopedia/1_gov/1_7njala.htm |archive-date =11 March 2007 |access-date =25 June 2008 |url-status =dead |df =dmy-all }}</ref><ref name="ilab">{{cite web |year=2002 |title=Sierra Leone |url=http://www.dol.gov/ilab/media/reports/iclp/tda2001/Sierra-leone.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131102020941/http://www.dol.gov/ilab/media/reports/iclp/tda2001/Sierra-leone.htm |archive-date=2 November 2013 |work=2001 Findings on the Worst Forms of Child Labor |publisher=[[Bureau of International Labor Affairs]], [[U.S. Department of Labor]]}} ''This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the [[public domain]].''</ref><ref name="ilab" /><ref>{{Cite book |editor=Jones-Parry, Rupert |title = Commonwealth Education Partnerships 2007 |publisher=Nexus Strategic Partnerships Ltd |year = 2006 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=ID5XqeV4q10C&pg=PT326 |isbn = 978-0-9549629-1-3 |access-date = 17 June 2014}}</ref> == Umoyo == {{main|Health in Sierra Leone}}Wupu wa CIA ukati ŵanthu ŵa ku Sierra Leone ŵakukhala vyaka 57,39. Ŵanandi ŵakulwara nthenda ya HIV/AIDS pa charu chose, ndipo ŵali na nthenda ya 1.6%. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakukhala mu mizi iyo mulije ŵadokotala panji vipatala. Nangauli mu mizi yinyake ŵanthu ŵakupokera wovwiri wa munkhwala kwambura kulipiliska, kweni ŵadokotala ŵakupokera malipiro ghacoko comene ndipo nyengo zinyake ŵakulipiska ndalama. Israyeli wakapeleka makina ghakovwira ŵanthu kuti ŵaleke kurya chomene. Kuyana na lipoti la Overseas Development Institute, ndalama izo ŵanthu ŵakugwiliskira nchito pa umoyo ni 85.7% ya ndalama izo ŵanthu ŵakugwiliskira nchito pa umoyo.<ref>DuBois, Marc, and Caitlin Wake, with Scarlett Sturridge and Christina Bennett (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20200928074929/https://www.odi.org/publications/9956-ebola-response-west-africa-exposing-politics-culture-international-aid "The Ebola response in West Africa: Exposing the politics and culture of international aid"]. London: Overseas Development Institute</ref><ref name="Cashman2015">{{cite news |last1=Cashman |first1=Greer Fay |title=Envoys from five countries present credentials to president |url=https://www.jpost.com/Israel-News/Politics-And-Diplomacy/Envoys-from-five-countries-present-credentials-to-president-431856 |work=The Jerusalem Post |date=3 November 2015 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Wealth, but no health |author=Anne Jung |publisher=D+C Development and Cooperation/ dandc.eu |date=December 2012 |url=http://www.dandc.eu/en/article/sierra-leones-health-services-do-not-deliver-official-promises |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131015195910/http://www.dandc.eu/en/article/sierra-leones-health-services-do-not-deliver-official-promises |url-status=dead |archive-date=15 October 2013 |access-date=17 June 2014 }}</ref> === Emergency medical response === Pakuti pakwamba pakaŵavya wupu wakupeleka wovwiri wa munkhwala, wupu wa First Responder Coalition of Sierra Leone (FRCSL) ukapangika mu Juni 2019 ku Makeni kuti uwovwire kuti pa charu chose paŵe maungano gha wovwiri wa munkhwala. Wose awo ŵakambiska wupu uwu ni Sierra Leone Red Cross Society (bungwe lakwamba), LFR International (uyo wakapangiska wupu uwu), University of Makeni, Agency for Rural Community Transformation, na Holy Spirit Hospital. Wupu uwu ukapangika pamoza na ungano waciŵiri na ciŵiri wa wupu wa vyaumoyo wa pa caru cose uwo ukati wovwiri wa munthazi ngwakuzirwa comene kuti ŵanthu wose ŵapone. Pakati pa Juni na Julayi 2019, FRCSL yikasambizga ŵanthu 1,000 ŵa ku Makeni kuti ŵaŵe ŵantchito ŵakwamba ndipo yikapeleka chiŵiya chakovwira chakwamba kwa waliyose uyo wakusambira.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thesierraleonetelegraph.com/sierra-leones-road-accident-first-responder-coalition-to-save-thousands-of-lives/|title=Sierra Leone's road accident First Responder Coalition to save thousands of lives|last=Thomas|first=Abdul Rashid|date=2019-07-05|language=en-US|access-date=2019-07-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190705101916/https://www.thesierraleonetelegraph.com/sierra-leones-road-accident-first-responder-coalition-to-save-thousands-of-lives/|archive-date=5 July 2019|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.who.int/news-room/detail/25-05-2019-world-health-assembly-update|title=World Health Assembly Update, 25 May 2019|website=www.who.int|language=en|access-date=2019-07-05}}</ref><ref name=":10">{{Cite web|url=http://www.thepatrioticvanguard.com/in-makeni-five-national-and-international|title=Makeni: Coalition of First Responders formed|last=Vanguard|first=The Patriotic|date=2019-07-04|website=The Patriotic Vanguard|language=en|access-date=2019-07-05}}</ref><ref name=":10" /> ===Endemic and infectious diseases=== Ku Sierra Leone kuli nthenda zinandi, nga ni yellow fever, cholera, Ebola, lassa fever, na meningitis. Ku Sierra Leone kuli nthenda ya yellow fever na maleriya.<ref name="PHChand">{{cite web |date=25 May 2007 |title=The Primary Health Care Hand Book Policing |url=http://www.health.sl/drwebsite/publish/healthcare.shtml |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080217052144/http://www.health.sl/drwebsite/publish/healthcare.shtml |archive-date=17 February 2008 |access-date=24 January 2008 |publisher=Ministry of Health & Sanitation |format=doc |df=dmy-all}}</ref> === Maternal and child health === Ku Sierra Leone ndiko kuli ŵana ŵanandi chomene pa charu. Pa ŵana 100 awo ŵakubabika ŵamoyo, mama yumoza wakufwa cifukwa ca masuzgo agho ghakuŵapo para wababika. Pa kafukufuku uyo UNICEF yikachita mu 2012, ukaboni ukulongora kuti ŵanakazi 94 pa 100 ŵali mu Sierra Leone ŵakukomeka. Mu 2014, Sierra Leone yikaŵa pa nambara 11 pa vyaru ivyo vili na ŵana ŵanandi chomene ŵakufwa. Cimoza mwa masuzgo agho ŵanakazi ŵa ku Sierra Leone ŵakukumana nagho para ŵababa kwa nyengo yitali ndiposo para ŵaleka kubaba. Kanandi ŵanakazi ŵakusuzgika cifukwa ca suzgo ili. Chipatala cha ŵanakazi cha AWC-Aberdeen ku Freetown, ndicho chili pa chipatala chachiŵiri mu Sierra Leone, ndipo chaka chilichose chikubaba ŵana 3,000. Ŵanakazi awo ŵali na nthenda iyi ŵakuchita opareshoni kwaulere. Wupu uwu ukupeleka wovwiri wa munkhwala wakovwira ŵanakazi na ŵana, ndipo ukuwovwirika na mawupu ghambura phindu nga ni Freedom from Fistula, The Aminata Maternal Foundation, na UNFPA.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.unfpa.org/news/fistula-camp-helps-women-and-girls-sierra-leone-regain-their-dignity|title=Fistula camp helps women and girls in Sierra Leone regain their dignity|website=www.unfpa.org}}</ref> === Mental health === Ku Sierra Leone kulije wovwiri wa munkhwala wakovwira ŵalwari ŵa maghanoghano. Ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakulwara matenda agha ŵakuyezga kujichizga ŵekha na wovwiri wa ŵanthu awo ŵakuchizga ŵalwari. Mu nyengo ya Nkhondo ya pa Caru na Caru (1991-2002), ŵasilikari ŵanandi ŵakacitanga nkhaza ndipo ŵana ŵanandi ŵakacicizgika kurwa nkhondo. Ici cikaŵapweteka comene, ndipo ŵanthu pafupifupi 400,000 (mu 2009) ŵakaŵa na suzgo la maghanoghano. Ŵana ŵanandi awo kale ŵakaŵa ŵasilikari ŵamba kumwa minkhwala yakutimbanizga wongo kuti ŵaleke kukumbuka.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Lisk|first=Radcliffe|title=Sierra Leone|journal=Practical Neurology|year=2007|volume=7|issue=3|pages=198–201|doi=10.1136/jnnp.2007.120089|pmid=17515600|s2cid=219201682}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.channel4.com/programmes/unreported-world/episode-guide/series-2009/episode-4 |title=''Unreported World 2009'' series, ep.4: ''Sierra Leone: Insanity of War'' |publisher=Channel4.com |date=3 April 2009 |access-date=20 May 2012}}</ref> === Potable water supply === {{Main|Water supply in Sierra Leone}} Ku Sierra Leone, maji ghakukhala pachoko waka. Nangauli boma na mawupu ghanandi ghakupambanapambana ghayezgayezga kuti ŵanthu ŵafike ku malo agha, kweni vinthu vikwenda makora yayi kufuma apo nkhondo ya ku Sierra Leone yikamalira mu 2002.<ref name="JMP water">WHO/UNICEF [[Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] (updated March 2010) {{cite web |title=Estimates for the use of Improved Drinking-Water Sources, Sierra Leone |url=http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/SLE_wat.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111226083443/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/SLE_wat.pdf |archive-date=26 December 2011 |access-date=6 August 2011}}</ref> Ŵanthu ŵakugomezga kuti chizenga chiphya ku Orugu, icho China yikagwiliskira ntchito ndalama mu 2009, chizamovwira kuti maji ghaŵe ghanandi yayi. Kuyana na kafukufuku wa pa charu chose uyo wakachitika mu 2006, 84% ya ŵanthu ŵa mu misumba na 32% ya ŵanthu ŵa ku mizi ŵakaŵa na maji ghakumwa mu nyumba zawo. Awo ŵakasanganga maji mu vigaŵa vya kumadera gha mizi ŵakasanganga malo ghakukhala waka. 68% ya ŵanthu ŵakukhala mu vigaŵa vyakupambanapambana awo ŵakasanganga yayi maji gha pa mtunda (50%), (9%) na (9%) ŵakasanganga vyakumera vyambura kutetezgeka (9%). Mu 2004, boma likapeleka ndondomeko ya maji gha ku malo gha ŵanthu awo ŵakukhala kuwaro kwa msumba wa Freetown.[[File: Guinea Liberia Sierra Leone Ebola Map August 8 2014.jpg|thumb|upright=1.6|A situation map of the [[2014 West Africa Ebola outbreak|Ebola outbreak]] as of 8 August 2014]] === 2014 Ebola outbreak === {{Further|Ebola virus epidemic in Sierra Leone}} Ebola yikulopwa comene mu Africa uko kuli masuzgo gha umoyo na vyachuma. Mu 2014, ku West Africa kukaŵa nthenda ya Ebola. Kufika pa Okutobala 19, 2014, kukaŵa ŵanthu 3,706 ŵakufwa na nthenda ya ebola ku Sierra Leone, ndipo ŵanthu 1,259 ŵakafwa, kusazgapo dokotala munyake uyo wakayezga kuwoneseska nthenda iyi, Sheik Umar Khan. Kumayambiriro kwa Ogasiti 2014, Guinea yikajara mphaka zake na Sierra Leone kuti yikhozge kuthereska nthenda iyi.<ref name="IMFebola">{{cite news|url=http://www.bignewsnetwork.com/index.php/sid/225466201|title=The economic impact of Ebola may kill more people than the virus itself|date=6 September 2014|access-date=8 September 2014|publisher=Big News Network.com}}.</ref> == Culture == === Polygamy === {{Further|Polygamy in Sierra Leone}} Mu 2019, ŵanakazi 30% na ŵanalume 14% ŵakaŵa mu vyaru vya ŵanthu ŵanandi mu Sierra Leone. "Ŵanakazi awo ŵali na muwoli yumoza panji ŵanandi ŵakakhalira waka kuchepa, kufuma pa 37% mu 2008 na 35% mu 2013 kufika pa 30% mu 2019".<ref>{{Cite journal |date=October 2020 |title=Sierra Leone Demographic and Health Survey 2019 |url=https://dhsprogram.com/publications/publication-FR365-DHS-Final-Reports.cfm |journal=The DHS Program|last1=Statssl |first1=Statistics Sierra Leone- }}</ref> === Food and customs === {{Further|Sierra Leonean cuisine}} [[File: Sierra Leone rice farming.jpg|thumb|Rice farming in Rolako]] Mpunga ndiwo ukalyanga chomene ku Sierra Leone ndipo ukwenera kurya pa nyengo ya chakurya chilichose. Mu misewu ya matawuni na misumba ya ku Sierra Leone, mungaŵa vyakurya vyakupambanapambana nga ni mango ghaphya, malalanje, ananasi, mabango, ŵabango, ŵangozi, mbatata, manicure na chithuzi cha oseveni, matumba gha matumba gha popcorn panji mbatata, chingwa, mbolo, panji nyama yakotcha. Poyo ni chakumwa chakutchuka cha ku Sierra Leone. Ni vinyo la phamuli lakutowa, ilo likunozgeka kupangika mwakupepuka, ndipo likusangika mu mabara mu matawuni na vikaya mu charu chose. Mabara gha Poyo ni malo agho ŵanthu ŵakudumbiskana mwakujumphizga vya ndyali, mpira, basketball, vyakusanguluska na nkhani zinyake.<ref>{{cite book|last=Albala|first=Ken|title=Food Cultures of the World Encyclopedia|year=2011|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=9780313376276|page=165|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zG1H75z0EYYC&pg=PA165|access-date=17 June 2014}}</ref> === Media === {{Main|Media of Sierra Leone}} [[File:Radio listener in Sierra Leone.jpg|thumb|A radio listener in [[Kailahun]]]] Mu Sierra Leone, nkhani zayamba na kupangika kwa makina ghakudindiskira ghaŵiri mu Africa kumayambiriro kwa m'ma 1900. Mu 1860s, charu ichi chikaŵa malo ghakusindikizgira nkhani ku Africa, ndipo ŵanthu ŵakwendakwenda kufuma mu vyaru vyose vya mu Africa. Mu 1934, boma la Sierra Leone likamba kuteŵetera pa TV na TV. Mu April 2010, SLBS yikapambana na siteshoni ya United Nations peacekeeping radio station ku Sierra Leone kuti yipange Sierra Leone Broadcasting Corporation, iyo njakovwira chomene pa charu chose. Ndondomeko ya boma ya Sierra Leone yikovwira kuti ŵanthu ŵayowoyenge makora na kusindikizga.<ref>{{cite web |author=Thomson Reuters Foundation |url=http://www.trust.org/item/20131024140514-sg47u/ |title=Sierra Leone – Editorial criticizing president prompts multiple proceedings |publisher=Trust.org |date=24 October 2013 |access-date=20 March 2014 |archive-date=2 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140402160721/http://www.trust.org/item/20131024140514-sg47u/ |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/africa/sierra-leone-editors-arrested-after-publishing-article-comparing-president-to-a-rat/2013/10/21/168d8172-3a53-11e3-b0e7-716179a2c2c7_story.html | archive-url=https://archive.today/20131025175049/http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/africa/sierra-leone-editors-arrested-after-publishing-article-comparing-president-to-a-rat/2013/10/21/168d8172-3a53-11e3-b0e7-716179a2c2c7_story.html | url-status=dead | archive-date=25 October 2013 | title=Sierra Leone editors arrested after publishing article comparing pres… | newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] | date=25 October 2013 | access-date=27 January 2019 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Greenslade |first=Roy|author-link=Roy Greenslade |url=https://www.theguardian.com/media/greenslade/2013/oct/25/press-freedom-sierraleone |title=Editor arrested for comparing Sierra Leone president to a rat &#124; Media |journal=The Guardian |date=25 October 2013 |access-date=20 March 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.foxnews.com/world/2013/10/21/sierra-leone-editors-arrested-after-publishing-article-comparing-president-to/ |title=Sierra Leone editors arrested after publishing article comparing president to a rat |publisher=Fox News |date=23 October 2013 |access-date=20 March 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.africareview.com/News/Sierra-Leone-intensifies-media-crackdown/-/979180/2043834/-/u0oloaz/-/index.html |title=Sierra Leone intensifies media crackdown – News|first=Kemo|last=Cham |publisher=africareview.com |date=21 October 2013|access-date=20 March 2014 |archive-date=18 July 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140718035744/http://www.africareview.com/News/Sierra-Leone-intensifies-media-crackdown/-/979180/2043834/-/u0oloaz/-/index.html |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201310250762.html |title=Sierra Leone: In Sierra Leone, Journalists Held On Libel, Sedition Charges |publisher=allAfrica.com |date=24 October 2013 |access-date=20 March 2014}}</ref> Ŵanthu na ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵakutemwa vya ndyali ŵakuwona nkhani zinyake kuŵa zakubendera.<ref>{{cite web |last =Wilson |first =Harry |year =2005 |title =Press Freedoms and Human Rights:2005 Year End Press Freedom Brief |publisher =Commonwealth Press Union |url =http://www.cpu.org.uk/pf_2005_review.html |access-date =20 April 2008 |archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20071124131843/http://www.cpu.org.uk/pf_2005_review.html |archive-date =24 November 2007 |url-status =dead |df =dmy-all }}</ref><ref name="Annual06">{{cite web |year=2006 |title=Sierra Leone – Annual report 2006 |url=http://www.rsf.org/article.php3?id_article=17400 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090614032911/http://www.rsf.org/article.php3?id_article=17400 |archive-date=14 June 2009 |access-date=20 April 2008 |publisher=Reporters without Borders:For Press Freedom |df=dmy-all}}</ref> Mu 1980, boma likapeleka dango lakuti manyuzipepara ghose ghalembeke na Wupu wa Vyaru vya Kupharazga na kulipira ndalama zinandi zakweruzgira. Mu 2006, Pulezidenti Ahmad Tejan Kabbah wakajipeleka kusintha malango agho ghakwendeska nkhani na vyapa media kuti ŵafumiske ndondomeko ya wanangwa wa wanthu. Mu Sierra Leone, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuŵazga yayi nkhani za manyuzipepara, chomenechomene za kuwaro kwa Freetown na misumba yinyake yikuru, chifukwa cha kuchepa kwa kuŵerenga na kulemba mu charu. Mu 2007 mu charu mukaŵa nyuzipepara 15 za zuŵa lililose, kweniso izo zikupharazgika sabata yiliyose.<ref name="BBC">{{cite web |date =June 2007 |title =Media use, and attitudes towards media in Sierra Leone:A comprehensive baseline study |work=[[BBC World Service]] |url =http://downloads.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/trust/pdf/media_report_2007.pdf |access-date =19 April 2007}}</ref>[[File: Isata Mahoi radio editor and actress.jpg|thumb|Isata Mahoi wakulongoreka kuti wakunozga mapulogiramu gha pa wayilesi mu Talking Drum studio Freetown; wakugwiraso nchito ya kuvina mu opera wa pa wayilesi ya Sierra Leone Atunda Ayenda]] Rediyo ndiyo yikupharazgika comene na ŵanthu ŵanandi ku Sierra Leone, ndipo ŵanthu 85 pa 100 ŵaliwose ŵali na wayilesi ndipo 72 pa 100 ŵaliose ŵakupulikira wayilesi zuŵa lililose.<ref name="BBC"/> Malo agha ghakupambana pakati pa vigaŵa vya charu, ndipo chigaŵa cha kumanjiliro gha dazi ndicho chili na malo ghakuru chomene ndipo chigaŵa chakumpoto ni Kailahun. United Nations Mission in Sierra Leone (UNIOSIL) yikaŵa siteshoni yakumanyikwa chomene mu charu ichi, ndipo yikapharazganga mu viyowoyero vinandi. Mu 2008, ntchito ya UN Radio yikapangika na kujumphiskika na SLBS kuti yikhazikike na Sierra Leone Broadcasting Corporation (SLBC). Kunja kwa likulu Freetown na misumba yikuru yinyake, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakulaŵilira yayi TV, nangauli Bo, Kenema na Makeni ŵakugwiranga ntchito na ma relay ghawo gha ntchito yikuru ya SLBC. Mu Sierra Leone muli malo ghatatu gha pa caru gha pa caru ghakusungirako ma TV gha pa caru cose, limoza ni boma la SLBC ndipo ghanyake ghaŵiri ni malo gha pa caru ca Freetown, Star TV agho ghakusungilira mwenecho wa nyuzipepara ya Standard-Times na AYV - Africa Young Voices. Malo ghanandi gha pa caru capasi ghakusungiramo ma TV ghakusungilirako ndalama. Malo ghaŵiri gha pa caru cilicose gha pa caru (ABC na AIT) ghakasungikiranga nchito yayi. Mu 2007, GTV yikayambiska uteŵeti wa kulipira pa malo gha pa charu cose nga ni gulu la TV ya ku Africa yose. Ku Sierra Leone kulije internet kweni yikukura chomene, chomenechomene kufuma apo pakambiska ntchito za foni ya 3G/4G mu charu chose. Pali ŵapeleka maofesi ghanandi gha pa Intaneti (ISP) mu charu ichi. === Arts === {{Further|Art in Sierra Leone|Music of Sierra Leone}} Vinthu vya ku Sierra Leone vikusazga maluso gha ku Africa na gha ku Western.<ref>{{Cite book|last = Banham|first = Martin|title = A history of theatre in Africa|publisher = Cambridge University Press|year = 2004|page = 171|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=RZXtk9bCZ-8C&pg=PA171|isbn = 978-0-521-80813-2|access-date = 17 June 2014}}{{Dead link|date=February 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last =Conteh |first = Prince Sorie |title = Traditionalists, Muslims, and Christians in Africa: interreligious encounters and dialogue|publisher =Cambria Press |year =2009|pages = 23–24|url =https://books.google.com/books?id=HpAuyiMRTDcC&pg=PA23|isbn=978-1-60497-596-3|access-date=17 June 2014}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1 =Manson |first1 =Katrina |first2=James |last2=Knight |title = Sierra Leone|publisher = Bradt Travel Guides|year =2009|pages = 42–45|url =https://books.google.com/books?id=VxRcEzkFs-wC&pg=PA43|isbn=978-1-84162-222-4|access-date=17 June 2014}}</ref> <gallery> File: Temne. Ode-Lay Mask Brooklyn Museum.jpg|Odelay mask by [[Temne people]]. [[Brooklyn Museum]]. File: Sierra Leone Koindu dance.jpg|The [[Koindu]] dance </gallery> === Vyamasebero === {{Main|Sport in Sierra Leone}} [[File:Sierra Leone National Stadium.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|[[National Stadium (Sierra Leone)|National Stadium]] in [[Freetown]].]] Mpira wa mpira wa Association ndi masewera otchuka kwambiri ku Sierra Leone. Ana, achinyamata ndi achikulire amawoneka kawirikawiri kusewera mpira wamisewu ku Sierra Leone . Pali mipira ya mpira wa achinyamata ndi achinyamata yomwe imakonzedwa mdziko lonselo, ndipo pali masukulu osiyanasiyana oyambira ndi apakati omwe ali ndi magulu a mpira ku Sierra Leone konse. Gulu la mpira wa Sierra Leone, ilo likucemeka kuti Leone Stars, likwimira charu mu vyakumenyana vya pa caru cose. Likasankha yayi kuti liŵe na malo gha kuzakawonelera nkhonya za caru vya caru cose vya Africa. Ŵanandi mwa ŵasepuka ŵa Sierra Leone National Premier League ŵakamba kuseŵera ku Europe. Ŵasepuka ŵanandi ŵa Sierra Leone ŵakumanyikwa chomene mu charu chose cha Sierra Leone ndipo ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuŵamanya makora. Ŵasepa ŵanyake ŵa Sierra Leone mba Mohamed Kallon, Mohamed Bangura, Rodney Strasser, Kei Kamara, Ibrahim Teteh Bangura, Mustapha Dumbuya, Christian Caulker, Alhassan Bangura, Sheriff Suma, Osman Kakayaru, Mohamed Kamara, Umaru Bangura na Julius Woobay. The Sierra Leone National Premier League ni ligi yikuru chomene ya mpira wa ku Sierra Leone ndipo yikulongozgeka na Sierra Leone Football Association. Makirabu 14 gha mu charu chose ghakumanyikwa kuti ni Sierra Leone Premier League. Makirabhu ghaŵiri ghakuru na ghakuchita makora chomene gha mpira ni East End Lions na Mighty Blackpool. East End Lion na MightyBlackpool ŵakulondezga chomene ndipo para ŵakuseŵera, sitediyamu ya mu Freetown yikuguliskika ndipo ŵanthu ŵa makirabu ghose ghaŵiri ŵakukumana pambere maseŵera ghachitike. Ŵawukirano ŵanandi ŵa ku Sierra Leone, ŵana na ŵanthu ŵalara ŵakulondezga matchalitchi gha ku Europe, chomenechomene English Premier League, Italian Serie A, Spanish La Liga, German Bundesliga na French Ligue 1. Gulu la cricket la Sierra Leone likuyimira Sierra Leone mu mpikisano wa cricket wa pa charu chose ndipo lili pakati pa ŵabwezi ŵaŵiri ku West Africa. Likawungana na International Cricket Council mu 2002. Mu 2009, gulu la Sierra Leone Under-19 likaŵa lachiŵiri pa African Under-19 Championship ku Zambia, ndipo likaluta ku World Cup ya Under-19 pamoza na magulu ghanyake 9.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cricinfo.com/other/content/story/403002.html |title=Cricinfo article Uganda and Sierra Leone Win Through |publisher=Cricinfo.com |date=5 May 2009 |access-date=20 May 2012}}</ref> Ndipouli, gulu ili likaŵa kuti lindakwaniske kusanga vhiza vya ku Canada kuti lizakaŵepo pa mpikisano uwu, uwo ukachitikira ku Toronto.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cricinfo.com/other/content/story/423890.html |title=Visa Issues End Sierra Leone's World Cup Dream |publisher=Cricinfo article |date=7 September 2009 |access-date=20 May 2012}}</ref> Sierra Leone ndiyo ni caru cacokwamba ca ku Africa kunjira mu International Floorball Federation. ==Tourism== {{main|Tourism in Sierra Leone}} Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakutemwa kuluta ku Freetown, Sierra Leone. Nangauli nchito iyi yikakhwaskika comene pa nyengo ya Nkhondo ya Caru na Caru, kweni yasintha comene mu vilimika vyasonosono apa. Msumba uwu uli na vinandi vyakuti ukasangire ŵalendo. Pa chilumba cha Freetown pali maboma ghanandi. Mphepete mwa nyanja ya Lumley-Aberdeen yikwenda kufuma ku Cape Sierra Leone m'paka ku Lumley. Paliso malo ghanyake agho ŵanthu ŵakutemwa chomene nga ni Mlonga Nambara 2, Laka Beach, Tokeh Beach, Bureh Beach, na Mama Beach. Ku malo ghakuvikilirako viyuni gha Tacugama Chimpanzee Sanctuary, uko kuli nkhorongo yikuru ya viyuni vya mu chigaŵa ichi, makilomita ghachoko waka kufuma pakati pa msumba wa Freetown, kuli viyuni vinandi vya viyuni ivi. Malo ghanyake agho ŵanthu ŵakutemwa kuluta ghakaŵa Freetown Cotton Tree, ilo lili ku Central Freetown, ndipo ni malo ghakuzirwa chomene pa charu chose ndipo ghakaŵa pakwamba apo msumba uwu ukapangikanga. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakutemwa kuluta ku malo gha Aberdenn-Lumley uko kuli umoyo wa usiku.<ref>Sylvester Gasopan Goba (August 2014) [https://www.theigc.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/08/Sylvester-Gasopan-Goba-Sierra-Leone-GW2012.pdf Sierra Leone Tourism: sector overview]. [[International Growth Centre]]. [https://www.theigc.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/08/Sylvester-Gasopan-Goba-Sierra-Leone-GW2012.pdf Archived]. Retrieved 18 November 2021.</ref> {{multiple image |align = center |total_width = 1000 |image1 = |caption1 = Lumley Beach, Freetown - is popular for its white sandy beach as well as its nightlife |image2 = |caption2 = The Place - Tokeh Beach, Freetown, - offers a variety of services to tourists spending hours or days around the beach area |image3 = |caption3 = Tokeh Beach, Freetown - is a popular tourist destination |image4 = |caption4 = Chimpanzees at the Tacugama Chimpanzee Sanctuary in the Western Area National Park, few kilometres away from Freetown }} == Wonaniso == {{Portal|Sierra Leone|Africa}} * [[Outline of Sierra Leone]] == Vyalulemba == {{notelist}} {{NoteFoot}} == Ukaboni == {{Reflist}} == Vyakulemba vinyake == * {{cite journal |last1=Acemoglu |first1=Daron |last2=Reed |first2=Tristan |last3=Robinson |first3=James A. |title=Chiefs: Economic Development and Elite Control of Civil Society in Sierra Leone |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-political-economy_2014-04_122_2/page/319 |journal=Journal of Political Economy |date=April 2014 |volume=122 |issue=2 |pages=319–368 |doi=10.1086/674988 |s2cid=15212378 }} * Harris, David (2012). [https://books.google.com/books?id=B5RxmwC6aNwC ''Civil War and Democracy in West Africa: Conflict Resolution, Elections and Justice in Sierra Leone and Liberia''], I.B. Tauris. * Imodale Caulker-Burnett, [https://books.google.com/books?id=5j61GUfpX5YC&pg=PA19 ''The Caulkers of Sierra Leone: The Story of a Ruling Family and Their Times''] (Xlibris, 2010){{Self-published inline|certain=yes|date=December 2017}} * {{Cite book |last=Keen |first=David |year=2005 |title=Conflict and Collusion in Sierra Leone |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SEz1PCvILHUC |location=Oxford |publisher=James Currey |isbn=978-0-85255-883-6 |access-date=17 June 2014}} * {{Cite book |last=Kup |first=Alexander Peter |year=1961 |title= A History of Sierra Leone, 1400–1787 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location= Cambridge|isbn= 978-0-7864-1814-5}} * {{cite book |author=Sierra Leone Truth and Reconciliation Commission |year=2004 |title=TRC Report |url=http://www.sierraleonetrc.org/index.php/view-the-final-report/download-table-of-contents |location=Accra, Ghana |publisher=Graphic Packaging Ltd./GPL Press |isbn=9988-8097-6-X |access-date=14 May 2016}} * {{Cite book |last=Sillinger |first=Brett |title= Sierra Leone: Current Issues and Background|year= 2003|publisher=Nova Science Publishers |location= New York|isbn= 978-1-59033-662-5}} * {{Cite book |ref=Utting |last=Utting |first=Francis A. |year=1971 |orig-year=1931 |title=The Story of Sierra Leone |url=https://archive.org/details/storyofsierraleo0000utti |url-access=registration |location=Hallendale, Florida |publisher=New World Book Manufacturing |isbn= 978-0-8369-6704-3}} === Fiction and memoir === * Massucco W. [http://bluindaco.org/en/documentary/life-does-not-lose-its-value-documentary-film/ ''Life does not lose its value/La Vita non perde valore''], documentary, Bluindaco Productions, 2012. [[La vita non perde valore|Link: ''La vita non perde valore'']]. * Bonnet, Laurent. [http://www.franceinter.fr/player/reecouter?play=296145 ''Salone, a novel en Terre Krio''], Vents d'Ailleurs, 2012 * [[Ishmael Beah|Beah, Ishmael]]. ''A Long Way Gone: Memoirs of a Boy Soldier'' (2007). Sarah Crichton Books: New York. [[A Long Way Gone|Link: ''A Long Way Gone'']]. * [[Delia Jarrett-Macauley|Jarrett-Macauley, Delia]], ''Moses, Citizen & Me'' – novel, [[Granta Books]] (2005), {{ISBN|186207741X}}. Winner of the [[Orwell Prize]] 2006. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20180915192616/http://tylertopics.com/writing/books/historic-preservation-book-2-4-2/ ''The Peace Corps, Sierra Leone, and Me''] ==== Secondary sources ==== * {{Cite book|author= Levinson, Robby|title= Ethnic Groups Worldwide: A Ready Reference Handbook|year= 1998|publisher= Oryx Press|location= Phoenix|isbn= 978-1-57356-019-1|url= https://archive.org/details/ethnicgroupsworl00levi}} == Vigaŵa vya kuwalo == {{Sister project links|Sierra Leone|voy=Sierra Leone}} ; Government * [https://statehouse.gov.sl/ The Republic of Sierra Leone] official government site * [https://web.archive.org/web/20150905110758/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/world-leaders-1/SL.html Chief of State and Cabinet Members] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150905110758/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/world-leaders-1/SL.html |date=5 September 2015 }} * [http://www.slminerals.org/ Ministry of Mineral Resources] official government minerals site * [http://www.thepatrioticvanguard.com/spip.php?article4158 thepatrioticvanguard.com ''The Patriotic Vanguard''] – official government newspaper ;General information * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/country_profiles/1061561.stm Country Profile], [[BBC News]] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20210403133725/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/sierra-leone/ Sierra Leone]. ''[[The World Factbook]]''. [[Central Intelligence Agency]]. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20080607085717/http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/sierraleone.htm Sierra Leone], ''UCB Libraries GovPubs'' * {{Curlie|Regional/Africa/Sierra_Leone}} * {{wikiatlas|Sierra Leone}} * {{osmrelation-inline|192777}} * [http://www.ifs.du.edu/ifs/frm_CountryProfile.aspx?Country=SL Key Development Forecasts for Sierra Leone], [[International Futures]] ;News media * [https://web.archive.org/web/20080905131237/http://www.news.sl/ ''Awareness Times''], Newspaper * [http://www.thenewpeople.com/ ''The New People''], Newspaper * [http://allafrica.com/sierraleone/ News headline links], [[AllAfrica.com]] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20150919131013/http://www.my-sierra-leone-life.com/ Sierra Leone News & Blog] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150919131013/http://www.my-sierra-leone-life.com/ |date=19 September 2015 }}, Current Sierra Leone News & Blog ;Trade * [http://wits.worldbank.org/CountryProfile/Country/SLE/Year/2002/Summary Sierra Leone 2002 Summary Trade Statistics] ; Tourism * [https://web.archive.org/web/20191020073756/https://sierraleonenationaltouristboard.com/ Sierra Leone National Tourist Board], Official Government site ; Telecommunication * [https://web.archive.org/web/20100313072928/http://www.alosmart.com/Sierra-Leone-calling-card-191.asp Sierra Leone], telecom ; Other * [http://fosalone.org/ Friends of Sierra Leone] * [http://www.schoolsforsalone.org/ Schools for Salone], non-profit dedicated to rebuilding schools * [http://www.enciss-sl.org/ ENCISS] civil society and governance * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110510101125/http://auradicals.com/ The Auradicals Club], Student Club in Fourah Bay College * [http://www.sierra-leone.org/ Sierra Leone Web] * [http://sweetsalonefilm.blogspot.nl/ ''Sweet Salone''], 2008 film on new music in Sierra Leone * [https://web.archive.org/web/20080501184018/http://www.sc-sl.org/ War Crimes Trials in Sierra Leone] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20140714041603/http://www.hurrarc.org/ Hurrarc – Human Rights Respect Awareness Raising Campaigners], Sierra Leone NGO * [https://web.archive.org/web/20081010165129/http://www.ejfoundation.org/page370.html Environmental Justice Foundation's report on pirate fishing in Sierra Leone] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20140629064622/http://www.storiesfromlakkabeach.com/ ''Stories from Lakka Beach''], 2011 documentary about life in a post-conflict beach town {{Sierra Leone topics}} {{Navboxes |title = Articles relating to Sierra Leone |list = {{Countries of Africa|state=expanded}} {{Navboxes |title = [[File:Gnome-globe.svg|25px]]{{nbsp}}Geographic locale |list = '''[[Geographic coordinate system|Lat. <small>and</small> Long.]] {{Coord|8|29|4|N|13|14|4|W|display=inline}} <span style="colour:darkblue;">(Freetown)</span>''' }} {{Navboxes |title = International membership |list = {{African Union}} {{Commonwealth of Nations}} }} {{Navboxes |title = Languages |list = {{English dialects by continent}} {{English official language clickable map}} }} }} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Sierra Leone| ]]<!--please leave the empty space as standard--> [[Category:1961 establishments in Sierra Leone]] [[Category:Countries in Africa]] [[Category:Economic Community of West African States]] [[Category:English-speaking countries and territories]] [[Category:Least developed countries]] [[Category:Member states of the African Union]] [[Category:Member states of the Commonwealth of Nations]] [[Category:Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation]] [[Category:Member states of the United Nations]] [[Category:Republics in the Commonwealth of Nations]] [[Category:States and territories established in 1961]] [[Category:West African countries]] fc3v9j07gu42dqkrn3r2xm1b1wn9193 0 6956 119283 118848 2026-08-13T21:45:36Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260813sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 119283 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|Country in the Horn of Africa}} {{pp|small=yes}} {{pp-move-indef}} {{Use dmy dates|date=July 2019}} {{Infobox country | conventional_long_name = Charu cha Wupu wa Somalia | common_name = Somalia | native_name = {{native name|so|Jamhuuriyadda Federaalka Soomaaliya}}<br />{{native name|ar|جمهورية الصومال الفيدرالية|italics=off}}<br />{{small|{{transliteration|ar|Jumhūriyah aṣ-Ṣūmāl al-Fīdirāliyah}}}} | image_flag = Flag of Somalia.svg | image_coat = Coat of arms of Somalia.svg | coa_size = 100 | national_anthem = {{lang|so|[[Qolobaa Calankeed]]}}<br />{{lang|ar|علم أي امة}}<br />"Every nation has its own flag"<br /><div style="display:inline-block;margin-top:0.4em;">[[File:Somalian national anthem, performed by the United States Navy Band.oga]]</div> | image_map = Somalia (orthographic projection).svg | map_caption = {{Legend|#336733|Territory controlled}} {{Legend|#49c946|Territory claimed but not controlled ([[Somaliland]])}} | image_map2 = | capital = [[Mogadishu]] | coordinates = {{Coord|2|2|N|45|21|E|type:city}} | largest_city = capital | official_languages = [[Somali language|Somali]], [[Arabic]]<ref name="factbook">{{cite web |title=Somalia |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/somalia |website=The World Factbook |publisher=Central Intelligence Agency |language=en |date=10 November 2021}}</ref> | national_languages = | religion = [[Sunni Islam]] ([[State Religion|official]])<ref name="factbook"/> <!-- check factbook references before changing! --> | demonym = [[Somalis|Somali]]<ref name="factbook"/> | government_type = [[Federalism|Federal]] [[Presidential system|presidential]] [[republic|constitutional republic]] | leader_title1 = [[President of Somalia|President]] | leader_name1 = [[Hassan Sheikh Mohamud]] | leader_title2 = [[List of prime ministers of Somalia|Prime Minister]] | leader_name2 = [[Hamza Abdi Barre]] | leader_title3 = [[House of People|House Speaker]] | leader_name3 = [[Aden Madobe]] | legislature = [[Federal Parliament of Somalia]] | upper_house = [[Senate of Somalia|Senate]] | lower_house = [[House of the People (Somalia)|House of the People]] | sovereignty_type = [[History of Somalia|Independence]] | sovereignty_note = from [[Italy]] and the [[United Kingdom]] | established_event1 = [[British Somaliland]] | established_date1 = 1887 | established_event2 = [[Italian Somaliland]] | established_date2 = 1889 | established_event3 = [[Independence Day (Somalia)|Independence]] and union with the [[State of Somaliland]] | established_date3 = 1 July 1960 | established_event4 = [[United Nations Security Council Resolution 141|Admitted to the]] [[United Nations]] | established_date4 = 20 September 1960 | established_event5 = [[Constitution of Somalia|Current constitution]] | established_date5 = 1 August 2012 | area_km2 = 637,657<ref name="factbook"/> | area_rank = 43rd <!--should be same as listed on [[List of countries and dependencies by area]]--> | area_sq_mi = 246,200 <!--Do not remove per [[WP:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers]]--> | percent_water = | population_estimate = 12,693,796<ref>{{Cite CIA World Factbook|country=Somalia|access-date=22 June 2023|year=2023}}</ref> | population_estimate_year = 2023 | population_estimate_rank = 78th | population_density_km2 = 27.2<ref name="WPP_2022">{{cite web|url=https://population.un.org/wpp/Download/Standard/MostUsed/ |title=United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division (2022). World Population Prospects 2022, Online Edition.|publisher=United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division|website=population.un.org|access-date=16 July 2022}}</ref> | population_density_sq_mi = 41.73 <!--Do not remove per [[WP:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers]]--> | population_density_rank = 199th | GDP_PPP = [[United States dollar|US$]]20.641 billion | GDP_PPP_year = 2022 | GDP_PPP_rank = 155th | GDP_PPP_per_capita = [[United States dollar|US$]]1,322<ref>{{Cite web |title=GDP per capita, PPP (current international $) – Somalia {{!}} Data |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.PCAP.PP.CD?locations=SO |access-date=2022-04-26 |website=data.worldbank.org}}</ref> | GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 222nd | GDP_nominal = [[United States dollar|US$]]7.62 billion<ref name="WorldBank">{{cite web |url=https://data.worldbank.org/country/somalia |title=Somalia , 2021 |publisher=[[The World Bank]] |website=worldbank.org |access-date=17 April 2023}}</ref> | GDP_nominal_year = 2022 | GDP_nominal_rank = 184th | GDP_nominal_per_capita = [[United States dollar|US$]]544<ref name="IMFWEOSO">{{cite web |url=https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2019/02/weodata/weorept.aspx?pr.x=68&pr.y=11&sy=2016&ey=2021&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=726&s=NGDP_RPCH%2CNGDPD%2CPPPGDP&grp=0&a= |title=World Economic Outlook Database, October 2019 |publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]] |website=IMF.org |access-date=16 November 2019}}</ref> | GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 211th | Gini = <!--number only--> | Gini_year = | Gini_change = <!--increase/decrease/steady--> | Gini_ref = | Gini_rank = | HDI = <!--number only-->0.361 | HDI_year = <!-- Please use the year to which the data refers, not the publication year-->2021 | HDI_change = steady <!--increase/decrease/steady--> | HDI_ref = {{efn|The UN does not calculate the HDI of Somalia. Data taken from Radboud University's Global Data Lab.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://globaldatalab.org/shdi/table/shdi/SOM/?levels=1&years=2021&interpolation=0&extrapolation=0 |title=Subnational HDI – Somalia |publisher=Global Data Lab |access-date=11 May 2023}}</ref>}} | HDI_rank = 192nd | currency = [[Somali shilling]] | currency_code = SOS | time_zone = [[East Africa Time|EAT]] | utc_offset = +3 | utc_offset_DST = | time_zone_DST = | date_format = dd/mm/yyyy | drives_on = right | calling_code = [[Telephone numbers in Somalia|+252]] | cctld = [[.so]] | ethnic_groups = {{plainlist| * [[Somalis|Somali]] 85% * [[Demographics of Somalia|Other]] 15% }} | ethnic_groups_ref = <ref name="factbook"/><ref>{{Cite book|last=Lewis|first=I. M.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=k3QwAQAAIAAJ|title=Peoples of the Horn of Africa: Somali, Afar, and Saho|date=1998|publisher=Red Sea Press|isbn=978-1-56902-104-0|language=en}}</ref> | ethnic_groups_year = 2021 }} '''Somalia''',{{efn|{{IPAc-en|s|ə|ˈ|m|ɑː|l|i|ə|,_|s|oʊ|-}} {{respell|sə|MAH|lee|ə|,_|soh|-}};<ref>{{Citation |last=Jones |first=Daniel |author-link=Daniel Jones (phonetician) |title=English Pronouncing Dictionary |editor=Peter Roach |editor2=James Hartmann |editor3=Jane Setter |place=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |orig-year=1917 |year=2003 |isbn=3-12-539683-2 }}</ref><ref>{{MerriamWebsterDictionary|Somalia}}</ref><ref>{{Dictionary.com|Somalia}}</ref> {{lang-so|Soomaaliya}} {{IPA-so|sɔːmɑːlijæ|}}, [[Osmanya script]]: 𐒈𐒝𐒑𐒛𐒐𐒘𐒕𐒖; {{lang-ar|الصومال|aṣ-Ṣūmāl}}}} mwaboma, '''Charu cha Somalia'''<ref name="provisional">The ''Federal Republic of Somalia'' is the country's name per Article 1 of the [https://web.archive.org/web/20130124010543/http://www.somaliweyn.com/pages/news/Aug_12/Somalia_Constitution_English_FOR_WEB.pdf Provisional Constitution] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130124010543/http://www.somaliweyn.com/pages/news/Aug_12/Somalia_Constitution_English_FOR_WEB.pdf |date=24 January 2013 }},</ref> ({{Lang-so|Jamhuuriyadda Federaalka Soomaaliya}}; {{Lang-ar|جمهورية الصومال الفيدرالية}}), ni chalo icho chili ku [[Africa]]. Charu ichi chili na mphaka na charu cha [[Ethiopia]] kumanjiliro gha dazi, [[Djibouti]] kumpoto cha kumanjiliro gha dazi, [[Gulf of Aden]] kumpoto, [[Indian Ocean]] kumafumiro gha dazi, na [[Kenya]] kumwera kwa kumanjiliro gha dazi. Charu cha Somalia chili na mumphepete mwa nyanja utali comene kuluska vyaru vinyake vyose vya mu Africa. Charu ichi chili na mapiri ghatali, vipalamba, na mapiri.<ref name="factbook"/> Nyengo zinyake mu charu ichi mukuŵa mphepo zakotcha, ndipo vula zikulokwa mwambura kwenelera. Ku Somalia kuli ŵanthu pafupifupi 17.1 miliyoni, ndipo ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 2 miliyoni ŵakukhala mu msumba ukuru wa Mogadishu. Ŵanthu awo ŵakukhala mu tawuni iyi ŵalipo pafupifupi 85 peresenti. Ŵanandi mwa ŵanthu aŵa ŵakukhala kumwera. Viyowoyero vya boma vya ku Somalia ni Chisomali na Chiarabic. Ŵanthu ŵanandi mu caru ici Mbacisilamu, ndipo ŵanandi mwa iwo Mbacisilamu.<ref name="Abdullahi 2001 1">{{Harvnb|Abdullahi|2001|p=1}}.</ref> In antiquity, Somalia was an important commercial center.<ref>John Kenrick 1855) ''Phoenicia'', B. Fellowes, p. 199.</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Casson|first1=Lionel|title=Ancient Trade and Society|date=1984|publisher=Mich.|isbn=0-8143-1740-5|page=235|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9iu6AAAAIAAJ|access-date=25 May 2015}}</ref> It is among the most probable locations of the ancient [[Land of Punt]].<ref>{{cite book |author=Charnan Simon|title=Explorers of the Ancient World|year=1990|publisher=Childrens Press|isbn=0-516-03053-1|page=[https://archive.org/details/explorersofancie00simo/page/26 26]|url=https://archive.org/details/explorersofancie00simo|url-access=registration}}</ref><ref>Christine El Mahdy (2005) ''Egypt : 3000 Years of Civilization Brought to Life'', Raincoast Books, p. 297, {{ISBN|1-55192-879-5}}.</ref> Mu vyaka vyapakati pa 500 na 1500 C.E., maufumu ghanandi gha ku Somalia ghakaŵa na mazaza pa malonda gha mu chigaŵa ichi, nga ni Ajuran Sultanate, Adal Sultanate, na Geledi Sultanate.<ref>Stefan Goodwin (2006) ''Africa's Legacies of Urbanization: Unfolding Saga of a Continent'', Lexington Books, p. 48, {{ISBN|0-7391-0731-3}}.</ref> Kuumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1800, mafumu gha ku Somalia nga ni Isaaq Sultanate na Majeerteen Sultanate ghakakhalanga mu vyaru vya Italy na Britain. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe ndiwo ŵakambiska vyaru ivi, ndipo ŵakaviŵika mu vigaŵa viŵiri. Pa nyengo iyi, mu vigaŵa vya mukati mwa charu, Ŵaderivi awo ŵakalongozgekanga na Mohammed Abdullah Hassan ŵakalimbana na Abyssinia, Italian Somaliland, na British Somaliland kwa vyaka 20. Ŵataliya ŵakamba kulamulira kumpoto kwa chigaŵa ichi, kumafumiro gha dazi, pakati, na kumwera, ŵakati ŵathereska ŵanthu ŵa ku Majeerteen na Hobyo. Mu 1960, vigaŵa viŵiri ivi vikakolerana na kuzgoka charu chakujiyimira paŵekha cha Somalia.<ref name="Illustrated Library 1967 338.2">''The Illustrated Library of The World and Its Peoples: Africa, North and East'', Greystone Press: 1967, p. 338.</ref> Siad Barre wa Supreme Revolutionary Council wakatora mazaza mu 1969 ndipo wakambiska boma la Somali Democratic Republic, ndipo wakayezga kukanizga nkhondo ya kujithemba ya Somaliland kumpoto kwa chalo. SRC yikamara mu 1991, apo Nkhondo ya ku Somalia yikambanga. Charu cha Somaliland chikulutilira kulamulira kumpoto ca kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Somalia. Kufuma mu nyengo iyi, vigaŵa vinandi vikamba kulondezga malango gha mu charu na chisopa. Kukwambilira kwa vyaka vya m'ma 2000, maboma ghakupambanapambana ghakapangika. Boma la Transitional National Government (TNG) likakhazikiskika mu chaka cha 2000, ndipo boma la Transitional Federal Government (TFG) likakhazikiskika mu chaka cha 2004.<ref name="factbook"/><ref name="Nytsnnpm">{{cite news|author=Jeffrey Gettleman|date=23 June 2011|title=Harvard-Educated Technocrat Chosen as Somalia Premier|newspaper=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/06/24/world/africa/24somalia.html?partner=rssnyt&emc=rss |access-date=23 June 2011}}</ref> Mu 2006, na wovwiri wa boma la Ethiopia, boma la TFG likapoka mazaza pa vigaŵa vinandi vya kumwera kwa charu kufuma ku Islamic Courts Union (ICU). Gulu la ICU pamasinda likapambana mu magulu ghakuru, kusazgapo ma jihadists al-Shabaab, agho ghakarwa nkhondo na TFG na ŵabwezi ŵake ŵa AMISOM kuti ŵaŵe na mazaza pa chigaŵa. Kuzakafika pakatikati pa 2012, ŵakugaluka aŵa ŵakataya vigaŵa vinandi ivyo ŵakathereska, ndipo ŵakamba kupenja malo ghakukhazikika gha demokilase. Nangauli vili nthena, ŵasilikari ŵa Somalia ŵachali na mazaza pa chigaŵa chikuru cha pakati na kumwera, ndipo ŵakulongozga mu vigaŵa ivyo boma likuwusa, ndipo msumba wa Jilib ndiwo ni msumba ukuru wa ŵasilikari ŵa Somalia.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=Al-Shabab |url=https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/al-shabab |access-date=2022-02-13 |website=Council on Foreign Relations |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Kenyan troops seize al-Shabaab base in Somalia|website=www.aa.com.tr |url=https://www.aa.com.tr/en/world/kenyan-troops-seize-al-shabaab-base-in-somalia/455875|access-date=2022-02-13}}</ref> Mu Ogasiti 2012, boma la Somalia likapanga dango liphya lakwamba. Mu mwezi wenewura, boma la Somalia likapangika ndipo nyengo yakuzengaso yikamba mu Mogadishu, nangauli al-Shabaab kanandi waka wakawukiranga ŵanthu. Charu cha Somalia chili na GDP yichoko chomene pa charu chose, ndipo chili mu gulu la vyaru vyakutalulira. Mu 2019, charu cha Somalia chikaŵa na chiŵelengero chichoko chomene pa charu chose, ndipo mu chaka chenechichi, ŵanthu 69 pa 100 ŵaliwose ŵakakhalanga pasi pa ukavu. Kufika mu 2020, chalo cha Somalia chili pa malo ghaciŵiri pa vyaru ivyo vikusuzgika. Boma ili lili na chuma chakuthupi yayi, ndipo likuthemba chomene pa viŵeto, ndalama izo ŵanthu ŵa ku Somalia ŵakupeleka ku vyaru vinyake, kweniso pa nkhani ya kutumirana mameseji. Charu ichi chili mu wupu wa United Nations, Arab League, African Union, Non-Aligned Movement, na Organization of Islamic Cooperation.<ref>{{cite web|title=Member States|url=https://www.oic-oci.org/states/?lan=en|access-date=27 August 2021|website=Organisation of Islamic Cooperation}}</ref> ==Mbili== {{Main|History of Somalia}} ===Prehistory=== <!-- Paleolithic & Neolithic are prehistoric --> [[File:Laas Geel single cow.jpg|thumb|Neolithic rock art at the [[Laas Geel]] complex depicting a long-horned cow.]] Charu cha Somalia ndicho chikaŵa chakwamba kukhalamo ŵanthu chifukwa cha malo agho chikaŵa. Ŵalwani awo ŵakafumanga mu Africa, ŵakwenera kuti ŵakakhalanga kuno pambere ŵandafume. Mu nyengo ya malibwe, ŵanthu ŵa ku Doian na Hargeisan ŵakakhalanga mu malo agha.<ref>{{cite book|author=Peter Robertshaw|title=A History of African Archaeology|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofafrican0000unse_j3c5/page/105|year=1990|publisher=J. Currey|isbn=978-0-435-08041-9|page=[https://archive.org/details/historyofafrican0000unse_j3c5/page/105 105]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Gutherz|first1=Xavier|last2=Diaz|first2=Amélie|last3=Ménard|first3=Clément|last4=Bon|first4=François|last5=Douze|first5=Katja|last6=Léa|first6=Vanessa|last7=Lesur|first7=Joséphine|last8=Sordoillet|first8=Dominique|date=Sep 2014|title=The Hargeisan revisited: Lithic industries from shelter 7 of Laas Geel, Somaliland and the transition between the Middle and Late Stone Age in the Horn of Africa|journal=Quaternary International|language=en|volume=343|pages=69–84|doi=10.1016/j.quaint.2014.04.038|bibcode=2014QuInt.343...69G}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Clark|first=J. D.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hCb6xzeydigC&q=somalia+stillbay+culture&pg=PA201|title=The Prehistoric Cultures of the Horn of Africa: An Analysis of the Stone Age Cultural and Climatic Succession in the Somalilands and Eastern Parts of Abyssinia|date=2013-03-21|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-63536-4|language=en}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Phillipson|first=D. W.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lRDYAW4wXOYC&q=Eburran+industry&pg=PA125|title=African Archaeology|date=2005-05-05|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-54002-5|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Delson|first1=Eric|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6GFGsswTIO8C|title=Encyclopedia of Human Evolution and Prehistory: Second Edition|last2=Tattersall|first2=Ian|last3=Couvering|first3=John Van|last4=Brooks|first4=Alison S.|date=2004-11-23|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-135-58228-9|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Petraglia|first1=Michael D.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x6o4XLIKN0UC&q=hargesian+culture&pg=PA199|title=The Evolution of Human Populations in Arabia: Paleoenvironments, Prehistory and Genetics|last2=Rose|first2=Jeffrey I.|date=2009-11-27|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-90-481-2719-1|language=en}}</ref> Ukaboni wakale comene wa maluso gha kusungika mu malo ghakusungako ŵakufwa mu caru ca Horn of Africa ngwakufuma ku malo ghakusungako ŵakufwa mu Somalia agho ghakaŵako m'ma 1000 B.C.E. Mu 1909, ŵanthu ŵakamanya kuti vinthu ivi vikafuma ku malo gha ku Jalelo. Ŵasayansi ŵakuyowoya kuti ŵanthu ŵakwambilira awo ŵakayowoyanga viyowoyero vya ku Asia ŵakiza mu chigaŵa ichi mu nyengo ya Neolithic kufuma ku malo agho mbumba iyi yikakhalanga mu Dambo la Nayelo.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Diamond | first1 = J | last2 = Bellwood | first2 = P | year = 2003 | title = Farmers and Their Languages: The First Expansions | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_science_2003-04-25_300_5619/page/597 | journal = Science | volume = 300| issue = 5619| pages = 597–603| doi = 10.1126/science.1078208 | pmid = 12714734 | bibcode = 2003Sci...300..597D | s2cid = 13350469 }}</ref> Malo gha Laas Geel agho ghali kufupi na tawuni ya Hargeisa, kumpoto cha kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Somalia, ghakaŵako vyaka pafupifupi 5,000 ivyo vyajumpha. Mu malo ghanyake gha kumpoto kwa chigaŵa cha Dhambalin, muli vithuzithuzi vinyake ivyo vikulongora mulwani uyo wakwera hachi. Vinthu vya mu jalawe ivi vikalembeka mu vyaka vya pakati pa 1,000 na 3,000 B.C.E. Kweniso pakati pa matawuni gha Las Khorey na El Ayo kumpoto kwa Somalia kuli Karinhegane, uko kuli vithuzithuzi vinandi vya vinyama. Pa cithuzithuzi cilicose pali malemba agho ghali kulembeka pasi pake, ndipo ghose ghali na vyaka pafupifupi 2,500.<ref>{{cite book |last=Hodd|first=Michael|title=East African Handbook|year=1994|publisher=Trade & Travel Publications|isbn=0-8442-8983-3|page=640|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bL8tAQAAIAAJ}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Ali|first=Ismail Mohamed|title=Somalia Today: General Information|year=1970|publisher=Ministry of Information and National Guidance, Somali Democratic Republic|page=295|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tMVAAAAAYAAJ}}</ref> ===Antiquity and classical era=== {{Main|Somali Architecture|Sesea}} Vinthu vyakale nga ni mapiramidi, ma mausoleum, misumba iyo yili kubwanganduka, na viliŵa vya malibwe nga ni linga la Wargaade, mbukaboni wakuti kukaŵa ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵakakhalanga makora ku Somali. Ŵanthu aŵa ŵakaguliskanga vinthu ku Eguputo na Greece kufuma mu vyaka vya m'ma 2000 B.C.E., ivyo vikukhozgera fundo yakuti ku Somalia panji ku vigaŵa vinyake kukaŵa charu cha Punt.<ref name="Nthos">{{cite book |last=Njoku |first=Raphael Chijioke |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FlL2vE_qRQ8C |title=The History of Somalia |publisher=ABC-CLIO |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-313-37857-7 |pages=29–31}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Abdel Monem A. H. Sayed |editor=Zahi A. Hawass |title=Egyptology at the Dawn of the Twenty-first Century: Archaeology|year=2003|publisher=American Univ in Cairo Press|isbn=977-424-674-8|pages=432–433|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1E13DorsFMEC}}</ref> Ŵanthu ŵa ku Punt, awo ŵakakhalanga mu chigaŵa ichi, ŵakaguliskanga mure, vyakununkhira, golide, eboni, ng'ombe za masengwe ghafupi, njovu, na lubani na Ŵaeguputo, Ŵafoinike, Ŵababuloni, Ŵahindi, Ŵachinayi, na Ŵaroma. Pa visimi vya mu tempile la Deir el-Bahari, pakalembeka vya ulendo wa ku Eguputo wa ku Punt uwo wakacita Fumukazi Hatshepsut. Mu 2015, ŵasayansi ŵakasanda minthumbo ya vikoko vya ku Punt ivyo ŵakiza navyo ku Eguputo nga ntchawanangwa. Mu nyengo yakale, ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Macrobian, awo ŵakaŵa ŵasekuru ŵa ŵanthu ŵa ku Somalia, ŵakakhazikiska ufumu wankhongono uwo ukalamuliranga chigaŵa chikuru cha Somalia. Ŵakaŵa na mbiri ya kukhala nyengo yitali na kuŵa ŵasambazi, ndipo ŵakayowoyanga kuti ŵakaŵa "ŵanalume ŵatali na ŵakutowa comene". Ŵanthu ŵa ku Macrobian ŵakaŵa ŵaliska ŵa viŵeto na ŵakwendeska ngalaŵa. Herodotus wakayowoya kuti Themba la ku Peresiya, Cambyses II, likati lakora Eguputo mu 525 B.C.E., likatuma mathenga ku Macrobiya kuti ghazakamupe vyawanangwa vinandi. Fumu ya Macrobiya, iyo yikasankhika cifukwa ca msinkhu wake na kutowa kwake, yikamuzgora na kumuphalira munthu munyake wa ku Peresiya kuti waŵikenge uta: Usange Ŵaperesiya ŵangakwaniska kuwukoma, mbwenu ŵangaŵa na wanangwa wa kuwukira caru cake. Kweni m'paka nyengo iyo, ŵakwenera kuwonga ŵachiuta cifukwa cakuti Macrobiya ŵakakana kuwukira ufumu wawo. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Macrobian ŵakaŵa ŵankhongono comene ndipo ŵakamanyikwanga cifukwa ca luso lwawo lwa kuzenga na usambazi wawo wa golide. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakugomezga kuti ngamila zikaŵako mu nyengo ya pakati pa 2 na 3 B.C.E. Kufuma kura, yikathandazgikira ku Eguputo na ku Maghreb. Mu nyengo yakale, misumba ya Barbara iyo yikumanyikwaso na mazina ghakuti, Sesia of Mosylon, Opone, Mundus, Isis, Malao, Avalites, Essina, Nikon, na Sarapion, yikaŵa na malonda ghanandi, ndipo yikakolerananga na ŵamalonda ŵa ku Ptolemaic Egypt, Ancient Greece, Phoenicia, Parthian Persia, Saba, Nabataean Kingdom, na Roman Empire. Ŵakagwiliskiranga nchito ngaraŵa yakale ya ku Somalia yakucemeka beden pakunyamura katundu wawo.[[File:Beden.jpg|thumbnail|The [[Beden]] is a fast, ancient Somali single or double-masted maritime ship.]] Ŵaroma ŵakati ŵathereska ufumu wa Nabataean na kuŵapo kwa ŵasilikari ŵa Romu ku Aden kuti ŵaleke kunanga vinthu vyawo, ŵamalonda ŵa ku Arabia na Somalia ŵakakolerana na Ŵaroma kuti ŵaleke kuzomerezga ngaraŵa za ku India kuti zileke kwenda mu misumba ya ku Arabia kuti ŵavikilire ŵamalonda ŵa ku Somalia na Arabia pa malonda agho ghakacitikanga pakati pa Nyanja Yiswesi na ya Meditereniyani. Ndipouli, ŵamalonda ŵa ku India ŵakalutilira kuguliska vinthu mu misumba ya ku dowoko la Somali, iyo yikaŵa kutali na Ŵaroma. Kwa vyaka vinandi, ŵamalonda ŵa ku India ŵakayeghanga sinamoni yinandi kufuma ku Ceylon na Spice Islands kuluta nayo ku Somalia na Arabia. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakuti uko kukafuma sinamoni na vyakununkhira vinyake kukaŵa kwakubisika chomene ku ŵamalonda ŵa ku Arabia na Somalia. Phangano ilo ŵamalonda ŵa ku Somalia na Ŵaarabu ŵakachita likakhozga mtengo wa sinamoni wa ku India na China ku North Africa, ku Near East, na ku Europe, ndipo likapangiska kuti malonda gha sinamoni ghaŵe na phindu, comenecomene ku ŵamalonda ŵa ku Somalia awo ŵakendeskanga vinthu vinandi pa nyanja na pa mtunda.<ref name="EHW">{{Harvnb|Warmington|1995|p=229}}.</ref> ===Birth of Islam and the Middle Ages=== {{Main|Somali aristocratic and court titles|Ifat Sultanate|Walashma dynasty|Sultanate of Mogadishu|Adal Sultanate|Ajuran Sultanate|}} [[File:Silk route.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|The [[Silk Road]] extending from China to southern Europe, Arabia, Somalia, Egypt, Persia, India, and Java.]] Chisilamu chikapharazgika mu chigaŵa ichi na Ŵasilamu ŵakwambilira ŵa ku Mecca awo ŵakachimbiranga ku khoti pa nyengo ya Hejira wakwamba. Iyi ni yimoza mwa nyumba zakuluska zose mu Africa. Kuumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 800 C.E., Al-Yaqubi wakalemba kuti Ŵasilamu ŵakakhalanga mumphepete mwa nyanja kumpoto kwa Somalia. Wakayowoyaso kuti msumba uwu ndiwo ukaŵa msumba ukuru wa Ufumu wa Adal. Leo Africanus wakati Ufumu wa Adal ukawusikanga na mafumu gha ku Somalia ndipo ufumu wake ukaŵa pakati pa Bab el Mandeb na Cape Guardafui. Ntheura kumwera kukaŵa Ufumu wa Ajuran ndipo kumanjiliro gha dazi kukaŵa Ufumu wa Abyssinia. Mu vyaka vyapakati pa 500 na 1500 C.E., ŵanthu ŵakufuma ku vyaru vinyake ŵakaluta ku Somaliland. Mu 1332, Themba la Adal ilo likaŵa ku Zeila, likakomeka pa nkhondo iyo yikaŵa na cilato ca kukanizga Amda Seyon I, themba la ku Abyssinia, kunjira mu msumba uwu. Mu 1410, Themba Dawit I likakoma Sa'ad ad-Din II, themba la Ifat. Kukwambilira kwa vyaka vya m'ma 1500, msumba ukuru wa Adal ukasamukira ku tawuni ya Dakkar, uko Sabr ad-Din II, mwana mulara wa Sa'ad ad-Din II, wakambiska msasa uphya wati wawerako ku Yemen.<ref>{{cite book |last=Briggs |first=Philip |title=Bradt Somaliland: With Addis Ababa & Eastern Ethiopia|year=2012|publisher=Bradt Travel Guides|isbn=978-1-84162-371-9|page=10|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=M6NI2FejIuwC&pg=PA10}}</ref><ref name="Lewispd">{{cite book |last=Lewis |first=I. M. |title=A Pastoral Democracy: A Study of Pastoralism and Politics Among the Northern Somali of the Horn of Africa|year=1999|publisher=James Currey Publishers|isbn=0-85255-280-7|page=17|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eK6SBJIckIsC&pg=PA17}}</ref> <br />[[File:ShenDuGiraffePainting.jpg|thumb|upright|The [[Ajuran Sultanate]] maintained commercial ties with the [[Ming dynasty]] and other kingdoms.]] Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1900, likuru la Adal likasamuskikaso, ndipo pa nyengo iyi likaluta kumwera ku Harar. Kufuma ku msumba uphya uwu, Adal wakanozga ŵasilikari awo ŵakalongozgekanga na Imam Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi (Ahmad "Gurey" panji "Gran"; wose ŵakang'anamuranga "mwankhongono") awo ŵakanjira mu ufumu wa Abyssinia. Nkhondo iyi yikacitika mu vyaka vya m'ma 1500, ndipo yikucemeka kuti Kupoka Abisinia (Futuh al-Habash). Mu nyengo ya nkhondo iyi, Imam Ahmad ndiyo wakamba kugwiliskira ntchito vilwero ivyo Ufumu wa Ottoman ukapeleka, ndipo wakavitora ku Zeila na kuviŵika pa nkhondo na ŵasilikari ŵa Abyssinia na ŵabwezi ŵawo ŵa ku Portugal. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakuti nkhondo iyi yikulongora kuti vilwero vya nkhondo nga ni mathipa, futi, na mivi vikaŵa vyakuzirwa chomene. Mu nyengo ya Ufumu wa Ajuran, misumba ya Merca, Mogadishu, Barawa, Hobyo na madoko ghawo ghakakura chomene ndipo ŵakaguliskanga vinthu ku vyaru vinyake. Vasco da Gama, uyo wakajumpha mu Mogadishu mu vyaka vya m'ma 1500, wakati msumba uwu ukaŵa ukuru chomene ndipo ukaŵa na nyumba zakudikanya kweniso nyumba zikuruzikuru. Ŵanthu ŵa Harla, awo ŵakaŵa ŵanthu ŵatali chomene ŵa ku Hamitic awo ŵakakhalanga ku Somalia, Tchertcher, na vigaŵa vinyake vya ku Horn, nawo ŵakazenga malaro ghakupambanapambana. Ŵanthu aŵa ŵakagomezganga kuti ŵakaŵa ŵasekuru ŵa ŵanthu ŵa ku Somalia. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1500, Duarte Barbosa wakalemba kuti ngaraŵa zinandi izo zikafumanga ku Ufumu wa Cambaya ku India, zikalutanga ku Mogadishu na salu na vyakununkhira. Barbosa wakayowoyaso za unandi wa nyama, tirigu, balere, mahachi, na vipasi ivyo vikusangika mu misika ya mumphepete mwa nyanja. Mogadishu, msumba uwo ukaŵa na makampani gha vyakuvwara, pamoza na Merca na Barawa, ukaŵa malo ghakwendakwenda gha ŵamalonda ŵa Chiswahili ŵakufuma ku Mombasa na Malindi. Ŵamalonda Ŵachiyuda ŵakufuma ku Hormuz ŵakizanga na vyakuvwara vyawo vya ku India na vipambi ku Somali kuti ŵazakapeleke tirigu na nkhuni. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1500, ŵanthu ŵakamba kuguliska malaya, ambergris, na porcelain. Viyuni vya girafu, zebra, na vyakununkhira vikatolekera ku Ufumu wa Ming ku China, uko ŵamalonda ŵa ku Somalia ŵakamba kuchita malonda pakati pa East Asia na Horn. Ŵamalonda ŵa Chihindu ŵakufuma ku Surat na ŵa ku Southeast Africa ŵakufuma ku Pate, ŵakakhumbanga kujumphizga chigaŵa cha ku India icho Ŵapwitikizi ŵakaŵakanizganga (pamanyuma pake, ku Oman), ndipo ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito malo gha ku Merca na Barawa ku Somalia (uko kukaŵavya ŵamazaza ŵa vyaru viŵiri ivi) kuti ŵaguliskenge vinthu vyawo mwakufwasa kweniso kwambura suzgo.<ref>{{cite book |author=Edward A. Alpers|title=East Africa and the Indian Ocean|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DNHvb6nSN-AC&pg=PA79|year=2009|publisher=Markus Wiener Publishers|isbn=978-1-55876-453-8|page=21}}</ref> ===Early modern era and the scramble for Africa=== {{Main|Geledi sultanate|Majeerteen Sultanate|Sultanate of Hobyo|l2 = Isaaq Sultanate|Dervish movement (Somali)}} {{see also|Italian Somaliland|British Somaliland}} Mu nyengo yakwambilira, maufumu agho ghakalondezganga Ufumu wa Adal na Ajuran ghakamba kukura mu Somalia. Ŵakaŵa Hiraab Imamate, Geledi Sultanate (Gobroon dynasty), Majeerteen Sultanate (Migiurtinia), na Hobyo Sultanate (Obbia). Iwo ŵakalutilira kuzenga vipata na kwenda pa nyanja nga umo vikaŵira mu maufumu ghanyake gha ku Somalia. Sultan Yusuf Mahamud Ibrahim, uyo wakaŵa wachitatu kufuma mu nyumba ya Gobroon, ndiyo wakamba muwuso wa ufumu wa Gobroon. Ŵasilikari ŵake ŵakathereska nkhondo ya Bardheere Jihad, iyo yikawezgerapo bata mu cigaŵa ici na kuwezgerapo malonda gha njovu ku East Africa. Kweniso wakaŵa paubwezi uwemi na ŵanthu ŵa mu maufumu ghapafupi na kutali nga ni Oman, Witu, na Yemen. Mwana wa Sultan Ibrahim, Ahmed Yusuf, ndiyo wakaŵa munthu wakuzirwa comene mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800 ku East Africa. Mu Somalland, ufumu wa Isaaq ukapangika mu 1750. Ufumu wa Isaaq ukaŵa ufumu wa Somalia uwo ukalamuliranga vigaŵa vinyake vya mu Africa mu vyaka vya m'ma 1700 na 1800. Malo agha ghakaŵa gha fuko la Isaaq, ilo likafuma ku fuko la Banu Hashim, mu malo agho sono ni Somaliland na Ethiopia. Ufumu wa Rer Guled ndiwo ukalamuliranga ufumu uwu. Ufumu uwu ndiwo ukaŵa wakwamba kwa charu cha Somaliland.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Taariikhda Toljecle|url=https://www.tashiwanaag.com/toljecle-taariikh-ahaan.html |access-date=2021-08-09|website=www.tashiwanaag.com}}</ref> Mwakuyana na ivyo ŵanthu ŵakayowoya, pambere muwuso wa Guled undafike, mbumba ya Isaaq yikalongozgekanga na muwuso wa Tolje'lo. Pakaŵa mafumu ghankhondi na ghatatu gha Tolje'lo, kwambira na Boqor Harun (Lang-so) uyo wakawusa ufumu wa Isaaq kwa vyaka vinandi kwambira mu 13th century. Mulongozgi waumaliro wa ŵa Tolje'lo, Garad Dhuh Barar, wakathereskeka na mbumba za Isaaq. Ŵanthu ŵa fuko la Tolje'lo awo ŵakaŵa ŵankhongono ŵakambininika ndipo ŵakabisama ku ŵanthu ŵa Habr Awal awo ŵacali kukhala nawo.<ref>{{Citation|title=Taariikhda Boqortooyadii Axmed Sheikh Isaxaaq ee Toljecle 1787 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6MfB4XvREbI |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/6MfB4XvREbI| archive-date=2021-12-11 |url-status=live|language=en|access-date=2021-08-15}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>NEW ISSUES IN REFUGEE RESEARCH Working Paper No. 65 Pastoral society and transnational refugees: population movements in Somaliland and eastern Ethiopia 1988 – 2000 Guido Ambroso, Table 1, pg.5</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2017-10-07|title=Degmada Cusub Ee Dacarta Oo Loogu Wanqalay Munaasibad Kulmisay Madaxda Iyo Haldoorka Somaliland |url=https://www.hubaalmedia.net/degmada-cusub-ee-dacarta-oo-loogu-wanqalay-munaasibad-kulmisay-madaxda-iyo-haldoorka-somaliland/|access-date=2021-08-11|website=Hubaal Media|archive-date=11 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210811205734/https://www.hubaalmedia.net/degmada-cusub-ee-dacarta-oo-loogu-wanqalay-munaasibad-kulmisay-madaxda-iyo-haldoorka-somaliland/|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="Lewisapd">I. M. Lewis, ''A pastoral democracy: a study of pastoralism and politics among the Northern Somali of the Horn of Africa'', (LIT Verlag Münster: 1999), p. 157.</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Taariikhda Beerta Suldaan Cabdilaahi ee Hargeysa {{!}} Somalidiasporanews.com|url=http://www.qurbejoog.com/taariikhda-beerta-suldaan-cabdilaahi-ee-hargeysa/|access-date=2021-01-09|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Genealogies of the Somal|date=1896|publisher=Eyre and Spottiswoode (London)|language=english}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Taariikhda Saldanada Reer Guuleed Ee Somaliland.Abwaan:Ibraahim-rashiid Cismaan Guure (aboor). {{!}} Togdheer News Network|url=http://togdheernews.com/articles/31/05/2016/taariikhda-saldanada-reer-guuleed-ee-somaliland-abwaanibraahim-rashiid-cismaan-guure-aboor/|access-date=2021-08-09|language=en-US}}</ref>[[File:Garesadihafun.jpg|thumb|left|One of the forts of the [[Majeerteen Sultanate]] in [[Hafun]].]] [[File:Mogadishu1936.jpg|thumb|left|[[Mogadishu under Italian rule|Mogadishu]], capital of [[Italian Somaliland]], with the [[Mogadiscio Cathedral|Catholic Cathedral]] at the center and the Arch monument in honor of [[Umberto I of Italy|King Umberto I of Italy]].]] Kuumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1800, pamanyuma pa ungano wa ku Berlin mu 1884, ŵamazaza ŵa ku Europe ŵakamba kulimbana kuti ŵatore charu cha Africa. Mu caka ici, caru ca Britain cikamba kulamulira cigaŵa cinyake ca Somalia, ico cili mumphepete mwa Africa, kufupi na South Yemen. Pakwamba, cigaŵa ici cikaŵa pasi pa ofesi ya ku India, ndipo cikaŵa cigaŵa ca Ufumu wa India. Mu 1898, London ndiyo yikaŵa na mazaza pa cigaŵa ici. Mu 1889, boma la Italy likakhazikiska boma la Italy ku Somalia, ndipo pamasinda likamba kulamulira charu ichi. Gulu la Dervish likathereska ufumu wa Britain maulendo ghanayi ndipo likapangiska kuti uwelere ku vigaŵa vya mumphepete mwa nyanja. Ŵa Darawiish ŵakathereska ŵamazaza ŵa ku Italy, Britain, Abyssinia kanandi waka, chomenechomene mu 1903, apo Suleiman Aden Galaydh ndiyo wakathereska ŵamazaza ŵa ku Cagaarweyne. Paumaliro, mu 1920, ŵasilikari ŵa ku Britain ŵakathereska ŵasilikari aŵa. Nkhondo ya fascism yikamba mu ma 1920 ndipo yikapangiska kuti Italy yisinthe nthowa zake, chifukwa chakuti ma sultanates gha kumpoto na kumafumiro gha dazi gha charu ichi ghakeneranga kunjizgika mu chigaŵa cha La Grande Somalia ("Greater Somalia") mwakuyana na ndondomeko ya Fascist Italy. Apo Kazembe Cesare Maria De Vecchi wakizanga pa Disembala 15, 1923, vinthu vikamba kusintha mu chigaŵa ichi. Malo ghaumaliro agho Italy ghakapoka ku Somalia ghakaŵa Oltre Giuba, mu cigaŵa ca Jubaland, mu 1925. Ŵa Italiya ŵakamba kuzenga vipatala, minda, na masukulu. Mu 1935, boma la Fascist la Italy, pasi pa muwuso wa Benito Mussolini, likawukira Abyssinia (Ethiopia) na cilato cakuti liŵawukire. Wupu wa League of Nations ukasuska nkhondo iyi, kweni pakaŵavya ico cikacitikapo kuti ulekeske panji kufwatura Ethiopia. Mu 1936, chalo cha Italy cha Somalia chikaŵa mu chigaŵa cha Italy East Africa, pamoza na Eritrea na Ethiopia. Pa 3 Ogasiti 1940, ŵasilikari ŵa Italy, kusazgapo maboma gha Somalia, ŵakambuka kufuma ku Ethiopia kuti ŵanjire mu British Somaliland, ndipo pa 14 Ogasiti, ŵakakwaniska kutora Berbera ku British. Gulu la ŵasilikari ŵa Britain, kusazgapo ŵasilikari ŵa vyaru vinandi vya mu Africa, ŵakamba nkhondo mu Janyuwale 1941 kufuma ku Kenya kuti ŵafwature Somaliland na Ethiopia. Kuzakafika mu Febuluwale, chigaŵa chikuru cha Somaliland cha ku Italy chikaŵa kuti chazengeka, ndipo mu Malichi, chigaŵa cha British Somaliland chikazengeka. Ŵasilikari ŵa ufumu wa Britain awo ŵakagwiranga nchito mu Somaliland ŵakaŵa ŵasilikari ŵa ku South Africa, West Africa, na East Africa. Ŵakawovwirika na ŵasilikari ŵa boma la Somalia awo ŵakalongozgekanga na Abdulahi Hassan, ndipo ŵanthu ŵa mu fuko la Isaaq, Dhulbahante, na Warsangali ndiwo ŵakawovwirapo. Chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu ŵa ku Italy awo ŵakakhalanga ku Somalia chikamba kuchepa Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Caru Cose yikati yamara, ndipo mu 1960 chikaŵa pasi pa 10,000.<ref name="Tripodi1999">{{cite book |author=Paolo Tripodi |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eJR3RAAACAAJ |title=The Colonial Legacy in Somalia: Rome and Mogadishu: From Colonial Administration to Operation Restore Hope |publisher=Macmillan Press |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-312-22393-9 |page=68}}</ref> ===Independence (1960–1969)=== {{Main|State of Somaliland|Somali Republic|Greater Somalia|Somali Youth League}} [[File:Mogadishu city centre - 1960s.jpg|thumb|upright|An avenue in downtown [[Mogadishu]] in 1963.]] Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya pa Charu Chose yikati yamara, Britain yikalutilira kulamulira chigaŵa cha British Somaliland na Italian Somaliland. Mu 1945, pa ungano wa ku Potsdam, wupu wa United Nations ukapeleka ku Italy mazaza ghakulongozga chigaŵa cha Italian Somaliland nga ni malo ghakulongozga chigaŵa cha Somaliland, pa fundo iyo yikayowoyeka na wupu wa Somali Youth League (SYL) na mawupu ghanyake gha ndyali gha ku Somalia, nga ni Hizbia Digil Mirifle Somali (HDMS) na Somali National League (SNL) kuti Somalia yisange wanangwa mu vyaka 10. Charu cha British Somaliland chikaŵa pasi pa Britain m'paka mu 1960. Pakuti caru ca Italy cikaŵa na mazaza gha wupu wa UN, nduna iyi yikapeleka mwaŵi ku ŵanthu ŵa ku Somalia kuti ŵasambire vya ndyali za ku vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi. Ivi vikaŵa vyandulo ivyo charu cha British Somaliland, icho chikeneranga kuŵa mu boma liphya la Somalia, chikaŵavya. Nangauli mu ma 1950, ŵalara ŵa boma la Britain ŵakayezgayezga kuti ŵamazge suzgo ili, kweni boma la Britain likalutilira yayi. Vyaru viŵiri ivi vikaŵa vyakupambana comene pa nkhani ya vyachuma ndiposo vya ndyali.<ref>[[Helen Chapin Metz]], ed. (1992) [http://countrystudies.us/somalia ''Somalia: A Country Study'']. Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress.</ref> Pa nyengo yeneyira, mu 1948, cifukwa ca kukakamizgika na ŵabwezi ŵawo ŵa Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Caru Cose, ndipo ici cikakwiyiska comene ŵanthu ŵa ku Somalia, ŵa ku Britain ŵakawezgera Haud (malo ghakuŵeta gha ku Somalia agho ghakwenera kuti ghakavikilirika na mapangano gha Britain na ŵanthu ŵa ku Somalia mu 1884 na 1886) na cigaŵa ca Somali ku Ethiopia. Nangauli Britain yikaŵikapo dango lakuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Somalia ŵalutilire kujilamulira ŵekha, kweni Etiyopiya nayo wakakhumbanga kuti malo agha ghaŵe ghake. Ici cikapangiska kuti mu 1956 Britain yilute ku Somalia kuti yikagure malo agho yikagaŵako. Kweniso boma la Britain likapelekaso boma la Northern Frontier District (NFD) ku ŵanthu ŵa ku Kenya. Ivi vikacitika nangauli pakaŵa maungano gha ŵanthu awo ŵakakolerana na fundo yakuti ŵanthu wose ŵa ku Somalia ŵakukhumba kuŵa ku cigaŵa ca Somalia. Mu 1958, ku Djibouti (uko kale kukachemekanga French Somaliland) kukachitika referendum. Pa ungano uwu, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakakolerana na fundo yakuti ŵaŵe ŵamoza na France. Pakaŵaso upusikizgi ukuru comene, ndipo Ŵacifurenci ŵakacimbizga ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Somalia pambere ŵanthu ŵandafike ku mavoti. Ŵanandi awo ŵakazomera yayi ŵakaŵa ŵa ku Somalia awo ŵakakolerana na fundo ya umo boma la Somalia lingakhalira pamoza, nga umo Mahmoud Harbi, wachiŵiri kwa pulezidenti wa boma wakacitira. Pakati pajumpha vyaka viŵiri, Harbi wakafwa pa ngozi ya ndege. Mu 1977, Djibouti wakafwatuka ku France, ndipo Hassan Gouled Aptidon, wa ku Somalia uyo wakachitanga kampeni kuti ŵanthu ŵa mu charu ichi ŵavomerepo pa referendum ya mu 1976, wakazgoka pulezidenti wakwamba wa Djibouti. Pa Julayi 1, 1960, mazuŵa ghankhondi kufuma apo chigaŵa icho kale chikaŵa pasi pa boma la British Somaliland chikapokera wanangwa wake, chigaŵa ichi chikasazgikana na chigaŵa icho chikaŵa pasi pa boma la Somaliland. Boma likapangika na Abdullahi Issa na Muhammad Haji Ibrahim Egal pamoza na mamembala ghanyake gha boma la wupu wakulongozga, na Abdulcadir Muhammed Aden nga ni purezidenti wa chalo cha Somalia, Aden Abdullah Osman Daar nga ni purezidenti wa chalo cha Somalia, ndipo Abdirashid Ali Shermarke nga nd nd nd nd nd nduna yikuru (panyuma kuti waŵe purezidenti kufuma 1967 mpaka 1969). Pa 20 Julayi 1961 ndipo kwizira mu referendum, chikazomerezgeka na ŵanthu ŵa ku Somalia pasi pa Italy. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Somaliland Protectorate ŵakakhumba yayi kutora chigaŵa mu referendum, nangauli ŵanthu ŵachoko waka ŵa ku Somaliland awo ŵakakhumba kutora chigaŵa mu referendum ŵakavotera kukana dango liphya, ilo likanozgeka mu 1960. Mu 1967, Muhammad Haji Ibrahim Egal wakaŵa nduna yikuru, ndipo Shermarke ndiyo wakamusankha. Egal wakazgoka purezidenti wa chigaŵa cha Somaliland kumpoto kwa kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Somalia. Pa Okutobala 15, 1969, apo wakalutanga ku tawuni ya Las Anod, pulezidenti wa ku Somalia, Abdirashid Ali Shermarke, wakakomeka na yumoza wa ŵavikiliri ŵake. Kufwa kwake kukalondezgana mwaluŵiro na kuzgoka kwa boma kwa ŵasilikari pa 21 Okutobala 1969 (zuŵa lakulondezgapo nyifwa yake), umo ŵasilikari ŵa Somalia ŵakatora mazaza kwambura kukumana na ŵanthu ŵakugaluka. Nkhondo iyi yikalongozgeka na Major General Mohamed Siad Barre, uyo pa nyengo iyo wakalongozganga ŵasilikari ŵa boma.<ref>Moshe Y. Sachs (1988) ''Worldmark Encyclopedia of the Nations'', Vol. 2, Worldmark Press, p. 290, {{ISBN|0-471-62406-3}}.</ref> ===Somali Democratic Republic (1969–1991)=== {{Main|Somali Democratic Republic|1969 Somali coup d'état}} [[File:Muhammad Siad Barre - 40866X9X9.jpg|thumb|Major General [[Mohamed Siad Barre]], Chairman of the [[Supreme Revolutionary Council (Somalia)|Supreme Revolutionary Council]], meeting with President of Romania [[Nicolae Ceauşescu]].]] Pamanyuma pa Barre, Supreme Revolutionary Council (SRC) iyo yikapoka mazaza pamanyuma pa kukomeka kwa Pulezidenti Sharmarke yikalongozgekanga na Lieutenant Colonel Salaad Gabeyre Kediye na Chief of Police Jama Korshel. Kediye wakaŵa na zina lakuti "Wiske wa Nkhondo", ndipo Barre wakazgoka mulongozgi wa SRC. Kufuma apo, SRC yikasintha zina la charu ichi kuŵa Somali Democratic Republic, yikawuskapo nyumba ya malango na Khoti Likuru Chomene, ndipo yikalekeska ntchito ya dango. Gulu la ŵasilikari likakhazikiska mapulogiramu ghakurughakuru ghakovwira ŵanthu kuti ŵamanye kuŵazga na kulemba. Padera pa ndondomeko ya kukanizga vyalo na vyaru, boma liphya la Somalia likaŵika mtima pa kukolerana kwa visopa na vyaru vya Ŵaarabu. Mu chaka chenechicho, Barre wakaŵaso mulongozgi wa wupu wa Organisation of African Unity (OAU). Mu Julayi 1976, SRC ya Barre yikagaŵikana ndipo yikakhazikiska chipani cha Somali Revolutionary Socialist Party (SRSP), boma la chipani chimoza ilo likajintha pa socialism ya sayansi na visambizgo vya Chisilamu. SRSP yikaŵa nthowa yakuyezgera visambizgo vya boma na visambizgo vya chisopa cha boma mwa kusintha visambizgo vya Marxist ku vinthu vya mu caru. Ŵakaŵikapo mtima chomene pa fundo za Chisilamu za chitukuko, kuyana, na urunji, izo boma likayowoya kuti ni fundo yikuru ya chisopa cha sayansi, kweniso likayowoyanga chomene vya kujikora, umo ŵanthu ŵakugwilira ntchito, na kuwusa ŵanthu. Nangauli SRSP yikakhozgeranga ndalama za ŵanthu ŵekha mu vigaŵa vichoko waka, kweni boma ili likaŵa lachikomyunizimu.<ref name="Pjdlfw">de la Fosse Wiles, Peter John (1982) [https://books.google.com/books?id=lgMOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA279 ''The New Communist Third World: an essay in political economy''], Taylor & Francis, p. 279 {{ISBN|0-7099-2709-6}}.</ref> Mu Julayi 1977, Nkhondo ya Ogaden yikamba pamanyuma pakuti boma la Barre likagwiliskira ntchito chilato cha kukolerana na ŵanthu ŵa ku Ethiopia kuti likhazikiske chigaŵa cha Ogaden icho chikaŵa na ŵanthu ŵa ku Somalia. Mu sabata yakwamba ya nkhondo iyi, ŵasilikari ŵa Somalia ŵakatora chigaŵa cha kumwera na chapakati cha Ogaden. Kufika mu Seputembala 1977, Somalia yikaŵa na mazaza pa chigaŵa cha Ogaden ndipo yikapoka misumba yakuzirwa nga ni Jijiga. Pamanyuma pa kukanizgika kwa Harar, ŵasilikari ŵa Soviet ŵakaŵikapo mtima kuti ŵawovwire boma la Ethiopia. Kuzakafika mu 1978, ŵasilikari ŵa Somalia ŵakacimbizgika mu Ogaden. Boma la Barre likakhuka chomene apo likapokera wovwiri wa Soviet Union. Paumaliro, boma la United States, ilo likakolerana na boma la Somalia kwa nyengo yitali, likakolerana na boma la Soviet Union. Paumaliro, ubwezi uwo ukaŵa pakati pa Somalia na Soviet Union, kweniso pakati pa iyo na United States, ukawovwira kuti charu ichi chiŵe na ŵasilikari ŵanandi comene mu Africa. Mu 1979, boma likapeleka dango liphya lakuti paŵe maungano gha ŵanthu. Ndipouli, boma la Barre likalutilira kulamulira. Mu Okutobala 1980, SRSP yikamara, ndipo Supreme Revolutionary Council yikakhazikiskikaso. Pa nyengo iyi, boma la Barre likamba kutchuka yayi. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Somalia ŵakakhuŵara na umo vinthu vikaŵira mu charu cha ŵasilikari. Boma la Somalia likalutilira kuchepa mu ma 1980 apo Nkhondo Yakuzizima yikamaranga. Boma likalutilira kuŵa na mazaza, ndipo ŵanthu ŵakamba kulimbana na boma la Ethiopia. Pakati pa magulu agha pakaŵa chipani cha Somali Salvation Democratic Front (SSDF), United Somali Congress (USC), Somali National Movement (SNM) na Somali Patriotic Movement (SPM), pamoza na chipani cha Democratic Movement (SDM), Somali Democratic Alliance (SDA) na Somali Manifesto Group (SMG). ===Somalia Civil War=== {{Main|Somali Civil War|History of Somalia (1991–2006)|Isaaq genocide|Somaliland War of Independence}} [[File:Exhumed skeletal remains of victims of the Isaaq genocide.jpg|thumb|Exhumed skeletal remains of victims of the [[Isaaq genocide]] found from a mass grave site located in [[Berbera]], [[Somaliland]].]] [[File:Isaaq genocide map.png|thumb|upright=1.35|Map of the sites related to the [[Isaaq genocide]]]] Apo boma la Barre likalutilira kunangika, ŵanthu ŵanandi ku Somalia ŵakakhuŵara na umoyo wa ŵasilikari. Kuzakafika pakati pa vyaka vya m'ma 1980, magulu ghakwimikana na boma la Ethiopia ghakawuka. Barre wakazgora na kuŵalangura kuti ŵalangire awo ŵakakolerana na gulu la ŵakugaluka, comenecomene awo ŵakaŵa kumpoto. Kulimbana uku kukusazgapo kuponya mabomba mu misumba, na malo gha Hargeisa kumpoto kwa charu cha Somalia, malo ghakukhazikika gha Somali National Movement (SNM), pakati pa malo agho ghakapwetekeka mu 1988. Nkhondo iyi yikalongozgekanga na Jenerale Mohammed Said Hersi Morgan, mukweni wa Barre. Mu 1990, mu msumba wa Mogadishu, ŵanthu ŵakakanizgika kuwungana pa wumba wa ŵanthu ŵakujumpha ŵatatu panji ŵanayi. Chifukwa cha kusoŵa kwa mafuta, magalimoto ghakaŵa mu mizere yitali pa malo ghakuŵikapo mafuta. Chifukwa cha kukwera kwa ndalama, mtengo wa tchizi (tchizi wakomira wa ku Italy, uwo ukaŵa wakukhumbikwa chomene pa nyengo iyo) ukakwera kufika pa madola 5 pa kilogalamu. Mtengo wa khat, uyo ŵakamuguliskanga zuŵa lililose kufuma ku Kenya, nawo ukaŵa madola ghankhondi gha ku America. Ndalama za mapepara zikaŵa za mtengo ucoko comene mwakuti pakakhumbikwanga ndalama zinandi kuti munthu wapeleke cakurya. Mu msumba uwu mukaŵa msika wakufipa, chifukwa mabanki ghakasuzgikanga kusanga ndalama zakwendakwenda. Usiku, msumba wa Mogadishu ukaŵa mu mdima. Ŵanthu wose ŵakufuma ku vyaru vinyake awo ŵakizanga ku malo agha ŵakalondezgekanga. Ŵakaŵa na malango ghakusuzga ghakwendeskera ndalama za caru cinyake. Nangauli ŵalendo ŵakazomerezgekanga yayi kuluta ku caru cinyake, kweni ŵakazomerezgekanga yayi kutorapo vithuzi vya malo ghanandi. Muhanya ku Mogadishu, ŵasilikari ŵa boma ŵakawonekanga bweka yayi. Ndipouli, pa ivyo boma likayowoya kuti likucita usiku, ŵanthu "ŵakazgeŵa" mu nyumba zawo. Mu 1991, boma la Barre likathereskeka na gulu la ŵanthu ŵakususkana na boma la Ethiopia la Derg na Libya. Pamanyuma pa ungano wa Somali National Movement na ŵalara ŵa mafuko gha kumpoto, chigaŵa cha kumpoto kwa charu ichi icho kale chikaŵa pasi pa Britain chikapharazga kuti chajiyimira paŵekha. Nangauli charu ichi ntchakujiyimira paŵekha ndipo ntchakukhora pakuyaniska na vyaru vya kumwera, kweni palije boma la ku vyaru vinyake ilo likuchimanya.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/1367554.stm |title=Somaliland citizens ask to be recognized as a state |work=[[BBC News]] |date=4 June 2001 |access-date=25 February 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/1361394.stm |title=Somaliland votes for independence |work=[[BBC News]] |date=31 May 2001 |access-date=25 February 2009}}</ref>[[File:Mogadishu.jpg|thumb|Prior to the civil war, Mogadishu was known as the "White pearl of the Indian Ocean".<ref>Al J. Venter (1975) ''Africa Today'', p. 152, {{ISBN|0-86954-023-8}}</ref>]] Pamanyuma, magulu ghanandi ghakwimikana nagho ghakamba kuphalizgana kuti ghaŵe na mazaza mu boma ilo likaŵa pasi pa Barre. Ku chigaŵa cha kumwera, magulu gha nkhondo agho ghakalongozgekanga na ŵalaŵiliri ŵa USC, Jenerale Mohamed Farah Aidid na Ali Mahdi Mohamed, ŵakasangana apo waliyose wakakhumbanga kuwusa msumba ukuru. Mu 1991, ku Djibouti kukachitika ungano wa mitundu yose wakukhwaskana na Somalia. Aidid wakakana ungano wakwamba cifukwa ca kususka. Cifukwa ca kuzomerezgeka kwa Muhammad na ungano wa ku Djibouti, pamanyuma pake wupu wa vyaru vyose ukamuzomera kuŵa pulezidenti muphya wa Somalia. Djibouti, Egypt, Saudi Arabia na Italy vikaŵa pakati pa vyaru ivyo vikazomera boma la Muhammad. Wakaŵa na mazaza pa vigaŵa vinyake vya msumba ukuru yayi. Mu malo mwake, ŵanthu ŵakakwesananga na ŵalongozgi ŵa magulu ghanyake kumwera kwa Somalia na vyaru vinyake vya kumpoto. Pamanyuma pa ungano wa ku Djibouti, pakaŵa mapangano ghaŵiri ghambura kukwaniliskika ghakukhwaskana na kuwezgerapo mtende na kufumiska vilwero, agho ghakasayinika na ŵandyali 15. Kukwambilira kwa m'ma 1990, cifukwa cakuti boma la Somalia likaŵavya muwuso, likamba kucemeka kuti "mboma lakutondeka". Ken Menkhaus, uyo wakusanda vya ndyali, wakati vinthu vikulongora kuti mu ma 1980, charu ichi chikaŵa kuti chamba kale kuŵa na masuzgo. Rotberg nayo wakayowoya kuti boma likaleka kuwusa pambere Barre wandawuskike. Hoehne (2009), Branwen (2009) na Verhoeven (2009) nawo ŵakagwiliskira nchito Somalia mu nyengo iyi nga ni ciyerezgero ca kususka vigaŵa vyakupambanapambana vya nkhani ya "kutondeka kwa boma".<ref>{{cite journal |title=Failures of the state failure debate: Evidence from the Somali territories|first1=Tobias|last1=Hagmann|first2=Markus V.|last2=Hoehne|journal=Journal of International Development|volume=21|issue=1|pages=42–57|year=2009|doi=10.1002/jid.1482}};{{cite journal |title=The global political economy of social crisis: Towards a critique of the 'failed state' ideology|first=Branwen|last=Gruffydd Jones|journal=Review of International Political Economy|volume=15|issue=2|pages=180–205|year=2008|doi=10.1080/09692290701869688|s2cid=154286071}}; {{cite journal |title=The self-fulfilling prophecy of failed states: Somalia, state collapse and the Global War on Terror|journal=Journal of Eastern African Studies|first=Harry|last=Verhoeven|volume=3|issue=2|pages=405–425|year=2009|doi=10.1080/17531050903273719|s2cid=154281885}}</ref> ===Transitional institutions=== {{Main|Transitional National Government|Transitional Federal Institutions|Transitional Federal Government|Transitional Federal Parliament}} Boma la Transitional National Government (TNG) likakhazikiskika mu mwezi wa Epulero/Meyi 2000 pa ungano wa Somalia National Peace Conference (SNPC) uwo ukachitikira ku Arta, Djibouti. Abdiqasim Salad Hassan wakasankhika kuŵa purezidenti wa boma liphya la Transitional National Government (TNG), boma la kanyengo kachoko ilo likapangika kuti lilongozge Somalia ku boma lake lachitatu. Suzgo izo TNG yikaŵa nazo mukati zikapangiska kuti Prime Minister wasinthike kanayi mu vyaka vitatu, ndipo wupu uwu ukaleka kugwira ntchito mu Disembala 2003. Mulimo wake ukamalira penepapo. Pa 10 Okutobala 2004, ŵa malango ŵakasora Abdullahi Yusuf Ahmed kuŵa purezidenti wakudanga wa Transitional Federal Government (TFG), wakulondezgapo wa Transitional National Government. TFG yikaŵa boma laciŵiri la nyengo yicoko ilo likakhumbanga kuwezgerapo maboma gha chalo ku Somalia pamanyuma pa kuwa kwa boma la Siad Barre mu 1991 na nkhondo ya cikaya iyo yikati yacitika. Boma la Transitional Federal Government (TFG) ndilo likaŵa boma la Somalia ilo likamanyikwa pa caru cose mpaka pa Ogasiti 20, 2012, apo nyengo yake ya kuwusa yikamara. Likakhazikiskika nga ni yimoza mwa maboma gha Transitional Federal Institutions (TFIs) nga umo likulongosolera mu Transitional Federal Charter (TFC) ilo likapokeka mu Novembala 2004 na Transitional Federal Parliament (TFP). Boma la Transitional Federal likaŵa na wupu wakulongozga, ndipo TFP ndiyo yikaŵa wupu wakulongozga. Boma likalongozgekanga na pulezidenti wa Somalia, uyo wakaŵa mulara wa boma. Ndipouli, likang'anamuraso vigaŵa vyose vitatu.<ref name="Fcacsunesinpshm2">{{cite news|date=21 August 2012|title=Somalia: UN Envoy Says Inauguration of New Parliament in Somalia 'Historic Moment'|newspaper=Forum on China-Africa Cooperation|url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208220474.html|access-date=24 August 2012}}</ref> === Islamic Courts Union === {{See also|Islamic Courts Union}} [[File:Icu somalia map.png|thumb|upright=1.35|Map showing the ICU at the peak of its influence.]] Mu 2006, Islamic Courts Union (ICU), yikamba kuwusa chigaŵa chikuru cha kumwera kwa charu ichi kwa myezi 6 na kukhazikiska dango la Sharia. Ŵalaraŵalara ŵa UN ŵakuti nyengo iyi yikaŵa 'nyengo ya golide' mu mbiri ya ndyali za ku Somalia.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Somalia Mourns a 'Golden Era' as Crisis Worsens {{!}} Africa Faith and Justice Network|url=https://afjn.org/somalia-mourns-a-golden-era-as-crisis-worsens/|access-date=2021-09-04|website=afjn.org|date=11 December 2007 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Gettleman|first=Jeffrey|date=2007-11-20|title=As Somali Crisis Swells, Experts See a Void in Aid|language=en-US|work=The New York Times|issn=0362-4331 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/11/20/world/africa/20somalia.html|access-date=2021-09-04}}</ref> === Transitional Federal Government === {{See also|Somalia War (2006–2009)|Battle of Mogadishu (2006)}} Boma la Transitional Federal likayezga kuwezgerapo mazaza ghake, ndipo, na wovwiri wa ŵasilikari ŵa Ethiopia, ŵasilikari ŵa African Union na wovwiri wa ndege wa United States, ŵakafumiska ICU na kukhozga muwuso wake. Pa 8 January 2007, Mulongozgi wa TFG, Abdullahi Yusuf Ahmed, wakanjira mu Mogadishu na wovwiri wa ŵasilikari ŵa Ethiopia kakwamba kufuma apo wakasankhikira. Boma likasamukira ku Villa Somalia mu msumba wa Baidoa. Aka kakaŵa kakwamba kufuma apo boma la Siad Barre likathereskeka mu 1991, kuti boma la Britain liŵe na mazaza pa caru cose.<ref name="Gosppsdott">{{cite web|url=http://www.garoweonline.com/english/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=558:somalia-president-parliament-speaker-dispute-over-tfg-term&catid=55:somalia&Itemid=79|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110514131640/http://www.garoweonline.com/english/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=558%3Asomalia-president-parliament-speaker-dispute-over-tfg-term&catid=55%3Asomalia&Itemid=79|archive-date=14 May 2011|title=Somalia President, Parliament Speaker dispute over TFG term|publisher=Garoweonline.com|date=12 January 2011|access-date=12 June 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref> === Al Shabaab insurgency === {{See also|Al-Shabaab (militant group)}} Al-Shabaab ŵakasuska kuŵapo kwa ŵasilikari ŵa Ethiopia mu Somalia ndipo ŵakalutilira kuwukira boma la TFG. Mu 2007 na 2008, gulu la Al-Shabaab likapambana nkhondo, ndipo likapoka misumba yikuruyikuru na virwa vya ku Somalia. Mu Janyuwale 2009, Al-Shabaab na magulu ghanyake ghakacicizga ŵasilikari ŵa Ethiopia kuti ŵawelere, ndipo ŵakasida ŵasilikari ŵa African Union awo ŵakaŵa na vilwero vyakukwana yayi kuti ŵawovwire ŵasilikari ŵa Transitional Federal Government. Chifukwa cha kusoŵa ndalama na ŵanthu, kukanizgika kugwiliskira nchito vilwero ivyo vikapangiska kuti ciŵe cakusuzga kuwezgerapo ŵasilikari ŵa boma, kweniso cifukwa cakuti caru cose cikaŵa cambura kupwelelera, Yusuf wakawona kuti nchakukhumbikwa kutuma ŵasilikari ŵanandi kufuma ku Puntland kuluta ku Mogadishu kuti ŵakawovwire nkhondo yakwimikana na ŵasilikari ŵakugaluka ku cigaŵa ca kumwera kwa caru ici. Boma la chigaŵa ichi ndilo likawovwira pa ntchito iyi. Ivi vikapangiska kuti ŵasilikari ŵa ku Puntland na ŵantchito ŵa boma ŵaleke kusanga ndalama zinandi. Pa 29 Disembala, 2008, Yusuf wakapharazga panthazi pa pharalamende yakukolerana mu Baidoa kuti wafumengepo pa udindo wa Pulezidenti wa Somalia. Mu kayowoyero kake, ako kakapharazgika pa wayilesi ya caru cose, Yusuf wakayowoya kuti wakaŵa na citima cifukwa ca kutondeka kumazga nkhondo iyo yacitika mu caru ici kwa vilimika 17, nga umo boma lake likalangulira. Wakasuskaso wupu wa vyaru vyakupambanapambana cifukwa ca kutondeka kovwira boma, ndipo wakati speaker wa nyumba ya ma parliament ndiyo wazamunjira mu malo ghake kuyana na chitupa cha Transitional Federal Government.<ref>[http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/a790e984-d590-11dd-a9cc-000077b07658.html "Somali President Yusuf resigns"], Reuters (FT.com), 29 December 2008.</ref> ===End of transitional period=== {{See also|Hizbul Islam|Ahlu Sunna Waljama'a|Alliance for the Re-liberation of Somalia|Somali Civil War (2009–present)|2009 timeline of the War in Somalia}} [[File:Sharif_Sheikh_Ahmed.jpg|thumb|[[Sharif Sheikh Ahmed]] ]] Pakati pa Meyi 31 na Juni 9, 2008, ŵimiliri ŵa boma la Somalia na Alliance for the Re-liberation of Somalia (ARS) ŵakanjilirapo pa maungano gha mtende mu Djibouti agho ghakacitikanga na Ahmedou Ould-Abdallah uyo wakaŵa thenga lapadera la United Nations ku Somalia. Ungano uwu ukamara na phangano lakuti ŵasilikari ŵa Ethiopia ŵafumemo mu charu ichi. Nyumba ya malango yikasazgikira ku malo 550 kuti yikhazikiske mamembala gha ARS, agho ghakasora Sheikh Sharif Sheikh Ahmed kuŵa pulezidenti.<ref name="factbook"/> [[File:Somali Civil War Map on the 5th October 2024.svg|alt=SVG map showing relative control of the central government, Somaliland, and other actors|thumb|Political and military situation in Somalia as of September 2024]] Na wovwiri wa gulu licoko waka la ŵasilikari ŵan African Union, TFG yikamba kucitapo kanthu mu Febuluwale 2009 kuti yambe kuwusa chigaŵa ca kumwera kwa caru ici. Kuti yikhozge muwuso wake, TFG yikapangiska mgwirizano na Islamic Courts Union, mamembala ghanyake gha Alliance for the Re-liberation of Somalia, na Ahlu Sunna Waljama'a, gulu la ma Sufi. Kweniso, Al-Shabaab na Hezbol Islam, magulu ghaŵiri ghakurughakuru gha Islamist agho ghakwimikana, ghakamba kurwa nkhondo pakati pawo mu 2009. Mu Malichi 2009, boma la TFG likapharazga kuti lizamuwezgerapo dango la Sharia kuŵa dango lakuzomerezgeka. Ndipouli, nkhondo yikalutilira kumwera na pakati pa caru ici. Mu myezi yichoko waka, boma la TFG likamba kulamulira vigaŵa 70 pa vigaŵa 70 vya kumwera na pakati kwa Somalia, ndipo likaluza vigaŵa vyakujumpha 80 pa vigaŵa vyose ivyo vikaŵa na mphindano. Mu Okutobala 2011, ntchito yakukolerana, Operation Linda Nchi pakati pa ŵasilikari ŵa Somalia na Kenya na ŵasilikari ŵa vyaru vinandi yikamba kwimikana na Al-Shabaab kumwera kwa Somalia. Kufika mu Seputembala 2012, ŵasilikari ŵa Somalia, Kenya, na Raskamboni ŵakakwaniska kupoka msumba wa Kismayo, uwo ukaŵa msumba waumaliro wa Al-Shabaab. Mu Julayi 2012, maofesi ghatatu gha wupu wa European Union ghakamba kugwira ntchito na Somalia: EUTM Somalia, EU Naval Force Somalia Operation Atalanta kufupi na Horn of Africa, na EUCAP Nestor.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.globalgovernance.eu/index.php/p-s-publications/246-new-analysis-the-somali-crisis-and-the-eu-3.html |title=Analysis of EUCAP Nestor by the Global Governance Institute |publisher=Global Governance Institute |date=26 July 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130402205646/http://www.globalgovernance.eu/index.php/p-s-publications/246-new-analysis-the-somali-crisis-and-the-eu-3.html |archive-date=2 April 2013 }}</ref>[[File:Parlament of Somalia 2012-2016.svg|thumb|left|Structure of the [[Federal Parliament of Somalia]].]] Monga chigawo cha "Roadmap for the End of Transition", ndondomeko yandale yomwe inapereka njira zomveka zomwe zimatsogolera ku mapangidwe a mabungwe osatha a demokalase ku Somalia, ulamuliro wa Federal Transitional Government unatha pa 20 August 2012. Pa nyengo yeneyiyo, Nyumba ya Malamulo ya ku Somalia yikamba kulamulira.<ref name="Fcacsunesinpshm2"/> === Federal government === Boma la Somalia, ndilo likaŵa lakwamba kulamulira kwamuyirayira mu charu ichi kufuma apo nkhondo yikambira. Mu Ogasiti 2014, boma la Somalia likambiska ntchito ya Indian Ocean pa malo agho ŵakugaluka ŵakukhala.<ref>{{cite news|title=SOMALIA: President says Godane is dead, now is the chance for the members of al-Shabaab to embrace peace|url=http://www.raxanreeb.com/2014/09/somalia-president-says-godane-is-dead-now-is-the-chance-for-the-members-of-al-shabaab-to-embrace-peace/|access-date=6 September 2014|agency=Raxanreeb|date=5 September 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140906202740/http://www.raxanreeb.com/2014/09/somalia-president-says-godane-is-dead-now-is-the-chance-for-the-members-of-al-shabaab-to-embrace-peace/|archive-date=6 September 2014}}</ref> ==Makhalilo gha charu== {{Main|Geography of Somalia}} Charu cha Somalia chili kumafumiro gha dazi na charu cha Ethiopia, kumpoto na Gulf of Aden, kumafumiro gha dazi na Nyanja ya Somalia na Guardafui Channel, ndipo kumwera na kumanjiliro gha dazi na Kenya. Charu cha Somalia chili na malo ghakukwana makilomita 637,657. Mphepete mwa nyanja iyi muli makilomita ghakujumpha 3,333, ndipo ni mtunda utali chomene pa vyaru vyose vya mu Africa. Ŵanyake ŵakuti chili nga ni "nambara 7". Ku chigaŵa chakutali cha kumpoto, mapiri gha Ogo agho ghali kumafumiro gha dazi na kumanjiliro gha dazi ghali pa mtunda wakupambanapambana na nyanja ya Gulf of Aden. Nyengo zinyake mu charu ichi mukuŵa chithukivu chaka chose. Ŵasayansi ŵakuti ku malo agha kuli visulo vinandi. Charu cha Somalia chili kutali na vyaru vya Seychelles na Nyanja ya Somalia, ndipo chili kutali na Socotra na Mlonga wa Guardafui.<ref name="ClimateSom">{{cite news|url=http://countrystudies.us/somalia/34.htm|publisher=countrystudies.us|title=Somalia – Climate|date=14 May 2009}}</ref> ===Administrative divisions=== {{Main|Administrative divisions of Somalia|States and regions of Somalia}} Boma la Somalia lili kugaŵika vigaŵa 13 na vigaŵa 5 (gobollada, singular gobol). Vigaŵa ivi ni:<ref name="factbook"/> [[File:A map of Somalia regions.png|thumb|upright=1.35|A map of Somalia's regions.|alt=]] {| class="wikitable sortable" |+ Regions of Somalia |- ! Region ! Area (km²) ! Population ! Capital |- | [[Bari, Somalia|Bari]] | 70,088 | 719,512 | [[Bosaso]] |- | [[Nugal, Somalia|Nugal]] | 26,180 | 392,697 | [[Garowe]] |- | [[Mudug]] | 72,933 | 717,863 | [[Galkayo]] |- | [[Galguduud]] | 46,126 | 569,434 | [[Dusmareb]] |- | [[Hiran, Somalia|Hiran]] | 31,510 | 520,685 | [[Beledweyne]] |- | [[Middle Shabelle]] | 22,663 | 516,036 | [[Jowhar]] |- | [[Banaadir]] | 370 | 1,650,227 | [[Mogadishu]] |- | [[Lower Shabelle]] | 25,285 | 1,202,219 | [[Barawa]] |- | [[Bakool]] | 26,962 | 367,226 | [[Xuddur]] |- | [[Bay, Somalia|Bay]] | 35,156 | 792,182 | [[Baidoa]] |- | [[Gedo]] | 60,389 | 508,405 | [[Garbahaarreey]] |- | [[Middle Juba]] | 9,836 | 362,921 | [[Bu'aale]] |- | [[Lower Juba]] | 42,876 | 489,307 | [[Kismayo]] |} {| class="wikitable sortable" |+ Claimed regions |- ! Claimed region ! Area (km²) ! Population ! Capital |- | [[Awdal]] | 21,374 | 673,263 | [[Borama]] |- | [[Woqooyi Galbeed]] | 28,836 | 1,242,003 | [[Hargeisa]] |- | [[Togdheer]] | 38,663 | 721,363 | [[Burao]] |- | [[Sanaag]] | 53,374 | 544,123 | [[Erigavo]] |- | [[Sool, Somalia|Sool]] | 25,036 | 327,428 | [[Las Anod]] |} Kumpoto kwa Somalia pasono kuli vigaŵa viŵiri, Puntland (iyo yikujiwona kuti ni boma lakujiyimira palekha) na Somaliland (iyo yikujiyimira yekha kweni njambura kuzomerezgeka). Mu chigaŵa chapakati cha Somalia, Galmudug ni chigaŵa chinyake icho chili kumwera kwa Puntland. Chigaŵa cha Jubaland, icho chili kumwera kwa charu ichi, ndicho ntchigaŵa chachinayi mu charu ichi. Mu 2014, boma liphya la Southwestern Somalia nalo likapangika. Mu Epulero 2015, ŵakaŵaso na ungano wa umo ŵangapangira chigaŵa chiphya cha Central Regions. Nyumba ya Malamulo ya ku Somalia yili na mulimo wa kusankha chiŵelengero na mphaka za vyaru vya ku Somalia.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Federal Republic of Somalia – Harmonized Draft Constitution|url=http://dastuurkeenna.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/07/120708-Harmonized-Draft-Constitution-Eng-Tran-_incl-errata-changes.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130120021519/http://dastuurkeenna.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/07/120708-Harmonized-Draft-Constitution-Eng-Tran-_incl-errata-changes.pdf|archive-date=20 January 2013|publisher=Federal Government of Somalia|access-date=2 August 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Guidebook to the Somali Draft Provisional Constitution|url=http://unpos.unmissions.org/LinkClick.aspx?fileticket=v067edqd7a8%3D&tabid=9705&language=en-US|access-date=2 August 2012|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130120021547/http://unpos.unmissions.org/LinkClick.aspx?fileticket=v067edqd7a8%3D&tabid=9705&language=en-US|archive-date=20 January 2013}}</ref> ===Location=== [[File:Almadow Overview.JPG|thumb|The [[Cal Madow]] mountain range in Somaliland features the nation's highest peak, [[Shimbiris]].]] {{wide image|COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Bedding van de rivier Balada in de omgeving van Bender Gasem TMnr 60027146.jpg |300px|[[Baalade]] Valley near Bendergazim photographed by French explorer & diplomat Georges Revoil in 1881}} Charu cha Somalia chili kumafumiro gha dazi na Kenya, kumpoto na Gulf of Aden, kumafumiro gha dazi na Guardafui Channel na Indian Ocean, ndipo kumanjiliro gha dazi na Ethiopia. Charu ichi chikuyowoya kuti chili na mphaka na Djibouti kwizira mu chigaŵa cha Somaliland kumpoto kwa charu ichi. Chigaŵa ichi chili pakati pa latitude 2°S na 12°N, kweniso longitude 41° na 52°E. Charu ichi chili pa malo ghawemi chomene pa mulomo wa Bab el-Mandeb, uko kukunjira Nyanja Yiswesi na Suez Canal.<ref name="factbook"/><ref name="Hadden">Hadden, Robert Lee. 2007. [https://web.archive.org/web/20090327102547/http://handle.dtic.mil/100.2/ADA464006 "The Geology of Somalia: A Selected Bibliography of Somalian Geology, Geography and Earth Science"]. Engineer Research and Development Laboratories, Topographic Engineering Center</ref> ===Waters=== {{Main|Islands of Somalia}} Chilumba cha Somalia chili na mtunda wa makilomita 3,333. Malo agha ghali na mapiri ghatali, mapiri ghatali, na mapiri ghatali. Charu ichi chili na malo ghakukwana 637,657 square kilometres (246,201 sq mi) agho ghali na maji 10,320 square kilometres (3,980 sq mi). Malire gha charu cha Somalia ghakukwana makilomita 2,340 (1,450 mi); makilomita 58 (36 mi) mwa agha ghali na Djibouti, makilomita 682 (424 mi) na Kenya, na makilomita 1,626 (1,010 mi) na Ethiopia. Malo agha ghakusazgapo maji gha mu vigaŵa ivyo vili pa mtunda wa makilomita 370. Chirwa cha Somalia chili na virwa vinandi na virwa vinyake ivyo vili mumphepete mwa nyanja. Virwa ivi ni Bajuni Islands na Saad ad-Din Archipelago.[[File:Juba river downstream Jamaame.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Jubba River]]]] ===Habitat=== Mu charu cha Somalia muli vyaru vinkhondi na viŵiri: nkhorongo za ku Ethiopia, nkhorongo za kumpoto kwa Zanzibar, nkhorongo za ku nyanja za ku Inhambane, nkhorongo za ku Somalia, nkhorongo za ku Ethiopia, nkhorongo za ku Hobyo, nkhorongo za ku Somalia, nkhorongo za ku East Africa. Kumpoto kwa charu ichi kuli mapopa ghanandi agho ghakumara yayi. Cikaŵa na usani wa makilomita 12 kumanjiliro gha dazi na makilomita ghaŵiri kumafumiro gha dazi. Para vula yalokwa, makuni na utheka vikusintha na kuŵa vyakumera. Mphepete mwa nyanja iyi muli vyakumera vya ku Ethiopia. Cal Madow ni phiri ilo lili kumpoto ca kumafumiro gha dazi kwa caru ici. Chilumbachi chili pamtunda wa makilomita angapo kumadzulo kwa mzinda wa Bosaso mpaka kumpoto chakumadzulo kwa Erigavo, chili ndi phiri lalitali kwambiri ku Somalia, Shimbiris, lomwe lili pamtunda wa mamita 2,416 (7,927 ft). Mapiri gha Karkaar agho ghali kumafumiro gha dazi na kumanjiliro gha dazi, nagho ghali mukati mwa nyanja ya Gulf of Aden. Mu vigaŵa vyapakati, mapiri gha kumpoto kwa charu ichi ghali na mapiri ghakunyang'amira na maji ghakukhoma. Ndipo chigaŵa cha kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Ogo chikunjira mu Haud, malo ghakuŵeta viŵeto. Ku Somalia kuli milonga yiŵiri pera, Jubba na Shabele, iyo yikwamba mu mapiri gha ku Ethiopia. Milonga iyi yikwenda kumwera, ndipo Jubba wakunjira mu nyanja ya Indian Ocean ku Kismaayo. Nyengo yinyake, mlonga wa Shabele ukafikanga ku nyanja kufupi na Merca, kweni sono ukufika kumwera ca kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Mogadishu. Pamanyuma pake, malo agha ghakaŵa na vyakumera na malo ghakomira pambere ghandaleke kuwoneka mu mapopa gha kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Jilib, kufupi na Mlonga wa Jubba.<ref name="Hadden"/> ===Environment=== [[File:Somcoralreef.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|Somalia's [[coral reef]]s, ecological parks and protected areas]] Charu cha Somalia chili na vyakumera vinandi chomene. Wupu wakwamba wakovwira ŵanthu pa nkhani ya chilengiwa ukaŵa wa Ecoterra Somalia na Somali Ecological Society. Wose ŵaŵiri ŵakawovwira kuti ŵanthu ŵamanye makora chilengiwa na kwambiska mapulogiramu ghakovwira ŵanthu pa nkhani ya chilengiwa. Kwambira mu 1971, boma la Siad Barre likamba kulima makuni ghanandi mu caru cose kuti likanizge makuni ghanandi gha mchenga agho ghakaŵa pafupi kubira mu matawuni, misewu, na minda. Kuzakafika mu 1988, mahekitala 265 pa mahekitala 336 agho ghakeneranga kuzengeka ghakaŵa kuti ghazengeka. Mu 1986, Ecoterra International yikakhazikiska wupu wakuwona vya vinyama na vyakumera (Wildlife Rescue, Research and Monitoring Centre), uwo ukaŵa na cilato ca kovwira ŵanthu kuti ŵamanye umo ŵangapwelelera vyamoyo. Mu 1989, boma la Somalia likadumura kuti likolerane na CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora). [[File:Aerial views of Kismayo 06 (8071381265).jpg|thumb|left|The coast south of Mogadishu]]<!-- one beach file --> Pamanyuma, Fatima Jibrell, uyo wakaŵa wakuvikilira malo ku Somalia, wakambiska upharazgi wakovwira kuti makuni ghakale gha makuni gha akasiya agho ghali kumpoto kwa Somalia ghaleke kunangika. Makuni agha, agho ghakukhala vyaka 500, ghakadumulikanga kuti ghapangire makara agho ghakaŵa ghakuzirwa comene mu caru ca Arabia, uko ŵanthu ŵa ku Bedouin ŵakagomezganga kuti khuni la akasiya ndakupatulika.<ref name="Gilbert">Geoffrey Gilbert (2004) ''World poverty'', ABC-CLIO, p. 111, {{ISBN|1-85109-552-7}}.</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hornrelief.org/goldman-prize-2002.htm |title=Goldman Prize |publisher=Horn Relief |date=22 April 2002 |access-date=27 June 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100712071037/http://www.hornrelief.org/goldman-prize-2002.htm |archive-date=12 July 2010 }}</ref><ref name="IWD">{{cite web |url=http://www.unep.org/women_env/w_details.asp?w_id=397 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070214204154/http://www.unep.org/women_env/w_details.asp?w_id=397 |url-status=dead |archive-date=14 February 2007 |title=International Women's Day – 8 March 2006 – Fatima Jibrell |publisher=Unep.org |date=8 March 2006 |access-date=27 June 2010 }}</ref> Ndipouli, nangauli ng'anjo njakudura yayi ndipo yikukhorweska munthu, kweni kanandi yikupangiska kuti makuni ghaphye na kuzgoka mapopa. Kuti ŵamazge suzgo ili, Jibrell pamoza na wupu wa Horn of Africa Relief and Development Organization (Horn Relief; sono Adeso), uwo wakambiska na kulongozga, ŵakasambizga ŵawukirano ŵanyake kuti ŵasambizge ŵanthu za uheni uwo ungaŵapo para munthu wapanga malasha. Mu 1999, wupu wa Horn Relief ukalongozga ungano wa mtende mu chigaŵa cha Puntland, kumpoto kwa Somalia, kuti ŵamazge nkhondo za makara. Chifukwa cha ivyo Jibrell wakachitanga, boma la Puntland likakanizga ŵanthu kuguliska makala mu 2000. Kufuma waka pa nyengo iyi, boma likakanizga vyakurya ivi, ndipo vikapangiska kuti vyakurya ivi vichepeko na 80 peresenti. Mu 2002, Jibrell wakapokera chawanangwa chakuchemeka Goldman Environmental Prize chifukwa cha kulimbana na kunangika kwa chilengiwa. Mu 2008, wakapokera chawanangwa cha National Geographic Society/Buffett Foundation Award for Leadership in Conservation. Pamanyuma pa tsunami uyo wakacitika mu Disembala 2004, pakaŵaso ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵakayowoya kuti apo nkhondo ya mukati mu caru ya ku Somalia yikambanga kuumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1980, mtunda utali na wakutali comene wa ku Somalia ukaŵa malo ghakusungiramo viswaswa. Mafunde ghakuru agho ghakatimba kumpoto kwa Somalia pamanyuma pa tsunami, ghakwenera kuti ghakatumphuska matani ghanandi gha vyakuponthora vya nyukiliya na vyakofya ivyo vikwenera kuti vikaŵikika mu charu ichi na makampani gha ku vyaru vinyake. Gulu la European Green Party likati lawona ivyo vikachitika, likapeleka ku ŵapharazgi na ku Nyumba ya Malamulo ya ku Europe mu Strasbourg, tumakope twa mapangano agho ghakalembeka na makampani ghaŵiri gha ku Europe, kampani ya ku Italy ya ku Switzerland yakucemeka Achair Partners, na kampani ya ku Italy yakucemeka Progresso, pamoza na ŵalongozgi ŵa pulezidenti wa Somalia, Ali Mahdi Mohamed, kuti ŵapokere matani 10 gha viswaswa vya poyizoni mu mtengo wa madola 80 miliyoni (panthazi pake pafupifupi mapaundi 60 miliyoni). Lipoti la United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) likulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakukhala kufupi na tawuni ya Hobyo na Benadir, ku mpoto kwa nyanja ya Indian Ocean, ŵakusuzgika na matenda gha radiation sickness. UNEP yikusazgirapo kuti vinthu ivyo vikucitika mumphepete mwa nyanja ya Somalia ni vyakofya comene ku malo agha kweniso ku cigaŵa ca kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Africa.<ref name="Toxic">{{cite news|url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/article418665.ece|title=Somalia's secret dumps of toxic waste washed ashore by tsunami|work=The Times|date=4 March 2005|access-date=25 February 2009|location=London|author=Jonathan Clayton}}</ref> ===Climate=== [[File:Somalia map of Köppen climate classification.svg|thumb|upright=1.35|Somalia map of Köppen climate classification.]] {{See also|Climate change in Somalia}} Cifukwa cakuti Somalia yili pafupi na equator, nyengo yikusintha yayi. Nyengo zinyake mu charu ichi mukuŵa chithukivu, ndipo nyengo zinyake kukuwa vula. Pa zuŵa, matenthedwe ghakujumpha 30°C mpaka 40°F. Mwaciyelezgero, mu mwezi wa Epulero, mu Mogadishu, muhanya wakuzizima comene ni 28 mpaka 32 °C. Ku Berbera, kumpoto cha kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa charu ichi, kukuŵa kotcha chomene, ndipo kufuma mu Juni m'paka Seputembala, kukuŵa kotcha chomene. Pa caru cose, zuŵa lililose para maji ghamara ghakuŵa pakati pa 15 na 30 °C. Nyengo yikuru chomene yili kumpoto kwa Somalia, uko mu Julayi mu vigaŵa vya mumphepete mwa nyanja, nyengo zinyake kuzizima kwake kukujumpha 45 °C. Ku chigaŵa ichi, chithukivu chikuŵa pa 40 peresenti namise mpaka 85 peresenti usiku. Mwakupambana na vyaru vinyake ivyo vili pa latitude iyi, ku Somalia nyengo njakomira comene kumpoto ca kumafumiro gha dazi na pakati pa caru. Ku chigaŵa cha kumpoto na kumafumiro gha dazi kwa charu ichi, kukulokwa maji ghachoko chomene pa chaka. Ndipouli, kumpoto ca kumanjiliro gha dazi na kumwera ca kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa caru ici, kukulokwa vula yinandi comene, pafupifupi 510 m'paka 610 mm pa caka. Nangauli mu vigaŵa vya mumphepete mwa nyanja mukuŵa chithukivu kweniso maji ghakututuka chaka chose, kweni mu vigaŵa vya mukati mwa charu mukuŵa chithukivu kweniso moto. Pali nyengo zinayi zikuruzikuru izo zikupangiska kuti viŵeto vilimenge na kulima. Kufuma mu Disembala m'paka mu Malichi, nyengo ya Jilal ndiyo njakusuzga comene. Nyengo yikuru ya vula, yakucemeka Gu, yikwamba mu Epulero mpaka Juni. Nyengo iyi yikulongora kuti nyengo ya mphepo ya kumwera kwa charu ichi yikwiza, ndipo yikovwira kuti malo gha viŵeto ghaŵe ghawemi, chomenechomene mu chigaŵa chapakati. Kufuma mu Julayi m'paka Seputembala, nyengo yachiŵiri ya chilangalanga yikuchemeka Xagaa. Nyengo ya chivula iyo yikuŵa yifupi comene ni Dayr, ndipo yikumalira mu Okutobala m'paka Disembala. Nyengo ya tangambili iyo yili pakati pa nyengo ziŵiri izi (Okutobala-Novembala na Malichi-Meyi) njakutenthera ndiposo njakuthukira.<ref name="Hadden"/><ref name="Hadden" /> ===Wildlife=== {{Main|Wildlife of Somalia}} [[File:Sambalaxx.jpg|thumb|left|A camel in the northern mountains.]] Ku Somalia kuli vyamoyo vyakupambanapambana chifukwa cha malo na nyengo. Viyuni vinyake ivyo vichalipo ni cheetah, nkhalamu, giraffe, babuini, serval, njovu, nkhumba za mu thengere, mbuzi, ibex, kudu, dik-dik, oribi, mbunda ya ku Somalia, mbunda ya ku Reedbuck na Grévy, njovu ya shrew, rock hyrax, golden mole na antilope. Kweniso kuli ngamila zinandi. Ku Somalia kuli viyuni vya mitundu pafupifupi 727. Pa vyamoyo ivi, vinkhondi na viŵiri ni vyamoyo vya pa caru cose, cimoza ni vyamoyo ivyo ŵanthu ŵakanjizga, ndipo cimoza ni vyamoyo ivyo vikusangika bweka yayi. Pa caru cose pali vyamoyo 14 ivyo vili pangozi. Viyuni ivyo vikusangika mu charu ichi ni nkhunda ya ku Somalia, Alaemon hamertoni (Alaudidae), Lesser Hoopoe-Lark, Heteromirafra archeri (Alaudidae), Archer's Lark, Mirafra ashi, Ash's Bushlark, Mirafra somalica (Alaudidae), Somali Bushlark, Spizocorys obbiensis (Alaudidae), Obbia Lark, Carduelis johannis (Fringillidae), na Warsangli Linnet. Malo agha ndigho ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuloŵera somba za mu nyanja nga ni tuna. Pa malo agha pali somba zinandi na vyakumera vinyake. Viyuni vinyake ivyo vikusangika mu charu ichi ni Cirrhitichthys randalli (Cirrhitidae), Symphurus fuscus (Cynoglossidae), Parapercis simulata OC (Pinguipedidae), Cociella somaliensis OC (Platycephalidae), na Pseudochromis melanotus (Pseudochromidae). Pali vyamoyo pafupifupi 235 vya mitundu yakupambanapambana. Pa ŵanthu aŵa, pafupifupi hafu ŵakukhala kumpoto. Viyuni vinyake ivyo vikukhala mu Somalia ni Hughes' saw-scaled viper, Southern Somali garter snake, racer (Platyceps messanai), diadem snake (Spalerosophis josephscorteccii), the Somali sand boa, the angled worm lizard, a spiny-tailed lizard (Uromastyx macfadyeni), Lanza's agama, a gecko (Hemidactylus granchii), the Somali semaphore gecko, and a sand lizard (Mesalina or Eremias). Njoka yakuchemeka colubrid (Aprosdoketophis andreonei) na njoka yakuchemeka Haacke-Greer's skink (Haackgreerius miopus) ni vyamoyo ivyo vikukhala mu charu ichi.<ref>Uetz, P. & Jirí Hošek (eds.), The Reptile Database, htUetz, P. & Jirí Hošek (e Uetz, P. & Jirí Hošek (eds.), The Reptile Database, http://www.reptile-database.org, accessed 8 December 2013</ref> ==Ndale na boma== {{Main|Politics of Somalia}} [[File:Jawari.png|thumb|upright|[[Mohamed Osman Jawari]], Former Speaker of the [[Federal Parliament of Somalia|Federal Parliament]]]]<!-- legislative leadership - executive leadership below --> Boma la Somalia ni boma la demokilase. Purezidenti wa Somalia ndiye mutu wa boma ndi mkulu wa asilikali a Somalia ndipo amasankha Prime Minister kuti achite ntchito ngati mutu wa boma. Nyumba ya Malamulo ya ku Somalia ni nyumba ya mafumu ya chalo cha Somalia. Wupu Wakulongozga uwo uli na nyumba ziŵiri, ni Nyumba ya Wupu Wakulongozga (low house) na Senate (upper house). Nyumba ya malango yikusora pulezidenti, pulezidenti wa nyumba ya malango, na madirector. Kweniso lili na mazaza ghakuzomerezga malango na kuŵika veto. Boma la Somalia likulongosoreka na Dango lakwamba la boma la Somalia. Pa 1 Ogasiti 2012 wupu wa National Constitutional Assembly ku Mogadishu ndiwo ukalemba chikalata ichi. Likovwira kuti boma la Germany liŵe na mazaza. Makhoti gha mu vyaru ivi ghali na makhoti ghatatu: Khoti la Malango, makhoti gha boma na gha boma. Wupu wa Judicial Service Commission uwo uli na ŵanthu 9, ndiwo ukusora munthu waliyose wa mu wupu uwu. Dango la Somalia lili kufuma ku malango ghatatu: malango gha boma, malango gha Chisilamu, na malango gha mitheto. Pamanyuma pakuti Somalia yabwanganduka mu 1991, pakaŵavya kukolerana pakati pa boma la Somaliland, ilo likati ni caru, na boma la Somalia.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-08-06|title=Somalia-Somaliland: A Halting Embrace of Dialogue|url=https://www.crisisgroup.org/africa/horn-africa/somalia/somalia-somaliland-halting-embrace-dialogue|access-date=2021-06-02|website=Crisis Group|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|date=2020-12-04|title=Russia Digs into Somaliland-Somalia Feud as Envoy Calls for Resumption of Talks – East African Business Week|language=en-GB|work=East African Business Week|url=https://www.busiweek.com/russia-digs-into-somaliland-somalia-feud-as-envoy-calls-for-resumption-of-talks/|access-date=2021-06-02|archive-date=31 May 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220531055428/https://www.busiweek.com/russia-digs-into-somaliland-somalia-feud-as-envoy-calls-for-resumption-of-talks/|url-status=dead}}</ref> ===Foreign relations=== {{Main|Foreign relations of Somalia}} [[File:2015 01 25 Turkish President Visit to Somalia-1 (16176887607).jpg|alt=|thumb|President of Somalia [[Hassan Sheikh Mohamud]] with Turkish President [[Recep Tayyip Erdoğan|Recep Tayyip Erdogan]] opening the new terminal of Aden Abdulle International Airport in Mogadishu, Somalia. (25 January 2015)]] Boma la Somalia likwendeskeka na pulezidenti uyo ni mulongozgi wa boma, nduna yikuru iyo ni mulongozgi wa boma, ndipo ofesi ya munthavi ya boma ndiyo yikwendeska vinthu vya mu charu ichi.<ref name="Frspc">{{cite web |title=The Federal Republic of Somalia – Provisional Constitution |url=http://www.somaliweyn.com/pages/news/Aug_12/Somalia_Constitution_English_FOR_WEB.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121003021031/http://somaliweyn.com/pages/news/Aug_12/Somalia_Constitution_English_FOR_WEB.pdf |archive-date=3 October 2012 |access-date=13 March 2013}}</ref> [[File:Mogturkemb.jpg|thumb|[[Turkey|Turkish]] embassy in Mogadishu]] Kuyana na ndime 54 ya dango la chalo, kugaŵikana kwa mazaza na vyakukhumbikwa pakati pa boma la Somalia na vyaru ivyo vili mu boma la Somalia vikudumbiskana na kukolerana na boma la Somalia na vyaru ivyo vili mu boma la Somalia, padera pa nkhani zakukhwaskana na vyaru vya kuwaro, kuvikilira chalo, wanangwa wa ŵanthu ŵa ku Somalia, na ndyali. Ndime 53 yikulongosoraso kuti boma la Germany likudumbiskana na boma la Germany pa nkhani zikuruzikuru zakukhwaskana na mapangano gha caru cose, kusazgapo nkhani zakukhwaskana na malonda gha ku caru cinyake, vya ndalama na mapangano. Boma la Germany likuŵa paubwezi na maboma ghanyake gha caru cose. Vinyake mwa vyaru ivi ni Djibouti, Ethiopia, Egypt, United Arab Emirates, Yemen, Turkey, Italy, United Kingdom, Denmark, France, United States, People's Republic of China, Japan, Russian Federation na South Korea. Kuonjezera apo, Somalia ili na maofesi gha vyaru vinyake. Paliso maboma na mawupu gha vyaru vinyake mu Mogadishu, msumba ukuru wa charu ichi. Charu cha Somalia chili mu wupu wa United Nations, African Union na Arab League. Mu 1969, charu ichi chikaŵa yumoza wa awo ŵakambiska wupu wa Islamic Cooperation Organization. Maboma ghanyake agho ghali mu wupu uwu ni African Development Bank, Group of 77, Intergovernmental Authority on Development, International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, International Civil Aviation Organization, International Development Association, International Finance Corporation, Non-Aligned Movement, World Federation of Trade Unions na World Meteorological Organization.<ref>{{cite web|title=Member states|url=http://www.oic-oci.org/oicv2/states/|publisher=Organisation of Islamic Cooperation|access-date=6 January 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131209072808/http://www.oic-oci.org/oicv2/states/|archive-date=9 December 2013}}</ref> ===Military=== {{Main|Somali Armed Forces}} [[File:2015 03 25 SNA PASSOUT-5 (16739095620).jpg|thumb|Instructors from the [[European Union Training Mission in Somalia]] (EUTM) take Somali soldiers through training drills at Jazeera Training Camp in Mogadishu.]] Gulu la ŵasilikari la Somalia (SAF) ni gulu la ŵasilikari ŵa boma la Somalia. Ŵakulongozgeka na pulezidenti uyo ni mulara wa ŵasilikari ndipo ŵali na mazaza kuti ŵavikilire muwuso wa caru, wanangwa wawo, na malo ghawo. Pakwamba, ŵasilikari ŵa boma ŵakaŵa ŵasilikari ŵa nkhondo, ŵasilikari ŵa ku nyanja, ŵasilikari ŵa ku mphepo, ŵapolisi, na ŵasilikari ŵa boma. Pakati pajumpha nyengo kufuma apo charu ichi chikapokera wanangwa, chikaŵa na ŵasilikari ŵanandi chomene pa charu chose. Nkhondo ya mukati mu caru yikacitika mu 1991, ndipo yikapangiska kuti gulu la ŵasilikari ŵa boma la Somalia lileke kugwira nchito. Mu 2004, ndondomeko ya kuzenga ŵasilikari yikanjira m'malo na kukhazikiska boma la Transitional Federal Government (TFG). Gulu la ŵasilikari la Somalia sono likulaŵilirika na Unduna wa vya Vyankhondo wa boma la Somalia, ilo likapangika pakati pa 2012. Mu Janyuwale 2013, boma la Somalia likambaso kuzenga ofesi ya wupu wakuwona vya wanangwa wa ŵanthu ku Mogadishu, ndipo likasintha zina la ofesi iyi kuŵa National Intelligence and Security Agency (NISA). Boma la Somaliland na la Puntland lili na mawupu gha ŵapolisi na ŵaboma.<ref>{{cite news |title=Somalia Re-Opens its National Intelligence & Security Agency|url=http://www.waltainfo.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=6968:somalia-re-opens-its-national-intelligence-a-security-agency&catid=70:international-news&Itemid=309|access-date=1 September 2013|newspaper=Walta Info|date=10 January 2013}}</ref> ===Human rights=== {{Main|Human rights in Somalia}} Ŵanalume na ŵanakazi awo ŵakugonana na ŵanalume ŵanyawo ŵakuŵa ŵambura kuzomerezgeka na dango. Pa Okutobala 3, 2020, mulaŵiliri wa UN wakuwona vya wanangwa wa ŵanthu wakadandawura chifukwa cha boma la Somalia kuleka kufiska ivyo likukhumba. Kuyana na ivyo mulaŵiliri wa kafukufuku uyu wakasanga, boma la Somalia likuleka kufiska ivyo likakhumbanga kuvikilira wanangwa wa ŵanthu pa nkhani ya vyachuma, umoyo wa ŵanthu na mitheto.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.voanews.com/africa/un-expert-somalia-backtracking-human-rights-commitments |title= UN Expert: Somalia Backtracking on Human Rights Commitments |access-date= 3 October 2020 |website= Voice of America – English}}</ref> ==Chuma== {{Main|Economy of Somalia}} [[File:Air Somalia Tupolev Tu-154.jpg|thumb|[[Air Somalia]] Tupolev [[Tupolev Tu-154|Tu-154]] in [[Sharjah (city)|Sharjah]], [[United Arab Emirates]]. Somalia today has several private airlines]] [[File:Somalia Product Exports (2019).svg|thumb|right|A proportional representation of Somalia exports, 2019]] Kuyana na CIA na Central Bank of Somalia, nangauli ku Somalia kuli vivulupi, kweni chalo ichi chili na chuma chakukhora yayi, ndipo chikuthemba pa viŵeto, makampani ghakwendeska ndalama na ma telefoni. Cifukwa ca kusoŵa kwa maukaboni gha boma ndiposo nkhondo iyo yikacitika sonosono apa, nchakusuzga kumanya ukuru wa cuma panji umo cikukulira. Mu 1994, wupu wa CIA ukati caru cikaŵa na ndalama zakukwana madola 3.3 biliyoni. Mu 2001, ndalama izi zikaŵa pafupifupi madola 4.1 biliyoni. Kufika mu 2009, CIA yikati GDP yikakura kufika pa $5.731 biliyoni, ndipo yikaghanaghananga kuti yikurenge pa 2.6%. Kuyana na lipoti la wupu wa British Chambers of Commerce wa mu 2007, nchito ya ŵanthu ŵekha yikakura, comenecomene mu nchito ya mauteŵeti. Mwakupambana na nyengo iyo nkhondo yikaŵa kuti yindacitike, apo maofesi ghanandi gha boma na vyamalonda vikaŵa mu mawoko gha boma, maboma ghakaŵa na ndalama zinandi chomene mu vyamalonda. Munthu munyake wakusanda vya cuma, zina lake Peter Leeson, wakati cifukwa ca kusazgikira kwa vinthu mu caru ici ni dango la cikaya la ku Somalia.<ref name="Petletbet">{{cite web |title=Better Off Stateless: Somalia Before and After Government Collapse |url=http://www.peterleeson.com/Better_Off_Stateless.pdf |access-date=27 June 2010}}</ref> [[File:2016 04 Eid Preparions-11 (27469932863).jpg|thumb|Shoppers in Hamarwayne market in Mogadishu]] Kuyana na banki ya ku Somalia, GDP ya munthu yumoza mu charu ichi mu 2012 yikaŵa $226, ndipo yikakhira pachoko kufuma mu 1990. Ŵanthu pafupifupi 43% ŵakukhala na ndalama zakuchepera dola limoza pa zuŵa, ndipo ŵanthu pafupifupi 24% ŵakukhala mu matawuni ndipo 54% ŵakukhala ku mizi. Chuma cha ku Somalia chikupangika na vinthu vya mazuŵa ghano kweniso vya kale. Ku Somalia ndiko kuli ngamila zinandi chomene pa charu chose. Kuyana na banki yikuru ya ku Somalia, ŵanthu pafupifupi 80 pa 100 ŵali na viŵeto vya mbuzi, mberere, ngamila na ng'ombe. Ŵalendo aŵa ŵakusangaso vyakumera vinyake kuti ŵasange ndalama.<ref name="Cbsef2">{{cite web |title=Central Bank of Somalia – Economy and Finance |url=http://www.somalbanca.org/economy-and-finance.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090124192809/http://somalbanca.org/economy-and-finance.html |archive-date=24 January 2009 |access-date=30 December 2010 |publisher=Somalbanca.org}}</ref> === Agriculture === {{See also|Agriculture in Somalia}} Vyaru ni vyakurya vyakuzirwa comene mu Somalia. Vinthu ivi vikupangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵagwire nchito. Viŵeto vikupangiska kuti GDP yiŵe pafupifupi 40 peresenti, ndipo vyakufumira ku vyaru vinyake vikupangiska kuti vyakurya ivi vipelekeke ku vyaru vinyake. Vinthu vinyake ivyo ŵakuguliska ni somba, makara, na nthochi. Kuyana na banki yikuru ya ku Somalia, katundu uyo wakunjira mu caru ici wakukwana madola 460 miliyoni pa caka. Vinthu ivyo vikuguliskika ku vyaru vinyake, ivyo vikukwana pafupifupi madola 270 miliyoni pa caka, vikuluska ivyo vikaguliskikanga pambere nkhondo yindambe. Boma la Somalia lili na suzgo la ndalama pafupifupi madola 190 miliyoni pa chaka, kweni ndalama izo ŵanthu ŵa ku Somalia ŵakutumizga ku vyaru vinyake zikuluska ndalama izi. Ŵamalonda ŵa ku Somalia ŵakulimbana na boma la Australia chifukwa chakuti lili pafupi na chirwa cha Arabia. Pa cifukwa ici, vyaru vya ku Gulf vyamba kupanga ndalama mu caru ici, ndipo Saudi Arabia yikuzenga malo ghakuliskako viŵeto ndipo United Arab Emirates yikugura malo ghakurughakuru. Charu cha Somalia ndicho chikupanga lubani na mure.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.elmt-relpa.org/FCKeditor/UserFiles/File/elmt/201004/Final%20Report%20Annex%203%20-%20sector%20profiles%20-%20logos.pdf |title=Expanding Investment Finance in Northern Kenya and Other Arid Lands |access-date=30 December 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110513155643/http://www.elmt-relpa.org/FCKeditor/UserFiles/File/elmt/201004/Final%20Report%20Annex%203%20-%20sector%20profiles%20-%20logos.pdf |archive-date=13 May 2011 }}</ref>[[File:Bosaso port.jpg|thumb|The [[Port of Bosaso]]]] Makampani gha vyakurya agho ghakupanga vyakurya, ghakupanga 10% ya GDP ya Somalia. Kuyana na wupu wakuwona vya malonda na vyamakampani ku Somalia, makampani gha ndege ghakujumpha 6 ghakupeleka maulendo gha ndege ku vyaru vinyake, nga ni Daallo Airlines, Jubba Airways, African Express Airways, East Africa 540, Central Air na Hajara. Mu 2008, boma la Puntland likasaina phangano la madola mamiliyoni ghanandi na Lootah Group wa ku Dubai, gulu la vyamalonda ilo likugwira ntchito ku Middle East na Africa. Mwakuyana na phangano ili, cigaŵa cakwamba ca ndalama izi cili na ndalama zakukwana 170 million Dhs. Wupu wa Bosaso Airport Company ndiwo uzamunozga chiŵanja cha ndege ichi kuti chikolerane na fundo za pa charu chose. Pambere nkhondo ya pawenenawene yindambe mu 1991, makampani 53 gha boma ghakurughakuru, gha pakati na ghakurughakuru ghakaleka kugwira nchito. Ndipouli, cifukwa ca ndalama zinandi izo ŵanthu ŵa ku Somalia ŵakugwiliskira nchito, maofesi ghanandi gha ku Somalia ghajulika ndipo ghanyake ghapangika. Vinthu ivi ni vyakusungiramo somba na vyakusungiramo nyama mu vigaŵa vya kumpoto, kweniso mafakitale pafupifupi 25 mu msumba wa Mogadishu, agho ghakupanga makaroni, maji gha mafuta, vyakununkhira, mathumba gha pulasitiki, salu, vikumba na vikumba vya nyama, munkhwala wakugeziskira na sopo, aluminiyamu, matiresi na makuseŵe gha visulo, maboti ghakuloŵera somba, kupakira vinthu, na kupanga malibwe. Mu 2004, mu tawuni iyi mukajulikaso fakitare ya Coca-Cola ya mtengo wa madola 8.3 miliyoni. Makampani ghanyake gha vyaru vyakupambanapambana nga ni General Motors na Dole Fruit, nagho ghakasanga ndalama mu vyaru ivi.<ref>Little, Peter D. (2003) ''Somalia: Economy without State''. Indiana University Press, p. 4, {{ISBN|0-85255-865-1}}.</ref> ===Monetary and payment system=== {{Main|Central Bank of Somalia|Somali shilling}} [[File:Obverse 2022 Somalia 1 oz Silver coin Leopard.jpg|thumb|2022 Somalia 1 oz Silver coin Leopard (100 shillings)]] Banki ya ku Somalia ndiyo yikulaŵilira ndalama mu Somalia. Pa nkhani ya ndalama, iyo wakugwira nchito ya kupanga na kufiska ndondomeko ya ndalama. Cifukwa ca kuleka kugomezga ndalama za ku Somalia, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakugwiliskira nchito dola ya ku America. Nangauli ndalama za ku Somalia zikwenda pa dollar, kweni ndalama izi zikukwera chomene, comenecomene pa malonda gha ndalama zicoko. Kuyana na banki iyi, vinthu ivi vizamumara para iyo wayamba kulamulira ndalama na kunjira mu malo mwa ndalama za boma. Nangauli boma la Somalia likaŵavya boma lakulamulira ndalama kwa vyaka vyakujumpha 15 kufuma apo nkhondo yikambira mu 1991 m'paka apo boma la Somalia likambiraso kulamulira mu 2009, kweni ndalama izo likagwiliskiranga ntchito zikwenda makora chomene. Makampani ghakupeleka ndalama agha (hawalas) ghazgoka makampani ghakurughakuru mu Somalia, ndipo ŵanthu ŵa ku Somalia awo ŵakukhala mu vyaru vinyake ŵakupeleka ndalama zakukwana madola 1.6 biliyoni pa chaka. Ŵanandi mwa iwo ŵali mu wupu wa Somali Money Transfer Association (SOMTA), wupu uwo ukwendeska ntchito ya kutumizga ndalama mu charu ichi. Kampani yikuru comene ya ku Somalia ni Dahabshiil, kampani iyo yikugwira nchito ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 2,000 mu vyaru 144.<ref name="Towhamrec">{{cite news|url=http://www.threcorder.co.uk/content/towerhamlets/recorder/news/story.aspx?brand=REConline&category=newsTowerHam&tBrand=northlondon24&tCategory=newstower&itemid=WeED13%20Apr%202010%2010%3A02%3A08%3A730|title=Decades of community service recognised with award|newspaper=Tower Hamlets Recorder|date=13 April 2007|access-date=3 June 2010|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511205333/http://www.threcorder.co.uk/content/towerhamlets/recorder/news/story.aspx?brand=REConline&category=newsTowerHam&tBrand=northlondon24&tCategory=newstower&itemid=WeED13%20Apr%202010%2010%3A02%3A08%3A730|archive-date=11 May 2011}}</ref>[[File:Somshil5r.jpg|thumb|left|500 [[Somali shilling]] banknote]] As the reconstituted Central Bank of Somalia fully assumes its monetary policy responsibilities, some of the existing money transfer companies are expected in the near future to seek licenses so as to develop into full-fledged commercial banks. This will serve to expand the national payments system to include formal cheques, which in turn is expected to reinforce the efficacy of the use of monetary policy in domestic [[Macroeconomics|macroeconomic]] management.<ref name="Paysys">{{cite web |title=Central Bank of Somalia – Payment system |url=http://somalbanca.org/payment-system.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090122232449/http://somalbanca.org/payment-system.html |archive-date=22 January 2009 |access-date=30 December 2010 |publisher=Somalbanca.org}}</ref> Chifukwa chakuti vinthu vikenda makora mu charu ichi, ŵanthu ŵa ku Somalia ŵakamba kuwelera ku caru cawo kuti ŵazakasange ndalama. Ndalama za ku Somalia zikukwera comene cifukwa ca ndalama za ku caru cinyake. Kuzakafika mu Malichi 2014, ndalama izi zikaŵa kuti zakwera pafupifupi 60 peresenti pakuyaniska na dola ya ku United States. Shilling ya ku Somalia ndiyo yikaŵa yakukhora comene pa ndalama zakupambanapambana zakukwana 175 izo Bloomberg yikaguliskanga. Somalia Stock Exchange (SSE) ni msika wa ku Somalia. Bungwe ili likakhazikiskika mu 2012 na Idd Mohamed wa ku Somalia, uyo ni nthumi yachilendo na wachiŵiri wa nthumi ya United Nations. Boma la Somalia likakhazikiska SSE kuti likopere ndalama kufuma ku makampani gha ku Somalia na gha pa caru cose kuti liŵawovwire kunozga vinthu mu Somalia.<ref>{{cite news|title=Diplomat to start Somalia's first stock market|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/kenya-somalia-investment-idUSL6E8J8D1J20120808|access-date=5 December 2013|work=Reuters|date=8 August 2012|archive-date=30 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150930100728/http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/08/08/kenya-somalia-investment-idUSL6E8J8D1J20120808|url-status=live}}</ref> ===Energy and natural resources=== {{Main|Mineral industry of Somalia|Oil exploration in Puntland}} Banki ya Caru Cose yikupharazga kuti sono ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakugura magesi mu vyaru ivi. Mu vyaru ivi muli kampani yinyake yakuchemeka Somali Energy Company, iyo yikugwira ntchito ya kupanga, kutumizga na kupeleka magesi. Mu 2010, caru ici cikapanga magesi 310 miliyoni na kugwiliskira nchito magesi 288.3 miliyoni, ndipo cikaŵa pa malo 170 na 177, kuyana na CIA.<ref name="factbook"/> [[File:Puntland oil.png|thumb|upright=1.35|[[Oil exploration in Puntland|Oil blocks]] in Puntland]] Boma la Somalia lili na vinthu vinandi vyakuthupi nga ni uranium, iron ore, tin, gypsum, bauxite, mkuwa, mchere na gasi. Wupu wa CIA ukati pali magesi ghakukwana mabiliyoni 5,663. Palije ukaboni wakuti ku Somalia kuli mafuta ghanandi. Wupu wa CIA ukuti m'paka mu 2011, mu charu ichi mulije mafuta ghakukwana, apo wupu wa UNCTAD ukuti mafuta ghanandi agho ghalipo mu Somalia ghali kumpoto kwa charu ichi, mu chigaŵa cha Somaliland. Gulu la mafuta ilo lili na katundu mu Sydney, Range Resources, likati chigaŵa cha Puntland kumpoto kwa charu ichi chili na mafuta ghakukwana mabarali 5 biliyoni (790×106 m3) m'paka 10 biliyoni (1.6×109 m3), pakuyaniska na mabarali 6.7 biliyoni gha mafuta gha mu Sudan. Chifukwa cha ivyo vikachitika, boma likakhazikiska wupu wa Somalia Petroleum Corporation. Kuumaliro wa m'ma 1960, ŵasayansi ŵa UN ŵakasanga kuti ku Somalia kuli usambazi ukuru wa uranium na vinthu vinyake vyakununkhira. Ŵasayansi ŵakaghanaghananga kuti malo agha ghakaŵa ghakujumpha 25 peresenti ya malo ghakukwana matani 800,000 gha uranium agho ghakasangika pa charu chose. Mu 1984, IUREP Orientation Phase Mission ku Somalia yikati caru ici cikaŵa na matani 5,000 gha uranium reasonably assured resources (RAR), matani 11,000 gha uranium estimated additional resources (EAR) mu calcrete deposits, kweniso matani 0150,000 gha uranium speculative resources (SR) mu sandstone na calcrete deposits. Somalia yikazgoka caru cikuru ico cikupanga uranium, ndipo makampani gha ku America, UAE, Italy na Brazil ghakakwesananga kuti ghapoke. Natural Link Resources yili na chigaŵa mu chigaŵa chapakati, ndipo Kilimanjaro Capital yili na chigaŵa mu chigaŵa cha Amsas-Coriole-Afgoi (ACA), icho chikusazgapo kupenja uranium. Trans-National Industrial Electricity and Gas Company ni kampani ya vya magesi iyo yili ku Mogadishu. Wakawovwira makampani ghanayi ghakuru gha ku Somalia gha malonda, vya ndalama, kuvikilira na kwendera mauthenga gha pa foni. Pakwamba, kampani iyi yikaŵa na ndalama zakukwana madola 1 biliyoni ndipo yikambiska ntchito ya Somalia Peace Dividend Project. Kuyana na Banki yikuru ya Somalia, apo chalo ichi chikuluta ku nthowa yakuzengaso, chuma cha chalo ichi chikulindizgika kuti chizamukwaniska waka ivyo vikaŵako pambere nkhondo yindambe, kweniso kuti chizamukulirakulira chifukwa cha vinthu vyakuthupi vyambura kugwiliskirika nchito.<ref name="Cbsef2"/> ===Telecommunications and media=== {{Main|Communications in Somalia|Media of Somalia}} [[File:Hormuud.jpg|thumb|upright|The [[Hormuud Telecom]] building in Mogadishu]] Nkhondo yikati yayamba, makampani ghanyake ghakwendeska mawupu ghakamba kupanga mawupu agha. Makampani agha ghakupokera ndalama kufuma ku ŵamalonda ŵa ku Somalia na wovwiri wakufuma ku China, South Korea na Europe. Ŵalendo ŵangatumizga ndalama (nga umo ŵakuchitira na Dahabshiil) na mabanki ghanyake pa mafoni, kweniso ŵangasanga Intaneti. Pamanyuma pa kukolerana na makampani ghanyake nga ni Sprint, ITT na Telenor, makampani agha sono ghakupeleka mauthenga ghapachanya kweniso ghakudura chomene mu Africa. Makampani agha ghakwendeskaso ma telefoni mu misumba yose ya ku Somalia. Pasono pali ma telefoni pafupifupi 25 pa ŵanthu 1,000, ndipo ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakugwiliskira ntchito telefoni kuluska mu vyaru vinyake. Makampani gha telecommunication gha ku Somalia ghakumanyikwa ni Golis Telecom Group, Hormuud Telecom, Somafone, Nationlink, Netco, Telcom na Somali Telecom Group. Hormuud Telecom yekha ndiyo wakupeleka ndalama pafupifupi madola 40 miliyoni pa caka. Nangauli pali mphindano, kweni mu 2005, ŵabwezi ŵa vyamaseŵera aŵa ŵakasazga phangano lakuti ŵaŵikengepo mtengo wa vinthu ivyo ŵakuguliska, kuŵawovwira kuti ŵalutilire kukhozga na kusazgirako maunyoro ghawo, kweniso kuti ŵaleke kuthera pa mphindano. Kugwiliskira nchito ndalama mu vyakupharazga ni cimanyikwiro cakuti cuma ca Somalia cikulutilira kukura nangauli mu vigaŵa vinyake muli nkhondo.<ref name="Telfirm">{{cite news|author=Abdinasir Mohamed|author2=Sarah Childress|date=11 May 2010|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052748704608104575220570113266984|title=Telecom Firms Thrive in Somalia Despite War, Shattered Economy|newspaper=[[The Wall Street Journal]]}}</ref> Televizioni ya boma ya Somalia ndiyo yikupharazga pa TV. Pakati pajumpha vyaka 20, siteshoni iyi yikambaso pa Epulero 4, 2011. Wupu wa Radio Mogadishu nawo ukupeleka mauthenga kufuma ku msumba uwu. TV ya ku Somaliland na Puntland TV na Radio zikufuma ku vigaŵa vya kumpoto. Kweniso, ku Somalia kuli mawayilesi ghanandi na mawayilesi. Vinyake mwa vyaru ivi ni Horn Cable Television na Universal TV. Manyuzipepara gha Xog Doon, Xog Ogaal, na Horyaal Sports ghakupharazga mu tawuni iyi. Kweniso pali manyuzipepara ghanandi agho ghakulemba nkhani za mu charu ichi, nga ni Garowe Online, Wardheernews, na Puntland Post. Chigaŵa cha pa Intaneti (country code top-level domain, ccTLD) cha Somalia ni.so. Pa Novembala 1, 2010 yikambaso kugwira ntchito. Boma la Japan ndilo likulemba makalata agha. Pa Malichi 22, 2012, nduna za boma la Somalia nazo zikakolerana na dango lakuyowoya vya mawupu. Ndondomeko iyi yikovwira kuti paŵe wupu wakuwona vya mawupu gha pa caru cose pa nkhani ya kwimba na kwimba. Mu Novembala 2013, pamanyuma pa Memorandum of Understanding iyo yikalembeka na Emirates Post mu Epulero chaka chenechichi, Unduna wa vya Makalata na Mafoni ukazengaso ofesi ya ku Somalia Postal Service (Somali Post). Mu Okutobala 2014, ofesi iyi yikambaso kupeleka makalata kufuma ku vyaru vinyake. Ndondomeko ya kutumizga makalata iyi yikunozgekera mu vigaŵa vyose 18 vya mu charu ichi.<ref>{{cite news|title=Weekly Statement: Progress of the Somali Government|url=http://diplomat.so/2014/10/11/weekly-statement-progress-of-the-somali-government-3/|access-date=12 October 2014|agency=Diplomat News Network|date=11 October 2014|archive-date=14 October 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141014202435/http://diplomat.so/2014/10/11/weekly-statement-progress-of-the-somali-government-3/|url-status=dead}}</ref> ===Tourism=== {{Main|Tourism in Somalia}} [[File:Laas Geel.jpg|thumb|Ancient cave paintings at the [[Laas Geel]], Hargeisa]] Ku Somalia kuli malo ghanandi agho ŵanthu ŵakutemwa kuluta, nga ni malo ghakusungirako vinthu vyakale, milyango ya nyanja, vimaji, mapiri, na malo ghakutowa. Ntchito ya kwendakwenda yikulongozgeka na Unduna wa vya Ulendo. Vigaŵa vya Puntland na Somaliland vili na maofesi ghawo ghakwendakwenda. Bungwe la Tourism Association la ku Somalia (SOMTA) likupeleka ulongozgi ku ŵanthu ŵa mu charu ichi.<ref name="SOMTA">{{cite web|title=Somali Tourism Association (SOMTA)|url=http://somta.so/|publisher=Somali Tourism Association|access-date=14 June 2013}}</ref> Mu Malichi 2015, Unduna wa Vyakwendakwenda na Vinyama wa ku South West State ukati ukukhumba kukhazikiska malo ghanyake ghakusungirako nyama. Boma la United States likucenjezga ŵalendo kuti ŵaleke kuluta ku Somalia. Vinyake ivyo ŵanthu ŵakutemwa kuwona ni mphanji za Laas Geel izo zili na vinthu vyakuzengeka kufuma ku miyala; mapiri gha Cal Madow, Golis Mountains, na Ogo Mountains; maji gha Iskushuban na Lamadaya; Hargeisa National Park, Jilib National Park, Kismayo National Park, na Lag Badana National Park. ===Transport=== {{Main|Transport in Somalia|List of airports in Somalia}} [[File:Aden Abdullah Airport.jpg|thumb|The [[Aden Adde International Airport]]]] Misewu ya ku Somalia yili na utali wa makilomita 22,100. Mu 2000, misewu ya makilomita 2,608 yikaŵa ya pawaro ndipo makilomita 19,492 yikaŵa yambura pawaro. Msewu wa makilomita 750 (470 mi) ukukumana na matawuni ghakuru gha kumpoto kwa charu, nga ni Bosaso, Galkayo na Garowe, na matawuni gha kumwera. Boma la Somalia Civil Aviation Authority (SOMCAA) ni boma la Somalia ilo likuwona vya ndege. Pamanyuma pa nyengo yitali yakulamulirika na wupu wa Civil Aviation Caretaker Authority for Somalia (CACAS), wupu wa SOMCAA ukwenera kuwusa malo gha mu Somalia m'paka pa 31 Disembala 2013. Ku Somalia kuli ma eyapoti 62, ndipo 7 mwa ma eyapoti agha ghali na misewu. Pa malo agha, ghanayi ghali na misewu ya mamita ghakujumpha 3,047 (9,997 ft); ghaŵiri ghali pakati pa mamita 2,438 na 3,047 (7,999 na 9,997 ft) ndipo limoza lili na mamita 1,524 m'paka 2,437 (5,000 m'paka 7,995 ft). Pali ma eyapoti 55 agho ghalije malo ghakukwelera. Yimoza yili na mtunda wa mamita ghakujumpha 3,047; zinayi zili pakati pa mamita 2,438 na 3,047 mu utali; makumi ghaŵiri ghali na mtunda wa mamita 1,524 mpaka 2,437; makumi ghaŵiri na ghanayi ghali na mtunda wa mamita 914 mpaka 1,523; ndipo ghankhondi na limoza ghali pasi pa mamita 914. Malo ghakurughakuru gha ndege mu chalo ichi ni Aden Adde International Airport mu Mogadishu, Hargeisa International Airport mu Hargeisa, Kismayo Airport mu Kismayo, Baidoa Airport mu Baidoa, na Bender Qassim International Airport mu Bosaso. Ndege ya Somali Airlines yikakhazikiskika mu chaka cha 1964. Gulu ili likamara kugwira nchito mu nyengo ya nkhondo. Ndipouli, boma la Somalia ilo likambaso kuwusa likamba kunozgekera mu 2012 kuti ndege iyi yikwambireso kugwira ntchito, ndipo ndege yakwamba ya Somali Airlines yikeneranga kupelekeka kuumaliro wa Disembala 2013. Kuyana na wupu wakuwona vya malonda na vyamalonda wa ku Somalia, malo agho ghakaŵa ghambura ntchito chifukwa cha kujara kwa ndege iyi ghazuzgika na ndege zinyake za ku Somalia. Makampani gha ndege ghakujumpha ghankhondi na limoza ghakupeleka maulendo gha ndege ku vyaru vinyake, nga ni Daallo Airlines, Jubba Airways, African Express Airways, East Africa 540, Central Air na Hajara. Pakuti ku Somalia kuli nyanja yitali chomene pa charu chose, kuli maboma ghanandi. Malo ghakwendeskera vinthu pa nyanja ghali mu misumba ya Mogadishu, Bosaso, Berbera, Kismaayo na Merca. Paliso sitima yinyake ya pa nyanja. Wakapangika mu 2008, ndipo wakwendeska katundu.<ref name="factbook"/> ==Demographics== {{Main|Demographics of Somalia}} {{see also|List of cities in Somalia by population}} {|class="wikitable" style="float: right; margin-left: 10px" ! colspan="4" style="text-align:center; background:#cfb;"|Population{{UN_Population|ref}} |- ! style="background:#cfb;"|Year ! style="background:#cfb;"|Million |- |style="text-align:left;"|1950 ||style="text-align:right;"|2.3 |- |style="text-align:left;"|2000 ||style="text-align:right;"|9.0 |- |style="text-align:left;"|{{UN_Population|Year}} ||style="text-align:right;"|{{#expr:{{formatnum:{{UN_Population|Somalia}}|R}}/1e6 round 1}} |} Ku Somalia kulije maukaboni ghakugomezgeka ghakukhwaskana na unandi wa ŵanthu. Charu ichi chikaŵa na ŵanthu pafupifupi 17.1 miliyoni mu 2021; unandi wa ŵanthu kuyana na kalembera wa 1975 ukaŵa 3.3 miliyoni. Kafukufuku munyake uyo wakachitika mu 2013 na 2014 na wupu wa United Nations Population Fund, wakalongora kuti mu charu ichi muli ŵanthu 12,316,895. Pafupifupi ŵanthu 85 pa ŵanthu 100 awo ŵakukhala mu chigaŵa ichi mba fuko la Chisomali. Ŵanthu aŵa ŵakakhalanga mu vigaŵa vyakupambanapambana, nga ni vigaŵa vya viŵeto, maufumu, mafumu, na misumba. Nkhondo ya mukati mu vyaka vya m'ma 1990 yikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Somalia ŵafumemo mu charu ichi. Ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakufuma ku vigaŵa vinyake ŵakufuma ku vigaŵa vinyake. Ŵanyake mwa ŵanthu aŵa mba Bravanese, Bantus, Bajuni, Ŵaetiyopiya (makamaka Ŵaoromo), Ŵayemeni, Ŵaindiya, Ŵaperesiya, Ŵaitaliya, na Ŵabritani. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Bantus, ndiwo mbanandi chomene mu Somalia, ndipo mbana ŵa ŵazga awo ŵakatoleka ku Africa na ŵamalonda ŵa ku Arabia na Somalia. Mu 1940, ku Italian Somaliland kukaŵa ŵanthu pafupifupi 50,000 ŵa ku Italy. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Europe ŵakafumako ku Somalia ŵakati ŵajiyimira ŵekha.[[File:Population pyramid of Somalia 2015.png|thumb|left|upright=1.35|Population per age group]] Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Somalia ŵakukhala mu vyaru vya ku Western, nga ni United States (mwakudumura mu chigaŵa cha Minnesota) na United Kingdom (mwakudumura mu London), Sweden, Canada, Norway, Netherlands, Germany, Denmark, Finland, Australia, Switzerland, Austria, na Italy. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Somalia awo ŵakukhala mu vyaru vinyake ŵakunjilirapo comene pa ndyali na vinthu vya mu caru ici. Purezidenti wa Somalia, Mohamed Abdullahi Mohamed, wakaŵa wa ku Somalia ndipo wakaŵa na wanangwa wa kukhala ku America. Ŵanthu ŵa mu Somalia ŵakukura na 1,75% pa caka, ndipo pa ŵanthu 1,000 ŵakubabika 40.87. Chiŵelengero cha ŵana awo ŵakubabika mu Somalia ni ŵana 6.08 pa mwanakazi yumoza (kuyana na kafukufuku wa mu 2014), ndipo ni chachinayi pa charu chose, kuyana na CIA World Factbook. Ŵanandi awo ŵakukhala mu malo agha mbawukirano, ndipo ŵali na vyaka 17.7; ŵanthu 44% ŵali na vyaka vyapakati pa 0 na 14, 52.4% ŵali na vyaka vyapakati pa 15 na 64, ndipo 2.3% ŵali na vyaka vyapakati pa 65 na kujumpha apa. Ŵanalume na ŵanakazi ŵakuyana waka. Palije maukaboni ghakugomezgeka ghakulongora kuti mu Somalia muli misumba yinandi. Ŵakuwona kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakukhala mu matawuni ghakurughakuru ndipo ŵakukwaniska 4.79% pa chaka. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa mafuko ghachoko ŵali kusama kufuma ku mizi kuluta ku misumba kufuma apo nkhondo yikambira, comenecomene ku Mogadishu na Kismaayo. Mu 2008, ŵanthu 37.7% mu charu ichi ŵakakhalanga mu matawuni.<ref name="factbook"/> ===Languages=== {{Main|Languages of Somalia}} Viyowoyero vya boma mu Somalia ni Chisomali na Chiarabic. Chiyowoyero cha ku Somalia ndicho ŵanthu ŵa ku Somalia ŵakuyowoya. Chiyowoyero ichi chili mu gulu la viyowoyero vya Cushitic vya mu banja la viyowoyero vya Afro-Asia. ChiSomali ndicho ntchiyowoyero chakumanyikwa chomene pa viyowoyero vyose vya ku Kushiti, ndipo ŵanthu ŵakasambirapo viyowoyero ivi pambere chaka cha 1900 chindafike.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lecarme|Maury|1987|p=22}}.</ref><ref>I. M. Lewis (1998) ''Peoples of the Horn of Africa: Somali, Afar and Saho'', Red Sea Press, p. 11, {{ISBN|1-56902-104-X}}.</ref><ref name="Frspc" /><ref name="factbook" /> [[File:Kaddare Alphabet Chart.jpg|thumb|The [[Kaddare alphabet|Kaddare]] writing script]] Viyowoyero vya ku Somalia vili kugaŵika mu magulu ghatatu: Northern, Benadir na Maay. Chiyowoyero cha Northern Somali (panji Northern-Central Somali) ndicho chili pakwamba kulemba chiyowoyero ichi. Chinenero cha Benadir (chomwe chimadziwikanso kuti ChiSomali cha m'mphepete mwa nyanja) chimayankhulidwa m'mphepete mwa nyanja ya Benadir, kuchokera ku Adale mpaka kumwera kwa Merca kuphatikizapo Mogadishu, komanso m'dera lakumbuyo. Viyowoyero vya mumphepete mwa nyanja vili na mazgu ghanyake agho mulije mu Chisomali. Chiyowoyero cha Maay chikuyowoyeka na ŵanthu ŵa ku Digil na Mirifle (Rahanweyn) awo ŵakukhala kumwera kwa Somalia. Chinenero cha Benadiri ndicho chikuyowoyeka chomene mu charu ichi, mwakupambana na chiyowoyero cha Northern Somali icho chikuyowoyeka chomene mu Somaliland. Kwa vyaka vinandi, ŵanthu ŵakugwiliskira ntchito nthowa zakupambanapambana pakulemba chiyowoyero cha Chisomali. Pa vilembo ivi, vilembo vya Chisamariya ndivyo vikugwiliskirika ntchito chomene, ndipo ndivyo vikulembeka mu boma la Somalia kufuma waka apo Wupu Wakulongozga ukaŵikapo mu Okutobala 1972. Chilembo ichi chikapangika na nkhwantha ya chiSomali Shire Jama Ahmed chomenechomene pa chiSomali, ndipo chikugwiliskira ntchito vilembo vyose vya chiLatin cha Chingelezi padera pa p, v na z. Padera pa cilembo ca ciLatini ca Ahmed, vilembo vinyake ivyo vyalembeka kwa vilimika vinandi kuti ŵalembe ciyowoyero ca Cisobali ni cilembo ca Ciarabu na ca Wadaad. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1900, ŵanthu ŵakamba kulemba vilembo vya Osmanya, Borama, na Kaddare. Padera pa Chisomali, Chiarabu ndicho chikuyowoyeka chomene mu Somalia. Ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 2 miliyoni ŵakuyowoya ciyowoyero ici cifukwa ca kukolerana na caru ca Ŵaarabu kwa vyaka vinandi, kweniso cifukwa ca nkhani za mu mabuku gha Cirabu, kweniso kusambizgika vya cisopa.<ref name="Dubnov">Helena Dubnov (2003) ''A grammatical sketch of Somali'', Kِppe, pp. 70–71.</ref><ref>Diana Briton Putman, Mohamood Cabdi Noor (1993) ''The Somalis: their history and culture'', Center for Applied Linguistics, p. 15.: "Somalis speak Somali. Many people also speak Arabic, and educated Somalis usually speak either English or Italian as well. Swahili may also be spoken in coastal areas near Kenya."</ref><ref>Fiona MacDonald et al. (2000) ''Peoples of Africa'', Vol. 10, Marshall Cavendish, p. 178.</ref> Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuyowoya na kusambizga Cingelezi. Chiyowoyero ichi chikaŵa chiyowoyero cha boma mu chigaŵa cha British Somaliland ndipo chifukwa cha kusintha kwa vinthu pa charu chose, sono chikuyowoyeka chomene mu Somalia. Chingelezi ndicho chikusambizgika pa ma yunivesite ghanandi mu Somalia, ndipo ni chiyowoyero chimoza mwa viyowoyero vikuruvikuru ivyo mabungwe ghambura vya boma ghakuchita mu Somalia.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://somalia.savethechildren.net/|title=Somalia {{!}} Save the Children|website=somalia.savethechildren.net|access-date=2019-08-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ri.org/reach/africa/somalia|title=Somalia|website=Relief International|language=en|access-date=2019-08-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.care-international.org/where-we-work/somalia|title=Where We Work {{!}} Care International|website=www.care-international.org|access-date=2019-08-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://drc.ngo/where-we-work/east-africa/somalia|title=Somalia {{!}} DRC|website=drc.ngo|language=da-DK|access-date=2019-08-02|archive-date=2 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190802100739/https://drc.ngo/where-we-work/east-africa/somalia|url-status=dead}}</ref> Chiitaliya chikaŵa chiyowoyero cha boma mu chigaŵa cha Italian Somaliland kweniso mu nyengo ya muwuso wa boma, kweni chikamba kuchepa chomene. Mazuŵa ghano, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuyowoya mazgu agha, kusazgapo ŵalaraŵalara ŵa boma na ŵanthu ŵakusambira.<ref name="Dubnov"/><ref name="ethnologue.com">{{Cite web |title=Somalia |url=https://www.ethnologue.com/country/so/languages |website=Ethnologue}}</ref> Viyowoyero vinyake ivyo vikuyowoyeka na ŵanthu ŵachoko ni Bravanese, chiyowoyero icho ŵanthu ŵa ku Bantu ŵakuyowoya mu Swahili. ===Urban areas=== {{Largest cities of Somalia}} ===Religion=== {{bar box|float=right |title=[[Religion in Somalia]] 2010<ref name="Pew">{{cite web |title=The Global Religious Landscape|url=http://www.pewforum.org/files/2012/12/globalReligion-full.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130806002044/http://www.pewforum.org/files/2012/12/globalReligion-full.pdf|archive-date=6 August 2013|publisher=Pew Research Center|access-date=27 December 2013|page=49}}</ref>|titlebar=#ddd |left1=Religion|right1=Percent |bars= {{bar percent|[[Islam in Somalia|Islam]]|green|99.8}} {{bar percent|Other|red|0.2}} }} {{Main|Religion in Somalia}} [[File:Mosislsol2.jpg|thumb|upright|The [[Mosque of Islamic Solidarity]] in Mogadishu is the largest mosque in the Horn region]] Kuyana na wupu wa Pew Research Center, ŵanthu 99.8 pa 100 ŵaliwose mu Somalia Mbacisilamu.<ref name="Pew"/>Ŵanandi ŵali mu chisopa cha Sunni na cha Shafi'i. Chisopa cha Sufism, icho ntchisopa cha chisopa cha Chisilamu, nacho chili na ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakutemwa kusopa. Ndondomeko ya boma la Somalia yikulongosora kuti cisopa ca Cisilamu ni cisopa ca boma la Somalia, ndipo dango la Cisilamu la Sharia ndilo likulongozga malango gha caru. Kweniso likusambizga kuti palije dango ilo lingaŵa lakususkana na fundo za Sharia. Chisopa cha Cisilamu cikanjira mu cigaŵa ici mwaluŵiro comene, apo gulu la Ŵasilamu awo ŵakatambuzgikanga ŵakapenja malo ghakubisamamo kujumpha mu Nyanja Yiswesi mu mphinjika ya Africa cifukwa ca kuciskika na nchimi ya Cisilamu, Muhammad.<ref>Rafiq Zakaria (1991) ''Muhammad and The Quran,'' New Delhi: Penguin Books, pp. 403–4. {{ISBN|0-14-014423-4}}</ref> Ntheura, cisopa ca Ciisilamu cikwenera kuti cikamba mu Somalia pambere cisopa ici cindajinthe misisi mu caru ici. Kweniso, mu vyaka vinandi ivyo vyajumpha, ŵanthu ŵa ku Somalia ŵali kusambizga ŵanthu ŵa chisopa cha Cisilamu, ndipo ŵanandi ŵa iwo ŵali kusintha chomene masambiro gha Cisilamu mu caru ca Horn of Africa, Arabia, na kunyake. Pakati pa ŵasambizgi aŵa pakaŵa Uthman bin Ali Zayla'i wa ku Zeila, uyo wakalembako buku lakuzirwa chomene pa nkhani ya chisopa cha Chisilamu. Chikhristu ntchisopa cha ŵanthu ŵachoko waka ku Somalia, ndipo ŵanthu awo ŵakulondezga chisopa ichi ŵalipo ŵachoko chomene kuluska 0.1% mu 2010. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakuti mu Somalia muli Ŵakhristu pafupifupi 1,000. Mu caru cose ici, muli Diocese ya Mogadishu, iyo yikati mu 2004, mu caru ici mukaŵa ŵadokotala ŵa Katolika pafupifupi 100. Mu 1913, mu nyengo yakwambilira ya muwuso wa boma la Britain, mu vigaŵa vya Somali, mukaŵavya Ŵakhristu. Mu nyengo yeneyiyi, mu Somaliland mukaŵavya ŵapharazgi ŵa Katolika. Mu ma 1970, mu nyengo ya muwuso wa Marx ku Somalia, masukulu agho ghakaŵa gha matchalitchi ghakajalika ndipo ŵamishonale ŵakaŵatuma kukwawo. Kwamba mu 1989, mu caru ici mulije bishopu mulara, ndipo tchalitchi likuru la ku Mogadishu likaparanyika comene pa nyengo ya nkhondo. Mu Disembala 2013, Unduna wa vya Malango na Vyachisopa ukafumiskaso dango lakukanizga vikondwelero vya Chikhristu mu charu ichi. Kuyana na lipoti la Pew Research Center, mu 2010 ŵanthu ŵachoko waka pa ŵanthu wose ŵa ku Somalia ndiwo ŵakalondezganga visopa. Ŵanthu aŵa ŵakaŵa ŵa mitundu yinyake iyo yikaŵa ku chigaŵa cha kumwera kwa charu ichi. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Bantu ŵakasambira mitheto iyi ku ŵasekuru ŵawo ŵa ku Southeast Africa. Kweniso, kuyana na kafukufuku wa Pew Research Center, mu 2010 ŵanthu ŵacoko comene pa ŵanthu wose ŵa mu Somalia ŵakaŵa ŵa cisopa ca Ciyuda, Cihindu, Cibuddha, panji ŵa visopa vinyake.<ref name="Pew"/> ===Health=== {{Main|Healthcare in Somalia|Child marriage in Somalia}} [[File:Life expectancy in Somalia.svg|thumb|right|Life expectancy in Somalia, 1950 to 2019]] Mpaka apo boma la Somalia likamalira mu 1991, nduna ya vyaumoyo ndiyo yikalongozganga ndyali. Ŵalaraŵalara ŵa munthavi ŵakaŵa na mazaza, kweni vyose vikendanga makora. Boma la Siad Barre, uyo wakaŵa purezidenti wa Somalia, likalekeska ntchito ya udokotala mu 1972. Ndalama zinandi izo boma likagwiliskiranga ntchito pa nkhondo zikapelekeka ku ŵasilikari. Ndondomeko ya vyaumoyo ya ku Somalia yikaparanyika comene mu nyengo ya nkhondo ya cikaya. Nga umo vikaŵira na vigaŵa vinyake ivyo vikaŵa vya boma kale, ŵapharazgi ŵambura kuzomerezgeka ŵanjira mu malo mwa boma ndipo ŵanjira m'malo mwa boma. Pa nyengo iyi, maofesi ghanandi gha munthavi, maofesi gha munthavi, vipatala, na madokotala ghapangika mu Somalia. Ndalama zakwendeskera maofesi agha ni zicoko comene, ni $5.72 pa ulendo umoza mu vipatala (pa ŵanthu awo ŵalipo 95 peresenti) na $1.89-$3.97 pa ulendo umoza wa pa cipatala na $7.83-$13.95 pa zuŵa mu vipatala vyakwambilira na vyapacanya. Para tingayaniska nyengo ya 2005 na 2010 na vyaka 50 pambere nkhondo yindambe (1985 na 1990), umoyo ukaŵa utali comene kwa ŵanalume na ŵanakazi. Mwakuyana waka, chiŵelengero cha ŵana ŵa chaka chimoza awo ŵali kupokera munkhwala wakulwera nthenda ya nthomba chikakwera kufuma pa 30% mu 1985 kufika pa 40% mu 2000 m'paka mu 2005, ndipo chiŵelengero cha awo ŵali kupokera munkhwala wakulwera nthenda ya chikhoso cha TB chikakwera pafupifupi 20% kufuma pa 31% kufika pa 50% mu nyengo yeneyiyi.<ref name="Uhdrsom01"/><ref name="Wbunses"/><ref name="Uhdrsom01" /><ref name="Wbunses">World Bank and UNDP (2003). Socio-Economic Survey-Somalia-2004. Washington, D.C./New York: UNDP and World Bank.</ref><ref name="Uhdrsom01">UNDP (2001). Human Development Report 2001-Somalia. New York: UNDP.</ref><ref name="Udasom">{{cite web |url=http://data.un.org/CountryProfile.aspx?crName=Somalia |title=UNdata – Somalia |publisher=United Nations |date=20 September 1960 |access-date=12 June 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.who.int/choice/country/som/cost/en/index.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060626140831/http://www.who.int/choice/country/som/cost/en/index.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=26 June 2006 |title=Estimates of Unit Costs for Patient Services for Somalia |publisher=World Health Organization |date=6 December 2010 |access-date=12 June 2011}}</ref> Chiŵelengero cha ŵana awo ŵakababika ŵachoko chikakhira kufuma pa 16 pa ŵanthu 1,000 kufika pa 0.3, ndipo pa nyengo yeneyiyi chikachepa na 15%.<ref name="Uhdrsom01"/><ref>World Bank and UNDP (2003). Socio-Economic Survey-Somalia-1999. Washington, D.C./New York: UNDP and World Bank.</ref> Pakati pa 2005 na 2010, chiŵelengero cha ŵana awo ŵakufwa para ŵababa 1,000 chikakhira kufuma pa 152 kufika pa 109.6.<ref name="Uhdrsom01"/><ref name="Udasom"/> Kufwa kwa ŵanakazi pa ŵana 100,000 kukakhira kufuma pa 1,600 pambere nkhondo yindambe mu 1985 m'paka 1990 kufika pa 1,100 mu 2000 m'paka 2005.<ref name="Uhdrsom01"/><ref>UNDP (2006). Human Development Report 2006. New York: UNDP.</ref> Chiŵelengero cha ŵadokotala pa ŵanthu 100,000 nacho chikakwera kufuma pa 3.4 kufika pa 4 mu nyengo yeneyiyi, ndipo chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu awo ŵakugwiliskira ntchito vinthu vyakutowa chikakwera kufuma pa 18% kufika pa 26%.<ref name="Uhdrsom01" /><ref name="Wbunses" /><ref name="Uhdrsom01"/><ref name="Wbunses"/> Kuyana na umo wupu wa United Nations Population Fund ukulongosolera, ku Somalia kuli ŵamama 429 awo ŵakugwira ntchito ya wovwiri wa ŵanakazi. Pasono mu caru ici muli maofesi gha ŵabwezi 8, ndipo ghaŵiri mwa maofesi agha nga ŵanthu ŵekha. Mapulogiramu gha kusambizga ŵabwezi ghakutora myezi 12 m'paka 18. Ŵasambiri awo ŵanjira sukulu iyi ŵakukwana 100 peresenti, ndipo mu 2009 ŵakaŵa 180. Boma ndilo likulongozga ntchito iyi, ndipo munthu wakwenera kuŵa na layisensi. Kweniso pali kulembeska ŵabwezi awo ŵali na malayisensi. Kweniso, ŵamama awo ŵakovwira ŵanakazi awo ŵababa ŵana mu caru ici ŵakwimira wupu wa ŵamama awo ŵali na mamembara 350.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.unfpa.org/sowmy/report/home.html|title=The State Of The World's Midwifery|publisher=United Nations Population Fund|access-date=1 June 2016}}</ref> [[File:Somali boy receives a polio vaccination.jpg|thumb|A Somali boy receiving a [[Polio vaccine|polio]] vaccination.]] Kuyana na ivyo wupu wa vyaumoyo wa pa caru cose ukayowoya mu 2005, ŵanakazi na ŵasungwana 97.9% ŵa ku Somalia ŵakakomekanga na nthumbo. Ŵanakazi ndiwo ŵakuchiska ŵanthu kuti ŵachitenge nthena.<ref>Suzanne G. Frayser, Thomas J. Whitby (1995) ''Studies in human sexuality: a selected guide'', Libraries Unlimited, p. 257, {{ISBN|1-56308-131-8}}.</ref><ref>Goldenstein, Rachel. "Female Genital Cutting: Nursing Implications". ''Journal of Transcultural Nursing''. 25.1 (2014): 95–101. Web. 19 February 2014.</ref> Kufika mu 2013, wupu wa UNICEF pamoza na boma la Somalia, ukati chiŵelengero cha ŵana ŵasungwana ŵa vyaka 1 m'paka 14 mu vigaŵa vya kumpoto kwa Puntland na Somaliland chachepa kufika pa 25%. Ŵanalume pafupifupi 93% mu Somalia nawo ŵakukotoleka.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cid.harvard.edu/neudc07/docs/neudc07_s1_p02_ahuja.pdf |title=Male Circumcision and AIDS: The Macroeconomic Impact of a Health Crisis by Eric Werker, Amrita Ahuja, and Brian Wendell :: NEUDC 2007 Papers :: Northeast Universities Development Consortium Conference|publisher= Center for International Development at Harvard University |access-date=30 December 2010}}</ref> Charu cha Somalia chili na ŵanthu ŵachoko chomene pa charu chose chapasi awo ŵali na HIV. Ici nchifukwa cakuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Somalia mba Cisilamu ndipo ŵakulondezga malango gha Cisilamu. Nangauli mu 1987 (mu chaka icho ŵanthu ŵakwambilira ŵakasangika na HIV mu Somalia) ŵanthu ŵakukwana 1% pa ŵanthu wose ŵakukhwima, kweni lipoti la UNAIDS la mu 2012 likuti kwamba mu 2004, ŵanthu ŵakughanaghana kuti ŵanthu ŵakukwana 0.7% m'paka 1%. Nangauli sono wovwiri wa vyaumoyo wa ŵanthu wose uli ku chigaŵa cha ŵanthu ŵekha, kweni boma likuwoneseska kuti wovwiri wa vyaumoyo wa ŵanthu wose uweleremo. Nduna ya vyaumoyo ni Qamar Adan Ali. Chigaŵa cha Puntland chili na Unduna wa vya Umoyo, ndipo chigaŵa cha Somaliland chili na Unduna wa vya Umoyo.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://somalilandgov.com/govt-ministries/|title=Somaliland – Government Ministries |publisher=Somalilandgov.com |access-date=30 December 2010}}</ref> Vinyake mwa vyaru ivi ni East Bardera Mothers and Children's Hospital, Abudwak Maternity and Children's Hospital, Edna Adan Maternity Hospital na West Bardera Maternity Unit. ===Education=== {{Main|Education in Somalia}}<!-- northwest; northeast and south-central below --> Pamanyuma pa nkhondo ya pawenenawene iyo yikacitika mu 1991, makomiti ghakusambizga ŵanthu agho ghakaŵako mu masukulu 94 pa 100 mu Somalia, ndigho ghakamba kwendeska masukulu. Pakaŵa masuzgo ghanandi pa nkhani ya masambiro mu vigaŵa vya ku mizi na ku ŵanalume na ŵanakazi wuwo, masambiro ghawemi, masambiro gha ku masukulu ghakovwira, masambiro gha pa sukulu, ndondomeko na ndondomeko za masambiro, mauteŵeti, na ndalama. Kuti ŵamazge suzgo ili, ŵakucita ndondomeko za masambiro izo zikovwira kuti masambiro ghamare makora. Mu chigaŵa cha Puntland, dango ili likusazgapo ndondomeko ya masambiro iyo yikukolerana na fundo za pa caru cose, nga umo viliri mu Covenant on the Rights of the Child (CRC) na Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW). Viyelezgero vinyake ivyo vikulongora umo boma la chigaŵa ili likuchitira pa nkhani ya masambiro ni malango agho ghakovwira ŵana ŵasungwana kuti ŵasambire makora, kovwirapo pa ntchito ya kusambizga ŵana kuti ŵambe kusambira makora, kweniso kuti ŵapapi na awo ŵakuŵapwelelera ŵafike ku nyumba zawo kweniso ku malo ghakusambizgirako ŵana ŵa vyaka 0 m'paka 5, kweniso kukhozga ŵasambizgi kuti ŵagwirenge ntchito ku mizi yakutali. Unduna wa vya masambiro ndiwo uli na udindo wa masambiro mu Somalia, ndipo ukuwona vya masukulu gha ku pulayimale, sekondare, ma technical na ma vocational, kweniso masukulu gha masukulu gha ku pulayimale na ma technical na masukulu gha ku sukulu. Pafupifupi 15 peresenti ya ndalama izo boma likupeleka ku sukulu. Vigaŵa vya Puntland na Somaliland vili na maofesi ghawo gha vya masambiro. Mu 2006, Puntland yikaŵa chigaŵa chachiŵiri mu Somalia pamanyuma pa Somaliland kukhazikiska masukulu ghapachanya ghaulere, ndipo ŵasambizgi sono ŵakupokera malipiro ghawo ku boma la Puntland. Kufuma mu 2005/2006 m'paka mu 2006/2007, mu Puntland mukaŵa masukulu ghanandi, ndipo ghakaŵapo 137. Mu nyengo yeneyiyo pera, mu chigaŵa ichi mukaŵa masukulu 504 ndipo ŵasambizgi ŵanyake 762 ŵakasazgikira. Ŵana ŵasungwana ndiwo ŵakaluta panthazi chomene pa ŵana ŵanalume mu vigaŵa vinandi. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakalembeskanga mu sukulu izi mu chigaŵa cha Bari, icho chili kumpoto chomene kwa charu ichi. Ŵasambiri ŵanandi ŵakasambiranga mu matawuni ndipo ŵasambizgi ŵanandi ŵakasambizganga mu matawuni.<ref name="Basic education survey">{{cite web |year=2007 |title=Mid-year Review Education Program |url=http://education.puntlandgovt.com/BES_presentation2007.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090205150949/http://education.puntlandgovt.com/BES_presentation2007.pdf |archive-date=5 February 2009 |access-date=27 June 2010 |publisher=Puntland Ministry of Education and UNICEF Somalia}}</ref>[[File:Mogauniv1.jpg|thumb|[[Mogadishu University]]'s main campus in Mogadishu.]] Pasono masambiro ghapacanya mu Somalia ni gha ŵanthu ŵekha. Masukulu ghakupambanapambana mu chalo ichi, kusazgapo Yunivesite ya Mogadishu, ghalembeka pakati pa masukulu ghapachanya gha 100 mu Africa nangauli vinthu vili makora yayi, ndipo ŵanthu ŵakuwona kuti ni viwemi chomene kuti ŵanthu ŵalutilire kusambira.<ref name="Somtroap">{{cite web |title=Somalia: The Resilience of a People |url=http://www.africanexecutive.com/modules/magazine/article_print.php?article=4693 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150626112218/http://www.africanexecutive.com/modules/magazine/article_print.php?article=4693 |archive-date=26 June 2015 |access-date=30 December 2010 |publisher=The African Executive}}</ref> Maunivesite ghanyake agho ghakusambizga masambiro ghapachanya kumwera ni Benadir University, Somalia National University, Kismaayo University na University of Gedo. Ku Puntland, masambiro ghapachanya ghakupika na Yunivesite ya Puntland State na East Africa University. Ku Somaliland, sukulu iyi yikupelekeka na Yunivesite ya Amoud, Yunivesite ya Hargeisa, Yunivesite ya Technology ya Somaliland na Yunivesite ya Burao. Sukulu za Qur'anic (izo zikumanyikwaso kuti dugsi quran panji mal'aamad quran) zikulutilira kuŵa nthowa yakusambizgira visopa mu Somalia. Ŵakusambizga ŵana visambizgo vya Cisilamu, ndipo ŵakuŵa na udindo wa cisopa na wa mtende mu caru ici. Ŵakumanyikwa kuti ni masukulu ghakusambizga vya cisopa na makhaliro ghawemi agho ghakukhazikika comene pa malo agha. Ndondomeko ya Qur'an, iyo yikusambizga ŵana ŵa sukulu ŵanandi chomene pakuyaniska na vigaŵa vinyake vya masambiro, kanandi ndiyo njekha yikovwira ŵanthu ŵa ku Somalia awo ŵakukhala mu malo ghakusama. Kafukufuku munyake uyo wakacitika mu 1993, wakalongora kuti pa ŵana ŵa sukulu ŵa Koran, pafupifupi 40% ŵakaŵa ŵasungwana. Pakukhumba kumazga suzgo la visambizgo vya cisopa, boma la Somalia likambiska Unduna wa vya Chisopa na Nkhani za Cisilamu.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.pitt.edu/~ginie/somalia/pdf/koran.pdf |title=Koranic School Project|access-date=27 June 2010}}</ref> ==Culture== {{Main|Culture of Somalia}} ===Cuisine=== {{Main|Somali cuisine}} [[File:Somali food.jpg|thumb|Various types of popular [[Somali cuisine|Somali dishes]]]] Vyakurya vya ku Somalia vikupambana mu vigaŵa na vigaŵa. Ndico cifukwa cakuti mu Somalia muli malonda ghanandi. Nangauli vyakurya vyakupambanapambana, kweni pali cinthu cimoza ico cikukolerana na vyakurya vya mu vyaru ivi. Ntheura, palije vyakurya vya nyama ya nkhumba, palije moŵa, palije cakurya ico cikufwa yekha, ndipo palije ndopa izo zikuŵikika. Kanandi cakurya ca Qaddo panji ca mise cikuŵa cakunowa comene. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakutemwa kurya mpunga wakuchemeka 'bariis.' Vyakununkhira nga ni kumini, cardamom, cloves, sinamoni, na salvia, vikusazgirako vyakununkhira ku vyakurya ivi. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Somalia ŵakurya cakurya ca mise para pajumpha maora 9. Mu nyengo ya Ramadan, chakurya cha mise kanandi chikupelekeka pamanyuma pa malurombo gha Tarawih; nyengo zinyake mpaka 11 koloko mise. 'Xalwo' (halva) ni cakumwa cakunowa ico ŵanthu ŵakutemwa kurya pa viphikiro vyapadera nga ni Eid panji ukwati. Yikuŵako kufuma ku chiŵiya cha chimanga, shuga, makhadamomu, nutmeg, na ghee. Nyengo zinyake ŵakusazgako phere kuti liŵe liwemi.<ref>Barlin Ali (2007) ''Somali Cuisine'', AuthorHouse, p. 79, {{ISBN|1-4259-7706-5}}.</ref> Para ŵanthu ŵarya, ŵakutemwa kununkhira na vyakununkhira vya lubani (lubaan) panji vyakununkhira (cuunsi). ===Music=== {{Main|Music of Somalia}} Charu cha Somalia chili na sumu zinandi izo zikufuma ku ŵanthu ŵa ku Somalia. Sumu zinandi za ku Somalia zikuŵa na sumu za pentatonic. Fundo iyi yikung'anamura kuti ŵakugwiliskira ntchito tuvizingo tuchoko waka pa octave, mwakupambana na tuvizingo tuchokotuchoko (tuŵiri) nga ni major scale. Pakudanga kupulika, sumu za ku Somalia zingawoneka nga ni za ku vigaŵa vyapafupi nga ni Ethiopia, Sudan panji Arabia, kweni paumaliro zikumanyikwa na sumu zake na masitayelo ghake. Sumu za ku Somalia kanandi zikulembeka na ŵanthu awo ŵakulemba mazgu (midho), awo ŵakulemba sumu (laxan) na ŵakwimba (codka panji "mazgu").<ref>{{Harvnb|Abdullahi|2001|pp=170–1}}.</ref> ===Literature=== {{Main|Literature of Somalia}} Ŵasayansi ŵa ku Somalia ŵakasambira mabuku ghanandi gha Chisilamu kwa vyaka vinandi. Mu 1972, apo ŵanthu ŵakamba kulemba vilembo vya Chilatini, ŵalembi ŵanandi ŵa ku Somalia ŵakalemba mabuku ghanyake agho ghakumanyikwa pa charu chose. Pa ŵalembi aŵa, Nuruddin Farah ndiyo wakumanyikwa comene. Mabuku nga ni From a Crooked Rib na Links ghakuwoneka nga ni mabuku ghakuzirwa, ndipo ghakamovwira kuti wapokere chawanangwa cha 1998 Neustadt International Prize for Literature.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.lettre-ulysses-award.org/authors03/farah.html |title=Lettre Ulysses Award for the Art of Reportage – Nuruddin Farah |publisher=Lettre-ulysses-award.org |access-date=30 December 2010}}</ref> Faarax M.J. Munthu munyake wa ku Somalia uyo wakamanyikwa na buku ili wakati: "Kumanya yayi ni mulwani wa chitemwa". ===Sports=== [[File:Bile Abdi (482x321).jpg|thumb|upright|[[Abdi Bile]], Somalia's most decorated athlete and holder of the most national records.|alt=]] {{Main|Sports in Somalia}} Mpira wa pasi ni maseŵero ghakumanyikwa comene mu Somalia. Mpikisano waku Somalia ndi League ndi Somalia Cup, pomwe timu ya mpira waku Somalia imasewera padziko lonse lapansi. Mu caru ici mukucitikaso maseŵero gha basketball. FIFA Africa Championship 1981 yikachitikira ku Mogadishu kwambira pa 15 mpaka 23 December 1981. Gulu ili likuchitaso maseŵera gha basketball pa Pan Arab Games. Mu 2013, timu ya chalo cha Somalia ya bandy yikapangika ku Borlänge. Mu vyaru vya martial arts, Faisal Jeylani Aweys na Mohamed Deq Abdulle ŵa timu ya taekwondo ya chalo cha Indonesia ŵakatora mendulo ya siliva na malo ghachinayi, pa 2013 Open World Taekwondo Challenge Cup ku Tongeren. Komiti ya Olimpiki ya ku Somalia yili kunozga pulogiramu yapadera kuti yikovwire kuti maseŵero gha munthazi ghamare makora. Kweniso, Mohamed Jama wali kuwina maudindo gha pa charu chose na Europe mu K-1 na Thai Boxing.<ref>{{cite news |title=Great Victory for Malta in K1 Kickboxing|url=http://www.independent.com.mt/articles/2010-02-10/others/great-victory-for-malta-in-k1-kickboxing-270164/|access-date=18 October 2013|newspaper=Malta Independent|date=10 February 2010}}</ref> ===Architecture=== {{Main|Somali architecture}} [[File:Gondereshe2008.jpg|thumb|The [[Citadel]] of [[Gondershe]]]] Nyumba zakuzenga za ku Somalia ni nyumba zakuzenga izo zili na vinthu vyakupambanapambana, nga ni misumba yakuzengeka na malibwe, nyumba zachifumu, vigongwe, vigongwe, masisiteri, mausoleya, tempile, vigongwe, vikhuni, malibwe ghakunyang'amira, malibwe ghakurughakuru, ma menhirs, dolmens, ma malaro, ma tumulus, ma stele, ma cistern, ma aqueducts, na majini. Mu nyumba iyi muli vinthu vya mu nyengo yakale, vyaka vyapakati, na vyaka vyakwambilira. Kale ku Somalia, ŵanthu ŵakasunganga vinthu vyakupambanapambana nga ni mapiramidi. Nyumba zikazengekanga na malibwe ghakuyana na agho ŵakazenganga ku Eguputo. Paliso viyelezgero vya maluŵaza na viliŵa vikuruvikuru vya malibwe ivyo vikazingilizga malo ghakukhalamo ŵanthu. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Somalia ŵakati ŵamba kugomezga chisopa cha Chiisilamu, ŵakakhwaskika na vinthu vya ku Arabia na Peresiya. Ivi vikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵambe kuzenga nyumba mu malibwe ghakukhoma na vinthu vinyake vyakukhwaskana na malibwe agha. Nyumba zinandi izo ŵakazenganga, nga ni masisiteri, ŵakazenganga pa malo agho pakaŵa nyumba zakale.<ref>{{Harvnb|Abdullahi|2001|p=102}}.</ref> ==Wonaniso== {{portal|Somalia|Africa|Countries}} * [[Outline of Somalia]] * [[Index of Somalia-related articles]]{{-}} ==Vyakulemba== {{notelist}} == Ukaboni == {{Reflist}} ==Mabuku== {{Refbegin}} * {{Cite book |last= Abdullahi |first= Mohamed Diriye |year= 2001 |title= Culture and Customs of Somalia |location= Westport,&nbsp;CT |publisher= [[Greenwood Press]] |isbn= 978-0-313-31333-2 |url= https://archive.org/details/culturecustomsof00diri }} * {{Cite journal |last= Alpers |first= Edward A. |year= 1976 |title= Gujarat and the Trade of East Africa, c. 1500–1800 |journal=[[The International Journal of African Historical Studies]] |volume= 9 |issue= 1 |pages= 22–44 |doi= 10.2307/217389 |jstor= 217389 }} * {{Cite book |author= Gebru Tareke <!-- Ethiopian names, remember! --> |year= 2009 |title= The Ethiopian Revolution: War in the Horn of Africa |url= https://archive.org/details/ethiopianrevolut0000gebr|location= New Haven,&nbsp;CT |publisher=[[Yale University Press]] |isbn= 978-0-300-14163-4}} * {{Cite book |last= Laitin |first= David D. |year= 1977 |title= Politics, Language, and Thought: The Somali Experience |location= Chicago |publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]] |isbn= 978-0-226-46791-7 }} * {{Cite journal |last1= Lecarme |first1= Jacqueline |last2= Maury |first2= Carole |year= 1987 |title= A Software Tool for Research in Linguistics and Lexicography: Application to Somali |journal= Computers and Translation |volume= 2 |issue= 1 |pages= 21–36 |doi= 10.1007/BF01540131 |s2cid= 6515240 }} * Mauri, Arnaldo, ''Somalia'', in G, Dell'Amore (ed.), "Banking Systems of Africa", Cariplo-Finafrica, Milan, 1971, pp.&nbsp;209–217.[http://ssrn.com/abstract=958442 Banking Development in Somalia] * {{Cite book |last= Samatar |first= Said S. |year= 1982 |title = Oral Poetry and Somali Nationalism |location= Cambridge |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn= 978-0-521-10457-9 }} * {{Cite book |last= Schraeder |first= Peter J. |year= 2006 |chapter= From Irredentism to Secession: The Decline of Pan-Somali Nationalism |title= ''In Lowell W. Barrington, ed.,'' After Independence: Making and Protecting the Nation in Postcolonial and Postcommunist States ''(pp.&nbsp;107–137)'' |location= Ann Arbor, MI |publisher=[[University of Michigan Press]] |isbn= 978-0-472-09898-9 }} * Shay, Shaul. ''Somalia in Transition Since 2006.'' Piscataway, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 2014. * {{Cite book |last= Warmington |first= Eric Herbert |year= 1995 |title= The Commerce Between the Roman Empire and India |publisher= South Asia Books |isbn= 81-215-0670-0 }} * {{Cite book |last1= Zolberg |first1= Aristide R. |last2= Suhrke |first2= Astri |last3= Aguayo |first3= Sergio |author3-link= Sergio Aguayo |year= 1989 |title= Escape from Violence: Conflict and the Refugee Crisis in the Developing World |url= https://archive.org/details/escapefromviolen0000zolb |location= New York |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn= 978-0-19-505592-4 }} * {{cite book |author1=A. Rosati|author2=A. Tewolde|author3=C. Mosconi |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=av8qvZ-0sHUC&pg=PA169|title=Animal Production and Animal Science Worldwide|date=2007|publisher=Wageningen Academic Pub|isbn=978-90-8686-034-0|page=169}} {{Refend}} == Vigaŵa vya kuwalo == {{Sister project links|Somalia|voy=Somalia}} * {{wikiatlas|Somalia}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20150408021606/http://www.somaligov.net/ Federal Government of Somalia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150408021606/http://www.somaligov.net/ |date=8 April 2015 }} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20250822103819/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/somalia/ Somalia]. ''[[The World Factbook]]''. [[Central Intelligence Agency]]. * {{GovPubs|somalia}} * {{curlie|Regional/Africa/Somalia}} * [https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14094503 Somalia profile] from [[BBC News]] {{Somalia}} {{Somalia topics}} {{Navboxes |list = {{Somali Plate}} {{Countries of Africa}} {{Countries bordering the Red Sea}} {{Countries and territories bordering the Indian Ocean}} {{Countries bordering the Arabian Sea}} {{Arab League}} {{Non-Aligned Movement}} {{African Union}} {{Community of Sahel–Saharan States}} {{Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC)}} }} {{Coord|10|N|49|E|display=title}} {{Authority control}} <!-- lowest per [[WP:SUBCAT]] - country subcat under regional parent categories --> [[Category:Somalia| ]] [[Category:1960 establishments in Somalia]] [[Category:Arabic-speaking countries and territories]] [[Category:Countries in Africa]] [[Category:East African countries]] [[Category:Federal republics]] [[Category:Horn African countries]] [[Category:Least developed countries]] [[Category:Member states of the African Union]] [[Category:Member states of the Arab League]] [[Category:Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation]] [[Category:Member states of the United Nations]] [[Category:States and territories established in 1960]] [[Category:Countries and territories where Somali is an official language]] jxrzapm32fn18516x5nc2xfdogmkn2b 0 6964 119332 118615 2026-08-13T23:08:09Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260813sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 119332 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|Country in Southern Africa}} {{redirect|ZWE|other uses|Zimbabwe (disambiguation)|and|ZWE (disambiguation)}} {{pp-move-indef}} {{Use dmy dates|date=February 2017}} {{Infobox country | conventional_long_name = Charu cha Zimbabwe | common_name = Zimbabwe | native_name = {{collapsible list | titlestyle = background:transparent;text-align:center;line-height:normal;font-size:84%; | title = 15 other official names<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of the Republic of Zimbabwe 2013, as amended to 2017 |url=https://constitutions.unwomen.org/en/countries/africa/zimbabwe?provisioncategory=1567c632948f4e7fbda031acfcb07d6d |access-date=2022-11-26 |website=constitutions.unwomen.org}}</ref> | {{Infobox|subbox=yes|bodystyle=font-size:77%;font-weight:normal; | rowclass1 = mergedrow | label1 = [[Shona language|Shona]]: | data1 = {{lang|sn|Nyika yeZimbabwe}} | rowclass2 = mergedrow | label2 = [[Northern Ndebele language|Ndebele]]: | data2 = {{lang|nd|Ilizwe leZimbabwe}} | rowclass3 = mergedrow | label3 = [[Chewa language|Chewa]]: | data3 = {{lang|ny|Dziko la Zimbabwe}} | rowclass4 = mergedrow | label4 = [[Chibarwe]]: | data4 = {{lang|bwg|Nyika ye Zimbabwe}} | rowclass5 = mergedrow | label5 = [[Kalanga language|Kalanga]]: | data5 = {{lang|kck|Hango yeZimbabwe}} | rowclass6 = mergedrow | label6 = [[Khoisan languages|Khoisan]]: | data6 = {{lang|st|Zimbabwe Nù}} | rowclass7 = mergedrow | label7 = [[Nambya language|Nambya]]: | data7 = {{lang|nmq|Inyika yeZimbabwe}} | rowclass8 = mergedrow | label8 = [[Ndau dialect|Ndau]]: | data8 = {{lang|ndc|Nyika yeZimbabwe}} | rowclass9 = mergedrow | label9 = [[Tsonga language|Shangani]]: | data9 = {{lang|ts|Tiko ra Zimbabwe}} | rowclass10 = mergedrow| label10 = [[Sesotho language|Sesotho]]: | data10 = {{lang|st|Naha ya Zimbabwe}} | rowclass11 = mergedrow| label11 = [[Tonga language (Zambia and Zimbabwe)|Tonga]]: | data11 = {{lang|st|Cisi ca Zimbabwe}} | rowclass12 = mergedrow| label12 = [[Venda language|Venda]]: | data12 = {{lang|ve|Shango ḽa Zimbabwe}} | rowclass13 = mergedrow| label13 = [[Xhosa language|Xhosa]]: | data13 = {{lang|xh|Ilizwe lase-Zimbabwe}} }} }} | image_flag = Flag of Zimbabwe.svg | image_coat = Coat of arms of Zimbabwe.svg | coa_size = 105 | national_motto = "Unity, Freedom, Work"<ref name="BEAVERCT">{{cite journal |url= https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=AFwtAAAAIBAJ&pg=3340,2548451&dq=zimbabwe+unity-freedom-work&hl=en |title=Zimbabwe |journal= The Beaver County Times |date= 13 September 1981 |access-date= 2 November 2011}}</ref> | national_anthem = "[[National Anthem of Zimbabwe|Blessed be the land of Zimbabwe]]"<ref name="CIA-WF">{{cite web |url= https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/zimbabwe/ |title=The World Factbook – Zimbabwe |date=2 December 2021 |publisher= Central Intelligence Agency}}</ref><div style= "padding-top:0.5em;">{{center| }}</div> | image_map = Zimbabwe (orthographic projection).svg | map_caption = {{map caption|location_color=dark green}} | capital = [[Harare]] | coordinates = {{Coord|17|49|45|S|31|03|08|E|type:city_region:ZW}} | largest_city = Harare | official_languages = [[Languages of Zimbabwe|16 languages]]:<ref name="language">{{cite web |publisher=Government of Zimbabwe |via=Kubatana.net |url= http://www.kubatana.net/docs/legisl/constitution_zim_draft_copac_130125.pdf |title=Constitution of Zimbabwe (final draft) |date=January 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20131002110534/http://www.kubatana.net/docs/legisl/constitution_zim_draft_copac_130125.pdf |archive-date=2 October 2013}}</ref> {{hlist |[[Shona language|Shona]] | [[Northern Ndebele language|Ndebele]] | [[Chibarwe]] | [[Zimbabwean English|English]] | [[Kalanga language|Kalanga]] |"[[Khoisan languages|Koisan]]" (presumably [[Tsoa language|Tsoa]]) | [[Nambya language|Nambya]] | [[Ndau language|Ndau]] | [[Shangani language|Shangani]] |"[[Zimbabwean sign languages|sign language]]" |[[Sotho language|Sotho]] | [[Tonga language (Zambia)|Tonga]] | [[Tswana language|Tswana]] | [[Venda language|Venda]] | [[Xhosa language|Xhosa]] | [[Chewa language|Chewa]] }} | ethnic_groups = {{unbulleted list | 99.38% [[Black African]] (mainly [[Shona people|Shona]] and [[Northern Ndebele people|Ndebele]]) | {{nowrap|0.22% [[White people in Zimbabwe|White African]]}} | 0.18% [[Coloured]] | 0.08% [[Asian people|Asian]] | 0.02% Other | 0.01% Not stated }} | ethnic_groups_year = 2012 Census<ref name="zimstat.co.zw" /> | religion = {{ublist |item_style=white-space:nowrap; |84.1% [[Christianity in Zimbabwe|Christianity]] |—69.2% [[Protestantism]] |—14.9% Other [[List of Christian denominations|Christian]] |10.2% [[Irreligion|No religion]] |4.5% [[African traditional religion|Traditional faiths]] |1.2% Others }} | religion_year = 2017 | religion_ref = <ref name="2017survey">{{cite web |url=https://zimbabwe.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/Inter%20Censal%20Demography%20Survey%202017%20Report.pdf |title=Inter Censal Demography Survey 2017 Report |publisher=Zimbabwe National Statistics Agency |date=2017}}</ref> | demonym = Zimbabwean<br />Zimbo<ref>{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=VzXJBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA201 |title= Developments in English | work =International Association of University Professors of English Conference|date= 31 October 2014 |publisher= Cambridge University Press |via= Google Books|isbn= 9781107038509 }}</ref> (colloquial) | government_type = [[Unitary state|Unitary]] [[Dominant-party system|dominant-party]] [[Presidential system|presidential]] [[republic]] | leader_title1 = [[President of Zimbabwe|President]] | leader_name1 = [[Emmerson Mnangagwa]] | leader_title2 = [[Vice President of Zimbabwe|Vice-President]] | leader_name2 = [[Constantino Chiwenga]] | leader_title3 = | leader_name3 = | legislature = [[Parliament of Zimbabwe|Parliament]] | upper_house = [[Senate of Zimbabwe|Senate]] | lower_house = [[House of Assembly (Zimbabwe)|National Assembly]] | sovereignty_type = [[Independence]] {{nobold |from the [[United Kingdom]]}} | established_event1 = [[Unilateral Declaration of Independence (Rhodesia)|Declared]] | established_date1 = 11 November 1965 | established_event2 = [[Rhodesia|Republic]] | established_date2 = 2 March 1970 | established_event3 = [[Zimbabwe Rhodesia]] | established_date3 = 1 June 1979 | established_event4 = [[Lancaster House Agreement|Independence recognised]] | established_date4 = 18 April 1980 | established_event5 = [[Constitution of Zimbabwe|Current constitution]] | established_date5 = 15 May 2013 | area_km2 = 390,757 | area_rank = 60th | area_sq_mi = 150,871 | percent_water = 1 | population_estimate = 15,418,674<ref>{{Cite CIA World Factbook|country=Zimbabwe|access-date=24 September 2022}}</ref> | population_census = 15,178,979<ref>{{Cite web |title=2022 Population and Housing Census - Preliminary Report - Zimbabwe Data Portal |url=https://zimbabwe.opendataforafrica.org/anjlptc/2022-population-and-housing-census-preliminary-report |access-date=2022-07-27 |website=zimbabwe.opendataforafrica.org}}</ref> | population_estimate_year = 2023 | population_estimate_rank = 73rd | population_census_year = 2022 | population_density_km2 = 39 | population_density_sq_mi = 57 | GDP_PPP = {{increase}} $42.4 billion<ref name="imf.org">{{cite web|url= https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2023/April/weo-report?c=698,&s=NGDP_R,NGDP_RPCH,NGDP,NGDPD,PPPGDP,NGDP_D,NGDPRPC,NGDPRPPPPC,NGDPPC,NGDPDPC,PPPPC,PPPSH,PPPEX,PCPI,PCPIPCH,PCPIE,PCPIEPCH,TMG_RPCH,TXG_RPCH,LP,GGR,GGR_NGDP,GGX,GGX_NGDP,GGXCNL,GGXCNL_NGDP,GGXONLB,GGXONLB_NGDP,GGXWDG,GGXWDG_NGDP,NGDP_FY,BCA,BCA_NGDPD,&sy=2021&ey=2023&ssm=0&scsm=1&scc=0&ssd=1&ssc=0&sic=0&sort=country&ds=.&br=1 |title=World Economic Outlook Database, April 2023|date=April 2023|website=IMF.org|publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]]|access-date= April 24, 2023}}</ref> | GDP_PPP_rank = 131st | GDP_PPP_year = 2023 | GDP_PPP_per_capita = {{increase}} $2,627<ref name="imf.org"/> | GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 175th | GDP_nominal = {{decrease}} $29.9 billion<ref name="imf.org"/> | GDP_nominal_rank = 110th | GDP_nominal_year = 2023 | GDP_nominal_per_capita = {{decrease}} $1,851<ref name="imf.org"/> | GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 154th | Gini = 50.3 <!--number only--> | Gini_year = 2019 | Gini_change = increase<!--increase/decrease/steady--> | Gini_ref = <ref>{{cite web |title= GINI Index |url= http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI?page=3 |publisher= World Bank |access-date= 16 June 2021}}</ref> | Gini_rank = | HDI = 0.593 <!--number only--> | HDI_year = 2021<!-- Please use the year to which the data refers, not the publication year--> | HDI_change = increase <!--increase/decrease/steady--> | HDI_ref = <ref name="HDI">{{cite web|url=https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2021-22pdf_1.pdf|title=Human Development Report 2021/2022|language=en|publisher=[[United Nations Development Programme]]|date=8 September 2022|access-date=30 September 2022}}</ref> | HDI_rank = 146th | currency = [[Zimbabwean_dollar (2019–present)|Zimbabwean dollar]]<br />[[United States dollar|U.S. dollar]] ($) ([[ISO 4217|USD]])<ref name=Reuters.currency>{{cite web|url=https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/zimbabwe-adopts-new-inflation-rate-based-us-dollar-local-currency-2023-03-03/ |title=Zimbabwe adopts new inflation rate based on U.S. dollar, local currency |date=3 March 2023 |access-date=25 March 2023 |work=Reuters |location=Harare}}</ref><br />[[South African rand]];<ref name=Reuters.currency /> Other currencies{{notetag|After the Zimbabwean dollar was suspended indefinitely from 12 April 2009, [[Euro]], [[United States dollar]], [[Pound sterling]], [[South African rand]], [[Botswana pula]], [[Australian dollar]], [[Renminbi|Chinese yuan]], [[Indian rupee]] and [[Japanese yen]] are used as legal tender.}} | time_zone = [[Central Africa Time|CAT]]<ref name= TimeZone>{{cite web |url= http://wwp.greenwichmeantime.com/time-zone/africa/zimbabwe/time/ |title= Zimbabwe Time |website= Greenwich Mean Time |publisher= Greenwich 2000|access-date= 17 November 2017|url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110719182003/http://wwp.greenwichmeantime.com/time-zone/africa/zimbabwe/time/ |archive-date= 19 July 2011 |df= dmy-all}}</ref> | utc_offset = +2 | date_format = dd/mm/yyyy | drives_on = left | calling_code = [[+263]] | cctld = [[.zw]] | today = }} '''Zimbabwe''' ntcharu icho chili pakati pa [[milonga ya Zambezi]] na [[Limpopo]], kumwera na [[South Africa]], kumwera na [[Botswana]], kumpoto na [[Zambia]]. Msumba ukuru chomene wa [[Harare]], ndipo waciŵiri ni [[Bulawayo, Zimbabwe|Bulawayo]]. Mu charu ichi muli ŵanthu pafupifupi 15 miliyoni<ref name=macro>{{cite web |url=https://www.macrotrends.net/countries/ZWE/zimbabwe/population |title=Zimbabwe Population 1950-2021 |website=macrotrends.net |access-date=29 June 2021 }}</ref>. Mtundu ukuru chomene mu Zimbabwe ni wa Shona, uwo uli na ŵanthu 82% pa charu chose. Ku Zimbabwe kuli viyowoyero 16, ndipo viyowoyero vikuru ni [[Cingelezi]], [[Cishona]], na [[Ndebele]].<ref name="language" /> Kwamba mu ma 900 C.E., ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Bantu (awo ŵakaŵa mtundu wa Shona) ndiwo ŵakazenga msumba wa [[Great Zimbabwe]].<ref name=":3" /> Mu ma 1000 C.E., msumba uwu ukaŵa umoza mwa misumba yikuru ya ku Africa iyo yikaguliskanga vinthu. Kuzakafika m'ma 1400, msumba uwu ukaŵa kuti walekeka.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |title=Who built Great Zimbabwe? And why? - Breeanna Elliott |url=https://ed.ted.com/lessons/who-built-great-zimbabwe-and-why-breeanna-elliott |access-date=2022-03-13 |website=TED-Ed |language=en}}</ref>Kufuma apo, ufumu wa Zimbabwe ukapangika, ndipo pamanyuma pake ufumu wa Rozvi na Mutapa.<ref name=":3" /> [[Kampani ya British South Africa|British South Africa Company]] ya [[Cecil Rhodes]] yikamba kulamulira chigaŵa cha [[Rhodesia]] mu 1890 apo ŵakathereska Mashonaland ndipo pamanyuma mu 1893 ŵakathereska Matabeleland pamanyuma pakuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Matabele ŵakakana. Mu 1923, boma la [[South Rhodesia]] likamba kulamulirika na boma la Britain. Mu 1965, boma la ŵanthu ŵatuŵa likapharazga kuti ni Rhodesia. Boma ili likaŵa kutali na ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yinyake ndipo likaŵa na nkhondo ya ŵasilikari ya vyaka 15 na ŵasilikari ŵa mitundu yinyake. Kufuma apo, charu cha Zimbabwe chikaŵa mu wupu wa [[Commonwealth of Nations]], ndipo chikafumamo mu 2002 chifukwa cha kuswa malango gha vyaru vinyake. Mugabe wakazgoka nduna yikuru ya Zimbabwe mu 1980, apo chipani chake cha ZANU-PF chikaluska pa chisankho chikuru pamanyuma pa umaliro wa muwuso wa ŵanthu ŵatuŵa. Wakaŵa nduna yikuru ya Zimbabwe kufuma mu 1987 mpaka apo wakafumako mu 2017. Mu nyengo ya muwuso wa Mugabe, wupu wakuvikilira wanangwa wa ŵanthu ndiwo ukaŵa na mazaza pa charu chose ndipo ndiwo ukachitanga viheni vinandi.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/drl/rls/hrrpt/humanrightsreport/index.htm?year=2015&dlid=252745|title=Zimbabwe 2015 Human Rights Report|year=2015|access-date=6 May 2016|publisher=[[United States Department of State]] [[Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor]]}}</ref> Kufuma mu 2000 mpaka mu 2009, chuma chikamba kunangika na kukhuŵara chomene pambere chindawelere nyuma apo ndalama zinyake padera pa dola ya ku Zimbabwe zikazomerezgekanga. Pa 15 Novembala 2017, pamanyuma pa chaka chimoza cha viwawa vyakususkana na boma lake kweniso chuma cha Zimbabwe icho chikukhilira pasi, Mugabe wakajalirika mu nyumba na ŵasilikari ŵa charu ichi mu boma, ndipo Mugabe wakafumapo pati pajumpha mazuŵa 6. Emmerson Mnangagwa ndiyo wakaŵa pulezidenti wa Zimbabwe. Charu cha Zimbabwe chili mu wupu wa United Nations, Southern African Development Community, African Union, na Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa. == Kwiza kwa zina == {{further|Rhodesia (name)}} Zina lakuti "Zimbabwe" likufuma ku lizgu la ChiShona ilo likung'anamura Great Zimbabwe, msumba wa ku Middle Ages (Masvingo) uwo uli kumwera kwa charu ichi. Pali vigomezgo viŵiri vyakukhwaskana na umo lizgu ili likambira. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakugomezga kuti lizgu lakuti "Zimbabwe" lili kufuma ku lizgu lakuti dzimba-dza-mabwe, ilo lili kung'anamulika kufuma ku lizgu la Chishona la Karanga kuti "nyumba za malibwe"..<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.somalipress.com/zimbabwe-overview/zimbabwe-big-house-stone-1145.html|title= Zimbabwe – big house of stone|publisher= Somali Press|access-date= 14 December 2008|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110503184153/http://www.somalipress.com/zimbabwe-overview/zimbabwe-big-house-stone-1145.html|archive-date= 3 May 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title= Shona Class 5 revisited: a case against *ri as Class 5 nominal prefix|journal= Zambezia|year= 1994|volume= 21|pages= 51–80|author= Lafon, Michel|url= http://archive.lib.msu.edu/DMC/African%20Journals/pdfs/Journal%20of%20the%20University%20of%20Zimbabwe/vol21n1/juz021001005.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title= Mediated monuments and national identity|author= Vale, Lawrence J.|doi= 10.1080/136023699373774|journal= Journal of Architecture|volume= 4|year= 1999|pages= 391–408|issue= 4}}</ref> Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Shona awo ŵakayowoyanga chiyowoyero cha Karanga ŵakakhalanga kufupi na Great Zimbabwe, mu chigaŵa icho sono chikuchemeka Masvingo. Munthu munyake uyo wakusanda vinthu vyakale, zina lake Peter Garlake, wakati lizgu lakuti "Zimbabwe" likung'anamura lizgu lakuti dzimba-hwe.<ref>{{cite book|last= Garlake|first= Peter|author-link= Peter Garlake|title= Great Zimbabwe: New Aspects of Archaeology|url= https://archive.org/details/greatzimbabwe0000garl|url-access= limited|year= 1973|publisher= Thames & Hudson|location= London, UK|isbn= 978-0-8128-1599-3|page= [https://archive.org/details/greatzimbabwe0000garl/page/13 13]}}</ref> Kale, charu cha Zimbabwe chikachemekanga [[Southern Rhodesia]] (1898), [[Rhodesia]] (1965), na [[Zimbabwe Rhodesia]] (1979). Mu 1960 munthu munyake wakuchemeka Michael Mawema ndiyo wakambiska zina lakuti "Zimbabwe".<ref name=ndlovugatsheni113114/>Lizgu lakuti "Rhodesia", ilo lili kufuma ku zina la [[Cecil Rhodes]], uyo wakambiska kuti ku Britain kukhalenge ŵanthu ŵa ku Rhodesia m'ma 1800, ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa ŵakaliwonanga kuti ndakwenelera yayi.<ref name=fontein119120>{{cite book|title= The Silence of Great Zimbabwe: Contested Landscapes and the Power of Heritage|url= https://archive.org/details/silenceofgreatzi0000font|last= Fontein|first= Joost|location= London|publisher= [[University College London|University College London Press]]|date= September 2006|edition= First|isbn= 978-1844721238|pages= [https://archive.org/details/silenceofgreatzi0000font/page/119 119]–20}}</ref> Mawema wakati mu 1960, ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yinyake ŵakachita ungano kuti ŵasankhe zina linyake la charu ichi. Ŵalongozgi ŵa charu cha Matabeleland ŵakayowoyaso kuti "Matopos", kung'anamura mapiri gha Matopos kumwera kwa Bulawayo.<ref name=ndlovugatsheni113114>{{cite book|title= Do "Zimbabweans" Exist? Trajectories of Nationalism, National Identity Formation and Crisis in a Postcolonial State|last= Ndlovu-Gatsheni|first= Sabelo J.|location= Bern|publisher= [[Peter Lang (publisher)|Peter Lang AG]]|year= 2009|edition= First|isbn= 978-3-03911-941-7|pages= 113–14}}</ref> It was initially unclear how the chosen term was to be used—a letter written by Mawema in 1961 refers to "Zimbabweland"<ref name="ndlovugatsheni113114" /> — but "Zimbabwe" was sufficiently established by 1962 to become the generally preferred term of the black nationalist movement.<ref name=fontein119120/>Mu 2001, Eddison Zvobgo, uyo wakaŵa wakuwona vya charu, wakayowoya kuti Mawema wakazunura zina ili pa ungano wa ndyali. Gulu la ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yinyake ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito zina ili pa nyengo ya kampeni yaciŵiri ya Chimurenga yakwimikana na boma la Rhodesia mu nyengo ya Nkhondo ya ku Rhodesia ya 1964-1979. Gulu likuru mu kampu iyi likaŵa la Zimbabwe African National Union (lakuwusika na Robert Mugabe kwambira mu 1975), na Zimbabwe African People's Union (lakuwusika na Joshua Nkomo kwambira apo likakhazikiskikira mu 1960s). Nga ni vyaru vinyake vya mu Africa ivyo vikajiyimira mu nyengo ya [[Nkhondo Yakuzizima]], charu cha Zimbabwe nacho chilije mtundu. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuyowoya ChiShona, kweni ŵanthu ŵa ku Zimbabwe awo ŵalipo pa chiŵerengero ichi ŵalipo 80 peresenti. Dango ili likuzomerezga viyowoyero 16, kweni viŵiri pera ndivyo vikuyowoyeka pa charu chose, chiShona na Chingelezi. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakusambira Chishona mu masukulu. Kweniso mu charu cha Zimbabwe mulije mulongozgi uyo ni Mushona yayi.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last=Mlambo|first=Alois S.|date=2013|title=Becoming Zimbabwe or Becoming Zimbabwean: Identity, Nationalism and State-building|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/43941319|journal=Africa Spectrum|volume=48|issue=1|pages=49–70|doi=10.1177/000203971304800103|jstor=43941319|s2cid=127302759|issn=0002-0397}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-11-29 |title=From a kingdom to a nation: A Shona awakening |url=https://tradmag.ca/season-1/government/from-a-kingdom-to-a-nation-a-shona-awakening-2/ |access-date=2023-05-10 |website=Trad Magazine |language=en}}</ref> ==Mbili== {{Main|History of Zimbabwe}} === Nyengo ya pambere charu chindambe kulamulira === {{further|Bantu expansion}} [[File:Tower, Great Zimbabwe1.jpg|thumb|upright|Towers of [[Great Zimbabwe]]]] Ŵanthu awo ŵakufukura vinthu vyakale ŵakumanya kuti ŵanthu ŵakamba kukhala mu charu cha Zimbabwe vyaka 500,000 ivyo vyajumpha. Ŵanthu ŵakwambilira awo ŵakakhalanga mu charu ichi ŵakaŵa ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa San, awo ŵakasunga mivi na vithuzithuzi vya mu mphanji. Pafupifupi vyaka 2,000 ivyo vyajumpha, ŵalimi ŵakwambilira awo ŵakayowoyanga chiyowoyero ichi ŵakafika mu charu ichi.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sahistory.org.za/article/pre-colonial-history-sa|title=Pre-colonial history of SA|website=South African History Online|access-date=17 July 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160702192857/http://www.sahistory.org.za/article/pre-colonial-history-sa|archive-date=2 July 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.sahistory.org.za/place/zimbabwe|title=Zimbabwe|website=South African History Online|access-date=19 January 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190107164147/http://www.sahistory.org.za/place/zimbabwe|archive-date=7 January 2019|url-status=dead}}</ref> Ŵanthu awo ŵakayowoyanga viyowoyero vya ku Shona ŵakamba kuŵako mu chigaŵa chapakati cha mlonga wa Limpopo mu vyaka vya m'ma 900 C.E. pambere ŵandalute ku malo gha mapiri gha ku Zimbabwe. Charu cha Zimbabwe chikaŵa pakatikati pa vyaru vinyake vya Shona, kwamba mu ma 1000 C.E. Paumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1000, ŵanthu ŵakamba kwenda na ŵamalonda ŵa ku India, ndipo ŵakamba kwenda na ŵanthu ŵa ku Mapungubwe. Ichi chikaŵa chakwamba kuti ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Shona ŵambe kukhala mu chigaŵa ichi kufuma mu 13 m'paka mu 15 C.E. Vinthu ivi vikuwoneka mu malo agho ghakaŵa ku Great Zimbabwe, kufupi na Masvingo, kweniso mu malo ghanyake ghachoko. Pa malo agha pakaŵa nyumba zakuzengeka na malibwe ghakukhoma. Ufumu wa Mapungubwe ndiwo ukaŵa wakwamba mu vyaru vinandi ivyo vikaguliskana vinthu mu Zimbabwe apo ŵanthu ŵakwamba ŵa ku Europe ŵakafikanga kufuma ku Portugal. Vyaru ivi vikaguliskanga golide, njovu, na mkuŵa na kugura salu na gilasi.<ref name="autogenerated241">{{cite book|title= Historical Archaeology |url= https://archive.org/details/historicalarchae0000unse_l8k7 |last= Hall|first= Martin|author2= Stephen W. Silliman|year= 2005|publisher= Wiley Blackwell|isbn= 978-1-4051-0751-8|pages=[https://archive.org/details/historicalarchae0000unse_l8k7/page/241 241]–44}}</ref> Kuzakafika mu 1220, ufumu wa Zimbabwe ukaŵa kuti wajumpha wa Mapungubwe. Boma la Shona likasazgirako na kusazgirako maofesi gha malibwe gha ku Mapungubwe, agho ghachalipo m'paka sono pa malo agho ghakaŵa msumba ukuru wa ufumu wa Great Zimbabwe. Kufuma mu 1450 m'paka mu 1760, Ufumu wa Mutapa ukawusa chigaŵa chikuru cha Zimbabwe, kweniso vigaŵa vinyake vya Mozambiki. Charu ichi chikachemekangaso Ufumu wa Mutapa, panji Mwene Mutapa panji Monomotapa kweniso "Munhumutapa". Ŵapwitikizi ŵakakhumbanga kuti ŵalutilire kuŵa na mazaza pa ufumu uwu ndipo ŵakambiska nkhondo zinandi izo zikapangiska kuti ufumu wawo uparanyike kukwambilira kwa vyaka vya m'ma 1700.<ref name="autogenerated241" /> Pakuzgora ku ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe awo ŵakakhalanga mu vigaŵa vya mukati mwa charu ichi, boma liphya la Ŵashona likawuka. Pakuthemba pa umo ŵasilikari, ŵandyali, na chisopa ŵakendera kwa vyaka vinandi, ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Rozwi (kung'anamura "ŵakuparanya") ŵakachimbizga Ŵapwitikizi mu charu cha Zimbabwe mu 1683. Mu 1821, mulara wa ŵasilikari ŵa mtundu wa Khumalo, zina lake Mzilikazi, wakawukira Themba Shaka na kukhazikiska mtundu wake wa Ndebele. Ŵanthu ŵa Ndebele ŵakaluta kumpoto ku Transvaal, ndipo ŵakasakaza vinthu vinandi chomene. Mu 1836, ŵanthu ŵa ku Netherlands awo ŵakendanga mu chigaŵa cha Transvaal ŵakaŵachimbizga kumpoto chomene na wovwiri wa ŵasilikari ŵa Tswana Barolong na ŵa Griqua. Kuzakafika mu 1838, Ŵandebele ŵakathereska Ufumu wa Rozwi pamoza na vyaru vinyake vichoko vya Shona.<ref name="zimstudy">{{cite book|last= Nelson|first= Harold|title= Zimbabwe: A Country Study |pages= 1–317|publisher= The Studies | year= 1983}}</ref> [[File:Harris - Ndebelekraal.png|thumb|A Matabele [[kraal]], as depicted by [[William Cornwallis Harris]], 1836]] Mu 1840, Mzilikazi na fuko lake ŵakati ŵafumako ku vyaru vyawo ku South Africa, ŵakakhazikika kumwera cha kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa charu icho sono chikuchemeka Zimbabwe. Pamanyuma, Mzilikazi wakambiska gulu la ŵasilikari lakuyana na la Shaka. Mubali Mzilikazi wakafwa mu 1868; pamanyuma pa kulimbana na mwana wake Lobengula. === Nyengo ya Chikoloni na Rhodesia (1888~1964) === {{Main|Company rule in Rhodesia|Southern Rhodesia|Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland}} [[File:Hoisting the flag at Fort Salisbury.png|thumb|The [[Union Jack]] was raised over [[Harare|Fort Salisbury]] on 13 September 1890.]] Mu ma 1880, ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe ŵakiza na kampani ya Cecil Rhodes yakuchemeka British South Africa Company (iyo yikalembeka mu 1889). Mu 1888, Themba Lobengula la ŵanthu ŵa Ndebele, likapeleka wanangwa wa kunozga migodi ku charu cha Rhodes. Iyo wakapeleka mwaŵi uwu kuti wakhuŵilizge boma la Britain kuti lipeleke wanangwa wa kuwusa Matabeleland na vyaru vinyake nga ni Mashonaland. Rhodes wakagwiliskira ntchito chikalata ichi mu 1890 kuti walongosore makora chifukwa icho wakatumira gulu la ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe awo ŵakavikilirikanga na ŵapolisi ŵa ku Britain (British South Africa Police - BSAP) awo ŵakaŵa na vilwero vinandi. Mu 1893 na 1894, ŵasilikari ŵa BSAP ŵakathereska Ŵandebele mu Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Matabele. Rhodes wakapemphaso kuti waŵape wanangwa wakuchita vinthu nga umo ŵakachitiranga ku Limpopo na Nyanja ya Tanganyika. Kuyana na fundo izo zikaŵa mu mapangano agha, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakakhalanga mu vigaŵa ivi, ndipo Ŵanung'una ŵakalutilira kulamulira ŵantchito, visulo vyakuzirwa, na vinthu vinyake.<ref name="bsac">Bryce, James (2008). ''Impressions of South Africa''. p. 170; {{ISBN|055430032X}}.</ref> [[File:Battle of the Shangani.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Battle of the Shangani]] on 25 October 1893]] Mu 1895, BSAC yikapeleka zina lakuti "Rhodesia" ku malo agha. Mu 1898, "Southern Rhodesia" likazgoka zina la chigaŵa icho chili kumwera kwa Mlonga wa Zambezi. Chigaŵa cha kumpoto, icho chikaŵa na boma lapadera, pamanyuma chikachemeka Northern Rhodesia (sono ni Zambia). Pakati pajumpha nyengo yichoko waka kufuma apo ŵabali ŵa ku Rhodes ŵakachitira nkhondo ya Jameson (Disembala 1895 m'paka Janyuwale 1896) pa charu cha South Africa, ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Ndebele ŵakagalukira ŵalongozgi ŵatuŵa. Nkhondo yachiŵiri ya Matabele ya 1896-1897 yikamara mu Matabeleland mpaka mu 1896, apo Mlimo wakakomeka na Frederick Russell Burnham. Mu 1896 na 1897, ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Shona ŵakagalukira boma la boma la Shona. Pamanyuma pa kugaluka uku, boma la Rhodes likathereska ŵanthu ŵa mitundu ya Ndebele na Shona ndipo likanozga vyaru kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe ndiwo ŵakhalengepo. Pa Seputembala 12, 1923, Ufumu wa United Kingdom ukakolerana na charu cha Southern Rhodesia.<ref>Southern Rhodesia (Annexation) Order in Council, 30 July 1923 which provided by section 3 thereof: "From and after the coming into operation of this Order the said territories shall be annexed to and form part of His Majesty's Dominions, and shall be known as the Colony of Southern Rhodesia."</ref><ref>Stella Madzibamuto v Desmond William Larder – Burke, Fredrick Phillip George (1969) A.C 645 – Authority for date of annexation having been 12 September 1923, being the date the Rhodesia (Annexation) Order in Council came into effect</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">''Collective Responses to Illegal Acts in International Law: United Nations Action in the Question of Southern Rhodesia'' by Vera Gowlland-Debbas</ref><ref>Stella Madzibamuto v Desmond William Larder – Burke, Fredrick Phillip George (1969) A.C 645</ref>Pakati pajumpha nyengo yichoko waka kufuma apo charu ichi chikapokelereka, pa Okutobala 1, 1923, dango lakwamba la Southern Rhodesia likamba kugwira ntchito. Kuyana na dango liphya ili, charu cha Southern Rhodesia chikaŵa na wanangwa wa kwendera malango gha Britain. Ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yose ŵa ku Rhodesia ŵakateŵeteranga ku United Kingdom pa Nkhondo za Caru Cose ziŵiri izo zikacitika kukwambilira kwa vilimika vya m'ma 1900. Kuyana na unandi wa ŵazungu, caru ca Southern Rhodesia cikapeleka ndalama zinandi comene pa munthu yumoza pa Nkhondo Yakwamba na Yachiŵiri ya Caru Cose kuluska cigaŵa cilicose ca ufumu uwu, kusazgapo Britain. Mu 1930, dango la kugaŵa malo likakanizga ŵanthu ŵafipa kuŵa na malo mu vigaŵa vinyake vya charu ichi. Ndondomeko iyi yikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵaleke kuyana, ntheura nyengo zinandi ŵanthu ŵakayowoyanga vya kusintha kwa malo. Mu 1953, cifukwa ca kugaluka kwa vyaru vya ku Africa, Britain wakakolerana na vyaru viŵiri vya Rhodesia pamoza na Nyasaland (Malawi) mu Central African Federation. Ŵanthu ŵa mu vyaru vya ku Africa ŵakamba kutinkhana chomene, chomenechomene ku Nyasaland. Apo ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yakupambanapambana ŵakamba kulamulira ku Northern Rhodesia na Nyasaland, ŵanthu ŵa ku Southern Rhodesia awo ŵakaŵa ŵa ku Europe ŵakalutilira kulamulira. Pamanyuma pa wanangwa wa Zambia (kufumila mu Okutobala 1964), boma la Rhodesian Front la Ian Smith mu Salisbury likathereska zina lakuti "Southern" mu 1964 (para Northern Rhodesia yikasintha zina lake kuŵa Zambia, lizgu lakuti Southern pambere zina la Rhodesia lindambe kuzunulika likamba kuŵa lakukhumbikwa yayi ndipo charu chikamba kumanyikwa kuti Rhodesia pamanyuma). Smith wakakana fundo ya Britain yakuti "kuŵa na wanangwa yayi pambere ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵandambe kulamulira". Uwu ukaŵa ulendo wakwamba uwo ŵakugaluka ŵa ku Britain ŵakacita kufuma waka mu 1776.<ref name="moorcraft"> {{cite journal |url= http://www.historytoday.com/paul-moorcraft/rhodesias-war-independence |title= Rhodesia's War of Independence|date= 31 August 1990 |journal= History Today|volume= 40 | issue= 9 |first= Paul|last= Moorcraft |quote= [P]er head of (white) population Rhodesia had contributed more in both world wars than any other part of the empire, including the United Kingdom. ... There is little doubt now that after a few resignations here and there, the army, the Royal Navy and even the Royal Air Force (supposedly the most disaffected service) would have carried out any orders to subdue the first national treason against the Crown since the American War of Independence.}} </ref> === Kupharazga wanangwa na nkhondo ya mukati (1965-1980) === {{Main|Rhodesia|Rhodesian Bush War|Zimbabwe Rhodesia|Lancaster House Agreement}} [[File:Udi2-rho.jpg|thumb|[[Ian Smith]] signing the [[Unilateral Declaration of Independence (Rhodesia)|Unilateral Declaration of Independence]] on 11 November 1965 with his cabinet in audience]] Ufumu wa United Kingdom ukawona kuti dango la Rhodesia likaŵa la kugaluka, kweni ukathereska yayi boma ili. Boma la Britain likapempha wupu wa United Nations kuti uŵike vyeruzgo pa caru ca Rhodesia cifukwa ca kudumbiskana na boma la Smith mu 1966 na 1968. Mu Disembala 1966, wupu uwu ukachita ivyo ukayowoya, ndipo ukakanizga boma la Georgia kuti licitenge malonda.<ref name="eafp">Hastedt, Glenn P. (2004) ''Encyclopedia of American Foreign Policy'', Infobase Publishing, p. 537; {{ISBN|143810989X}}.</ref> Mu 1968, ŵakawovwiraso pa nkhani iyi. Nkhondo ya pawenenawene yikamba apo gulu la Joshua Nkomo la Zimbabwe African People's Union (ZAPU) na la Robert Mugabe la Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU), ilo likakhozgeka na ŵamazaza ŵa Chikomyunizimu na vyaru vya mu Africa, likamba nkhondo ya kuwukira boma la Rhodesia ilo likaŵa na ŵanthu ŵatuŵa. ZAPU yikakhozgeka na Soviet Union, Warsaw Pact na vyaru vinyake nga ni Cuba, ndipo yikamba kulondezga fundo za Marxist-Leninist. Mu 1970, Smith wakapharazga kuti Rhodesia ni charu cha ŵanthu wose, kweni charu chose chikamukana. Nyengo yeneyiyo, nkhondo ya mukati mu Rhodesia yikakura comene, ndipo pamanyuma pake wakeneranga kudumbiskana na ŵasilikari ŵa cikomyunizimu.[[File:Lancaster-House-Agreement.png|thumb|right|Bishop [[Abel Muzorewa]] signs the Lancaster House Agreement seated next to [[Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs|British Foreign Secretary]] [[Peter Carington, 6th Baron Carrington|Lord Carrington]].]] Mu Malichi 1978, Smith wakakolerana na ŵalongozgi ŵatatu ŵa mu Africa, awo ŵakalongozgekanga na Bishop Abel Muzorewa, awo ŵakapeleka mwaŵi wakuti ŵazungu ŵakhalenge makora mu malo agha. Paumaliro wa ndondomeko iyi, mu Epulero 1979, pakaŵa mavoti ndipo United African National Council (UANC) ndiyo yikaŵa na vithuzithuzi vinandi mu nyumba ya malango. Pa 1 Juni 1979, Muzorewa, mulongozgi wa UANC, wakaŵa nduna yikuru ndipo zina la chalo likasinthika kuŵa Zimbabwe Rhodesia. Pa ndondomeko iyi, Ŵazungu ndiwo ŵakaŵa na mazaza pa ŵasilikari ŵa ku Rhodesia, ŵantchito ŵa boma, makhoti, na pa vigaŵa vitatu vya nyumba za malango. Pa Juni 12, wupu wa United States Senate ukazomerezga kuti caru ca Rhodesia cileke kusuzgika na vinthu vya cuma. Pamanyuma pa ungano wa vigaŵa vya Commonwealth uwo ukacitikira ku Lusaka, Zambia, kwambira pa Ogasiti 1 m'paka 7, 1979, boma la Britain likacemera Muzorewa, Mugabe, na Nkomo kuti ŵize ku ungano wa malango ku Lancaster House. Chilato cha ungano uwu chikaŵa chakuti ŵadumbiskane na kukolerana pa fundo zakukhwaskana na dango la boma lakujiyimira pawekha, kweniso kuti paŵe maungano gha boma agho ghazamuwoneseskeka na Britain. Pa ungano uwu pakaŵa Lord Carrington, Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs wa ku United Kingdom. Pa Disembala 21, 1979, ŵimiliri ŵa vyaru vyose ŵakakolerana pa phangano la Lancaster House, ndipo nkhondo ya ŵasilikari yikamara.<ref name="lancaster">Preston, Matthew (2004). ''Ending Civil War: Rhodesia and Lebanon in Perspective.'' p. 25; {{ISBN|1850435790}}.</ref><ref>Lord Soames, "From Rhodesia to Zimbabwe." ''International Affairs'' 56#3 (1980): 405–419. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2617389 online]</ref> Pa Disembala 11, 1979, Nyumba ya Maungano ya Rhodesia yikavota na mavoti 90 kuti yilute ku malo gha Britain (Ian Smith nayo wakazomera). Kufuma apo, boma likapokelera fundo iyi. Christopher Soames, uyo wakaŵa kazembe muphya, wakati wiza pa Disembala 12, 1979, Britain yikamba kulamulira charu cha Zimbabwe Rhodesia. Britain wakawuskapo vyeruzgo pa Disembala 12 ndipo United Nations pa Disembala 16. Pa viwoneskero vya mu Febuluwale 1980, Mugabe na chipani cha ZANU ŵakathereska ŵanthu ŵanandi. Themba Charles, ilo likaŵa mwimiliri wa Britain, likapeleka wanangwa ku caru ciphya ca Zimbabwe pa ciphikiro ico cikacitikira mu Harare mu Epulero 1980.<ref>{{cite book |last=Smith |first=Ian |date=2008 |title=Bitter Harvest |url=https://archive.org/details/bitterharvestzim0000smit |location=London |publisher=John Blake Publishing Ltd |page=[https://archive.org/details/bitterharvestzim0000smit/page/367 367] |isbn=978-1-85782-604-3 |author-link=Ian Smith }}</ref> === Nyengo ya kujithemba (1980-paka sono) === [[File:Zimbabwe, Trends in the Human Development Index 1970-2010.png|thumb|upright=1.6|Trends in Zimbabwe's [[Multidimensional Poverty Index]], {{Nowrap|1970–2010}}]] Pulezidenti wakwamba wa Zimbabwe wati wapokera wanangwa wakaŵa [[Canaan Banan]]<nowiki/>a, uyo pakwamba wakaŵa mutu wa boma. Mugabe wakaŵa nduna yikuru na mulara wa boma. Mu 1980, Samora Machel wakaphalira Mugabe kuti Zimbabwe ni "Jewel of Africa" kweni wakasazgirapo kuti: "Mungayifipiskanga yayi!".<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2017/11/15/robert-mugabe-tarnished-jewel-zimbabwe-now-chance-shine/ |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2017/11/15/robert-mugabe-tarnished-jewel-zimbabwe-now-chance-shine/ |archive-date=10 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|title=Robert Mugabe tarnished the jewel that is Zimbabwe. Now is its chance to shine again|first=Boris|last=Johnson|newspaper=The Telegraph|date=15 November 2017|via=www.telegraph.co.uk}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine|url=http://www.nybooks.com/articles/2003/04/10/the-jewel-of-africa/|title=The Jewel of Africa|first=Doris|last=Lessing|date=10 April 2003|magazine=[[The New York Review of Books]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.voazimbabwe.com/a/zimbabwe-economy-battered-over-the-years/2724325.html|title=What Happened to Zimbabwe, Once Known as The Jewel of Africa?|first=Irwin|last=Chifera}}</ref> Nyengo yeneyiyo, ŵanthu ŵa ku Matabeleland ŵakamba kulimbana na ivyo Ŵashona ŵakawonanga kuti ni kuwukira boma. Nkhondo ya ku Matabele yikapangiska kuti paŵe suzgo ilo likuchemeka Gukurahundi (Shona:'mvula yakwamba iyo yikugeziska duru pambere vula ya mu chihanya yindize'). Gulu la Cinkhondi, gulu la ŵasilikari awo ŵakasambizgika na North Korea ndipo ŵakaphalirika na Mugabe, ŵakanjira mu Matabeleland na kukoma ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakasuskika kuti ŵakovwira "ŵakupambana maghanoghano". Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakuti ŵanthu awo ŵakafwa pa nkhondo ya Gukurahundi iyo yikatora vyaka vinkhondi ŵakaŵa pakati pa 3,750 na 80,000. Ŵanandi ŵakasuzgika mu misasa ya ŵasilikari. Nkhondo iyi yikamara mu 1987 pamanyuma pakuti Nkomo na Mugabe ŵafika pa phangano la umoza ilo likasazga vipani vyawo na kupanga Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU-PF).<ref name="meredith6273">{{cite book |last=Meredith |first=Martin |url=https://archive.org/details/mugabepowerplund00mere/page/62 |title=Mugabe: Power, Plunder and the Struggle for Zimbabwe |date=September 2007 |publisher=[[Perseus Books Group|PublicAffairs]] |isbn=978-1-58648-558-0 |location=New York |pages=[https://archive.org/details/mugabepowerplund00mere/page/62 62–73] |author-link=Martin Meredith |orig-year=2002}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.badley.info/history/ZANU-PF-Zimbabwe.event.html |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20081123124818/http://www.badley.info/history/ZANU-PF-Zimbabwe.event.html|archive-date=23 November 2008 | title= Chronology of Zimbabwe |publisher=badley.info|access-date=9 December 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url= http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/country_profiles/1831470.stm|title=Timeline: Zimbabwe|work=BBC News|access-date=9 December 2008 |date=15 October 2009}}</ref> Pa mavoti gha mu Malichi 1990, Mugabe na chipani chake cha ZANU-PF ŵakathereskaso ŵanyawo, ndipo ŵakatora vithuzithuzi 117.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eisa.org.za/WEP/zim1990election.htm|title=Zimbabwe: 1990 General Elections|access-date=9 December 2008 |publisher=EISA |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081205015007/http://www.eisa.org.za/WEP/zim1990election.htm|archive-date=5 December 2008 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.uz.ac.zw/publications/books/pol.html |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20090902092508/http://www.uz.ac.zw/publications/books/pol.html|archive-date=2 September 2009 |title=Voting for Democracy: A Study of Electoral Politics in Zimbabwe|last=Moyo |first=Jonathon N. |publisher=University of Zimbabwe |access-date=9 December 2008}}</ref> Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1990, ŵana ŵa sukulu, ŵamalonda, na ŵantchito ŵanyake kanandi ŵakalongoranga kuti ŵakukondwa yayi na ivyo Mugabe na ZANU-PF ŵakachitanga. Mu 1996, ŵantchito ŵa boma, ŵasilikari, na ŵadokotala ŵakaleka ntchito cifukwa ca suzgo la malipiro. Kweniso umoyo wa ŵanthu ukamba kunangika comene. Mu 1997, ŵanthu pafupifupi 25% ŵakaŵa na HIV. Mu 1997, boma la ZANU-PF likambaso kudandawura chomene pa nkhani ya kugaŵa malo. Nangauli pakaŵa pulogiramu ya kunozga malo kufuma mu ma 1980, kweni ŵanthu ŵachoko waka ŵa ku Zimbabwe awo ŵakaŵa ŵazungu ŵakakhalanga pa malo ghakukwana 0.6 peresenti. Mu 2000, boma likalutilira na ndondomeko yake ya kusintha malo mwaluŵiro. Ndondomeko iyi yikasazgapo kutora malo mwakucicizgika kuti ŵanthu ŵazakagaŵireso malo ku ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yinyake. Kuwombokwa kwa malo gha vyakurya, chilangalanga, na kuchepa kwa ndalama zakufuma ku vyaru vinyake na wovwiri unyake, vikapangiska kuti vyakurya vyakunjilira ku vyaru vinyake vichepe chomene. Kufuma nyengo yira, ŵalimi ŵa fuko la ŵanthu ŵafipa ŵakujumpha 58,000 ŵamba kunozgaso vyakurya vinyake ivyo vikumara.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/21/world/africa/in-zimbabwe-land-takeover-a-golden-lining.html?pagewanted=all|title=In Zimbabwe Land Takeover, a Golden Lining|work=The New York Times|date=20 July 2012|access-date=21 July 2012|author=Polgreen, Lydia}}</ref> Pulezidenti Mugabe na ŵalongozgi ŵa chipani cha ZANU-PF ŵakasangana na masuzgo ghakupambanapambana. Mu 2002, caru ici cikafumiskika mu wupu wa Commonwealth cifukwa ca kupoka minda mwambura kucenjera ndiposo kunanga mavoti. Chaka chakulondezgapo, ŵalara ŵa boma la Zimbabwe ŵakaleka kujipeleka ku Commonwealth. Mu 2001, boma la United States likakhazikiska dango lakuti Zimbabwe Democracy and Economic Recovery Act (ZDERA). Phangano ili likamba kugwira ntchito mu 2002 ndipo likakanizga boma la Zimbabwe kupeleka ngongoli. Bill Frist ndiyo wakalemba dango ili, ndipo ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵakalembako ni Hillary Clinton, Joe Biden, Russ Feingold, na Jesse Helms. Kwizira mu cipaturo 4C ca ZDERA ("Multilateral Financing Restriction"), Secretary of the Treasury wakulangulika kuti walongozge U.S. Ŵalaŵiliri ŵa mabungwe gha vya ndalama gha pa caru cose agho ghali kulembeka mu cipaturo 3 "ŵakususka na kuvota kwimikana na-- (1) kunjizga ngongoli yiliyose, ngongoli, panji cisimikizgo ku boma la Zimbabwe; panji (2) kulekeska panji kucepeskako ngongoli iyo boma la Zimbabwe lili nayo ku United States panji ku mabungwe ghanyake gha vya ndalama". Kuzakafika mu 2003, chuma cha charu ichi chikaŵa kuti chathika. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakuti ŵanthu pafupifupi 25 pa ŵanthu 11 miliyoni ŵa ku Zimbabwe ŵakachimbira. Ŵanthu ŵatatu pa ŵanayi ŵa mu Zimbabwe ŵakakhalanga na ndalama zakukwana dola limoza pera pa zuŵa. Pamanyuma pa mavoti mu 2005, boma likambiska "Operation Murambatsvina", mulimo wa kukanizga misika yambura kuzomerezgeka na mizi iyo yikaŵa mu misumba.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/4188702.stm|title=Zimbabwe destruction: One man's story|date=30 August 2005 |publisher=BBC|access-date=19 December 2008}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.radionetherlandsarchives.org/driving-out-the-filth-in-zimbabwe/|title=Driving out the filth in Zimbabwe|date=31 January 2007}}</ref> Boma la Zimbabwe likuyowoya kuti mulimo uwu ni nthowa yakupelekera nyumba ziwemi ku ŵanthu, nangauli ŵanthu awo ŵakususka nga ni Amnesty International ŵakuti ŵamazaza ŵandalongosorepo ivyo ŵakugomezga.<ref name="muram">{{cite web|url=http://news.amnesty.org/index/ENGAFR460152006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061010190256/http://news.amnesty.org/index/ENGAFR460152006|archive-date=10 October 2006 |title=Zimbabwe: Housing policy built on foundation of failures and lies – Amnesty International|date=9 August 2006 |access-date=30 December 2013}}</ref>[[File:Food insecurity in Zimbabwe.svg|thumb|Map showing the food insecurity in Zimbabwe in June 2008]] Pa Malichi 29, 2008, Zimbabwe yikachita chisankho cha pulezidenti pamoza na chisankho cha pa nyumba ya malango. Pa mavoti gha mavoti agha ŵakasungapo kwa masabata ghaŵiri, pamanyuma pake ŵanthu ŵakamanya kuti Movement for Democratic Change (MDC-T) ndiyo yili na mpando umoza mu nyumba ya malango.<ref>{{cite web |author1=Kenneth Ingham |author2=Clyde William Sanger |author3=Kenneth Bradley |title=Zimbabwe - 2008 elections and aftermath &#124; Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Zimbabwe/2008-elections-and-aftermath |publisher=Encyclopedia Britannica |access-date=January 15, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230116000541/https://www.britannica.com/place/Zimbabwe/2008-elections-and-aftermath |archive-date=January 15, 2023}}</ref> Pa Julayi 10, 2008, Russia na China ŵakakanira ivyo United Nations yikachita ku Zimbabwe.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2008/jul/11/unitednations.zimbabwe|title=China and Russia veto Zimbabwe sanctions|last=Nasaw|first=Daniel|date=11 July 2008|work=The Guardian|access-date=9 June 2019|language=en-GB|issn=0261-3077}}</ref> Boma la United States ndilo likalemba chikalata ichi, icho mphanyi chikaŵa chakukanizga boma la Mugabe kugura vilwero. Ndipouli, vyaru 9 pa vyaru 15 ivyo vili mu wupu wa UN Security Council vikasuska, kusazgapo Vietnam, South Africa, na Libya, ivyo vikati Zimbabwe ni 'ciyezgo yayi ku mtende na civikiliro ca caru cose.' Kuumaliro wa chaka cha 2008, masuzgo gha ku Zimbabwe ghakafika paheni chomene pa nkhani ya umoyo, umoyo wa ŵanthu (pakawuka nthenda ya kolera mu Disembala) na vinthu vinyake. Mu nyengo iyi, mawupu ghambura vya boma ghakatora malo gha boma pakupeleka vyakurya ku Zimbabwe. Mu Seputembala 2008, pakaŵa phangano la kugaŵikana mazaza pakati pa Tsvangirai na Pulezidenti Mugabe, ilo likazomerezga Mugabe kuŵa nduna yikuru. Chifukwa cha mphindano pakati pa ŵaliska ŵa vipani vyawo, phangano ili likafiskika yayi m'paka pa Febuluwale 13, 2009. Kufika mu Disembala 2010, Mugabe wakawofyanga kuti wazamupoka makampani ghose agho ghakhalako mu Zimbabwe kwambura kuti "malango gha ku Western" ghalekeskeka.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.upi.com/Top_News/World-News/2010/12/18/Mugabe-wants-sanctions-removed/UPI-84591292686762|title=Mugabe wants sanctions removed|work=United Press International|date=18 December 2010|access-date=21 August 2011}}</ref>[[File:Mugabe - Flickr - Al Jazeera English.jpg|thumb|Zimbabwean President [[Robert Mugabe]] attended the Independence Day celebrations in South Sudan in July 2011.]] Kafukufuku uyo wakachitika mu 2011 na wupu wa Freedom House, wakalongora kuti umoyo wa ŵanthu ukwenda makora chomene kufuma apo ŵakakolerana kuti ŵagaŵane mazaza. Ofesi ya Wupu wa United Nations yakuwona vya wovwiri wa ŵanthu (United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs) yikati: "Vinthu vikwenda makora chomene mu Zimbabwe kufuma mu 2009, kweni ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵachali mu suzgo". Pa 17 January 2013, Mubali John Nkomo wakafwa na kansa ku St Anne's Hospital, Harare, wali na vyaka 78. Dango liphya ilo likapokelereka mu 2013 ku Zimbabwe likuchepeska mazaza gha pulezidenti.<ref>{{cite news|title=Zimbabweans start voting to adopt new constitution|url=https://www.reuters.com-archive-classified.eu/article/2013/03/16/us-zimbabwe-referendum-idUSBRE92F03G20130316|work=Reuters|access-date=16 March 2013|author=Dzirutwe, MacDonald |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130927163223/http://www.undp.org.zw/component/docman/doc_download/230-zimbabwe-poverty-report-2011-april-17-2013 |archive-date=27 September 2013}}</ref> Mugabe wakasankhikaso kuŵa purezidenti mu mavoti gha mu Julayi 2013 mu Zimbabwe agho The Economist yikati "ghakaŵa ghakupusika" ndipo Daily Telegraph yikati "ghakaŵa ghakubisika". Gulu la Movement for Democratic Change likati kuli upusikizgi ukuru ndipo likayezga kupempha wovwiri ku khoti. Mu nyengo yakuzizika pa ungano wa ZANU-PF mu Disembala 2014, President Robert Mugabe mwangozi wakaleka kuti opposition ndiyo yikaluska pa kafukufuku wa 2008 na 73%. Boma la Mugabe la ZANU-PF likati lathereska pa chisankho, likambaso kulamulira na chipani chimoza, likasazgirako maofesi gha boma, ndipo kuyana na magazini ya The Economist, likamba "kuchita vinthu viheni chomene". Kafukufuku munyake uyo wakachitika mu 2017 na Institute for Security Studies (ISS) wakati chifukwa cha kunangika kwa boma na vyachuma, "boma likukhozga vimbundi kuti liwezge suzgo la kutondeka kupeleka ndalama ku maboma ghake". Pa 22 Okutobala 2015, pulezidenti Robert Mugabe wakapokera chawanangwa cha Confucius Peace Prize, icho chili nga ni chawanangwa cha Nobel Peace Prize ku China chifukwa cha kujipeleka kwake pa ndyali na vyachuma. Mu Julayi 2016, ŵanthu ŵakamba kususka ivyo vikachitikanga mu charu chifukwa cha suzgo la vyachuma.<ref name="Economist072016">{{Cite news|url=https://www.economist.com/news/middle-east-and-africa/21701779-imf-ready-throw-mugabe-regime-lifeline-bad-idea-bailing-out|title=Bailing out bandits|date=9 July 2016|newspaper=The Economist|issue=8997|volume=420|pages=43–44|issn=0013-0613|access-date=8 July 2016}}</ref><ref name="BBC2016">{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-36724874 |title=Zimbabwe 'shut down' over economic collapse |access-date=7 July 2016 |work=BBC News}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thetimes.co.uk/edition/world/mugabe-at-war-with-militias-that-keep-him-in-power-kbldr7v8l|title=Mugabe at war with militias that keep him in power|last1=Raath|first1=Jan|last2=Graham|first2=Stuart|date=25 July 2016|newspaper=The Times|access-date=25 July 2016|url-access=subscription }}</ref>Mu Novembala 2017, ŵasilikari ŵakalongozga chipani cha coup d'état pamanyuma pa kufumiska mulara wa boma Emmerson Mnangagwa, ndipo ŵakaŵika Mugabe mu jele. Gulu la ŵasilikari likakana kuti ivyo ŵakacita vikaŵa vya kuwukira boma.<ref name="cnn_turmoil">{{cite news |url= http://edition.cnn.com/2017/11/14/africa/zimbabwe-military-chief-treasonable-conduct/ |title= Zimbabwe in turmoil after apparent coup |first1=David |last1=McKenzie |first2=Brent |last2=Swails |first3=Angela |last3=Dewan |work=CNN |access-date=15 November 2017}}</ref><ref name="guardian_confined">{{cite news |date=15 November 2017|url= https://www.theguardian.com/world/live/2017/nov/15/zimbabwe-army-control-harare-coup-robert-mugabe-live |title= Zimbabwe's Robert Mugabe confined to home as army takes control |work=The Guardian |access-date= 15 November 2017}}</ref>Pa Novembala 19, 2017, ZANU-PF yikachimbizga Robert Mugabe pakuŵa mulongozgi wa chipani ndipo yikimika muwusi mulara Emmerson Mnangagwa mu malo ghake. Pa Novembala 21, 2017, Mugabe wakapeleka chipika chake pambere ndondomeko yakususka yindamalizgike. Nangauli mu malango gha Zimbabwe Mugabe wakwenera kulondezgeka na Vice-president Phelekezela Mphoko, uyo wakukolerana na Grace Mugabe, kweni mulara wa ZANU-PF, Lovemore Matuke wakaphalira wupu wa Reuters kuti Mnangagwa ndiyo wazamwimikika kuŵa president. Pa 30 Julayi 2018 Zimbabwe yikachita mavoti, ndipo chipani cha ZANU-PF icho chikulongozgeka na Mnangagwa ndicho chikaluska. Nelson Chamisa uyo wakalongozganga chipani chikuru chakususkana na boma cha MDC Alliance wakasuska ivyo vikachitika pa mavoti chifukwa cha upusikizgi, ndipo pamasinda wakapeleka mulandu ku khoti la Constitution Court of Zimbabwe. Khoti likakhozga kuti Mnangagwa watonda, ndipo ndiyo waŵenge pulezidenti muphya pamanyuma pa Mugabe.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/zim-concourt-dismisses-mdcs-challenge-confirms-mnangagwa-winner/|title=Zim ConCourt dismisses MDC's challenge, confirms Mnangagwa winner – SABC News – Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader.|website=www.sabcnews.com|date=24 August 2018 |access-date=17 January 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-zimbabwe-election-court-idUSKCN1L90W2|title=Top Zimbabwe court confirms Mnangagwa's presidential election victory|date=25 August 2018|work=Reuters|access-date=17 January 2019|language=en}}</ref> Mu Disembala 2017 webusayiti ya Zimbabwe News, pakupenda mtengo wa nyengo ya Mugabe pakugwiliskira nchito maukaboni ghakupambanapambana, yikati pa nyengo iyo charu chikapokera wanangwa mu 1980, caru cikakuranga pa ciŵelengero ca pafupifupi 5 peresenti pa caka. Usange vinthu vyendenge makora mu charu ichi kwa vyaka 37, mu 2016 Zimbabwe yizamuŵa na GDP ya madola 52 biliyoni. M'malo mwake yikaŵa na GDP ya US$14 biliyoni pera, ndipo yikakhumba ndalama zakukwana US$38 biliyoni. Mu 1980, ciŵelengero ca ŵanthu cikakura comene mu Africa, pafupifupi 3.5 peresenti pa caka, ndipo cikasazgikiranga kaŵiri pa vilimika 21. Ŵanandi aŵa ŵaŵenge kuti ŵakalutilira kukura, mphanyi ŵakaŵa 31 miliyoni. Kweni mu 2018, ŵalipo pafupifupi 13 miliyoni. Ŵanthu ŵakagomezganga kuti pali mphambano chifukwa cha njara na matenda, kweniso chifukwa cha kuchepa kwa ŵana. Kufuma mu 1980, ŵanthu ŵakufwa na nkhaza izo zikuchitika chifukwa cha ndyali ŵakujumpha 200,000. Boma la Mugabe ndilo lapangiska kuti ŵanthu pafupifupi 3 miliyoni ŵa ku Zimbabwe ŵafwe mu vilimika 37. Wupu wa World Food Programme ukuti ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 2 miliyoni ŵali pafupi kufwa na njara cifukwa ca chilangalanga ico cacitika mu caru ici. Mu chaka cha 2018, President Mnangagwa wakapharazga kuti boma lake lizamukhumba kuwelera ku Commonwealth, ndipo kufuma mu chaka cha 2023, lizamupanga upharazgi wakumanya unenesko pambere wandapemphe Secretary General kuti wapeleke ulongozgi. Pa 6 September 2019, pulezidenti wakale Robert Mugabe wakafwa ku Singapore, wali na vyaka 95.<ref>{{cite news |title=Former Zimbabwean leader Robert Mugabe dies – DW – 09/06/2019 |url=https://www.dw.com/en/zimbabwe-ex-president-robert-mugabe-dies-at-95/a-50321834 |work=dw.com |language=en}}</ref> ==Makhalilo== {{main|Geography of Zimbabwe}} [[File:ZmbziRvr.jpg|thumb|The [[Zambezi River]] in the [[Mana Pools National Park]]]] [[File:Zimbabwe map of Köppen climate classification.svg|thumb|Zimbabwe map of Köppen climate classification]] Charu cha Zimbabwe chili kumwera kwa Africa, ndipo chili pakati pa latitude 15° na 23°S, kweniso longitude 25° na 34°E. Charu ichi chili kumafumiro gha dazi kwa South Africa, kumanjiliro gha dazi na kumwera kwa charu cha Botswana, kumpoto cha kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Zambia, kumafumiro gha dazi na kumpoto kwa Mozambique. Malo agha ghali pa mtunda wa mamita 150 kufuma ku Namibia. Chigaŵa chikuru cha charu ichi chili pachanya chomene, ndipo chili na malo ghatali chomene (high veld) agho ghakutambazga kufuma kumwera cha kumanjiliro gha dazi kuya kumpoto. Chigaŵa chakumafumiro gha dazi kwa charu ichi chili na mapiri, ndipo chili na mapiri ghanandi chomene. Malo agha ghakumanyikwa na malo ghakutowa nga ni Nyanga, Troutbeck, Chimanimani, Vumba na Chirinda Forest pa Phiri la Selinda. Pafupifupi vigaŵa 20 pa vigaŵa 20 vya charu ichi vili pasi pa mamita 900. Victoria Falls, yimoza mwa majigha ghakuru comene pa caru, yili kumpoto ca kumafumiro gha dazi kwa caru ici ndipo yili mu mlonga wa Zambezi.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Hutchinson Unabridged Encyclopedia with Atlas and Weather Guide|year=2018|editor-last=Helicon|via=Credo Reference}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://victoriafallstourism.org/|title=Victoria Falls|date=2019|website=Victoria Falls Tourism|access-date=3 December 2019}}</ref> === Geology === {{main|Geology of Zimbabwe}} Mu nyengo ya geological, Zimbabwe yikaŵa na vigaŵa viŵiri vikuruvikuru vya kuswa kwa charu cha Gondwana (ivyo vikumanyikwa kuti Africa na Africa), kweniso chigaŵa chinyake cha Plio-Pleistocene.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Moore|first=A E |display-authors=etal|date=2009|title=Landscape evolution in Zimbabwe from the Permian to present, with implications for kimberlite prospecting|url=http://www.mantleplumes.org/WebDocuments/Moore2009_2.pdf|journal=Geological Society of South Africa|volume=112|issue=1 |page=65 |doi=10.2113/gssajg.112.1.65 |bibcode=2009SAJG..112...65M }}</ref> ===Nyengo=== Charu cha Zimbabwe chili na mphepo ya subtropical iyo yikupambana chomene. Ku vigaŵa vya kumwera kwa charu ichi kukufipa chomene, ndipo ku chigaŵa chinyake cha pakati pa charu ichi kukuzizima. Dambo la Zambezi likumanyikwa na kuthukira comene, ndipo ku Eastern Highlands kanandi kukuzizima comene ndipo kukulokwa comene. Nyengo ya vula mu charu ichi yikwamba kuumaliro wa Okutobala m'paka Malichi. Mu charu cha Zimbabwe mukusuzgika na chilangalanga. Mu 2019, njovu zakukwana 55 zikafwa cifukwa ca chilangalanga. Vivula vikuru vikuchitika viŵi yayi.<ref name="Baughan, M. 2005">Baughan, M. (2005). Continent in the Balance: Zimbabwe-Juvenile literature. Philadelphia, PA: Mason Crest Publishers; {{ISBN|1590848101}}.</ref> === Vinthu vyakupambanapambana === {{main|Wildlife of Zimbabwe}} [[File:Curled trunk.jpg|thumb|An elephant at a water hole in [[Hwange National Park]]]] Zimbabwe yili na vigaŵa vinkhondi na viŵiri: Kalahari acacia ̇baikiaea, South Africa bushveld, Southern miombo, Zambezian Baikiaea, Zambezian na mopane, Zambezian halophytics, na Eastern Zimbabwe.<ref name="DinersteinOlson2017">{{cite journal|last1=Dinerstein|first1=Eric|last2=Olson|first2=David|last3=Joshi|first3=Anup|last4=Vynne|first4=Carly|last5=Burgess|first5=Neil D.|last6=Wikramanayake|first6=Eric|last7=Hahn|first7=Nathan|last8=Palminteri|first8=Suzanne|last9=Hedao|first9=Prashant|last10=Noss|first10=Reed|last11=Hansen|first11=Matt|last12=Locke|first12=Harvey|last13=Ellis|first13=Erle C|last14=Jones|first14=Benjamin|last15=Barber|first15=Charles Victor|last16=Hayes|first16=Randy|last17=Kormos|first17=Cyril|last18=Martin|first18=Vance|last19=Crist|first19=Eileen|last20=Sechrest|first20=Wes|last21=Price|first21=Lori|last22=Baillie|first22=Jonathan E. M.|last23=Weeden|first23=Don|last24=Suckling|first24=Kierán|last25=Davis|first25=Crystal|last26=Sizer|first26=Nigel|last27=Moore|first27=Rebecca|last28=Thau|first28=David|last29=Birch|first29=Tanya|last30=Potapov|first30=Peter|last31=Turubanova|first31=Svetlana|last32=Tyukavina|first32=Alexandra|last33=de Souza|first33=Nadia|last34=Pintea|first34=Lilian|last35=Brito|first35=José C.|last36=Llewellyn|first36=Othman A.|last37=Miller|first37=Anthony G.|last38=Patzelt|first38=Annette|last39=Ghazanfar|first39=Shahina A.|last40=Timberlake|first40=Jonathan|last41=Klöser|first41=Heinz|last42=Shennan-Farpón|first42=Yara|last43=Kindt|first43=Roeland|last44=Lillesø|first44=Jens-Peter Barnekow|last45=van Breugel|first45=Paulo|last46=Graudal|first46=Lars|last47=Voge|first47=Maianna|last48=Al-Shammari|first48=Khalaf F.|last49=Saleem|first49=Muhammad|display-authors=1|title=An Ecoregion-Based Approach to Protecting Half the Terrestrial Realm|journal=BioScience|volume=67|issue=6|year=2017|pages=534–545|issn=0006-3568|doi=10.1093/biosci/bix014|pmid=28608869|pmc=5451287}}</ref> Charu ichi chili na makuni ghanandi, kweni mu vigaŵa vya mapiri vya kumafumiro gha dazi muli nkhorongo na makuni ghanandi. Makuni ghanyake agho ghakusangika ku Eastern Highlands ni teak, mahogany, khuni likuru la mkama, nkhorongo ya Newtonia, makuni ghakurughakuru, makuni ghamsinjiro ghatuŵa, chirinda, knobthorn, na ghanyake ghanandi. Mu vigaŵa vya pasi vya caru ici muli makuni ghanandi gha five, mopane, combretum, na baobab. Chigaŵa chikuru cha charu ichi chili na makuni gha miombo. Pa maluŵa na makuni ghanyake agho ghalipo, pali hibiscus, flame lily, snake lily, spider lily, leonotis, cassia, tree wisteria, na dombeya. Ku Zimbabwe kuli vyamoyo vyakukwana mitundu yakujumpha 350. Paliso njoka na vyakumera vinandi, viyuni vyakujumpha 500, na somba 131. ===Environmental issues=== Nyengo yinyake, vigaŵa vikuruvikuru vya Zimbabwe vikaŵa na makuni ghanandi. Pakuti makuni ghakumalira mu malo ghakupambanapambana kweniso ŵanthu ŵakukoma vinyama, vikoko vya mu nkhorongo vyachepa. Vinthu ivyo vikupangiska kuti makuni ghasakazikenge na kupasuka chifukwa cha kusazgikira kwa ŵanthu, kusazgikira kwa mizi, na kugwiliskira ntchito mafuta, ni vyakuti vikupangiska kuti makuni ghasakazikenge. Ŵalimi ŵa ku malo agha ŵakususkika cifukwa ca kotcha vyakumera kuti ŵasunge ndudu. Charu ichi chili na chiŵerengero cha 6.31/10 pa charu chose pa vyaru 172.<ref name="FLII-Supplementary">{{cite journal|last1=Grantham|first1=H. S.|last2=Duncan|first2=A.|last3=Evans|first3=T. D.|last4=Jones|first4=K. R.|last5=Beyer|first5=H. L.|last6=Schuster|first6=R.|last7=Walston|first7=J.|last8=Ray|first8=J. C.|last9=Robinson|first9=J. G.|last10=Callow|first10=M.|last11=Clements|first11=T.|last12=Costa|first12=H. M.|last13=DeGemmis|first13=A.|last14=Elsen|first14=P. R.|last15=Ervin|first15=J.|last16=Franco|first16=P.|last17=Goldman|first17=E.|last18=Goetz|first18=S.|last19=Hansen|first19=A.|last20=Hofsvang|first20=E.|last21=Jantz|first21=P.|last22=Jupiter|first22=S.|last23=Kang|first23=A.|last24=Langhammer|first24=P.|last25=Laurance|first25=W. F.|last26=Lieberman|first26=S.|last27=Linkie|first27=M.|last28=Malhi|first28=Y.|last29=Maxwell|first29=S.|last30=Mendez|first30=M.|last31=Mittermeier|first31=R.|last32=Murray|first32=N. J.|last33=Possingham|first33=H.|last34=Radachowsky|first34=J.|last35=Saatchi|first35=S.|last36=Samper|first36=C.|last37=Silverman|first37=J.|last38=Shapiro|first38=A.|last39=Strassburg|first39=B.|last40=Stevens|first40=T.|last41=Stokes|first41=E.|last42=Taylor|first42=R.|last43=Tear|first43=T.|last44=Tizard|first44=R.|last45=Venter|first45=O.|last46=Visconti|first46=P.|last47=Wang|first47=S.|last48=Watson|first48=J. E. M.|display-authors=1|title=Anthropogenic modification of forests means only 40% of remaining forests have high ecosystem integrity - Supplementary Material|journal=Nature Communications|volume=11|issue=1|year=2020|page=5978|issn=2041-1723|doi=10.1038/s41467-020-19493-3|pmid=33293507|pmc=7723057|bibcode=2020NatCo..11.5978G }}</ref> == Boma == {{Main|Politics of Zimbabwe|Elections in Zimbabwe|Foreign relations of Zimbabwe}} [[File:Harare parlament 24032005.jpg|thumb|[[Parliament of Zimbabwe]] in Harare]] Charu cha Zimbabwe chili na boma la pulezidenti. Ndondomeko iyi yikamara mu 2013 apo boma likapeleka malango ghaphya. Mu 2005, boma likasintha malango gha boma la Georgia, ndipo likambaso kuŵa na nyumba yikuru yakucemeka Senate. Nyumba ya Malamulo ndiyo ni nyumba yaciŵiri ya boma. Mu 1987, Mugabe wakasintha malango gha boma, wakawuskapo mazaza gha pulezidenti na gha nduna yikuru kuti paŵe boma la pulezidenti. Chipani chake cha ZANU-PF chakhala chikupambana pa mavoti ghose kwambira apo charu chikapokera wanangwa. Mu 1990, chipani cha ZUM cha Edgar Tekere, icho chikaŵa pa malo ghachiŵiri, chikapokera mavoti 20%.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newzimbabwe.com/pages/review27.15680.html|title=Tekere says Mugabe 'insecure' in new book|access-date=6 January 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071227185709/http://www.newzimbabwe.com/pages/review27.15680.html|archive-date=27 December 2007}}</ref><ref>Mugabe, Robert. (2007). ''Encyclopædia Britannica 2007 Ultimate Reference Suite'', Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica.<!--ISSN/ISBN needed, page(s) needed--></ref> === Ndale === Pa nyengo ya maungano gha pa caru cose gha mu 1995, vyaru vinandi ivyo vikususkana na boma, kusazgapo chipani ca ZUM, vikakana maungano agha.<ref name="Frankel">{{Cite web|last=Frankel |first=Matthew |url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2010-may-26-la-oe-frankel-burma-20100526-story.html |title=Myanmar boycott is misguided |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210223213933/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2010-may-26-la-oe-frankel-burma-20100526-story.html |archive-date=23 February 2021 |url-status=live |work=Los Angeles Times |date=26 May 2010}}</ref> Apo ŵakususka ŵakaweleraso ku mavoti mu 2000, ŵakatora vithuzithuzi 57, ndipo vikaŵa vichoko na vithuzithuzi 5 pera pakuyaniska na vya ZANU-PF. Mu 2002, ŵakaŵaso na mavoti gha pulezidenti pakati pa ŵanthu awo ŵakayowoya kuti pa mavoti pakaŵa mavoti ghambura kwenelera. Chisankho cha Nyumba ya Malamulo ku Zimbabwe mu 2005 chikachitika pa 31 March, ndipo maboma gha Movement for Democratic Change na Jonathan Moyo ghakaphalira ŵanthu ŵanandi kuti ŵakachitanga ukhuluku, upusikizgi, kweniso kuti ŵakopa ŵanthu. Moyo wakachitako mavoti nangauli ŵakamupa mulandu ndipo wakapokera mpando wa mphala ya malango.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Makgetlaneng |first=Sehlare |title=ZIMBABWE'S 2005 PARLIAMENTARY ELECTIONS: Lessons for the Movement for Democratic Change |url=https://www.eisa.org/pdf/JAE4.2Makgetlaneng.pdf |journal=Africa Institute of South Africa |pages=124}}</ref> [[File:Election campaign March 2005.jpg|thumb|Supporters of the [[Movement for Democratic Change (prior to 2005)|Movement for Democratic Change]] in 2005]]Mu 2005, chipani cha MDC chikagaŵikana mu vigaŵa viŵiri: Movement for Democratic Change Mutambara (MDC-M), chakulongozgeka na Arthur Mutambara icho chikapangana pa viphikiro vya Senate, na Movement for Democratic Change Tsvangirai (MDC-T) chakulongozgeka na Morgan Tsvangirai icho chikakana kupangana pa viphikiro ivi. Makampu ghaŵiri gha MDC ghakaŵa na ungano wawo mu 2006 ndipo Tsvangirai wakasankhika kulongozga MDC-T, iyo yikaŵa yakutchuka chomene kuluska gulu linyake. Mu 2008, pa mavoti gha boma, pakaŵa chigaŵa cha Mugabe na Tsvangirai. Chipani cha MDC-T chikakanizga mavoti agha, pakughanaghana kuti boma la Mugabe likachitiska upusikizgi. Pa June 27, 2008, ŵakaŵikapo mtima kuti ŵapeleke ndalama zakuwuskira ŵanyawo. Pa 22 Juni, chifukwa cha kuleka urunji kwa ndondomeko iyi na kukana kunjilirapo pa "ntchito ya nkhaza, yautesi", Tsvangirai wakafumapo pa chigamulo cha pulezidenti, komiti ya vyakusankha yikachitiska chigamulo ichi, ndipo pulezidenti Mugabe wakapokera wanandi chomene. Chipani cha MDC-T chikapokapo yayi mavoti gha Senate, apo chipani cha MDC-M chikapokera mavoti ghankhondi mu Senate. Chipani cha MDC-M chikadodoliskika na ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵakaleka kuwungana. Pa 28 Epulero 2008, Tsvangirai na Mutambara ŵakapharazga pa ungano wa ŵapharazgi mu Johannesburg kuti magulu ghaŵiri gha MDC ghakolerananga, ndipo MDC yikaŵa na wanandi mu nyumba ya malango.<ref name="SABCre">{{cite web|url=http://www.sabcnews.com/africa/southern_africa/0,2172,168544,00.html |title=Zimbabwe's MDC factions reunite |access-date=13 February 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080502155226/http://www.sabcnews.com/africa/southern_africa/0%2C2172%2C168544%2C00.html |archive-date= 2 May 2008 }}, SABC News, 28 April 2008.</ref><ref name="Reunites">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7371823.stm|title=Opposition reunites in Zimbabwe|work=BBC News|date=28 April 2008|access-date=6 June 2012}}</ref> Tsvangirai wakayowoya kuti Mugabe wangalutilira yayi kuŵa pulezidenti usange palije wanandi wa ŵanthu mu nyumba ya malango. Pakati pa Seputembala 2008, pamanyuma pa kudumbiskana kwa nyengo yitali na ŵalongozgi ŵa South Africa na Mozambique, Mugabe na Tsvangirai ŵakasayina phangano la kugaŵikana mazaza umo Mugabe wakasungiliranga mazaza pa ŵasilikari. Vyaru ivyo vyapeleka ndalama vikulindilira dankha, ndipo vikukhumba kuwona kuti vinthu vyasintha nadi pambere vindaŵikeko ndalama zakovwilira kuzenga, izo vikwenera kuti vyatora vilimika vinkhondi. Pa 11 February 2009 Tsvangirai wakapika udindo wa nduna yikuru na Mugabe.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Services|first=Msnbc com News|date=2009-02-11|title=Tsvangirai sworn in as Zimbabwe's PM|url=http://www.nbcnews.com/id/29134750/ns/world_news-africa/t/tsvangirai-sworn-zimbabwes-pm/|access-date=2020-07-10|website=msnbc.com|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Tsvangirai sworn in as Zimbabwe PM - CNN.com|url=http://www.cnn.com/2009/WORLD/africa/02/11/zimbabwe/|access-date=2020-07-10|website=www.cnn.com}}</ref> Mu Novembala 2008, boma la Zimbabwe likagwiliskira ntchito ndalama zakukwana madola 7.3 miliyoni gha ku United States izo zikafuma ku The Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria. Wimiliri wa wupu uwu wakakana kuyowoya umo ndalama zikagwilira nchito, kweni wakalemba kuti zikaŵa zawakawaka yayi, ndipo boma likatondeka kupulikira ivyo likapempha. Mu February 2013, mulongozgi wa vyakusankha wa Zimbabwe, Simpson Mtambanengwe, wakaleka ntchito chifukwa cha ulwari. Iyo wakaleka mulimo uwu pambere pacali myezi yichoko waka kuti paŵe maungano gha malango na maungano gha boma. Boma la Zimbabwe likususkika na boma la Zimbabwe ilo likapoka mazaza mu Novembala 2017. Emmerson Mnangagwa wakasankhika kuŵa purezidenti pamanyuma pa chipani ichi ndipo wakasankhika na 50.8% ya mavoti mu 2018 Zimbabwean general election. Boma likupokera mazgu ghambura kwenelera kufuma ku ŵanthu chifukwa chakuti nyengo zose likujara Intaneti pa nyengo ya viwawa nga ni ivyo vikunozgekera pa Julayi 31. 2020.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Shiangala|first=Mike|date=2020-07-31|title=Zimbabwe to allegedly shutdown the Internet on 31st July|url=https://smattgeeksmedia.com/news/zimbabwe-to-allegedly-shutdown-the-internet-on-31st-july/|access-date=2020-07-31|website=Smatt Geeks Media|language=en-US}}</ref> === Wankhondo === {{Main|Zimbabwe Defence Forces}} [[File:Flag of the Zimbabwe Defence Forces.svg|thumb|The flag of the [[Zimbabwe Defence Forces]]]] Gulu la Zimbabwe Defence Forces likakhazikiskika pakukolerana magulu ghatatu gha chigaluka - Zimbabwe African National Liberation Army (ZANLA), Zimbabwe People's Revolutionary Army (ZIPRA), na Rhodesian Security Forces (RSF) - pamanyuma pa Chimurenga wachiŵiri na wanangwa wa Zimbabwe mu 1980. Mu nyengo ya umoza, gulu la nkhondo la Zimbabwe National Army (ZNA) na Air Force of Zimbabwe (AFZ) likapangika nga ni maboma ghakupambanapambana agho ghakalongozgekanga na Jenerale Solomon Mujuru na Air Marshal Norman Walsh, uyo wakafumapo mu ntchito mu 1982 ndipo wakasinthika na Air Marshal Azim Daudpota uyo wakapeleka mazaza kwa Air Chief Marshal Josiah Tungamirai mu 1985. Mu 2003, Jenerale Constantine Chiwenga, wakakwezgeka na kusankhika Mulara wa mawumba gha Zimbabwe Defence Forces. Mulara Mukuru P. V. Sibanda ndiyo wakanjira mu malo ghake pakuŵa Mulongozgi wa ŵasilikari. Gulu la ZNA lili na ŵasilikari 30,000. Ŵasilikari ŵa nkhondo ŵakuŵapo 5,139.<ref name="Airforce of Zimbabwe">{{cite web|url=http://www.zimbabwedefence.com/AFZ0.html|title=Zimbabwe Defence Forces News|publisher=ZDF News|access-date=17 April 2009}}</ref> Wapolisi wa Republic of Zimbabwe (wakusazgapo Police Support Unit, Paramilitary Police) ndi chigaŵa cha Zimbabwe Defence Forces ndipo wali na ŵanthu 25,000. Pakwamba kwa 1980, ŵaliska ŵa ku Britain ndiwo ŵakalongozganga gulu la ŵasilikari ŵa ku Rhodesia. Mu cilimika cakwamba, ŵakalondezganga ndondomeko yakuti uyo wacitenge makora comene ndiyo waŵe mulongozgi wa gulu. Usange wakaŵa wa ZANLA, munthu uyo wakaŵa wachiŵiri kwa iyo ndiyo wakaŵa na maluso ghapachanya pa ZIPRA. Ivi vikawovwira kuti paŵe mtende pakati pa magulu ghaŵiri agha. Pakwamba, ZNA yikaŵa na magulu ghanayi gha ŵasilikari. Gulu la ŵasilikari ŵakovwira ŵasilikari aŵa ŵakaŵa ŵaluso ŵa mu gulu la ŵasilikari ŵa ku Rhodesia, apo ŵasilikari ŵa mu gulu la ŵasilikari ŵa ku Rhodesia ŵakaŵikika mu gulu la ŵasilikari 1, 3 na 4. Brigade ya Cinkhondi yikapangika mu 1981 ndipo yikamara mu 1988 pamanyuma pakulongosora za nkhaza na kukoma ŵanthu pa nyengo iyo brigade iyi yikawusanga Matabeleland mu malo agho ghakachemekanga Gukurahundi. Gulu ili likapangikaso mu 2006, ndipo mulara wake, Brigadier General John Mupande wakalumba "mbiri yake".<ref name="Herald Reporter">{{cite news|url=http://www.zimbabwedefence.com/News_5th_Gets_Comm.html|publisher=Zimbabwe Defence Forces News|title=5th Brigade gets new commander|date=22 February 2006|access-date=18 April 2009}}</ref> ===Ufulu wamunthu=== {{Main|Human rights in Zimbabwe}} {{See also|Child marriage in Zimbabwe}} [[File:Demonstration against Mugabe.JPG|thumb|right|A demonstration in [[London]] against [[Robert Mugabe]]. Protests are discouraged by Zimbabwean police in Zimbabwe.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2008/12/03/2437229.htm|title=Police baton charge Harare protesters|date=3 December 2008|work=ABC News}}</ref>]] Pali malipoti ghanandi ghakulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵakuswa wanangwa wa ŵanthu mu Zimbabwe mu nyengo ya muwuso wa Mugabe na chipani cha ZANU-PF. Kuyana na mawupu ghakuvikilira wanangwa wa ŵanthu nga ni Amnesty International na Human Rights Watch, boma la Zimbabwe likuswa wanangwa wa ŵanthu wa kukhala, kurya, kwenda na kukhala mwakufwatuka, kuwungana mwakufwatuka, na kuvikilirika na dango. Mu 2009, Gregory Stanton, pulezidenti wa International Association of Genocide Scholars, wakayowoya kuti pakaŵa "ukaboni wakuti boma la Mugabe likaŵa na mulandu wa kuswa malango gha ŵanthu ndipo pakaŵa ukaboni wakukwana wa kuswa malango gha ŵanthu kuti Mugabe weruzgike panthazi pa khoti la International Criminal Court". Ku Zimbabwe, ŵanalume awo ŵakugonana ŵanalume ŵekhaŵekha mbambura kuzomerezgeka. Kwambira mu 1995, boma likulimbana na ŵanalume na ŵanakazi awo ŵakugonana na ŵanalume ŵanyawo. Pulezidenti Mugabe wakususka ŵanthu awo ŵakugonana ŵanalume panji ŵanakazi ŵekhaŵekha chifukwa cha masuzgo ghanandi agho Zimbabwe yili nagho ndipo wakuwona kuti ŵanthu awo ŵakugonana ŵanalume panji ŵanakazi ŵekhaŵekha ni ŵanthu "ŵambura kuzomerezgeka ku Africa" ndiposo kuti mbambura nkharo. Nyengo zinandi ŵapolisi ŵakuwukira awo ŵakuwukira boma, nga umo ŵakacitira pa ungano wa MDC uwo ukacitika pa Malichi 11, 2007, kweniso pa ungano unyake uwo ukacitika pa nyengo ya ungano wa 2008. Secretary General wa UN Ban Ki-moon, European Union, na United States ŵakususka comene ivyo ŵapolisi ŵakucita. Kweniso ŵanthu ŵakudandawura chifukwa cha wanangwa wa Fox Southwest. Boma la Zimbabwe likususkika kuti likukanizga wanangwa wa kuyowoya. Gulu ili likuyuyulika kanandi waka kuti likugwiliskira nchito wupu wa Zimbabwe Broadcasting Corporation. Manyuzipepara agho ghakatenge ghakususka boma, nga ni Daily News, ghakajalika pamanyuma pakuti mabomba ghaphulika mu maofesi ghawo ndipo boma likakana kuwezgerapo layisensi yawo. BBC News, Sky News, na CNN ŵakakanizgika kujambura panji kulemba nkhani kufuma ku Zimbabwe. Mu 2009, boma likawuskapo dango lakuti BBC na CNN vileke kulemba nkhani. Sky News yikulutilira kulemba ivyo vikucitika mu Zimbabwe kufuma ku vyaru vyapafupi nga ni South Africa.<ref name="networks">{{cite news|author=Nkosi, Milton|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/newswatch/ukfs/hi/newsid_4400000/newsid_4401700/4401767.stm|title=Why did Zimbabwe ban the BBC?|work=BBC News|date=1 April 2005|access-date=6 June 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://zimbabwemetro.com/2008/06/22/al-jazeera-kicked-out-of-zimbabwe |archive-url=https://archive.today/20080623173259/http://zimbabwemetro.com/2008/06/22/al-jazeera-kicked-out-of-zimbabwe |archive-date=23 June 2008 |title=Al Jazeera kicked out of Zimbabwe |url-status=dead |access-date=1 June 2016 }}, zimbabwemetro.com, 22 June 2008.</ref> Pa 24 Julayi 2020, ofesi ya United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) yikayowoya kuti yikudandawura na ivyo boma la Zimbabwe likuyowoya kuti likagwiliskira ntchito suzgo la COVID-19 kuti likanizge wanangwa wa kuyowoya na kuwungana mu msewu. Liz Throssell, muyowoyeri wa OHCHR, wakati ŵanthu ŵali na wanangwa wa kususka vimbundi. Ŵalara ŵa boma ku Zimbabwe ŵakagwiliskira nchito nkongono kuti ŵaparanye na kukora ŵasilikari na ŵantchito ŵa munkhwala, awo ŵakasuskanga mwamtende kuti ŵapike malipiro ghawemi ndiposo kuti ŵagwirenge makora nchito. Malipoti ghakulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵacoko waka ŵa chipani cakususkana na nyuzipepara ŵakakakika na kukakika cifukwa ca kucitako viyezgelero. Pa 5 August 2020, kampeni ya #ZimbabweanLivesMatter pa Twitter yikawovwira ŵanthu ŵakumanyikwa pa charu chose na ŵandyali kuti ŵamanye umo wanangwa wa ŵanthu ukusinthira mu charu ichi, ndipo ivi vikapangiska kuti boma la Emmerson Mnangagwa liŵe na suzgo. Kampeni iyi yikacitika cifukwa ca kukakika, kukomeka na kutambuzgika kwa ŵanthu awo ŵakasuzganga ŵandyali, kweniso kukakika kwa mupharazgi Hopewell Chin'ono na mulembi wa buku la Booker Prize, Tsitsi Dangarembga.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2020/aug/05/zimbabweanlivesmatter-celebrities-join-campaign-against-human-rights-abuses|title=#ZimbabweanLivesMatter: celebrities join campaign against human rights abuses|access-date=5 August 2020|website=The Guardian|date=5 August 2020}}</ref> ===Administrative divisions=== {{Main|Provinces of Zimbabwe|Districts of Zimbabwe|Wards of Zimbabwe}} [[File:Administrative Divisions of Zimbabwe.svg|upright=1.35|thumb|right|[[Provinces of Zimbabwe|Administrative divisions of Zimbabwe]]]] Charu cha Zimbabwe chili na boma lakugaŵikana ndipo chili na vigaŵa 8 na misumba yiŵiri. Chigaŵa chilichose chili na msumba ukuru uwo boma likuwusamo.<ref name="CIA-WF"/> {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" |- ! Province !! Capital |- | [[Bulawayo]] || [[Bulawayo]] |- | [[Harare]] || [[Harare]] |- | [[Manicaland]] || [[Mutare]] |- | [[Mashonaland Central]] || [[Bindura]] |- | [[Mashonaland East]] || [[Marondera]] |- | [[Mashonaland West]] || [[Chinhoyi]] |- | [[Masvingo Province|Masvingo]] || [[Masvingo|Masvingo city]] |- | [[Matabeleland North]] || [[Lupane District]] |- | [[Matabeleland South]] || [[Gwanda]] |- | [[Midlands Province|Midlands]] || [[Gweru]] |} Mazina gha vigaŵa vinandi ghakafuma ku chigaŵa cha Mashonaland na Matabeleland pa nyengo iyo ŵanthu ŵakakhalanga mu vigaŵa ivi: Mashonaland yikaŵa chigaŵa icho chikakoleka na British South Africa Company Pioneer Column, ndipo Matabeleland yikaŵa chigaŵa icho chikapokeka pa Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Matabele. Ichi chikukolerana na chigaŵa icho ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Shona na Matabele ŵakakhalanga pambere charu chindambe kuwusa. Chigaŵa chilichose chili na kazembe uyo wakuchemeka na pulezidenti. Boma la cigaŵa likulongozgeka na mulaŵiliri wa cigaŵa, uyo wakusankhika na Commission of Public Service. Maofesi ghanyake gha boma gha vigaŵa vyawo ghakuchita milimo yinyake. Vigaŵa ivi vili kugaŵika vigaŵa 59 na vigaŵa 1,200 (ivyo nyengo zinyake vikuchemeka maboma). Chigaŵa chilichose chikulongozgeka na mulongozgi wa chigaŵa, uyo wakusankhika na Public Service Commission. Paliso wupu wa Rural District Council, uwo ukusora mulara wa boma. Wupu wa Rural District Council ukupangika na ŵanthu ŵakusoleka, mulaŵiliri wa chigaŵa, na mwimiliri wa ŵalongozgi (ŵalongozgi awo ŵakwimikika mwakuyana na dango la cikaya) mu chigaŵa. Maofesi ghanyake gha boma gha mu vigaŵa ghakuchita milimo iyi. Pa chigaŵa ichi pali Komiti Yakupanga Vipinda, iyo yikusazgapo mulongozgi wa chigaŵa uyo wakusankhika, ŵalongozgi ŵa vigaŵa (ŵalongozgi awo ŵakulongozgeka na ŵalongozgi) na ŵimiliri ŵa Komiti Yakupanga Vipinda. Vigaŵa ivi vili kugaŵika mu mizi, ndipo chigaŵa chilichose chili na komiti ya chitukuko ya mizi na mulongozgi.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.parlzim.gov.zw/attachments/article/116/TRADITIONAL_LEADERS_ACT_29_17.pdf|title=Traditional Leaders Act (Chapter 29:17)|publisher=Parliament of Zimbabwe|access-date=19 December 2008|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150904033010/http://www.parlzim.gov.zw/attachments/article/116/TRADITIONAL_LEADERS_ACT_29_17.pdf|archive-date=4 September 2015}}</ref> == Sanctions == Kwambira mu 2000, charu cha Zimbabwe chili pasi pa vyeruzgo vyakufuma ku United States na European Union ivyo vyakhwaska ndyali ya mu charu ichi kweniso ubwezi wa charu ichi na vyaru vya ku Western. Mu 2002, ku Zimbabwe kukaŵa maungano gha chigaŵa, ndipo pambere maungano agha ghandambe, wupu wa EU ukatuma ŵanthu kuti ŵakawonelere. Mu Febuluwale 2002, EU yikaŵika malango ghakukanizga Zimbabwe. Ŵalara ŵa boma pafupifupi 20 ŵakakanizgika kunjira mu Europe, ndipo ndalama za EU zikamara. Pambere mavoti ghandambe, boma la Zimbabwe likapeleka ndalama zakukwana madola 128 miliyoni kufuma mu 2002 m'paka mu 2007, kweni ŵakazikanizga. Ndipouli, EU yikathera waka kupeleka ndalama ku boma, kweni yikalutilira kutuma ndalama kwizira mu mawupu gha wovwiri na mawupu gha boma yayi. Pakati pajumpha vilimika vicoko waka, ŵa EU na Zimbabwe ŵakamazga mphindano zawo ndipo vyeruzgo vinandi vya EU vikafumiskika. Mubali Mugabe na muwoli wake ndiwo ŵakakhalapo pa ndondomeko iyi, apo ŵamazaza ŵanyake ŵa boma ŵakafumiskikapo. Ndipouli, EU yikatondeka kupeleka ndalama ku Zimbabwe. Ntheura, boma likupeleka ndalama kwizira mu mawupu ghambura vya boma nga ni umo vikaŵira na chimphepo cha Idai icho chikachitika pa Malichi 4, 2019. Boma la United States nalo likakanizga Zimbabwe. Pali mitundu yiŵiri ya vyeruzgo vya United States pa Zimbabwe. Cakwamba ni Zimbabwe Democracy and Economic Recovery Act (ZIDERA) ndipo caciŵiri ni Targeted Sanctions Program. ZIDERA wakapempha vinthu vinandi. Cakwamba nchakuti Zimbabwe yikwenera kuchindika wanangwa wa ŵanthu, caciŵiri Zimbabwe yikwenera kuleka kunjilirapo pa vinthu vya mu Democratic Republic of Congo, cacitatu Zimbabwe yikwenera kuleka kupoka minda ya ŵazungu. Usange palije cimoza mwa vinthu ivi ico cikupulikikwa, boma la United States lizamukanizga IMF na World Bank kupeleka ndalama ku Zimbabwe. ZIDERA yiphya yikamba kugwira ntchito mu 2018 na fundo yakuti, Welerani ku Demokalase panji kuzamuŵavya ubwezi, pakwenera kuŵa mavoti ghakufwatuka, wayilesi yakufwatuka na wanangwa wa ŵanthu, Zimbabwe yikwenera kufiska ivyo khoti la SADC likadumura. Ndondomeko ya Malango ya ku Zimbabwe yikamba kugwira ntchito mu 2003, ndipo yikulongosora makampani gha ku Zimbabwe na ŵanthu awo ŵakukanizgika kuchita malonda na makampani gha ku America. Malango gha pa Zimbabwe ghalipo kwa virimika vyakujumpha 20. Mu Malichi 2021 boma la US likakhazikiskaso malango ghakwendeskera Zimbabwe.<ref name=":11">{{Cite web |title=Zimbabwe |url=https://www.europeansanctions.com/region/zimbabwe/ |access-date=2021-11-14 |website=EU Sanctions |language=en-GB}}</ref> ==Chuma== {{Main|Economy of Zimbabwe}}[[File:GDP per capita development in Southern Africa.svg|thumb|Historical GDP per capita development in southern African countries, since 1950]] [[File:Zimbabwe Product Exports (2019).svg|thumb|right|A proportional representation of Zimbabwe exports, 2019]] Vinthu vikuru ivyo Zimbabwe yikuguliska ku vyaru vinyake ni visulo, golide, na ulimi. Charu cha Zimbabwe ndico nchigaŵa cikuru comene ico South Africa yikuguliskirana vinthu. Malipiro gha msonkho na msonkho ni ghapacanya comene ku makampani gha ŵeneco, apo mabungwe gha boma ghakovwira comene. Malamulo gha boma ghakuŵa ghakudura comene ku makampani; kwamba panji kujara bizinesi kukucitika mwakucedwa ndiposo kwakudura. Ulendo nawo ukuwovwira comene pa vya cuma, kweni mu vyaka vyasonosono apa ukuchepa. Wupu wa Zimbabwe Conservation Task Force ukalemba lipoti mu Juni 2007, ndipo ukati vyamoyo vinandi vya ku Zimbabwe vyafwa kufuma mu 2000 chifukwa cha kupenja vinyama mwakubisilizga. Lipoti ili likucenjezga kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakufwa cifukwa ca kuthereska makuni. Vinthu vya sayansi na vyakupharazga vikukura comene. Lipoti la kampani ya Opera mu 2011 likati charu cha Zimbabwe ndicho chikukura luŵiro chomene mu Africa.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20191225071548/https://www.biztechafrica.com/article/zimbabwe-ranked-fastest-growing-internet-market/1007/ Zimbabwe Ranked Fastest growing Internet Market]. Biztechafrica.com (10 August 2011); retrieved 4 July 2013.</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20200116235301/https://www.biztechafrica.com/article/why-ict-critical-illiterate-africa/4841/ Why ICT is critical in 'illiterate' Africa|BiztechAfrica Business, Telecom, Technology & IT News Africa]. Biztechafrica.com (3 December 2012); retrieved 4 July 2013.</ref>[[File:2010 market Harare Zimbabwe 5866074969.jpg|thumb|A market in [[Mbare, Harare]]]] Kwambira mu Janyuwale 2002, boma la Zimbabwe lalekeska ngongoli izo likapeleka ku mabungwe gha vya ndalama gha pa caru cose, kwizira mu dango la ku United States lakucemeka Zimbabwe Democracy and Economic Recovery Act of 2001 (ZDERA). Chigaŵa cha 4C chikuphalira Secretary of the Treasury kuti waphalire mabungwe gha vya ndalama gha pa caru cose kuti ghatondeke kupeleka ngongoli ku boma la Zimbabwe. Kuyana na umo boma la United States likuyowoyera, vyeruzgo ivi vikukhwaska waka mabizinesi ghankhondi na ghaŵiri agho ghali mu mawoko gha ŵalara ŵa boma panji agho ghakwendeskeka na iwo. GDP pa munthu yumoza (uno), pakuyaniska na vyaru vyapafupi (pacharu chose = 100) Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1980, Zimbabwe yikalutilira kukura (5% pa chaka) kweniso mu vyaka vya m'ma 1990 (4,3% pa chaka). Kufumira mu 2000, ciŵelengero ca ndalama cikakhira na 5 peresenti mu 2000, 8 peresenti mu 2001, 12 peresenti mu 2002 na 18 peresenti mu 2003. Pakuti charu cha Zimbabwe chikachitako nkhondo mu charu cha Democratic Republic of the Congo kufuma mu 1998 m'paka mu 2002, ndalama zinandi zikamara. Kwamba mu 1999 m'paka mu 2009, Zimbabwe yikaŵa na chuma chambura kukura chomene, ndipo chaka chilichose GDP yikakhiranga na 6.1%. Vinthu vikasintha chomene chifukwa cha vimbundi na vimbundi ivyo vikachitika mu boma kweniso chifukwa chakuti ŵakachimbizga ŵalimi ŵatuŵa ŵakujumpha 4,000 mu 2000.<ref name="CNN-2000-04-18">{{cite web|url=http://archives.cnn.com/2000/WORLD/africa/04/18/zimbabwe.land.03 |title=Zimbabwe President Mugabe labels white farmers 'enemies' |access-date=20 September 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060629014621/http://archives.cnn.com/2000/WORLD/africa/04/18/zimbabwe.land.03 |archive-date=29 June 2006 |website=CNN.com |date=18 April 2000 |location=Harare, Zimbabwe}}</ref><ref name="Time-2002-02-18">Robinson, Simon (18 February 2002). [https://web.archive.org/web/20191018164842/http://content.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,203620,00.html "A Tale of Two Countries"], ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]''; accessed 4 May 2016.</ref><ref name="USAToday-2002-06-24">{{cite news|url=https://www.usatoday.com/news/world/2002/06/25/zimbabwe.htm|title=Zimbabwe forbids white farmers to harvest|work=USA Today|date=24 June 2002|access-date=6 June 2012}}</ref><ref name="BBC-2002-08-15">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/2192947.stm|title=White farmers under siege in Zimbabwe|work=BBC News|date=15 August 2002|access-date=6 June 2012|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120106120323/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/2192947.stm |archive-date=6 January 2012}}</ref> Boma la Zimbabwe na ŵanthu awo ŵakukolerana nalo ŵakukhozgera kuti ndyali za ku vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi ndizo zikananga chuma cha charu ichi. Kuzakafika mu 2005, nkhongono zakugulira za ŵanthu ŵa ku Zimbabwe zikaŵa kuti zachepa chomene. Mu 2005, boma, ilo likalongozgekanga na Gideon Gono, uyo wakaŵa kazembe wa banki yikuru, likamba kupempha kuti ŵalimi ŵazgoke. Mu caru ici mukaŵa viŵeto vya viŵeto 400 mpaka 500, kweni malo ghanandi agho ghakapokeka ghakaŵa ghambura vyakurya. Kuzakafika mu 2016, pa minda 4,500 iyo yikaŵa mu charu ichi, yikaŵa na minda pafupifupi 300 iyo yikaŵa ya ŵanichi. Mafamu agho ghakafumako ghakaŵa ghakutali comene, panji ŵeneco ŵakalipira kuti ŵaŵavikilire, panji ŵakakolerana na boma. Mu Janyuwale 2007, boma likapeleka ndalama zakugulira munda kwa nyengo yitali ku ŵalimi ŵanyake ŵazungu. Kweni nyengo yeneyiyo, boma likalutilira kukhumba kuti ŵalimi wose ŵazungu awo ŵakaŵa kuti ŵapokera kale ulongozgi wakuti ŵafumemo mu malo ghawo, ŵafumemo mu malo ghawo. Mugabe wakalongosora za maboma gha vyaru vinyake na kuyowoya kuti "kuswa malango" ndiko kukapangiska kuti chuma cha Zimbabwe chikhale pasi, kweniso kuti ŵanthu 80 pa 100 ŵalije nchito. Kuyana na lipoti la Central Statistical Office, unandi wa ndalama ukakwera kufuma pa 32% mu 1998 kufika pa 11,200,000% mu Ogasiti 2008. Ici cikaŵa cilongolero ca suzgo la kukhuŵara kwa ndalama, ndipo banki yikapeleka ndalama ziphya zakukwana madola mabiliyoni 100. Mu Janyuwale 2009, pakuyezgayezga kuti ŵaleke kunjira ndyali, Patrick Chinamasa, uyo wakaŵa nduna ya vya ndalama, wakapharazga kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Zimbabwe ŵazomerezgekenge kugwiliskira ntchito ndalama zinyake zakukhora pakuchita bizinesi. Mu April 2009, ndalama ya ku Zimbabwe yikamara kugwira ntchito mu mwezi umoza. Mu 2016, charu cha Zimbabwe chikapeleka ndalama za United States dollar na ndalama zinyake nga ni rand (South Africa), pula (Botswana), euro, na pound sterling (UK). Mu Febuluwale 2019, Governor wa Reserve Bank of Zimbabwe John Mangudya wakambiska ndalama yiphya ya Real Time Gross Settlement dollar, mu chilato cha kumazga masuzgo gha vyachuma na ndalama mu Zimbabwe. Mu 2009, boma la Zimbabwe likati lakhazikiska boma la umoza na kwamba kugwiliskira ntchito ndalama zinandi m'malo mwa dola ya Zimbabwe, chuma cha charu ichi chikambaso kwenda makora. Pakati pa 2009 na 2012, GDP yikakura na 8-9% pa caka. Mu Novembala 2010, wupu wakuwona vya ndalama pa charu chose (IMF) ukati chuma cha charu cha Zimbabwe "chikukura chomene chaka chachiŵiri".<ref>{{cite news|url=https://af.reuters.com/article/topNews/idAFJOE6A70C320101108|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101111042949/http://af.reuters.com/article/topNews/idAFJOE6A70C320101108|url-status=dead|archive-date=11 November 2010|title=Zimbabwe economy buoyant, more reform needed: IMF|date=8 November 2010|work=Reuters}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.talkzimbabwe.com/zimbabwe-economy-growing-imf-cms-884|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101112194941/http://www.talkzimbabwe.com/zimbabwe-economy-growing-imf-cms-884|archive-date=12 November 2010|publisher=talkzimbabwe.co|title=Zimbabwe economy growing: IMF|date=9 November 2010}}</ref> Mu Febuluwale 2011, wupu wa pan-African investment bank IMARA ukalemba lipoti lakukondweska pa nkhani ya ndalama izo Zimbabwe yikuguliska. Mu Janyuwale 2013, unduna wa vya ndalama ukati ŵali na ndalama zakukwana madola 217 pera. Kufika mu 2014, Zimbabwe yikaweleraso ku mlingo uwo ukaŵa mu ma 1990, kweni pakati pa 2012 na 2016, vinthu vikamba kwenda makora yayi. Kukwera kwa ndalama kunali 42% mu 2018; mu June 2019, chiwerengero cha kukwera kwa ndalama chinafika 175%, zomwe zinayambitsa chisokonezo chachikulu m'dziko lonselo.<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Marima |first1=Tendai |date=19 August 2019 |title=In Zimbabwe, An Economic Crisis With 175% Inflation Drives Discontent |language=en |website=NPR.org |url=https://www.npr.org/2019/08/19/752329758/in-zimbabwe-an-economic-crisis-with-175-inflation-drives-discontent |access-date=20 August 2019}}</ref> === Malibwe ghakudula === Vinthu vikwenda makora mu migodi iyi, ndipo mabungwe gha Anglo American plc, Zimplats, na Impala Platinum, ndigho ghakusanga platinamu unandi chomene pa charu chose. Zimplats, kampani yikuru chomene ya platinamu mu charu ichi, yaluta panthazi na ndalama zakukwana madola 500 miliyoni, ndipo yikulutilira na pulojekiti yinyake ya madola mabiliyoni ghaŵiri, nangauli Mugabe wakakhumbanga kuti kampani iyi yiŵe ya boma. Malibwe agha ŵakaghasanga mu 2006, ndipo ghakumanyikwa kuti ndigho ghakaŵa ghakuru comene mu vyaka vyakujumpha 100. Vinthu ivi vingawovwira kuti vinthu viŵe makora mu charu, kweni pafupifupi ndalama zose izo zikufuma mu vyaru ivi zili kutayika mu mathumba gha ŵasilikari na ŵandyali ŵa ZANU-PF. Kuyana na unandi wa dayamondi izo zilipo, malo gha Marange ni ghanyake mwa malo ghakurughakuru chomene pa charu. Mu Okutobala 2014, kampani ya Metallon Corporation ndiyo yikaŵa yikuru chomene ku Zimbabwe.<ref name="Metallon">Marawanyika, Godfrey, [https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2014-10-17/biggest-zimbabwe-gold-miner-to-decide-on-london-listing-by-march Biggest Zimbabwe Gold Miner to Rule on London Trade by March], Bloomberg News, 17 October 2014. Retrieved 3 August 2016.</ref> {{Further|topic=tin from the|Kamativi mine}} ===Ulimi=== Mulimo wa kulima mu caru ca Zimbabwe ndiwo ukupeleka ndalama zinandi ku vyaru vinyake ndipo ukupeleka nchito 400,000. Ndipouli, ndondomeko ya boma ya kunozga malo yikananga comene nchito iyi, ndipo Zimbabwe yikazgoka caru ico cikuguliska vyakurya vinandi. Mwaciyelezgero, pakati pa 2000 na 2016, vyakurya ivyo vikupambika tirigu vikakhira kufuma pa matani 250,000 kufika pa matani 60,000, ndipo tirigu wakakhira kufuma pa matani 200,000 kufika pa matani 500,000. Mu 2000, ŵanthu ŵazungu ŵakakora panji kupoka minda yawo ya khofi, ndipo pamasinda ŵakayima. Vyaka 10 ivyo vyajumpha, wupu wa International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics, wawovwira ŵalimi ŵa ku Zimbabwe kuti ŵambe kulima makora. Para ŵalimi ŵakugwiliskira ntchito fundo zitatu izi: kusuzga chomene dongo, kulima vyakumera vyakudinya, na kulima vyakumera vyakututuŵa, mbwenu dongo likwenda makora, kunangika yayi, na kunangika.<ref>{{Cite web|title={{!}}{{!}} ICRISAT {{!}}{{!}} Impact|url=http://www.icrisat.org/impacts/impact-stories/Icrisat-impacts-27.htm|access-date=2022-02-23|website=www.icrisat.org}}</ref> Pakati pa 2005 na 2011, chiŵelengero cha ŵalimi ŵachokoŵachoko awo ŵakulima mu charu cha Zimbabwe chikakwera kufuma pa 5,000 kufika pa 150,000. Vipambi vya vyamuminda vikakwera pakati pa 15 na 100 peresentPakati pa 2005 na 2011, chiŵelengero cha ŵalimi ŵachokoŵachoko awo ŵakulima mu charu cha Zimbabwe chikakwera kufuma pa 5,000 kufika pa 150,000. Vipambi vya vyamuminda vikakwera pakati pa 15 na 100 peresenti mu vigaŵa vyakupambanapambana. Mu 2012, boma likati mbuto ya mbuto iyi njakukhumbikwa chomene. Mvurwi, cigaŵa ca ku Mashonaland Central Province, nyengo yinyake cikaŵa mu "cigaŵa ca vyakurya vinandi" mu Zimbabwe, na dongo liwemi. Ndipouli, mu vyaka 30 ivyo vyajumpha, malo agha ndigho ghakhwaskika comene na ndondomeko ya kunozga malo. ===Tourism=== {{Main|Tourism in Zimbabwe}} [[File:Victoria Falls aerial view September 2003.jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|[[Victoria Falls]], the end of the upper [[Zambezi]] and the beginning of the middle Zambezi]] Kufuma waka apo ŵakaŵikirapo ndondomeko ya kunozga malo mu 2000, vyalo vya ŵanthu ŵakwendakwenda mu Zimbabwe vikamba kuchepa. Mu 2018, chiŵelengero cha ŵalendo chikafika pa 2.6 miliyoni. Mu chaka cha 2016, ndalama zose izo ŵanthu ŵakwendakwenda ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito ku Zimbabwe zikaŵanga $1.1 billion (USD), panji pafupifupi 8.1% ya GDP ya Zimbabwe. Ntchito za mu vyaru vya maulendo na vyakusanguluska, pamoza na vyaru ivyo vikovwira na maulendo na vyakusanguluska, vikaŵa 5.2% ya nchito za mu vyaru vyose. Pakati pa 2000 na 2007, ndege zinandi zikafumamo mu Zimbabwe. Kampani ya Qantas ya ku Australia, Lufthansa ya ku Germany, na Austrian Airlines ndiyo yikaŵa yakwamba kufumamo ndipo mu 2007 British Airways yikayimiska maulendo ghose ghakuluta ku Harare. Ndege ya ku Zimbabwe, iyo yikendanga mu vyaru vya ku Africa na vyaru vinyake ku Europe na Asia, yikamara kugwira ntchito mu Febuluwale 2012. Mu 2017, ndege zinandi zikuruzikuru zikambaso kwendera charu cha Zimbabwe. Ku Zimbabwe kuli malo ghanandi agho ŵanthu ŵakutemwa kuluta. Maji gha Victoria Falls, agho ghali pa mlonga wa Zambezi, ghali kumpoto ca kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Zimbabwe. Pambere vinthu vindasinthe, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakalutanga ku malo agha kufuma ku Zimbabwe, kweni sono Zambia ndiyo yikusangirapo chandulo chomene. Victoria Falls National Park nayo yili mu cigaŵa ici ndipo njimoza mwa malo ghankhondi na ghatatu agho ghali mu Zimbabwe. Malo gha ku Eastern Highlands ni mapiri agho ghali pafupi na mphaka na Mozambique. Phiri la Nyangani ilo lili pachanya chomene ku Zimbabwe lili pa mtunda wa mamita 2,593 (8,507 ft). Malo agha ndigho ghali pa mapiri agha, ndipo kufuma pa mapiri agha, munthu wangawona malo ghakutali chomene. Charu cha Zimbabwe ntchakuzizwiska chomene mu Africa chifukwa chili na misumba yinandi yakale na yakale iyo yikazengeka na malibwe ghakukhoma. Vinyake mwa malo agha ni malo ghakupatulika gha Great Zimbabwe agho ghali ku Masvingo. Vinyake ivyo vilipo ni Khami, Dhlo-Dhlo na Naletale. Mapiri gha Matobo ni malo gha granite kopjes na makuni agho ghakwamba makilomita 35 kumwera kwa Bulawayo kumwera kwa Zimbabwe. Mapiri agha ghakaŵako vyaka vyakujumpha mabiliyoni ghaŵiri ivyo vyajumpha apo malibwe gha granite ghakafumanga pa malo agha. Mzilikazi, uyo wakambiska mtundu wa Ndebele, ndiyo wakapeleka zina ili ku malo agha. Ŵalendo ŵanandi ŵakwiza ku malo agha cifukwa ca umo malo agha ghakaŵirako kale comene kweniso vyamoyo vya mu malo agha. Cecil Rhodes na ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵakakhalanga ku malo agha nga ni Leander Starr Jameson ŵali kusungika mu mapiri agha.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://zimbabwe.safari.co.za/spirit-of-zimbabwe.html|title=Zimbabwe: The Spirit of Matobo|work=zimbabwe.safari.co.za|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131101100547/http://zimbabwe.safari.co.za/spirit-of-zimbabwe.html |archive-date=1 November 2013}}</ref> === Kupeleka maji na maji ghakumwa === {{Main|Water supply and sanitation in Zimbabwe}} Mu Zimbabwe muli vigaŵa vichoko waka ivyo vili na maji na vyakutoweskera ŵanthu. Wupu wa vyaumoyo pa charu chose (World Health Organization) ukati mu chaka cha 2012, 80% ya ŵanthu ŵa ku Zimbabwe ŵakaŵa na maji ghawemi ghakumwa, ndipo 40% pera ndiwo ŵakaŵa na maji ghakumwa. Mu vigaŵa vya ku mizi, ŵanthu ŵakutondeka kusanga maji ghawemi na malo ghakutowa. Pali vinthu vinandi ivyo vikupangiska kuti maji gha mu Zimbabwe ghaŵe ghakwenelera mu nyengo zakunthazi. Vinthu vikuruvikuru vitatu ni suzgo la ndalama mu charu ichi.<ref name="wsp1">{{cite web |year=2011 |title=Water Supply and Sanitation in Zimbabwe, Turning Finance into Services for 2015 and beyond |url=http://www.wsp.org/sites/wsp.org/files/publications/CSO-Zimbabwe.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200130142528/https://www.wsp.org/sites/wsp.org/files/publications/CSO-Zimbabwe.pdf |archive-date=30 January 2020 |access-date=4 May 2016 |website=wsp.org |publisher=[[AMCOW]] (collaboratively published report)}}</ref><ref name="hrw2">{{cite book|url=http://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/zimbabwe1113_forUpload_1.pdf |title=Troubled Water: Burst Pipes, Contaminated Wells, and Open Defecation in Zimbabwe's Capital |publisher=[[Human Rights Watch]] |website=hrw.org |year=2013 |isbn=978-1-62313-0800 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140830213700/http://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/zimbabwe1113_forUpload_1.pdf |archive-date=30 August 2014}}</ref> === Sayansi na vyakupangapanga === {{Main|Science and technology in Zimbabwe}} [[File:Life sciences and geosciences dominate, Cumulative totals by field, 2008–2014.svg|thumb|Scientific research output in terms of publications in Southern Africa, cumulative totals by field, 2008–2014. Source: UNESCO Science Report: towards 2030 (2015), figure 20.6.]] Boma la Zimbabwe lili na vinthu vinandi vyakukhumbikwa pa caru cose ndipo likulimbikira comene pa nkhani ya kafukufuku..<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|url=http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0022/002288/228806e.pdf|title=Mapping Research and Innovation in the Republic of Zimbabwe|editor-last=Lemarchand|editor-first=Guillermo A.|editor-last2=Schneegans|editor-first2=Susan|publisher=UNESCO|year=2014|isbn=978-92-3-100034-8|location=Paris|pages=Volume 2. GO–SPIN Profiles in Science, Technology and Innovation}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite book|url=http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0023/002354/235406e.pdf|title=UNESCO Science Report: towards 2030|publisher=UNESCO|year=2015|isbn=978-92-3-100129-1|location=Paris|pages=535–555}}</ref> Charu ichi chili na masambiro ghakupulikikwa makora, ndipo munthu yumoza pa ŵanthu 11 waliyose wali na digiri ya sekondare. Pakuti charu ichi chili na vinjeru vinandi kweniso vinthu vinandi vyakuthupi, charu cha Zimbabwe chili na mwaŵi ukuru wa kukura.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /> Charu cha Zimbabwe chili pa nambala 113 pa Global Innovation Index mu 2021, kufuma pa nambala 122 mu 2019.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Global Innovation Index 2021 |url=https://www.wipo.int/global_innovation_index/en/2021/|work=[[World Intellectual Property Organization]]|publisher=[[United Nations]]|access-date=2022-03-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Global Innovation Index 2019|url=https://www.wipo.int/global_innovation_index/en/2019/index.html|access-date=2021-09-02|website=www.wipo.int|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=RTD - Item|url=https://ec.europa.eu/newsroom/rtd/items/691898|access-date=2021-09-02|website=ec.europa.eu}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2013-10-28|title=Global Innovation Index|url=https://knowledge.insead.edu/entrepreneurship-innovation/global-innovation-index-2930|access-date=2021-09-02|website=INSEAD Knowledge|language=en|archive-date=2 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210902101622/https://knowledge.insead.edu/entrepreneurship-innovation/global-innovation-index-2930|url-status=dead}}</ref> Kuti Zimbabwe yikure makora, yikwenera kumazga masuzgo ghanyake. Mwaciyelezgero, caru ici cikusoŵerwa ŵasayansi awo ŵakukhumbikwa kuti ŵacite vinthu viphya. Nangauli pali vinthu vyakukhumbikwa kuti kafukufuku na vyakupangapanga viwovwire kuti vinthu vyendenge makora mu charu cha Zimbabwe, kweni masukulu ghapachanya na mabungwe gha kafukufuku ghalije ndalama na ŵanthu ŵakukwana kuti ŵachite kafukufuku. Masuzgo gha vyachuma ghapangiska kuti ŵana ŵa sukulu ŵa pa yunivesite na ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵafumemo mu vigaŵa vikuruvikuru (vyakuzenga, vyakupangira vinthu, na vinyake) ndipo ichi chikupangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵaleke kukondwa na ntchito yawo. Mu 2012, ŵana ŵa sukulu ŵakujumpha 22% ŵa ku Zimbabwe ŵakamalizga masambiro ghawo ku vyaru vinyake. Mu 2012, pakaŵa ŵasayansi 200 mu boma, ndipo pa ŵanthu aŵa, 25 pa ŵanthu 100 ŵakaŵa ŵanakazi. Chiŵelengero ichi ntchakukwana kaŵiri kuluska cha pa charu chose (91 mu 2013) kweni ni hafu ya chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu awo ŵakuchita kafukufuku mu South Africa (818 pa ŵanthu 1 miliyoni). Boma la Zimbabwe lazenga webusayiti ya Zimbabwe Human Capital kuti lipelekenge mauthenga ku ŵanthu ŵa ku Zimbabwe pa nkhani ya ntchito na ndalama.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /> [[File:Scientific publication trends in SADC countries, 2005-2014.svg|thumb|Scientific publication trends in the most productive SADC countries, 2005–2014. Source: UNESCO Science Report: towards 2030 (2015), data from Thomson Reuters' Web of Science, Science Citation Index Expanded.]] Nangauli ŵanthu ndiwo ŵakulongozga pa kafukufuku na vyakupanga vinthu vinyake, kweni mu ndondomeko ya nyengo yapakati ya 2011 na 2015, pakaŵavya ndondomeko yakukhwaskana na kusambizga masambiro gha ku yunivesite. Kuchepa kwa madokotala gha sayansi na injiniya kufuma ku yunivesite ya Zimbabwe mu 2013 kukulongora kuti ŵakutondeka.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /> Kweniso ndondomeko ya vyakuzenga ya 2018, iyo yikucemeka kuti Zimbabwe Agenda for Sustainable Economic Transformation, njambura vilato vyakukhwaskana na kusazgirako unandi wa ŵasayansi na mainjiniya, panji ivyo vikukhumbikwa pa mulimo wa kupanga vinthu. Kweniso, cifukwa ca kuleka kwenderana na kukolerana pakati pa mawupu gha boma, vyakuzirwa vya kafukufuku vikusazgikira comene ndipo ndondomeko izo zilipo sono zikufiskika makora yayi.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /> Ndondomeko Yachiŵiri ya vya Sayansi na Maluso ya mu charu ichi yikamba mu Juni 2012, pamanyuma pakuti yapangika na wovwiri wa UNESCO. Likutora malo gha ndondomeko yakale iyo yikaŵako mu 2002. Ndondomeko ya mu 2012 yikulaŵiska comene pa sayansi ya vyamoyo, sayansi ya vya mlengalenga, sayansi ya vinthu vya mu mlengalenga, sayansi ya vinthu vya mu mlengalenga (nanotechnology), masisitemu gha ŵanthu ŵa ku malo agha, vyamahara ivyo vicali kunthazi, na nthowa za sayansi zakumazgira masuzgo gha mu malo agho tikukhala. Ndondomeko Yachiŵiri ya Sayansi na Maluso gha Miphanyi yikukhozgera kuti boma lipelekenge ndalama zakukwana 1% ya GDP pa kafukufuku na vyakupangiska, ndipo 60% ya masambiro gha pa yunivesite ghaŵikenge pa kusambizga ŵanthu vya sayansi na vyakupangiska.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /> Mu 2014, ku Zimbabwe kukaŵa mabuku 21 pa ŵanthu 1 miliyoni mu manyuzipepara gha pa charu chose. Ivi vikapangiska kuti charu cha Zimbabwe chiŵe pa nambara 6 pa vyaru 15 vya SADC, pamanyuma pa Namibia (59), Mauritius (71), Botswana (103) na South Africa (175) na Seychelles (364). Pa ŵanthu 100 miliyoni mu vyaru vya kumwera kwa Sahara, ŵanthu 20 ŵakalemba mabuku ghakulongosora vya sayansi.<ref name=":1" /> == Ŵanthu == {{Main|Demographics of Zimbabwe}} === Mtundu wa ŵanthu === [[File:Tonga wall baskets producer from Zimbabwe.JPG|alt=Tonga Woman|thumb|upright|A Tonga woman pleating a basket]] Kuyana na lipoti la ŵanthu awo ŵakalembeka mu 2012, ŵanthu 99.7% ŵa mu charu ichi mba ku Africa. Ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakukhala mu chigaŵa ichi ni Ŵashona ndipo ŵalipo 82 peresenti. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Ndebele ŵali kufuma ku mafuko ghanyake agho ghakasama na kutorana na Ŵazulu. Mu vyaka vinkhondi ivyo vyajumpha, ŵanthu pafupifupi 1 miliyoni ŵa mtundu wa Ndebele ŵali kufumamo mu charu ichi ndipo ŵanandi ŵaluta ku South Africa. Mtundu unyake ni Venda, Tonga, Tsonga, Kalanga, Sotho, Ndau, Nambya, Tswana, Xhosa na Lozi. Ŵanthu ŵachoko waka awo ŵakukhala mu charu ichi ni ŵazungu ŵa ku Zimbabwe. Ŵazungu ŵa ku Zimbabwe ŵanandi ŵali kufuma ku Britain, kweni paliso ŵanthu ŵa ku Afrika, Greece, Portugal, France, na Netherlands. Mu 1975, ŵanthu ŵazungu ŵakakwana 278,000, panji kuti 4.3% ya ŵanthu wose. Pa kalembera wa mu 2012, ŵanthu wose ŵazungu ŵakaŵa 28,782 (pafupifupi 0.22% ya ŵanthu wose), chiŵelengero icho chikaŵa pachanya chomene. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakaluta ku United Kingdom (pakati pa 200,000 na 500,000 ŵa ku Britain ŵali kufuma ku Rhodesia panji Zimbabwe), South Africa, Botswana, Zambia, Mozambique, Canada, Australia na New Zealand. Ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yakupambanapambana ŵalipo 0.5% ndipo mitundu yinyake ya ku Asia, chomenechomene ya ku India na China, ŵalipo 0.5%.<ref>Quarterly Digest of Statistics, 1998, Zimbabwe Printing and Stationery Office.<!--ISSN/ISBN needed--></ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Zimbabwe's white farmers start anew in Mozambique |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2015/10/zimbabwe-white-farmers-start-anew-mozambique-151027095006428.html |work=Al-Jazeera |date=28 October 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Business Zimbabwe's land reform: Zambia's gain, a cautionary tale for South Africa? |url=https://www.dw.com/en/zimbabwes-land-reform-zambias-gain-a-cautionary-tale-for-south-africa/a-47095154 |work=Deutsche Welle |date=16 January 2019}}</ref> ===Misumba ikulu ikulu=== {{Largest cities | country = Zimbabwe | stat_ref = According to the 2012 Census<ref>{{cite web |url=http://citypopulation.de/Zimbabwe-Cities.html |title=Zimbabwe |website=citypopulation.de |access-date=28 February 2022}}</ref> | div_name = Province | city_1 = Harare | div_1 = Harare<!-- Independent City --> | pop_1 = 1,485,231 | img_1 = Harare from the Kopje.jpg | city_2 = Bulawayo | div_2 = Bulawayo<!-- Independent City --> | pop_2 = 653,337 | img_2 = Bulawayo CBD.jpg | city_3 = Chitungwiza | div_3 = Harare | pop_3 = 356,840 | img_3 = | city_4 = Mutare | div_4 = Manicaland Province{{!}}Manicaland | pop_4 = 186,208 | img_4 = Mutare aerial.jpg | city_5 = Epworth, Zimbabwe{{!}}Epworth | div_5 = Harare | pop_5 = 167,462 | city_6 = Gweru | div_6 = Midlands Province{{!}}Midlands | pop_6 = 154,825 | city_7 = Kwekwe | div_7 = Midlands Province{{!}}Midlands | pop_7 = 100,900 | city_8 = Kadoma, Zimbabwe{{!}}Kadoma | div_8 = Mashonaland West Province{{!}}Mashonaland West | pop_8 = 91,633 | city_9 = Masvingo | div_9 = Masvingo Province{{!}}Masvingo | pop_9 = 87,886 | city_10 = Chinhoyi | div_10 = Mashonaland West Province{{!}}Mashonaland West | pop_10 = 68,273 }} ===Viyowoyelo=== {{main|Languages of Zimbabwe}} Mu charu cha Zimbabwe muli viyowoyero 16 ndipo mu dango la charu ichi, pali dango lakuti viyowoyero vinyake ndivyo viŵenge vyakuzomerezgeka. Cingelezi ndico cikuyowoyeka comene pa masukulu na mu makhoti. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Zimbabwe ŵakuyowoya viyowoyero vyakuchemeka Shona na Ndebele. 78% ya ŵanthu ŵakuyowoya Cishona, ndipo 20% ŵakuyowoya Cindebele. Viyowoyero vinyake vya ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Bantu ni Venda, Tsonga, Shangaan, Kalanga, Sotho, Ndau na Nambya. Ŵanthu ŵacoko comene awo ŵakuyowoya Cingelezi ni 2.5%, comenecomene awo mbazungu ndiposo awo mbakufuma ku mitundu yinyake. ChiShona chili na maluso ghanandi agho ghakalembeka mu buku lakwamba la ChiShona, la Feso ilo likalembeka na Solomon Mutswairo, ilo likafuma mu 1956. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuyowoya Chingelezi mu matawuni kweni ku mizi ŵakuyowoya viŵi yayi. Nkhani za pa wayilesi na pa wayilesi zikupharazgika mu Chishona, Chisindebele na Chingelezi. Mu Zimbabwe muli ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakuyowoya Ciphwitikizi, comenecomene mu vigaŵa ivyo vili kufupi na mphaka na Mozambique kweniso mu misumba yikuruyikuru. Kwamba mu 2017, kusambizga Chiphwitikizi kwaŵikika mu masambiro gha sekondare mu Zimbabwe.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Português vai ser introduzido no ensino secundário no Zimbabué|url=https://24.sapo.pt/atualidade/artigos/portugues-vai-ser-introduzido-no-ensino-secundario-no-zimbabue|access-date=2020-07-21|website=SAPO 24|language=pt}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Zimbabwe: Português vai ser introduzido no ensino secundário do país - África - Angola Press - ANGOP|url=http://www.angop.ao/angola/pt_pt/noticias/africa/2017/0/3/Zimbabwe-Portugues-vai-ser-introduzido-ensino-secundario-pais,7e5aad04-47b2-4b4f-aee8-c8351c5ae23f.html|access-date=2020-07-21|website=www.angop.ao|language=PT-PT|archive-date=6 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806105712/http://www.angop.ao/angola/pt_pt/noticias/africa/2017/0/3/Zimbabwe-Portugues-vai-ser-introduzido-ensino-secundario-pais,7e5aad04-47b2-4b4f-aee8-c8351c5ae23f.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> ===Chisopa=== {{Main|Religion in Zimbabwe}} [[File:2013_Harare_Zimbabwe_8638132278.jpg|thumb|left|[[Catholic]] church in [[Harare]]]] Kuyana na kafukufuku wa 2017 Inter Censal Demography Survey wakuchitika na Zimbabwe National Statistics Agency, 84% ya ŵanthu ŵa ku Zimbabwe Mbakhristu, 10% ŵalije chisopa, ndipo 0.7% Mba Chisilamu.<ref name="2017survey" /><ref name="pewzimb">{{cite web|url=http://www.pewforum.org/files/2012/12/globalReligion-tables.pdf |title=Table: Religious Composition by Country |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160310101254/https://www.pewforum.org/files/2012/12/globalReligion-tables.pdf |archive-date=10 March 2016 |url-status=dead |website=pewforum.org |publisher=Pew Research Center |location=Washington, D.C. |year=2012}}</ref><ref name="US_state">{{cite web |title=Zimbabwe – International Religious Freedom Report 2005 |url=https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2005/51503.htm |access-date=3 December 2007 |publisher=U.S. Department of State |quote=An estimated 1% of the total population is Muslim.}}</ref> Ŵanthu 62 pa 100 ŵaliwose ŵakuluta ku matchalitchi nyengo zose. Ŵanthu pafupifupi 69% ŵa ku Zimbabwe ŵali mu chisopa cha Protestant, ndipo 8% ŵali mu chisopa cha Roman Catholic. Makhaliro gha Cikristu gha Pentekoste, comenecomene, ghakura comene mu vilimika vyasonosono apa ndipo ghakuŵa na ncito yikuru comene mu umoyo wa ŵantu, wa ŵanthu na wa ndyali. Matchalitchi ghakurughakuru gha Cikhristu ni Anglican, Roman Catholic, Seventh-day Adventist, na Methodist. Nga ni umo viliri mu vyaru vinyake vya mu Africa, Cikristu cingaŵa cakusazgikana na vigomezgo vyacikaya. Chisopa cha ŵanthu ŵakwambilira, icho chikaŵako kale pambere charu cha Zimbabwe chindaŵeko na ŵanthu awo ŵakalondezganga visopa vyawo, chikulutilira kuŵa chakuzirwa mu chisopa cha ku Zimbabwe.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Shoko |first=Tabona |title=Karanga Indigenous Religion in Zimbabwe: Health and Well-Being |url=https://archive.org/details/karangaindigenou0000shok |publisher=Routledge |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-754-65881-8 |location=London}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Moyo |first=Method |title=Traditional Religion and Its Impact on the Practices of Apostolic and Zionist Churches in Zimbabwe |publisher=GRIN Verlag |year=2020 |isbn=978-3-346-21835-3}}</ref> Kusopa ŵasekuru ni cisopa ico cikupambana na Cikhristu, ico cikusazgapo kuŵeyelera kwauzimu. Mu viphikiro vinandi, mbira dzavadzimu, kung'anamura "tumazgu twa ŵasekuru", ni ciŵiya ico cikukolerana na ma lamelophone ghanandi agho ghali palipose mu Africa. ===Umoyo=== {{See also|Health in Zimbabwe|HIV/AIDS in Zimbabwe|Zimbabwean cholera outbreak}} [[File:Life expectancy in select African countries, 1950–2019.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|Life expectancy in select Southern African countries, 1950–2019. [[HIV/AIDS]] has caused a fall in life expectancy.]] [[File:MOP 50.jpg|thumb|Mother of Peace AIDS orphanage, [[Mutoko]] (2005)]] Pa nyengo iyo ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yakupambana ŵakamba kujiyimira ŵekha, ŵakamba kulwara matenda agho ghakaŵapo pakati pa ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yinyake. Mu vyaka vinkhondi vyakwambilira pamanyuma pa kujiwombora, vinthu vikenda makora chomene pa nkhani ya katemera, wovwiri wa munkhwala, na munkhwala wakukanizga nthumbo. Ntheura, pa caru cose, caru ca Zimbabwe cikuwoneka kuti cikucita makora comene pa nkhani ya umoyo. Nyengo zinyake ku Zimbabwe kukaŵanga matenda ghakofya. Vinthu ivyo vikaŵa makora pa umoyo wa ŵanthu vikasuzgika cifukwa ca kusintha kwa vinthu mu vyaru mu vyaka vya m'ma 1990, nthenda ya HIV/AIDS, na suzgo la vyachuma kufuma mu 2000. Mu 2006, Zimbabwe yikaŵa na umoyo wambura kukhumbikwa chomene pa charu chose, kuyana na umo UN yikulongolera kuti ŵanalume ŵakhalanga vyaka 44, ndipo ŵanakazi ŵakakhalanga vyaka 43.<ref name=":2">{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-42013720|title=Zimbabwe in 10 numbers|date=18 November 2017|work=BBC News|access-date=18 November 2017|language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic/products/socind/health.htm|title=United Nations Statistics Division|access-date=7 December 2008}}</ref> Cakucitika cikuru comene ico cikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵambe kusuzgika comene ni nthenda ya HIV na AIDS. Ŵana awo ŵakafwanga na nthenda iyi ŵakakwera kufuma pa 6% m'ma 1990 kufika pa 12.3% mu 2004. Pa vyaka 10 ivyo vyajumpha, ŵana awo ŵakababikanga ŵakaŵa 3.6 (2002), 3.8 (2006) na 3.8 (2012). Mu 2014, pa ŵana 100,000 awo ŵakababika, 614 ndiwo ŵakafwanga pa nthumbo. Ŵana awo ŵakafwanga na ŵana ŵambura kukwaniska vyaka vinkhondi pa ŵana 1,000 ŵakafwanga na ŵana 75 mu 2014 (94 mu 2009). Mu 2016, pakaŵavya ŵabwezi 1,000 awo ŵakababika ŵamoyo, ndipo pa ŵanakazi ŵakutora, pa ŵanakazi 42 ŵaliwose, yumoza wakafwanga. Mu 2006, wupu wa ŵadokotala ku Zimbabwe ukachiska Mugabe kuti wawovwire ŵadokotala awo ŵakusuzgika. Mu 2009, chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu awo ŵali na HIV ku Zimbabwe chikaŵa 14 peresenti pa ŵanthu ŵa vyaka 15-49. Wupu wa UNESCO ukayowoya kuti ŵanakazi awo ŵali na nthumbo ŵali na HIV, ndipo ŵakakhira kufuma pa 26% mu 2002 kufika pa 21% mu 2004. Kuzakafika mu 2016, chiŵelengero cha HIV/AIDS chikakhira kufika pa 13.5% pakuyaniska na 40% mu 1998. Kuumaliro wa Novembala 2008, maofesi ghanyake gha vipatala vikuruvikuru vitatu vya ku Zimbabwe ghakaleka kugwira ntchito, pamoza na sukulu ya vya munkhwala ya Zimbabwe Medical School. Vipatala ivyo vikaŵa kuti vichali kugwira ntchito vikatondeka kusanga munkhwala. Vinthu vikasintha comene pamanyuma pa boma la umoza na kukhazikiska ndalama zinandi mu mwezi wa Febuluwale mu 2009, nangauli suzgo la ndyali na la vya cuma nalo likapangiska kuti ŵadokotala na ŵanthu awo ŵakumanya vya munkhwala ŵafumeko mu vyaru vinyake.<ref name="Zimbabwe cholera deaths near 500">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7760088.stm|title=Zimbabwe cholera deaths near 500|date=2 December 2008|publisher=BBC|access-date=2 December 2008}}</ref>[[File:2008 Zimbabwe Cholera Outbreak Combined.svg|thumb|Map showing the spread of [[cholera]] in and around Zimbabwe put together from several sources]] Mu Ogasiti 2008, ku Zimbabwe kukaŵa nthenda ya kolera. Kuzakafika mu Disembala 2008, ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 10,000 ŵakaŵa kuti ŵakoleka na nthenda iyi mu vigaŵa vyose vya Zimbabwe kupaturako cimoza.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/7768740.stm |title=PM urges Zimbabwe cholera action |work=BBC News |date=6 December 2008 |access-date=6 June 2012}}</ref><ref name="Milliband">[https://web.archive.org/web/20110510012829/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/africa/article5294534.ece "Miliband backs African calls for end of Mugabe"], ''[[The Times]]'', 5 December 2008.</ref>Pa Disembala 4, 2008, boma la Zimbabwe likati nthenda iyi njakofya chomene pa charu chose ndipo likapempha wovwiri ku vyaru vinyake. Pa Malichi 9, 2009, wupu wa vyaumoyo pa caru cose ukati ŵanthu 4,011 ŵali kufwa na nthenda iyi kufuma apo yikambira. Ku Harare, ŵalara ŵa tawuni ŵakapeleka malaro ku ŵanthu awo ŵakakoleka na kolera.<ref name="rain">{{cite news|url=http://africa.reuters.com/top/news/usnJOE4AT06A.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081206151846/http://africa.reuters.com/top/news/usnJOE4AT06A.html|archive-date=6 December 2008|title=Zimbabwe says cholera epidemic may spread with rain|date=30 November 2008|work=Reuters|url-status=dead|access-date=3 December 2008}}</ref> ===Msambilo=== {{Main|Education in Zimbabwe}} [[File:Saint-Georges-College.jpg|thumb|[[St. George's College, Harare]] was established in 1896 by a French [[Jesuit]].]] Ku Africa, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakumanya kulemba na kulemba. Mu 2013, chiŵelengero ichi chikafika pa 90.70%. Chiŵelengero ichi ntchichoko chomene pakuyaniska na 92 peresenti iyo yikalembeka mu 2010 na United Nations Development Programme na 97.0 peresenti iyo yikalembeka mu 2002 apo palembeka 80.4 peresenti mu 1992.<ref>{{cite report|title=Poverty Income Consumption and Expenditure Survey 2011/12 Report|publisher=Zimstat|year=2013|url=http://www.undp.org.zw/component/docman/doc_download/230-zimbabwe-poverty-report-2011-april-17-2013|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130927163223/http://www.undp.org.zw/component/docman/doc_download/230-zimbabwe-poverty-report-2011-april-17-2013 |archive-date=27 September 2013}}</ref><ref name="IRINAfrica">{{Cite web|url=http://ww.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=89947 |title=Zimbabwe: Unlicensed and outdoors or no school at all |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511094256/http://ww.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=89947 |archive-date=11 May 2011 |url-status=dead |website=irinnews.org |publisher=[[OCHA]] |date=23 July 2010 |location=Epworth, Zimbabwe}}</ref><ref name="AllAfrica">{{Cite web|url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201007150032.html |title=Zimbabwe: Country Leads in Africa Literacy Race |website=AllAfrica.com |date=14 July 2010 |last=Nyathi |first=Kitsepile}}</ref> Ŵanthu awo ŵali na ndalama zinandi ŵakupeleka ŵana ŵawo ku masukulu ghakujiyimira paŵekha. Mu 1980, masukulu ghakazgoka ghawanangwa, kweni kwambira mu 1988, boma likusazgirako ndalama izo ŵanthu ŵakulipira pa sukulu. Dipatimenti ya vya masambiro mu Zimbabwe ndiyo yikwendeska masukulu gha boma, kweni ndalama izo masukulu ghakujiyimira ghakupokera zikufuma ku boma. Dipatimenti ya vya masambiro yikati ŵasambizgi 20,000 ŵali kufumamo mu Zimbabwe kwambira mu 2007 ndipo hafu ya ŵana ŵa mu Zimbabwe ŵandafike pa sukulu. Kusambira kukasuzgika comene cifukwa ca suzgo la cuma ilo likaŵako mu 2000, ndipo ŵasambizgi ŵakamba kugwentha cifukwa ca malipiro ghacoko, ŵana ŵa sukulu ŵakatondekanga kuŵika maghanoghano ghawo pa ivyo ŵakasambiranga cifukwa ca njara, kweniso mtengo wa yunifomu ukakwera comene. Ŵasambizgi nawo ŵakaŵa cimoza mwa vilato vikuru vya kuyuzgika kwa Mugabe cifukwa wakaghanaghananga kuti mbakugomezgeka yayi.<ref>{{cite news |date=19 April 2007 |title=BBC report on 40 years in Zimbabwe's schools |work=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/6566919.stm |access-date=3 November 2007}}</ref> Mu charu ichi, masambiro ghakwamba ghakwenda vyaka viŵiri, vyaka vinkhondi na viŵiri vya masambiro ghakwamba na vyaka vinkhondi na viŵiri vya masambiro gha sekondare. Chaka cha masambiro ku Zimbabwe chikufuma mu Janyuwale mpaka Disembala, ndipo pali masambiro ghatatu agho ghakupambana mwezi umoza. Masambiro gha cigaŵa ghacitikanga mu Novembala mu nyengo ya cigaŵa cacitatu. Ku Zimbabwe kuli maunivesite 7 gha boma kweniso maunivesite ghanayi agho ghakukolerana na matchalitchi. Yunivesite ya Zimbabwe, iyo yikaŵa yakwamba kweniso yikuru chomene, yikazengeka mu 1952 ndipo yikaŵa mu tawuni ya Mount Pleasant ku Harare. Ŵanyake awo ŵakasambirako ku yunivesite ya Zimbabwe ni Welshman Ncube, Peter Moyo, Tendai Biti, Chenjerai Hove na Arthur Mutambara. Ŵandyali ŵanandi mu boma la Zimbabwe ŵali kusambira masambiro gha ku yunivesite ya ku United States panji ku vyaru vinyake. National University of Science and Technology ni yunivesite yaciŵiri yikuru comene ya ku Zimbabwe iyo yili ku Bulawayo. Wakapangika mu 1991. Yunivesite ya National University of Science and Technology yikuyezgayezga kuti yiŵe yunivesite yakumanyikwa mu Zimbabwe na kumwera kwa Africa. Africa University ni yunivesite ya United Methodist ku Manicaland iyo yikukopa ŵana ŵa sukulu kufuma ku vyaru vya ku Africa 36. === Kuyana kwa ŵanalume na ŵanakazi === {{Further|Child marriage in Zimbabwe|Polygamy in Zimbabwe|Human trafficking in Zimbabwe|Abortion in Zimbabwe}} Ŵanakazi ku Zimbabwe ŵakutondeka pa vigaŵa vinandi nga ni vya vyachuma, ndyali, na vya umoyo wa ŵanthu.<ref name=":22">{{cite web|url=http://www.zw.one.un.org/togetherwedeliver/zundaf/gender-equality|title=Gender Equality {{!}} UN in Zimbabwe|website=www.zw.one.un.org|language=en|access-date=2 October 2018|archive-date=14 August 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180814054632/http://www.zw.one.un.org/togetherwedeliver/zundaf/gender-equality|url-status=dead}}</ref> Lipoti la wupu wa UN ilo likafuma mu 2014, likati ŵanthu ŵa mu charu ichi ŵakusuzgika chomene chifukwa cha mitheto yawo, nkharo yawo, na chisopa chawo. Ŵanakazi ŵakuwona vinthu mwambura kwenelera, ndipo ivyo ŵanthu ŵakuchita vikuŵakhuŵazga kuti ŵagwirenge ntchito za ndalama. Dango la Zimbabwe lili na fundo izo zikovwira kuti ŵanalume na ŵanakazi ŵaŵe ŵakuyana waka, kweni maukaboni ghakulongora kuti dango ili likugwiriskika makora yayi ndipo likugwira ntchito mwakuchedwa. Mu Disembala 2016, wupu wa International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies ukachita kafukufuku kuti umanye umo ŵangagwiliskira ntchito makora fundo zakovwira pa nkhani ya nkhaza za ŵanalume na ŵanakazi. Ŵakasanga kuti nkhaza izo zikucitikira ŵanakazi na ŵasungwana zikusazgikira mu vigaŵa ivyo vyaŵa na masoka (vivula, chilangalanga, na matenda) kweni palije uyo wangamanya unandi wake. Vinthu vinyake ivyo vikutondeska ŵanthu kumazga nkhaza izi ni masuzgo gha vyachuma agho ghakutondeska ŵanthu kuzomerezga nkhaza za kugonana. Kweniso, maboma agho ghakovwira ŵanthu kumanya makora nkhani izi kweniso kupeleka wovwiri ku ŵanthu awo ŵakusuzgika na vigeŵenga, ghalije ndalama zakukwana ndipo ghakutondeka kufiska milimo yawo. Wupu wa United Nations nawo ukaŵakhozga kuti ŵaleke kuchita vinthu ivi. Kanandi ŵanakazi ŵakuwoneka nga mbambura kuzirwa, ŵakuŵawona nga ni vinthu vyambura kuzirwa, ndipo ŵakuŵawona kuti mbakuzirwa yayi mu mbiri na vinjeru vya ŵanthu. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa ŵakugomezga kuti ŵana ŵanalume ndiwo ŵakuzirwa chomene kuluska ŵana ŵanakazi. Mazgu agho ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuyowoya mu khoti ghakuti "vakadzi ngavanyarare", ghakung'anamura kuti "ŵanakazi ŵakwenera kukhala chete". Kuyuzgika kwa ŵanakazi mu Zimbabwe, ndiposo maluso gha cikaya agho ghakuŵakanizga kuŵa ŵantchito, kwapangiska kuti ŵanakazi ŵafwe na kujipeleka kuti ŵalute panthazi pa nchito mwakuti ŵafiske mulimo wawo wa kuŵa ŵawoli, ŵamama, na ŵantchito..<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last1=Chabaya|first1=O.|last2=Rembe|first2=S.|last3=Wadesango|first3=N.|date=1 January 2009|title=The persistence of gender inequality in Zimbabwe: factors that impede the advancement of women into leadership positions in primary schools|url=https://www.ajol.info/index.php/saje/article/view/44152|journal=South African Journal of Education|language=en|volume=29|issue=2|pages=235–251|doi=10.15700/saje.v29n2a259|issn=2076-3433|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name=":10">{{Cite journal|last=Manyonganise|first=Molly|date=2015|title=Oppressive and liberative: A Zimbabwean woman's reflections on ubuntu|journal=Verbum et Ecclesia|volume=36|issue=2|pages=1–7|doi=10.4102/VE.V36I2.1438|issn=2074-7705|doi-access=free}}</ref>Ŵanakazi ŵakusambizgika kuti ŵaleke kukana para ŵafumu ŵawo ŵakukhumba kugonana nawo, nangauli ŵakumanya kuti ŵali na HIV cifukwa ca kuleka kugomezgeka. Cifukwa ca kucita nthena, ŵanakazi ŵa ku Zimbabwe ŵa vyaka vyapakati pa 15 na 49 ŵali na nthenda ya HIV pa ciŵelengero ca 16.1% ndipo ŵalipo 62% pa ŵanthu wose awo ŵali na nthenda iyi.<ref>{{cite web |title=Zimbabwe |url=http://www.unaids.org/en/regionscountries/countries/zimbabwe |access-date=4 December 2018 |website=www.unaids.org |language=en}}</ref> Ŵanakazi ŵa ku Zimbabwe ŵakukumana na masuzgo pa umoyo wawo wa nchito, ndipo ivi vikukhwaska masambiro ghawo, luso lawo, na umo ŵakukulira. Mu 2009, magazini ya South African Journal of Education yikati nangauli ŵasambizgi ŵanandi ŵa masukulu gha pulayimale ŵakaŵa ŵakwenelera kupika maudindo, kweni palije uyo wakapempha ntchito. Ŵanakazi aŵa ŵakajiwonanga kuti mbakuyana yayi na ŵanalume ndipo ŵakagomezganga kuti mulimo wawo wa kuŵa muwoli na mama ngwakuzirwa chomene kuluska milimo yinyake yose. Ŵanakazi awo ŵakafumbika pa kafukufuku uyu ŵakaŵa na maghanoghano ghambura kwenelera, agho ghangaŵa ghakukolerana na maudindo ghawo mu gulu kweniso maghanoghano gha ŵanakazi. Mu 2016, wupu wa FAO ukasanga kuti ŵanakazi 60 pera ndiwo ŵakagwiranga ntchito za mu vyaru vinyake. Ŵanakazi ndiwo ŵakagwiranga nchito zinandi za ŵanthu awo ŵakaŵa na masambiro ghacoko, nga ni 70% ya ŵanthu awo ŵakagwiranga nchito mu vyaru vya viŵeto, kweni ŵakagwiranga nchito pa 16.7% na 21% pera mu maboma gha mu vigaŵa vyawo na mu vyaru vyawo. Mu vigaŵa vya boma, ŵanakazi ndiwo ŵakaŵa na mazaza ghakukwana 14% mu Nyumba ya Malango ya Zimbabwe na 33% mu Nyumba ya Malango ya ku Zimbabwe, nangauli chiŵelengero cha ŵanalume chikaŵa 0.95 pa mwanakazi yumoza. Kuti ŵamazge suzgo la kusankhana kwa ŵanalume na ŵanakazi, wupu wa UN ukuwovwira kuti ŵanakazi ŵalutilire kuŵa na maudindo ghapachanya, nga ni ŵalongozgi ŵa masukulu. Kwizira mu ndondomeko izi, caru ca Zimbabwe caŵa na mwaŵi wa kumazga mphambano ya ŵanalume na ŵanakazi pa nkhani ya sukulu: Ŵanalume 50.5% ŵakuŵazga masukulu gha sekondare pakuyaniska na ŵanakazi 49.5%. Ku Zimbabwe ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakusuzgika na nkhaza za pa nyumba na za kugonana. <ref name=":6">{{Cite news|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/long_reads/zimbabwe-women-domestic-violence-election-gender-equality-rights-rape-mugabe-emmerson-a8539616.html|archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220507/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/long_reads/zimbabwe-women-domestic-violence-election-gender-equality-rights-rape-mugabe-emmerson-a8539616.html|archive-date=7 May 2022|url-access=subscription|url-status=live|title=Why the world must pay attention to violence against women and girls in Zimbabwe|work=The Independent|access-date=26 November 2018|language=en-GB}}{{cbignore}}</ref>Pakuti ŵanthu wose yayi awo ŵakukoleka ŵakuyowoyeka, ciŵelengero ca ŵanthu awo ŵakukoleka cikuŵa cikuru comene. Pa nyengo ya 2010 m'paka 2016, chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu awo ŵakachichizgikanga kuti ŵatoleke chikakwera na 42%. Pa nkhaza zose izo zikucitikira ŵasungwana na ŵanakazi mu Zimbabwe, 78 peresenti zikucitikira ŵafumu ŵawo, ŵadada ŵawo, panji ŵanyawo ŵa mu nthengwa. <ref name=":6" />Malipoti gha UNICEF ghakulongora kuti msungwana yumoza pa ŵasungwana ŵatatu waliyose uyo wakukura mu Zimbabwe wakusuzgika pambere wandakwaniske vyaka 18. <ref name=":6" />Ŵasungwana kanandi ŵakucimbira na ŵanalume ŵalara msinkhu para mwaŵi wawo wakusambira ulije. Ŵapolisi ŵakutemwa yayi kupenja ŵanalume awo ŵakuchita nkhaza pa nyumba panji ŵasungwana awo ŵakuchimbira na ŵanalume ŵalara msinkhu. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakugomezga kuti nkhaza ni nthowa yakulongolera nkhongono na citemwa. Wupu wa Zimbabwe Women's Lawyers Association ni wupu uwo ukovwira kuti malango gha boma gha 2013 ghalondezgeke. Wupu uwu ukupeleka mapulogiramu agho ghakovwira ŵanakazi kumanya makora wanangwa wawo na kuŵapa mwaŵi wa kulimbana na nkhaza za pa nyumba na za kugonana.<ref name=":6" /> ==Mwambo== {{Main|Culture of Zimbabwe}} Mu charu cha Zimbabwe muli mitheto yakupambanapambana, ndipo ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Shona ŵakugomezga chomene vinthu ivi. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Shona ŵali na vikozgo vinandi.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/soulofmbiramusic00berl|url-access=registration|quote=zimbabwe shona.|title=The Soul of Mbira: Music and Traditions of the Shona People of Zimbabwe|last=Berliner|first=Paul|date=June 1993|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=9780226043791|language=en}}</ref> Pa 18 Epulero, 1980, charu cha Zimbabwe chikamba kujithemba.<ref name="indepday">{{cite book|last=Owomoyela|first=Oyekan|year=2002|title=Culture and Customs of Zimbabwe|page=[https://archive.org/details/culturecustomsof00owom/page/77 77]|isbn=978-0-313-31583-1|publisher=Greenwood Press|location=Westport, Conn.|url=https://archive.org/details/culturecustomsof00owom/page/77}}</ref>Maholide agha ghakuchitikira ku National Sports Stadium panji Rufaro Stadium ku Harare. Ungano wakwamba wa kujithemba ukacitika mu 1980 pa Zimbabwe Grounds. Pa viphikiro ivi, ŵakufumiska nkhunda kuti ŵalongore mtende. Moto wa wanangwa ukuŵala na pulezidenti pamanyuma pa viphikiro vya mbumba ya pulezidenti na ŵasilikari ŵa Zimbabwe. Kweniso pulezidenti wakuyowoya nkhani ku ŵanthu ŵa ku Zimbabwe iyo yikuŵa pa TV ku awo ŵangakwaniska yayi kwiza ku sitediyamu. Mu charu cha Zimbabwe mukuŵaso chiphikiro cha kutowa cha Miss Heritage Zimbabwe icho chikuchitika chaka chilichose kwambira mu 2012. ===Maluso=== {{Main|Zimbabwean art}} {{see also|Music of Zimbabwe}} [[File:Reconciliation Amos Supuni Woerden.jpg|thumb|upright|"Reconciliation", a [[stone sculpture]] by [[Amos Supuni]]]] Ŵanthu ŵa ku Zimbabwe ŵakutemwa kupanga vinthu nga ni viŵiya, matumba, vyakuvwara, majuda, na vyakuŵaja. Vinthu vinyake ivyo vikumanyikwa chomene ni makapu na vitanda ivyo vikuŵa mu khuni limoza. Vikozgo vya Ŵashona, ivyo vili na mbiri yitali, vikamba kusintha mu nyengo yasono pakati pa vyaka vya m'ma 1900 ndipo vikamba kutchuka pa charu chose. Vinthu vinandi ivyo ŵanthu ŵakuvwara vikuŵa vya viyuni na ŵanthu. Vinthu ivi ŵakuvivwara na malibwe nga ni soapstone, kweniso malibwe ghanyake nga ni serpentine na verdite. Vinthu vya ku Zimbabwe vingasangika mu vyaru nga ni Singapore, China na Canada. Cikozgo ca Dominic Benhura mu Singapore Botanic Gardens. Vinthu vyakuŵaja vya Ŵashona vilipo m'paka sono, ndipo ivyo ŵakuŵaja mazuŵa ghano vikukolerana na mitheto ya ku Africa na ku Europe. Ŵanthu awo ŵakumanyikwa chomene ku Zimbabwe ni Nicholas, Nesbert na Anderson Mukomberanwa, Tapfuma Gutsa, Henry Munyaradzi na Locardia Ndandarika. Pa caru cose, ŵanthu ŵakuŵaja vyakuvwara ŵa ku Zimbabwe ŵakhwaska ŵanthu ŵaphya, comenecomene ŵa ku America ŵa mitundu yakufipa. Ŵalembi ŵanandi ŵakumanyikwa mu Zimbabwe na kunyake. Charles Mungoshi wakumanyikwa chomene mu Zimbabwe chifukwa cha kulemba nkhani za mu Chingelezi na Chishona, ndipo mabuku ghake ghakuguliskika chomene na ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yose. Catherine Buckle wali kuzomerezgeka pa caru cose na mabuku ghake ghaŵiri African Tears na Beyond Tears agho ghakulongosora masuzgo agho wakakumana nagho cifukwa ca kusintha kwa malo mu 2000. Mulara wa boma wakwamba wa Rhodesia, Ian Smith, wakalemba mabuku ghaŵiri, The Great Betrayal na Bitter Harvest. Buku la The House of Hunger la Dambudzo Marechera likapokera chawanangwa ku UK mu 1979 ndipo buku lakwamba la Doris Lessing la The Grass Is Singing, mabuku ghanayi ghakwambilira gha Children of Violence, kweniso buku la nkhani zicoko waka la African Stories ghakalembeka ku Rhodesia. Mu 2013, buku la NoViolet Bulawayo lakuti We Need New Names likaŵa pa chigaŵa cha mphotho ya Booker. Buku ili likulongosora umo ŵanthu ŵakasuzgikiranga na kusama chifukwa cha nkhaza izo ŵanthu ŵa ku Zimbabwe ŵakachitiranga ŵanthu pa nyengo ya nkhondo ya Gukurahundi. Ŵalendo ŵanyake ŵakumanyikwa ni Henry Mudzengerere na Nicolas Mukomberanwa. Nkhani yinyake iyo yikuyowoyeka kanandi waka mu luso lwa ku Zimbabwe njakuti ŵanthu ŵakusintha na kuŵa vinyama. Ŵakwimba ŵa ku Zimbabwe nga ni Thomas Mapfumo, Oliver Mtukudzi, Bhundu Boys; Stella Chiweshe, Alick Macheso na Audius Mtawarira ŵamanyikwa pa caru cose. Ŵazungu awo mbacoko ŵakutemwa comene maseŵero agha, ndipo pali magulu ghanandi agho ghakucita maseŵero agha.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/art/African-theatre-art/Southern-and-South-Africa|title=African theatre – Southern and South Africa {{!}} art|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Britannica|access-date=19 January 2018|language=en}}</ref> ===Vyakuphika=== [[File:Goat Offal.JPG|thumb|A meal of ''sadza'' ''(right)'', greens, and goat [[offal]]. The goat's small intestines are wrapped around small pieces of large intestines before cooking.]] Nga umo viliri mu vyaru vinandi vya mu Africa, ŵanthu ŵanandi ku Zimbabwe ŵakurya vyakurya vichoko waka. "Mealie meal", iyo yikumanyikwaso na zina lakuti cornmeal, yikugwiliskirika nchito pakunozga sadza panji isitshwala, kweniso porridge yakucemeka bota panji ilambazi. Sadza wakupangika mwa kusanganiska tirigu na maji kuti wapangike. Para wakuphika kwa maminiti ghacoko waka, wakusazgako tirigu munyake kuti wakukore. Kanandi ŵanthu ŵakurya nyama iyi pa nyengo ya chakurya cha muhanya panji chakurya cha mise. Sadza wakulyeka pamoza na mkaka wakukaŵa, uwo ukumanyikwa na zina lakuti "lacto" (mukaka wakakora), panji sardine wakomira wa ku Tanganyika. Bota ni chiŵiya chichoko chomene, icho chikuphika kwambura kusazgako tirigu.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.zambuko.com/mbirapage/resource_guide/pages/culture/sadza_text.html | publisher=Zambuko.com |title=Sadza ne Nyama: A Shona Staple Dish |access-date=3 November 2007}}</ref> Kanandi munthu wakurya Bota pa cakurya ca mulenji. Para ŵanthu ŵakumalizga masambiro ghawo, para ŵakutora panji kutengwa, kweniso pa viphikiro vinyake vya mbumba, kanandi ŵakukoma mbuzi panji ng'ombe. Viyuni vyambura kupangika Nangauli ŵanthu ŵa ku Afrika mbachoko chomene (10%) mu gulu la ŵanthu ŵatuŵa, kweni ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakutemwa vyakurya vya ku Afrika. Cakurya ico ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakutemwa comene ni nyama yakuŵaŵa.<ref>{{cite web|author=Stephanie Hanes|title=Biltong: much more than just a snack|work=[[The Christian Science Monitor]]|date=20 September 2006|url=http://www.csmonitor.com/2006/0920/p13s01-lifo.html|access-date=3 October 2006}}</ref> Ŵakupeleka chakurya cha Boerewors pamoza na sadza. Ni soseji yitali, iyo kanandi yikuŵa na vyakununkhira vinandi. Pakuti charu cha Zimbabwe chikaŵa pasi pa Britain, ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakulondezga mitheto ya ku England. Mwaciyelezgero, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakurya chiŵiya mulenji, kweniso ŵakumwa tiyi pa 10 koloko. Ŵakulya cakurya ca mise, ndipo kanandi ŵakurya vyakurya ivyo vyakhalapo pa zuŵa lakulondezgapo. Para ŵamara kurya, kanandi pa 4 koloko ŵakuŵa na tiyi. Kanandi ŵanthu ŵakumwa tiyi para ŵamara kurya. Mu vyakurya vya ku Zimbabwe muli mpunga, makaroni, na mbatata. Chakurya icho ŵanthu ŵakutemwa chomene mu chigaŵa ichi ni mpunga uwo ŵakuphika na batala wa mapayipi. Para munthu wakuphika mbuto iyi wakuŵa na mphangwe, mbuto yakuchemeka nzungu, mbuto yakuchemeka ng'ombe yakubiliŵira, mbuto yakuchemeka nyemba, na mbuto yakuchemeka nyimo. Mutakura nayo wangaŵa viŵiya ivyo vili pachanya apa. === Maseŵera === {{Main|Sport in Zimbabwe}} [[File:Canada wins Zimbabwe in Rio Olympics 07.jpg|thumb|[[Zimbabwe women's national football team]] at the [[Football at the 2016 Summer Olympics – Women's tournament|2016 Olympic Games]]]] Mpira (uno ukuchemekaso kuti soccer) ndiwo ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakutemwa ku Zimbabwe. Gulu la Warriors lafika ku Africa Cup of Nations kankhondi (2004, 2006, 2017, 2019, 2021), ndipo lapambana mpikisano wa South Africa kankhondi (2000, 2003, 2005, 2009, 2017, 2018) na East Africa cup kamoza (1985). Gulu ili lili pa malo 68 mu 2022. Mpira wa rugby ni maseŵero ghakuzirwa comene mu Zimbabwe. Gulu la chalo likayimilira chalo mu viphalizgano viŵiri vya Rugby World Cup mu 1987 na 1991. Ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakutemwa maseŵero gha cricket mbazungu. Ni yimoza mwa vyaru 12 ivyo vikuseŵera maseŵero gha Test cricket ndipo ni chiŵaro cha ICC. Ŵaseŵera ŵa cricket ŵakufuma ku Zimbabwe ni Andy Flower, Heath Streak na Brendan Taylor. Zimbabwe yikasanga mendulo 8 pa maseŵero gha Olimpiki, yimoza pa maseŵero gha hockey na timu ya ŵanakazi pa maseŵero gha Olimpiki gha 1980 ku Moscow, na 7 ya Kirsty Coventry, zitatu pa maseŵero gha Olimpiki gha 2004 na zinayi pa maseŵero gha Olimpiki gha 2008. Dziko la Zimbabwe lachita bwino pa maseŵera a Commonwealth Games ndi All-Africa Games pa kusambira ndipo Coventry watenga mendulo 11 za golide mu maseŵera ghakupambanapambana.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/olympics/2004/schedules/117BySport.html |title=2004 Olympic Games swimming results |access-date=22 July 2007 |publisher=CNN |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060509051921/http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/olympics/2004/schedules/117BySport.html |archive-date=9 May 2006 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fina.org/events/WC/Montreal_2005/results/sw.php |title=Montreal 2005 Results|access-date=9 June 2007 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070128064425/http://www.fina.org/events/WC/Montreal_2005/results/sw.php |archive-date = 28 January 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fina.org/events/WC/Melbourne_2007/results/swimming.php|title=12th FINA World Championships|access-date=9 June 2007 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070606111744/http://www.fina.org/events/WC/Melbourne_2007/results/swimming.php |archive-date = 6 June 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport3/commonwealthgames2002/bsp/statistics/results.stm |title=BBC Sport Commonwealth Games 2002 Statistics|access-date=29 August 2007 |work=BBC News}}</ref> Zimbabwe yikwimila pa Wimbledon na Davis Cup mu tennis, chomenechomene na banja la Black, ilo lili na Wayne Black, Byron Black na Cara Black. Nick Price wa ku Zimbabwe wakaŵa na malo gha nambara yimoza pa maseŵero gha gofu pa caru cose kwa nyengo yitali kuluska woseŵero waliyose wa ku Africa. Maseŵero ghanyake agho ghakuchitika mu Zimbabwe ni basketball, volleyball, netball, na water polo, kweniso squash, motorsport, martial arts, chess, cycling, polocrosse, kayaking na kuphalizgana pa mahachi. Ndipouli, mitundu yinandi ya maseŵero agha yikuŵa na ŵimiliri pa caru cose yayi, kweni yikuŵa pa caru cose. Ŵaseŵero ŵa mpira wa rugby ku Zimbabwe awo ŵakuseŵera ku vyaru vinyake ni Masimbaashe Motongo na Judah Mazive.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.hulldailymail.co.uk/hull-fc-masimbaashe-matongo-s-dream-journey-just/story-28185324-detail/story.html|title=From Zimbabwe to Hull FC: Masimbaashe Matongo's 'dream' journey is just beginning|date=17 November 2015|newspaper=Hull Daily Mail|access-date=18 February 2017|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151225200610/http://www.hulldailymail.co.uk/Hull-FC-Masimbaashe-Matongo-s-dream-journey-just/story-28185324-detail/story.html|archive-date=25 December 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://zimbabwe-today.com/2016/10/sports/zimbabwe-teenager-judah-mazive-signs-contract-play-rugby-england/|title=Zimbabwe teenager Judah Mazive signs contract to play rugby in England|newspaper=Zimbabwe Today|access-date=18 February 2017|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170113154539/http://zimbabwe-today.com/2016/10/sports/zimbabwe-teenager-judah-mazive-signs-contract-play-rugby-england/|archive-date=13 January 2017}}</ref> Ŵasepuka ŵakale bakusazgapo sono CEO wa SANZAAR Andy Marinos uyo wakawonekera ku South Africa pa Super League World Nines ndipo wakawonekeranga ku Sydney Bulldogs kweniso uyo wakababika ku Zimbabwe uyo wakababika ku Scotland Scott Gray, uyo wakachitako ku Brisbane Broncos. Charu cha Zimbabwe chawina mu karate apo Samson Muripo wa ku Zimbabwe wakaba chiphalizgano cha Kyokushin world champion ku Osaka, Japan mu 2009. Muripo ni nkhwantha ya Kyokushi Karate pa charu chose ndipo wakaŵa munthu wakuda wakwamba wa ku Africa kuŵa nkhwantha ya Kyokushin Karate pa charu chose.<ref>{{Cite web|title=The making of Samson Muripo {{!}} The Standard|date=22 October 2017|url=https://www.thestandard.co.zw/2017/10/22/making-samson-muripo/|access-date=2021-07-21|language=en-US}}</ref> ===Media=== Ŵapharazgi ŵa ku Zimbabwe sono ŵali na ŵanthu ŵakupambanapambana, chifukwa boma likaŵakanizga chomene kupharazga pakati pa 2002 na 2008. Dango la Zimbabwe likulayizga wanangwa wa vyakupharazga. Kufuma waka apo ŵakaŵikirapo nduna yiphya ya vya mdauko mu 2013, ŵapharazgi ŵakusuzgika viŵi yayi na ndyali ndipo khoti likuru chomene la charu ichi lazomerezga kuti malango ghanyake ghakukhwaskana na vya mdauko ghakususkana na dango. Mu Julayi 2009, BBC na CNN ŵakambaso kwendeska mauthenga mu Zimbabwe. Unduna wa vya Mtima, Uthenga na Kupharazga wa ku Zimbabwe ukati, "boma la Zimbabwe likakanizgapo yayi kuti BBC yichitenge vinthu ivyo vikukolerana na dango mu Zimbabwe". BBC yikakondwa chomene na ivyo vikachitika, yikati: "Tili ŵakukondwa kuti tikwaniskaso kugwira ntchito mu Zimbabwe". Mu 2010, boma la Zimbabwe Media Commission likakhazikiskika. Mu Meyi 2010, wupu uwu ukazomerezga nyuzipepara zitatu za ŵanthu ŵekha, kusazgapo nyuzipepara yakuchemeka Daily News. Wupu wa Reporters Without Borders ukati fundo izi ni "vinthu vikuru comene". Mu Juni 2010, NewsDay yikaŵa nyuzipepara yakwamba yakujiyimira payekha mu Zimbabwe mu vyaka 7. Mu 2012, ZBC yikamazga wanangwa wake wa kupharazga na kupeleka malayisensi ku mawayilesi ghaŵiri. Kufuma waka apo dango la 2002 la Access to Information and Protection of Privacy Act likakhazikiskikira, boma likajara manyuzipepara ghanandi, kusazgapo Daily News.<ref name="rwb" /><ref name="cgmg">Ruzengwe, Blessing (17 March 2005) [https://web.archive.org/web/20060301060504/http://cgmg.jour.city.ac.uk/news.php?story=249 "The nine lives of Wilf Mbanga"], ''The London Globe'' via ''[[Metrovox]]''.</ref>Pa cifukwa ici, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Zimbabwe awo ŵali ku wuzga ŵali kwambiska mawupu gha nyuzipepara mu vyaru vya ŵazengezgani na vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi. Chifukwa chakuti Intaneti njambura kukanizgika, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Zimbabwe ŵakuzomerezgeka kusanga nkhani pa Intaneti izo ŵalembi ŵa nyuzipepara awo ŵali ku wuzga ŵakulemba. Wupu wa Reporters Without Borders ukati mu Zimbabwe ŵanthu ŵakwendera chomene nkhani za mu manyuzipepara. Manyuzipepara agho ghakusindikizgika comene ni The Herald na The Chronicle agho ghakusindikizgika mu Harare na Bulawayo. Kwamba mu 2009, ŵanthu ŵakutemwa yayi kuyowoya vya nkhani mu manyuzipepara. Mu lipoti lake la mu 2021, wupu wa Reporters Without Borders ukalemba vyalo vya Zimbabwe pa 130 pa vyalo 180, ndipo ukalemba kuti "mauthenga ghafika pa malo ghakwenelera ndipo ŵanthu ŵakujikora yayi, kweni ŵapharazgi ŵachali kukomeka".<ref name="rwb">{{cite web|url=https://rsf.org/en/zimbabwe |title=Reporters without Borders Press Freedom Index |publisher=Reports Without Borders |access-date=24 February 2022}}</ref>Boma la Zimbabwe likukanizgaso mawayilesi ghanandi ghakufuma ku vyaru vinyake, nga ni CBC, Sky News, Channel 4, American Broadcasting Company, Australian Broadcasting Corporation, na Fox News. Mabungwe gha nkhani na manyuzipepara ghakufuma ku vyaru vinyake vya kumanjiliro gha dazi na ku South Africa nagho ghakanizgika kunjira mu caru ici. ===National symbols=== [[File:Zimbabwe Bird.svg|thumb|upright|Traditional Zimbabwe Bird design]] Mbalame ya ku Zimbabwe yikuwoneka pa ndembera za charu cha Zimbabwe na Rhodesia, kweniso pa ndalama za ku Rhodesia. Panyake ni nombo panji nombo ya ku Africa.<ref>{{cite journal|title=The Soapstone Birds from Great Zimbabwe|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_african-arts_1985-05_18_3/page/68|journal=African Arts|year=1985|volume=18|pages=68–73, 99–100|author=Huffman, Thomas N.|jstor=3336358|issue=3|doi=10.2307/3336358}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=Review: The Soapstone Birds of Great Zimbabwe Symbols of a Nation by Edward Matenga|journal=The South African Archaeological Bulletin|year=2001|volume=56|pages=105–106|author=Sinclair, Paul |jstor=3889033|issue=173/174|doi=10.2307/3889033}}</ref> Mu msumba wakale wa Great Zimbabwe mukaŵa vithuzithuzi vya viyuni vyakutowa chomene.<ref>{{cite web|title=Great Zimbabwe|url=http://usp.nus.edu.sg/post/zimbabwe/art/greatzim/gz1.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070809145423/http://usp.nus.edu.sg/post/zimbabwe/art/greatzim/gz1.html|archive-date=9 August 2007|author=Landow, George P.|publisher=Brown University}}</ref> Malibwe agho ghakukolerana ni malo agho ghakusangika mu charu chose cha Zimbabwe. Malibwe agha ghakukolerana makora kwambura kukhozgeka na vinthu vinyake. Vinthu ivi vikupangika para miyala yakukhoma iyo yili pafupi na malo agha yikusongonoka. Kanandi ŵanthu ŵakuŵalongosora ndipo ŵali kuŵalongosora pa ndalama za ku Zimbabwe na za ku Rhodesia. Malibwe agha ghakusangika pa ndalama za ku Zimbabwe, ndipo ghakumanyikwa kuti Banknote Rocks. Malibwe agha ghakupangika mu nthowa zakupambanapambana, ndipo ghakukolerana na malibwe ghatatu panji kujumpha apa. Vinthu ivi vikusangika kumwera na kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Africa, kufuma kumpoto kwa South Africa m'paka ku Sudan. Vinthu vyakuzizwiska chomene mu charu cha Zimbabwe vili ku Matobo National Park ku Matabeleland. Nyimbo ya fuko la Zimbabwe ni "Blessed be the Land of Zimbabwe" (Shona: Simudzai Mureza wedu WeZimbabwe; Template:Lang-nd). Sumu iyi yikamba kwimbika mu Malichi 1994 pamanyuma pa chiphambano cha pa charu chose kuti yisinthe Ishe Komborera Africa kuŵa sumu ya ku Zimbabwe. Sumu iyo yikaluska yikaŵa sumu yakulembeka na Pulofesa Solomon Mutswairo ndipo yikapangika na Fred Changundega. Baibolo ili lang'anamulika mu viyowoyero vitatu vikuruvikuru vya ku Zimbabwe.<ref name="britannica.com">{{Cite web |title=Zimbabwe {{!}} History, Map, Flag, Population, Capital, & Facts |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Zimbabwe |access-date=29 May 2020 |website=Encyclopedia Britannica |language=en}}</ref> == Wonaniso == * [[Index of Zimbabwe-related articles]] * [[Outline of Zimbabwe]] == Ukaboni == ===Vinyake vyakuona=== {{reflist|group=note}} === Mazgo === {{reflist|colwidth=30em}} === Vinyake === {{refbegin}} * {{cite book |ref=Parsons |last=Parsons |first=Neil |year=1993 |title=A New History of Southern Africa |url=https://archive.org/details/newhistoryofsout0000pars |url-access=registration |edition=2nd |location=London, England |publisher=Macmillan |isbn=978-0-84195319-2 }} * {{Free-content attribution | title = UNESCO Science Report: towards 2030 | author = | publisher = UNESCO | page numbers = | source = | documentURL = http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0023/002354/235406e.pdf | license statement URL = | license = CC BY-SA 3.0 IGO }} {{refend}} == Wonani vinadi == * {{cite news |title='Hungry kids collapse as looters take millions': life in today's Zimbabwe |first=Jason |last=Burke |date=10 August 2019 |newspaper=[[The Guardian]] |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/aug/10/zimbabwe-emmerson-mnangagwa-battle-to-survive}} * {{Citation |last=Barclay |first=Philip |title=Zimbabwe: Years of Hope and Despair |year=2010}}. * Bourne, Richard. ''Catastrophe: What Went Wrong in Zimbabwe?'' (2011); 302 pages. * {{Citation |editor1-first=JoAnn |editor1-last=McGregor |editor2-first=Ranka |editor2-last=Primorac |title=Zimbabwe's New Diaspora: Displacement and the Cultural Politics of Survival |publisher= [[Berghahn Books]] |year=2010}}, 286 pages. Scholarly essays on displacement as a result of Zimbabwe's continuing crisis, with a focus on diasporic communities in Britain and South Africa; also explores such topics as the revival of Rhodesian discourse. * [[Martin Meredith|Meredith, Martin]]. ''Mugabe: Power, Plunder, and the Struggle for Zimbabwe's Future'' (2007) [https://www.amazon.com/dp/B003STCO04/ excerpt and text search]. * {{Citation |first1=Peter |last1=Orner |author1-link=Peter Orner |first2=Annie |last2=Holmes |title=Hope Deferred: Narratives of Zimbabwean Lives |year=2011 |publisher=Voice of witness |url= http://www.voiceofwitness.org/hope-deferred/}}. * Smith, Ian Douglas. ''Bitter Harvest: Zimbabwe and the Aftermath of its Independence'' (2008) [https://www.amazon.com/dp/1857826043/ excerpt and text search]. * David Coltart. The struggle continues: 50 Years of Tyranny in Zimbabwe. Jacana Media (Pty) Ltd: South Africa, 2016. == Vigaŵa vya kuwalo == {{Sister project links|voy=Zimbabwe}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20171223174502/http://www.zim.gov.zw/ Official Government of Zimbabwe Web Portal] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171223174502/http://www.zim.gov.zw/ |date=23 December 2017 }} * [https://www.parlzim.gov.zw/ Parliament of Zimbabwe] * {{Curlie|Regional/Africa/Zimbabwe}} * [https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14113249 Zimbabwe profile] from the [[BBC News]] * {{wikiatlas|Zimbabwe}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20210126032849/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/zimbabwe/ Zimbabwe]. ''[[The World Factbook]]''. [[Central Intelligence Agency]]. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20081024133532/http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/zimbabwe.htm Zimbabwe] from ''UCB Libraries GovPubs'' * [http://www.ifs.du.edu/ifs/frm_CountryProfile.aspx?Country=ZW Key Development Forecasts for Zimbabwe] from [[International Futures]] * [http://wits.worldbank.org/CountryProfile/Country/ZWE/Year/2012/Summary World Bank Summary Trade Statistics Zimbabwe] {{Zimbabwean topics}} {{Navboxes |list= {{Geography of Zimbabwe}} {{Languages of Zimbabwe}} {{Africa}} {{G15}} {{Southern African Development Community}} {{African Union}} {{Territories of the British Empire}} }} {{Authority control}} {{Coord|19|S|30|E|type:country_region:ZW|display=title}} [[Category:Zimbabwe| ]] [[Category:1980 establishments in Zimbabwe]] [[Category:Countries and territories where English is an official language]] [[Category:Former British colonies and protectorates in Africa]] [[Category:G15 nations]] [[Category:Landlocked countries]] [[Category:Member states of the African Union]] [[Category:Member states of the United Nations]] [[Category:Republics]] [[Category:East African countries]] [[Category:Southeast African countries]] [[Category:Southern African countries]] [[Category:States and territories established in 1980]] [[Category:Countries in Africa]] q1fete0l2hemxjfasatwka8xvu32o51 0 6970 119305 115462 2026-08-13T22:17:23Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Add 3 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260813sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 119305 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|Country in West Africa}} {{redirect|Guinée|the concept in the African diasporic religion|Haitian Vodou}} {{distinguish|French Guiana|Guinea-Bissau|Equatorial Guinea|New Guinea}} {{for multi|the region|Guinea (region)|other uses|Guinea (disambiguation)}} {{Use dmy dates|date=September 2019}} {{Use British English|date=September 2019}} {{Infobox country | conventional_long_name = Republic of Guinea | common_name = Guinea | native_name = {{native name|fr|République de Guinée}}<br>{{nativename|fuf|𞤈𞤫𞤲𞥆𞤣𞤢𞥄𞤲𞤣𞤭 𞤘𞤭𞤲𞤫}}<br>{{nativename|emk| ߖߌ߬ߣߍ߫ ߞߊ ߝߊߛߏߖߊߡߊߣߊ}} | image_flag = Flag of Guinea.svg | alt_flag = [[Flag of Guinea|Flag]] | image_coat = Coat of Arms of Guinea.svg | symbol_type = [[Coat of arms of Guinea|Coat of arms]] | national_motto = {{native phrase|fr|"Travail, Justice, Solidarité"|italics=off}}<br />"Work, Justice, Solidarity" | national_anthem = {{native name|fr|[[Liberté (anthem)|Liberté]]}}<br />"Freedom"{{parabr}}{{center|[[File:Liberté.oga]]}} | image_map = Guinea (orthographic projection).svg | map_caption = Guinea in dark green | image_map2 = Location Guinea AU Africa.svg | map_caption2 = {{map caption |countryprefix= |location_color=dark blue |region=Africa |region_color=dark grey |subregion=the [[African Union]] |subregion_color=light blue}} | capital = [[Conakry]] | coordinates = {{Coord|9|31|N|13|42|W|type:city}} | largest_city = Conakry | official_languages = [[French language|French]] | languages_type = [[Vernacular language|Vernacular<br />language]]s | languages = {{Collapsible list |framestyle=border:none; padding:0; |[[French language|French]] |[[Arabic language|Arabic]] |[[English language|English]] |[[Fula language|Fula]] |[[Mandinka language|Malinké]] |([[N'Ko language|N'ko]]) |[[Susu language|Susu]] |[[Kissi language|Kissi]] |[[Maninka language|Koro]] |[[Kpelle language|Kpelle]] |[[Temne language|Temne]] |[[Toma language|Toma]] |[[Badyara language|Badyara]] |[[Baga language|Baga]] |[[Bambara language|Bambara]] |[[Bassari language|Bassari]] |[[Dan language|Dan]] |[[Dyula language|Dyula]] |[[Landoma language|Landoma]] |[[Limba language|Limba]] |[[Maninka language|Maninka]] |[[Mano language|Mano]] |[[Pular language|Pular]] |[[Sua language|Sua]] |[[Wamey language|Wamey]] |[[Yalunka language|Yalunka]] |[[Zialo language|Zialo]] }} | ethnic_groups = {{unbulleted list | 33.4% [[Fula people|Fula]] | 29.4% [[Mandinka people|Mandinka]] | 21.2% [[Susu people|Susu]] | 7.8% [[Kpelle people|Kpelle]] | 6.2% [[Kissi people|Kissi]] | 2.0% others }} | ethnic_groups_year = <ref name="CIA Factbook1">{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/guinea/|title=The World Factbook – Central Intelligence Agency |publisher=Cia.gov |access-date=26 December 2020 }}</ref> | religion = {{unbulleted list|89.1% [[Islam]]|6.8% [[Christianity]]| 1.6% [[Traditional African religions|Folk religions]]| 2.5% Other}} | religion_ref = <ref>{{Cite web |title=Guinea |date=2022-03-02 |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/guinea/#people-and-society |work=The World Factbook |publisher=Central Intelligence Agency |language=en |access-date=2022-03-05}}</ref> | demonym = Guinean | government_type = [[Unitary state|Unitary]] [[republic]] under a [[military junta]] | leader_title1 = [[List of presidents of Guinea|Interim President]] and [[National Committee of Reconciliation and Development|CNRD Chairman]] | leader_name1 = [[Mamady Doumbouya]] | leader_title2 = [[List of prime ministers of Guinea|Prime Minister]] | leader_name2 = [[Amadou Oury Bah]] | leader_title3 = [[National Assembly (Guinea)|Speaker of Parliament]] | leader_name3 = <!--Currently vacant---> | leader_title4 = [[Supreme Court of Guinea|Supreme Court]] | leader_name4 = <!--Currently vacant---> | legislature = [[National Council of the Transition]]<ref>[[National Assembly (Guinea)|National Assembly]] is currently suspended in the wake of the [[2021 Guinean coup d'état]].</ref> | sovereignty_note = (was the colony of [[French Guinea]] since 1891) | sovereignty_type = Independence | established_event1 = from France | established_date1 = 2 October 1958 | established_event2 = Republic | established_date2 = 2 October 1958 | established_event3 = 4th constitution | established_date3 = 2 October 1958 | established_event4 = Second Republic Day | established_date4 = 3 April 1984 | established_event5 = [[2021 Guinean coup d'état]] | established_date5 = 5 September 2021 | area_km2 = 245,857 | area_rank = 77th <!-- Area rank should match [[List of countries and dependencies by area]]--> | area_sq_mi = 94,926 <!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]--> | percent_water = negligible | population_estimate = 13,607,249<ref>{{Cite CIA World Factbook|country=Guinea|access-date=22 June 2023|year=2023}}</ref> | population_estimate_year = 2023 | population_estimate_rank = 75th | population_density_km2 = 40.9 | population_density_sq_mi = 106.1 <!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]--> | GDP_PPP = {{increase}} $33.7 &nbsp;billion<ref name="imf2">{{cite web|url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2022/October|title=World Economic Outlook Database, October 2022|date=October 2022|website=IMF.org|publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]]|access-date= October 11, 2022}}</ref> <!--Do not edit!-->| GDP_PPP_rank = 142nd | GDP_PPP_year = 2022 | GDP_PPP_per_capita = {{increase}}$2,993<ref name=imf2/> <!--Do not edit!--> | GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 166th | GDP_nominal = {{increase }}$14.8 &nbsp;billion<ref name=imf2/> <!--Do not edit!--> | GDP_nominal_rank = 140th | GDP_nominal_year = 2022 | GDP_nominal_per_capita = {{increase}}$1,346<ref name=imf2/> <!--Do not edit!--> | GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 161st | Gini = 33.7 <!--number only--> | Gini_year = 2012 | Gini_change = <!--increase/decrease/steady--> | Gini_ref = <ref>{{cite web |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI?end=2014&locations=GN&start=1990 |title=GINI index (World Bank estimate) |publisher=World Bank |access-date=10 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190110133707/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI?end=2014&locations=GN&start=1990 |archive-date=10 January 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref> | Gini_rank = | HDI = 0.465 <!--number only--> | HDI_year = 2021<!-- Please use the year to which the data refers, not the publication year--> | HDI_change = decrease<!--increase/decrease/steady--> | HDI_ref = <ref name="HDI">{{cite web|url=https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2021-22pdf_1.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220908052326/https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2021-22pdf_1.pdf |archive-date=2022-09-08 |url-status=live|title=Human Development Report 2021/2022|language=en|publisher=[[United Nations Development Programme]]|date=8 September 2022|access-date=30 September 2022}}</ref> | HDI_rank = 182nd | currency = [[Guinean franc]] | currency_code = GNF | utc_offset = {{sp}} | time_zone = [[Greenwich Mean Time|GMT]] | drives_on = right | calling_code = [[+224]] | iso3166code = GN | cctld = [[.gn]] | religion_year = 2014 | population_density_rank = 164th | today = }} '''Guinea''' ({{IPAc-en|audio=En-us-Guinea.ogg|ˈ|ɡ|ɪ|n|i}} {{respell|GHIN|ee}}),{{efn|{{lang-fr|Guinée}}, {{lang-fuf|𞤘𞤭𞤲𞤫|italic=no|Gine}}, {{lang-wo|Gine}}, {{lang-nqo|ߖߌ߬ߣߍ߫}}, {{lang-bm|Gine}}}} mwalamulo '''Charu cha Guinea''' ({{lang-fr|République de Guinée}}), ni charu icho chili mumphepete mwa nyanja ku [[West Africa]]. Charu ichi chili na mphaka na [[nyanja ya Atlantic]] kumanjiliro gha dazi, [[Guinea-Bissau]] kumpoto cha kumanjiliro gha dazi, [[Senegal]] kumpoto, [[Mali]] kumpoto kwa kumafumiro gha dazi, [[Côte d'Ivoire]] kumwera kwa kumafumiro gha dazi, [[Sierra Leone]] na [[Liberia]] kumwera. Nyengo zinyake charu ichi chikuchemeka [[Guinea-Conakry]] chifukwa cha msumba wake wa [[Conakry]].<ref name="uiowa1">{{cite web |url=http://www.uiowa.edu/~africart/toc/countries/Guinea-Conakry.html |title=Guinea-Conakry |access-date=11 February 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090205044119/http://www.uiowa.edu/~africart/toc/countries/Guinea-Conakry.html |archive-date=5 February 2009 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.musicvideos.the-real-africa.com/guinea/ |title=Music Videos of Guinea Conakry |access-date=12 April 2018 |url-status=bot: unknown |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070221053336/http://www.musicvideos.the-real-africa.com/guinea/ |archive-date=21 February 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://netministries.org/see/churches/ch00472 |title=The Anglican Diocese of Ghana |website=Netministries.org |access-date=23 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090107033350/http://netministries.org/see/churches/ch00472 |archive-date=7 January 2009 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cfi.fr/partenaires_en.php3?id_rubrique=24&id_article=473 |title=CFI - Africa - Guinea Conakry |access-date=11 February 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511084226/http://www.cfi.fr/partenaires_en.php3?id_rubrique=24&id_article=473 |archive-date=11 May 2011 }}</ref> Mu charu ichi muli ŵanthu 13.5 miliyoni ndipo chigaŵa chake chili na makilomita 245,857.<ref name="guinea_stats">{{cite web|title=Nations Online: Guinea – Republic of Guinea – West Africa|url=http://www.nationsonline.org/oneworld/guinea.htm|publisher=Nations Online|access-date=25 August 2014|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030503155420/http://www.nationsonline.org/oneworld/guinea.htm|archive-date=3 May 2003}}</ref> Charu ichi kale chikachemekanga [[French Guinea]], kweni chikajiyimira paŵekha mu 1958. Ku Guinea ŵanthu ŵakwamba kuwukira boma.<ref name=Bariyo>Nicholas Bariyo & Benoit Faucon, [https://www.wsj.com/articles/military-faction-stages-coup-in-mineral-rich-guinea-11630866469 Military Faction Stages Coup in Mineral-Rich Guinea], ''Wall Street Journal'' (September 5, 2021).</ref><ref name=Larson>Krista Larson, [https://apnews.com/article/africa-elections-senegal-west-africa-term-limits-4c595d69cbfd95d173b7ef1a6da0d5f8 EXPLAINER: Why is history repeating itself in Guinea's coup?], Associated Press (September 7, 2021).</ref><ref name=Paquett>Danielle Paquett, [https://www.washingtonpost.com/national-security/2021/09/06/guinea-coup-explained/ Here's what we know about the unfolding coup in Guinea], ''Washington Post'' (September 6, 2021).</ref> <ref>[https://www.dw.com/en/west-africa-economic-bloc-suspends-guinea-after-military-coup/a-59127739 West Africa economic bloc suspends Guinea after military coup], [[Deutsche Welle]] (September 8, 2021).</ref>Pakati pajumpha vyaka vinandi kufuma apo boma likamba kulamulira mwaurunji, mu 2010 ŵakachita chisankho chakwamba.<ref name=Paquett/><ref>Abdourahmane Diallo and Adam Nossiter, [https://www.nytimes.com/2010/11/08/world/africa/08guinea.html Guinea Votes in Its First Democratic Presidential Election], ''New York Times'' (November 7, 2010).</ref><ref name="FH2010">[https://freedomhouse.org/country/guinea/freedom-world/2021 Guinea], ''Freedom in the World'', [[Freedom House]], 2021.</ref> Apo boma likalutilira kucita maungano gha vyaru vinandi, ŵanthu ŵakalutilira kutinkhana, vimbundi vikazara, kweniso ŵasilikari na ŵapolisi ŵakacitiranga nkhaza ŵanthu.<ref name=FH2010/><ref>Saliou Samb, [https://www.reuters.com/article/guinea-politics/guinea-president-conde-vows-to-tackle-corruption-during-third-term-idUSKBN28P27F Guinea President Conde vows to tackle corruption during third term], Reuters (December 15, 2020).</ref> Mu 2011, boma la United States likati ŵanakazi na ŵana ŵakusuzgika na ŵasilikari kweniso ŵakutambuzgika. Mu 2021, gulu la ŵasilikari likawuskapo pulezidenti [[Alpha Condé]] na kukanizga dango la chalo.<ref name=Bariyo/><ref name=Larson/><ref name=Paquett/> Ŵasilamu ŵalipo 85%.<ref name="uiowa1"/><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.visualgeography.com/categories/guinea/religion.html |title=Religion in Guinea |publisher=Visual Geography |access-date=23 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130914140804/http://www.visualgeography.com/categories/guinea/religion.html |archive-date=14 September 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ecobank.com/countryinfo.aspx?cid=74049 |title=The Pan African Bank |publisher=Ecobank |access-date=23 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120319131431/http://www.ecobank.com/countryinfo.aspx?cid=74049 |archive-date=19 March 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref> Charu ichi chili kugaŵika vigaŵa vinayi: Malire gha Nyanja ya Guinea ku Atlantic Coast, Fouta Djallon panji mapiri gha ku Middle Guinea, [[chigaŵa cha Upper Guinea savanna]] kumpoto cha kumafumiro gha dazi, na chigaŵa cha Guinea forestière. Chifurenchi ndicho chikuyowoyeka pa sukulu, mu boma, na mu manyuzipepara. Ŵanthu ŵakuyowoya viyowoyero vyakujumpha 24, ndipo viyowoyero vikuru chomene ni Susu, Pular, na Maninka. Chuma cha ku Guinea chikuthemba pa ulimi na vinthu vyakuthupi.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.africa-import-export.gm/import-export/guinea-conakry.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101105124833/http://www.africa-import-export.gm/import-export/guinea-conakry.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=5 November 2010|title=Guinea Conakry: Major Imports, Exports, Industries & Business Opportunities in Guinea Conakry, Africa|access-date=15 October 2014}}</ref> Ni caru caciŵiri pa caru cose ico cikupanga bauxite, ndipo muli malibwe gha dayimani na golide.<ref name="guineaconakrysupport.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.guineaconakrysupport.com/?lang=en|title=Guinea Conakry Support – Guinee Conakry Trade and Support. (GCTS)|access-date=15 October 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150105021335/http://www.guineaconakrysupport.com/?lang=en|archive-date=5 January 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref> Charu ichi ndicho chikaŵa pakwamba pa nthenda ya Ebola mu 2014. ==Zina== {{Further|Guinea (region)#Etymology}} Zina lakuti Guinea lili kufuma ku chigaŵa cha Guinea icho chili mumphepete mwa Gulf of Guinea. Likwendera kumpoto mu vigaŵa vyamuthondo na kumalira ku Sahel. Lizgu la Chingelezi lakuti Guinea likufuma ku lizgu la Chiphwitikizi lakuti Guiné ilo likafuma pakati pa vyaka vya m'ma 1500 kuti likung'anamura malo agho ŵanthu ŵa ku Guinea ŵakakhalanga. ==Mbili== {{Main|History of Guinea}}<!--two subsections and several other paragraphs have no citations--> Charu icho sono chikuchemeka Guinea chili kufupi na maufumu ghanyake gha ku Africa pambere Ŵafarisi ŵandafike mu ma 1890. Pa Okutobala 2, 1958, charu cha Guinea chikamba kujiyimira paŵekha. Kufuma apo charu cha Guinea chikapokera wanangwa wake m'paka pa nyengo ya maungano gha boma mu 2010, chikaŵa pasi pa muwuso wa ŵamazaza ŵanandi.<ref> {{cite web | last = Zounmenou | first = David | title = Guinea: Hopes for Reform Dashed Again | publisher = allAfrica.com | date = 2 January 2009 | url = http://allafrica.com/stories/200901020524.html | access-date = 27 December 2009 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090111161633/http://allafrica.com/stories/200901020524.html | archive-date = 11 January 2009 | url-status = live | df = dmy-all }} </ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://hdrstats.undp.org/en/countries/country_fact_sheets/cty_fs_GIN.html |title=UN Human Development Report 2009 |publisher=Hdrstats.undp.org |access-date=28 March 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100413190650/http://hdrstats.undp.org/en/countries/country_fact_sheets/cty_fs_GIN.html |archive-date=13 April 2010 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Ross |first=Will |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7647962.stm |title=Africa {{pipe}} Guineans mark '50 years of poverty' |work=BBC News|date=2 October 2008 |access-date=28 March 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100610090758/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7647962.stm |archive-date=10 June 2010 |url-status=live }}</ref> === Maufumu na maufumu gha ku West Africa === {{main|Imamate of Futa Jallon|Wassoulou Empire}} Charu icho sono chikuchemeka Guinea chikaŵa ku mizi ya maufumu gha ku West Africa. Ufumu wakwambilira, uwo ukaŵa wa Ghana, ukakuranga cifukwa ca malonda ndipo pamasinda ukaparanyika cifukwa ca kuwukira kwa Almoravid. Mu nyengo iyi ndipo chisopa cha Ciisilamu chikambira mu cigaŵa ici kwizira mu ŵamalonda ŵa ku North Africa. Ufumu wa Sosso (zaka za m'ma 1200 m'paka 13 C.E.) ukakura chomene, ndipo Ufumu wa Mali ukamanyikwa chomene apo Soundiata Kéïta wakatonda Soumangourou Kanté uyo wakaŵa fumu ya Sosso pa Nkhondo ya Kirina, mu c. 1235. Ufumu wa Mali ukalamuliranga na ŵanthu awo ŵakachemekanga Mansa (Mafumu), kusazgapo Kankou Moussa uyo wakachita ulendo wa haji ku Mecca mu 1324. Ufumu wa Mali ukayamba kuchepa mu 1500, ndipo pamasinda ukaleka kulamulira. Ufumu wa Songhai ukakura kufuma mu 1460 ndipo pamasinda ukajumpha ufumu wa Mali. Msumba uwu ukalutilira kukura m'paka apo Askia Daoud wakafwira mu 1582. Ufumu uwu ukathereskeka na ŵasilikari ŵa ku Morocco pa Nkhondo ya Tondibi vilimika vitatu pamanyuma pake. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Morocco ŵakatondeka kuwusa makora ufumu uwu ndipo ukagaŵikana mu maufumu ghacoko. Ufumu unyake wa ku West Africa ukati wabwanganduka, maufumu ghakupambanapambana ghakawuka mu charu icho sono chikuchemeka Guinea. Ŵasilamu ŵa Fulani ŵakasamira ku Futa Jallon ku Central Guinea, ndipo ŵakakhazikiska boma la Chisilamu kufuma mu 1727 m'paka 1896, ilo likaŵa na dango lakulembeka na ŵalongozgi ŵanyake. Ufumu wa Wassoulou panji Wassulu (1878-1898) ukalongozgekanga na Samori Toure mu chigaŵa cha Malinké icho sono ni Upper Guinea na kumwera kwa Mali (Wassoulou). Nyengo yikati yajumphapo, charu ichi chikasamira ku Ivory Coast. ===Chikoloni=== Kwambira mu ma 1700, ŵamalonda ŵa ku Europe ŵakamba kuphalizgana na ŵamalonda ŵa ku Cape.<ref>"John Lovell". in ''The History of Parliament: the House of Commons 1558-1603'', ed. P.W. Hasler, 1981. [https://web.archive.org/web/20230704143316/http://www.historyofparliamentonline.org/volume/1558-1603/member/lovell-john History of Parliament Online website] Retrieved 25 September 2021.</ref><ref>"America and West Indies: October 1653." ''Calendar of State Papers Colonial, America and West Indies'': Volume 1, 1574-1660. Ed. W Noel Sainsbury. London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office, 1860. 409–410. [http://www.british-history.ac.uk/cal-state-papers/colonial/america-west-indies/vol1/pp409-410 British History Online website] Retrieved 25 September 2021.</ref> Ŵazga ŵakatumizgikanga ku vyaru vinyake kuti ŵakagwire nchito. Ŵamalonda aŵa ŵakagwiliskiranga nchito ŵazga awo ŵakakhalanga mu vigaŵa ivi. Nyengo iyo charu cha Guinea chikaŵa pasi pa mawoko gha ŵasilikari ŵa ku France yikamba m'ma 1800. Mu 1898, ŵasilikari ŵa Samori Touré, uyo wakaŵa themba la ufumu wa Ouassoulou kweniso mulongozgi wa mafuko gha Malinké, ŵakathereskeka. Kuumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1800 na kukwambilira kwa vyaka vya m'ma 1900, charu cha France chikapangana na Britain vya Sierra Leone, Portugal vya Guinea (iyo sono ni Guinea-Bissau), na Liberia. Mu nyengo ya Ŵafarisi, charu ichi chikaŵa mu chigaŵa cha French West Africa. Ŵalaraŵalara ŵa boma ndiwo ŵakalongozganga vyaru ivyo vikaŵa pasi pa maboma agha.[[File:Ahmed Sékou Touré na obisku v Ljubljani 1961 (3).jpg|thumb|President [[Ahmed Sékou Touré]] was supported by Communist states, and in 1961, visited [[Yugoslavia]].]] Mu 1958, caru ca France cikawa cifukwa ca masuzgo gha ndyali ndiposo cifukwa ca kutondeka kucita vinthu na maboma ghake, comenecomene Indochina na Algeria. Pa ungano wa ŵanthu wose wa pa Seputembala 28, 1958, boma la France likapeleka wanangwa ku vyaru ivyo vikaŵa pasi pa boma ili. Mwakupambana na vyaru vinyake ivyo vikalamulilikanga na boma ili, charu cha Guinea chikapokera wanangwa. Chipani ichi chikalongozgekanga na Ahmed Sékou Touré uyo chipani chake cha Democratic Party of Guinea-African Democratic Rally (PDG) chikapokera vithuzithuzi 56 pa vithuzithuzi 60 mu ma 1957 territorial elections. Ŵasilikari ŵa ku France ŵakafumako, ndipo pa Okutobala 2, 1958, Guinea yikajiphara kuti ni charu chakujiyimira paŵekha, ndipo Sékou Touré ndiyo wakaŵa pulezidenti. Nyuzipepara ya Washington Post yikati Ŵafalansa "ŵakofya" ŵakagumura vinthu vyose ivyo ŵakaghanaghananga kuti vyawovwira Guinea. Ŵakawuskamo mababu gha magesi, ŵakawuskamo pulani ya maji gha ku Conakry, msumba ukuru, na kotcha munkhwala m'malo mwa kulekera ŵanthu ŵa ku Guinea".<ref>{{cite news |last=Dash |first=Leon |author-link=Leon Dash |date=28 March 1984 |title=Guinea's Longtime President, Ahmed Sekou Toure, Dies |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/local/1984/03/28/guineas-longtime-president-ahmed-sekou-toure-dies/18f31685-878c-4759-8028-3bef7fbc568b/ |access-date=28 January 2023}}</ref> === Nkhondo Yakumaliro gha Chikoloni (1958 ̇) === {{See also|Opération Persil}} Pamanyuma, charu cha Guinea chikakolerana na Soviet Union ndipo chikachita vinthu mwakukolerana na fundo za boma. Kufuma apo, yikamba kulondezga fundo za ku China. Likalutilira kupokera ndalama kufuma ku vyaru vinyake nga ni United States. Kuzakafika mu 1960, Touré wakapharazga kuti PDG ndiyo yekha wakaŵa chipani cha ndyali mu caru ici, ndipo kwa vilimika 24 vyakulondezgapo, boma na PDG vikaŵa cimoza. Touré wakasankhika kuŵa purezidenti kwa vyaka 47, ndipo pa vilimika vinkhondi na viŵiri, ŵanthu ŵakamuwonanga kuti ni mulongozgi wa boma. Pakulondezga fundo za kusankhana mitundu mu vyaru vya mu Africa na Pan-Africanism mu vyaru vinyake, Touré wakazgoka mulongozgi uyo wakachitiska kuti ŵanthu ŵaleke kupulikana, ndipo boma lake likakanizga ŵanthu ŵanyake kuti ŵaleke kupulikana nayo. Mu m'ma 1960, boma la Guinea likakanizga ŵanthu kugura malo, likawuskapo ŵalongozgi awo ŵakimikika na ŵa ku France, kweniso likakanizga ubwezi wawo na boma la France na makampani gha ku France. Boma la Touré likathembanga Soviet Union na China kuti liŵawovwire pa vinthu vyakuthupi. Pa Novembala 22, 1970, ŵasilikari ŵa ku Portugal ŵakachita opareshoni yakuchemeka Operation Green Sea. Pakati pa vilato vyawo, ŵasilikari ŵa ku Portugal ŵakakhumbanga kukoma panji kukora Sekou Touré cifukwa ca wovwiri wake wa PAIGC, gulu la ŵanthu ŵakugaluka ilo likacitanga vivulupi mu Guinea kufuma ku misasa yawo mu Guinea.<ref>"Mr Sekou Touré, who gave the PAIGC unstinting support during its war against the Portuguese,..."[http://www.economist.com/world/mideast-africa/displaystory.cfm?story_id=13213487 Black revolt] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090308154755/http://www.economist.com/world/mideast-africa/displayStory.cfm?story_id=13213487|date=8 March 2009}}, [[The Economist]] (22 November 1980)</ref> Pamanyuma pa nkhondo, ŵasilikari awo ŵakakhozgekanga na Ŵapwitikizi ŵakawelera, ŵakafwatura ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Portugal awo ŵakaŵa mu jele ku Conakry. Mu vilimika vyakulondezgapo, boma la Touré likaŵawuskamo ŵanthu ŵanandi, ndipo ŵanthu 50,000 ŵakakomeka. Ŵanyake ŵakakakika na kutambuzgika. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakufuma ku vyaru vinyake ŵakacicizgika kufumamo mu caru ici, cifukwa cakuti ŵakutorana na ŵanthu ŵa ku Guinea ŵakakakika ndipo ŵana ŵawo ŵakaŵapeleka ku boma. Guinea wakasankhika kuŵa ciŵaro cambura kukhazikika ca wupu wa UN Security Council mu 1972-73. Mu 1977, chuma chikamba kunangika, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakakomeka, ndyali yikakhalanga makora yayi, ndipo ŵanthu ŵakazomerezgekanga yayi kuchita malonda. Ici cikapangiska Touré kuti wasinthe comene vinthu. Touré wakaleka kukhozgera Soviet Union na kwamba kukhozgera United States. Paumaliro wa m'ma 1970 na kukwambilira kwa m'ma 1980, vinthu vikasintha chomene pa nkhani ya vyachuma. Pakuyowoya za ubwezi wake na France, pamanyuma pakuti Valéry Giscard d'Estaing wasankhika kuŵa pulezidenti wa France, malonda ghakasazgikira ndipo vyaru viŵiri ivi vikamba kwendera lumoza. Sékou Touré wakafwa pa 26 March, 1984, pamanyuma pa opareshoni ya mtima mu United States, ndipo wakasinthika na nduna yikuru Louis Lansana Beavogui, uyo wakeneranga kuŵa pulezidenti wa nyengo yeneyiyo, pakulindilira mavoti ghaphya. Pa 3 Epulero 1984, PDG yikeneranga kusankha mulongozgi muphya. Kuyana na dango ili, munthu uyu ndiyo wakeneranga kuŵa yekha mulongozgi wa boma. Maora ghacoko waka pambere ungano uwu undambe, Koloneli Lansana Conté na Diarra Traoré ŵakatora mazaza mwa kuwukira boma kwambura kuthiska ndopa. Conté wakaŵa pulezidenti, ndipo Traoré wakaŵa nduna yikuru m'paka mu Disembala.[[File:President Jimmy Carter with President Ahmed Sǩou Tour ̌of Guinea.jpg|thumb|United States Pulezidenti Jimmy Carter wakupokelera Ahmed Sékou Touré kuwaro kwa White House, Washington, D.C., 1979]] Conté wakasuska ivyo boma lakwamba likacita pa nkhani ya wanangwa wa ŵanthu, kufumiska ŵakayidi ŵa ndyali 250 na kukhozga ŵanthu pafupifupi 200,000 kuti ŵawelere kufuma ku wuzga. Wakayowoya mwakupulikikwa makora kuti wafumengepo pa kusopa kwautesi. Mu 1992, Conté wakapharazga kuti wawelerenge ku boma, ndipo mu 1993, wakachita mavoti gha pulezidenti. Mu Seputembala 2001, mulongozgi wa chipani chinyake, Alpha Condé, ŵakamujalira mu jele cifukwa ca kunanga civikiliro ca boma. Pamanyuma, wakakhalako kanyengo mu caru ca France. Mu 2001, Conté wakanozga na kutonda pa referendamu ya kusazgirako nyengo ya kuwusa kwa pulezidenti, ndipo mu 2003, wakamba uteŵeti wake wacitatu. Mu Janyuwale 2005, Conté wakapona ku ŵanthu awo ŵakaghanaghananga kuti ŵakukhumba kumukoma apo wakawonekera pa wumba mu msumba wa Conakry. Ŵalwani ŵake ŵakayowoya kuti ni "munthu wakuvuka", ndipo wakeneranga kufumapo, kweni awo ŵakamukhozganga ŵakagomezganga kuti watonda ŵalwani ŵake. Kuyana na magazini ya Foreign Policy, caru ca Guinea cikaŵa pangozi ya kuzgoka caru cakutondeka.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://foreignpolicy.com/story/cms.php?story_id=4350 | title=Failed States list 2008 | publisher=Fund for Peace | access-date=27 June 2008 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080626091027/http://www.foreignpolicy.com/story/cms.php?story_id=4350 | archive-date=26 June 2008 | url-status=live | df=dmy-all }}</ref> Mu 2000, ku Guinea kukaŵa vivulupi ivyo vikakhwaska vyaru vinyake vya kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Africa. Vikawonekanga nga kuti charu ichi chili pafupi kuparanyika. Conté wakati ŵalongozgi ŵa vyaru vyapafupi ŵakudokera usambazi wa mu Guinea, kweni ŵanthu ŵakakana. Mu 2003, charu cha Guinea chikakolerana na vyaru vyapafupi kuti chilimbane na ŵakugaluka. Mu 2007, boma la Guinea likasankha nduna yikuru.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.aspr.ac.at/epu/research/rp_0307.pdf |title=Austrian Study Centre for Peace and Conflict Resolution (ASPR) {{pipe}} Peace Castle Austria |publisher=ASPR |access-date=9 September 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070615021433/http://www.aspr.ac.at/epu/research/rp_0307.pdf |archive-date=15 June 2007 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite news| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/1102574.stm |work=BBC News| title=Guinea head blames neighbours | date=6 January 2001 | access-date=2 April 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/986375.stm |work=BBC News| title=Civil war fears in Guinea | date=23 October 2000 | access-date=2 April 2010 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040619115730/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/986375.stm | archive-date=19 June 2004 | url-status=live | df=dmy-all }}</ref> Conté wakalutilira kuwusa m'paka apo wakafwira pa Disembala 23, 2008. Maora ghacoko waka pamanyuma pa nyifwa yake, Moussa Dadis Camara wakapoka mazaza mwa kuwukira boma, ndipo wakajiphara kuti ni mulongozgi wa boma la ŵasilikari. Ŵanthu ŵakamba kulimbana na boma ili ndipo ŵanthu 157 ŵakafwa apo pa Seputembala 28, 2009, boma likalangura ŵasilikari ŵake kuti ŵawukire ŵanthu awo ŵakawungana kuti ŵakane ivyo Camara wakachita kuti waŵe pulezidenti. Ŵasilikari ŵakamba kutimba ŵanthu, kuŵapweteka, na kuŵakoma, ndipo boma la Britain likakanizga ŵasilikari ŵanyake kuti ŵaleke kovwira boma liphya.<ref name="NYT"> {{cite news | last = MacFarquhar | first = Neil | title = U.N. Panel Calls for Court in Guinea Massacre | work = The New York Times | date = 21 December 2009 | url = https://www.nytimes.com/2009/12/22/world/africa/22guinea.html | access-date = 23 December 2009 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110511215744/http://www.nytimes.com/2009/12/22/world/africa/22guinea.html | archive-date = 11 May 2011 | url-status = live | df = dmy-all }} </ref><ref> {{cite news | last = Walker | first = Peter | title = Army steps in after Guinea president Lansana Conté dies | work = The Guardian | location = London | date = 23 December 2008 | url = https://www.theguardian.com/world/2008/dec/23/guinea-dictator-lansana-conte-dies | access-date = 23 December 2009 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090826134854/http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2008/dec/23/guinea-dictator-lansana-conte-dies | archive-date = 26 August 2009 | url-status = live | df = dmy-all }} </ref><ref> {{cite news | title = Guinea massacre toll put at 157 | publisher = BBC | date = 29 September 2009 | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8280603.stm | access-date = 23 December 2009 | location = London | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20091002232605/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8280603.stm | archive-date = 2 October 2009 | url-status = live | df = dmy-all }} </ref><ref> {{cite news | last = McGreal | first = Chris | title = Lansana Conté profile: Death of an African 'Big Man' | work = The Guardian | location = London | date = 23 December 2008 | url = https://www.theguardian.com/world/2008/dec/23/lansana-conte-profile | access-date = 23 December 2009 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130905092810/http://www.theguardian.com/world/2008/dec/23/lansana-conte-profile | archive-date = 5 September 2013 | url-status = live | df = dmy-all }} </ref> Pa Disembala 3, 2009, movwiri wake wakamukoma Camara apo ŵakakwesananga pa ivyo vikacitika mu Seputembala. Camara wakaluta ku Morocco kuti wakapwelelereke.<ref name = "NYT"/><ref>{{cite web | title = Guinean soldiers look for ruler's dangerous rival | publisher = malaysianews.net | date = 5 December 2009 | url = http://www.malaysianews.net/story/573838 | access-date = 23 December 2009 | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110723202201/http://www.malaysianews.net/story/573838 | archive-date = 23 July 2011 | df = dmy-all }}</ref> Wachiŵiri kwa pulezidenti (na nduna ya vya vimbundi) Sékouba Konaté wakafuma ku Lebanon kuti wazakalongozge caru. Pamanyuma pa kukumana ku Ouagadougou pa 13 na 14 January 2010, Camara, Konaté na Blaise Compaoré, Pulezidenti wa Burkina Faso, ŵakapanga ndondomeko ya malango 12 agho ghakulayizga kuti Guinea wawelerenge ku boma la ŵanthu mu myezi 6. Pa 27 Juni, pa ungano wa ŵalara ŵa boma pakaŵa mautesi ghakukhwaskana na upusikizgi, ndipo pa 7 Novembala pakaŵaso ungano unyake. Kuvota kukaŵa "kwapacanya", ndipo mavoti ghakaŵa "ghawemi". Alpha Condé, mulongozgi wa chipani chakususka cha Rally of the Guinean People (RGP), wakathereska mavoti, ndipo wakalayizga kuti wasinthenge vinthu pa nkhani ya kuvikilira na kunozgaso mapangano gha migodi. Mu Febuluwale 2013, nkhaza za ndyali zikawuka pamanyuma pa viwawa vya mu misewu vyakususkana na mavoti gha mu Meyi. Ŵanthu 9 ŵakakomeka pa viphikiro ivi ndipo ŵanthu pafupifupi 220 ŵakapwetekeka. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakafwa na kupwetekeka cifukwa cakuti ŵasilikari ŵakagwiliskira nchito vilwero vyakofya. Nkhondo iyi yikapangiska kuti paŵe kulimbana pakati pa ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Malinke na Fula. Pa 26 March 2013, chipani chakususka chikafumamo mu viphikiro na boma pa nkhani ya chisankho, ŵakati boma lindasungilire ivyo likayowoya, ndipo laswa mapangano ghose.<ref>{{cite news| title=Guinea election talks fail, opposition threatens protests| author=Bate Felix| work=Reuters| url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-guinea-election-idUSBRE92P11320130326| date=26 March 2013| access-date=1 July 2017| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924180316/http://www.reuters.com/article/2013/03/26/us-guinea-election-idUSBRE92P11320130326| archive-date=24 September 2015| url-status=live| df=dmy-all}}</ref>[[File:Acte2 FNDC.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|Chiwonetsero cha 2019-2020 ku Guinea chotsutsana ndi ulamuliro wa Alpha Condé]] Pa Malichi 25, 2014, wupu wakuwona vya umoyo pa charu chose (WHO) ukati ku Guinea kuli nthenda ya Ebola. Mu nyengo yakwamba iyi, ŵanthu 86 ŵakafwa, ndipo 59 ŵakafwa. Pa Meyi 28, ŵanthu 281 ŵakaŵa na nthenda iyi ndipo 186 ŵakafwa. Munthu wakwamba uyo ŵakagomezga kuti wakafwa wakaŵa Emile Ouamouno, msepuka wa vyaka viŵiri wa ku Meliandou. Wakalwara pa 2 Disembala 2013 ndipo wakafwa pa 6 Disembala. Pa Seputembala 18, 2014, ŵanthu 8 ŵa gulu la ŵapharazgi ŵa Ebola ŵakakomeka na ŵanthu ŵa mu muzi wa Womey. Pa Novembala 1, 2015, ku Guinea kukaŵa ŵanthu 3,810 awo ŵakalwara nthenda iyi ndipo 2,536 ŵakafwa. Nkhondo ya 2019-2020 ku Guinea yikaŵa mbembe zinandi na vivulupi vya ŵanthu ŵanandi ivyo vikacitika pa Okutobala 14, 2019 kwimikana na boma la Alpha Conde. Ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 800 ŵakafwa pa nkhondo iyi. Pambuyo pa chisankho cha pulezidenti cha 2020 ku Guinea, chisankho cha Alpha Condé ku nyengo yachitatu chinatsutsidwa ndi otsutsa, omwe adamunamizira zachinyengo. Condé wakayowoya kuti pa March 2020 pakachitika referendum iyo yikamovwira kuti waŵepo pa mavoti. Pa 5 September 2021, pamanyuma pa kuwombera kwa maora ghanandi kufupi na nyumba ya pulezidenti, Lt. Col. Mamady Doumbouya wakatora mazaza pa TV ya boma ndipo wakapharazga kuti boma la Pulezidenti Alpha Conde lapasuka ndipo mphaka za chalo zajalika. Namise, ŵasilikari ŵa boma ŵakamba kulamulira msumba wa Conakry na ŵasilikari ŵa charu. Kuyana na Guinée Matin, pa Seputembala 6, ŵasilikari ŵakamba kulamulira boma na kwamba kunjizga ŵasilikari mu malo mwa boma. Wupu wa United Nations, European Union, African Union, ECOWAS (iyo yikakanizga Guinea kuŵa mu wupu wa ECOWAS) na La Francophonie ŵakasuska boma ilo likapoka boma ili, ndipo ŵakacema kuti pulezidenti Condé wafwatulike. Vinthu vyakuyana waka vikafumira ku vyaru vinyake vya ŵazengezgani na vyakumanjiliro gha dazi (nga ni United States), kweniso ku China (uko ukugwiliskira ntchito Guinea kuti upange hafu ya visulo vyake vya aluminiyamu. Nangauli vili nthena, pa 1 Okutobala 2021, Mamady Doumbouya wakalapizga kuŵa purezidenti wa nyengo yitali.<ref>{{cite news |title=Guinea coup leader sworn in as interim president |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/10/1/guinea-coup-mamady-doumbouya-interim |work=www.aljazeera.com |language=en}}</ref> ==Makhalilo gha charu== {{Main|Geography of Guinea}} [[File:Un-guinea.png|thumb|upright=2.5|center|Mapu agho ghakulongora misumba ya ku Guinea na vigaŵa vyake]] Guinea yili na mphaka na Guinea-Bissau kumpoto ca kumanjiliro gha dazi, Senegal kumpoto, Mali kumpoto ca kumafumiro gha dazi, Ivory Coast kumafumiro gha dazi, Sierra Leone kumwera kwa dazi na Liberia kumwera. Charu ichi chili na chigaŵa chakumafumiro gha dazi kwa charu ichi, ndipo chikujumphilira kumpoto na kumanjiliro gha dazi m'paka ku mphaka yake ya kumpoto na kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa charu cha Guinea-Bissau. Maji gha Mlonga wa Niger, Gambia, na Senegal, ghose ghali mu chigaŵa cha Guinea Highlands.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/W4347E/w4347e0h.htm |title=The Senegal River basin |website=Fao.org |access-date=23 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121019075901/http://www.fao.org/docrep/W4347E/w4347e0h.htm |archive-date=19 October 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/W4347E/w4347e0i.htm |title=The Niger River basin |website=Fao.org |access-date=23 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170721033139/http://www.fao.org/docrep/w4347e/w4347e0i.htm |archive-date=21 July 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/W4347E/w4347e0t.htm |title=The West Coast |website=Fao.org |access-date=23 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121011063822/http://www.fao.org/docrep/W4347E/w4347e0t.htm |archive-date=11 October 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref>Mu charu ichi muli vyaru vyakukwana 245,857 km2. Mphepete mwa nyanja muli mtunda wa makilomita 320 (200 mi) na mphaka ya makilomita 3,400 (2,100 mi). Chigaŵa ichi chili pakati pa latitude 7° na 13°N, kweniso longitude 7° na 15°W, ndipo chigaŵa chinyake chili kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa latitude 15°. [[File:Koppen-Geiger Map GIN present.svg|thumb|upright=1|Mapu gha nyengo gha Köppen ]] Charu cha Guinea chili na vigaŵa vinayi: Charu cha Maritimic Guinea, icho chikuchemekaso kuti Lower Guinea panji Basse-Coté lowlands, icho ŵanthu ŵake mbanandi chomene ŵa fuko la Susu. Charu cha Fouta Djallon chili na mapiri ghanandi ndipo chili kumpoto na kumwera kwa charu ichi. Mu mapiri gha ku Guinea ndimo mukufuma milonga ya Niger, Gambia, na Senegal. Phiri la Nimba ndilo lili pachanya chomene mu Guinea. Apo vigaŵa vya ku Guinea na Ivory Coast vya Nimba Massif ni malo ghakusungirako vyamoyo gha UNESCO, chigaŵa icho chikuchemeka Guinea Backbone chikuluta ku Liberia, uko ŵanthu ŵakugwiliskira ntchito migodi vyaka vinandi. Ku Guinea kuli malo 5 agho kuli vyakumera vinandi. Chigaŵa ichi chili na chigaŵa cha 4.9/10, ndipo chili pa nambala 114 pa vyaru 172.<ref name="FLII-Supplementary">{{cite journal|last1=Grantham|first1=H. S.|last2=Duncan|first2=A.|last3=Evans|first3=T. D.|last4=Jones|first4=K. R.|last5=Beyer|first5=H. L.|last6=Schuster|first6=R.|last7=Walston|first7=J.|last8=Ray|first8=J. C.|last9=Robinson|first9=J. G.|last10=Callow|first10=M.|last11=Clements|first11=T.|last12=Costa|first12=H. M.|last13=DeGemmis|first13=A.|last14=Elsen|first14=P. R.|last15=Ervin|first15=J.|last16=Franco|first16=P.|last17=Goldman|first17=E.|last18=Goetz|first18=S.|last19=Hansen|first19=A.|last20=Hofsvang|first20=E.|last21=Jantz|first21=P.|last22=Jupiter|first22=S.|last23=Kang|first23=A.|last24=Langhammer|first24=P.|last25=Laurance|first25=W. 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Viyuni vinyake vikukhala mu malo ghakutali chomene na malo ghakuvikilirako ŵanthu. Vinyama ivi ni ivi: * Amphibians : ''[[Hemisus guineensis]]'', ''[[Phrynobatrachus guineensis]]'' * Reptiles : ''[[Acanthodactylus]] guineensis'', ''[[Mochlus]] guineensis'' * Arachnids: ''[[Malloneta guineensis]]'', ''[[Dictyna]] guineensis'' * Insects : ''[[Zorotypus]] guineensis'', ''[[Euchromia guineensis]]'' * Birds: ''[[Melaniparus guineensis]]'' ===Regions and prefectures=== {{Main|Administrative divisions of Guinea}} [[File:Guinea Regions.png|thumb|upright=1.6|[[Regions of Guinea]]]] Charu cha Guinea chili na malo ghakukwana ma kilomita 245,857 mu vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Africa. Chigaŵa ichi chili na vigaŵa vinayi ivyo vikupambana na vinyake. * [[Maritime Guinea]] (''La Guinée Maritime'') covers 18% of the country. * [[Middle Guinea]] (''La Moyenne-Guinée'') covers 20% of the country. * [[Upper Guinea]] (''La Haute-Guinée'') covers 38% of the country. * [[Guinée forestière|Forested Guinea]] (''Guinée forestière'') covers 23% of the country, and is both forested and mountainous. [[File:Fouta Djallon (14582291826).jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|[[Fouta Djallon]] highlands in central Guinea]] Charu cha Guinea chili na vigaŵa 8 ivyo vili na vigaŵa 33. Msumba ukuru wa Conakry, uwo uli na ŵanthu 1,675,069, uli mu chigaŵa chapadera. {|class="wikitable sortable" |- !Chigaŵa!!Msumba!!Ŵanthu <br /> (2014 census by National Institute of Statistics) |- |[[Conakry Region]] ||[[Conakry]]||1,675,069 |- |[[Nzérékoré Region]] ||[[Nzérékoré]]||1,591,716 |- |[[Kindia Region]] ||[[Kindia]]||1,573,690 |- |[[Boké Region]] ||[[Boké]]||1,092,291 |- |[[Labé Region]] ||[[Labé]]||1,001,392 |- |[[Mamou Region]] ||[[Mamou]]||737,062 |- |[[Kankan Region]] ||[[Kankan]]||1,979,038 |- |[[Faranah Region]]||[[Faranah]]||949,589 |} ==Ndale== {{Further|Politics of Guinea}} Charu cha Guinea ni charu cha Republic. Pulezidenti wakusankhika na ŵanthu ndipo ni mulara wa boma. Nyumba ya Malango ya caru cose iyo yili na nyumba yimoza ndiyo yikupanga malango mu caru, ndipo ŵanthu ndiwo ŵakusankha ŵanthu awo ŵali mu nyumba iyi. Khoti Likuru Chomene mu Guinea ndilo lili na mazaza pa milandu yose.<ref name="reuters.com">{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-guinea-election-idUSBRE9AF0AP20131116|title=Guinea's Supreme Court rejects election challenges|work=Reuters|date=16 November 2013|access-date=23 July 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924190855/http://www.reuters.com/article/2013/11/16/us-guinea-election-idUSBRE9AF0AP20131116|archive-date=24 September 2015|url-status=live|last1=Samb|first1=Saliou}}</ref> Nyumba ya Malango ya ku Guinea, yikaŵavya maungano kufuma mu 2008 m'paka mu 2013, apo yikagaŵirika pamanyuma pa boma kuwukira boma mu Disembala. Kufuma waka mu 2007, mavoti ghakasunkhunyika kanandi waka. Mu Epulero 2012, Pulezidenti Condé wakachedweska mavoti kwamuyirayira, chifukwa cha kukhumbikwa kuti ghaŵe "ghapusu na gha demokilase".<ref name="RNW Africa Desk">{{cite web|title=Guinea president postpones parliamentary elections indefinitely|url=http://www.rnw.nl/africa/article/guinea-president-postpones-parliamentary-elections-indefinitely|publisher=Radio Netherlands Worldwide|access-date=22 August 2012|author=RNW Africa Desk|date=28 April 2012|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120430121146/http://www.rnw.nl/africa/article/guinea-president-postpones-parliamentary-elections-indefinitely|archive-date=30 April 2012}}</ref> Pa Seputembala 24, 2013, ku Guinea kukachitika chisankho chapulezidenti. Chipani cha Pulezidenti Alpha Condé, Rally of the Guinean People (RPG), chikapokera vithuzi vinandi mu Nyumba ya Malango ya ku Guinea, na vithuzi 53 pa vithuzi 114. Maphwando a chipani chakususkana nagho ghakapokera vithuzithuzi 53, ndipo ŵalongozgi ŵa chipani chakususkana nawo ŵakasuska kuti ivyo vikalembeka vikaŵa vyautesi. Mulara wa boma la Guinea wakusankhika na ŵanthu wose kuti waŵe na vyaka 5. Munthu uyo wawina wakwenera kupokera mavoti ghanandi kuti waŵe mulara wa boma. Pulezidenti ndiyo wakulamulira charu cha Guinea, ndipo wakuwovwirika na ŵalara ŵa boma 25. Boma likwendeska vinthu mu vigaŵa 8, vigaŵa 33, vigaŵa vichokovichoko vyakujumpha 100, na vigaŵa. Ŵalongozgi ŵa vigaŵa ŵakusankhika; pulezidenti wakusora ŵantchito ŵa vigaŵa vinyake vyose. Pulezidenti wakale Alpha Condé wakawovwirika na mtundu waciŵiri ukuru comene mu Guinea, wa Malinke. Ŵanthu ŵa fuko la Fula ndiwo ŵakakolerana na fundo iyi.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/guinea/#people-and-society|title=Guinea|date=23 September 2021}}</ref> ===Ubale na vyaru vinyake=== {{Further|Foreign relations of Guinea}} [[File:Vladimir Putin and Alpha Condé (2017-09-28) 2.jpg|thumb|President [[Alpha Condé]] with Russian President [[Vladimir Putin]] on 28 September 2017]] Charu cha Guinea chili mu wupu wa African Union, Agency for the French-Speaking Community, African Development Bank, Economic Community of West African States, World Bank, Islamic Development Bank, IMF, na United Nations. Kuyana na kafukufuku uyo wakacitika mu Febuluwale 2009, Kufumira waka mu 1985, ubwezi wa Guinea na vyaru vinyake, kusazgapo vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Africa, ukwenda makora comene. Lipoti la Dipatimenti iyi mu Okutobala 2018 likati nangauli "U.S. yikasuska" boma la Guinea la " 2008 coup d'etat", kweni "U.S". yikaŵa na "ubwezi wakukhora" na Guinea pambere boma la Guinea lindanjire, ndipo pamanyuma pa "mavoti gha pulezidenti wa Guinea mu 2010, United States yikambaso kukolerana na boma". Chikalata ichi chikayowoya kuti ŵanthu ŵakukolerana na "masankhiro gha wupu wakulongozga mu 2013 na chisankho chachiŵiri cha pulezidenti mu 2015". Lipoti la U.S. March 2021 Dipatimenti ya vyaru vya ku America yikanena kuti boma, mawupu gha vimbundi, na mabungwe gha vyamalonda mu Guinea vikutimbanizga wanangwa wa ŵanthu. Lipoti ili likayowoya kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi pa caru cose ŵakususka ivyo vikacitika pa maungano gha boma agho ghakacitika sonosono apa, agho ghakapangiska kuti "Purezidenti Alpha Conde wasankhikeso (nangauli pakaŵa mphindano)... pamanyuma pa kafukufuku uyo wakacitika mu mwezi wa Malichi. Dipatimenti iyi yikadandawura na boma ilo likawuskapo boma mu 2021, ndipo yikachenjezga kuti "nkhaza na viyezgo vyose vyambura kukolerana na dango vizamumara waka mtende, kukhazikika, na kutukuka kwa Guinea, [ndipo] vingapangiska kuti United States na ŵabwezi ŵanyake ŵa Guinea ŵaleke kovwira charu ichi...," Nangauli ŵakayowoyapo yayi kuti pulezidenti Condé wawelere ku mazaza, kweni boma la United States likati "mphapo za charu chose kuti viwovwire kuti vinthu vyende makora mu charu ichi kweniso kuti paŵe mtende".<ref name="us_relations_2021_09_05_state_gov">[https://www.state.gov/on-the-military-seizure-of-power-in-guinea/ "On the Military Seizure of Power in Guinea,"], September 5, 2021, [[United States Department of State]], retrieved September 6, 2021</ref><ref name="guinea_coup_leader_2021_09_06_reuters">[https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/uneasy-calm-guinea-after-president-condes-apparent-ouster-2021-09-06/ "Guinea coup leader bars foreign travel for government officials,"] [[Reuters News Service]], retrieved September 6, 2021</ref> Wupu wa United Nations ukadandawura mwaluŵiro kuti boma likapoka mazaza mu 2021, ndipo ŵabwezi ŵanyake ŵa Guinea ŵakadandawura. Wupu wa African Union na West Africa's regional bloc (ECOWAS), wose ŵakawopanga kuti ŵaŵikenge vyeruzgo apo ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakughanaghana kuti vyeruzgo ivi viŵenge na nkhongono zichoko chifukwa chakuti Guinea njumoza wa vyeruzgo vya West African currency union yayi. ECOWAS yikatumizga mwaluŵiro wupu wa Guinea, ndipo yikapempha kuti pulezidenti Condé wafwatulike, uku yikutuma mathenga ku Conakry kuti ghasange nthowa yakumazgira suzgo ili. Ku China (uko kukuthemba pa Guinea pa hafu ya aluminiyamu wake, na kukolerana na pulezidenti Condé) kukususkana na boma.<ref name="china_is_ok_2021_09_foreign_policy">[https://foreignpolicy.com/2021/09/08/china-guinea-interference-relations-alpha-conde-xi-jinping/ "China Is OK With Interfering in Guinea's Internal Affairs,"], September 8, 2021, ''[[Foreign Policy]]'' retrieved September 9, 2021</ref><ref name="leaders_due_in_guinea_2021_09_09_reuters">[https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/west-african-leaders-due-guinea-post-coup-calm-pervades-conakry-2021-09-09/ West African leaders due in Guinea as post-coup calm pervades Conakry,"] September 9, 2021, [[Reuters News Service]], retrieved September 9, 2021</ref><ref name="leaders_suspend_guinea_2021_09_08_bbc">[https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-58487925 "West African leaders suspend Guinea from Ecowas following coup,"] September 9, 2021, [[BBC News]], retrieved September 9, 2021</ref><ref name="guinea_coup_leader_2021_09_06_reuters" /> === Ŵankhondo === {{Main|Military of Guinea}} Gulu la ŵasilikari la Guinea lili kugaŵikana mu vigaŵa vinkhondi: ŵasilikari, ŵasilikari ŵa mu nyanja, ŵasilikari ŵa mu mlengalenga, ŵasilikari ŵa National Gendarmerie na ŵasilikari ŵa Republican Guard. Kuonjezerapo, magulu a chitetezo cha boma akuphatikizapo National Police Force (Sûreté Nationale). Gulu la ŵasilikari ilo likuvikilira ŵanthu, lili na ŵanthu masauzandi ghanandi. Ŵasilikari aŵa ŵali na ŵasilikari pafupifupi 15,000, ndipo ni gulu likuru comene la ŵasilikari. Ŵasilikari ŵa nkhondo ŵakujumpha 700. Vinthu vyake vikusazgapo ndege zinandi zakulwera nkhondo na vyakurya vya ku Russia. Ŵasilikari ŵa nkhondo ŵali na ŵantchito pafupifupi 900 ndipo ŵakwendeska maboti na maboti ghachoko. === Wanangwa wa '''ŵa'''nthu === {{main|Human rights in Guinea}} Ku Guinea, kugonana kwa ŵanalume panji ŵanakazi pera nkhukanizgika. Mu 2010, nduna yikuru yikayowoya kuti ŵanthu awo ŵakutemwa kugonana ŵalije wanangwa uwu. Anastasia Gage, pulofesa wa pa Yunivesite ya Tulane, na Ronan van Rossem, pulofesa wa pa Yunivesite ya Ghent, ŵakuti mu Guinea ndimo ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakukomekera ŵanakazi. Mu 2009, ku Guinea, ŵanakazi ŵakujumpha 98% ŵakachitiskanga viŵaro vyawo. Ku Guinea, "pafupifupi ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yose, visopa, na mafuko" ŵakukoma ŵanakazi. Kafukufuku uyo wakachitika mu 2005, wakalongora kuti ŵanakazi 96 pa 100 ŵaliwose ŵali kuchitapo opareshoni iyi.<ref name="State 2011">{{cite web |author=Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor |author-link=Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor |year=2012 |title=Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 2011: Guinea |url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/drl/rls/hrrpt/humanrightsreport/index.htm?dlid=186203 |access-date=27 August 2012 |publisher=[[United States Department of State]] |df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref name="The effects of female genital mutil" /><ref name="The effects of female genital mutil">{{cite journal|last2=Gage|first2=A. J.|year=2009|title=The effects of female genital mutilation on the onset of sexual activity and marriage in Guinea|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_archives-of-sexual-behavior_2009-04_38_2/page/178|journal=Archives of Sexual Behavior|volume=38|issue=2|pages=178–185|doi=10.1007/s10508-007-9237-5|pmid=17943434|last1=Rossem|first1=R. V.|s2cid=40103661}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last2=Gage|first2=AJ|year=2009|title=The effects of female genital mutilation on the onset of sexual activity and marriage in Guinea|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_archives-of-sexual-behavior_2009-04_38_2/page/178|journal=Arch Sex Behav|volume=38|issue=2|pages=178–85|doi=10.1007/s10508-007-9237-5|pmid=17943434|last1=Van Rossem|first1=R|s2cid=40103661}}</ref> ==Chuma== {{Main|Economy of Guinea}} [[File:Fisher women on River Niger in Guinea, Africa.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|Malinke fisher women on the Niger River, [[Niandankoro]], [[Kankan Region]], in eastern Guinea]] [[File:Kissidougou market.JPG|thumb|upright=1.15|[[Kissidougou]] market]] ===Ulimi=== Pa nyengo yinyake, vyakurya vikagwiranga nchito ŵanthu pafupifupi 75%. Mpunga uwu ukulimika mu malo agho kuli maji ghanandi pakati pa milonga. Chifukwa chakuti mpunga uwo ŵanthu ŵa mu charu ichi ŵakupanga ngwakukwana yayi, ŵakuguliska kufuma ku vyaru vinyake. Mu chigaŵa ichi ŵakuliska mphonje za khofi, anase, maperekisi, vipasi, mango, malalanje, mabhanana, mbatata, matumato, macucumber, malibwe, na vyakurya vinyake. Charu cha Guinea nchimoza mwa vyaru ivyo vikupanga maapulo na mapeyala. Pali minda ya mpheska, ya makomamanga, ndipo mu vyaka vyasonosono apa, vyakumera vya makomamanga vyamba kukura.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Madiou|first=Sow|title=Impact on agricultural productivity in Guinea of R&D Investment, Foreign Aid and Climate Change|url=https://twasp.info/journal/Cf9659eX/impact-on-agricultural-productivity-in-guinea-of-rd-investment-foreign-aid-and-climate-change|journal=North American Academic Research|year=2020|volume=3|pages=86–106|doi=10.5281/zenodo.3611652|s2cid=244984398 }}</ref> ===Vyachilengiwa=== Ku Guinea kuli mabomba gha bauxite ghakukwana 25% panji kujumpha apa. Muli malibwe gha dayamondi, golide, na visulo vinyake. Bauxite na alumina ni vinthu vikuru comene ivyo ŵanthu ŵakuguliska. Makampani ghanyake ghakupanga moŵa, maji, vyakumwa vyakunowa na hona. Vyaru vili na ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 75 peresenti. Mu nyengo iyo charu cha Guinea chikalamuliranga na ŵa ku France, chikaŵa na vyakurya vinandi nga ni nthochi, anase, khofi, mankhwaŵa, na mafuta. Malo agha ghali na dongo, maji, na mphepo. === Kugwira Ntchito M'migodi === {{main|Mining industry of Guinea}} [[File:Guinea Product Exports (2019).svg|upright=1.3|thumb|right|A proportional representation of Guinea exports, 2019]] Ku Guinea kuli matani ghakujumpha 25 biliyoni gha bauxite, panji kuti hafu ya malo agho ghalipo pa caru cose. Vinthu vyakuthupi ivyo charu ichi chili navyo ni matani ghakujumpha 4 biliyoni gha visulo vyamahara, dayamondi, golide, na uranium. Mu vigaŵa vyose ivi, muli mwaŵi wa kupanga ndalama na malonda, ndipo "nthondo ya ku Guinea iyo njambura kukhazikika ndiposo vimbundi vikulutilira kutondeska ŵanthu kupanga ndalama zinandi". Makampani ghakukolerana agho ghakupanga mabomba gha bauxite na alumina kumpoto ca kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Guinea ghakupanga pafupifupi 80% ya ndalama za ku Guinea. Bauxite wakuzgoka aluminiyamu, ndipo pamanyuma wakuzgoka aluminiyamu. Wupu wa Compagnie des Bauxites de Guinée (CBG) ukupeleka matani pafupifupi 14 miliyoni gha bauxite ya mtundu wapachanya pa chaka. CBG ni kampani yakukolerana, 49% yili na boma la Guinea ndipo 51% yili na kampani ya Halco Mining Inc., iyo yikulongozgeka na kampani ya Alcoa (AA) iyo yikupanga aluminiyamu, Rio Tinto Group na Dadco Investments. Wupu wa CBG uli na wanangwa wakuŵa na bauxite mu chigaŵa cha kumpoto kwa Guinea m'paka mu 2038. Mu 2008, ŵanthu awo ŵakasuskanga ntchito ya magesi ŵakajara misewu iyo CBG yikendangamo. Mu mapangano agho ŵakachita na makampani gha mafuta gha pa caru cose, Guinea wali na fundo yakuti ŵantchito ŵake ŵapelekenge magesi ku ŵanthu awo ŵakukhala kufupi.<ref> {{cite news |url=http://www.minesandcommunities.org/article.php?a=8889 |author1=Saliou Samb |author2=Daniel Magnowski |title=One dead in Guinea protest, mine trains stop |agency=Reuters |date=1 November 2008 |work=Minesandcommunities.org |access-date=24 August 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141019125412/http://www.minesandcommunities.org/article.php?a=8889 |archive-date=19 October 2014 |url-status=live }} </ref>[[File:River sand production Guinea.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|Ŵana awo ŵakugwira nchito za mawoko kuti ŵasange vyakukhumbikwa mu mbumba zawo.]]Wupu wa Compagnie des Bauxites de Kindia (CBK), uwo ni wupu wa boma la Guinea na wa RUSAL, ukupanga matani pafupifupi 2.5 miliyoni pa chaka, ndipo pafupifupi matani ghose agha ghakutumizgika ku Russia na ku vyaru vya kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Europe. Dian Dian, wupu wa ku Guinea na Ukraine, uwo ukupangiska bauxite, ukupangika matani 1,000,000 (1,102,311 short tons; 984,207 long tons) pa chaka. Mu 2004, kampani ya Alumina Compagnie de Guinée (ACG) iyo yikapoka kampani ya Friguia Consortium, yikapanga matani pafupifupi 2.4 miliyoni gha mafuta gha aluminiyamu. Malo agha ghakutumizga matani 750,000 gha alumina. Global Alumina na Alcoa-Alcan ŵali kulembeska mapangano na boma la Guinea kuti ŵazenge mafakitale ghakurughakuru ghakupangira alumina, agho ghali na nkhongono yakuchitira vinthu pafupifupi matani 4 pa chaka. Mu mgodi wa Simandou muli visulo vinandi vya visulo. Mu Malichi 2010, kampani ya Anglo-Australian Rio Tinto Group na aluminiyamu yikuru chomene ya China (Chinalco) ŵakasazga phangano lakukhwaskana na mulimo wa Rio Tinto. Mu 2017, wupu wakuwona vya upusikizgi (SFO), uwo ni wupu wakuwona vya upusikizgi ku Britain, ukayambiska kafukufuku pa ivyo Rio Tinto wakachitanga mu Guinea. Tigui Camara, uyo kale wakaŵa wamaseŵera, ni mwanakazi wakwamba mu Guinea kuŵa na kampani ya migodi iyo yikwendeskeka na ŵanthu.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|title=TIGUI CAMARA: Leading In The Male Dominated Mining Industry|url=https://www.africanleadershipmagazine.co.uk/tigui-camara-leading-in-the-male-dominated-mining-industry/|access-date=2022-01-25|website=African Leadership Magazine|language=en-US}}</ref> ===Mafuta=== Mu 2006, charu cha Guinea chikachita phangano na Hyperdynamics Corporation ku Houston kuti ŵapenje malo ghakutali na nyanja. Chibuŵa chakwamba, Sabu-1, chikeneranga kwambika mu Okutobala 2011, pa malo agho ghakaŵa pasi pa maji mamita pafupifupi 700. Sabu-1 yikaŵa na vigaŵa vinayi vya mchenga wa Cretaceous, ndipo yikaghanaghananga kuti yifwenge mamita 3,600. Pamanyuma pa kumalizga kubowozga mu 2012, chisimi cha Sabu-1 chikawoneka kuti ntchakovwira yayi. Mu Novembala 2012, kampani ya Hyperdynamics, SCS, yikapangana kuti yigulitse 40% ya malo ogulitsira ku Tullow Oil, ndipo chiŵerengero cha eni ake ku Guinea chinakwera kufika pa 37% Hyperdynamics, 40% Tullow Oil, ndi 23% Dana Petroleum. Hyperdynamics yizamuŵa na nyengo m'paka Seputembala 2016, mwakuyana na phangano ilo lilipo sono, kuti yambe kubowozga pa malo ghanyake agho yikukhumba, agho ni Fatala Cenomanian turbidite fan prospect.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hyperdynamics.com/guinea_project.htm|title=Overview of the Guinea Project|website=Hyperdynamics.com|author1=Hyperdynamics|access-date=3 February 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150203114454/http://www.hyperdynamics.com/guinea_project.htm|archive-date=3 February 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref> {{cite web|url=https://doc.research-and-analytics.csfb.com/docView?document_id=x548038&serialid=6XKHhijcT%2B6Xg1jfyFmVuwQySL6HHtJCNiU0UlOijDA%3D|title=Tullow Oil|date=21 January 2014|work=Equity Research|publisher=Credit Suisse|page=15|author1=Thomas Adolff|author2=Charlotte Elliott|access-date=24 August 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161017122251/https://doc.research-and-analytics.csfb.com/docView?document_id=x548038&serialid=6XKHhijcT%2B6Xg1jfyFmVuwQySL6HHtJCNiU0UlOijDA%3D|archive-date=17 October 2016|url-status=live}} </ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tullowoil.com/index.asp?pageid=137&newsid=805|title=Tullow Oil Agrees Farm-in to Guinea Concession|website=Tullowoil.com|access-date=3 February 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150203120232/http://www.tullowoil.com/index.asp?pageid=137&newsid=805|archive-date=3 February 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.offshore-technology.com/news/newshyperdynamics-completes-drilling-of-sabu-1-well-offshore-guinea-conakry|title=Hyperdynamics completes drilling at Sabu-1 well offshore Guinea-Conakry|website=Offshore-technology.com|date=14 February 2012|access-date=3 February 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150203115227/http://www.offshore-technology.com/news/newshyperdynamics-completes-drilling-of-sabu-1-well-offshore-guinea-conakry|archive-date=3 February 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> === Ŵalendo === == Galerie == <gallery> File:Le "Voile" de la mariée à Kindia.png|The "Voile de la Mariée" (Bride's Veil) waterfall in Kindia File:Dame_de_Mali_Guinée.jpg|[[:en:fr:Mont Loura|Dame de Mali]] File:Chute_de_Tabouna_à_Kindia_01.jpg|[[:en:fr:Chute de Tabouna|Chute de Tabouna]] à [[:en:fr:Kindia|Kindia]] File:Chute_de_Saala_vue_à_360°_Labé.jpg|[[:en:fr:Chute de Saala|Chute de Saala]] [[:en:fr:Labé|Labé]] File:Chimpanzé_de_Bossou_33.jpg|Chimpanzé de Bossou File:Plage_de_Roume.jpg|Plage sur les [[:en:fr:Îles de Loos|Ile de Loos]] </gallery> Vinyake ivyo vikukondweska chomene mu Guinea ni majigha agho ghali mu vigaŵa vya Basse Guinea (Lower Guinea) na Moyenne Guinea (Middle Guinea). Chigwa cha Soumba pa phiri la Kakoulima ku Kindia, Voile de la Mariée (Valo la Mkwatibwi) ku Dubreka, chigwa cha Kinkon chomwe chili pafupifupi mamita 80 (260 ft) pa Kokoula River ku Pita, mathithi a Kambadaga omwe amatha kufika mamita 100 (330 ft) nyengo yamvula pamtsinje womwewo, mathithi a Ditinn & Mitty ku Dalaba, ndi mathithi a Fetoré ndi mlatho wamwala m'chigawo cha Labe ndi ena mwa malo okopa alendo okhudzana ndi madzi. ==Mayendelo== {{Main|Transport in Guinea}} Malo ghakwendera ndege gha Conakry International Airport ndigho ni ghakurughakuru chomene mu charu ichi, ndipo ghakwendera ku misumba yinyake mu Africa na ku Europe. Njanji iyi yikazengeka pakati pa 1904 na 1910, ndipo yikaŵaso yayi kugwira ntchito mu 1995 ndipo mu 2007 yikamara. Pakwamba, ŵakakhumbanga kunozga msewu uwu kuti uŵe wakwendamo ŵanthu ŵanandi, ndipo apo ntchito yikambanga mu 2010, ŵakayowoya kuti mulimo uwu uli kumara chifukwa cha vimbundi. Pali njanji iyo yikwendeskeka na boma iyo yikukolerana na migodi ya bauxite ya Sangarédi na dowoko la Kamsar (137 km) kweniso njanji ya m'ma 1960 iyo yikwendeskeka na Russia RusAl ku migodi ya Fria (143 km). Pakuŵa chigaŵa cha ndondomeko ya kwambaso kuguliska migodi ya visulo pa Simandou block 1 na 2, wupu uphya uwu ukalayizga mu 2019 kuti uzamupeleka ndalama zakwendeskera mulimo wa kuzenga njanji yiphya yakuya ku Matakong pa nyanja ya Atlantic uko ŵazamuguliska ndalama zakukwana madola mabiliyoni 20 gha ku America kuti ŵazenge dowoko la maji ghakunyang'amira. Njira ya makilomita 650 njitali kuluska nthowa yinyake yakulongozgera kumwera ku Buchanan, Liberia, iyo yikawonekanga nga ni nthowa yinyake mu October 2019.<ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.spglobal.com/marketintelligence/en/news-insights/trending/LjaSYcEdRjnMwG4RserstA2| title = SP Global report, November 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.planete-tp.com/IMG/pdf/cdf_ao-ae_vnrweb_cle13f153.pdf| title = Georges Pilot's history of railways in West Africa (in French)}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.africa-confidential.com/article-preview/id/12816/Iron_back_on_track| title = Africa Confidential December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url = http://guineenews.org/kankan-le-chemin-de-fer-conakry-niger-a-quand-sa-rehabilitation/ |author = Amadou Timbo Barry |title = Kankan : Le chemin de fer Conakry-Niger à quand sa réhabilitation ? |date = 14 May 2015 |publisher = Guinee News |url-status = dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160915153034/http://guineenews.org/kankan-le-chemin-de-fer-conakry-niger-a-quand-sa-rehabilitation/ |archive-date = 15 September 2016 |df = dmy-all }}</ref> Ndipouli, nthowa ya Matakong yikeneranga kuŵa mu Guinea ndipo yikeneranga kuŵa na nthowa yakwendeskera vyakurya. Mu Guinea, magalimoto ghanyake ghali na vyaka vyakujumpha 20, ndipo magalimoto gha taxi ni magalimoto gha vipata vinayi agho mweneko wayowoya kuti ghapangike. Ŵanthu ŵa mu tawuni iyi, awo ŵalije magalimoto, ŵakugwiliskira nchito magalimoto gha tekisi na mabasi ghacoko kuti ŵendenge mu tawuni na mu caru cose. Mahachi na mbunda vikuguza magileta, comenecomene pakunyamura vinthu vya kuzenga. == Ŵanthu == {|class="wikitable" style="float: right; margin-left: 10px" ! colspan="4" style="text-align:center; background:#cfb;"|Population in Guinea{{UN_Population|ref}} |- ! style="background:#cfb;"|Year ! style="background:#cfb;"|Million |- |style="text-align:left;"|1950 ||style="text-align:right;"|3.0 |- |style="text-align:left;"|2000 ||style="text-align:right;"|8.8 |- |style="text-align:left;"|{{UN_Population|Year}} ||style="text-align:right;"|{{#expr:{{formatnum:{{UN_Population|Guinea}}|R}}/1e6 round 1}} |} {{Main|Demography of Guinea}} Ŵanthu awo ŵakukhala mu charu ichi ŵalipo 13.5 miliyoni. Msumba wa Conakry ndiwo uli na ŵanthu ŵanandi chomene. Mu 2014, chiŵelengero cha ŵana awo ŵakababikanga mu Guinea chikaŵa 4.93 pa mwanakazi waliyose.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2127rank.html|title=The World Factbook|access-date=15 October 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091028133713/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2127rank.html|archive-date=28 October 2009|url-status=dead}}</ref> {{Largest cities | country = Guinea | stat_ref = According to the 2014 Census<ref>{{cite web |url=http://citypopulation.de/Guinea-Cities.html |title=Cities and Regions |website=Citypopulation.de |access-date=23 July 2021 }}</ref> | list_by_pop = | div_name = Region | div_link = | city_1 = Conakry | div_1 = Conakry | pop_1 = 1,660,973 | img_1 = Conakry.jpg | city_2 = Nzérékoré | div_2 = Nzérékoré | pop_2 = 195,027 | img_2 = Nzerekore.jpg | city_3 = Kankan | div_3 = Kankan | pop_3 = 190,722 | img_3 = | city_4 = Manéah | div_4 = Kindia | pop_4 = 167,354 | img_4 = | city_5 = Dubréka | div_5 = Kindia | pop_5 = 157,017 | city_6 = Kindia | div_6 = Kindia | pop_6 = 138,695 | city_7 = Siguiri | div_7 = Kankan | pop_7 = 127,492 | city_8 = Kissidougou | div_8 = Faranah | pop_8 = 99,931 | city_9 = Labé | div_9 = Labé | pop_9 = 92,654 | city_10 = Kamsar | div_10 = Boké | pop_10 = 83,428 }} Chiyowoyero cha ku Guinea ni Chifurenchi. Mu 2018, ŵanthu 33.9% ŵakayowoyanga Chipular, ndipo ŵanthu 29.4% ŵakayowoyanga Chimandingo. Chilankhulo chachitatu chomwe chimalankhulidwa kwambiri ndi Chisu, chomwe chimalankhulidwa ndi 21.2% ya anthu mu 2018 ngati chilankhulo chawo choyamba. Viyowoyero vinyake ivyo vikuyowoyeka mu Guinea nga ni chiyowoyero cha ŵanthu ŵa ku Guinea vikakwana 16% mu 2018, kusazgapo Kissi na Kpelle.<ref name="CIA Factbook1" /> Ŵanthu ŵa ku Guinea ŵali mu mafuko pafupifupi 24. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Mandinka, awo ŵakumanyikwaso kuti Mandingo panji Malinké, ŵalipo 29.4% ndipo ŵakukhala ku chigaŵa cha kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Guinea.<ref name=guinea_stats/> TŴafula panji Ŵafula, ŵalipo 33.4% ndipo ŵakukhala mu chigaŵa cha Futa Djallon. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Soussou ŵalipo 21.2% ndipo ŵakukhala ku chigaŵa cha kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa msumba wa Conakry, Forécariah, na Kindia. Ŵanthu ŵachoko waka ndiwo ŵakukhala pa chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu 16%, kusazgapo Kpelle, Kissi, Zialo, Toma na ŵanyake. Ku Guinea kuli ŵanthu 10,000 awo mba ku Africa yayi, ndipo ŵanandi mwa ŵanthu aŵa mba ku Lebanon, France, na vyaru vinyake vya ku Europe.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2824.htm |title=Guinea |website=State.gov |date=22 November 2016 |access-date=23 July 2017 }}</ref><ref name="guinea_stats" /><ref name="cia.gov" /><ref name="Fula">In {{lang-fr|Peul|link=no}}. In {{lang-ff|Fulɓe}}.</ref><ref name="cia.gov" /><ref name="cia.gov">{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/guinea/ |title=The World Factbook – Central Intelligence Agency |publisher=Cia.gov |access-date=12 April 2018 }}</ref> ===Chisopo=== {{Further|Religion in Guinea}} {{bar box |title=Guinea religious sects<ref name="state.gov"/> |titlebar=#ddd |left1='''Religion''' |right1='''Percent''' |float=right |bars= {{bar percent|Islam|lightgreen|85}} {{bar percent|Christianity|blue|8}} {{bar percent|[[Traditional African religion]]|brown|7}} }} Ŵanthu ŵa ku Guinea ŵalipo 85% Mbasilamu ndipo 8% Mbakhristu. Ŵanyake, Ŵasilamu na Ŵakristu wuwo, ŵakulondezga vigomezgo vya ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa.<ref name="state.gov">[https://2009-2017.state.gov/documents/organization/208368.pdf "Guinea 2012 International Religious Freedom Report"], US State Department, Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor.</ref><ref>[https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2008/108372.htm International Religious Freedom Report 2008: Guinea] . United States [[Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor]] (29 December 2008). ''This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the [[public domain]].''</ref> Ŵasilamu ŵanandi ŵa ku Guinea ŵakulondezga chisopa cha Sunni, cha Maliki. Magulu gha Cikristu ghakuphatikizapo ŵa Katolika, ŵa Anglican, ŵa Baptist, ŵa Seventh-day Adventist, na ŵa Evangelical. Ŵakaboni ŵa Yehova ŵakugwira nchito mu caru ici ndipo boma likuŵamanya makora. Ku malo agha kuli cisopa ca Bahá'í. Ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakukhala mu vyaru vinyake mba Chihindu, Chibuda, na ŵa chisopa cha Chitchayinizi. Ku Nzerekore kukaŵa nkhondo za mitundu na visopa kwa mazuŵa ghatatu mu Julayi 2013.<ref name="Guinea 2013">{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-guinea-violence-idUSBRE96G00820130717|title="Guinea's Conde appeals for calm after 11 killed in ethnic clashes", Reuters, 16 July 2013.|work=Reuters|date=17 July 2013|access-date=15 October 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006190639/http://www.reuters.com/article/2013/07/17/us-guinea-violence-idUSBRE96G00820130717|archive-date=6 October 2014|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |jstor = 3818383|title = A Sufi Interpretation of 'Le Regard du Roi'|url = https://archive.org/details/sim_research-in-african-literatures_summer-1983_14_2/page/135|journal = Research in African Literatures|volume = 14|issue = 2|pages = 135–164|last1 = Harrow|first1 = Kenneth|year = 1983}}</ref><ref name="bbc.com">{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-23335719|title="Guinean troops deployed after deadly ethnic clashes", BBC Africa, 17 July 2013.|work=BBC News|access-date=15 October 2014|date=17 July 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141017234847/http://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-23335719|archive-date=17 October 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> Nkhondo pakati pa ŵanthu ŵa fuko la Kpelle awo Mbakhristu panji ŵakugomezga kuti kuli vyamoyo, na ŵanthu ŵa fuko la Konianke awo Mbasilamu ndipo ŵali pafupi na fuko la Malinke, ŵakafwa ŵanthu ŵakukwana 54. Ŵanyake awo ŵakafwa ŵakaŵakoma na vilwero na kotcha ŵamoyo. Nkhaza zikamara apo ŵasilikari ŵa ku Guinea ŵakaŵikapo dango lakuti ŵanthu ŵaleke kwiza ku nyumba zawo.<ref name="bbc.com"/><ref name="bbc.com" /> ===Masambilo=== {{Main|Education in Guinea}} [[File:Guinea schoolgirls.jpg|Schoolgirls in [[Conakry]]|thumb]] Mu 2010, ŵanthu 41 pa 100 ŵaliwose ŵakamanyanga kuŵazga na kulemba (52 pa 100 pa ŵanalume na 30 pa 100 pa ŵanakazi).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2103.html|title=The World Factbook|access-date=15 October 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161124171442/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2103.html|archive-date=24 November 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref> Sukulu ya pulayimale njakukakamiza kwa vyaka 6. Mu 1999, ŵanthu 40 pa 100 ŵaliwose ŵakasambiranga ku pulayimale. Ŵana, comenecomene ŵasungwana, ŵakufumiskika ku sukulu kuti ŵawovwire ŵapapi ŵawo pa nchito za pa nyumba panji zaulimi, panji kuti ŵatoreke: Mu Guinea muli "ciŵelengero cikuru comene" ca ŵana awo ŵakutengwa.<ref>According to the WHO:"The 10 countries with the highest rates of child marriage are: Niger, 75%; Chad and Central African Republic, 68%; India, 66%; '''Guinea, 63%'''; Mozambique, 56%; Mali, 55%; Burkina Faso and South Sudan, 52%; and Malawi, 50%."[https://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/releases/2013/child_marriage_20130307/en/] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150424050514/http://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/releases/2013/child_marriage_20130307/en/|date=24 April 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/drl/rls/hrrpt/humanrightsreport/index.htm?year=2015&dlid=252689|title=Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 2015: Guinea|access-date=19 November 2016|author=Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor|publisher=[[United States Department of State]]|author-link=Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor}}</ref><ref>[http://www.dol.gov/ilab/media/reports/iclp/tda2001/guinea.htm Bureau of International Labor Affairs (ILAB) – U.S. Department of Labor] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081205042438/http://www.dol.gov/ilab/media/reports/iclp/tda2001/guinea.htm |date=5 December 2008 }}. Dol.gov. Retrieved 28 June 2011.</ref> ===Umoyo=== {{Further|Health in Guinea}} ====Ebola==== {{Further|Ebola virus epidemic in West Africa}} Mu 2014, ku Guinea kukabuka nthenda ya Ebola. Lekani dipatimenti ya vyaumoyo yikakanizga kuguliska na kurya viyuni ivi. Nyengo yikati yajumphapo, nthenda iyi yikathandazgika kufuma ku vigaŵa vya ku mizi kuya ku Conakry, ndipo mu Juni 2014 yikafika mu vyaru vyapafupi nga ni Sierra Leone na Liberia. Mu Ogasiti 2014, charu cha Guinea chikajara mphaka na Sierra Leone na Liberia kuti chileke kuthandazga nthenda iyi.<ref>{{cite news | date= 28 March 2014 | title= Ebola: Guinea outbreak reaches capital Conakry | url= https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-26774343 | publisher= BBC | access-date= 30 March 2014 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20140330024741/http://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-26774343 | archive-date= 30 March 2014 | url-status= live | df= dmy-all }}</ref> Nthenda iyi yikamba mu Disembala mu muzi wa Meliandou, kumwera kwa Guinea, kufupi na mphaka na Liberia na Sierra Leone. Munthu wakwamba uyo ŵakamupima wakaŵa mwana wa vyaka viŵiri, ndipo wakafwa pa 6 Disembala, chifukwa cha nthenda ya malungo, kuputa, na vyoto vyaswesi. Pakati pajumpha sabata yimoza, amama ŵa mwana uyu ŵakafwa, ndipo pamanyuma mudumbu na abuya ŵake ŵakafwa. Pamanyuma, nthenda iyi yikathandazgikira ku mizi yinyake cifukwa ca ŵanthu awo ŵakaŵapweleleranga. "Malo ghakusungirako ŵakufwa" ndigho ghakwambiska nthenda iyi. Wupu wa vyaumoyo pa caru cose (WHO) ukati cifukwa ca kuleka kucezga na ŵanthu ŵa mu cigaŵa ici, ŵantchito ŵa vyaumoyo ŵakatondeka kusanga uko kukafuma nthenda iyi. Apo WHO yikamalizga ndondomeko ya Public Health Emergency of International Concern (PHEIC) pa 29 March 2016, lipoti la Ebola Situation Report ilo likapelekeka pa 30 March likakhozga kuti ŵanthu 5 ŵanyakeso ŵakalwara nthenda iyi mu masabata ghaŵiri agho ghakajumpha, ndipo nthenda iyi yikakhwaskana na nthenda ya Novembala 2014. Nthenda ya Ebola yikananga nthowa zakuchizgira matenda ghanyake mu Guinea. Ŵanthu ŵakamba kuleka kuluta ku chipatala chifukwa cha kopa nthenda iyi kweniso chifukwa cha kuleka kugomezga ndopa. Kweniso chifukwa cha Ebola, ŵanthu ŵakamba kuleka kupwelelera ndopa. Ebola yikwambaso ku Guinea mu January/February 2021.<ref> {{cite news | title = Guinea declares Ebola epidemic: First deaths since 2016 | url = https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-56060728 | department = Africa | work = BBC News | publisher = BBC | publication-date = 14 February 2021 | access-date = 15 February 2021 | quote = Guinea has officially declared that it is dealing with an Ebola epidemic after the deaths of at least three people from the virus. <br /> They - and four others - fell ill with diarrhoea, vomiting and bleeding after attending the burial of a nurse. [...] A nurse who worked a health centre in Goueké, near the south-eastern city of Nzérékoré, died on 28 January and her funeral was held four days later. }} </ref><ref>{{cite web|url= https://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/statements/2016/end-of-ebola-pheic/en/|title= Ebola is no longer a public health emergency|website= World Health Organization|access-date= 14 February 2017|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160331231040/http://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/statements/2016/end-of-ebola-pheic/en/|archive-date= 31 March 2016|url-status= live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url= http://apps.who.int/ebola/current-situation/ebola-situation-report-4-march-2015|title= Ebola Situation Report – 4 March 2015 {{!}} Ebola|website= apps.who.int|access-date= 14 February 2017|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170301084553/http://apps.who.int/ebola/current-situation/ebola-situation-report-4-march-2015|archive-date= 1 March 2017|url-status= dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url= http://apps.who.int/ebola/current-situation/ebola-situation-report-30-march-2016|title= Ebola Situation Report – 30 March 2016 {{!}} Ebola|website= apps.who.int|access-date= 14 February 2017|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160613210509/http://apps.who.int/ebola/current-situation/ebola-situation-report-30-march-2016|archive-date= 13 June 2016|url-status= dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ndawinz |first1=Jacques D A |last2=Cissé |first2=Mohamed |last3=Diallo |first3=Mohamadou S K |last4=Sidibé |first4=Cheik T |last5=D'Ortenzio |first5=Eric |title=Prevention of HIV spread during the Ebola outbreak in Guinea |journal=The Lancet |date=April 2015 |volume=385 |issue=9976 |pages=1393 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(15)60713-9 |pmid=25890415 |s2cid=41478740 |url=http://www.thelancet.com/pdfs/journals/lancet/PIIS0140-6736(15)60713-9.pdf}}</ref> ====Maternal and child healthcare==== Chiŵerengero cha amayi omwe amafa mu 2021 pa kubadwa 100,000 ku Guinea ndi 576.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.usaid.gov/global-health/health-areas/family-planning/resources/impact-brief-guinea | title=Impact Brief: Guinea | date=21 May 2021 | access-date=28 October 2022 | archive-date=28 October 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221028205848/https://www.usaid.gov/global-health/health-areas/family-planning/resources/impact-brief-guinea | url-status=dead }}</ref> Pa ciŵelengero ici, mu 2010 kukaŵa 680 ndipo mu 2008 kukaŵa 859.9 ndipo mu 1990 kukaŵa 964.7. Ŵana awo ŵakufwa para ŵandafike vyaka vinkhondi ŵakufwa pa ŵana 1,000 146, ndipo ŵana awo ŵakufwa para ŵandafike vyaka vinkhondi ŵakufwa 29. Ku Guinea, pa ŵana 1,000 awo ŵakubabika, mwanakazi yumoza ndiyo wakuŵa mama, ndipo pa ŵanakazi 26 ŵaliwose, yumoza wakufwa. Ku Guinea ndiko kuli ŵanthu ŵanandi comene awo ŵakukoma ŵanakazi.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.who.int/reproductivehealth/topics/fgm/prevalence/en/|title=WHO – Female genital mutilation and other harmful practices|access-date=15 October 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141012192739/http://www.who.int/reproductivehealth/topics/fgm/prevalence/en/|archive-date=12 October 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.unicef.org/media/files/FGCM_Lo_res.pdf |title=Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting: A statistical overview and exploration of the dynamics of change – UNICEF DATA |website=Unicef.org |date=22 July 2013 |access-date=23 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150405083031/http://www.unicef.org/media/files/FGCM_Lo_res.pdf |archive-date=5 April 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="SOWMY">{{cite web|url=http://www.unfpa.org/sowmy/report/home.html|title=The State of the World's Midwifery|publisher=United Nations Population Fund|access-date=25 August 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111225024306/http://www.unfpa.org/sowmy/report/home.html|archive-date=25 December 2011|url-status=live}}</ref> ====HIV/AIDS==== {{Main|HIV/AIDS in Guinea}} Paumaliro wa 2004, ŵanthu ŵakukwana 170,000 ŵakaŵa na nthenda iyi.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.who.int/hiv/HIVCP_GIN.pdf |title=Status of HIV/AIDS in Guinea, 2005 |access-date=30 September 2007 |year=2005 |publisher=World Health Organisation |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090805150456/http://www.who.int/hiv/HIVCP_GIN.pdf |archive-date=5 August 2009 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.who.int/GlobalAtlas/predefinedReports/EFS2006/EFS_PDFs/EFS2006_GN.pdf |title=Epidemiological Fact Sheets: HIV/AIDS and Sexually Transmitted Infections, December 2006 |access-date=30 September 2007 |date=December 2006 |publisher=World Health Organisation |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071025053159/http://www.who.int/GlobalAtlas/predefinedReports/EFS2006/EFS_PDFs/EFS2006_GN.pdf |archive-date=25 October 2007 }}</ref>Kafukufuku uyo wakachitika mu 2001 na 2002 wakulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakusuzgika na HIV mu misumba kuluska ku mizi. Ku Conakry (5%) na mu misumba ya ku Forest Guinea (7%) iyo yili kufupi na Côte d'Ivoire, Liberia, na Sierra Leone ndiko kukaŵa nthenda iyi. Matenda gha HIV ghakuthandazgika comene para munthu wakugonana na ŵanalume panji ŵanakazi ŵanyake. Ŵanalume na ŵanakazi ŵakuŵa na nthenda ya HIV mwakuyana waka, ndipo ŵanthu ŵa vyaka vyapakati pa 15 na 24 ndiwo ŵakusuzgika comene. Pa ŵanthu awo ŵakugwira ntchito za kugonana (42%), ŵasilikari (6.6%), ŵakwendeska magalimoto na matekisi (7.3%), ŵanthu ŵakugwira ntchito mu migodi (4.7%) na ŵanthu ŵakukhwima awo ŵali na TB (8.6%), viŵelengero ivi vikulongora kuti ŵanthu awo ŵakugwira ntchito za kugonana (42%). Pali vinthu vinandi ivyo vikwambiska nthenda ya HIV/AIDS ku Guinea. Vinthu ivi ni kugonana kwambura kuvikilirika, kugonana na ŵanthu ŵanandi, kuleka kuŵazga na kulemba, ukavu ukuru, mphaka zambura kukhazikika, ŵanthu ŵakuchimbira kwawo, kusoŵerwa kwa wovwiri wa boma, na kusoŵa kwa wovwiri wa munkhwala na wovwiri wa boma.<ref name=usaid/><ref name="usaid" /><ref name="usaid">{{citation-attribution|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20081113214710/http://www.usaid.gov/our_work/global_health/aids/Countries/africa/guinea_05.pdf "Health Profile: Guinea"]. [[USAID]] (March 2005).}}</ref> ==== Kuŵa na njara ==== Kafukufuku munyake uyo wakachitika mu 2012, wakalongosora kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakulwara matenda gha matenda agha mu vigaŵa vyakupambanapambana. Kafukufuku uyu wakalongora kuti ŵana 139,200 ŵakaŵa na suzgo la kusoŵa chakurya, 609,696 ŵakaŵa na suzgo la kusoŵa chakurya, ndipo 1,592,892 ŵakaŵa na nthenda ya kusulura ndopa. Ŵanthu ŵakayowoya kuti vinthu ivi vikupangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵaleke kupwelelera ŵanyawo, ŵaleke kusanga wovwiri wa munkhwala, ŵaleke kuŵa na utozi uwemi, kweniso kuti vyakurya vileke kuŵa vyakupambanapambana.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://home.wfp.org/stellent/groups/public/documents/eb/wfpdoc062106.pdf |title=Enquête nationale nutrition-santé, basée sur la méthodologie SMART, 2011–2012 |access-date=12 May 2014 |year=2012 |publisher=World Food Programme }}{{Dead link|date=August 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> ====Malaria==== Maleriya ghakuthandazgika chaka chose, ndipo ghakuthandazgika chomene kwamba mu Julayi m'paka Okutobala. Ku Guinea ŵanthu ŵakulwaralwara cifukwa ca matenda agha.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.healthdata.org/sites/default/files/files/country_profiles/GBD/ihme_gbd_country_report_guinea.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=24 August 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140826120427/http://www.healthdata.org/sites/default/files/files/country_profiles/GBD/ihme_gbd_country_report_guinea.pdf |archive-date=26 August 2014 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.pmi.gov/docs/default-source/default-document-library/malaria-operational-plans/fy14/guinea_mop_fy14.pdf?sfvrsn=8 |title=Archived copy |access-date=24 August 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140826120928/http://www.pmi.gov/docs/default-source/default-document-library/malaria-operational-plans/fy14/guinea_mop_fy14.pdf?sfvrsn=8 |archive-date=26 August 2014 }}</ref> ====COVID-19 pandemic==== {{Main|COVID-19 pandemic in Guinea}} Munthu wakwamba uyo wakasangana na nthenda ya COVID-19 wakalembeka mu Guinea pa 13 March 2020. Paumaliro wa 2020, chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu awo ŵakasangika na nthenda iyi chikaŵa 13,722. Pa ŵanthu aŵa, 13,141 ŵakachira, 500 ŵakaŵa ŵamoyo, ndipo 81 ŵakafwa.<ref>{{cite web|title=COVID-19 and W/Africa: 1,994 new cases, 31 new deaths in 24 hours|url=http://apanews.net/en/news/covid-19-and-wafrica-1994-new-cases-31-new-deaths-in-24-hours|publisher=APA|access-date=2 January 2021|date=31 December 2020}}</ref><ref name="First">{{Cite web |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/health-coronavirus-guinea/eu-employee-tests-positive-for-coronavirus-in-guineas-first-case-idUSL8N2B46DI |title=EU employee tests positive for coronavirus in Guinea's first case |date=13 March 2020 |work=Reuters}}</ref> ==Mwambo== [[File:Guinea Dinguiraye market.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|Malo agho ŵakuguliskako vyakurya mu chigaŵa cha Dinguiraye, ku Guinea]] === Maseŵera === Mu charu cha Guinea, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakutemwa comene maseŵero gha bola. Wupu wakuwona vya maseŵero wa Guinea Football Federation ndiwo ukuchita maseŵero agha. Wupu uwu ndiwo ukwendeska timu ya mpira wa ku caru cose, na ligi ya ku caru cose. Likakhazikiskika mu 1960 ndipo likukolerana na FIFA kufuma mu 1962 na Confederation of African Football kufuma mu 1963. Gulu la mpira la ku Guinea, lakucemeka Syli nationale (Ndlovu za ku Guinea), likucitako maseŵero gha mpira wa pa caru cose kwamba mu 1962. Ŵakamba kulimbana na East Germany. Ŵandafikepo pa chigoti cha World Cup, ndipo ŵakathereskeka na Morocco pa Africa Cup of Nations mu 1976.<ref name=Encyclopedia/><ref name="Encyclopedia" /><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cafonline.com/en-us/memberassociations/f%C3%A9d%C3%A9rationguin%C3%A9ennedefootball/Home |title=Member Associations: Fédération Guinéenne de Football (FGF) |publisher=Confederation of African Football |access-date=24 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180702191454/http://www.cafonline.com/en-us/memberassociations/f%C3%A9d%C3%A9rationguin%C3%A9ennedefootball/home |archive-date=2 July 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.unicef.org/infobycountry/guinea_25923.html |title=At a glance: Guinea - Football boosts girls' education |publisher=UNICEF |access-date=3 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181224220145/https://www.unicef.org/infobycountry/guinea_25923.html |archive-date=24 December 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Guinea, Post Report|year = 1985|url=https://play.google.com/store/books/details?id=-FzsyAEIxi8C&rdid=book--FzsyAEIxi8C&rdot=1|access-date=8 September 2021|publisher=[[United States Department of State]]|page=9}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.fifa.com/associations/association=gui/ |title=Associations: Guinea |publisher=FIFA |access-date=24 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181010102648/https://www.fifa.com/associations/association=gui/ |archive-date=10 October 2018 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="Encyclopedia">{{cite book|last1=Falola|first1=Toyin|last2=Jean-Jacques|first2=Daniel|title=Africa: An Encyclopedia of Culture and Society [3 volumes]: An Encyclopedia of Culture and Society|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YjoVCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA593|access-date=5 November 2016|date=14 December 2015|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=9781598846669|pages=568–569}}</ref> Guinée Championnat National ndi chigawo chapamwamba cha mpira wa ku Guinea. Kufuma waka apo yikambira mu 1965, magulu ghatatu ghakaŵa na chilato cha kutonda mphindano za ku Guinea. Horoya AC wali na vithuzithuzi 16 ndipo ndiyo wakathereska mu 2017. Hafia FC (iyo yikamanyikwanga na zina lakuti Conakry II mu ma 1960s) yili na vithuzithuzi vyakujumpha 15. AS Kaloum Star (iyo yikamanyikwanga na zina lakuti Conakry I mu ma 1960s) yili na maudindo 13. Magulu ghose ghatatu ghali mu msumba wa Conakry. Hafia FC yikathereska African Cup of Champions Clubs katatu, mu 1972, 1975 na 1977, apo Horoya AC yikathereska African Cup Winners' Cup mu 1978.<ref>{{cite book|last=Kuhn|first=Gabriel|title=Soccer vs. the State: Tackling Football and Radical Politics|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BwmsLxiWvnwC&pg=PA33|date=15 March 2011|publisher=PM Press|isbn=9781604865240|page=33}}{{Dead link|date=February 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref name="RSSSF">{{cite web |url=https://www.rsssf.org/tablesg/guineachamp.html |title=Guinea: List of champions |website=Rec.Sport.Soccer Statistics Foundation |access-date=24 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150227175550/http://www.rsssf.com/tablesg/guineachamp.html |archive-date=27 February 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref> === Kutora mitala === {{Further|Polygamy in Guinea}} Dango la ku Guinea likukanizga kutora ŵanakazi ŵanandi, kweni pali vinyake ivyo vikukanizgika. Mu 2020, ŵanthu pafupifupi 26% ŵakatoranga ŵanakazi ŵanandi (29% Ŵasilamu na 10% Ŵakhristu).<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2020/12/07/polygamy-is-rare-around-the-world-and-mostly-confined-to-a-few-regions/ | title=Polygamy is rare around the world and mostly confined to a few regions }}</ref><ref>[http://ddata.over-blog.com/xxxyyy/2/86/20/02/CODE-CIVIL.pdf Articles 315-319] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130521165450/http://ddata.over-blog.com/xxxyyy/2/86/20/02/CODE-CIVIL.pdf |date=21 May 2013 }}, Civil Code of the Republic of Guinea (Code Civil de la Republique de Guinee)</ref> === Kuphika === {{Further|Cuisine of Guinea}} Vyakurya vya ku Guinea vikupambana kuyana na chigaŵa. Cassava wakumwa. Vyakurya vya ku Guinea ni yétissé, msuzi wa ma nuts, msuzi wa okra na chingwa cha tapalapa. Mu vigaŵa vya ku mizi, ŵanthu ŵakurya mu "mbale yikuru" na kurya na mawoko kuwaro kwa nyumba.<ref name=dc>{{cite web |url=http://wamu.org/programs/metro_connection/12/09/21/eating_in_the_embassy_guinean_embassy_brings_west_african_food_to_washington |title=Eating in the Embassy: Guinean Embassy Brings West African Food To Washington |publisher=WAMU |access-date=23 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140201183046/http://wamu.org/programs/metro_connection/12/09/21/eating_in_the_embassy_guinean_embassy_brings_west_african_food_to_washington |archive-date=1 February 2014 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="friends">{{cite web |url=http://friendsofguinea.org/about-guinea/recipes |title=Recipes & Cookbooks |publisher=Friends of Guinea |access-date=23 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140203132146/http://friendsofguinea.org/about-guinea/recipes |archive-date=3 February 2014 |url-status=dead }}</ref> === Sumo === === Vyakuona === ==Wonaniso== {{portal|Guinea|Africa}} * [[Outline of Guinea]] * [[Index of Guinea-related articles]] {{clear}} ==Ukaboni== {{reflist}} ===Vyakulemba=== {{notelist}} == Vigaŵa vya kuwalo == {{Sister project links|voy=Guinea}} * {{Official website|http://www.presidence.gov.gn/}} {{in lang|fr}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20210910203013/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/guinea/ Guinea]. ''[[The World Factbook]]''. [[Central Intelligence Agency]]. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20081215085918/http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/guinea.htm Guinea] from ''UCB Libraries GovPubs'' * {{Curlie|Regional/Africa/Guinea}} * [https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-13442051 Guinea profile] from the [[BBC News]] * {{wikiatlas|Guinea}} * {{osmrelation-inline|192778}} * [http://wits.worldbank.org/CountryProfile/Country/GIN/Year/2008/Summary Guinea 2008 Summary Trade Statistics] {{Guinea topics}} {{Navboxes | list = {{African Union}} {{Countries of Africa}} {{La Francophonie}} {{Organisation of the Islamic Conference}} }} {{Authority control}} {{Coord|11|N|10|W|display=title}} [[Category:Guinea| ]] [[Category:1958 establishments in Guinea]] [[Category:Countries in Africa]] [[Category:Economic Community of West African States]] [[Category:Central African countries]] [[Category:French-speaking countries and territories]] [[Category:Least developed countries]] [[Category:Member states of the African Union]] [[Category:Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie]] [[Category:Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation]] [[Category:Member states of the United Nations]] [[Category:Republics]] [[Category:States and territories established in 1958]] [[Category:West African countries]] 0ksnphwzqakrhzjvpaa0qwooxbvwefv 0 7251 119269 116650 2026-08-13T13:08:29Z Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi 11606 /* growthexperiments-addlink-summary-summary:3|0|0 */ 119269 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|President of the United States (2017–2021; since 2025)}} {{redirect2|DJT|Trump|other uses|Donald Trump (disambiguation)|and|DJT (disambiguation)|and|Trump (disambiguation)}} {{pp-extended|small=yes}} {{pp-move}} {{use American English|date=November 2020}} {{use mdy dates|date=June 2026}} {{bots|deny=InternetArchiveBot}}<!-- Per [[Talk:Donald Trump#C25|consensus 25]]. --> {{stack begin}}<!-- DO NOT REMOVE. Required for correct vertical alignment of image at "Early life and education" in some user configurations. --> {{infobox officeholder | image = Official Presidential Portrait of President Donald J. Trump (2025) (cropped)(2).jpg | caption = [[Chithuzithuzi cha boma cha Donald Trump#Chithuzithuzi cha boma cha pulezidenti cha 2025|Chithuzithuzi cha boma, 2025]] | alt = Head-and-shoulders shot of Trump with a serious facial expression, his right eye partly closed. He is wearing a dark blue suit, a pale blue dress shirt, a red necktie, and an American flag lapel pin. Parts of the image are slightly out of focus. The background is black. | order = 45th & 47th<!-- DO NOT ADD A LINK. Please discuss any proposal on the talk page first. Most recent discussion at [[Talk:Donald Trump/Archive 65#Link-ifying "45th" in the Infobox?]] had a weak consensus to keep the status-quo (no link). --> | office = President of the United States | vice_president = [[JD Vance]] | term_start = January 20, 2025 | predecessor = [[Joe Biden]] | vice_president1 = [[Mike Pence]] | term_start1 = January 20, 2017 | term_end1 = January 20, 2021 | predecessor1 = [[Barack Obama]] | successor1 = Joe Biden | birth_name = Donald John Trump | birth_date = {{birth date and age|1946|6|14}} | birth_place = [[Queens]], New York City, U.S.<!-- DO NOT CHANGE (or add to) this location without prior consensus; see [[Talk:Donald Trump#C2|consensus 2]]. --> | party = [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] (1969&ndash;1978, 1987&ndash;1999, 2009&ndash;2011,<br>2012&ndash;present) | other_party = {{unbulleted list | [[Reform Party of the United States of America|Reform]] (1999&ndash;2001) | [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]] (2001&ndash;2009) | [[Independent politician|Independent]] (2011&ndash;2012) }} <!-- DO NOT PIPE any of the following three links, per [[MOS:NOPIPE]]. -->| spouse = {{unbulleted list | {{marriage|[[Ivana Zelníčková]]|April 9, 1977|December 11, 1990|end=divorced}} | {{marriage|[[Marla Maples]]|December 20, 1993|June 8, 1999|end=divorced}} | {{marriage|[[Melania Knauss]]|January 22, 2005}} }} | children = {{hlist | [[Donald Jr.]] | [[Ivanka Trump|Ivanka]] | [[Eric Trump|Eric]] | [[Tiffany Trump|Tiffany]] | [[Barron Trump|Barron]] }} | parents = {{unbulleted list | [[Fred Trump]] | [[Mary Anne MacLeod]] }} | relatives = [[Trump family]] | education = [[University of Pennsylvania]] ([[Bachelor of Science|BS]]) | occupation = {{hlist | [[Political career of Donald Trump|Politician]] | [[Business career of Donald Trump|businessman]] | [[Media career of Donald Trump|media personality]] }} | signature = Trumpsignature2025.svg | signature_alt = Donald J. Trump stylized autograph, in ink | website = {{unbulleted list | {{URL|whitehouse.gov|White House website}} | {{URL|trumplibrary.gov|Presidential library}} | {{URL|trumpwhitehouse.archives.gov|White House archives (2017&ndash;2021)}} }} | module = {{listen voice | name = Trump <!-- [[MOS:SURNAME]] --> | filename = President Trump on the WHO's Declaration of COVID-19 as a Global Pandemic.wav | description = Trump pa ivyo [[World Health Organization]] yikapharazga kuti [[COVID-19]] ni nthenda iyo yapararira pa charu chose. | recorded = March 11, 2020 }} }} {{Donald Trump series}} {{stack end}}<!-- NOTE: Changes to the lead are regularly discussed on the talk page. DO NOT EDIT WAR. If you make a change that is reverted, please open a discussion or contribute to an existing one, per [[WP:BRD]]. Consensus items marked "DO NOT CHANGE" require prior discussion. If you add or remove a sentence with a section link, please also add or remove the hidden reminder following the section heading. --> '''Donald John Trump''' (wakababika pa June 14, 1946) ni munthu wa ndyali wa ku America, wakulemba nkhani, na wamalonda uyo ni pulezidenti wa 47 wa ku [[United States]]. Ni membala wa chipani cha Republican, iye wakawa pulezidenti wa 45 kuyambira 2017 mpaka 2021. Wakababikira mu mbumba ya musambazi ku New York, ndipo wakafuma ku Yunivesite ya [[Pennsylvania]] mu 1968 na digiri ya bachelor's degree mu economics. Mu 1971, wakazgoka pulezidenti wa kampani ya mbumba yake ya real estate, ndipo wakayithya zina lakuti Trump Organization, ndipo wakamba kuzenga nyumba zikuruzikuru, mahotelo, na malo ghakuwoneskerako gofu. Wakambiska mabizinesi ghanyake, ndipo ghanandi ghakaŵa na zina la Trump, ndipo mu vyaka vya m'ma 1990 na 2000, mabungwe agha ghakachita ukaboni wakuti ghakaŵa ghambura ndalama zinandi. Kufuma mu 2004 kufika mu 2015, wakapangiska pulogiramu ya pa TV ya The Apprentice, iyo yikamovwira kuti waŵe munthu musambazi. Trump wakajiwona kuti ni munthu wambura kuzomerezgeka pa nkhani ya ndyali, ndipo mu 2016 wakatonda Hillary Clinton, uyo wakaŵa musankhika wa chipani cha Democratic Party. Apo wakaŵa pulezidenti wakwamba, Trump wakakanizga vyaru 7 ivyo vikaŵa na Ŵasilamu kuti ŵaleke kuluta ku caru cinyake, wakasazgirako mpanda wa pakati pa caru ca [[Mexico]] na United States, ndipo wakapangiska kuti mbumba zose zifwatukenge. Wakasintha malango ghakukhwaskana na malo na bizinesi, wakasazgirako msonkho, na kusora ŵeruzgi ŵatatu ŵa Khoti Likuru Chomene. Wakawuskapo U.S. mu mapangano ghakukhwaskana na mlengalenga na malonda ndipo wakambiska nkhondo ya malonda na China. Pakuzgorapo pa nthenda ya COVID-19 mu 2020, iyo wakachepeska ukali wake, wakususkana na ŵalaraŵalara ŵa vyaumoyo, na kusayinira dango la CARES Act. Wati watondeka pa visankho vya 2020 ku Joe Biden, Trump wakakana kuzomera kuti watondeka ndipo wakayezga kusintha ivyo vikachitika, ivyo vikapangiska kuti pa 6 Janyuwale, 2021 pa Capitol pachitike chindindindi. Wakapika mulandu kaŵiri, mu 2019 chifukwa cha kugwiliskira nchito mazaza mwambura kwenelera na kukanizga maungano gha boma, ndipo mu 2021 chifukwa cha kukhuŵilizga ŵanthu kuti ŵawukire boma. Mu 2023, Trump ŵakamusanga na mulandu wa kugonana na kusuzga ŵanthu, kweniso wa kuguliska malonda. Mu Meyi 2024, khoti la boma la New York likamusanga na mulandu pa nkhani 34 zakupusikizgira vinthu vya malonda, ndipo wakaŵa pulezidenti wakwamba wa U.S. kukakika na mulandu. Wati wawina chisankho cha pulezidenti cha 2024 kwa wachiwiri kwa pulezidenti Kamala Harris, wakapika chilango cha umoyo wose, ndipo milandu yiŵiri yakukhwaskana na kusunga malemba ghakale na kutondeska chisankho cha 2020 yikamara kwambura mulandu. Trump wakamba kuwusa kwaciŵiri mwa kulekeska nchito ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakagwiranga nchito mu boma. Wakapeleka msonkho ku vyaru vinandi uwo ukaŵa ukuru comene kwambira pa nyengo ya suzgo yikuru ya vyachuma, ndipo wakasazgapo dango la One Big Beautiful Bill Act. Ivyo boma lake likucita - kusazgapo kusuzga ŵanthu awo ŵakususkana nawo pa ndyali na ŵanthu ŵanyake, kukanizga wanangwa wa ŵanthu awo ŵakugonana na ŵanalume panji ŵanakazi ŵanyawo, kuchimbizga ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵalije vikalata, na kugwiliskira nchito malango gha boma - vyapangiska kuti paŵe milandu yakujumpha 550. Ku Latin America, wakaluta ku ŵanthu awo ŵakaguliskanga minkhwala yakutimbanizga wongo, ndipo wakalangura ŵasilikari kuti ŵanjire mu caru ca [[Venezuela]] na kukora pulezidenti wa caru ici. Ku Middle East, wakazomerezga kuti boma la U.S. na la Israel liwukire Iran, ndipo ivi vikambiska nkhondo ya ku Iran mu 2026. Kuyambira mu 2015, ndondomeko ya Trump ndi ndondomeko yake ya ndale - yomwe nthawi zambiri imatchedwa Trumpism - yasintha chizindikiro cha Republican Party. Ŵanyake ŵakuti ivyo wakayowoya na kucita ni vyautesi. Wakayowoya vinthu vinandi vyautesi panji vyaupusikizgi pa nyengo ya kampeni yake na apo wakaŵa pulezidenti, vinthu ivyo vikaŵa kuti vindachitikepo mu ndyali za ku America. Ŵasayansi ŵakuti ivyo Trump wakucita ni vyaulamuliro ndipo vikupangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵaleke kulondezga ndyali. Ŵasayansi na ŵalembi ŵa mdauko ŵakamulemba kuti wakaŵa yumoza wa mafumu ghaheni comene mu mdauko wa caru ca America.<!-- DO NOT CHANGE preceding sentence without prior consensus; see [[Talk:Donald Trump#C54|consensus 54]]. --> == Umoyo na masambiro == {{main|Early life and education of Donald Trump}} [[File:Donald Trump NYMA.jpg|upright=0.65|thumb|left|1964 yearbook photo|alt=A black-and-white photograph of Trump as a teenager, smiling, wearing a dark pseudo-military uniform with three ribbons and a white shoulder strap]]<!-- DO NOT MOVE this image to the right. Left alignment is required for correct vertical alignment in some user configurations. --> Donald John Trump wakababika pa June 14, 1946, ku Jamaica Hospital mu New York City borough of Queens, mwana wachinayi wa Fred Trump na Mary Anne MacLeod Trump.{{sfn|Kranish|Fisher|2017|pp=30, 37}} Iyo ni wa ku Germany na Scotland. Wakakulira mu nyumba ya vipinda 23 mu muzi wa Jamaica Estates ku Queens. Fred wakalipiranga ŵana ŵake waliyose $20,000 pa cilimika, ico cikayananga na $265,000 pa cilimika mu 2024. Apo wakaŵa na vilimika vinkhondi na vitatu, Trump wakaŵa musambazi comene.{{sfn|Buettner|Craig|2024|pp=30–31}} Trump wakasambiranga pa sukulu ya Kew-Forest m'paka apo wakaŵa mu kilasi la 7. Ŵapapi ŵake ŵakamulembeska ku sukulu ya New York Military Academy, iyo yikaŵa sukulu ya pabweka. Sukulu iyi yikasambizganga ŵana kuti ŵasambirenge maseŵero na kuŵa na mtima wa kuwina. Trump wakaghanaghana vya kuluta ku sukulu ya kusambizga kuvina ku California, kweni kuti waŵe pafupi na kukwake, wakalembeska ku Yunivesite ya Fordham mu 1964. Mu chaka chakwamba, wakaluta ku sukulu ya ŵasilikari ya Reserve Officers' Training Corps, ndipo pa Chitatu chilichose wakavwaranga yunifomu ya usilikari. Kweni mu chaka chachiŵiri wakaleka. Mu chaka chakwamba, wakasamukira ku sukulu ya Wharton ya pa yunivesite ya Pennsylvania, ndipo kanandi wakendanga ku ofesi ya adada ŵake pa sabata. Mu Meyi 1968, wakasambira vya chuma. Mwakupambana na ivyo wakayowoya kuti wakaŵa waciŵiri mu kilasi lake, Wharton wakalemba yayi zina lake mu mabuku gha sukulu na mu mpukutu wake.{{sfn|Kranish|Fisher|2017|p=47}}<ref>{{cite news |last=Selk |first=Avi |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |date=May 20, 2018 |title=It's the 50th anniversary of the day Trump left college and nearly had to go to war |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/retropolis/wp/2018/05/20/its-the-50th-anniversary-of-the-day-trump-left-college-and-nearly-had-to-go-to-war/}}</ref> Apo wakaluta ku Wharton, wakaghanaghananga vya ntchito ya malonda. 13] Wakalekerathu kunjira usilikari pa nyengo ya nkhondo ya ku Vietnam chifukwa cha viwangwa ivyo vikaŵa mu makongono ghake.{{sfn|Kranish|Fisher|2017|p=48}} == Ntchito ya bizinesi == {{main|Business career of Donald Trump}} {{further|Business projects of Donald Trump in Russia|Tax returns of Donald Trump|The Trump Organization}} ===Real estate=== {{see also|The Trump Organization#Real estate}} Kwambira mu 1968, Trump wakagwiranga nchito ku Trump Management, kampani ya adada ŵake ya real estate, iyo yikagwiranga nchito ya kupanga nyumba izo Fred wakazenga ku Queens, Staten Island, na Brooklyn. Mulimo wake ukuru ukaŵa wa kupoka ndalama za renti na kunozga nyumba kwa vilimika pafupifupi vinkhondi. Trump wakapempha adada ŵake kuti ŵalute ku Manhattan, uko vinthu vikaŵa vyakudura, kweni adada ŵake ŵakakhorwa na malo ghakutali. Mu 1971, wakasamukira ku Manhattan, uko wakanozga vyakuti wasamire ku ofesi ya adada ŵake. Chaka chenechichi, adada ŵake ŵakajizgora kuŵa mulara wa gulu ili, ndipo Trump wakazgoka pulezidenti. Trump wakamba kugwiliskira nchito gulu la Trump Organization nga ni nkhokwe ya mazina gha mabungwe gha adada ŵake.{{sfn|Blair|2015|p=250}}{{sfn|O'Brien|2005a|p=51}}{{sfn|Barrett|2016|p=76}}{{sfn|O'Brien|2005a|p=51}}{{sfn|Kranish|Fisher|2017|pp=52–53}}{{sfn|Kranish|Fisher|2017|pp=50–51}}{{sfn|Barrett|2016|p=75}} Roy Cohn, uyo wakaŵa munthu wakuzirwa chomene kwa Trump kufuma apo adada ŵake ŵakafwira, ndiyo wakanozganga masuzgo gha Trump, wakaŵa loya, kweniso wakaŵa msambizgi wake[23] kwa vyaka 13 mu vyaka vya m'ma 1970 na 1980. Cohn wakamusambizga Trump kuti umoyo ni malonda. 25] Mu 1973, Cohn wakawovwira Trump kuti wapeleke mulandu ku boma la U.S. kwa ndalama zakukwana $100 million (zakuyana na $659 million mu 2022) pa mulandu uwo boma ili likapeleka wakuti malo gha Trump ghakaŵa na sankho ku ŵanthu ŵafipa na awo ŵakakhalanga mwenemumo. Nkhani iyi yikamara na dango la boma ilo likazomerezga kuti ŵaleke kupatura ŵanthu, ndipo pati pajumpha vyaka vinayi, mbumba ya Trump yikaluta ku khoti chifukwa cha kuswa dango ili. Apo wakawovwiranga mulimo wa Trump, Cohn wakaŵa mulaŵiliri wa katundu uyo wakaŵa na ŵabwezi ŵa mu gulu la Mafia ilo likalongozganga mawupu gha vyakuzenga. Mu 1979, Cohn wakalongosolera Trump Roger Stone, uyo wakaŵa mulaŵiliri wa vya ndyali, ndipo Trump wakalemba ntchito Stone kuti wazakamovwire pa nkhani za ndyali. Trump wakawonanga kuti wakutemwa kuzenga mulandu, kwambura kupwelerako ivyo vingacitika; nanga ni para watondeka, wakalongosoranga kuti wawina mulandu. Pakati pa 1991 na 2009, Trump wakapempha boma kuti liŵavikilire ku vimbundi pa bizinesi yake yinkhondi na yimoza: ya Plaza Hotel ku Manhattan, ya makasino ku Atlantic City, New Jersey, na kampani ya Trump Hotels & Casino Resorts. Mu 1992 na 1994, Trump, wakagwira nchito na ŵabali ŵake ŵanandi, ndipo wakapangiska kampani ya shell kuti yilute na kulipira ŵamalonda awo ŵakagwiliskiranga nchito nyumba za Trump, na kulipira ndalama izo ku Trump Management na ndalama zinandi; ndalama izo zikakwera zikagwiliskirika nchito kuti boma lizomerezge kuti likwezge ndalama za nyumba zake. Padera pa kukwezga renti, ndalama izi zikapelekeka ku ŵana na mphuvya za Fred na kuchepeskako msonkho.<ref name="Tax_Schemes">{{cite news |last1=Barstow |first1=David |author-link1=David Barstow |last2=Craig |first2=Susanne |author-link2=Susanne Craig |last3=Buettner |first3=Russ |author-link3=Russ Buettner |date=October 2, 2018 |title=Trump Engaged in Suspect Tax Schemes as He Reaped Riches From His Father |url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2018/10/02/us/politics/donald-trump-tax-schemes-fred-trump.html |access-date=October 2, 2018 |work=[[The New York Times]] |url-access=limited}}</ref> ==== Ku Manhattan na ku Chicago ==== [[File:Donald Trump with model of Television City.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Mu 1985 wali na cithuzithuzi ca mulimo wake wa ku Manhattan uwo ukamara<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Handy |first=Bruce |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2019/04/trump-tower-real-estate-projects/583243/ |title=Trump Once Proposed Building a Castle on Madison Avenue |magazine=[[The Atlantic]] |date=April 1, 2019 |access-date=July 28, 2024}}</ref>|alt=Donald Trump, in a black suit and red tie, standing in from of a model of Manhattan development projects]] Mu 1978, Trump wakamba kumanyikwa na ŵanthu apo wakambiska bizinesi ya mbumba yake ya ku Manhattan, iyo yikaŵa yakunozga Commodore Hotel, iyo yikaŵa pafupi na Grand Central Terminal. Ŵakacita nthena cifukwa cakuti adada ŵake ŵakamupelekezga ndalama zakukwana madola 400 miliyoni za msonkho wa katundu wa mu msumba uwu. Ŵakaŵasazgirako ndalama zakukwana madola 70 miliyoni za ngongole ya kuzenga. Mu 1980, ŵakajura hotelo iyi na kuyichema kuti Grand Hyatt Hotel, ndipo mu chaka chenechichi, ŵakazomerezgeka kuzenga Trump Tower, iyo yikaŵa nyumba yapachanya ku Midtown Manhattan. Nyumba iyi ndiyo yikaŵa likuru la Trump Corporation na komiti ya Trump ya political action committee (PAC) ndipo yikaŵa nyumba ya Trump mpaka mu 2019. Mu 1988, Trump wakagura hotelo ya Plaza na ngongoli kufuma ku mabanki 16. Mu 1992, hotelo iyi yikachita ukaboni wakuti yikwenda makora yayi, ndipo pamanyuma pa mwezi umoza, yikapangaso pulani yakuti yikhazikiskikeso, ndipo mabanki ghakamba kuwusa hotelo iyi.<ref>{{cite news |title=Trump's Plaza Hotel Bankruptcy Plan Approved |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=December 12, 1992 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1992/12/12/business/company-news-trump-s-plaza-hotel-bankruptcy-plan-approved.html |agency=[[Reuters]] |access-date=May 24, 2023 |url-access=limited}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |first=Glenn |last=Kessler |author-link=Glenn Kessler (journalist) |title=Trump's false claim he built his empire with a 'small loan' from his father |date=March 3, 2016 |access-date=September 29, 2021 |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/fact-checker/wp/2016/03/03/trumps-false-claim-he-built-his-empire-with-a-small-loan-from-his-father |url-access=limited}}</ref>{{sfn|Kranish|Fisher|2017|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=x2jUDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA84 84]}}<ref>{{cite magazine |title=The Expanding Empire of Donald Trump |date=April 8, 1984 |access-date=September 29, 2021 |first=William E. |last=Geist |author-link=Bill Geist |magazine=[[The New York Times Magazine]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1984/04/08/magazine/the-expanding-empire-of-donald-trump.html |url-access=limited}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1992/11/04/business/company-news-trump-revises-plaza-loan.html |title=Trump Revises Plaza Loan |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=November 4, 1992 |access-date=May 23, 2023 |url-access=limited}}</ref> Mu 1995, Trump wakaleka kulipira ngongoli ya madola 3 biliyoni gha ku banki, ndipo awo ŵakamupa ngongoli ŵakakora hotelo ya Plaza pamoza na katundu wake munyake mu ndondomeko ya "kuwezgeramo vinthu mu nyumba" iyo yikawovwira kuti waleke kuŵa na ndalama zinandi. Ntchito yikuru ya Trump yikaŵa ya kuzenga nyumba ya Trump International Hotel and Tower iyo yikaŵa na nyumba zakudikanya 92. Nyumba iyi yikajulika mu 2008. Mu 2024, nyuzipepara ya The New York Times na ProPublica zikayowoya kuti ofesi ya Internal Revenue Service yikakhumbanga kumanya usange wakaleka kuzenga nyumba iyo wakawona kuti njambura kuzirwa.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Kiel |first1=Paul |last2=Buettner |first2=Russ |author-link2=Russ Buettner |url=https://www.propublica.org/article/trump-irs-audit-chicago-hotel-taxes |title=IRS Audit of Trump Could Cost Former President More Than $100 Million |work=[[ProPublica]] |date=May 11, 2024 |access-date=August 26, 2024}}</ref> ==== Makasino gha mu Atlantic City ==== [[File:Trump Taj Mahal, 2007.jpg|thumb|alt=The entrance of the Trump Taj Mahal, a casino in Atlantic City. It has motifs evocative of the Taj Mahal in India.|Malo ghakunjilira ku Trump Taj Mahal (lero ni Hard Rock Hotel & Casino) ku Atlantic City, New Jersey.]] Mu 1984, Trump wakajura Harrah's pa Trump Plaza, hotelo na kasino, na ndalama na wovwiri wa wupu wa Holiday Corporation. Vinthu vikamwendera makora yayi, ndipo wakalipira Holiday madola 70 miliyoni mu Meyi 1986 kuti ndiyo waŵe na mazaza ghose. Mu 1985, wakagura hotelo ya Atlantic City Hilton iyo yikaŵa kuti yindajure na kuyithya zina lakuti Trump's Castle. Mu 1988, Trump wakagura malo ghachitatu mu Atlantic City, Trump Taj Mahal. Yikasangika na ndalama zakukwana madola 675 miliyoni ndipo yikamara kuzengeka na ndalama zakukwana madola 1.1 biliyoni, ndipo yikajulika mu Epulero 1990. Mu 1991, wakapempha boma kuti limovwire. Mwakuyana na ivyo vyayowoyeka mu phangano ili, Trump wakaleka hafu ya katundu wake ndipo wakalayizga kuti vinthu viŵenge makora munthazi. Kuti wachepeske ngongoli yake ya madola 900 miliyoni, wakaguliska kampani ya ndege ya Trump Shuttle; boti lake likuru, la Trump Princess, ilo wakalipeleka ku makasino ghake na kuliguliska ku malo ghanyake; na mabizinesi ghanyake. Mu 1995, Trump wakambiska Trump Hotels & Casino Resorts (THCR), iyo yikamba kuŵa na Trump Plaza. THCR yikagura nyumba ya Taj Mahal na Trump Castle mu 1996 ndipo yikamba kuswa ndalama mu 2004 na mu 2009, ndipo yikamuleka na 10 peresenti. Wakalutilira kuŵa mulongozgi wa gulu ili mpaka mu 2009.<ref>{{cite magazine |url=https://fortune.com/2016/03/10/trump-hotel-casinos-pay-failure/ |title=How Donald Trump Made Millions Off His Biggest Business Failure |last=Tully |first=Shawn |author-link=Shawn Tully |date=March 10, 2016 |magazine=[[Fortune (magazine)|Fortune]] |access-date=May 6, 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Saxon |first=Wolfgang |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1985/04/28/nyregion/trump-buys-hilton-s-hotel-in-atlantic-city.html |title=Trump Buys Hilton's Hotel in Atlantic City |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=April 28, 1986 |access-date=May 25, 2023 |url-access=limited}}</ref>{{sfn|Blair|2015|p=351}} ====Mawupu gha Gofu==== Mu 1985, Trump wakagura nyumba ya Mar-a-Lago ku Palm Beach, Florida. Mu 1995, wakasintha malo agha na kughamba kuŵa gulu la ŵanthu ŵake na kulipira ndalama zakukwana chaka chilichose. Trump wakalutilira kugwiliskira nchito cipinda cinyake ca nyumba iyo kuŵa cikaya cake. Wakapharazga kuti club iyi ndiyo yikwenera kuŵa nyumba yake mu 2019. Mu 1999, Trump wakamba kuzenga na kugura malo gha gofu, ndipo mu 2016 wakaŵa na malo 17 pa charu chose.<ref>{{cite news |last=Garcia |first=Ahiza |date=December 29, 2016 |title=Trump's 17 golf courses teed up: Everything you need to know |url=https://www.cnn.com/2016/12/29/news/donald-trump-golf-courses/ |access-date=December 15, 2025 |work=[[CNN Business]]}}</ref> === Kupeleka License ya Zina la Trump === {{see also|List of things named after Donald Trump}} Gulu la Trump kanandi likagaŵanga mazina gha Trump pa vinthu ivyo ŵakagwiliskiranga nchito, nga ni vyakurya, vyakuvwara, masambiro, na vinthu vya mu nyumba. Wakapangana na makampani ghakujumpha 50 kuti ghapike mapenshoni, ndipo ghakapanga ndalama zakukwana madola 59 miliyoni. Kuzakafika mu 2018, makampani ghaŵiri pera agho ghakupanga katundu wakukhumbikwa ndiwo ghakalutilira kupeleka zina la Trump. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 2000, wakapanga nyumba zinandi. Vinthu 40 ivyo wakapharazga vikamara yayi.{{sfn|Buettner|Craig|2024|p=410}} === Ntchito zinyake === {{see also|Donald Trump and American football}} [[File:Donald Trump and Doug Flutie at a press conference in the Trump Tower.jpg|thumb|left|1985 New Jersey Generals msonkhano wa ŵatolamakani ku Trump Tower|alt=Trump, Doug Flutie, and New Jersey Generals head coach Walt Michaels standing behind a lectern with big, round New Jersey Generals sign, with members of the press seated in the background]] Mu 1970, Trump wakasunga ndalama zakukwana $70,000 za adada ŵake kuti wapokere ndalama zakucitira cinthu cinyake pa Broadway, kweni ndalama izi zikamumara. Wati wagura timu ya New York Mets na ya Cleveland Indians, mu 1983 wakagura ya New Jersey Generals, iyo yikaŵa ya United States Football League. Mpikisanowo unatha pambuyo pa nyengo ya 1985, makamaka chifukwa cha kuyesa kwake kusamukira ku ndondomeko ya kugwa (pamene iyo ikanakhala ikupikisana ndi National Football League kwa omvera) ndi kuyesa kwake kukakamiza kugwirizana ndi NFL mwa kubweretsa chovala chotsutsa. Mu 1989 na 1990, wakalemba zina lake pa Tour de Trump, mu chiyezgo cha ku America kuti wapangiske viphalizgano vya ku Europe nga ni Tour de France panji Giro d'Italia. Kufuma mu 1986 kufika mu 1988, wakagura masheya ghanandi mu makampani ghakupambanapambana agho ghakaŵa pa malo ghakupambanapambana, ndipo wakaguliska masheya agha kuti wasangepo phindu. Nyuzipepara ya The New York Times yikati, pakwamba wakapanga ndalama zinandi comene mu malonda gha malonda agha, kweni "wakazitaya zose para ŵamalonda ŵaleka kughanaghanira ivyo wakayowoya"..<ref name="Buettner-190508">{{cite news |last1=Buettner |first1=Russ |author-link1=Russ Buettner |last2=Craig |first2=Susanne |author-link2=Susanne Craig |date=May 7, 2019 |title=Decade in the Red: Trump Tax Figures Show Over $1 Billion in Business Losses |url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/05/07/us/politics/donald-trump-taxes.html |access-date=May 8, 2019 |work=[[The New York Times]] |url-access=limited}}</ref>[[File:Donald Trump star Hollywood Walk of Fame.JPG|thumb|upright=0.7|Star on the [[Hollywood Walk of Fame]]|alt=A red star with a bronze outline and "Donald Trump" and a TV icon written on it in bronze, embedded in a black terrazzo sidewalk]] Mu 1988, Trump wakagura ndege ya Eastern Air Lines Shuttle, na ndalama zakukwana $380 miliyoni (kuyana na $0.94 biliyoni mu 2022) mu ngongole kufuma ku mabanki 22. Wakasintha zina la ndege iyi kuŵa Trump Shuttle ndipo wakayigwiranga m'paka mu 1992. Mu 1991, wakaleka kulipira ngongoli zake, ndipo mabanki ghakamba kumuguliska. Mu 1996, wakagura viphikiro vya Miss Universe, kusazgapo Miss USA na Miss Teen USA. Chifukwa cha kusagwirizana ndi CBS pa ndondomeko, iye anatenga awiri okongola ku NBC mu 2002. Mu 2007, wakapokera nyenyezi pa Hollywood Walk of Fame chifukwa cha ntchito yake ya kupanga Miss Universe. NBC na Univision ŵakaleka kupokelera vipharazgo ivi mu Juni 2015 chifukwa cha ivyo wakayowoya vyakukhwaskana na ŵanthu ŵakufuma ku Mexico.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/life/tv/2015/06/29/nbc-dumps-trump/29471971/ |title=NBC to Donald Trump: You're fired |work=[[USA Today]] |first=Maria |last=Puente |date=June 29, 2015 |access-date=July 28, 2015}}</ref> ==== Yunivesite ya Trump ==== IMu 2005, Trump wakambiska Trump University, kampani iyo yikaguliskanga masemina gha malonda gha malo ghakukwana $35,000. Ŵalara ŵa boma la New York ŵakati ŵaphalira kampani iyi kuti yikupambana na malango gha boma pakuzunura "yunivesite" chifukwa yikaŵa sukulu yayi, mu 2010 ŵakasintha zina la kampani iyi kuŵa Trump Entrepreneur Initiative. Mu 2013, boma la New York likadumura mulandu wa madola 40 miliyoni ku Trump University, likati kampani iyi yikapeleka mauthenga ghautesi na kupusika ŵanthu. Mwakusazgirapo, milandu yiŵiri yikadumulika mu khoti la boma kwimikana na iyo na makampani ghake. Mabuku gha mukati ghakulongora kuti ŵantchito ŵakaphalirika kuti ŵagwirenge nchito mwakusuzga, ndipo awo ŵakagwiranga nchito mu yunivesite iyi ŵakayowoya kuti Trump University yikapusika panji kupusika ŵasambiri ŵake. Wati wawina masankho gha 2016, wakazomera kupeleka ndalama zakukwana $25 miliyoni kuti milandu yitatu iyi yimare.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/11/19/us/politics/trump-university.html |title=Donald Trump Agrees to Pay $25 Million in Trump University Settlement |last=Eder |first=Steve |date=November 18, 2016 |work=[[The New York Times]] |access-date=November 18, 2016 |url-access=limited}}</ref> ===Mawupu ghamu mizi=== {{main|Donald J. Trump Foundation}} Zina lake ni Donald J. Wupu wa Trump ukaŵanga wupu waŵene uwo ukakhazikiskika mu 1988. Kufuma mu 1987 m'paka 2006, Trump wakapeleka ndalama zakukwana $5.4 miliyoni ku wupu wake, ndipo ndalama izi zikaŵa kuti zagwira kale ntchito mu 2006. Wakati wapeleka ndalama zakukwana $65,000 mu 2007 ⁇ 2008, wakaleka kupeleka ndalama zake ku gulu ili, ilo likapokera ndalama zinandi kufuma ku ŵanthu ŵanyake, kusazgapo $5 million kufuma kwa Vince McMahon. Wupu uwu ukapelekanga ndalama ku mawupu gha vyaumoyo na maseŵero, mawupu gha ŵanthu awo ŵakutemwa vyakusanguluska, na mawupu agho ghakachitanga viphikiro mu nyumba za Trump. Mu 2016, nyuzipepara ya The Washington Post yikati gulu ili likachita vinthu vyakupambanapambana pa nkhani ya malango, kusazgapo kuguliska katundu na kuleka kupeleka msonkho. Kweniso mu chaka cha 2016, loya mukuru wa boma la New York wakayowoya kuti wupu uwu waswa malango gha boma pakulomba vyawanangwa kwambula kujilambika ku kafukufuku wa pachaka ndipo wakalangula kuti wupu uwu uleke ntchito zawo zakusonkha ndalama ku New York nyengo yeneyiyo. 6] Mu Disembala 2016, Trump wakayowoya kuti wupu uwu uzamumalizgika, kweni wakazomerezgeka yayi. Mu Juni 2018, ofesi ya loya mukuru wa boma la New York yikanjizga mulandu wa civil against the foundation, Trump, and his adult children, kupenja $2.8 million mu restitution and additional penalties. Mu Disembala 2018, wupu uwu ukaleka kugwira nchito na kupeleka ndalama zake ku wupu unyake. Mu Novembala wa 2019, jaji wa boma la New York wakalangura Trump kuti wapeleke $2 miliyoni ku gulu la ŵanthu ŵakupeleka wovwiri cifukwa ca kugwiliskira nchito uheni ndalama za m'bungwe ili, kuti wapeleke ndalama zakwendeskera kampeni yake.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://abcnews.go.com/US/trump-foundation-ordered-pay-2m-collection-nonprofits-part/story?id=66827235 |title=President Donald Trump ordered to pay $2M to collection of nonprofits as part of civil lawsuit |work=[[ABC News (United States)|ABC News]] |date=November 7, 2019 |access-date=November 7, 2019 |first=Aaron |last=Katersky |author-link=Aaron Katersky}}</ref> === Nkhani za malango na za banki === {{main|Personal and business legal affairs of Donald Trump}} Kuyana na ivyo vikalembeka mu makhoti gha mu vyaru na gha mu vyaru vinyake, ivyo vikalembeka na USA Today mu 2018, Trump na mabizinesi ghake ŵakakakika mu milandu yakujumpha 4,000. Nangauli Trump wandayowoyepo kuti wali na suzgo la ndalama, kweni bizinesi yake ya hotelo na kasino ku Atlantic City na New York, iyo yikaguliskanga ndalama zinandi, yikayowoyerathu kuti yili na suzgo la ndalama maulendo 6 kufuma mu 1991 kufika mu 2009. Banki iyi yikalutilira kugwira nchito apo banki yikanozga ngongoli na kuchepeska katundu wake mu nyumba izi. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1980, mabanki ghakujumpha 70 ghakapeleka ndalama kwa Trump zakukwana madola 4 biliyoni. Mu ma 1990, mabungwe ghakurughakuru gha banki ghakaleka kumupa ndalama, kupaturako Deutsche Bank. Pamanyuma pa kupanikizgika kwa nyumba ya Capitol pa Janyuwale 6, Deutsche Bank nayo yikasankha kuti yileke kucita nayo bizinesi panji kampani yake munthazi.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Riley |first1=Charles |last2=Egan |first2=Matt |title=Deutsche Bank won't do any more business with Trump |url=https://www.cnn.com/2021/01/12/investing/deutsche-bank-trump/ |access-date=September 14, 2022 |work=[[CNN]] |date=January 12, 2021}}</ref> ==Ntchito ya pa mawayilesi na vyachisangulusko== {{main|Media career of Donald Trump}} Trump wali kulemba [[Bibliography of Donald Trump|mabuku 19 pasi pa zina lake]], ghanandi ghake ghakalembeka panji kulembeka pamoza na [[ghostwriters]].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/americas/us-politics/trump-books-tweet-ghostwriter-tim-o-brien-tony-schwartz-writer-response-a8431271.html |title=Trump boasted about writing many books – his ghostwriter says otherwise |newspaper=[[The Independent]] |first=Andrew |last=Buncombe |date=July 4, 2018 |access-date=October 11, 2020}}</ref> Buku lake lakwamba, la 1987 lakuti ''[[The Art of the Deal|Art of the Deal]]'', likalembeka na [[Tony Schwartz (author)|Tony Schwartz]], uyo wakulongosoreka kuti wakaŵa mulembi munyake wa buku ili. Buku ili likaŵa pa [[The New York Times Best Seller list|mndandanda wa ''New York Times'' Best Seller]] ndipo likamupangiska Trump kumanyika chomene kuwaro kwa New York nga ni munthu musambazi kweniso wakuchita makora bizinesi.<ref>{{cite magazine |url=https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2016/07/25/donald-trumps-ghostwriter-tells-all |title=Donald Trump's Ghostwriter Tells All |magazine=[[The New Yorker]] |first=Jane |last=Mayer |author-link=Jane Mayer |date=July 18, 2016 |access-date=June 19, 2017}}</ref> Trump wakawoneka mu mafilimu ghanandi kweniso mu mapulogiramu gha pa wayilesi ya kanema kufuma mu 1985 mpaka 2001.<ref>{{cite magazine |first=Adrienne |last=LaFrance |author-link=Adrienne LaFrance |title=Three Decades of Donald Trump Film and TV Cameos |date=December 21, 2015 |magazine=[[The Atlantic]] |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/entertainment/archive/2015/12/three-decades-of-donald-trump-film-and-tv-cameos/421257/}}</ref> Trump wakasambira umo wakachitiranga ndyali kufuma ku [[professional wrestling]]. Kwambira kumapeto kwa m'ma 1980, nyengo zinyake wakachitanga ngati ndiyo mweneuyo pa vyakuchitika vya [[WWE]], nga ni bwana musambazi chomene, kusazgapo [[WrestleMania 23]] mu 2007.{{sfn|Gaufman|Ganesh|2024|pp=69–70}}{{sfn|O'Brien|2020|p=42}} Kwambira m'ma 1990, Trump wakawonekera kaŵiri na kanayi (24) nga ni mulendo pa pulogiramu ya ''[[Howard Stern Show]]'' iyo yikafikanga charu chose.{{sfn|Kranish|Fisher|2017|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=x2jUDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA166 166]}} Wakaŵaso na pulogiramu yake yifupi ya wayilesi yakudumbiskana, ''[[Trumped!]]'', kufuma mu 2004 mpaka 2008.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Massie |first1=Christopher |last2=Kaczynski |first2=Andrew |author-link2=Andrew Kaczynski |title=There Are Hours Of Audio Of Donald Trump's Nationally Syndicated Radio Show In The 2000s |url=https://www.buzzfeednews.com/article/christophermassie/theres-hours-of-audio-of-donald-trumps-nationally-syndicated |work=[[BuzzFeed]] |access-date=December 6, 2024 |date=March 16, 2016}}</ref> Kufuma mu 2011 mpaka 2015, wakaŵa mlendo wakuyowoyapo ndemanga pa ''[[Fox & Friends]]''.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Grossmann |first1=Matt |last2=Hopkins |first2=David A. |title=How the conservative media is taking over the Republican Party |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/monkey-cage/wp/2016/09/09/how-the-conservative-media-is-taking-over-the-republican-party/ |access-date=October 19, 2018 |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |date=September 9, 2016 |url-access=limited}}</ref> Mu 2021, Trump, uyo wakaŵa membala wa [[SAG-AFTRA]] kufuma mu 1989, wakafumamo mu wupu uwu kuti waleke kuwoneka pa mphara ya chilango yakukhwaskana na kuwukira kwa pa Janyuwale 6; mazuŵa ghaŵiri ghakati ghajumphapo, wupu uwu ukamukanizga kwamuyirayira kuŵaso membala.<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Harmata |first=Claudia |url=https://people.com/tv/sag-aftra-bans-donald-trump-future-readmission/ |title=Donald Trump Banned from Future Re-Admission to SAG-AFTRA: It's 'More Than a Symbolic Step' |magazine=[[People (magazine)|People]] |date=February 7, 2021 |access-date=February 8, 2021}}</ref> Wakupanga mapulogiramu gha pa wayilesi ya kanema [[Mark Burnett]] wakapangiska Trump kuŵa nyenyezi ya pa wayilesi ya kanema{{sfn|Buettner|Craig|2024|p=7}} apo wakalenga pulogiramu ya [[The Apprentice (American TV series)|''The Apprentice'']], iyo Trump wakalongozganga kufuma mu 2004 mpaka 2015 (kusazgapo mtundu unyake wa ''[[The Celebrity Apprentice|The Celebrity Apprentice]]''). Mu mapulogiramu agha, wakawonekanga nga ni mulara mukuru musambazi chomene wa kampani uyo wakafumiskanga ŵakwimilira pa mpikisano na [[mazgu ghakumanyikwa]] ghakuti "wamazga ntchito". ''The New York Times'' yikachema umo wakajilongosoleranga kuti "nthowa yakumuthamikira chomene kweniso yakunozga nkhani mwakupambaniska na unenesko" ya iyomwene.<ref name="show">{{cite news |last1=Grynbaum |first1=Michael M. |last2=Parker |first2=Ashley |author-link2=Ashley Parker |date=July 16, 2016 |title=Donald Trump the Political Showman, Born on 'The Apprentice' |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/07/17/business/media/donald-trump-apprentice.html |access-date=July 8, 2018 |url-access=limited}}</ref> Mapulogiramu agha ghakasintha umo ŵanthu mamiliyoni ghanandi mu charu chose cha United States ŵakamuwoneleranga Trump.<ref name="show"/><ref>{{cite magazine |last=Nussbaum |first=Emily |author-link=Emily Nussbaum |url=https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2017/07/31/the-tv-that-created-donald-trump |title=The TV That Created Donald Trump |magazine=[[The New Yorker]] |date=July 24, 2017 |access-date=October 18, 2023}}</ref> Kwendeskera pamoza na mapangano ghakuzomerezga kugwiliskira ntchito zina lake na malonda ghake, wakasangapo ndalama zakujumpha US$400 miliyoni.<ref>{{cite news |last=Poniewozik |first=James |author-link=James Poniewozik |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/09/28/arts/television/trump-taxes-apprentice.html |title=Donald Trump Was the Real Winner of 'The Apprentice' |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=September 28, 2020 |access-date=October 18, 2023 |url-access=limited}}</ref> == Kukhumba kunjira mu ndyali pakwamba == {{further|[[Ntchito ya ndyali ya Donald Trump]]}} [[File:Donald Trump speaking at CPAC 2011 by Mark Taylor.jpg|thumb|Kuyowoya pa [[Conservative Political Action Conference|CPAC]], Febuluwale 2011|alt=Trump, leaning heavily onto a lectern, with his mouth open mid-speech and a woman clapping next to him]] Trump wakalembeska kuti ni wa chipani cha [[Republican Party|Republican]] mu Queens mu 1969 ndipo ku Manhattan mu 1987;{{sfn|Barrett|2016|p=75}}<ref>{{cite news |last=Gillin |first=Joshua |date=August 24, 2015 |title=Bush says Trump was a Democrat longer than a Republican 'in the last decade' |url=https://www.politifact.com/factchecks/2015/aug/24/jeb-bush/bush-says-trump-was-democrat-longer-republican-las/ |access-date=September 23, 2025 |work=[[PolitiFact]]}}</ref> wakaŵa membala wa [[Independence Party of New York|Chipani cha Independence cha New York]], nthambi ya boma la New York ya [[Reform Party of the United States of America|Reform Party]], mu 1999; wa [[Democratic Party (United States)|Chipani cha Democratic]] mu 2001; Republican mu 2009; [[Independent politician|wambura chipani]] mu 2011; ndipo Republican mu 2012.<ref>{{cite news |last=Hall |first=Amy |title=Donald Trump was once a registered Democrat and party donor. So why did he jump ship? |url=https://www.sbs.com.au/news/article/donald-trump-was-once-a-registered-democrat-and-party-donor-why-did-he-jump-ship/wj85mj5yq |website=[[SBS News]] |access-date=March 29, 2025 |date=July 25, 2024}}</ref> Mu 1987, Trump wakafumiska malonda gha ukuru wa peji yose mu manyuzipepara ghakuru,<ref name="hint">{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1987/09/02/nyregion/trump-gives-a-vague-hint-of-candidacy.html |title=Trump Gives a Vague Hint of Candidacy |work=[[The New York Times]] |first=Michael |last=Oreskes |author-link=Michael Oreskes |date=September 2, 1987 |access-date=February 17, 2016 |url-access=limited}}</ref> wakalongosoranga maghanoghano ghake pa ndyali za vyaru vinyake kweniso umo wangamalira kusoŵeka kwa ndalama mu bajeti ya boma la federal.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1987/11/18/us/trump-urged-to-head-gala-of-democrats.html |title=Trump Urged To Head Gala Of Democrats |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=November 18, 1987 |access-date=October 1, 2021 |first=Fox |last=Butterfield |author-link=Fox Butterfield |url-access=limited}}</ref> Mu 1988, wakaluta kwa [[Lee Atwater]], wakamupempha kuti wamughanaghanire kuŵa wanyake wakwimilira pamoza na munthu wakwimira chipani cha Republican, [[George H. W. Bush]]. Bush wakati pempho ili "likaŵa lachilendo kweniso lakusuzga kugomezga".{{sfn|Meacham|2016|p=326}}<ref>{{cite news |title=George W. Bush 'surprised' by dad's criticism, author says |last=Gass |first=Nick |date=November 6, 2015 |access-date=December 20, 2024 |url=https://www.politico.com/story/2015/11/george-w-bush-father-book-215588 |work=[[Politico]]}}</ref> Trump [[Donald Trump 2000 presidential campaign|wakaŵa wakwimilira]] pa [[2000 Reform Party presidential primaries|ma primaries gha purezidenti gha Reform Party gha 2000]] kwa myezi yitatu pambere wandafumemo mu Febuluwale 2000.<ref>{{cite news |first=Richard |last=Winger |author-link=Richard Winger |title=Donald Trump Ran For President in 2000 in Several Reform Party Presidential Primaries |date=December 25, 2011 |access-date=October 1, 2021 |website=[[Ballot Access News]] |url=https://ballot-access.org/2011/12/25/donald-trump-ran-for-president-in-2000-in-several-reform-party-presidential-primaries/}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Clift |first=Eleanor |author-link=Eleanor Clift |url=https://www.thedailybeast.com/the-last-time-trump-wrecked-a-party |title=The Last Time Trump Wrecked a Party |work=[[The Daily Beast]] |date=July 18, 2016 |access-date=October 14, 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Nagourney |first=Adam |author-link=Adam Nagourney |url=https://archive.nytimes.com/www.nytimes.com/library/politics/camp/021400wh-ref-trump.html |title=Reform Bid Said to Be a No-Go for Trump |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=February 14, 2000 |access-date=December 26, 2020 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Mu 2011, Trump wakaghanaghananga kupikisana na Pulezidenti [[Barack Obama]] pa [[2012 United States presidential election|chisankho cha pulezidenti cha 2012]]. Wakayowoya pa [[Conservative Political Action Conference]] mu Febuluwale ndipo wakayowoya nkhani mu vigaŵa ivyo vikachitanga ma primaries ghakwambilira.<ref name="McA">{{cite news |last=MacAskill |first=Ewen |author-link=Ewen MacAskill |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/may/16/donald-trump-us-presidential-race |title=Donald Trump bows out of 2012 US presidential election race |work=[[The Guardian]] |date=May 16, 2011 |access-date=February 28, 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Bobic |first1=Igor |last2=Stein |first2=Sam |url=https://www.huffpost.com/entry/donald-trump-cpac_n_58adc0f4e4b03d80af7141cf |title=How CPAC Helped Launch Donald Trump's Political Career |work=[[HuffPost]] |date=February 22, 2017 |access-date=February 28, 2020}}</ref> Mu Meyi 2011, wakapharazga kuti wazamupikisana yayi.<ref name="McA"/> == Chisankho cha pulezidenti cha 2016 == {{main|[[2016 United States presidential election|Chisankho cha pulezidenti cha United States cha 2016]]}} {{further|[[Donald Trump 2016 presidential campaign|Ndondomeko ya kampeni ya Donald Trump ya 2016]]|[[2016 Republican Party presidential primaries|Ma primaries gha pulezidenti gha Republican gha 2016]]|[[First presidential transition of Donald Trump|Kusintha kwa boma lakwamba la Donald Trump]]}} [[File:Donald Trump by Gage Skidmore 5.jpg|thumb|left|alt=Trump speaking in front of an American flag behind a lectern, wearing a black business suit and a bright red "MAKE AMERICA GREAT AGAIN" baseball cap. The lectern sports a blue "TRUMP" sign.|Kuchita kampeni ku Arizona, Malichi 2016]] Trump wakapharazga kuti wapikisanenge pa chisankho cha 2016 mu Juni 2015.<ref>{{cite news |last=Lerner |first=Adam B. |author-link=Adam B. Lerner |date=June 16, 2015 |title=The 10 best lines from Donald Trump's announcement speech |url=https://www.politico.com/story/2015/06/donald-trump-2016-announcement-10-best-lines-119066 |access-date=June 7, 2018 |work=[[Politico]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Graham |first=David A. |date=May 13, 2016 |title=The Lie of Trump's 'Self-Funding' Campaign |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2016/05/trumps-self-funding-lie/482691/ |access-date=June 7, 2018 |work=[[The Atlantic]]}}</ref> Wakagwiliskiranga ntchito mazgu gha kampeni ghakuti "[[Make America Great Again|Pangaso America Kuŵa Yikuru]]", agho wakalembeska nga ni chizindikiro cha malonda mu 2012,<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Wilson |first=Chris |url=https://time.com/5084673/donald-trump-make-america-great-again-trademark/ |title='Make America High Again' and 279 Other Ways People Are Ripping Off Trump's Campaign Slogan |magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] |date=January 8, 2018 |access-date=April 13, 2026}}</ref> ndipo wakachita kampeni nga ni mubizinesi musambazi, wakachita makora, kweniso munthu uyo wakaŵavya vinandi vya ndyali,<ref>{{cite news |last=Terris |first=Ben |title=Donald Trump begins 2016 bid, citing his outsider status |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/donald-trump-is-now-a-candidate-for-president-of-the-united-states/2015/06/16/5e6d738e-1441-11e5-9ddc-e3353542100c_story.html |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |date=June 16, 2015 |access-date=April 26, 2025 |url-access=limited}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=December 19, 2015 |title=Outsider Sentiment Leaves Its Mark on 2016 Races (Poll) |url=https://abcnews.go.com/Politics/outsider-sentiment-leaves-mark-2016-races-poll/story?id=35850546 |access-date=April 26, 2025 |work=[[ABC News (United States)|ABC News]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Newport |first1=Frank |last2=Saad |first2=Lydia |title=Trump Support Built on Outsider Status, Business Experience |url=https://news.gallup.com/poll/189773/trump-support-built-outsider-status-business-experience.aspx |publisher=[[Gallup, Inc.]] |date=March 4, 2016 |access-date=April 26, 2025}}</ref> ndipo wakatenge ŵakumupuskira nkhani ŵakaŵa na [[kukondera kwa vyakupharazga nkhani]] pa iyo.<ref>{{cite news |first=Kenneth T. |last=Walsh |author-link=Kenneth T. Walsh |title=Trump: Media Is 'Dishonest and Corrupt' |date=August 15, 2016 |access-date=October 1, 2021 |work=[[U.S. News & World Report]] |url=https://www.usnews.com/news/articles/2016-08-15/trump-media-is-dishonest-and-corrupt}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/the-fix/wp/2016/07/06/donald-trumps-failing-war-on-political-correctness/ |title=Donald Trump is waging war on political correctness. And he's losing. |first=Aaron |last=Blake |date=July 6, 2016 |access-date=October 1, 2021 |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |url-access=limited}}</ref> Mazgu gha Trump pa kampeni kanandi ghakaŵanga ghambura kupulikikwa makora ndipo ghakalongosoranga vinthu mwakubisa;<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.npr.org/2016/08/10/489476187/trump-s-second-amendment-comment-fit-a-pattern-of-ambiguous-speech |last=McCammon |first=Sarah |author-link=Sarah McCammon |title=Donald Trump's controversial speech often walks the line |work=[[NPR News]] |date=August 10, 2016 |access-date=October 1, 2021}}</ref> ndipo mautesi ghake ghakaŵa ghanandi kuluska kale.<ref name="whoppers">{{cite news |title=The 'King of Whoppers': Donald Trump |url=https://www.factcheck.org/2015/12/the-king-of-whoppers-donald-trump/ |work=[[FactCheck.org]] |access-date=March 4, 2019 |date=December 21, 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.politifact.com/truth-o-meter/article/2015/dec/21/2015-lie-year-donald-trump-campaign-misstatements/ |title=2015 Lie of the Year: the campaign misstatements of Donald Trump |work=[[PolitiFact]] |date=December 21, 2015 |access-date=October 1, 2021 |first1=Angie Drobnic |last1=Holan |author-link1=Angie Drobnic Holan |first2=Linda |last2=Qiu}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |first=Paul |last=Farhi |title=Think Trump's wrong? Fact checkers can tell you how often. (Hint: A lot.) |date=February 26, 2016 |access-date=October 1, 2021 |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/style/the-existential-crisis-of-professional-factcheckers-in-the-year-of-trump/2016/02/25/e994f210-db3e-11e5-81ae-7491b9b9e7df_story.html |url-access=limited}}</ref> Mu Malichi 2016 wakaŵa munthu wakulongozga pa chipani cha Republican,<ref>{{cite news |last=Bump |first=Philip |date=March 23, 2016 |title=Why Donald Trump is poised to win the nomination and lose the general election, in one poll |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/the-fix/wp/2016/03/23/why-donald-trump-is-poised-to-win-the-nomination-and-lose-the-general-election-in-one-poll/ |access-date=October 1, 2021 |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |url-access=limited}}</ref> ndipo mu Meyi wakapharazgika kuti ndiyo wakaŵa wakwimira chipani cha Republican pa chisankho.<ref>{{cite news |last=Ohlemacher |first=Stephen |url=https://apnews.com/article/donald-trump-north-dakota-campaign-2016-events-united-states-presidential-election-a382673514394788b45cfc109d0febe4 |title=Mister 1,237: North Dakota delegate puts Trump over the top |work=[[AP News]] |date=May 26, 2016 |access-date=January 28, 2025}}</ref> Trump wakalongosora kuti [[NATO]] "yikagwiraso ntchito yayi"<ref>{{cite news |first=Jenna |last=Johnson |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/post-politics/wp/2017/04/12/trump-on-nato-i-said-it-was-obsolete-its-no-longer-obsolete/ |title=Trump on NATO: 'I said it was obsolete. It's no longer obsolete.' |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |date=April 12, 2017 |access-date=November 26, 2019 |url-access=limited}}</ref>{{sfn|Edwards|2018|loc="On the campaign trail, Trump repeatedly called North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) 'obsolete'"}} ndipo wakalongora maghanoghano agho ''The Washington Post'' yikaghachema kuti gha [[kwambura kunjilirapo pa nkhondo za vyaru vinyake]] kweniso [[kukhwirizga malonda gha mu charu]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Rucker |first1=Philip |author-link1=Philip Rucker |last2=Costa |first2=Robert |author-link2=Robert Costa (journalist) |date=March 21, 2016 |access-date=August 24, 2021 |title=Trump questions need for NATO, outlines noninterventionist foreign policy |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/post-politics/wp/2016/03/21/donald-trump-reveals-foreign-policy-team-in-meeting-with-the-washington-post/ |url-access=limited}}</ref> Ndondomeko yake ya kampeni yikakhazikanga pa kukambiranaso [[Ubwezi wa pakati pa United States na China|ubwezi wa United States na China]] kweniso [[mapangano gha malonda ghambura msonkho]] nga ni [[North American Free Trade Agreement|NAFTA]], kweniso kukhozga chomene malango gha ŵanthu ŵakunjira mu charu. Maghanoghano ghanyake gha kampeni ghakasazgapo kupenja [[kujiyimira pawekha pa nkhani ya nkhongono]], nangauli wakasuskananga na malango ghakukhwaskana na kusintha kwa nyengo, kunozga [[Veterans Benefits Administration|mauteŵeti gha ŵasilikari ŵakupumura]], kumazga na kunozgaso [[Affordable Care Act]], kumazga fundo za masambiro za [[Common Core]], [[chitukuko cha zomangamanga|kuŵika ndalama mu zomangamanga]], kupusuza [[Internal Revenue Code|dango la misonkho]] apo wakachepeskanga misonkho, kweniso kuŵika [[msonkho wa katundu wakunjira mu charu|misonkho ya katundu]] pa vinthu vyakunjira mu charu ivyo vikapangika na makampani agho ghakasamuskira ntchito zawo kuwaro kwa United States. Wakakhumbanga kusazgirako ndalama za ŵasilikari kweniso kuchita kusanda mwankhongono panji kuŵakanizga ŵanthu ŵakufuma mu vyaru vya Chisilamu kunjira mu charu.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-37982000 |title=Trump's promises before and after the election |date=September 19, 2017 |access-date=October 1, 2021 |work=[[BBC News]]}}</ref> Wakalayizga kuzenga [[Lupupa lwa mphaka ya Mexico na United States|lupupa pa mphaka ya Mexico na United States]] ndipo wakalayizga kuti Mexico ndiyo wazamukulipira.<ref>{{cite news |date=February 6, 2017 |title=Donald Trump's Mexico wall: Who is going to pay for it? |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-37243269 |access-date=December 9, 2017 |work=[[BBC News]]}}</ref> Wakalayizgaso kuchimbizga mamiliyoni gha [[Ŵalendo ŵambura mapepala mu United States|ŵalendo ŵambura mapepala awo ŵakakhalanga mu United States]],<ref>{{cite news |date=August 19, 2015 |title=Donald Trump emphasizes plans to build 'real' wall at Mexico border |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/world/donald-trump-emphasizes-plans-to-build-real-wall-at-mexico-border-1.3196807 |access-date=September 29, 2015 |work=[[CBC News]]}}</ref> ndipo wakasuska [[Ufulu wa kuŵa mwanarumi wa charu chifukwa cha kubabikira mu United States|ufumu wa kuŵa mwanarumi wa charu chifukwa cha kubabikira mu United States]], wakati uku ukupangiska kuŵa na "[[anchor babies|ŵana ŵakubabikira kuti ŵapoke wanarumi]]".<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Oh |first=Inae |date=August 19, 2015 |title=Donald Trump: The 14th Amendment is Unconstitutional |url=https://www.motherjones.com/mojo/2015/08/donald-trump-has-some-thoughts-about-the-constitution |access-date=November 22, 2015 |magazine=[[Mother Jones (magazine)|Mother Jones]]}}</ref> Kuyana na kusanda uko kukafuma mu ''[[Political Science Quarterly]]'', pa kampeni yake ya pa [[visola vya pulezidenti vya United States vya 2016|visola vya pulezidenti vya 2016]], Trump wakagwiliskira ntchito mazgu agho ghakawonekanga pakweru kuti ghakaŵa gha sankho la mtundu na gha kusankhana ŵanalume na ŵanakazi kuti wakope ŵavoti ŵatuŵa.{{sfn|Schaffner|Macwilliams|Nteta|2018|p=31}} Chomenechomene, mazgu ghake ghakwambilira gha kampeni ghakasuskika chifukwa chakuti wakati ŵalendo ŵa ku Mexico "ŵakwiza na munkhwala wakuzweteska, ŵakwiza na ubendezi, ŵakuchita chibundi";<ref>{{cite news |last=Wolf |first=Z. Byron |date=April 6, 2018 |title=Trump basically called Mexicans rapists again |url=https://www.cnn.com/2018/04/06/politics/trump-mexico-rapists/ |access-date=June 28, 2022 |work=[[CNN]]}}</ref> chifukwa cha ivi, NBC yikamufumiska pa ''[[The Celebrity Apprentice|Celebrity Apprentice]]''.<ref>{{cite news |date=August 13, 2015 |title=NBC officially fires Trump from 'Celebrity Apprentice' |url=https://apnews.com/article/cb81efbf341a40f6be98bb8c1933bcf4 |access-date=August 27, 2025 |work=[[AP News]]}}</ref> == Ulongozgi wakwamba (2017–2021) == {{main|[[Ulongozgi wakwamba wa Donald Trump|Ulongozgi wakwamba wa Donald Trump]]}} {{for timeline|[[Nyengo ya maulamuliro gha Donald Trump#Ulongozgi wakwamba (2017–2021)|Nyengo ya maulamuliro gha Donald Trump]]}} [[File:Donald Trump swearing in ceremony.jpg|thumb|alt=Trump, with his family watching, raises his right hand and places his left hand on the Bible as he takes the oath of office. Roberts stands opposite him administering the oath|Trump wakulapa [[Layizgo la ntchito ya pulezidenti wa United States|layizgo la ntchito ya pulezidenti]], ilo likalongozgeka na Mweruzgi Mukuru [[John Roberts]], pa Janyuwale&nbsp;20, 2017]] Trump [[Kunjira mu udindo kwa Donald Trump kwakwamba|wakanjizgika mu udindo]] pa Janyuwale&nbsp;20, 2017. Zuŵa lakulondezgapo, ŵanthu ŵakukwana pafupifupi 2.6 miliyoni pa charu chose chapasi, kusazgapo 500,000 ku Washington, D.C., ŵakachita viwoneskero vyakususkana nayo mu [[Women's March ya 2017|Women's Marches]].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/politics/2017/01/21/womens-march-aims-start-movement-trump-inauguration/96864158/ |title=At 2.6 million strong, Women's Marches crush expectations |last1=Przybyla |first1=Heidi M. |last2=Schouten |first2=Fredreka |date=January 21, 2017 |work=[[USA Today]] |access-date=January 22, 2017}}</ref> Mu masabata ghake ghaŵiri ghakwamba mu udindo, Trump wakasaina [[Mndandanda wa malango gha boma gha mu ulongozgi wakwamba wa Trump|malango gha boma]] 18, kusazgapo kuzomerezga nthowa zakumazgira Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act ("Obamacare"), kufumamo mu kudumbiskana kwa Trans-Pacific Partnership, kulutiska panthazi ma projekiti gha [[Keystone XL Pipeline|Keystone XL]] na [[Dakota Access Pipeline]], kweniso kunozgekera kuzenga lupupa pa mphaka ya United States na Mexico.<ref>{{cite news |last=Quigley |first=Aidan |title=All of Trump's executive actions so far |url=https://www.politico.com/agenda/story/2017/01/all-trump-executive-actions-000288/ |access-date=January 28, 2017 |work=[[Politico]] |date=January 25, 2017}}</ref> === Kukwaskana kwa vyakukondweska vya munthu yekha === {{see also|[[Ulongozgi wakwamba wa Donald Trump#Makhaliro|Ulongozgi wakwamba wa Donald Trump]]}} Trump wakalutilira kusanga phindu kufuma ku mabizinesi ghake pa nyengo ya ulongozgi wake wakwamba ndipo wakamanyanga umo ndondomeko za boma lake zikakhwaskiranga mabizinesi agha.<ref name="BBC041817">{{cite news |date=April 18, 2017 |title=Donald Trump: A list of potential conflicts of interest |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-38069298 |access-date=October 2, 2021 |work=[[BBC News]]}}</ref><ref name="Venook">{{cite news |last=Venook |first=Jeremy |title=Trump's Interests vs. America's, Dubai Edition |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/business/archive/2017/08/donald-trump-conflicts-of-interests/508382/ |work=[[The Atlantic]] |date=August 9, 2017 |access-date=October 2, 2021}}</ref> Wakati wazamuchita yayi "mapangano ghaphya gha kuwaro kwa charu", kweni Trump Organization yikalutilira kusazgirako ntchito zake ku Scotland, Dubai na Dominican Republic.<ref name="BBC041817"/><ref name="Venook"/> Ŵakukopa boma, ŵalara ŵa maboma gha kuwaro, kweniso ŵakupa ndalama ku Trump na ŵabwezi ŵake ŵakamupangira ndalama zakukwana mazana ghanandi gha mamiliyoni gha madola pa malo ghake ghakupumulirako na mahotelo.<ref>{{cite news |last=Stone |first=Peter |url=https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2019/jul/19/donald-trump-businesses-hotels-conflict-of-interest |title=How Trump's businesses are booming with lobbyists, donors and governments |work=[[The Guardian]] |date=July 19, 2019 |access-date=November 20, 2024}}</ref> === Ndondomeko za mukati mwa charu === {{main|[[Ndondomeko za mukati mwa charu za boma lakwamba la Trump|Ndondomeko za mukati mwa charu za boma lakwamba la Trump]]|[[Ndondomeko ya vyachuma ya boma lakwamba la Trump|Ndondomeko ya vyachuma ya boma lakwamba la Trump]]|[[Ndondomeko ya vyachilengedwe ya boma lakwamba la Trump|Ndondomeko ya vyachilengedwe ya boma lakwamba la Trump]]|[[Ndondomeko ya umoyo wa ŵanthu ya boma lakwamba la Trump|Ndondomeko ya umoyo wa ŵanthu ya boma lakwamba la Trump]]}} Trump wakanjira mu udindo apo United States yikaŵa mu nyengo yitali chomene ya [[kukura kwa vyachuma]],<ref name=VanDam>{{cite news |first=Andrew |last=Van Dam |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/2021/01/08/trump-jobs-record/ |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |title=Trump will have the worst jobs record in modern U.S. history. It's not just the pandemic. |date=January 8, 2021 |access-date=October 2, 2021 |url-access=limited}}</ref> iyo yikamba mu 2009 na kulutilira mpaka Febuluwale 2020 apo [[kusika kwa vyachuma chifukwa cha COVID-19]] kukamba.<ref>{{cite news |last=Smialek |first=Jeanna |date=June 8, 2020 |title=The U.S. Entered a Recession in February |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/06/08/business/economy/us-economy-recession-2020.html |access-date=June 10, 2020 |url-access=limited}}</ref> Mu Disembala 2017, wakasaina [[Tax Cuts and Jobs Act of 2017|Dango la Tax Cuts and Jobs Act la 2017]], ilo likachepeska misonkho ya mabizinesi na ya ŵanthu payekhapayekha, kweniso likamazga chilango chakukhwaskana na dango la [[Affordable Care Act]] lakuti munthu waliyose waŵe na inshuwalansi ya umoyo.<ref>{{cite news |last=Long |first=Heather |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/wonk/wp/2017/12/15/the-final-gop-tax-bill-is-complete-heres-what-is-in-it/ |title=The final GOP tax bill is complete. Here's what is in it. |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |date=December 15, 2017 |access-date=July 31, 2021 |url-access=limited}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2017/12/15/us/politics/final-republican-tax-bill-cuts.html |title=What's in the Final Republican Tax Bill |work=[[The New York Times]] |first1=Wilson |last1=Andrews |first2=Alicia |last2=Parlapiano |date=December 15, 2017 |access-date=December 22, 2017 |url-access=limited}}</ref> Mu nyengo ya Trump, kusoŵeka kwa ndalama mu bajeti ya boma la federal kukakwera pafupifupi 50 peresenti, kufika pafupifupi US$1 thiriliyoni mu 2019.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Long |first1=Heather |last2=Stein |first2=Jeff |author-link2=Jeff Stein (author) |title=The U.S. deficit hit $984 billion in 2019, soaring during Trump era |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/2019/10/25/us-deficit-hit-billion-marking-nearly-percent-increase-during-trump-era/ |access-date=June 10, 2020 |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |date=October 25, 2019 |url-access=limited}}</ref> Paumaliro wa nyengo yake mu udindo, [[ngongoli ya charu ya United States]] yikakwera na 39 peresenti kufika pa US$27.75 thiriliyoni, ndipo chiŵelengero cha ngongoli pakuyezga na GDP cha United States chikafika pachanya chomene kufuma pa nyengo ya Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya pa Charu Chose.<ref>{{cite news |first1=Allan |last1=Sloan |first2=Cezary |last2=Podkul |url=https://www.propublica.org/article/national-debt-trump |work=[[ProPublica]] |title=Donald Trump Built a National Debt So Big (Even Before the Pandemic) That It'll Weigh Down the Economy for Years |date=January 14, 2021 |access-date=October 3, 2021}}</ref> Trump wakukana [[kumanyana kwa ŵasayansi pa kusintha kwa nyengo]].<ref> * {{cite news |first1=Ashley |last1=Parker |author-link1=Ashley Parker |first2=Coral |last2=Davenport |title=Donald Trump's Energy Plan: More Fossil Fuels and Fewer Rules |date=May 26, 2016 |access-date=October 3, 2021 |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/05/27/us/politics/donald-trump-global-warming-energy-policy.html |url-access=limited}} * {{cite news |first=Jason |last=Samenow |author-link=Jason Samenow |title=Donald Trump's unsettling nonsense on weather and climate |date=March 22, 2016 |access-date=October 3, 2021 |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/capital-weather-gang/wp/2016/03/22/donald-trumps-unsettling-nonsense-on-weather-and-climate |url-access=limited}} * {{cite news |last1=Lemire |first1=Jonathan |author-link1=Jonathan Lemire |last2=Madhani |first2=Aamer |last3=Weissert |first3=Will |last4=Knickmeyer |first4=Ellen |date=September 15, 2020 |title=Trump spurns science on climate: 'Don't think science knows' |url=https://apnews.com/article/climate-climate-change-elections-joe-biden-campaigns-bd152cd786b58e45c61bebf2457f9930 |access-date=May 11, 2024 |work=[[AP News]]}} * {{cite news |last1=Plumer |first1=Brad |last2=Davenport |first2=Coral |date=December 28, 2019 |title=Science Under Attack: How Trump Is Sidelining Researchers and Their Work |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/12/28/climate/trump-administration-war-on-science.html |access-date=May 11, 2024 |work=[[The New York Times]] |url-access=limited}} </ref> Wakachepeska bajeti ya kafukufuku wa [[Nkhongono zakuweleraso ku United States#Kafukufuku wa nkhongono zakuweleraso|nkhongono zakuweleraso]] na 40 peresenti, ndipo wakawuskapo ndondomeko za nyengo ya Obama izo zikakhumbanga kuchepeska [[kusintha kwa nyengo]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Trump proposes cuts to climate and clean-energy programs |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/how-trump-is-changing-science-environment |date=May 3, 2019 |work=[[National Geographic Society]] |access-date=November 24, 2023}}</ref> Wakafumiska United States mu [[United States na Pangano la Paris|Pangano la Paris]], kupangiska United States kuŵa charu chimoza pera icho chikaŵa chindazomerezge pangano ili.<ref>{{cite news |last=Dennis |first=Brady |title=As Syria embraces Paris climate deal, it's the United States against the world |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/energy-environment/wp/2017/11/07/as-syria-embraces-paris-climate-deal-its-the-united-states-against-the-world |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |date=November 7, 2017 |access-date=May 28, 2018 |url-access=limited}}</ref> Trump wakakhumbanga, ndipo wachali kukhumba, kusazgirako kupanga na kutumiza kuwaro [[mafuta gha pansi]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Gardner |first=Timothy |title=Senate confirms Brouillette, former Ford lobbyist, as energy secretary |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-energy-brouillette/senate-confirms-brouillette-former-ford-lobbyist-as-energy-secretary-idUSKBN1Y62E6 |access-date=December 15, 2019 |work=[[Reuters]] |date=December 3, 2019 |url-access=limited}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://apnews.com/article/mt-state-wire-climate-ap-top-news-climate-change-ca-state-wire-2b44ced0e892d7e988e40a486d875b5d |work=[[AP News]] |title=Trump's fossil fuel agenda gets pushback from federal judges |first=Matthew |last=Brown |date=September 15, 2020 |access-date=October 3, 2021}}</ref> Kupanga gasi wachilengedwe kukakura mu nyengo ya Trump, kweni kupanga [[Kukumba malasha ku United States#Kupanga|malasha]] kukalutilira kuchepa.<ref>{{cite news |last=Lipton |first=Eric |author-link=Eric Lipton |date=October 5, 2020 |title='The Coal Industry Is Back,' Trump Proclaimed. It Wasn't. |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/10/05/us/politics/trump-coal-industry.html |access-date=October 3, 2021 |work=[[The New York Times]] |url-access=limited}}</ref><ref name=Subramaniam>{{cite news |first=Tara |last=Subramaniam |url=https://www.cnn.com/2021/01/30/politics/trump-broken-promises/ |title=From building the wall to bringing back coal: Some of Trump's more notable broken promises |work=[[CNN]] |date=January 30, 2021 |access-date=October 3, 2021}}</ref> Wakawuskapo [[Rollback|malango gha boma]] ghakujumpha 100 agho ghakavikilira vyachilengedwe, kusazgapo agho ghakachepeskanga [[mpweya wakuwoneska kutentha]], kunangika kwa mphepo na [[kunangika kwa maji]], kweniso kugwiliskira ntchito vyakofya. Wakafoka nkhongono za malango ghakovwira vinyama na [[Environmental standard#United States|vyeruzgo vya vyachilengedwe]] pa ma projekiti gha boma, ndipo wakazomerezga malo ghanandi ghakukumbiramo mafuta na vinthu vya mu dongo, nga nkhuvwilira [[Arctic Refuge drilling controversy|kukumba mafuta mu Arctic Refuge]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Popovich |first1=Nadja |last2=Albeck-Ripka |first2=Livia |last3=Pierre-Louis |first3=Kendra |author-link3=Kendra Pierre-Louis |title=The Trump Administration Rolled Back More Than 100 Environmental Rules. Here's the Full List. |url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2020/climate/trump-environment-rollbacks-list.html |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=January 20, 2021 |access-date=December 21, 2023 |url-access=limited}}</ref> Mu kuzgora ku [[Suzgo la munkhwala wa opioid ku United States|suzgo la munkhwala wa opioid]] ku United States, Trump wakasaina dango mu 2018 lakusazgirako ndalama zakovwira ŵanthu awo ŵakupokera wovwiri wakuleka munkhwala wakuzweteska, kweni wakasuskika chomene chifukwa chakuti wakatondeka kuŵika ndondomeko yakupulikikwa makora yakumazgira suzgo ili.<ref>{{cite news |last=Mann |first=Brian |date=October 29, 2020 |title=Opioid Crisis: Critics Say Trump Fumbled Response To Another Deadly Epidemic |work=[[NPR News]] |url=https://www.npr.org/2020/10/29/927859091/opioid-crisis-critics-say-trump-fumbled-response-to-another-deadly-epidemic |access-date=December 13, 2020}}</ref> Wakakanizga mawupu agho ghakapelekanga vyakufumiska nthumbo panji kulongozga ŵanakazi uko ŵangakasanga vyakufumiska nthumbo kuti ghapokere ndalama za boma la federal.<ref>{{cite news |title=Abortion: How do Trump and Biden's policies compare? |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/election-us-2020-54003808 |work=[[BBC News]] |access-date=July 17, 2023 |date=September 9, 2020}}</ref> Boma lake likawuskapo vigaŵa vikuru vya ndondomeko za boma la Obama zakuvikilira ŵantchito ku [[kusankhana ŵanthu ŵa LGBT|kusankhana ŵanthu ŵa LGBTQ]].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/feature/nbc-out/lgbtq-advocates-say-trump-s-news-executive-order-makes-them-n740301 |title=LGBTQ Advocates Say Trump's New Executive Order Makes Them Vulnerable to Discrimination |work=[[NBC News]] |first=Mary Emily |last=O'Hara |date=March 30, 2017 |access-date=July 30, 2017}}</ref> Kuyezga kwake kwakuwuskapo malango ghakovwira ŵalwari ŵa [[ŵanthu ŵakusintha jenda|transgender]] ku kusankhana mu Ogasiti 2020 kukakanizgika na mweruzgi wa boma la federal pamanyuma pakuti Khoti Likuru likafiska ufulu wa ŵantchito kuŵa wakuvikilirika pa [[jenda]] na kaŵiro ka munthu ka kugonana.<ref>{{cite news |last=Luthi |first=Susannah |url=https://www.politico.com/news/2020/08/17/judge-trump-rollback-transgender-health-397332 |title=Judge halts Trump's rollback of transgender health protections |work=[[Politico]] |date=August 17, 2020 |access-date=November 8, 2023}}</ref> Boma lake [[Ndondomeko ya chamba ya boma lakwamba la Trump|likasuskanga kugwiliskira ntchito chamba]], ndipo likawuskapo [[Cole Memorandum|ndondomeko za nyengo ya Obama]] izo zikavikiliranga maboma agho ghakazomerezga kugwiliskira ntchito chamba mwakwenelera.<ref>{{cite news |last=Bures |first=Brendan |date=February 21, 2020 |access-date=October 3, 2021 |title=Trump administration doubles down on anti-marijuana position |work=[[Chicago Tribune]] |url=https://www.chicagotribune.com/marijuana/sns-tft-trump-anti-marijuana-stance-20200221-jfdx4urbb5bhrf6ldtfpxleopi-story.html}}</ref> Trump ni wakwimilira chilango cha nyifwa kwa nyengo yitali,<ref>{{cite news |last=Wolf |first=Zachary B. |title=Trump returns to the death penalty as Democrats turn against it |url=https://www.cnn.com/2019/07/27/politics/death-penalty-trump-democrats/ |work=[[CNN]] |access-date=September 18, 2022 |date=July 27, 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Honderich |first=Holly |title=In Trump's final days, a rush of federal executions |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-55236260 |work=[[BBC News]] |date=January 16, 2021 |access-date=September 18, 2022}}</ref> ndipo boma lake likalongozga [[Chilango cha nyifwa na boma la federal la United States|boma la federal la United States]] pa kukoma ŵakayidi 13, chiŵelengero chikuru kuluska ŵose awo ŵakakomeka mu vyaka 56 ivyo vikajumpha, ndipo vikamazga nyengo ya vyaka 17 iyo chilango ichi chikachitikanga yayi.<ref>{{cite news |first1=Michael |last1=Tarm |first2=Michael |last2=Kunzelman |title=Trump administration carries out 13th and final execution |url=https://apnews.com/article/donald-trump-wildlife-coronavirus-pandemic-crime-terre-haute-28e44cc5c026dc16472751bbde0ead50 |work=[[AP News]] |date=January 15, 2021 |access-date=January 30, 2022}}</ref> === Kugowokera na kuchepeska chilango === {{further|[[Mndandanda wa ŵanthu awo ŵakapokera chigowokero cha pulezidenti mu ulongozgi wakwamba wa Trump]]}} Mu nyengo yake yakwamba mu udindo, Trump wakapeleka vigowokero 237, vichoko kuluska mapulezidenti wose kufuma mu 1900 kupatulako [[George H. W. Bush]] na [[George W. Bush]].<ref>{{cite web |last=Gramlich |first=John |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2021/01/22/trump-used-his-clemency-power-sparingly-despite-a-raft-of-late-pardons-and-commutations/ |title=Trump used his clemency power sparingly despite a raft of late pardons and commutations |publisher=[[Pew Research Center]] |date=January 22, 2021 |access-date=July 23, 2023}}</ref> Pa vigowokero ivi, 25 pera ndivyo vikawunikika na [[Office of the Pardon Attorney|Ofesi ya Loya wa Vigowokero]] ya Unduna wa vya Malango; vinyake vikapelekeka ku ŵanthu awo ŵakaŵa na ubwezi wa munthu panji wa ndyali na iyo, mbumba yake, panji ŵabwezi ŵake, panji awo ŵakalimbikizgika na ŵanthu ŵakumanyikwa.<ref name="road">{{cite news |last=Vogel |first=Kenneth P. |author-link=Kenneth P. Vogel |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/01/27/us/politics/trump-pardons.html |title=The Road to Clemency From Trump Was Closed to Most Who Sought It |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=March 21, 2021 |access-date=July 23, 2023 |url-access=limited}}</ref><ref name="OloDaw">{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/trump-pardon-power-russia-probe-mueller/2020/12/24/c55000c8-45fd-11eb-b0e4-0f182923a025_story.html |date=December 24, 2020 |access-date=October 3, 2021 |title=Trump wields pardon power as political weapon, rewarding loyalists and undermining prosecutors |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |first1=Toluse |last1=Olorunnipa |author-link1=Toluse Olorunnipa |first2=Josh |last2=Dawsey |author-link2=Josh Dawsey |url-access=limited}}</ref> Pa zuŵa lake laumaliro lathunthu mu udindo, wakagowokera ŵanthu 73 ndipo wakachepeska vilango vya ŵanthu 70.<ref>{{cite news |first1=Kevin |last1=Johnson |first2=David |last2=Jackson |first3=Dennis |last3=Wagner |url=https://usatoday.com/story/news/politics/2021/01/19/donald-trump-pardons-steve-bannon-white-house/4209763001/ |title=Donald Trump grants clemency to 144 people (not himself or family members) in final hours |date=January 19, 2021 |work=[[USA Today]] |access-date=July 23, 2023}}</ref> Vigowokero vya ŵasilikari ŵatatu awo ŵakasangika na mulandu panji ŵakeneranga kweruzgika pa milandu ya nkhaza vikakanizgika na ŵalongozgi ŵa ŵasilikari.<ref>{{cite news |last=Phillips |first=Dave |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/11/15/us/trump-pardons.html |title=Trump Clears Three Service Members in War Crimes Cases |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=November 22, 2019 |access-date=April 18, 2024 |url-access=limited}}</ref> === Ndondomeko ya ŵanthu ŵakusamukira mu charu === {{main|[[Ndondomeko ya ŵanthu ŵakusamukira mu charu ya boma lakwamba la Trump]]}} {{further|[[Suzgo la mphaka ya Mexico–United States#Boma lakwamba la Trump (2017–2021)]]}} [[File:Texas Photo 1.jpg|thumb|Ŵana, mphasa zakugonapo na mabulangete gha foil mu chipinda cha waya, [[Ursula (detention center)|malo ghakusungiramo ŵanthu gha Ursula]], Juni 2018]] Nga ni pulezidenti, Trump wakalongosoranga kuti ŵanthu ŵakanjira mu charu mwambura kuzomerezgeka "ŵakunjira mwankhaza" mu United States<ref>{{cite news |last=Fritze |first=John |date=August 8, 2019 |title=A USA Today analysis found Trump used words like 'invasion' and 'killer' at rallies more than 500 times since 2017 |url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/politics/elections/2019/08/08/trump-immigrants-rhetoric-criticized-el-paso-dayton-shootings/1936742001/ |access-date=August 9, 2019 |work=[[USA Today]]}}</ref> ndipo wakakhozga chomene kukhozga malango gha ŵanthu ŵakusamukira mu charu.{{sfn|Johnson|2017a}}{{sfn|Johnson|Cuison-Villazor|2019}} Wakakhazikiska ndondomeko zakukhora zakususkana na ŵanthu awo ŵakapenjanga malo ghakubisamamo chifukwa cha suzgo.{{sfn|Johnson|Cuison-Villazor|2019}} Wakatumizga [[Operation Faithful Patriot|ŵasilikari pafupifupi 6,000]] ku [[mphaka ya United States na Mexico]] kuti ŵakanizge ŵanthu ŵakunjira mu charu mwambura kuzomerezgeka.<ref>{{cite news |last=Mitchell |first=Ellen |date=January 29, 2019 |title=Pentagon to send a 'few thousand' more troops to southern border |url=https://thehill.com/policy/defense/427519-pentagon-to-send-a-few-thousand-more-troops-to-southern-border |access-date=June 4, 2020 |work=[[The Hill (newspaper)|The Hill]]}}</ref> Wakachepeska chomene chiŵelengero cha [[United States Refugee Admissions Program|ŵachimbizi awo ŵakazomerezgekanga]] kunjira mu charu, kufuma pa mphaka wa 110,000 pa chaka pambere wandanjire mu udindo kufika pa 15,000 mu 2021.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Kanno-Youngs |first1=Zolan |author-link1=Zolan Kanno-Youngs |last2=Shear |first2=Michael D. |author-link2=Michael D. Shear |date=October 1, 2020 |title=Trump Virtually Cuts Off Refugees as He Unleashes a Tirade on Immigrants |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/10/01/us/politics/trump-refugees.html |access-date=September 30, 2021 |work=[[The New York Times]] |url-access=limited}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=November 4, 2019 |title=Donald Trump has cut refugee admissions to America to a record low |url=https://www.economist.com/graphic-detail/2019/11/04/donald-trump-has-cut-refugee-admissions-to-america-to-a-record-low |access-date=June 25, 2020 |newspaper=[[The Economist]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Hesson |first=Ted |date=October 11, 2019 |title=Trump ending U.S. role as worldwide leader on refugees |url=https://www.politico.com/news/2019/10/11/trump-refugee-decrease-immigration-044186 |access-date=June 25, 2020 |work=[[Politico]]}}</ref> Trump wakasazgirakoso malango ghakusuzga ŵanthu awo ŵakakhumbanga kupokera [[Kukhala kwamuyirayira mu United States|chilolezo chakukhala kwamuyirayira]] usange ŵakakhumbanga [[Public charge rule|wovwiri wa boma]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Snow |first=Anita |date=February 25, 2020 |title=Crackdown on immigrants who use public benefits takes effect |url=https://apnews.com/article/e069e5a84057752a8535b1abe5d2ba6d |access-date=June 4, 2020 |work=[[AP News]]}}</ref> Chimoza mwa vilayizgo vikuru vya kampeni yake chikaŵa kuzenga [[Lupupa lwa mphaka ya Mexico na United States|lupupa pa mphaka ya United States na Mexico]];<ref name="timm">{{cite news |last=Timm |first=Jane C. |date=January 13, 2021 |title=Fact check: Mexico never paid for it. But what about Trump's other border wall promises? |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/politics/donald-trump/fact-check-mexico-never-paid-it-what-about-trump-s-n1253983 |access-date=December 21, 2021 |work=[[NBC News]]}}</ref> mu nyengo yake yakwamba, United States yikazenga lupupa lwa {{convert|73|mi|km}} pa malo agho pakaŵavya lupupa ndipo yikasintha lupupa lwakale lwa {{convert|365|mi|km}}.<ref>{{cite news |last=Farley |first=Robert |date=February 16, 2021 |title=Trump's Border Wall: Where Does It Stand? |url=https://www.factcheck.org/2020/12/trumps-border-wall-where-does-it-stand/ |access-date=December 21, 2021 |work=[[FactCheck.org]]}}</ref> Mu 2018, Trump wakakana kusaina [[dango la ndalama za boma]] lililose usange likapelekanga yayi ndalama zakuzengera lupupa lwa mphaka,<ref>{{cite news |last1=Davis |first1=Julie Hirschfeld |author-link1=Julie Hirschfeld Davis |last2=Tackett |first2=Michael |author-link2=Michael Tackett |date=January 2, 2019 |title=Trump and Democrats Dig in After Talks to Reopen Government Go Nowhere |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/01/02/us/politics/trump-congress-shutdown.html |access-date=January 3, 2019 |work=[[The New York Times]] |url-access=limited}}</ref> ndipo ivi vikapangiska [[Kujalika kwa boma la United States#2025|kujalika kwa boma la federal]] kwa mazuŵa 35 kufuma mu Disembala 2018 mpaka Janyuwale 2019, uko pa nyengo iyo kukaŵa kwakutali chomene mu mbiri,<ref name="Gambino">{{cite news |last1=Gambino |first1=Lauren |last2=Walters |first2=Joanna |date=January 26, 2019 |title=Trump signs bill to end $6bn shutdown and temporarily reopen government |url=https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2019/jan/25/shutdown-latest-news-trump-reopens-government-deal-democrats |access-date=May 31, 2020 |work=[[The Guardian]]}}</ref> kweni pamanyuma kukajumpha na kujalika kwa boma mu 2025.<ref name="longer">{{cite news |last1=Morgan |first1=David |last2=McCaskill |first2=Nolan D. |last3=Erickson |first3=Bo |last4=Slattery |first4=Gram |date=November 13, 2025 |title=Trump signs deal to end longest US government shutdown in history |url=https://www.reuters.com/legal/government/us-house-vote-deal-end-longest-government-shutdown-history-2025-11-12/ |access-date=June 27, 2026 |work=[[Reuters]]}}</ref> Kujalika kwa boma kukamara wakati wazomera kupeleka ndalama ku boma kwambura kuŵikamo ndalama zakuzengera lupupa lwa mphaka.<ref name="Gambino" /> Kuti ŵagege kujalikaso kwa boma, Congress yikazomerezga dango la ndalama mu Febuluwale ilo likapeleka US$1.4 biliyoni zakuzengera vigongwe vya mphaka.<ref name="Wilkie">{{cite news |last1=Pramuk |first1=Jacob |last2=Wilkie |first2=Christina |date=February 15, 2019 |title=Trump declares national emergency to build border wall, setting up massive legal fight |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2019/02/15/trump-national-emergency-declaration-border-wall-spending-bill.html |access-date=May 31, 2020 |work=[[CNBC]]}}</ref> Pamanyuma, Trump wakapharazga [[Emergency ya charu pa mphaka ya kumwera ya United States|emergency ya charu pa mphaka ya kumwera]] kuti wasamuskire US$6.1 biliyoni ku ndalama zakuzengera lupupa lwa mphaka,<ref name="Wilkie" /> nangauli Congress yikakananga fundo iyi.<ref>{{cite news |last=Carney |first=Jordain |date=October 17, 2019 |title=Senate fails to override Trump veto over emergency declaration |url=https://thehill.com/homenews/senate/466313-senate-fails-to-override-trumps-emergency-declaration-veto |access-date=May 31, 2020 |work=[[The Hill (newspaper)|The Hill]]}}</ref> Mu Janyuwale 2017, Trump wakasaina [[Executive Order 13769|dango la boma]] ilo [[Kuletska ulendo kwa Trump|likakanizga ŵanthu ŵa mu vyaru vinkhondi na chimoza ivyo ŵanthu ŵanandi Mbasilamu]] kunjira mu United States kwa myezi yinayi, ndipo ŵanthu ŵa ku Syria ŵakakanizgika kwamuyirayira.<ref name="frontline">{{cite news |last1=Walters |first1=Joanna |last2=Helmore |first2=Edward |last3=Dehghan |first3=Saeed Kamali |author-link3=Saeed Kamali Dehghan |date=January 28, 2017 |title=US airports on frontline as Donald Trump's travel ban causes chaos and protests |url=https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2017/jan/28/airports-us-immigration-ban-muslim-countries-trump |access-date=July 19, 2017 |work=[[The Guardian]]}}</ref><ref name="airport">{{cite news |date=January 28, 2017 |title=Protests erupt at airports nationwide over immigration action |url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/protests-airports-immigration-action-president-trump/ |access-date=March 22, 2021 |work=[[CBS News]]}}</ref> Dango ili likapangiska [[Viwoneskero vyakususkana na Executive Order 13769|viwoneskero vinandi]] kweniso [[Milandu ya malango yakususkana na kuletska ulendo kwa Trump|milandu yinandi ya malango]], ivyo vikapangiska [[malango ghakulekeska kugwiliskira ntchito mu charu chose]] dango ili.<ref name="frontline" /><ref name="airport" /><ref>{{cite news |last1=Barrett |first1=Devlin |last2=Frosch |first2=Dan |date=February 4, 2017 |title=Federal Judge Temporarily Halts Trump Order on Immigration, Refugees |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/legal-feud-over-trump-immigration-order-turns-to-visa-revocations-1486153216 |access-date=October 3, 2021 |work=[[The Wall Street Journal]] |url-access=subscription}}</ref> [[Executive Order 13780|Dango linyake lakunozgekaso]] ilo likapelekanga vyakusankha vinyake nalo likakanizgikaso na makhoti,<ref>{{cite news |last1=Levine |first1=Dan |last2=Rosenberg |first2=Mica |date=March 15, 2017 |title=Hawaii judge halts Trump's new travel ban before it can go into effect |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-immigration-court-idUSKBN16M17N |access-date=October 3, 2021 |work=[[Reuters]] |url-access=limited}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=March 6, 2017 |title=Trump signs new travel ban directive |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-39183153 |access-date=March 18, 2017 |work=[[BBC News]]}}</ref> kweni [[International Refugee Assistance Project v. Trump|Khoti Likuru likadumura mu Juni]] kuti kuletska uku kungagwiliskirika ntchito pa ŵanthu awo ŵalije ubwezi wa "''bona fide''" na munthu panji bungwe mu United States.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://apnews.com/article/9c78ee01f1ab45ffba852974fb229487 |title=Trump travel ban partly reinstated; fall court arguments set |first=Mark |last=Sherman |date=June 27, 2017 |work=[[AP News]] |access-date=March 6, 2026}}</ref> Mu Seputembala, Trump wakasintha kuletska uku na [[Presidential Proclamation 9645|chilengezgo cha pulezidenti]] icho chikathandazga kuletska ulendo ku ŵanthu ŵa ku North Korea, Chad, na ŵalara ŵanyake ŵa Venezuela, kweni Iraq na Sudan vikafumiskikamo.<ref>{{cite news |last=Laughland |first=Oliver |date=September 25, 2017 |title=Trump travel ban extended to blocks on North Korea, Venezuela and Chad |url=https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2017/sep/25/trump-travel-ban-extended-to-blocks-on-north-korea-and-venezuela |access-date=October 13, 2017 |work=[[The Guardian]]}}</ref> Mu Disembala 2017, Khoti Likuru likazomerezga kuti mtundu uwu wa kuletska ulendo ugwiliskirike ntchito,<ref>{{cite news |last=Hurley |first=Lawrence |date=December 4, 2017 |title=Supreme Court lets Trump's latest travel ban go into full effect |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-court-immigration/supreme-court-lets-trumps-latest-travel-ban-go-into-full-effect-idUSKBN1DY2NY |access-date=October 3, 2021 |work=[[Reuters]] |url-access=limited}}</ref> ndipo paumaliro likalikhozga mu 2019.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Wagner |first1=Meg |last2=Ries |first2=Brian |last3=Rocha |first3=Veronica |date=June 26, 2018 |title=Supreme Court upholds travel ban |url=https://www.cnn.com/politics/live-news/supreme-court-travel-ban/ |access-date=June 26, 2018 |work=[[CNN]]}}</ref> Kufuma mu 2017 mpaka 2018, boma la Trump likaŵa na [[Ndondomeko ya kupatura mbumba ya boma la Trump|ndondomeko yakupatura mbumba]], iyo yikapatula ŵana ŵakujumpha 4,400, ŵanyake ŵa myezi yinayi pera yakubabika,<ref name="tina_v">{{cite news |last=Vasquez |first=Tina |url=https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/ng-interactive/2025/jan/17/trump-policy-family-separation-future |title=Trump's border policy tore apart many families. Nobody knows what happens to them now |work=[[The Guardian]] |date=January 17, 2025 |access-date=November 26, 2025}}</ref> ku ŵapapi ŵawo awo ŵakasamukiranga mu charu pa [[mphaka ya United States na Mexico]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Pearle |first=Lauren |date=February 5, 2019 |title=Trump administration admits thousands more migrant families may have been separated than estimated |url=https://abcnews.go.com/US/trump-administration-unsure-thousands-migrant-families-separated-originally/story?id=60797633 |access-date=May 30, 2020 |work=[[ABC News (United States)|ABC News]]}}</ref><ref name="Spagat">{{cite news |last=Spagat |first=Elliot |date=October 25, 2019 |title=Tally of children split at border tops 5,400 in new count |url=https://apnews.com/article/c654e652a4674cf19304a4a4ff599feb |access-date=May 30, 2020 |work=[[AP News]]}}</ref> Ndondomeko iyi, iyo yindachitikepo kale,<ref name="Domonoske">{{cite news |last1=Domonoske |first1=Camila |last2=Gonzales |first2=Richard |date=June 19, 2018 |title=What We Know: Family Separation And 'Zero Tolerance' At The Border |url=https://www.npr.org/2018/06/19/621065383/what-we-know-family-separation-and-zero-tolerance-at-the-border |access-date=May 30, 2020 |work=[[NPR News]]}}</ref> yikakwiyiska chomene ŵanthu mu charu chose.<ref>{{cite news |last=Epstein |first=Jennifer |date=June 18, 2018 |title=Donald Trump's family separations bedevil GOP as public outrage grows |url=https://www.smh.com.au/world/north-america/donald-trump-s-family-separations-bedevil-gop-as-public-outrage-grows-20180618-p4zm9h.html |access-date=May 30, 2020 |work=[[Bloomberg News]] |via=[[The Sydney Morning Herald]]}}</ref> Nangauli pakwamba Trump wakapasa [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrats]] mulandu<ref>{{cite news |last=Sarlin |first=Benjy |date=June 15, 2018 |title=Despite claims, GOP immigration bill would not end family separation, experts say |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/storyline/immigration-border-crisis/despite-claims-gop-immigration-bill-would-not-end-family-separation-n883701 |access-date=June 18, 2018 |work=[[NBC News]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Davis |first1=Julie Hirschfeld |author-link1=Julie Hirschfeld Davis |last2=Nixon |first2=Ron |author-link2=Ron Nixon |date=May 29, 2018 |title=Trump Officials, Moving to Break Up Migrant Families, Blame Democrats |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/05/29/us/politics/trump-democrats-immigrant-families.html |access-date=December 29, 2020 |work=[[The New York Times]] |url-access=limited}}</ref> ndipo wakati wangalekeska yayi ndondomeko iyi kwizira mu dango la boma, pamanyuma wakazomera chifukwa cha kukakamizgika na ŵanthu mu Juni 2018 ndipo wakalangura kuti mbumba za ŵanthu awo ŵakanjira mu charu mwambura kuzomerezgeka zisungikenge pamoza, kwambura usange "palipo chakofya" ku mwana.<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Beckwith |first=Ryan Teague |date=June 20, 2018 |title=Here's What President Trump's Immigration Order Actually Does |url=https://time.com/5317703/trump-family-separation-policy-executive-order/ |access-date=May 30, 2020 |magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Shear |first1=Michael D. |author-link1=Michael D. Shear |last2=Goodnough |first2=Abby |last3=Haberman |first3=Maggie |author-link3=Maggie Haberman |date=June 20, 2018 |title=Trump Retreats on Separating Families, but Thousands May Remain Apart |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/06/20/us/politics/trump-immigration-children-executive-order.html |access-date=June 20, 2018 |work=[[The New York Times]] |url-access=limited}}</ref> Pamanyuma mweruzgi wakalangura kuti mbumba izi ziwezgeraneso pamoza ndipo kupatura ŵana kulekeke, kupatulapo pa nyengo zakuchepa waka,<ref>{{cite news |last=Hansler |first=Jennifer |date=June 27, 2018 |title=Judge says government does a better job of tracking 'personal property' than separated kids |url=https://www.cnn.com/2018/06/27/politics/family-separation-federal-judge-personal-property-comment/ |access-date=May 30, 2020 |work=[[CNN]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Walters |first=Joanna |date=June 27, 2018 |title=Judge orders US to reunite families separated at border within 30 days |url=https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2018/jun/27/us-immigration-must-reunite-families-separated-at-border-federal-judge-rules |access-date=May 30, 2020 |work=[[The Guardian]]}}</ref> nangauli ŵana ŵakujumpha 1,000 ŵakapaturikaso na mbumba zawo pamanyuma pa dango ili.<ref name="Spagat" /> Kufika mu Epulero 2024, ŵana 1,360 ŵakaŵa ŵandamanyikwe usange ŵakaweleraso ku mbumba zawo.<ref name="tina_v"/> === Ndondomeko ya vyaru vinyake === {{main|[[Ndondomeko ya vyaru vinyake ya boma lakwamba la Trump|Ndondomeko ya vyaru vinyake ya boma lakwamba la Trump]]|[[Misonkho ya katundu mu boma lakwamba la Trump|Misonkho ya katundu mu boma lakwamba la Trump]]}} {{further|[[Ubwezi pakati pa Russia na United States#Boma lakwamba la Trump (2017–2021)|Ubwezi pakati pa Russia na United States]]|[[Ubwezi pakati pa China na United States#Boma lakwamba la Trump (2017–2021)|Ubwezi pakati pa China na United States]]|[[Suzgo la North Korea la 2017–2018|Suzgo la North Korea la 2017–2018]]|[[Ndondomeko ya mtende pakati pa Korea ya 2018–19|Ndondomeko ya mtende pakati pa Korea ya 2018–19]]}} [[File:-G7Biarritz (48616362963).jpg|thumb|alt=A group of seven men and one woman, sitting at a round conference table. Trump wears a dark blue suit, white dress shirt, and light blue necktie. A small sign reading "G7 France Biarritz 2019" hangs on the wall behind them.|Ŵalongozgi ŵa [[Gulu la Seven|G7]] pa [[Msonkhano wa 45 wa G7|msonkhano wa 45]] ku France, 2019]] Trump wakujichema kuti ni "wakutemwa charu chake"<ref>{{cite news |first=William |last=Cummings |title='I am a nationalist': Trump's embrace of controversial label sparks uproar |url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/politics/2018/10/24/trump-says-hes-nationalist-what-means-why-its-controversial/1748521002/ |work=[[USA Today]] |date=October 24, 2018 |access-date=August 24, 2021}}</ref> ndipo ndondomeko yake ya vyaru vinyake yikaŵa yakuti "[[America First|America Yakwamba]]".<ref name=Bennhold>{{cite news |first=Katrin |last=Bennhold |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/06/06/world/europe/germany-troop-withdrawal-america.html |work=[[The New York Times]] |title=Has 'America First' Become 'Trump First'? Germans Wonder |date=June 6, 2020 |access-date=August 24, 2021 |url-access=limited}}</ref> Wakakhozgera maboma gha [[populism|populist]], [[neo-nationalism|neo-nationalist]], na ghaulamuliro wa nkhongono.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://carnegieendowment.org/research/2018/10/can-us-democracy-policy-survive-trump?lang=en |title=Can U.S. Democracy Policy Survive Trump? |last1=Carothers |first1=Thomas |author-link1=Thomas Carothers |last2=Brown |first2=Frances Z. |date=October 1, 2018 |website=[[Carnegie Endowment for International Peace]] |access-date=October 19, 2019}}</ref> Pa nyengo ya ulamuliro wake, ubwezi wa vyaru vinyake ukaŵa wakusuzga chifukwa cha kusinthasintha, kuleka kumanyikwa ivyo vingachitika, na kuleka kukhazikika.<ref name="Bennhold" />{{sfn|McGurk|2020}} Ubwezi pakati pa United States na ŵabwezi ŵake ŵa ku Europe ukasuzgikira chomene mu nyengo ya Trump.<ref>{{cite news |first=Ana |last=Swanson |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/03/12/business/economy/trump-european-union-trade.html |title=Trump Administration Escalates Tensions With Europe as Crisis Looms |date=March 12, 2020 |access-date=October 4, 2021 |work=[[The New York Times]] |url-access=limited}}</ref> Wakasoŵeska [[Maboma gha mu NATO|ŵabwezi ŵa NATO]] ndipo mwakubisika wakayowoya kuti United States yikwenera [[Kufuma mu NATO#United States|kufuma mu NATO]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Baker |first=Peter |author-link=Peter Baker (journalist) |date=May 26, 2017 |access-date=October 4, 2021 |title=Trump Says NATO Allies Don't Pay Their Share. Is That True? |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/05/26/world/europe/nato-trump-spending.html}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Barnes |first1=Julian E. |last2=Cooper |first2=Helene |author-link2=Helene Cooper |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/01/14/us/politics/nato-president-trump.html |title=Trump Discussed Pulling U.S. From NATO, Aides Say Amid New Concerns Over Russia |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=January 14, 2019 |access-date=April 5, 2021 |url-access=limited}}</ref> Trump wakakhozgera ndondomeko zinandi za nduna yikuru ya Israel [[Benjamin Netanyahu]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Sommer |first=Allison Kaplan |date=July 25, 2019 |title=How Trump and Netanyahu Became Each Other's Most Effective Political Weapon |work=[[Haaretz]] |url=https://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/2019-07-25/ty-article/.premium/how-trump-and-netanyahu-became-each-others-most-effective-political-weapon/0000017f-f22d-d497-a1ff-f2ad5c310000 |access-date=August 2, 2019}}</ref> Mu 2020, Trump wakalongozga mwambo wakusaina [[Abraham Accords]] pakati pa Israel na [[United Arab Emirates]] kweniso [[Bahrain]] kuti ŵanozge ubwezi wawo wa vyaru vinyake.<ref>{{cite news |last=Crowley |first=Michael |author-link=Michael Crowley (journalist) |date=September 15, 2020 |title=Israel, U.A.E. and Bahrain Sign Accords, With an Eager Trump Playing Host |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/09/15/us/politics/trump-israel-peace-emirates-bahrain.html |access-date=February 9, 2024 |url-access=limited}}</ref> [[File:President Trump & the First Lady's Trip to Europe (42547210635).jpg|thumb|Trump wakukorana mawoko na pulezidenti wa Russia [[Vladimir Putin]] pa [[Msonkhano wa Russia–United States wa 2018|msonkhano wa 2018]] ku Helsinki, Finland]] Mu 2018, Trump wakamba [[Nkhondo ya malonda pakati pa China na United States|nkhondo ya malonda na China]] pamanyuma pakukhazikiska misonkho ya katundu na vinyake vyakukangira malonda, ivyo wakati vikachichizgenge China kuti yimazge maluso ghake gha nyengo yitali gha malonda ghambura urunji kweniso [[Milandu ya kuba vinjeru vya umanyi na China|kuba wanangwa wa vinjeru vya umanyi]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Swanson |first=Ana |date=July 5, 2018 |title=Trump's Trade War With China Is Officially Underway |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/07/05/business/china-us-trade-war-trump-tariffs.html |access-date=May 26, 2019 |work=[[The New York Times]] |url-access=limited}}</ref> Trump wakafoka chilango chikuru chomene icho United States yikakhazikiska pa Russia pamanyuma pa [[Kupoka kwa Russia chigaŵa cha Crimea mu 2014]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Zengerle |first=Patricia |date=January 16, 2019 |title=Bid to keep U.S. sanctions on Russia's Rusal fails in Senate |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-russia-sanctions/bid-to-keep-u-s-sanctions-on-russias-rusal-fails-in-senate-idUSKCN1PA2JB |access-date=October 5, 2021 |work=[[Reuters]] |url-access=limited}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Whalen |first=Jeanne |date=January 15, 2019 |title=In rare rebuke of Trump administration, some GOP lawmakers advance measure to oppose lifting Russian sanctions |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/2019/01/16/rare-rebuke-trump-administration-some-gop-lawmakers-advance-measure-oppose-lifting-russian-sanctions/ |access-date=October 5, 2021 |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |url-access=limited}}</ref> Trump wakalumbanga pulezidenti wa Russia [[Vladimir Putin]] ndipo, kuyana na ŵakususka ŵanyake, wakamususkanga nyengo zichoko waka,<ref>{{cite news |last=Baker |first=Peter |author-link=Peter Baker (journalist) |date=August 10, 2017 |title=Trump Praises Putin Instead of Critiquing Cuts to U.S. Embassy Staff |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/08/10/world/europe/putin-trump-embassy-russia.html |access-date=June 7, 2020 |work=[[The New York Times]] |url-access=limited}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Nussbaum |first=Matthew |date=April 8, 2018 |title=Trump blames Putin for backing 'Animal Assad' |url=https://www.politico.com/story/2018/04/08/trump-putin-syria-attack-508223 |access-date=October 5, 2021 |work=[[Politico]]}}</ref> nangauli wakasuskanga vinyake ivyo boma la Russia likachitanga.<ref>{{cite news |date=December 21, 2019 |title=Nord Stream 2: Trump approves sanctions on Russia gas pipeline |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-50875935 |access-date=October 5, 2021 |work=[[BBC News]]}}</ref> Wakafumiska United States mu [[Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty]], wakati Russia yikapulikanga yayi ivyo yikazomera,<ref>{{cite news |last=Bugos |first=Shannon |date=September 2019 |title=U.S. Completes INF Treaty Withdrawal |url=https://www.armscontrol.org/act/2019-09/news/us-completes-inf-treaty-withdrawal |access-date=October 5, 2021 |website=[[Arms Control Association]]}}</ref> ndipo wakakhozgera kuti Russia yiwezgekeso mu [[G7]].<ref name="G8">{{cite news |last=Panetta |first=Grace |date=June 14, 2018 |title=Trump reportedly claimed to leaders at the G7 that Crimea is part of Russia because everyone there speaks Russian |url=https://www.businessinsider.com/trump-claims-crimea-is-part-of-russia-since-people-speak-russian-g7-summit-2018-6 |access-date=February 13, 2020 |work=[[Business Insider]]}}</ref> Apo [[Vilwero vya nyukiliya vya North Korea]] vikawonekanga kuti ni suzgo likuru,<ref>{{cite news |last1=Taylor |first1=Adam |last2=Meko |first2=Tim |date=December 21, 2017 |title=What made North Korea's weapons programs so much scarier in 2017 |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2017/12/21/what-made-north-koreas-weapons-programs-so-much-scarier-in-2017/ |access-date=July 5, 2019 |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]}}</ref> Trump wakaŵa pulezidenti wakwamba wa United States uyo wakaŵa pa udindo kukumana na mulongozgi wa North Korea, ndipo wakakumana na [[Kim Jong Un]] katatu pakati pa Juni 2018 na Juni 2019.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Baker |first1=Peter |author-link1=Peter Baker (journalist) |last2=Crowley |first2=Michael |author-link2=Michael Crowley (journalist) |date=June 30, 2019 |title=Trump Steps Into North Korea and Agrees With Kim Jong-un to Resume Talks |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/06/30/world/asia/trump-north-korea-dmz.html |access-date=October 5, 2021 |work=[[The New York Times]]}}</ref> Kudumbiskana pa [[Kumazga vilwero vya nyukiliya vya North Korea]] kukamara kwambura kupulikana mu Okutobala 2019, ndipo pakaŵavya phangano ilo likafikika.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Sanger |first1=David E. |author-link1=David E. Sanger |last2=Sang-Hun |first2=Choe |author-link2=Choe Sang-hun |date=June 12, 2020 |title=Two Years After Trump-Kim Meeting, Little to Show for Personal Diplomacy |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/06/12/world/asia/korea-nuclear-trump-kim.html |access-date=October 5, 2021 |work=[[The New York Times]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Tanner |first1=Jari |last2=Lee |first2=Matthew |author-link2=Matt Lee (journalist) |date=October 5, 2019 |title=North Korea Says Nuclear Talks Break Down While U.S. Says They Were 'Good' |url=https://apnews.com/article/donald-trump-us-news-ap-top-news-north-korea-vietnam-c66474b67b3e41cdad6d21ba3385ddc2 |access-date=July 21, 2021 |work=[[AP News]]}}</ref> === Ŵanthu ŵakusankhika pa maudindo === {{main|[[Ŵanthu ŵakusankhika pa maudindo gha ndyali mu boma lakwamba la Trump|Ŵanthu ŵakusankhika pa maudindo gha ndyali mu boma lakwamba la Trump]]|[[Kabineti yakwamba ya Donald Trump|Kabineti yakwamba ya Donald Trump]]}} {{further|[[Kulemba ntchito mu boma na ŵantchito ŵa Donald Trump|Kulemba ntchito mu boma na ŵantchito ŵa Donald Trump]]}} Pakufikaumaliro wa chaka chakwamba cha Trump pa udindo, ŵantchito 34&nbsp;pa 100 ŵa gulu lake lakwamba ŵakafumapo ntchito, ŵakachimbizgika panji ŵakasinthira ku maudindo ghanyake.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.usnews.com/news/national-news/articles/2017-12-28/trumps-white-house-has-highest-turnover-rate-in-40-years |title=Trump White House Has Highest Turnover in 40 Years |last=Trimble |first=Megan |date=December 28, 2017 |work=[[U.S. News & World Report]] |access-date=March 16, 2018}}</ref> Pakufika Julayi 2018, ŵakovwira ŵake ŵalara 61&nbsp;pa 100 ŵakafumapo,<ref>{{cite news |url=https://thehill.com/homenews/395222-ap-trump-admin-sets-record-for-white-house-turnover |title=AP: Trump admin sets record for White House turnover |work=[[The Hill (newspaper)|The Hill]] |date=July 2, 2018 |access-date=July 3, 2018 |last=Wise |first=Justin}}</ref> ndipo ŵantchito 141 ŵakafumapo mu chaka chamara.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Miller |first1=Zeke |last2=Bridis |first2=Ted |url=https://apnews.com/article/9188152a050f4d57ad543954d011a668 |title=Trump White House sets turnover records |work=[[AP News]] |date=July 2, 2018 |access-date=March 9, 2026}}</ref> Manambala ghose agha ghakaŵa ghapachanya chomene kuluska gha mapulezidenti ŵanyake ŵasonosono.<ref name="Keith">{{cite news |url=https://www.npr.org/2018/03/07/591372397/white-house-staff-turnover-was-already-record-setting-then-more-advisers-left |title=White House Staff Turnover Was Already Record-Setting. Then More Advisers Left |last=Keith |first=Tamara |author-link=Tamara Keith |work=[[NPR News]] |date=March 7, 2018 |access-date=March 16, 2018}}</ref> Ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakaŵa ŵakovwira ŵake ŵapafupi ŵakaleka kumuteŵetera panji ŵakachichizgika kufumapo.<ref name=Brookings>{{cite news |first1=Kathryn Dunn |last1=Tenpas |url=https://www.brookings.edu/research/tracking-turnover-in-the-trump-administration/ |title=Tracking Turnover in the Trump Administration |date=March 16, 2018 |website=[[Brookings Institution]] |access-date=March 16, 2018}}</ref> Trump wakayowoyanga mwaukazuzi pa ŵanyake mwa ŵalara ŵake ŵakale.<ref>{{cite news |last=Cillizza |first=Chris |author-link=Chris Cillizza |title=Donald Trump makes terrible hires, according to Donald Trump |url=https://www.cnn.com/2020/06/19/politics/trump-mulvaney-bolton-hiring/ |access-date=June 24, 2020 |work=[[CNN]] |date=June 19, 2020}}</ref> Trump wakaŵa na [[Mulara wa ŵantchito ŵa White House|ŵalara ŵanayi ŵa ŵantchito ŵa White House]], ndipo wakapatura panji kufumiska ŵanyake.<ref name=Keither>{{cite news |last=Keith |first=Tamara |author-link=Tamara Keith |date=March 6, 2020 |access-date=October 5, 2021 |title=Mick Mulvaney Out, Mark Meadows in As White House Chief Of Staff |work=[[NPR News]] |url=https://www.npr.org/2020/03/06/766025774/mick-mulvaney-out-as-white-house-chief-of-staff}}</ref> Mu Meyi 2017, wakachimbizga [[Kuchimbizgika kwa James Comey|mulongozgi wa Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), James Comey]], ndipo mazuŵa ghachoko pamanyuma wakati wakafipanga mtima chifukwa cha mulimo wa Comey mu kufufuza vya Trump na Russia.<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Stanek |first=Becca |date=May 11, 2017 |title=President Trump just completely contradicted the official White House account of the Comey firing |magazine=[[The Week]] |url=https://theweek.com/speedreads/698368/president-trump-just-completely-contradicted-official-white-house-account-comey-firing |access-date=May 11, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Schmidt |first1=Michael S. |author-link1=Michael S. Schmidt |last2=Apuzzo |first2=Matt |author-link2=Matt Apuzzo |date=June 7, 2017 |title=Comey Says Trump Pressured Him to 'Lift the Cloud' of Inquiry |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/06/07/us/politics/james-comey-statement-testimony.html |access-date=November 2, 2021 |url-access=limited}}</ref> Pa ŵalara 15 ŵa kabineti yake yakwamba, ŵatatu ŵakafumapo panji ŵakachichizgika kuleka ntchito mukati mwa chaka chakwamba.<ref name="538 Cabinet">{{cite news |url=https://fivethirtyeight.com/features/the-incredibly-and-historically-unstable-first-year-of-trumps-cabinet/ |title=The Incredibly And Historically Unstable First Year Of Trump's Cabinet |last=Jones-Rooy |first=Andrea |date=November 29, 2017 |work=[[FiveThirtyEight]] |access-date=March 16, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171129123144/https://fivethirtyeight.com/features/the-incredibly-and-historically-unstable-first-year-of-trumps-cabinet/ |archive-date=November 29, 2017}}</ref><ref name=Brookings/> Trump wakachedwanga kusora ŵantchito ŵa maudindo ghachoko mu nthambi ya boma, pakuti wakati maudindo ghanandi ghakaŵa ghambura kukhumbikwa. Mu Okutobala 2017, pakaŵa maudindo ghanandi gha pasi pa kabineti agho ghakaŵavya munthu wakusankhika.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.npr.org/2017/10/12/557122200/trump-leaves-top-administration-positions-unfilled-says-hollow-government-by-des |title=Trump Leaves Top Administration Positions Unfilled, Says Hollow Government By Design |last=Keith |first=Tamara |author-link=Tamara Keith |date=October 12, 2017 |work=[[NPR News]] |access-date=March 16, 2018}}</ref> Pakufika Janyuwale&nbsp;8, 2019, pa maudindo ghakuzirwa 706, 433 ghakaŵa ghazuzgika ndipo pakaŵavya munthu wakusankhika pa maudindo 264.<ref>{{cite news |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |date=January 8, 2019 |access-date=October 6, 2021 |title=Tracking how many key positions Trump has filled so far |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/graphics/politics/trump-administration-appointee-tracker/database/ |url-access=limited}}</ref> === Vyeruzgo === {{further|[[Mndandanda wa ŵeruzgi ŵa boma ŵakusankhika na Donald Trump|Mndandanda wa ŵeruzgi ŵa boma ŵakusankhika na Donald Trump]]|[[Mikangano pa kusankha ŵeruzgi na Donald Trump|Mikangano pa kusankha ŵeruzgi na Donald Trump]]}} Trump wakasora [[Weruzgi wa boma wa United States|ŵeruzgi ŵa boma]] 234, kusazgapo 54 ku [[Makhoti gha apilu gha United States|makhoti gha apilu]] na [[Ŵakusankhika ŵa Khoti Likuru na Donald Trump|ŵatatu]] ku [[Khoti Likuru la United States]], awo mba [[Neil Gorsuch]], [[Brett Kavanaugh]], na [[Amy Coney Barrett]],<ref>{{cite web |last=Gramlich |first=John |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2021/01/13/how-trump-compares-with-other-recent-presidents-in-appointing-federal-judges/ |title=How Trump compares with other recent presidents in appointing federal judges |publisher=[[Pew Research Center]] |date=January 13, 2021 |access-date=May 30, 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.uscourts.gov/sites/default/files/2025-01/apptsbypres.pdf |title=Judgeship Appointments by President |work=United States Courts |access-date=January 16, 2026}}</ref> ndipo kusankha uku kukapangiska Khoti Likuru kutolera maghanoghano gha ku woko lamalyero.<ref>{{cite news |work=[[Politico]] |url=https://www.politico.com/news/2020/09/26/trump-legacy-supreme-court-422058 |title=Trump's legacy is now the Supreme Court |first=Anita |last=Kumar |date=September 26, 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |work=[[Voice of America]] |title=Trump's Lasting Legacy: Conservative Supermajority on Supreme Court |first=Masood |last=Farivar |date=December 24, 2020 |url=https://www.voanews.com/a/usa_trumps-lasting-legacy-conservative-supermajority-supreme-court/6199935.html |access-date=December 21, 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Nine Black Robes: Inside the Supreme Court's Drive to the Right and Its Historic Consequences |first=Joan |last=Biskupic |author-link=Joan Biskupic |url=https://www.wbur.org/hereandnow/2023/06/02/nine-black-robes-supreme-court |date=June 2, 2023 |work=[[WBUR-FM]] |access-date=December 21, 2023}}</ref> Mu kampeni ya chisola cha 2016, wakalayizga kuti ''[[Roe v. Wade]]'' "yizamumazgika yekhayekha" usange wangasankhika na kusanga mwaŵi wakusora ŵeruzgi ŵaŵiri panji ŵatatu awo ŵakususkana na nthumbo. Pamanyuma wakajilumba chifukwa chakuti ''Roe'' yikamazgika na mulandu wa ''[[Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization]]'' mu 2022; ŵeruzgi ŵake ŵose ŵatatu ŵa Khoti Likuru ŵakavotera limoza na ŵanandi.<ref>{{cite magazine |magazine=[[The Week]] |title=Trump takes credit for Dobbs decision but worries it 'won't help him in the future' |first=Grayson |last=Quay |date=June 25, 2022 |url=https://theweek.com/donald-trump/1014657/trump-takes-credit-for-dobbs-decision-but-worries-it-wont-help-him-in-the |access-date=October 2, 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |work=[[NBC News]] |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/politics/donald-trump/trump-was-able-kill-roe-v-wade-rcna84897 |first=Sahil |last=Kapur |title=Trump: 'I was able to kill Roe v. Wade' |date=May 17, 2023 |access-date=December 21, 2023}}</ref> Trump wakasuskanga makhoti na ŵeruzgi awo wakasanganga nawo maghanoghano ghakupambana, kanandi mwakukhwaska munthu yekha, ndipo wakakayikiranga mazaza gha makhoti agho ghali mu Dango Likuru. Kuwukira kwake makhoti kukasuskika na ŵanthu ŵanandi, kusazgapo ŵeruzgi ŵa boma awo ŵakaŵa pa udindo, awo ŵakafipanga mtima na umo mazgu ghake ghakakhwaskiranga [[kujiyimira paŵekha kwa vyeruzgo]] na kugomezgeka kwa makhoti na ŵanthu.<ref>{{cite news |first1=Abby |last1=Phillip |author-link1=Abby Phillip |first2=Robert |last2=Barnes |first3=Ed |last3=O'Keefe |author-link3=Ed O'Keefe |title=Supreme Court nominee Gorsuch says Trump's attacks on judiciary are 'demoralizing' |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/supreme-court-nominee-gorsuch-says-trumps-attacks-on-judiciary-are-demoralizing/2017/02/08/64e03fe2-ee3f-11e6-9662-6eedf1627882_story.html |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |date=February 8, 2017 |access-date=October 6, 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |first=Katie |last=Shepherd |title=Trump 'violates all recognized democratic norms,' federal judge says in biting speech on judicial independence |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/nation/2019/11/08/judge-says-trump-violates-democratic-norms-judiciary-speech/ |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |date=November 8, 2019 |access-date=October 6, 2021 |url-access=limited}}</ref> === Mliri wa COVID-19 === {{main|COVID-19 pandemic in the United States}} {{further|U.S. federal government response to the COVID-19 pandemic|Communication of the Trump administration during the COVID-19 pandemic}} {{see also|Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States}} [[File:White House Press Briefing (49666120807).jpg|thumb|Kuchita ungano wa atolankhani wa COVID-19 pamoza na ŵanthu ŵa mu [[White House Coronavirus Task Force]] pa March&nbsp;15, 2020|alt=Trump wakuyowoya mu chipinda cha ungano wa atolankhani cha West Wing pamoza na ŵalaraŵalara ŵakupambanapambana awo ŵimilira kumanyuma kwake, wose ŵavwara vyakuvwara vya boma ndipo ŵalije visalu vya kumaso]] Pamanyuma pakuleka kupulikira machenjezgo gha umoyo wa ŵanthu kweniso malurombo gha ŵantchito ŵa vyaumoyo awo ŵakagwiranga nayo ntchito kwa masabata ghanandi,<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.latimes.com/world-nation/story/2020-04-19/coronavirus-outbreak-president-trump-slow-response |title=How Trump let the U.S. fall behind the curve on coronavirus threat |work=[[Los Angeles Times]] |date=April 19, 2020 |access-date=November 27, 2024 |first1=David S. |last1=Cloud |first2=Paul |last2=Pringle |author-link2=Paul Pringle |first3=Eli |last3=Stokols |author-link3=Eli Stokols}}</ref> Trump wakakhazikiska [[White House Coronavirus Task Force]] kuumaliro wa January.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/coronavirus-outbreak-task-force-created-by-trump-to-lead-us-government-response-to-wuhan-virus/ |title=Trump creates task force to lead U.S. coronavirus response |work=[[CBS News]] |date=January 30, 2020 |access-date=October 10, 2020}}</ref> Mu March, wakasayina dango la [[CARES Act]]—ndondomeko ya ndalama zakukhozga chuma ya US$2.2&nbsp;trillion yakovwirika na vipani vyose viŵiri—iyo yikaŵa yikuru chomene pa mbiri ya United States.<ref name="NY Times stimulus united senate">{{cite news |last1=Hulse |first1=Carl |author-link1=Carl Hulse |last2=Cochrane |first2=Emily |title=As Coronavirus Spread, Largest Stimulus in History United a Polarized Senate |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/03/26/us/coronavirus-senate-stimulus-package.html |website=[[The New York Times]] |date=March 26, 2020 |access-date=November 27, 2024 |url-access=limited}}</ref><ref name="AP Trump signs 2.2">{{cite news |last1=Taylor |first1=Andrew |last2=Fram |first2=Alan |last3=Kellman |first3=Laurie |last4=Superville |first4=Darlene |title=Trump signs $2.2T stimulus after swift congressional votes |url=https://apnews.com/2099a53bb8adf2def7ee7329ea322f9d |work=[[AP News]] |date=March 28, 2020 |access-date=November 27, 2024}}</ref> Pamanyuma pa masabata ghanandi gha kuwukira ŵanyake kuti ŵanthu ŵaleke kuwona umo wakachedwera kuzgora mliri uwu, Trump wakalekeska ndalama zakovwira [[World Health Organization]] mu April.<ref>{{cite news |last=Ollstein |first=Alice Miranda |title=Trump halts funding to World Health Organization |url=https://www.politico.com/news/2020/04/14/trump-world-health-organization-funding-186786 |access-date=September 7, 2020 |work=[[Politico]] |date=April 14, 2020}}</ref> Wakachiska ŵanthu ŵa ku chigaŵa cha ndyali cha kumanjiliro kuchita [[COVID-19 protests in the United States|viwonetsero vyakususkana na ndondomeko za kusungilira mtunda pakati pa ŵanthu]] mu vyaru ivyo vikaŵa na malango gha kukhala pa nyumba,<ref>{{cite news |last1=Shear |first1=Michael D. |author-link1=Michael D. Shear |last2=Mervosh |first2=Sarah |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/04/17/us/politics/trump-coronavirus-governors.html |title=Trump Encourages Protest Against Governors Who Have Imposed Virus Restrictions |date=April 17, 2020 |work=[[The New York Times]] |access-date=April 19, 2020}}</ref> ndipo kanandi waka wakakakamizga mabungwe gha boma agho ghakawoneleranga vyaumoyo kuti ghachite ivyo iyo wakakhumbanga,<ref name="CNN-testing-pressure">{{cite news |url=https://www.cnn.com/2020/08/26/politics/cdc-coronavirus-testing-guidance/ |title=CDC was pressured 'from the top down' to change coronavirus testing guidance, official says |date=August 26, 2020 |work=[[CNN]] |first1=Nick |last1=Valencia |first2=Sara |last2=Murray |author-link2=Sara Murray (journalist) |first3=Kristen |last3=Holmes |access-date=August 26, 2020}}</ref> nga nkhuvomerezga munkhwala uwo undaŵe ukulongora kuti ngwakovwira.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/health/2020/06/15/hydroxychloroquine-authorization-revoked-coronavirus/ |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |date=June 15, 2020 |access-date=October 7, 2021 |title=FDA pulls emergency approval for antimalarial drugs touted by Trump as covid-19 treatment |first1=Laurie |last1=McGinley |first2=Carolyn Y. |last2=Johnson |url-access=limited}}</ref><ref name=pressed>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/09/12/us/politics/trump-coronavirus-treatment-vaccine.html |title=Trump Pressed for Plasma Therapy. Officials Worry, Is an Unvetted Vaccine Next? |date=September 12, 2020 |work=[[The New York Times]] |first1=Sharon |last1=LaFraniere |author-link1=Sharon LaFraniere |first2=Noah |last2=Weiland |first3=Michael D. |last3=Shear |author-link3=Michael D. Shear |access-date=September 13, 2020 |url-access=limited}}</ref> Mu October, Trump [[White House COVID-19 outbreak#Presidential hospitalization and early release|wakagonekeka muchipatala kwa mazuŵa ghatatu]] chifukwa cha matenda ghakuru gha [[COVID-19]], apo gulu lake la ŵadokotala likachepeskanga ukuru wa matenda ghake.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Weiland |first1=Noah |last2=Haberman |first2=Maggie |author-link2=Maggie Haberman |last3=Mazzetti |first3=Mark |author-link3=Mark Mazzetti |last4=Karni |first4=Annie |author-link4=Annie Karni |date=February 11, 2021 |title=Trump Was Sicker Than Acknowledged With Covid-19 |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/02/11/us/politics/trump-coronavirus.html |access-date=February 16, 2021}}</ref> === Kufufuzika === {{further|Russian interference in the 2016 United States elections|Mueller special counsel investigation|Mueller report}} Pamanyuma pakuti wanjira mu udindo, Trump wakaŵa wakufufuzika chomene na [[United States Department of Justice|Dipatimenti ya Chilungamo]] kweniso Congress, ndipo kufufuza kukakhwaskanga kampeni yake ya chisankho, nyengo ya kusintha boma, mwambo wa kunjira mu udindo, ivyo wakachitanga apo wakaŵa pulezidenti, [[The Trump Organization|mabizinesi ghake], msonkho wake, kweniso [[Donald J. Trump Foundation|wupu wake wakuchitira vya wovwiri]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Woodward |first1=Calvin |last2=Pace |first2=Julie |date=December 16, 2018 |title=Scope of investigations into Trump has shaped his presidency |url=https://apnews.com/article/6d6361fdf19846cb9eb020d9c6fbfa5a |access-date=December 19, 2018 |work=[[AP News]]}}</ref> Pakaŵa kufufuza kwa milandu 10 ya boma la federal, kufufuza 8 kwa maboma na kwa malo, kweniso kufufuza 12 kwa Congress.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Buchanan |first1=Larry |last2=Yourish |first2=Karen |date=September 25, 2019 |title=Tracking 30 Investigations Related to Trump |url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/05/13/us/politics/trump-investigations.html |access-date=October 4, 2020 |work=[[The New York Times]] |url-access=limited}}</ref> Mu July 2016, [[FBI]] yikamba [[Crossfire Hurricane (FBI investigation)|Crossfire Hurricane]], kufufuza vyakukhwaskana na kukolerana pakati pa Russia na kampeni ya Trump ya chisankho cha 2016.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Apuzzo |first1=Matt |author-link=Matt Apuzzo |last2=Goldman |first2=Adam |author-link2=Adam Goldman |last3=Fandos |first3=Nicholas |date=May 16, 2018 |title=Code Name Crossfire Hurricane: The Secret Origins of the Trump Investigation |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/05/16/us/politics/crossfire-hurricane-trump-russia-fbi-mueller-investigation.html |url-access=limited |access-date=December 21, 2023 |work=[[The New York Times]]}}</ref> Trump wakati wafumiska Comey mu May 2017, FBI yikajura kufufuza kwachiŵiri pa vyamalonda vyake kweniso [[Business projects of Donald Trump in Russia|mabizinesi ghake ku Russia]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Dilanian |first=Ken |date=September 7, 2020 |title=FBI agent who helped launch Russia investigation says Trump was 'compromised' |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/politics/donald-trump/fbi-agent-who-helped-launch-russia-investigation-says-trump-was-n1239442 |access-date=December 21, 2023 |work=[[NBC News]]}}</ref> Mu January 2017, mabungwe ghatatu gha vyaumanyi gha United States ghakati mwakugomezgeka chomene kuti [[Russian interference in the 2016 United States elections|Russia yikanjilirapo mu chisankho cha pulezidenti cha 2016]] kuti yiwovwire Trump.<ref>{{cite news |last=Rosenberg |first=Matthew |author-link=Matthew Rosenberg |date=July 6, 2017 |title=Trump Misleads on Russian Meddling: Why 17 Intelligence Agencies Don't Need to Agree |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/07/06/us/politics/trump-russia-intelligence-agencies-cia-fbi-nsa.html |access-date=October 7, 2021 |work=[[The New York Times]] |url-access=limited}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Sanger |first=David E. |author-link=David E. Sanger |date=January 6, 2017 |title=Putin Ordered 'Influence Campaign' Aimed at U.S. Election, Report Says |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/01/06/us/politics/russia-hack-report.html |access-date=October 4, 2021 |work=[[The New York Times]] |url-access=limited}}</ref> Pamanyuma pake, Crossfire Hurricane yikasamukira ku [[Robert Mueller]] [[Mueller special counsel investigation|kufufuza kwa mulara wapadera]];<ref>{{cite news |last=Pearson |first=Nick |date=May 17, 2018 |title=Crossfire Hurricane: Trump Russia investigation started with Alexander Downer interview |url=https://www.9news.com.au/world/crossfire-hurricane-trump-russia-investigation-started-with-alexander-downer-interview/16121e23-bdfc-4f32-9822-e4a7f841e3e4 |access-date=December 21, 2023 |work=[[Nine News]]}}</ref> kufufuza kwa ubwezi wa Trump na Russia kukamara apo Muteŵeti wa Attorney General [[Rod Rosenstein]] wakaphalira FBI kuti Mueller ndiyo wafufuzgenge nkhani iyi.<ref name="never">{{cite news |last=Schmidt |first=Michael S. |author-link=Michael S. Schmidt |date=August 30, 2020 |title=Justice Dept. Never Fully Examined Trump's Ties to Russia, Ex-Officials Say |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/08/30/us/politics/trump-russia-justice-department.html |url-access=limited |access-date=October 8, 2021 |work=[[The New York Times]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=May 27, 2020 |title=Rosenstein to testify in Senate on Trump-Russia probe |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-trump-russia-rosenstein-idUSKBN23330H |access-date=October 19, 2021 |work=[[Reuters]] |url-access=limited}}</ref> Pa pempho la Rosenstein, kufufuza kwa Mueller kukafufuza milandu "yakukhwaskana na kunjilirapo kwa Russia mu chisankho cha 2016".<ref name="never" /> [[Mueller report|Lipoti laumaliro la Mueller]] mu March 2019<ref>{{cite news |last=Breuninger |first=Kevin |date=March 22, 2019 |title=Mueller probe ends: Special counsel submits Russia report to Attorney General William Barr |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2019/03/22/robert-mueller-submits-special-counsels-russia-probe-report-to-attorney-general-william-barr.html |access-date=March 22, 2019 |work=[[CNBC]]}}</ref> likasanga kuti Russia yikanjilirapo mu chisankho cha 2016 kuti yiwovwire Trump,<ref>{{cite news |date=January 16, 2012 |title=Main points of Mueller report |url=https://www.afp.com/en/news/15/main-points-mueller-report-doc-1fr5vv1 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190420143436/https://www.afp.com/en/news/15/main-points-mueller-report-doc-1fr5vv1 |archive-date=April 20, 2019 |access-date=April 20, 2019 |work=[[Agence France-Presse]]}}</ref> ndipo Trump na kampeni yake ŵakazomera na kuchiska kuyezgayezga uku,<ref>{{cite news |last=Mazzetti |first=Mark |author-link=Mark Mazzetti |date=July 24, 2019 |title=Mueller Warns of Russian Sabotage and Rejects Trump's 'Witch Hunt' Claims |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/07/24/us/politics/trump-mueller-testimony.html |access-date=March 4, 2020 |work=[[The New York Times]] |url-access=limited}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Bump |first=Philip |date=May 30, 2019 |title=Trump briefly acknowledges that Russia aided his election – and falsely says he didn't help the effort |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/2019/05/30/trump-briefly-acknowledges-that-russia-aided-his-election-falsely-says-he-didnt-help-effort/ |access-date=March 5, 2020 |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |url-access=limited}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Polantz |first1=Katelyn |last2=Kaufman |first2=Ellie |last3=Murray |first3=Sara |date=June 19, 2020 |title=Mueller raised possibility Trump lied to him, newly unsealed report reveals |url=https://www.cnn.com/2020/06/19/politics/mueller-report-rerelease-fewer-redactions/ |access-date=October 30, 2022 |work=[[CNN]]}}</ref> kweni ukaboni "ukalongora yayi" kuti ŵanthu ŵa mu kampeni ya Trump ŵakachita chiwembu panji kugwirana ntchito na Russia.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Ostriker |first1=Rebecca |last2=Puzzanghera |first2=Jim |last3=Finucane |first3=Martin |last4=Datar |first4=Saurabh |last5=Uraizee |first5=Irfan |last6=Garvin |first6=Patrick |date=April 18, 2019 |title=What the Mueller report says about Trump and more |url=https://apps.bostonglobe.com/news/politics/graphics/2019/03/mueller-report/ |access-date=April 22, 2019 |work=[[The Boston Globe]]}}</ref><ref name="takeaways">{{cite magazine |last=Law |first=Tara |date=April 18, 2019 |title=Here Are the Biggest Takeaways From the Mueller Report |url=https://time.com/5567077/mueller-report-release/ |access-date=April 22, 2019 |magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]]}}</ref> Trump wakati lipoti ili likamutozga ku mulandu uliwose nangauli Mueller wakalemba kuti likaŵa nthena yayi.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Yen |first1=Hope |last2=Woodward |first2=Calvin |date=July 24, 2019 |title=AP Fact Check: Trump falsely claims Mueller exonerated him |url=https://apnews.com/article/130932b573664ea5a4d186f752bb8d50 |access-date=October 8, 2021 |work=[[AP News]]}}</ref> Lipoti ili likalongosoraso ukaboni wa kukhuŵazga chilungamo uwo Trump wangachita, kweni "likafika yayi pa fundo yaumaliro",<ref>{{cite news |last1=Barrett |first1=Devlin |last2=Zapotosky |first2=Matt |date=April 17, 2019 |title=Mueller report lays out obstruction evidence against the president |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/attorney-general-to-provide-overview-of-mueller-report-at-news-conference-before-its-release/2019/04/17/8dcc9440-54b9-11e9-814f-e2f46684196e_story.html |access-date=April 20, 2019 |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |url-access=limited}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Farley |first1=Robert |last2=Robertson |first2=Lori |last3=Gore |first3=D'Angelo |last4=Spencer |first4=Saranac Hale |last5=Fichera |first5=Angelo |last6=McDonald |first6=Jessica |date=April 18, 2019 |title=What the Mueller Report Says About Obstruction |url=https://www.factcheck.org/2019/04/what-the-mueller-report-says-about-obstruction/ |access-date=April 22, 2019 |work=[[FactCheck.org]]}}</ref> ndipo likaleka Congress ndiyo yisankhe usange pakwenera kupeleka milandu.<ref name="LM">{{cite news |last=Mascaro |first=Lisa |date=April 18, 2019 |title=Mueller drops obstruction dilemma on Congress |url=https://apnews.com/article/35829a2b010248f193d1efd00c4de7e5 |access-date=April 20, 2019 |work=[[AP News]]}}</ref> === Ndondomeko ya vyaru vinyake === {{main|Ndondomeko ya vyaru vinyake ya boma lakwamba la Trump|Misonkho ya katundu (tariffs) mu boma lakwamba la Trump}} {{further|Ubwezi wa Russia na United States#Boma lakwamba la Trump (2017–2021)|Ubwezi wa China na United States#Boma lakwamba la Trump (2017–2021)|Suzgo la North Korea la nyukiliya la 2017–2018|Ndondomeko ya mtende wa Korea ya 2018–19}} [[File:-G7Biarritz (48616362963).jpg|thumb|alt=A group of seven men and one woman, sitting at a round conference table. Trump wears a dark blue suit, white dress shirt, and light blue necktie. A small sign reading "G7 France Biarritz 2019" hangs on the wall behind them.|Ŵalongozgi ŵa [[Group of Seven|G7]] pa [[45th G7 summit|msonkhano wa 45]] ku France mu 2019]] Trump wakujichema kuti ni "munthu wakutemwa charu chake"<ref>{{cite news |first=William |last=Cummings |title='I am a nationalist': Trump's embrace of controversial label sparks uproar |url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/politics/2018/10/24/trump-says-hes-nationalist-what-means-why-its-controversial/1748521002/ |work=[[USA Today]] |date=October 24, 2018 |access-date=August 24, 2021}}</ref> ndipo ndondomeko yake ya vyaru vinyake yikachemekanga kuti "[[America First]]".<ref name=Bennhold>{{cite news |first=Katrin |last=Bennhold |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/06/06/world/europe/germany-troop-withdrawal-america.html |work=[[The New York Times]] |title=Has 'America First' Become 'Trump First'? Germans Wonder |date=June 6, 2020 |access-date=August 24, 2021 |url-access=limited}}</ref> Wakawovwira maboma gha [[populism]], [[neo-nationalism]], na maboma gha ulongozgi wa nkhongono.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://carnegieendowment.org/research/2018/10/can-us-democracy-policy-survive-trump?lang=en |title=Can U.S. Democracy Policy Survive Trump? |last1=Carothers |first1=Thomas |author-link1=Thomas Carothers |last2=Brown |first2=Frances Z. |date=October 1, 2018 |website=[[Carnegie Endowment for International Peace]] |access-date=October 19, 2019}}</ref> Pa nyengo yake ya kuwusa, ubwezi wa United States na vyaru vinyake ukaŵa wakusuzga chifukwa cha kusintha-sintha kwa ndondomeko zake.<ref name="Bennhold" />{{sfn|McGurk|2020}} Ubwezi wa United States na ŵabwezi ŵake ku Europe nawo ukasuzgika.<ref>{{cite news |first=Ana |last=Swanson |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/03/12/business/economy/trump-european-union-trade.html |title=Trump Administration Escalates Tensions With Europe as Crisis Looms |date=March 12, 2020 |access-date=October 4, 2021 |work=[[The New York Times]] |url-access=limited}}</ref> Wakasozga ŵabwezi ŵa [[Member states of NATO|NATO]] ndipo mwakubisika wakayowoya kuti United States yikeneranga kufuma mu [[Withdrawal from NATO#United States|NATO]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Baker |first=Peter |author-link=Peter Baker (journalist) |date=May 26, 2017 |access-date=October 4, 2021 |title=Trump Says NATO Allies Don't Pay Their Share. Is That True? |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/05/26/world/europe/nato-trump-spending.html}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Barnes |first1=Julian E. |last2=Cooper |first2=Helene |author-link2=Helene Cooper |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/01/14/us/politics/nato-president-trump.html |title=Trump Discussed Pulling U.S. From NATO, Aides Say Amid New Concerns Over Russia |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=January 14, 2019 |access-date=April 5, 2021 |url-access=limited}}</ref> Trump wakawovwira ndondomeko zinandi za nduna yikuru ya Israel [[Benjamin Netanyahu]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Sommer |first=Allison Kaplan |date=July 25, 2019 |title=How Trump and Netanyahu Became Each Other's Most Effective Political Weapon |work=[[Haaretz]] |url=https://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/2019-07-25/ty-article/.premium/how-trump-and-netanyahu-became-each-others-most-effective-political-weapon/0000017f-f22d-d497-a1ff-f2ad5c310000 |access-date=August 2, 2019}}</ref> Mu 2020, Trump wakalongozga mwambo wakusayinirana [[Abraham Accords]] pakati pa Israel, [[United Arab Emirates]] na [[Bahrain]] kuti ŵawovwire ubwezi wa vyaru ivi.<ref>{{cite news |last=Crowley |first=Michael |author-link=Michael Crowley (journalist) |date=September 15, 2020 |title=Israel, U.A.E. and Bahrain Sign Accords, With an Eager Trump Playing Host |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/09/15/us/politics/trump-israel-peace-emirates-bahrain.html |access-date=February 9, 2024 |url-access=limited}}</ref> [[File:President Trump & the First Lady's Trip to Europe (42547210635).jpg|thumb|Trump wakukorana mawoko na pulezidenti wa Russia [[Vladimir Putin]] pa [[2018 Russia–United States Summit|msonkhano wa 2018]] ku Helsinki, Finland]] Mu 2018, Trump wakambiska [[China–United States trade war|nkhondo ya malonda pakati pa China na United States]] mwa kuŵika misonkho ya katundu na mphaka zinyake za malonda, wakuti vikachitikanga kuti China yimazge nthowa zake zambura urunji pa malonda na [[Allegations of intellectual property infringement by China|kwiba vinjeru vya ŵanyake]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Swanson |first=Ana |date=July 5, 2018 |title=Trump's Trade War With China Is Officially Underway |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/07/05/business/china-us-trade-war-trump-tariffs.html |access-date=May 26, 2019 |work=[[The New York Times]] |url-access=limited}}</ref> Wakanangiska chilango chikuru chomene icho United States yikaŵikapo pa Russia pamanyuma pa [[2014 Russian annexation of Crimea]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Zengerle |first=Patricia |date=January 16, 2019 |title=Bid to keep U.S. sanctions on Russia's Rusal fails in Senate |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-russia-sanctions/bid-to-keep-u-s-sanctions-on-russias-rusal-fails-in-senate-idUSKCN1PA2JB |access-date=October 5, 2021 |work=[[Reuters]] |url-access=limited}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Whalen |first=Jeanne |date=January 15, 2019 |title=In rare rebuke of Trump administration, some GOP lawmakers advance measure to oppose lifting Russian sanctions |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/2019/01/16/rare-rebuke-trump-administration-some-gop-lawmakers-advance-measure-oppose-lifting-russian-sanctions/ |access-date=October 5, 2021 |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |url-access=limited}}</ref> Kanandi wakalumbanga pulezidenti wa Russia [[Vladimir Putin]], ndipo ŵakususkana nayo ŵakati wakamususkanga pachoko waka,<ref>{{cite news |last=Baker |first=Peter |author-link=Peter Baker (journalist) |date=August 10, 2017 |title=Trump Praises Putin Instead of Critiquing Cuts to U.S. Embassy Staff |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/08/10/world/europe/putin-trump-embassy-russia.html |access-date=June 7, 2020 |work=[[The New York Times]] |url-access=limited}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Nussbaum |first=Matthew |date=April 8, 2018 |title=Trump blames Putin for backing 'Animal Assad' |url=https://www.politico.com/story/2018/04/08/trump-putin-syria-attack-508223 |access-date=October 5, 2021 |work=[[Politico]]}}</ref> nangauli wakakananga vinyake ivyo boma la Russia likachitanga.<ref>{{cite news |date=December 21, 2019 |title=Nord Stream 2: Trump approves sanctions on Russia gas pipeline |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-50875935 |access-date=October 5, 2021 |work=[[BBC News]]}}</ref> Wakafumiska United States mu [[Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty]] chifukwa wakati Russia yikapulikira yayi phangano ili,<ref>{{cite news |last=Bugos |first=Shannon |date=September 2019 |title=U.S. Completes INF Treaty Withdrawal |url=https://www.armscontrol.org/act/2019-09/news/us-completes-inf-treaty-withdrawal |access-date=October 5, 2021 |website=[[Arms Control Association]]}}</ref> ndipo wakawovwira kuti Russia yiwezgekeso mu [[G7]].<ref name="G8">{{cite news |last=Panetta |first=Grace |date=June 14, 2018 |title=Trump reportedly claimed to leaders at the G7 that Crimea is part of Russia because everyone there speaks Russian |url=https://www.businessinsider.com/trump-claims-crimea-is-part-of-russia-since-people-speak-russian-g7-summit-2018-6 |access-date=February 13, 2020 |work=[[Business Insider]]}}</ref> Apo [[North Korea's nuclear weapons|vilwero vya nyukiliya vya North Korea]] vikawonekanga kuti ni suzgo likuru,<ref>{{cite news |last1=Taylor |first1=Adam |last2=Meko |first2=Tim |date=December 21, 2017 |title=What made North Korea's weapons programs so much scarier in 2017 |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2017/12/21/what-made-north-koreas-weapons-programs-so-much-scarier-in-2017/ |access-date=July 5, 2019 |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]}}</ref> Trump wakaŵa pulezidenti wakwamba wa United States uyo wakaŵa pa udindo kukumana na mulongozgi wa North Korea, [[Kim Jong Un]], ndipo ŵakakumana katatu pakati pa Juni 2018 na Juni 2019.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Baker |first1=Peter |author-link1=Peter Baker (journalist) |last2=Crowley |first2=Michael |author-link2=Michael Crowley (journalist) |date=June 30, 2019 |title=Trump Steps Into North Korea and Agrees With Kim Jong-un to Resume Talks |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/06/30/world/asia/trump-north-korea-dmz.html |access-date=October 5, 2021 |work=[[The New York Times]]}}</ref> Kweni kudumbiskana pa [[denuclearization]] ya North Korea kukamara mu Okutobala 2019 kwambura kufika pa phangano lililose.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Sanger |first1=David E. |author-link1=David E. Sanger |last2=Sang-Hun |first2=Choe |author-link2=Choe Sang-hun |date=June 12, 2020 |title=Two Years After Trump-Kim Meeting, Little to Show for Personal Diplomacy |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/06/12/world/asia/korea-nuclear-trump-kim.html |access-date=October 5, 2021 |work=[[The New York Times]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Tanner |first1=Jari |last2=Lee |first2=Matthew |author-link2=Matt Lee (journalist) |date=October 5, 2019 |title=North Korea Says Nuclear Talks Break Down While U.S. Says They Were 'Good' |url=https://apnews.com/article/donald-trump-us-news-ap-top-news-north-korea-vietnam-c66474b67b3e41cdad6d21ba3385ddc2 |access-date=July 21, 2021 |work=[[AP News]]}}</ref> Trump wakakanizgikaso ivyo wakayowoyanga na ŵalaraŵalara ŵa visola vya boma,<ref>{{cite news |last=Woodward |first=Calvin |date=November 16, 2020 |title=AP Fact Check: Trump conclusively lost, denies the evidence |url=https://apnews.com/article/ap-fact-check-trump-conclusively-lost-bbb9d8c808021ed65d91aee003a7bc64 |access-date=November 17, 2020 |work=[[AP News]]}}</ref> ndipo Khoti Likuru Chomene likakana kupulika [[Texas v. Pennsylvania|mulandu uwo ukakhumbanga kuti usinthe ivyo vikafuma mu visola]] mu vyaru vinayi ivyo Biden wakathereska.<ref>{{cite news |last=Liptak |first=Adam |author-link=Adam Liptak |date=December 11, 2020 |title=Supreme Court Rejects Texas Suit Seeking to Subvert Election |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/12/11/us/politics/supreme-court-election-texas.html |access-date=October 9, 2021 |work=[[The New York Times]] |url-access=limited}}</ref> Kanandi waka Trump wakapenja wovwiri wakuti wasinthe ivyo vikafuma mu visola, wakakanizga na kukakamizga yekha ŵalaraŵalara ŵa Republican ŵa mu malo na ŵa maboma,<ref name="amyG">{{cite news |last=Gardner |first=Amy |date=January 3, 2021 |title='I just want to find 11,780 votes': In extraordinary hour-long call, Trump pressures Georgia secretary of state to recalculate the vote in his favor |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/trump-raffensperger-call-georgia-vote/2021/01/03/d45acb92-4dc4-11eb-bda4-615aaefd0555_story.html |access-date=January 20, 2021 |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |url-access=limited}}</ref> ŵimiliri ŵa malango ŵa Republican,<ref name="pressure">{{cite news |last1=Kumar |first1=Anita |last2=Orr |first2=Gabby |last3=McGraw |first3=Meridith |date=December 21, 2020 |title=Inside Trump's pressure campaign to overturn the election |url=https://www.politico.com/news/2020/12/21/trump-pressure-campaign-overturn-election-449486 |access-date=December 22, 2020 |work=[[Politico]]}}</ref> Dipatimenti ya Malango,<ref>{{cite news |last=Cohen |first=Marshall |date=November 5, 2021 |title=Timeline of the coup: How Trump tried to weaponize the Justice Department to overturn the 2020 election |url=https://www.cnn.com/2021/11/05/politics/january-6-timeline-trump-coup/ |access-date=November 6, 2021 |work=[[CNN]]}}</ref> na Muteŵeti wa Pulezidenti Pence,<ref>{{cite news |last1=Haberman |first1=Maggie |author-link1=Maggie Haberman |last2=Karni |first2=Annie |author-link2=Annie Karni |date=January 5, 2021 |title=Pence Said to Have Told Trump that he Lacks Power to Change Election Result |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/01/05/us/politics/pence-trump-election-results.html |access-date=January 7, 2021 |work=[[The New York Times]] |url-access=limited}}</ref> wakuŵachiska kuti ŵachite vinthu nga nkhusintha [[Ndondomeko ya ma elector ŵautesi ya Trump|ma elector ŵa pulezidenti]],<ref name="pressure" /> panji kuti ŵalaraŵalara ŵa Georgia [[Foni ya Trump–Raffensperger|"ŵasangepo" mavoti na kupharazga]] ivyo "vaweleraso kuŵerengeka".<ref name="amyG"/> Trump wakaluta yayi ku [[Kunjizgika mu udindo kwa Biden]] pa Janyuwale&nbsp;20.<ref>{{cite news |last=Haberman |first=Maggie |author-link=Maggie Haberman |date=January 20, 2021 |title=Trump Departs Vowing, 'We Will Be Back in Some Form' |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/01/20/us/politics/trump-presidency.html |access-date=January 25, 2021 |work=[[The New York Times]] |url-access=limited}}</ref> === Kuukira kwa pa Janyuwale 6 === {{main|[[Kuukira kwa pa United States Capitol pa Janyuwale 6, 2021|Kuukira kwa pa United States Capitol pa Janyuwale 6, 2021]]}} [[File:2021 storming of the United States Capitol DSC09254-2 (50820534063) (retouched).jpg|thumb|Mzinda wa ŵalondezgi ŵa Trump pa nyengo ya kuukira]] Pa Janyuwale&nbsp;6, 2021, apo [[Kuŵerenga mavoti gha Electoral College gha United States cha 2021|Congress yikakhazikiskanga ivyo vikafuma mu visola vya pulezidenti]], [[Msonkhano wa Trump wa pa Janyuwale 6|Trump wakachita msonkhano]] uwo wakachemerezgamo kuti ivyo vikafuma mu visola visinthike ndipo wakachiska ŵalondezgi ŵake kuti "ŵarwe mwankhongono" na "kuwezgerapo charu chithu" mwa kwenda ku Capitol.<ref>{{cite news |last=Savage |first=Charlie |author-link=Charlie Savage (journalist) |date=January 10, 2021 |title=Incitement to Riot? What Trump Told Supporters Before Mob Stormed Capitol |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/01/10/us/trump-speech-riot.html |access-date=January 11, 2021 |work=[[The New York Times]] |url-access=limited}}</ref> Pamanyuma pake ŵalondezgi ŵake ŵakawungana mu mzinda ndipo ŵakanjira mu nyumba ya Capitol, ŵakaparanya ndondomeko ya kukhozgera ivyo vikafuma mu visola ndipo ŵakachitiska kuti ŵanthu ŵa mu Congress ŵafumiskike.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Tan |first1=Shelley |last2=Shin |first2=Youjin |last3=Rindler |first3=Danielle |date=January 9, 2021 |title=How one of America's ugliest days unraveled inside and outside the Capitol |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/nation/interactive/2021/capitol-insurrection-visual-timeline/ |access-date=May 2, 2021 |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |url-access=limited}}</ref> Ŵapolisi ŵakujumpha 140 ŵakapwetekeka, ndipo ŵanthu ŵankhondi ŵakafwa pa nyengo ya kuukira panji pamanyuma pake.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Rubin |first1=Olivia |last2=Mallin |first2=Alexander |last3=Steakin |first3=Will |date=January 4, 2022 |title=By the numbers: How the Jan. 6 investigation is shaping up 1 year later |url=https://abcnews.go.com/US/numbers-jan-investigation-shaping-year/story?id=82057743 |access-date=June 4, 2023 |work=[[ABC News (United States)|ABC News]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Cameron |first=Chris |date=January 5, 2022 |title=These Are the People Who Died in Connection With the Capitol Riot |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/01/05/us/politics/jan-6-capitol-deaths.html |access-date=January 29, 2022 |work=[[The New York Times]] |url-access=limited}}</ref> Chinthu ichi chalongosoreka kuti chikaŵa [[kujipoka boma]] uko Trump wakayezga kuchita.{{sfn|Pion-Berlin|Bruneau|Goetze|2022}}{{sfn|Harvey|2022|p=3|}}{{sfn|Castañeda|Jenks|2023|p=246}} Pamanyuma pake Congress yikawunganaso ndipo yikakhozgera kuthereska kwa Biden m'maora ghakwambilira gha Janyuwale&nbsp;7.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Gregorian |first1=Dareh |last2=Gibson |first2=Ginger |last3=Kapur |first3=Sahil |last4=Helsel |first4=Phil |date=January 6, 2021 |title=Congress confirms Biden's win after pro-Trump mob's assault on Capitol |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/politics/2020-election/congress-begin-electoral-vote-count-amid-protests-inside-outside-capitol-n1253013 |access-date=January 8, 2021 |work=[[NBC News]]}}</ref> == Pakati pa maulamuliro gha upulezidenti (2021–2025) == Wakati wafumanga mu White House, Trump wakamba kukhala ku Mar-a-Lago, ndipo wakakhazikiska ofesi kula nga umo vikulongosorekera mu [[Former Presidents Act|Former Presidents Act]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Wolfe |first=Jan |date=January 27, 2021 |title=Explainer: Why Trump's post-presidency perks, like a pension and office, are safe for the rest of his life |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-trump-impeachment-benefits-explai-idUSKBN29W238 |access-date=February 2, 2021 |work=[[Reuters]] |url-access=limited}}</ref> Ivyo wakalutilira kuyowoya mwautesi vya [[Big lie#Donald Trump's false claims of a stolen election|chisola cha 2020 icho wakati chikabika]] vikamanyikwanga chomene na awo ŵakamususkanga kuti "[[big lie|utesi ukuru]]", nangauli mu Meyi 2021, iyo na ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakamulondezganga ŵakamba kugwiliskira ntchito mazgu agha pakuyowoya vya chisola chenechicho.<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Solender |first=Andrew |date=May 3, 2021 |title=Trump Says He'll Appropriate 'The Big Lie' To Refer To His Election Loss |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/andrewsolender/2021/05/03/trump-says-hell-appropriate-the-big-lie-to-refer-to-his-election-loss/ |access-date=October 10, 2021 |magazine=[[Forbes]]}}</ref><ref name="key2">{{cite news |last=Wolf |first=Zachary B. |date=May 19, 2021 |title=The 5 key elements of Trump's Big Lie and how it came to be |url=https://www.cnn.com/2021/05/19/politics/donald-trump-big-lie-explainer/ |access-date=October 10, 2021 |work=[[CNN]]}}</ref> Chipani cha Republican chikagwiliskira ntchito ivyo wakayowoyanga mwautesi vya chisola kuti chilongosore chifukwa cha [[Republican efforts to restrict voting following the 2020 United States presidential election|kwambiska malango ghaphya ghakukanizga kuvota]] kuti chiŵawovwire.<ref>{{cite news |last=Balz |first=Dan |author-link=Dan Balz |date=May 29, 2021 |title=The GOP push to revisit 2020 has worrisome implications for future elections |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/trump-big-lie-elections-impact/2021/05/29/d7992fa2-c07d-11eb-b26e-53663e6be6ff_story.html |access-date=June 18, 2021 |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |url-access=limited}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Izaguirre |first1=Anthony |last2=Coronado |first2=Acacia |date=January 31, 2021 |title=GOP lawmakers seek tougher voting rules after record turnout |url=https://apnews.com/article/bills-voting-rights-elections-coronavirus-pandemic-voter-registration-0e94844d72d2a2bf8b51b1c950bd64fc |access-date=January 17, 2023 |work=[[AP News]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=McCaskill |first=Nolan D. |date=March 15, 2021 |title=After Trump's loss and false fraud claims, GOP eyes voter restrictions across nation |url=https://www.politico.com/news/2021/03/15/voting-restrictions-states-475732 |access-date=January 17, 2023 |work=[[Politico]]}}</ref> Wakalutilira kukakamizga ŵimiliri ŵa maboma gha vigaŵa kuti ŵasinthe ivyo vikafuma mu chisola.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Bender |first1=Michael C. |author-link1=Michael C. Bender |last2=Epstein |first2=Reid J. |date=July 20, 2022 |title=Trump Recently Urged a Powerful Legislator to Overturn His 2020 Defeat in Wisconsin |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/07/21/us/politics/trump-wisconsin-election-call.html |access-date=August 13, 2022 |work=[[The New York Times]]}}</ref> Kupambana na ŵapulezidenti ŵanyake ŵakale, Trump wakalutilira kulamulira chipani chake; mbiri iyo yikalembeka mu ''The New York Times'' mu 2022 yikamulongosora nga ni [[party boss|mulongozgi mukuru wa chipani]] wa mazuŵa ghasono.<ref name="PB2">{{cite news |last=Goldmacher |first=Shane |date=April 17, 2022 |title=Mar-a-Lago Machine: Trump as a Modern-Day Party Boss |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/04/17/us/politics/trump-mar-a-lago.html |access-date=July 31, 2022 |work=[[The New York Times]] |url-access=limited}}</ref> Wakalutilira kusanga ndalama za ndondomeko zake, ndipo wakasanga [[war chest|nkhokwe ya ndalama]] iyo yikaŵa yakuluska kaŵiri ya Chipani cha Republican, kweniso wakasanganga phindu kufuma ku vyakusonkhezgera ndalama ivyo ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa Republican ŵakachitiranga ku Mar-a-Lago. Chigaŵa chikuru cha ntchito yake chikaŵa pa kulongozga chipani na kuŵika ŵanthu ŵakugomezgeka kwa iyo mu maudindo ghakuzirwa.<ref name="PB2" /> Mu [[2022 midterm elections|visola vya pakati pa nyengo ya 2022]], Trump wakazomerezga ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 200 kuti ŵapikisane pa maudindo ghakupambanapambana.<ref>{{cite news |last=Paybarah |first=Azi |author-link=Azi Paybarah |date=August 2, 2022 |title=Where Trump's Endorsement Record Stands Halfway through Primary Season |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/08/02/us/politics/trump-endorsements-midterm-primary-election.html |access-date=August 3, 2022 |work=[[The New York Times]] |url-access=limited}}</ref> Mu Febuluwale 2022, kampani yake ya [[Trump Media & Technology Group|Trump Media & Technology Group]] (TMTG) yikambiska pulatifomu ya pa intaneti yakovwira Trump yakuchemeka [[Truth Social|Truth Social]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Bhuyian |first=Johana |date=February 21, 2022 |title=Donald Trump's social media app launches on Apple store |url=https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2022/feb/21/donald-trumps-social-media-app-truth-social-launches-on-apple-store |access-date=May 7, 2023 |work=[[The Guardian]]}}</ref> Mu Malichi 2024, TMTG yikazgoka kampani ya pa msika wa masheya.<ref>{{cite news |last=Harwell |first=Drew |author-link=Drew Harwell |date=March 26, 2024 |title=Trump Media soars in first day of public tradings |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/technology/2024/03/25/truth-social-trump-media-stock-market-billions/ |access-date=March 28, 2024 |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |url-access=limited}}</ref> === Nkhani za malango === {{see also|[[Personal and business legal affairs of Donald Trump|Personal and business legal affairs of Donald Trump]]|[[Legal affairs of the first Trump presidency|Legal affairs of the first Trump presidency]]}} Mu 2019, mulembi wa nkhani [[E. Jean Carroll|E. Jean Carroll]] wakamupa mulandu Trump kuti wakamuchitira chiheni cha kugonana mu m'ma 1990, ndipo [[E. Jean Carroll v. Donald J. Trump|wakamuphalira mulandu wa kumunangira zina]] chifukwa cha kukana kwake.<ref>{{cite news |last=Ransom |first=Jan |date=November 4, 2019 |title=E. Jean Carroll, Who Accused Trump of Rape, Sues Him for Defamation |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/11/04/nyregion/jean-carroll-sues-trump.html |access-date=January 24, 2024 |work=[[The New York Times]] |url-access=limited}}</ref> Carroll wakamuphaliraso mulandu mu 2022 pa mulandu wa [[Battery (crime)|battery]] kweniso kunangira zina.<ref>{{cite news |last=Weiser |first=Benjamin |date=November 17, 2022 |title=Writer Who Accused Trump of Rape to File New Defamation Lawsuit |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/11/17/nyregion/donald-trump-jean-carroll-lawsuit.html |access-date=January 24, 2025 |work=[[The New York Times]] |url-access=limited}}</ref> Khoti likamusanga kuti wali na mulandu wa kuchitira munthu nkhaza za kugonana na kunangira zina, ndipo likamulamura kulipira ndalama zakukwana $5 miliyoni pa mulandu umoza<ref>{{cite news |last1=Sullivan |first1=Becky |last2=Bernstein |first2=Andrea |last3=Marritz |first3=Ilya |last4=Lawrence |first4=Quil |date=May 9, 2023 |title=A jury finds Trump liable for battery and defamation in E. Jean Carroll trial |url=https://www.npr.org/2023/05/09/1174975870/trump-carroll-verdict |access-date=May 10, 2023 |work=[[NPR News]]}}</ref> na $83.3 miliyoni pa unyake.<ref name="uphold">{{cite news |last=Offenhartz |first=Jake |url=https://apnews.com/article/trump-carroll-appeal-award-d587004df6f7c46ec4a17b563a38bfa9 |title=Appeals court upholds E. Jean Carroll's $83.3M defamation judgment against Trump |work=[[AP News]] |date=September 8, 2025 |access-date=September 11, 2025}}</ref> Makhoti ghapachanya gha apilu ghakakhozga vyeruzgo vyose na ndalama izi mu Disembala 2024 na Seputembala 2025, mwakulondezgana.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Neumeister |first1=Larry |last2=Sisak |first2=Michael R. |date=December 30, 2024 |title=An appeals court upholds a $5 million award in a sexual abuse verdict against President-elect Trump |url=https://apnews.com/article/trump-carroll-lawsuit-defamation-trial-78e4196024539653a6de492312770ff2 |access-date=December 31, 2024 |work=[[AP News]]}}</ref><ref name="uphold"/> Khoti Likuru la United States likakana pempho la Trump la kupempha apilu pa mulandu wakwamba.<ref>{{cite news |title=Supreme Court rejects Trump’s push to toss $5 million verdict in E. Jean Carroll sexual abuse case |last=Whitehurst |first=Lindsay |date=June 29, 2026 |url=https://apnews.com/article/trump-supreme-court-e-jean-carroll-sexual-abuse-1a50d1e9e1d12898e78e0803c4627771 |work=[[AP News]] |access-date=June 29, 2026}}</ref> Mu 2022, [[New York business fraud lawsuit against the Trump Organization|boma la New York likamuphalira mulandu wa boma]] Trump, likamupa mulandu wakuti wakasazgiranga mtengo wa Trump Organization kuti wasange chandulo kwa ŵakukongozga ndalama na mabanki.<ref>{{cite news |last=Scannell |first=Kara |date=September 21, 2022 |title=New York attorney general files civil fraud lawsuit against Trump, some of his children and his business |url=https://www.cnn.com/2022/09/21/politics/trump-new-york-attorney-general-letitia-james-fraud-lawsuit/index.html |access-date=September 21, 2022 |work=[[CNN]]}}</ref><ref name="TF">{{cite news |last1=Bromwich |first1=Jonah E. |last2=Protess |first2=Ben |date=February 17, 2024 |title=Trump Fraud Trial Penalty Will Exceed $450 Million |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2024/02/16/nyregion/trump-civil-fraud-trial-ruling.html |access-date=February 17, 2024 |work=[[The New York Times]] |url-access=limited}}</ref> Khoti likamusanga kuti wali na mulandu ndipo likamulamura kulipira pafupifupi $355 miliyoni kweniso chiwongoladzanja.<ref name="TF" /> Mu Ogasiti 2025, khoti la apilu likakhozga kuti wali na mulandu na chilango chinyake chambura ndalama, kweni likafumyapo chilango cha ndalama chifukwa chikawonekanga kuti ntchakujumphizga.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Bromwich |first1=Jonah E. |last2=Protess |first2=Ben |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2025/08/21/nyregion/trump-fraud-james.html |title=Divided Court Eliminates Trump's Half-Billion-Dollar Fine in Fraud Case |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=August 21, 2025 |access-date=August 26, 2025 |url-access=limited}}</ref> Chifukwa cha ivyo Trump wakachita pakukhumba kusintha ivyo vikafuma mu chisola cha 2020 na kutorana kwake chigaŵa pa kuwukira kwa Januwale&nbsp;6, mu Disembala 2022 [[United States House Select Committee on the January 6 Attack|komiti yapadera ya Nyumba ya Wimiliri ya United States pa kuwukira uku]] yikapempha kuti wapike milandu ya uheni yakusazgapo [[obstructing an official proceeding|kunanga ntchito ya ndondomeko ya boma]], kukhuŵilizga panji kovwira kuwukira boma, kweniso [[conspiracy to defraud the United States|kupangana kuchitira chinyengo United States]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Feuer |first=Alan |date=December 19, 2022 |title=It's Unclear Whether the Justice Dept. Will Take Up the Jan. 6 Panel's Charges |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/12/19/us/politics/jan-6-trump-justice-dept.html |access-date=March 25, 2023 |work=[[The New York Times]] |url-access=limited}}</ref> Mu Ogasiti 2023, gulu la ŵeruzgi ŵa ku [[Fulton County, Georgia|Fulton County, Georgia]] likamupa milandu 13, kusazgapo [[Georgia election racketeering prosecution|racketeering]], chifukwa cha kuyezgayezga kwake kunanga ivyo vikafuma mu chisola cha 2020 mu boma ili.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Lowell |first1=Hugo |last2=Wicker |first2=Jewel |date=August 15, 2023 |title=Donald Trump and allies indicted in Georgia over bid to reverse 2020 election loss |url=https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2023/aug/14/donald-trump-georgia-indictment-2020-election |access-date=December 22, 2023 |work=[[The Guardian]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Drenon |first=Brandon |date=August 25, 2023 |title=What are the charges in Trump's Georgia indictment? |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-66503668 |access-date=December 22, 2023 |work=[[BBC News]]}}</ref> Mulandu uwu ukafumiskika mu Novembala 2025 pamanyuma pakuti mulembi muphya wa milandu wakakana kulutilira nawo.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Fausset |first1=Richard |last2=Hakim |first2=Danny |title=Judge Dismisses Georgia Election Interference Case Against Trump |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2025/11/26/us/trump-georgia-election-racketeering.html |website=[[The New York Times]] |date=November 26, 2025 |access-date=November 26, 2025 |url-access=limited}}</ref> == Pakati pa maulamuliro gha pulezidenti (2021–2025) == Wakati wafumanga mu White House, Trump wakamba kukhala ku Mar-a-Lago, ndipo wakakhazikiska ofesi kwenekura nga umo vikuperekekera na [[Former Presidents Act|Dango la Ŵapulezidenti Ŵakale]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Wolfe |first=Jan |date=January 27, 2021 |title=Explainer: Why Trump's post-presidency perks, like a pension and office, are safe for the rest of his life |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-trump-impeachment-benefits-explai-idUSKBN29W238 |access-date=February 2, 2021 |work=[[Reuters]] |url-access=limited}}</ref> Ivyo wakalutilira kuyowoya mwautesi pa [[Big lie#Donald Trump's false claims of a stolen election|visola vya pulezidenti vya 2020 ivyo wakati vikabiwa]] vikachemekanga kanandi kuti "[[Big lie|utesi ukuru]]" na awo ŵakamususkanga, nangauli mu Meyi 2021, iyo na ŵanandi mwa ŵalondezgi ŵake ŵakamba kugwiliskira ntchito zina ili pakung'anamura chisola cheneko.<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Solender |first=Andrew |date=May 3, 2021 |title=Trump Says He'll Appropriate 'The Big Lie' To Refer To His Election Loss |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/andrewsolender/2021/05/03/trump-says-hell-appropriate-the-big-lie-to-refer-to-his-election-loss/ |access-date=October 10, 2021 |magazine=[[Forbes]]}}</ref><ref name="key2">{{cite news |last=Wolf |first=Zachary B. |date=May 19, 2021 |title=The 5 key elements of Trump's Big Lie and how it came to be |url=https://www.cnn.com/2021/05/19/politics/donald-trump-big-lie-explainer/ |access-date=October 10, 2021 |work=[[CNN]]}}</ref> Chipani cha Republican chikagwiliskira ntchito mazgu ghake ghautesi pa chisola kuti chilongosore [[Republican efforts to restrict voting following the 2020 United States presidential election|kuŵikapo mphaka ziphya pa kuvota]] kuti viŵawovwire.<ref>{{cite news |last=Balz |first=Dan |author-link=Dan Balz |date=May 29, 2021 |title=The GOP push to revisit 2020 has worrisome implications for future elections |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/trump-big-lie-elections-impact/2021/05/29/d7992fa2-c07d-11eb-b26e-53663e6be6ff_story.html |access-date=June 18, 2021 |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |url-access=limited}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Izaguirre |first1=Anthony |last2=Coronado |first2=Acacia |date=January 31, 2021 |title=GOP lawmakers seek tougher voting rules after record turnout |url=https://apnews.com/article/bills-voting-rights-elections-coronavirus-pandemic-voter-registration-0e94844d72d2a2bf8b51b1c950bd64fc |access-date=January 17, 2023 |work=[[AP News]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=McCaskill |first=Nolan D. |date=March 15, 2021 |title=After Trump's loss and false fraud claims, GOP eyes voter restrictions across nation |url=https://www.politico.com/news/2021/03/15/voting-restrictions-states-475732 |access-date=January 17, 2023 |work=[[Politico]]}}</ref> Wakalutilira kukakamizga ŵimiliri ŵa maboma kuti ŵawuske vyakufuma mu chisola.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Bender |first1=Michael C. |author-link1=Michael C. Bender |last2=Epstein |first2=Reid J. |date=July 20, 2022 |title=Trump Recently Urged a Powerful Legislator to Overturn His 2020 Defeat in Wisconsin |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/07/21/us/politics/trump-wisconsin-election-call.html |access-date=August 13, 2022 |work=[[The New York Times]]}}</ref> Kupambana na ŵapulezidenti ŵakale ŵanyake, Trump wakalutilira kulamulira chipani chake; mbiri iyo yikafuma mu ''The New York Times'' mu 2022 yikamulongosora nga ni [[party boss|mulongozgi mukuru wa chipani]] wa mazuŵa ghano.<ref name="PB2">{{cite news |last=Goldmacher |first=Shane |date=April 17, 2022 |title=Mar-a-Lago Machine: Trump as a Modern-Day Party Boss |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/04/17/us/politics/trump-mar-a-lago.html |access-date=July 31, 2022 |work=[[The New York Times]] |url-access=limited}}</ref> Wakalutilira kuwunganya ndalama, wakawunganya [[war chest|nkhokwe yikuru ya ndalama]] iyo yikaŵa yakuluska kaŵiri iyo ya Chipani cha Republican, ndipo wakasangaso phindu kufuma ku mawunganiro gha ndalama agho ŵanandi awo ŵakakhumbanga maudindo mwa Republican ŵakachitiranga ku Mar-a-Lago. Ghanandi mwa ntchito zake ghakaŵa pa ulongozgi wa chipani na kuŵika ŵanthu ŵakugomezgeka kwa iyo mu maudindo ghakuzirwa.<ref name="PB2" /> Mu [[Visola vya pakati pa nyengo ya United States vya 2022|visola vya pakati pa nyengo vya 2022]], Trump wakapeleka chovwiri ku ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 200 awo ŵakakhumbanga maudindo ghakupambanapambana.<ref>{{cite news |last=Paybarah |first=Azi |author-link=Azi Paybarah |date=August 2, 2022 |title=Where Trump's Endorsement Record Stands Halfway through Primary Season |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/08/02/us/politics/trump-endorsements-midterm-primary-election.html |access-date=August 3, 2022 |work=[[The New York Times]] |url-access=limited}}</ref> Mu Febuluwale 2022, kampani yake ya [[Trump Media & Technology Group]] (TMTG) yikamba malo ghakusangwaniska gha pa intaneti ghakucemeka [[Truth Social]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Bhuyian |first=Johana |date=February 21, 2022 |title=Donald Trump's social media app launches on Apple store |url=https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2022/feb/21/donald-trumps-social-media-app-truth-social-launches-on-apple-store |access-date=May 7, 2023 |work=[[The Guardian]]}}</ref> Mu Malichi 2024, TMTG yikazgoka kampani ya pa msika wa masheya.<ref>{{cite news |last=Harwell |first=Drew |author-link=Drew Harwell |date=March 26, 2024 |title=Trump Media soars in first day of public tradings |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/technology/2024/03/25/truth-social-trump-media-stock-market-billions/ |access-date=March 28, 2024 |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |url-access=limited}}</ref> === Nkhani za malango === {{see also|[[Personal and business legal affairs of Donald Trump|Nkhani za malango za Donald Trump pa umoyo wake na bizinesi]]|[[Legal affairs of the first Trump presidency|Nkhani za malango pa ulamuliro wakwamba wa Trump]]}} Mu 2019, mulembi wa nkhani [[E. Jean Carroll]] wakamupa mulandu Trump kuti wakamuchita chinyamusi mu m'ma 1990 ndipo [[E. Jean Carroll v. Donald J. Trump|wakamusumba chifukwa cha kumunangira zina]] pamanyuma pakuti wakakana ivyo wakamupa mulandu.<ref>{{cite news |last=Ransom |first=Jan |date=November 4, 2019 |title=E. Jean Carroll, Who Accused Trump of Rape, Sues Him for Defamation |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/11/04/nyregion/jean-carroll-sues-trump.html |access-date=January 24, 2024 |work=[[The New York Times]] |url-access=limited}}</ref> Carroll wakamusumba so mu 2022 chifukwa cha [[Battery (crime)|kukhuŵazga munthu]] kweniso kumunangira zina.<ref>{{cite news |last=Weiser |first=Benjamin |date=November 17, 2022 |title=Writer Who Accused Trump of Rape to File New Defamation Lawsuit |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/11/17/nyregion/donald-trump-jean-carroll-lawsuit.html |access-date=January 24, 2025 |work=[[The New York Times]] |url-access=limited}}</ref> Khoti likamusanga kuti wali na mulandu wa kuchita nkhaza za kugonana na kumunangira zina, ndipo likamulangura kulipira ndalama zakukwana $5 miliyoni pa mulandu umoza<ref>{{cite news |last1=Sullivan |first1=Becky |last2=Bernstein |first2=Andrea |last3=Marritz |first3=Ilya |last4=Lawrence |first4=Quil |date=May 9, 2023 |title=A jury finds Trump liable for battery and defamation in E. Jean Carroll trial |url=https://www.npr.org/2023/05/09/1174975870/trump-carroll-verdict |access-date=May 10, 2023 |work=[[NPR News]]}}</ref> na $83.3 miliyoni pa unyake.<ref name="uphold">{{cite news |last=Offenhartz |first=Jake |url=https://apnews.com/article/trump-carroll-appeal-award-d587004df6f7c46ec4a17b563a38bfa9 |title=Appeals court upholds E. Jean Carroll's $83.3M defamation judgment against Trump |work=[[AP News]] |date=September 8, 2025 |access-date=September 11, 2025}}</ref> Makhoti gha apilo gha boma ghakakhozga vyeruzgo vyose na ndalama izo mu Disembala 2024 na Seputembala 2025, mwakulondezgana.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Neumeister |first1=Larry |last2=Sisak |first2=Michael R. |date=December 30, 2024 |title=An appeals court upholds a $5 million award in a sexual abuse verdict against President-elect Trump |url=https://apnews.com/article/trump-carroll-lawsuit-defamation-trial-78e4196024539653a6de492312770ff2 |access-date=December 31, 2024 |work=[[AP News]]}}</ref><ref name="uphold"/> Khoti Likuru la United States likakana apilo la Trump pa mulandu wakwamba.<ref>{{cite news |title=Supreme Court rejects Trump’s push to toss $5 million verdict in E. Jean Carroll sexual abuse case |last=Whitehurst |first=Lindsay |date=June 29, 2026 |url=https://apnews.com/article/trump-supreme-court-e-jean-carroll-sexual-abuse-1a50d1e9e1d12898e78e0803c4627771 |work=[[AP News]] |access-date=June 29, 2026}}</ref> Mu 2022, [[New York business fraud lawsuit against the Trump Organization|boma la New York likamusumba pa mulandu wa boma]] Trump, likamupa mulandu wakuti wakakwezga mwakuteska mtengo wa Trump Organization kuti wasange chandulo kwa ŵakubwerekeska ndalama na mabanki.<ref>{{cite news |last=Scannell |first=Kara |date=September 21, 2022 |title=New York attorney general files civil fraud lawsuit against Trump, some of his children and his business |url=https://www.cnn.com/2022/09/21/politics/trump-new-york-attorney-general-letitia-james-fraud-lawsuit/index.html |access-date=September 21, 2022 |work=[[CNN]]}}</ref><ref name="TF">{{cite news |last1=Bromwich |first1=Jonah E. |last2=Protess |first2=Ben |date=February 17, 2024 |title=Trump Fraud Trial Penalty Will Exceed $450 Million |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2024/02/16/nyregion/trump-civil-fraud-trial-ruling.html |access-date=February 17, 2024 |work=[[The New York Times]] |url-access=limited}}</ref> Khoti likamusanga kuti wali na mulandu ndipo likamulangura kulipira pafupifupi $355 miliyoni pamoza na chiwongoladzanja.<ref name="TF" /> Mu Ogasiti 2025, khoti la apilo likakhozga mulandu wake na vilango vinyake vyambura ndalama, kweni likafumiskapo chilango cha ndalama chifukwa chikawoneka kuti chikaŵa chikuru chomene.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Bromwich |first1=Jonah E. |last2=Protess |first2=Ben |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2025/08/21/nyregion/trump-fraud-james.html |title=Divided Court Eliminates Trump's Half-Billion-Dollar Fine in Fraud Case |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=August 21, 2025 |access-date=August 26, 2025 |url-access=limited}}</ref> Chifukwa cha kuyezgayezga kwa Trump kuwuska vyakufuma mu visola vya 2020 na umo wakachitikirapo pa kuwukira kwa January&nbsp;6, mu Disembala 2022 [[United States House Select Committee on the January 6 Attack|komiti ya Nyumba ya Ŵimiliri ya United States pa kuwukira kwa January 6]] yikapempha kuti wapikike milandu ya [[obstructing an official proceeding|kunanga ntchito ya boma]], kukhozga panji kovwira kuwukira boma, na [[conspiracy to defraud the United States|kupangana kuti wabere United States]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Feuer |first=Alan |date=December 19, 2022 |title=It's Unclear Whether the Justice Dept. Will Take Up the Jan. 6 Panel's Charges |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/12/19/us/politics/jan-6-trump-justice-dept.html |access-date=March 25, 2023 |work=[[The New York Times]] |url-access=limited}}</ref> Mu Ogasiti 2023, jury likuru ku [[Fulton County, Georgia]] likamupa milandu 13, kusazgapo [[Georgia election racketeering prosecution|racketeering]], chifukwa cha kuyezgayezga kwake kunanga visola vya 2020 mu boma ili.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Lowell |first1=Hugo |last2=Wicker |first2=Jewel |date=August 15, 2023 |title=Donald Trump and allies indicted in Georgia over bid to reverse 2020 election loss |url=https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2023/aug/14/donald-trump-georgia-indictment-2020-election |access-date=December 22, 2023 |work=[[The Guardian]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Drenon |first=Brandon |date=August 25, 2023 |title=What are the charges in Trump's Georgia indictment? |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-66503668 |access-date=December 22, 2023 |work=[[BBC News]]}}</ref> Mulandu uwu ukalekeka mu Novembala 2025 pamanyuma pakuti mupharazgi muphya wa boma wakakana kulondezga milandu iyi.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Fausset |first1=Richard |last2=Hakim |first2=Danny |title=Judge Dismisses Georgia Election Interference Case Against Trump |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2025/11/26/us/trump-georgia-election-racketeering.html |website=[[The New York Times]] |date=November 26, 2025 |access-date=November 26, 2025 |url-access=limited}}</ref> Mazgu ghake, agho ghakachemanga ŵalwani ŵake ŵandale kuti "murwani", viyuni vyakofya, kweniso ŵafasisti, ghakalongosoreka na ŵanyake ŵakulemba mbiri na ŵasambiri kuti ghakaŵa gha ulamuliro wa nkhongono, gha [[Donald Trump and fascism|ufasisti]],<ref> * {{cite news |title=Trump campaign defends "vermin" speech amid fascist comparisons |url=https://www.axios.com/2023/11/13/trump-vermin-fascist-language-speech |work=[[Axios (website)|Axios]] |date=November 13, 2023 |last=Basu |first=Zachary |access-date=December 8, 2023}} * {{cite news |last=Browning |first=Christopher R. |date=July 25, 2023 |title=A New Kind of Fascism |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2023/07/trump-second-term-isolationist-fascism/674791/ |work=[[The Atlantic]] |access-date=December 8, 2023}} * {{cite news |title=Trump compares political opponents to 'vermin' who he will 'root out', alarming historians |url=https://abcnews.go.com/Politics/trump-compares-political-opponents-vermin-root-alarming-historians/story?id=104847748 |work=[[ABC News (United States)|ABC News]] |date=November 13, 2023 |last1=Kim |first1=Soo Rin |last2=Ibssa |first2=Lalee |access-date=December 8, 2023}} * {{cite news |last=Ward |first=Myah |date=October 12, 2024 |title=We watched 20 Trump rallies. His racist, anti-immigrant messaging is getting darker. |work=[[Politico]] |url=https://www.politico.com/news/2024/10/12/trump-racist-rhetoric-immigrants-00183537 |access-date=October 12, 2024}} </ref> ndipo ghakaŵa ghakupambana na chilichose icho munthu wakupenja udindo wa ndale wali kuyowoyapo kale mu mbiri ya United States.<ref name="NYMag Never Sounded Like This">{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2024/04/27/magazine/trump-rallies-rhetoric.html |title=Donald Trump Has Never Sounded Like This |work=[[The New York Times Magazine]] |date=April 27, 2024 |access-date=April 27, 2024 |last1=Homans |first1=Charles |url-access=limited}}</ref><ref name="Lerer 10152024" /><ref name="Applebaum18">{{cite news |last=Applebaum |first=Anne |author-link=Anne Applebaum |date=October 18, 2024 |title=Trump Is Speaking Like Hitler, Stalin, and Mussolini |work=[[The Atlantic]] |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2024/10/trump-authoritarian-rhetoric-hitler-mussolini/680296/ |access-date=October 18, 2024}}</ref> [[Age and health concerns about Donald Trump|Nkhawa pa vya msinkhu na umoyo wa Trump]] nazo zikawonekanga pa nyengo ya kampeni, apo ŵadokotala ŵanandi ŵakalongora kuti wakaŵa kwamba kuyowoya mwambura kulongosoka makora, [[tangential speech|kuyowoya kupatuka pa nkhani]], na [[Disinhibition|kuleka kujikora pa nkharo]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Baker |first1=Peter |author-link1=Peter Baker (journalist) |last2=Freedman |first2=Dylan |date=October 6, 2024 |title=Trump's Speeches, Increasingly Angry and Rambling, Reignite the Question of Age |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2024/10/06/us/politics/trump-speeches-age-cognitive-decline.html |access-date=November 6, 2024 |work=[[The New York Times]] |url-access=limited}}</ref> Trump wakayowoya mazgu ghakuti "chisola chakunangiska" na "kunjilirapo pa chisola" nyengo zzinandi kweniso mwaluŵiro mu kampeni ya 2024 kuluska umo wakachitira mu makampeni gha 2016 na 2020.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Lane |first1=Nathan |last2=Ulmer |first2=Alexandra |date=May 16, 2024 |title=Trump, allies are laying the groundwork to contest potential election loss |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/us/trump-allies-are-laying-groundwork-contest-potential-election-loss-2024-05-16/ |access-date=September 12, 2024 |work=[[Reuters]] |url-access=limited}}</ref><ref name="NYTDoubts">{{cite news |last1=Yourish |first1=Karen |last2=Smart |first2=Charlie |date=May 24, 2024 |title=Trump's Pattern of Sowing Election Doubt Intensifies in 2024 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2024/05/24/us/politics/trump-election-results-doubt.html |access-date=August 30, 2024 |work=[[The New York Times]] |url-access=limited}}</ref> Pa Julayi&nbsp;13, 2024, Trump wakapwetekeka pa khutu na chipolopolo pa [[Attempted assassination of Donald Trump in Pennsylvania|kuyezga kumukoma]] pa ungano wa kampeni ku [[Butler Township, Butler County, Pennsylvania|Butler Township, Pennsylvania]].<ref name="Browne-2024">{{cite news |last1=Browne |first1=Malachy |last2=Lum |first2=Devon |last3=Cardia |first3=Alexander |date=July 26, 2024 |title=Speculation Swirls About What Hit Trump. An Analysis Suggests It was a Bullet |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2024/07/26/us/politics/trump-shooter-bullet-trajectory-ear.html |access-date=July 29, 2024 |work=[[The New York Times]] |url-access=limited}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Hutchinson |first1=Bill |last2=Cohen |first2=Miles |date=July 16, 2024 |title=Gunman opened fire at Trump rally as witnesses say they tried to alert police |url=https://abcnews.go.com/US/witnesses-trump-assassination-attempt-gunman-roof-shooting/story?id=111947616 |access-date=July 17, 2024 |work=[[ABC News (United States)|ABC News]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=July 14, 2024 |title=AP Photos: Shooting at Trump rally in Pennsylvania |url=https://apnews.com/article/trump-rally-shooting-photo-gallery-561478b3f90c950c741eeaa24c6dc159 |access-date=July 23, 2024 |work=[[AP News]]}}</ref> Mazuŵa ghaŵiri ghakati ghajumphapo, [[2024 Republican National Convention|2024 Republican National Convention]] yikamusankha kuŵa wakwimira chipani pa chisola cha pulezidenti.<ref>{{cite news |last=Astor |first=Maggie |date=July 15, 2024 |title=What to Know About J.D. Vance, Trump's Running Mate |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2024/07/15/us/politics/who-is-jd-vance-trump-vp.html |access-date=July 15, 2024 |work=[[The New York Times]] |url-access=limited}}</ref> Mu Seputembala, wakasangikaso pa [[Attempted assassination of Donald Trump in Florida|kuyezga kunyake kumukoma]] ku Florida, kweni wakapwetekeka yayi.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Debusmann |first1=Bernd Jr |last2=Yousif |first2=Nadine |date=September 23, 2024 |title=Suspect described Trump 'assassination attempt' in pre-written note |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/c89ly20vvgvo |access-date=November 21, 2024 |work=[[BBC News]]}}</ref> Trump wakathereska chisola mu Novembala 2024 na mavoti 312 gha Electoral College kuluska 226 gha vice president uyo wakaŵapo, Kamala Harris.<ref>{{cite news |title=2024 Presidential Election Results |url=https://apnews.com/projects/election-results-2024/ |date=November 25, 2024 |access-date=November 25, 2024 |work=[[AP News]]}}</ref> Wakasangaso mavoti ghanandi gha ŵanthu wose na 49.8% apo Harris wakasanga 48.3%.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.fec.gov/resources/cms-content/documents/2024presgeresults.pdf |title=2024 Presidential Election Results |publisher=[[Federal Election Commission]] |date=January 16, 2025 |access-date=January 16, 2025}}</ref> Kuthereska kwake mu 2024 kukachitika chomene chifukwa cha [[2021–2023 inflation surge|kukwera kwa mitengo pakati pa 2021 na 2023]].<ref name="Global Politics">{{cite news |url=https://www.wsj.com/world/global-politics-conservative-right-shift-ea0e8d05 |title=The Progressive Moment in Global Politics is Over |date=December 27, 2024 |access-date=December 27, 2024 |first1=Bertrand |last1=Benoit |first2=David |last2=Luhnow |first3=Vipal |last3=Monga |website=[[The Wall Street Journal]] |url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Burn-Murdoch |first=John |date=December 29, 2024 |title=What the 'year of democracy' taught us, in 6 charts |url=https://www.ft.com/content/350ba985-bb07-4aa3-aa5e-38eda7c525dd |access-date=December 30, 2024 |work=[[Financial Times]] |quote=The billions who voted in 2024 sent an angry message to incumbents, and warmed to populists on left and right}}</ref> Mabungwe ghanandi gha nkhani ghakalongosora kuti kuweleraso kwake pa udindo uwu kukaŵa kwakuziziswa chomene.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Sheerin |first1=Jude |last2=Murphy |first2=Matt |date=November 6, 2024 |title=Trump pulls off historic White House comeback |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/c62l5zdv7zko |access-date=November 9, 2024 |work=[[BBC News]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Miller |first1=Zeke |author-link1=Zeke Miller |last2=Price |first2=Michelle L. |last3=Weissert |first3=Will |last4=Colvin |first4=Jill |date=November 6, 2024 |title=Trump wins the White House in political comeback rooted in appeals to frustrated voters |url=https://apnews.com/article/election-day-trump-harris-white-house-83c8e246ab97f5b97be45cdc156af4e2 |access-date=November 9, 2024 |work=[[AP News]]}}</ref> == Pulezidenti wa chiŵiri (2025–sono) == {{main|[[Pulezidenti wa chiŵiri wa Donald Trump|Pulezidenti wa chiŵiri wa Donald Trump]]}} {{for timeline|[[Timeline of the Donald Trump presidencies#Second presidency (2025–present)|Timeline of the Donald Trump presidencies#Second presidency (2025–present)]]}} [[File:Donald Trump takes the oath of office (2025) (alternate).jpg|thumb|Wakulapa [[Oath of office of the President of the United States|chilapo cha pulezidenti]], chakulongozgeka na Chief Justice [[John Roberts]], pa Janyuwale&nbsp;20, 2025]] Trump wakamba nyengo yake yachiŵiri pa [[Second inauguration of Donald Trump|kuŵikika kwake pa udindo]] pa Janyuwale&nbsp;20, 2025.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Morgan |first1=David |last2=Borter |first2=Gabriella |last3=Mason |first3=Jeff |last4=Ax |first4=Joseph |date=January 20, 2025 |title=Trump sworn in a second time, says he was 'saved by God' to rescue America |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/us/triumphant-trump-returns-white-house-launching-new-era-upheaval-2025-01-20/ |access-date=January 20, 2025 |work=[[Reuters]] |url-access=limited}}</ref> Wakazgoka [[List of presidents of the United States by age|pulezidenti muchekuru chomene uyo wali kunjira pa udindo]],<ref>{{cite news |last=Hussein |first=Mohamed H. |date=January 20, 2025 |title=How does Trump's age at inauguration compare with other presidents? |work=[[Al Jazeera English|Al Jazeera]] |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2025/1/20/how-does-trumps-age-at-inauguration-compare-to-other-presidents |access-date=January 20, 2025}}</ref> pulezidenti wakwamba kusangika na mulandu wa felony, kweniso munthu wachiŵiri kuteŵetera nyengo ziŵiri zakupatukana nga ni pulezidenti.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Ogwude |first1=Haadiza |last2=Page |first2=Susan |date=January 20, 2025 |title=Is Donald Trump the oldest president sworn into office? A look at his historic feats |work=[[USA Today]] |url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/2025/01/20/who-is-the-oldest-president-to-be-sworn-in-donald-trump/77776042007/ |access-date=January 20, 2025}}</ref> Trump wakasora ŵanandi awo ŵakalemba Project 2025 kuti ŵaŵe mu boma lake lachiŵiri;<ref>{{cite news |last1=Alfonseca |first1=Kiara |last2=Faulders |first2=Katherine |title=How Trump has infused parts of Project 2025 into his administration |url=https://abcnews.go.com/Politics/trump-project-2025-administration/story?id=116019369 |access-date=February 4, 2025 |work=[[ABC News (United States)|ABC News]] |date=December 9, 2024}}</ref> pamanyuma pa chaka chakwamba cha nyengo yake yachiŵiri, pafupifupi hafu ya ndondomeko za pulojekiti iyi zikagwiriskirika ntchito.<ref>{{cite news |last=Ordoñez |first=Franco |url=https://www.npr.org/2026/01/19/nx-s1-5640006/trump-has-rolled-out-many-of-the-project-2025-policies-he-once-claimed-ignorance-about |title=Trump has rolled out many of the Project 2025 policies he once claimed ignorance about |work=[[NPR News]] |date=January 19, 2026 |access-date=April 11, 2026}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Wendling |first=Mike |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/c5yvvjw8pdvo |title=From Venezuela to immigration crackdown, Project 2025 provided Trump's roadmap |work=[[BBC News]] |date=February 26, 2026 |access-date=April 11, 2026}}</ref> Pakulongosora mphindano zake na mazaza gha makhoti, ''The New York Times'' yikati kuyezga kwake kusazgirako nkhongono za pulezidenti ni chimanyikwiro chikuru cha nyengo yake yachiŵiri.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2025/03/20/us/politics/trump-power-courts-crisis.html |title=How Trump Is Trying to Consolidate Power Over Courts, Congress and More |first1=Erica L. |last1=Green |first2=Zolan |last2=Kanno-Youngs |author-link2=Zolan Kanno-Youngs |first3=Maggie |last3=Haberman |author-link3=Maggie Haberman |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=March 20, 2025 |access-date=March 20, 2025 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Nyengo yachiŵiri ya Trump yikaŵa na kupharazga ndondomeko zakupambanapambana, kuchedweskeka, kweniso kusintha ivyo vikachitika, ndipo vikapangiska kuti lizgu lakuti "[[Trump Always Chickens Out|TACO]]" liyambe kugwiriskirika ntchito pakulongosora umo wakachitiranga.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/politics/donald-trump/chaos-confusion-reversals-trump-second-term-rcna200649 |title=Chaos, confusion and reversals: The story of Trump's second term so far |first=Peter |last=Nicholas |date=April 14, 2025 |work=[[NBC News]] |access-date=April 25, 2026}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Crowley |first=Kinsey |date=January 22, 2026 |title=Trump's Greenland deal has some saying TACO again. What does it mean? |work=[[USA Today]] |url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/politics/2026/01/22/donald-trump-taco-greenland-davos-deal/88298149007/ |access-date=April 25, 2026}}</ref> === Ivyo wakachita pakwamba === {{see also|First 100 days of the second Trump presidency}} Pambere pajumphapo mwezi umoza kufika pa mazuŵa 100 gha nyengo yachiŵiri ya Trump, wakaŵa kuti [[List of executive orders in the second Trump presidency|wasaina ma executive order ghanandi]] kuluska pulezidenti waliyose wa United States mu mazuŵa ghakwamba 100 gha ulamuliro wake.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Doan |first1=Laura |last2=Ingram |first2=Julia |url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/trump-issues-record-100-executive-order-of-second-term-breakdown/ |title=Trump issues record 100th executive order within first 100 days of term. Here's a breakdown. |work=[[CBS News]] |date=March 26, 2025 |access-date=November 8, 2025}}</ref> Kufika pakati pa Janyuwale 2026, ma order na vyakuchita vyake vikakwimikana na milandu yakujumpha 550 mu makhoti mu charu chose. Pa milandu iyi, awo ŵakamusumanga ŵakapunda pa milandu 195, boma likapunda pa milandu 109, milandu 16 yikaŵa na vyeruzgo vyakupambana, milandu 228 yikaŵa yindamalizgike, ndipo milandu 25 yikajalika.<ref>{{cite web |date=January 12, 2026 |title=Litigation Tracker: Legal Challenges to Trump Administration Actions |url=https://www.justsecurity.org/107087/tracker-litigation-legal-challenges-trump-administration/ |access-date=January 13, 2026 |website=[[Just Security]]}}</ref> Ŵeruzgi awo ŵakasankhika na ma Republican na ma Democrat wose ŵakasanga kuti ndondomeko zinandi za boma la Trump zikaŵa na ubudi wa malango gha Dango Likuru na malango ghanyake gha boma.<ref>Multiple sources: * {{cite news |last1=Parker |first1=Ned |last2=Spector |first2=Mike |last3=Eisler |first3=Peter |last4=So |first4=Linda |last5=Raymond |first5=Nate |title=These judges ruled against Trump. Then their families came under attack. |url=https://www.reuters.com/investigations/these-judges-ruled-against-trump-then-their-families-came-under-attack-2025-05-02/ |access-date=August 9, 2025 |work=[[Reuters]] |date=May 2, 2025}} * {{cite news |last1=Blake |first1=Aaron |title=It's not just 'leftist' judges. GOP appointees have many sharp words for Trump. |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/2025/04/24/republican-judges-oppose-trump/ |access-date=August 9, 2025 |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |date=April 24, 2025}} * {{cite news |author=The Editorial Board |title= 'Egregious'. 'Brazen'. 'Lawless'. How 48 Judges Describe Trump's Actions, in Their Own Words |url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2025/07/12/opinion/editorials/federal-judges-quotes-trump-administration.html |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=July 9, 2025 |access-date=August 9, 2025}}</ref> Pamanyuma pakuti watondeka pa milandu yinandi ya makhoti, Trump wakasazgirako kususka kwake vyeruzgi ndipo wakachema kuti ŵeruzgi ŵa boma awo ŵakeruzga vyakususkana nayo ŵafumiskike pa maudindo ghawo mwa impeachment.<ref>{{cite news |last=Riccardi |first=Nicholas |date=March 16, 2025 |title=Trump administration ramps up rhetoric targeting the courts amid mounting legal setbacks |work=[[AP News]] |url=https://apnews.com/article/trump-courts-judges-rule-of-law-85058a5ffcef105d4ea2ce0ef078f084 |access-date=March 20, 2025}}</ref> Kufika pakati pa Julayi 2025, kuwunika kwa ''[[Washington Post]]'' kukasanganga kuti wakakananga kupulikira ŵeruzgi na makhoti pa pafupifupi chigaŵa chimoza pa vitatu vya milandu yose iyo yikamukhwaskanga, ivyo ŵakumanya vya malango ŵakavichema kuti ni vyambura kuchitikapo kale pa boma lililose la pulezidenti.<ref>{{cite news |last=Jouvenal |first=Justin |date=July 21, 2025 |title=Trump officials accused of defying 1 in 3 judges who ruled against him |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/2025/07/21/trump-court-orders-defy-noncompliance-marshals-judges/ |url-access=limited |access-date=August 1, 2025}}</ref> Boma lake likati lili na wanangwa wa mu Dango Likuru wakuleka kulondezga malango gha boma pakulongosora vinyake ivyo likachitanga, nga nkhuleka kulondezga [[Protecting Americans from Foreign Adversary Controlled Applications Act|dango la boma lakukanizga TikTok]], apo ŵakumanya vya malango ŵakati ichi chikung'anamura kuti likujipa "nkhongono ya mu Dango Likuru yakupa wanangwa makampani panji ŵanthu kuchita vinthu vyambura kuzomerezgeka na dango kwambura kulangika".<ref>{{cite news |last=Savage |first=Charlie |author-link=Charlie Savage (journalist) |date=July 3, 2025 |title=Trump Claims Sweeping Power to Nullify Laws, Letters on TikTok Ban Show |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2025/07/03/us/politics/trump-bondi-tiktok-executive-power.html |url-access=subscription |access-date=August 23, 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite episode |last=Lucas |first=Ryan |date=March 19, 2025 |title=Experts say Trump's targeting of law firms is unprecedented |url=https://www.npr.org/2025/03/19/nx-s1-5323890/experts-say-trumps-targeting-of-law-firms-is-unprecedented |series=[[All Things Considered]] |work=[[NPR News]] |access-date=April 13, 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Scarcella |first1=Mike |last2=Merken |first2=Sara |last3=Sloan |first3=Karen |date=March 21, 2025 |title=Law firm Paul Weiss defends deal with Trump as lawyers sound alarm |url=https://www.reuters.com/legal/trumps-deal-with-law-firm-paul-weiss-sparks-alarm-among-lawyers-2025-03-21/ |work=[[Reuters]] |access-date=April 13, 2025 |url-access=limited}}</ref> === [[Kususkana kwa vyakukhwaskana na vinthu vya munthu yekha (2025–sono)|Kususkana kwa vyakukhwaskana na vinthu vya munthu yekha (2025–sono)]] === {{further|[[Second presidency of Donald Trump#Ethics|Second presidency of Donald Trump]]|[[Cryptocurrency in the second Trump presidency]]}} Nyengo yachiŵiri ya ulamuliro wa Trump yikulongosoreka kuti yikaŵa na vigeŵenga vichoko vyakuvikilira ku kususkana kwa vyakukhwaskana na vinthu vya munthu yekha kuluska nyengo yake yakwamba,<ref name="Yourish 2025">{{cite news |last1=Yourish |first1=Karen |last2=Lipton |first2=Eric |author-link2=Eric Lipton |last3=Gamio |first3=Lazaro |date=January 17, 2025 |title=An Illustrated Guide to Trump's Conflict of Interest Risks |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2025/01/17/us/politics/trump-conflicts-of-interest.html |url-access=limited}}</ref><ref name="Schouten 2025">{{cite news |last=Schouten |first=Fredreka |date=January 8, 2025 |title=Gold-plated watches and electoral map sneakers: Trump's newest merchandise raises conflict of interest questions |url=https://www.cnn.com/2025/01/08/politics/trump-conflicts-of-interest-second-term/index.html |access-date=January 18, 2025 |work=[[CNN]]}}</ref> kuswa miyambo ya nkharo yiwemi iyo yikakhala kwa vyaka vinandi,<ref>{{cite news |last1=Lipton |first1=Eric |author-link1=Eric Lipton |last2=Haberman |first2=Maggie |author-link2=Maggie Haberman |date=February 17, 2025 |title=With Congress Pliant, an Emboldened Trump Pushes His Business Interests |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2025/02/17/us/politics/trump-ethics-conflicts-business-adams.html |url-access=limited}}</ref> ndipo yikapangiska ŵanthu ŵanandi kufipa mtima na katangale.<ref name="Savage 05122025">{{cite news |last=Savage |first=Charlie |author-link=Charlie Savage (journalist) |date=May 12, 2025 |title=Trump's Plan to Take Jet From Qatar Heightens Corruption Concerns |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2025/05/12/us/trump-qatar-jet-plane.html |url-access=subscription |access-date=May 18, 2025 |work=[[The New York Times]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Stringer |first1=Connor |last2=Lawford |first2=Melissa |date=May 18, 2025 |title='It's open season for corruption': How Trump turned the White House into a cash cow |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/business/2025/05/18/trump-turned-white-house-cash-machine/ |access-date=May 18, 2025 |work=[[The Daily Telegraph]]}}</ref> Wakalutilira kuŵa na kampani ya pa msika wa masheya ya [[Trump Media & Technology Group]], ndipo wakayisazgirapo ntchito za ndalama.<ref>{{cite news |title=Trump Media launches FinTech services brand amid crypto boom |url=https://www.reuters.com/business/finance/trump-media-launches-fintech-services-brand-2025-01-29/ |date=January 29, 2025 |work=[[Reuters]] |url-access=limited}}</ref> Wakapenja mapangano ghaphya gha malo gha nyumba mu vyaru vinyake agho ghakakhwaskanga mabungwe agho ghakaŵa pamoza na maboma, ndipo wakaŵaso na mapangano ghanandi gha branding na licensing gha kuguliska vinthu vya mtundu wa Trump.<ref name="Yourish 2025"/> Wakasanganga ndalama kufuma ku vyakuchitika pa mahotelo ghake na pa malo ghake ghakuseŵerako gofu, ndipo wakaŵika yayi usambazi wake mu ''blind trust'', nga umo mapulezidenti ŵanyake ŵakachitiranga.<ref name="Schouten 1232025">{{cite news |last=Schouten |first=Fredreka |date=January 23, 2025 |title='The gloves are off': Trump appears poised to cash in from his presidency in new ways |work=[[CNN]] |url=https://www.cnn.com/2025/01/23/politics/ethics-business-trump-presidency/index.html}}</ref> Wakachita malonda gha masheya ghanandi chomene mu makampani agho ghakaŵa na malonda ghanandi na boma la federal, ghakukwana mazana ghanandi gha mamiliyoni gha madola mu malonda ghakujumpha masauzandi.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Becket |first1=Stefan |last2=Manthey |first2=Grace |last3=Ingram |first3=Julia |date=June 15, 2026 |title=Explore Trump's 3,600 stock trades from the first 3 months of 2026 |work=[[CBS News]] |url=https://www.cbsnews.com/projects/2026/trump-stock-trades/}}</ref> Trump wakambiska, wakalimbikiska, ndipo wakapindulanga yekha na [[The Trump Organization#Other ventures and investments|ma token ghaŵiri gha cryptocurrency]] ("[[meme coin]]"), [[$Trump]] na $Melania.<ref name="Weissert 1222025">{{cite news |last=Weissert |first=Will |date=January 22, 2025 |title=Trump has canceled Biden's ethics rules. Critics call it the opposite of 'drain the swamp' |url=https://apnews.com/article/trump-revokes-ethics-rules-drain-swamp-b8e3ba0f98c9c60af11a8e70cbc902bd |work=[[AP News]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Suderman |first=Alan |url=https://apnews.com/article/trump-crypto-meme-coin-token-75bf67ef9e6e54bf455f2f9f03470be3 |title=Trump promotes new meme coin before taking office on pro-crypto agenda |work=[[AP News]] |date=January 19, 2025 |access-date=May 10, 2025}}</ref> Wakapindulaso na kampani ya cryptocurrency ya mbumba yake ya [[World Liberty Financial]], iyo yikasazga pamoza bizinesi ya munthu yekha na ndondomeko za boma mu nthowa yambura kuchitikapo kale.<ref name="Lipton 04292025">{{cite news |last1=Lipton |first1=Eric |author-link1=Eric Lipton |last2=Yaffe-Ballany |first2=David |last3=Protess |first3=Ben |date=April 29, 2025 |title=Secret Deals, Foreign Investments, Presidential Policy Changes: The Rise of Trump's Crypto Firm |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2025/04/29/us/politics/trump-crypto-world-liberty-financial.html |url-access=limited}}</ref> Kufika mu Juni 2026, kuwunika kwa Reuters kukati Trump na mbumba yake ŵakasanga ndalama zakukwana US$2.3 biliyoni kufuma ku mabizinesi ghawo gha crypto, apo ŵakuguliska ŵanyake ŵakataya ndalama zakuyana waka na izi.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Bergin |first1=Tom |last2=Conlin |first2=Michelle |last3=Qing |first3=Koh Gui |last4=Wilson |first4=Tom |date=June 9, 2026 |title=Under the Trump crypto playbook, the family always wins. Investors don't |work=[[Reuters]] |url=https://www.reuters.com/investigations/under-trump-crypto-playbook-family-always-wins-investors-dont-2026-06-09/ |url-access=limited}}</ref> ==== Sayansi ==== {{main|2025 United States federal government grant pause}} Trump wakalekeska na kulekeska ndalama za boma (federal grants) ndipo wakachepeska chomene ndalama zakovwira kafukufuku wa sayansi,<ref>{{cite news |last=Casselman |first=Ben |author-link=Ben Casselman |date=March 31, 2025 |title=Trump's Science Policies Pose Long-Term Risk, Economists Warn |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2025/03/31/business/economy/trump-research-cutbacks-economy.html |url-access=limited |access-date=April 3, 2025}}</ref> ndipo ŵeruzgi na [[Government Accountability Office]] ŵakasanga kuti vinyake mwa ivyo wakachita vikaŵa vyakususka dango ndiposo vyakususka Dango Likuru la United States.<ref>{{cite news |last=Waldman |first=Annie |date=June 17, 2025 |title=Federal Judge Deems Trump Administration's Termination of NIH Grants Illegal |work=[[ProPublica]] |url=https://www.propublica.org/article/trump-nih-grant-terminations-illegal |access-date=August 16, 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Fischler |first=Jacob |date=August 7, 2025 |title=Trump illegally froze 1,800 NIH medical research grants, Congress' watchdog says |work=[[Government Executive]] |url=https://www.govexec.com/oversight/2025/08/trump-illegally-froze-1800-nih-medical-research-grants-congress-watchdog-says/407296/ |access-date=January 24, 2026}}</ref> Trump pamoza na ndondomeko ya boma lake ya [[Make America Healthy Again]] ŵakakhozga maghanoghano ghakususkana na sayansi ([[anti-science]]) kweniso kampeni zakususka katemera ([[anti-vaccine activism]]), ivyo vikapangiska kuti matenda nga whooping cough na measles ghaleke kuchepa ndipo ghambe kusazgikaso.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Smith |first1=Michelle R. |last2=Ungar |first2=Laura |date=October 21, 2025 |title=Anti-science bills hit statehouses, stripping away public health protections built over a century |work=[[AP News]] |url=https://apnews.com/article/vaccines-fluoride-kennedy-trump-science-antiscience-legislation-73af8e65f407331e8f31b2909812a004 |access-date=October 22, 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Sun |first1=Lena H. |last2=Diamond |first2=Dan |date=September 23, 2025 |title=Trump's escalating attacks on vaccines shock public health leaders |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/health/2025/09/23/trump-vaccines-autism-mmr-schedule/ |access-date=October 22, 2025 |url-access=limited}}</ref> ==== Vinthu vya vyakofya vya charu/ndondomeko ya umoyo ==== Trump wakagwiliskiranga ntchito kulengeza vyakofya vya charu (national emergencies) kuti walongore chifukwa cha kuchitira vinthu vinandi ndiposo kujumpha kuzomerezgeka na Congress panji kuwunikika na mabungwe ghakulaŵilira malango.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Yourish |first1=Karen |last2=Smart |first2=Charlie |date=August 22, 2025 |title=How Trump Used 10 Emergency Declarations to Justify Hundreds of Actions |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2025/08/22/us/politics/trump-emergency-immigration-tariffs-crime.html |access-date=August 23, 2025 |url-access=limited}}</ref> Mwachiyelezgero, wakalengeza kuti mu charu mukaŵa suzgo la vyamphamvu (national energy emergency), ivyo vikazomerezga kulekeska malango ghakovwira kusungilira chilengiwa, kulekelera malango ghakukhwaskana na kukumba mafuta gha fossil fuel, kweniso kuchepeska mapulojekiti gha magesi ghakufuma ku vyakuthupi vyakuweleraso (renewable energy).<ref>{{cite news |last=Elliott |first=Rebecca F. |title=Oil Companies Embrace Trump, but Not 'Drill, Baby, Drill' |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2025/01/27/business/energy-environment/oil-trump-drill-baby-drill.html |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=January 27, 2025 |access-date=February 16, 2025 |url-access=limited}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Brady |first=Jeff |title=Trump's energy emergency is a gift to fossil fuel firms. It's likely headed to court |url=https://www.npr.org/2025/01/22/nx-s1-5269717/trump-energy-emergency-climate |work=[[NPR News]] |date=January 22, 2025 |access-date=February 16, 2025}}</ref> Mu ulamuliro wake wakwamba, Trump wakafumiska United States mu [[Paris Agreement]] pa nkhani ya kusintha kwa nyengo. [[Presidency of Joe Biden|Joe Biden]] wakaweleramo mu phangano ili mu 2021, kweni Trump wakalifumiskaso charu ichi mu ulamuliro wake wachiŵiri.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Daly |first1=Matthew |last2=Borenstein |first2=Seth |date=January 20, 2025 |title=Trump signs executive order directing US withdrawal from the Paris climate agreement — again |url=https://apnews.com/article/trump-paris-agreement-climate-change-788907bb89fe307a964be757313cdfb0 |access-date=January 23, 2025 |work=[[AP News]]}}</ref> ==== Vinthu vya mu chikaya ==== Trump wakatimbanga masuzgo gha mu chikaya pa ndondomeko za [[diversity, equity, and inclusion]] (DEI) na maghanoghano gha [[Woke#United States|wokeness]].<ref name="Green250203">{{cite news |last=Green |first=Erica L. |date=February 3, 2025 |title=As Trump Attacks Diversity, a Racist Undercurrent Surfaces |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2025/02/03/us/politics/trump-diversity-racism.html |access-date=February 4, 2025 |url-access=limited}}</ref> Pakuyaniska kusazgapo ŵanthu ŵamitundu yakupambanapambana na kuleka kumanya ntchito,<ref name="Green250203" /> wakawuskapo ndondomeko za boma la federal zakukhozga kusazgapo ŵanthu ŵamitundu yakupambanapambana.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Green |first1=Erica L. |last2=Aleaziz |first2=Hamed |date=January 22, 2025 |title=Federal Workers Ordered to Report on Colleagues Over D.E.I. Crackdown |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2025/01/22/us/politics/trump-order-discrimination-federal-hiring.html |access-date=February 4, 2025 |url-access=limited}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Hurley |first=Lawrence |date=February 3, 2025 |title=Under Trump, conservatives reignite a battle over race and the Constitution |work=[[NBC News]] |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/politics/donald-trump/trump-conservatives-reignite-battle-race-constitution-rcna189842 |access-date=February 4, 2025}}</ref> Wakawopsyezgaso mabungwe gha chikhalidwe chifukwa cha nkhani za DEI,<ref>{{cite news |title=Trump's changes to the Smithsonian are the latest in his takeover of the arts |url=https://www.npr.org/2025/03/29/nx-s1-5333720/trumps-changes-to-the-smithsonian-are-the-latest-in-his-takeover-of-the-arts |last1=Blair |first1=Elizabeth |last2=Simon |first2=Scott |author-link2=Scott Simon |date=March 29, 2025 |work=[[NPR News]]}}</ref> kweniso mayunivesite 60 pa nkhani yakuti ghakalephera kulimbana na kususka Ŵayuda (antisemitism),<ref name="WSJed">{{cite news |url=https://www.wsj.com/us-news/education/anti-semitism-task-force-who-247c234e |title=The Little-Known Bureaucrats Tearing Through American Universities |last1=Whyte |first1=Liz Essley |last2=Belkin |first2=Douglas |last3=Randazzo |first3=Sara |date=April 14, 2025 |work=[[The Wall Street Journal]] |url-access=subscription}}</ref> ndipo wakachichizga makampani gha maloya kuti ghazomerezgane na ndondomeko zake za ndale.<ref name="APfirms">{{cite news |last=Tucker |first=Eric |date=April 11, 2025 |title=Trump reaches deals with 5 law firms, allowing them to avoid prospect of punishing executive orders |url=https://apnews.com/article/trump-law-firms-executive-order-fe8f38a61cf77c5bb6add1315f5f96f1 |work=[[AP News]]}}</ref> Wakakanizga ŵanthu ŵa transgender kunjira mu ŵasilikari [[Persecution of transgender people under the second Trump administration|kwizira mu malango gha pulezidenti na vinthu vinyake]];<ref>{{cite news |last=Neff |first=Cy |title=US to begin immediate removal of up to 1,000 trans military members |url=https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2025/may/08/trump-pentagon-trans-military-ban |work=[[The Guardian]] |date=May 9, 2025 |access-date=October 1, 2025}}</ref> wakachepeska panji kulekeska ndalama zakovwira munkhwala wakovwira kusintha thupi mwakukolerana na jenda (gender-affirming healthcare); wakasuska [[inclusive language]];<ref>{{cite news |last1=Yourish |first1=Karen |last2=Daniel |first2=Annie |last3=Datar |first3=Saurabh |last4=White |first4=Isaac |last5=Gamio |first5=Lazaro |title=These Words Are Disappearing in the New Trump Administration |url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2025/03/07/us/trump-federal-agencies-websites-words-dei.html |access-date=September 10, 2025 |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=March 7, 2025 |url-access=limited}}</ref> wakakanizga vinthu vya kafukufuku na masambiro;<ref>{{cite news |last=Hansford |first=Amelia |date=August 27, 2025 |title=US government orders 46 states to destroy trans education materials |url=https://www.thepinknews.com/2025/08/27/trans-education-us-state-directive/ |access-date=September 1, 2025 |work=[[PinkNews]]}}</ref> wakasuzga masukulu, mayunivesite na mabungwe gha chikhalidwe agho boma lake likati ghakukhozga icho likachemanga kuti "gender ideology";<ref name="npr-ideology">{{cite news |last=Kurtzleben |first=Danielle |date=February 7, 2025 |title=Trump's executive actions curbing transgender rights focus on 'gender ideology' |url=https://www.npr.org/2025/02/07/g-s1-46893/trump-anti-trans-rights-executive-action-gender-ideology-confusion |access-date=February 16, 2025 |work=[[NPR News]]}}</ref> wakakanizga ŵaseŵera ŵa transgender kuchita maseŵero, ndipo wakalangura kuti mapasipoti gha United States ghasonyezgenge kugonana uko munthu wakababikira, m'malo mwa jenda ilo wakujimanyiska nalo.<ref>{{cite news |date=November 17, 2025 |last=Harmon |first=Amy |author-link=Amy Harmon |work=[[The New York Times]] |title=New Passport Rule Sends Blunt and Sweeping Message to Trans Americans |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2025/11/17/us/transgender-passports-supreme-court.html |access-date=November 19, 2025 |url-access=limited}}</ref> ==== One Big Beautiful Bill Act ==== {{main|One Big Beautiful Bill Act}} Mu Julayi 2025, Trump wakasaina dango la One Big Beautiful Bill Act kuti liŵe dango la boma. Dango ili likapangiska kuti kuchepeskeka kwa misonkho uko kukapelekeka mwanyengo yichoko waka mu [[Tax Cuts and Jobs Act]] ya 2017 kuŵe kwamuyirayira, ndipo likasazgirapo vinyake vyakuchepeskera misonkho vyakukwana pafupifupi madola thiriliyoni 4.5, ivyo vikawovwira chomene ŵanthu ŵakusanga ndalama zinandi, apo ŵanthu ŵakusanga ndalama zichoko ŵakaghanaghanikanga kuti ŵataye madola 1,600 pa chaka. Dango ili likasazgirako ndalama za kuvikilira charu, kufumiska ŵanthu mu charu (deportations), kuzenga mpanda wa mphaka, kweniso ndondomeko ya Trump ya [[Golden Dome (missile defense system)|Golden Dome]] yakuvikilira charu ku ma missile. Likafumiskapo ndalama zakuwelera misonkho (tax credits) pa magesi ghakufuma ku mphepo na dazi kweniso kwa ŵanthu awo ŵakugura magalimoto gha magetsi. Dango ili likachepeskaso ndalama za [[Medicaid]] na [[Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program|SNAP]], ndipo likasazgirapo mphango zinyake zakuti munthu waŵe wakwenelera kupokera wovwiri, kweniso malipiro gha madola 35 pa mauteŵeti ghanyake gha Medicaid. Kuchepeska ndalama na mphango ziphya izi vikeneranga kwamba kugwira ntchito pamanyuma pa visola vya charu chose vya 2026. [[Congressional Budget Office]] yikaghanaghana kuti dango ili lisazgirenge ngongoli ya boma na madola thiriliyoni 3.4 kufika mu 2034, ŵanthu mamiliyoni 11.8 ŵataye wovwiri wa Medicaid, ndipo ŵanthu mamiliyoni 3 ŵalekenge kupokera wovwiri wa SNAP.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Freking |first1=Kevin |last2=Mascaro |first2=Lisa |url=https://apnews.com/article/what-is-republican-trump-tax-bill-f65be44e1050431a601320197322551b |title=What's in the tax and spending bill that Trump has signed into law |work=[[AP News]] |date=July 3, 2025 |access-date=July 12, 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Romm |first1=Tony |last2=Duehren |first2=Andrew |last3=Sanger-Katz |first3=Margot |last4=Plumer |first4=Brad |last5=Wood |first5=Daniel |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2025/07/02/us/politics/tax-cuts-benefit-cuts.html |title=Tax Cuts Now, Benefit Cuts Later: The Timeline in the Republican Megabill |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=July 2, 2025 |access-date=July 12, 2025 |url-access=limited}}</ref> === Kusamukira mu charu (2025–sono) === {{main|Ndondomeko ya kusamukira mu charu ya boma lachiŵiri la Trump|Kufumiska ŵanthu mu charu mu boma lachiŵiri la Trump}} {{further|Mexico–United States border crisis#Second Trump administration (2025–present)|Mexico–United States border wall#Second Trump administration (2025–present)|Visa and deportation controversies in the second Trump administration}} Mu mazuŵa ghakwambilira gha ulamuliro wake, Trump wakalangura ŵantchito ŵa Border Patrol kuti ŵafumiskenge mwaluŵiro ŵanthu awo ŵakanjiranga mu charu mwambura kuzomerezgeka kwizira pa mphaka, ndipo wakaleka kugwiliskira ntchito pulogiramu ya [[CBP One]] iyo yikagwiliskirikanga ntchito pakunozga nyengo yakujumphira pa mphaka. Trump wakawelereskaso ndondomeko ya [[Remain in Mexico]], wakachema magulu gha ŵanthu ŵakuchita malonda gha munkhwala wakuzweteska bongo kuti ni magulu gha uchigeŵenga (terrorist groups), ndipo wakalangura kuti ntchito yakuzenga mpanda wa pa mphaka yiyambeso.<ref>{{cite news |last=Bustillo |first=Ximena |title=Trump signs sweeping actions on immigration and border security on Day 1 |url=https://www.npr.org/2025/01/20/g-s1-43650/trump-inauguration-day-one-immigration |work=[[NPR News]] |date=January 20, 2025 |access-date=February 16, 2025}}</ref><ref name="Cbsjan28">{{cite news |last=Montoya-Galvez |first=Camilo |title=Trump's sweeping immigration crackdown targets some legal means to enter U.S., too |url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/trump-migrants-crackdown-legal-immigration/ |website=[[CBS News]] |date=January 28, 2025 |access-date=February 16, 2025}}</ref> Wakafumiskaso udindo wa parole wa ŵanthu awo ŵakanjira mu United States kwizira mu CBP One, ndipo wakamalizga [[Parole for Cubans, Haitians, Nicaraguans, and Venezuelans|humanitarian parole]] ya ŵanthu ŵa ku Cuba, Haiti na Nicaragua.<ref name="Cbsjan28" /> Mu Malichi 2025, wakagwiliskira ntchito [[Alien Enemies Act]] ya 1798 kuti [[March 2025 American deportations of Venezuelans|wafumiske ŵanthu ŵakusama mu charu kwambura kuŵeruzgika]], kuti ŵakakakike ku [[Terrorism Confinement Center]] ku El Salvador.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Renteria |first1=Nelson |last2=O'Boyle |first2=Brendan |last3=Cortes |first3=Raul |date=March 20, 2025 |title=Explainer: What is El Salvador's mega-prison holding Venezuelans deported from the US? |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/americas/what-is-el-salvadors-mega-prison-that-could-take-us-criminals-2025-02-04/ |work=[[Reuters]] |access-date=April 12, 2025}}</ref> Trump wakasuzga ŵanthu ŵakachitanga kampeni, ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga mu charu mwakuzomerezgeka, ŵalendo kweniso ŵasambiri awo ŵakaŵa na visa ndipo ŵakasuskanga ndondomeko zake panji ŵakakhozganga nkhani ya Palestine.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Kanno-Youngs |first1=Zolan |author-link1=Zolan Kanno-Youngs |last2=Pager |first2=Tyler |last3=Aleaziz |first3=Hamed |date=March 21, 2025 |title=As Trump Broadens Crackdown, Focus Expands to Legal Immigrants and Tourists |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2025/03/21/us/politics/trump-immigration-visa-crackdown.html |access-date=March 29, 2025 |url-access=limited}}</ref> Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵa ku America nawo ŵakakakika na kufumiskika mu charu.<ref>{{cite news |last=Danner |first=Chas |date=May 3, 2025 |title=All the U.S. Citizens Who've Been Caught Up in Trump's Immigration Crackdown |url=https://nymag.com/intelligencer/article/tracking-us-citizens-children-detained-deported-ice-trump-updates.html |access-date=May 4, 2025 |work=[[New York (magazine)|New York]]}}</ref> Kampeni yake yakufumiska ŵanthu mu charu mwankhongono yikapangiska viwoneskero vikuru mu charu chose kweniso nkhondo pakati pa ŵanthu ŵakusama mu charu, ŵawoneskeri na ŵalara ŵa boma. Vinthu ivi vikakura chomene pamanyuma pakuti ŵalara ŵa boma ŵakakoma ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵa ku America mu [[Operation Metro Surge]] mu Janyuwale 2026.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Hesson |first1=Ted |last2=Cooke |first2=Kristina |date=January 10, 2026 |title=Trump's showy immigration enforcement leads to violent confrontations |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/us/trumps-showy-immigration-enforcement-leads-violent-confrontations-2026-01-10/ |access-date=January 31, 2026 |work=[[Reuters]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Rao |first1=Sonia A. |last2=Mayorquín |first2=Orlando |last3=Schweber |first3=Nate |last4=Watkins |first4=Rhianwen |last5=Bonamo |first5=Mark |date=January 30, 2026 |title=Protesters Denounce Trump Immigration Tactics in 'National Shutdown' |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2026/01/30/us/minnesota-ice-protests-trump-immigration.html |access-date=January 31, 2026 |url-access=limited}}</ref> === Ndondomeko za vyaru vinyake (2025–sono) === {{main|Ndondomeko za vyaru vinyake za boma lachiŵiri la Trump}} {{further|Misonkho ya katundu mu boma lachiŵiri la Trump|Nkhondo ya malonda pakati pa China na United States|Nkhondo ya malonda ya United States na Canada na Mexico ya 2025–2026|Kukhumba kusazgirako charu cha America mu nyengo ya Donald Trump|Nkhondo ya Iran ya 2026}} Ndondomeko za vyaru vinyake za Trump mu ulamuliro wake wachiŵiri zikulongosoreka kuti zikaŵa zakukhumba kusazgirako malo gha United States (expansionism) kweniso za ufumu wa America (imperialism).<ref>{{cite news |last1=Colvin |first1=Jill |last2=Gillies |first2=Rob |date=January 9, 2025 |title=Trump, the 'America First' candidate, has a new preoccupation: Imperialism |work=[[AP News]] |url=https://apnews.com/article/trump-imperialism-canada-panama-greenland-b4b53445dee97398b498b79eab54d49b |access-date=January 28, 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Erlanger |first=Steven |author-link=Steven Erlanger |date=January 7, 2026 |title=Europe and Rest of World Try to Come to Terms With Trump the Imperialist |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2026/01/07/world/europe/trump-venezuela-greenland-ukraine-europe.html |access-date=January 19, 2026 |url-access=limited}}</ref> Boma lake likatemwa kugwiliskira ntchito nkhongono za nkhondo (hard power) kuti lifiske ndondomeko yake ya [[America First]],<ref>{{cite news |last=Baker |first=Peter |author-link=Peter Baker (journalist) |date=February 2, 2025 |title=Trump Favors Blunt Force in Dealing With Foreign Allies and Enemies Alike |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2025/02/02/us/politics/trump-tariffs-migrants-power.html |access-date=September 7, 2025 |url-access=limited}}</ref> ndipo likaparanya panji kuleka kovwira mabungwe gha mu charu na gha pa charu chose agho ghakakhumbanga kukhozga [[soft power]] ya America.<ref>{{cite news |last=Hvistendahl |first=Mar |date=July 23, 2025 |title=China Flexes Muscles at U.N. Cultural Agency, Just as Trump Walks Away |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2025/07/23/world/asia/unesco-china-us.html |access-date=September 7, 2025 |url-access=limited}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Basu |first1=Zachary |last2=Lawler |first2=Dave |date=July 17, 2025 |title=Trump's soft-power retreat scrambles U.S.-China race |website=[[Axios (website)|Axios]] |url=https://www.axios.com/2025/07/17/trump-china-retreat-soft-power |access-date=September 7, 2025}}</ref> Ubwezi wa Trump na vyaru ivyo vikukolerana na United States ukaŵa wakwendera pa ivyo wangasanga, ndipo nyengo zinyake wakalongoranga kuleka kupwerera panji uchinkho kwa ŵabwezi ŵa America, apo wakapenjanga ubwezi uwemi na vyaru vinyake ivyo vikawonekanga nga mbalwani ŵa United States.<ref>{{cite news |last=Erlanger |first=Steven |author-link=Steven Erlanger |date=February 27, 2025 |title=Indifference or Hostility? Trump's View of European Allies Raises Alarm |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2025/02/27/world/europe/trump-eu-allies.html |url-access=subscription |access-date=February 28, 2025}}</ref> [[File:President Trump and Ukrainian President Zelenskyy in Oval Office, Feb. 28, 2025.webm|thumb|thumbtime=43:14|Ungano wa Trump na [[Volodymyr Zelenskyy]], Febuluwale 2025]] Mu Febuluwale 2025, Trump pamoza na Vice President Vance [[2025 Trump–Zelenskyy Oval Office meeting|ŵakasuska chomene pulezidenti wa Ukraine Volodymyr Zelenskyy]] pa ungano uwo ukawoneskeka pa TV ndipo ukaŵa wakukangana chomene. Mabungwe gha nkhani ghakati uwu ukaŵa ukali wakwamba kuwonekera pakweru pakati pa pulezidenti wa United States na mutu wa boma la charu chinyake.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Liptak |first1=Kevin |last2=Zeleny |first2=Jeff |author-link2=Jeff Zeleny |last3=Maher |first3=Kit |last4=Collins |first4=Kaitlan |author-link4=Kaitlan Collins |date=February 28, 2025 |title=Trump and Vance erupt at Zelensky in tense Oval Office meeting |url=https://www.cnn.com/2025/02/28/politics/trump-zelensky-vance-oval-office/index.html |access-date=March 20, 2025 |work=[[CNN]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=De Luce |first1=Dan |date=March 1, 2025 |title=Trump-Zelenskyy clash marks a defining turn away from U.S. defense of democracies |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/politics/national-security/trump-zelenskyy-clash-marks-defining-turn-away-us-defense-democracies-rcna193975 |access-date=March 27, 2025 |work=[[NBC News]]}}</ref> Ndondomeko za chuma za Trump zikulongosoreka kuti zikaŵa za kukhozga katundu wa mu charu (protectionism), ndipo wakakhazikiska misonkho ya katundu (tariffs) ku vyaru vinandi, kusazgapo China, Canada na Mexico, awo mbabwezi ŵakuru ŵa malonda ŵa United States.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Swanson |first1=Ana |last2=Austen |first2=Ian |last3=Romero |first3=Simon |author-link3=Simon Romero |title=Trump's Tariffs on Canada, Mexico and China Snap Into Effect |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2025/03/04/business/economy/trump-tariffs-canada-mexico-china.html |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |access-date=March 4, 2025 |date=March 4, 2025 |url-access=limited}}</ref> Wakambiska nkhondo ya malonda pa charu chose, ndipo wakakhazikiska misonkho ya katundu yakukwera chomene kuluska iyo yikawonekanga kufuma pa nyengo ya [[Smoot–Hawley Tariff Act]] ya 1930, apo [[Great Depression]] yikambanga.<ref>{{cite news |last=Goldman |first=David |date=August 1, 2025 |title=Trump's new tariffs have no precedent in the modern era |work=[[CNN]] |url=https://www.cnn.com/2025/08/01/economy/tariff-policy-trump-trade |access-date=August 8, 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Romm |first=Tony |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2025/08/07/business/economy/trump-tariffs-trade-war.html |title=Staggering U.S. Tariffs Begin as Trump Widens Trade War |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |date=August 7, 2025 |access-date=August 9, 2025 |url-access=limited}}</ref> Mu Febuluwale 2026, Khoti Likuru la United States likadumura kuti misonkho iyo wakakhazikiska pasi pa [[International Emergency Economic Powers Act]] yikaŵa yakususkana na dango.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Fritze |first1=John |last2=Cole |first2=Devan |last3=Buchwald |first3=Elizabeth |last4=Sneed |first4=Tierney Sneed |title=Supreme Court rules that Trump's sweeping emergency tariffs are illegal |url=https://www.cnn.com/2026/02/20/politics/supreme-court-tariffs |work=[[CNN]] |date=February 20, 2026 |access-date=February 20, 2026}}</ref> Trump kanandi wakawopsyezganga panji kukhazikiska misonkho ku vyaru ivyo vikaŵa pa mapangano na United States chifukwa chakuti vikasuskanga vilato vyake vya ndale.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Wong |first1=Edward |author-link1=Edward Wong |last2=Pierson |first2=David |date=July 11, 2025 |title=Rubio and China's Top Envoy Vie for Influence in Asia Over Trump's Tariffs |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2025/07/11/us/politics/china-us-asia-tariffs.html |url-access=subscription |access-date=November 24, 2025 |newspaper=[[The New York Times]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Boak |first1=Josh |last2=Burrows |first2=Emma |last3=Niemann |first3=Daniel |date=January 17, 2026 |title=Trump says 8 European countries will face 10% tariff for opposing US control of Greenland |url=https://apnews.com/article/denmark-greenland-us-trump-4ad99ea3975a8b62d37bd04961feda55 |access-date=January 19, 2026 |work=[[AP News]]}}</ref> Ku Latin America, Trump wakachita nkhondo zakususkika na malango gha pa charu chose pa maboti agho wakatenge ghakaŵa gha ŵakwendeska munkhwala wakuzweteska bongo mu nyanja za pa charu chose,<ref>{{cite news |last1=Woodward |first1=Alex |date=September 3, 2025 |title=Trump's Venezuelan boat violated international law, experts warn |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/americas/us-politics/trump-venezuela-drug-boat-attack-video-b2819566.html |access-date=September 3, 2025 |newspaper=[[The Independent]]}}</ref> ndipo wakalanguraso kuti ŵasilikali ŵanandi ŵatumike mu chigaŵa cha Caribbean.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Chávez |first1=Steve |last2=Stott |first2=Michael |title=US naval build-up near Venezuela stokes tensions in Latin America |url=https://www.ft.com/content/50db68c8-59d2-4a2a-b2c3-7c8c88237763 |access-date=September 5, 2025 |newspaper=[[Financial Times]] |date=August 28, 2025 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Mu Novembala 2025, Trump wakagowokera pulezidenti wakale wa Honduras [[Juan Orlando Hernández]], uyo wakatumizgika ku United States mu 2022 ndipo wakakeruzgika vyaka 45 chifukwa cha munkhwala wakuzweteska bongo. Mu Janyuwale 2026, ŵasilikari ŵa United States ŵakakora pulezidenti wa Venezuela [[Nicolás Maduro]] mu [[2026 United States strikes in Venezuela#Capture of Maduro|nkhondo ya ŵasilikari mu Venezuela]] na kumutolera ku New York uko wakasuskika na mulandu wa munkhwala wakuzweteska bongo.<ref>{{cite news |last=Downs |first=Garrett |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2026/01/04/trump-venezuela-maduro-pardon-honduras.html |title=Trump admin pressed on pardon for ex-Honduras president after Venezuela's Maduro snatched |work=[[CNBC]] |date=January 4, 2026 |access-date=January 6, 2026}}</ref> Mu 2025, Trump [[Greenland crisis|wakawopsyezga kutora Greenland]], kusazgapo kugwiliskira ntchito ŵasilikari panji kukhazikiska misonkho ku vyaru vya ku Europe. Mu Janyuwale 2026, wakawoneka nga waleka mawopsyezgo agha ghaŵiri, wakati wafiska "ndondomeko yakwamba ya phangano la munthazi" na NATO.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Jakes |first1=Lara |last2=Tankersley |first2=Jim |last3=Kanno-Youngs |first3=Zolan |author-link3=Zolan Kanno-Youngs |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2026/01/21/us/politics/trump-greenland-threats-diplomacy-force.html |title=Trump Says He Has Framework for Greenland Deal as NATO Mulls Idea of U.S. Sovereignty Over Bases |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |date=January 21, 2026 |access-date=February 4, 2026}}</ref> ==== Nkhondo za ku Middle East ==== {{main|Nkhondo za ku Middle East mu boma lachiŵiri la Trump}} Trump wakalutilira kukhozga Israel ndipo wakalutiliraso [[United States support for Israel in the Gaza war|kovwira Israel pa nkhondo ya ku Gaza]].{{cite news |title=Trump wants Jordan and Egypt to accept more Palestinian refugees and floats plan to 'clean out' Gaza |url=https://apnews.com/article/trump-biden-israel-bomb-gaza-hamas-war-023b36984c6116c128b5e47f117bba2a |work=[[AP News]] |date=January 26, 2025 |access-date=December 26, 2025}} Kwambira Malichi mpaka Meyi 2025, Trump [[March–May 2025 United States attacks in Yemen|wakalongozga nkhondo yikuru ya ndege za nkhondo]] kulimbana na malo gha [[Houthis|ŵaHouthi]] mu Yemen, iyo yikaŵa ntchito yake yakwamba yikuru ya nkhondo ku Middle East mu nyengo yake yachiŵiri ya ulamuliro.{{cite news |last1=Schmitt |first1=Eric |last2=Wong |first2=Edward |last3=Ismay |first3=John |date=April 4, 2025 |title=U.S. Strikes in Yemen Burning Through Munitions With Limited Success |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2025/04/04/us/politics/us-strikes-yemen-houthis.html |access-date=March 22, 2026 |newspaper=[[The New York Times]]}} Mu Juni 2025, Trump wakakolerana na Israel pa [[Twelve-Day War|Nkhondo ya Mazuŵa 12]] na Iran, ndipo wakalangura kuti ndege za nkhondo za United States [[2025 United States strikes on Iranian nuclear sites|zibombe malo gha nyukiliya gha Iran]].{{cite news |last=Magid |first=Jacob |title=US bombs Fordo, 2 other nuclear facilities, joining Israel's war in Iran |url=https://www.timesofisrael.com/us-strikes-irans-elusive-fordo-facility-joining-israels-fight-against-nuclear-program/ |access-date=June 22, 2025 |newspaper=[[The Times of Israel]] |date=June 22, 2025}} [[Gaza peace plan|Ndondomeko yake ya mtende ku Gaza]] pakati pa Israel na [[Hamas]] yikasainika mu Okutobala 2025, ndipo yikapangiska kukhazikiskika kwa [[Board of Peace]].{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/israel-hamas-agree-gaza-ceasefire-return-hostages-2025-10-09/ |title=Gazans trek to ruined homes as Israeli forces pull back under ceasefire |last1=Lubell |first1=Maayan |last2=Al-Mughrabi |first2=Nidal |work=[[Reuters]] |date=October 9, 2025 |access-date=October 9, 2025 |url-access=limited}} Mu Febuluwale 2026, Trump wakazomerezga kuti ndege za nkhondo za United States na Israel zichite pamoza nkhondo yakuwukira Iran, ivyo vikayambiska [[2026 Iran war|Nkhondo ya Iran ya 2026]] ndipo vikapangiska kukomeka kwa mulongozgi mukuru wa Iran [[Ali Khamenei]].{{cite news |last=Sanger |first=David E. |author-link=David E. Sanger |date=February 28, 2026 |title=For Trump, the Iran Attack Is the Ultimate War of Choice |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2026/02/28/us/politics/trump-iran-attack.html |url-access=subscription |access-date=February 28, 2026}}{{cite news |last1=Holm |first1=Phil |last2=Jarrett |first2=Will |last3=Vineys |first3=Kevin |title=The US-Israeli war with Iran in maps, graphics and images |url=https://apnews.com/photo-gallery/iran-us-israel-war-conflict-gulf-visuals-8fc2192e3c05d30fd7dad5b18b9743b7 |work=[[AP News]] |date=March 3, 2026 |access-date=March 4, 2026}} Mu nyengo ya nkhondo iyi, Trump na boma lake ŵakapereka mafumbo ghakupambanapambana kweniso ghambura kukolerana pa chifukwa icho ŵakayambira [[Rationale for the 2026 Iran war|nkhondo iyi]].{{cite news |url=https://www.spiegel.de/ausland/donald-trump-und-der-iran-krieg-praesident-siegessicher-kriegsziel-unbekannt-a-2df3b848-6ade-4cbb-a4c7-45ed6738fe63 |title=(S+) Trump und Iran: Präsident siegessicher, Kriegsziel unbekannt |language=de |trans-title=(S+) Trump and Iran: President confident of victory, war aim unknown |first=Alexander |last=Sarovic |date=March 11, 2026 |work=[[Der Spiegel]]}} Pa Epulero 8, 2026, ŵakazomerezgana kulekeska nkhondo kwa nyengo yichoko waka. Ndipouli, [[Strait of Hormuz]] yikalutilira kujalika, ndipo magulu ghose ghaŵiri ghakalutilira kuwukirananga nyengo na nyengo apo kudumbiskana kwakupambanapambana kukatondeka kufiska phangano la mtende.{{cite news |last=Faguy |first=Ana |title=Trump seeking edits to US-Iran deal, US media report |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/c1w2xve315do |date=May 31, 2026 |access-date=June 1, 2026 |work=[[BBC News]]}}{{cite news |last=Aikman |first=Ian |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/c4g44yl7q70o |title=Iran condemns US strikes as 'gross violation' of ceasefire |work=[[BBC News]] |date=May 26, 2026 |access-date=June 1, 2026}} === Mazgu, nkharo na umo wakachitiranga ndale === {{main|Maghanoghano gha ndale gha Donald Trump|Mazgu gha Donald Trump}} Kwambira apo wakambanga kukhozga [[birther]] maungano gha maghanoghano ghambura ukaboni mu vyaka vya m'ma 2010, Trump wakawovwira kuti maghanoghano na mabungwe gha kuumaliro kwa woko lamanja agho ghakaŵa ghambura kumanyikwa ghambeso kumanyikwa chomene.{{refn| {{cite news |last=Bierman |first=Noah |date=August 22, 2016 |title=Donald Trump helps bring far-right media's edgier elements into the mainstream |work=[[Los Angeles Times]] |url=https://www.latimes.com/politics/la-na-pol-trump-media-20160820-snap-story.html |access-date=October 7, 2021}} {{cite news |last=Baker |first=Peter |author-link=Peter Baker (journalist) |date=December 1, 2022 |title=Trump Embraces Extremism as He Seeks to Reclaim Office |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/12/01/us/politics/trump-extremism-candidacy.html |url-access=subscription |access-date=January 20, 2025}} {{cite news |last=Oreskes |first=Benjamin |date=May 23, 2024 |title=Trump and GOP repeatedly echo Nazi and far-right ideology as they aim to retake White House |url=https://www.latimes.com/politics/story/2024-05-23/trump-gop-nazi-presidential-election-politics |access-date=July 27, 2025 |work=[[Los Angeles Times]]}} {{cite news |last1=Swenson |first1=Ali |last2=Kunzelman |first2=Michael |date=November 18, 2023 |title=Fears of political violence are growing as the 2024 campaign heats up and conspiracy theories evolve |work=[[AP News]] |url=https://apnews.com/article/depape-paul-pelosi-qanon-conspiracy-theories-violence-390ad310fa34b0edb925d88540a7ddcd |access-date=January 20, 2025}} }} Gulu la [[alt-right]] likawungana na kukhozga kampeni yake ya visolai, chomenechomene chifukwa cha [[opposition to multiculturalism|kususka chikhalidwe cha mitundu yinandi]] na [[Opposition to immigration|kususka ŵanthu ŵakufuma ku vyaru vinyake]].{{cite news |last=Weigel |first=David |date=August 20, 2016 |title='Racialists' are cheered by Trump's latest strategy |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/racial-realists-are-cheered-by-trumps-latest-strategy/2016/08/20/cd71e858-6636-11e6-96c0-37533479f3f5_story.html |access-date=January 9, 2026 |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]}}{{cite news |last=Pearce |first=Matt |date=September 30, 2020 |title=Q&A: What is President Trump's relationship with far-right and white supremacist groups? |url=https://www.latimes.com/politics/story/2020-09-30/la-na-pol-2020-trump-white-supremacy |access-date=January 12, 2026 |website=[[Los Angeles Times]]}}{{cite news |last=Krieg |first=Gregory |date=August 25, 2016 |title=Clinton is attacking the 'Alt-Right'– What is it? |url=https://www.cnn.com/2016/08/25/politics/alt-right-explained-hillary-clinton-donald-trump |access-date=January 9, 2026 |website=[[CNN]]}} Mu kampeni yake ya visolai ya 2016, ndale na mazgu gha Trump vikapangiska kuti paŵe [[political movement|gulu la ndale]] lakumanyikwa kuti [[Trumpism]].{{cite news |last=O'Brien |first=Timothy L. |author-link=Timothy L. O'Brien |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/features/2024-11-01/trumpism-has-deep-roots-in-american-history-and-it-will-outlast-trump |title=The Peculiarly American Roots of Trumpism |work=[[Bloomberg News]] |date=November 1, 2024 |access-date=November 26, 2024 |url-access=limited}} Gulu ili [[Trumpism#Cult of personality|likuyaniskika na kusopa munthu yumoza]].{{refn| {{cite journal |last=Sundahl |first=Anne-Mette Holmgård |title=Personality Cult or a Mere Matter of Popularity? |journal=[[International Journal of Politics, Culture, and Society]] |volume=36 |issue=4 |date=May 4, 2022 |pages=431–458 |doi=10.1007/s10767-022-09423-0 |pmid=35528318 |pmc=9066393}} {{cite journal |last1=Goldsmith |first1=Benajmin E. |last2=Moen |first2=Lars J. K. |date=May 14, 2024 |title=The personality of a personality cult? Personality characteristics of Donald Trump's most loyal supporters |journal=[[Political Psychology]] |volume=46 |issue=Special Issue |pages=225–243 |issn=0162-895X |doi=10.1111/pops.12991 |doi-access=free |hdl=1885/733752725 |hdl-access=free}} {{cite journal |last1=Adams |first1=Kenneth Alan |date=Spring 2021 |title=The Trump Death Cult |url=https://www.proquest.com/openview/c5d4601ebe8dcb232f9ab2965e900d70/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=35407 |journal=[[Journal of Psychohistory]] |volume=48 |issue=4 |access-date=February 22, 2026 |pages=256–276 |issn=0145-3378}} {{cite journal |last1=Diamond |first1=Michael J. |date=February 22, 2023 |title=Perverted Containment: Trumpism, Cult Creation, and the Rise of Destructive American Populism |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/07351690.2023.2163147 |journal=Psychoanalytic Inquiry |volume=43 |issue=2 |access-date=February 22, 2026 |pages=96–109 |issn=0735-1690 |doi=10.1080/07351690.2023.2163147 |publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]] |url-access=subscription}} {{cite journal |last1=Reyes |first1=Antonio |date=May 4, 2020 |title=I, Trump The cult of personality, anti-intellectualism and the Post-Truth era |url=https://www.jbe-platform.com/content/journals/10.1075/jlp.20002.rey |journal=Journal of Language and Politics |volume=19 |issue=6 |access-date=February 22, 2026 |pages=869–892 |issn=1569-2159 |doi=10.1075/jlp.20002.rey |url-access=subscription}} }} Maghanoghano ghake gha ndale ghakulongosoreka kuti ngakhe [[populist]]{{sfn|Ross|2024|p=298}}{{sfn|Urbinati|2019}} panji [[right-wing populist]]{{sfn|Campani|Concepción|Soler|Savín|2022}}.{{cite news |last=Chotiner |first=Isaac |url=https://www.newyorker.com/news/q-and-a/redefining-populism |title=Redefining Populism |magazine=[[The New Yorker]] |date=July 29, 2021 |access-date=October 14, 2021}} Wakakhozgaso kuti pulezidenti waŵe na mazaza ghanandi mwakuyowoya kuti [[unitary executive theory]] yikupereka mazaza agha.{{cite news |last=Savage |first=Charlie |author-link=Charlie Savage (journalist) |date=January 22, 2025 |title=Trump Seeks to Paralyze Independent Privacy and Civil Liberties Watchdog |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2025/01/22/us/trump-privacy-civil-liberties-oversight-board.html |access-date=January 25, 2025}}{{cite news |last=Savage |first=Charlie |author-link=Charlie Savage (journalist) |date=January 22, 2025 |title=How Trump Is Pushing at Limits of Presidential Power in Early Orders |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2025/01/22/us/politics/trump-executive-orders.html |access-date=January 28, 2025}} Vinthu vinandi ivyo Trump wakachitanga na mazgu ghake vikalongosoreka kuti vya [[authoritarianism|ulamuliro wa nkhongono]] ndipo vikawovwira ku [[Democratic backsliding in the United States|kuchepa kwa demokilase mu United States]],{{sfn|Parker|Towler|2019|p=505; 513}}{{sfn|Kaufman|Haggard|2019}}{{sfn|Ross|2024|p=300|loc="Donald Trump is broadly seen as posing an existential threat to American democracy."}} kweniso kukhazikiska fundo ya [[In-group and out-group|"ise" kulimbana na "iwo"]].{{sfn|Ross|2024|p=299}} Mazgu ghake ghakulongosorekaso kuti ghakagwiliskiranga ntchito [[fearmongering]] na [[demagogy]], ndipo [[Donald Trump 2024 presidential campaign#Fearmongering|vikasazgikira chomene mu kampeni yake ya visolai ya 2024]].{{cite news |last=Haberman |first=Maggie |author-link=Maggie Haberman |date=September 11, 2024 |title='The End of Our Country': Trump Paints Dark Picture at Debate |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2024/09/11/us/politics/trump-debate-dark-picture.html |access-date=September 25, 2024 |url-access=limited}} Wakupenja wovwiri wa [[Trumpism#Christian Trumpism|Ŵakhristu ŵa Evangelical]] na [[Christian nationalism in the United States|ŵakukhozga Chikhristu nga ni maziko gha charu]],{{sfn|Perry|Whitehead|Grubbs|2021|p=229|loc=Christian nationalist ideology was among the strongest predictors of Americans voting for Trump in 2016 and remained a strong predictor of intent to vote for him prior to the 2020 election}}{{cite news |date=May 18, 2024 |title=Jesus is their savior, Trump is their candidate. Ex-president's backers say he shares faith, values |url=https://apnews.com/article/trump-christian-evangelicals-conservatives-2024-election-43f25118c133170c77786daf316821c3 |access-date=January 9, 2026 |work=[[AP News]]}} ndipo kanandi wakachemanga ŵalwani ŵake ŵandale kuti "ŵaheni".{{cite news |last=Baker |first=Peter |author-link=Peter Baker (journalist) |date=July 16, 2025 |title=For Trump, Domestic Adversaries Are Not Just Wrong, They Are 'Evil' |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2025/07/16/us/politics/trump-political-enemies-evil.html |url-access=subscription |access-date=January 9, 2026}} === Mitundu na jenda === {{main|Maghanoghano gha Donald Trump pa mtundu}} Mazgu ghanandi na ivyo Trump wachita vikulongosoreka na ŵanthu ŵanandi kuti vikaŵa vya kusankhana mitundu (racist).<ref> * {{cite journal|last=Logan|first=Enid|title=The 2024 US presidential election & the politics of race: responding to a moment of crisis with analysis, insight & action|journal=Ethnic and Racial Studies|volume=48|issue=15|date=2025|pages=2953–2970|doi=10.1080/01419870.2025.2524023}} * {{cite journal|last=Cadena|first=Roger S.|title=Beyond puzzlement: rethinking Latino conservatives' politics of race, ethnicity, and immigration in the Trump era|journal=Ethnic and Racial Studies|volume=48|issue=15|date=2025|pages=3037–3058|doi=10.1080/01419870.2025.2504613}} * {{cite news|last=Lopez|first=German|date=February 14, 2019|title=Donald Trump's long history of racism, from the 1970s to 2019|url=https://www.vox.com/2016/7/25/12270880/donald-trump-racist-racism-history|work=[[Vox (website)|Vox]]|access-date=June 15, 2019}} * {{cite news|last=Desjardins|first=Lisa|author-link=Lisa Desjardins|date=January 12, 2018|title=Every moment in Trump's charged relationship with race|url=https://www.pbs.org/newshour/politics/every-moment-donald-trumps-long-complicated-history-race|work=[[PBS NewsHour]]|access-date=January 13, 2018}} * {{cite news|last=Dawsey|first=Josh|author-link=Josh Dawsey|date=January 11, 2018|title=Trump's history of making offensive comments about nonwhite immigrants|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/trump-attacks-protections-for-immigrants-from-shithole-countries-in-oval-office-meeting/2018/01/11/bfc0725c-f711-11e7-91af-31ac729add94_story.html|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|url-access=limited|access-date=January 11, 2018}} * {{cite news|last=Weaver|first=Aubree Eliza|date=January 12, 2018|title=Trump's 'shithole' comment denounced across the globe|url=https://www.politico.com/story/2018/01/12/trump-shithole-comment-reaction-337926|work=[[Politico]]|ref={{harvid|Weaver|2018b}}|access-date=January 13, 2018}} * {{cite news|last1=Stoddard|first1=Ed|last2=Mfula|first2=Chris|date=January 12, 2018|title=Africa calls Trump racist after 'shithole' remark|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-trump-immigration-reaction/africa-calls-trump-racist-after-shithole-remark-idUSKBN1F11VC|work=[[Reuters]]|url-access=limited|access-date=October 1, 2019}} </ref> Kafukufuku na mafumbo ghanandi vikulongora kuti maghanoghano gha kusankhana mitundu ndigho ghakawovwira chomene kuti Trump waŵe wakutchuka pa ndale, ndipo ghakaŵa ghankhongono kuluska nkhani za chuma pakulongosora chifukwa icho ŵanthu ŵakamuvotera.<ref>{{cite news|last=Lopez|first=German|date=December 15, 2017|title=The past year of research has made it very clear: Trump won because of racial resentment|url=https://www.vox.com/identities/2017/12/15/16781222/trump-racism-economic-anxiety-study|work=[[Vox (website)|Vox]]|access-date=January 14, 2018}}</ref> Kanandi Trump wakuyowoya mazgu ghakuyuyura ŵanthu ŵa mitundu, visopa na mafuko ghanyake,{{sfn|Stephens-Dougan|2021|p=302}} ndipo ŵasambiri ŵakusanga nyengo zose kuti maghanoghano gha kusankhana mitundu na ghakususkana na Chisilamu ([[Islamophobia]]) pa ŵanthu ŵafipa, ŵakwiza kufuma ku vyaru vinyake, na Ŵasilamu, ni vimanyikwiro vyankhongono vya ŵanthu awo ŵakumovwira Trump.{{sfn|Lajevardi|Oskooii|2018}}{{sfn|Berman|2021|p=76}} Trump wakasuskika kuti wakachitanga vya kusankhana mitundu<ref>{{cite news|last=Grenoble|first=Ryan|date=September 11, 2024|title=Trump Defends One Of The Most Blatantly Racist Moments From His Past|url=https://www.huffpost.com/entry/donald-trump-central-park-five-presidential-debate_n_66e1a7c2e4b0e13c292dccad|work=[[HuffPost]]}}</ref> chifukwa cha kulemba malonda gha mu manyuzipepala ghakuru na kukhozga kuti ŵawukirano ŵankhondi ŵafipa na ŵa Latino ŵakaŵa na mulandu wakukolelera mwanakazi muzungu mu mulandu wa [[Central Park jogger case]] wa 1989, nangauli ŵakafwatulika ku mulandu uwo mu 2002.<ref>{{cite news|last=Diaz|first=Jaclyn|date=October 21, 2024|title=The Central Park 5 are suing Trump over Philly debate comments|url=https://www.npr.org/2024/09/11/nx-s1-5108632/central-park-five-trump-debate|work=[[NPR News]]|access-date=November 27, 2024}}</ref> Mazgu gha Trump pa [[Unite the Right rally]] mu 2017, apo wakasuska "kuwoneska kwa nkhaza, kutinkhana na kusankhana uku kufuma ku vigaŵa vyose" ndipo wakati pakaŵa "ŵanthu ŵawemi ku vigaŵa vyose viŵiri", ghakasuskika chifukwa ghakawoneka nga ghakuyana waka ŵakususkira [[white supremacist]] na ŵakususkana nawo.<ref>{{cite news|last=Kessler|first=Glenn|author-link=Glenn Kessler (journalist)|date=May 8, 2020|title=The 'very fine people' at Charlottesville: Who were they?|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/2020/05/08/very-fine-people-charlottesville-who-were-they-2/|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|url-access=limited|access-date=October 23, 2021}}</ref> Mu Janyuwale 2018, pa kudumbiskana vya malango gha ŵakwiza kufuma ku vyaru vinyake, wakuti wakachema El Salvador, Haiti, Honduras na vyaru vya ku Africa kuti ni "shithole countries",<ref>{{cite news|last=Beauchamp|first=Zack|date=January 11, 2018|title=Trump's "shithole countries" comment exposes the core of Trumpism|url=https://www.vox.com/2018/1/11/16880804/trump-shithole-countries-racism|work=[[Vox (website)|Vox]]|access-date=January 11, 2018}}</ref> ndipo mazgu agha ghakasuskika kuti ghakaŵa gha kusankhana mitundu.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Wintour|first1=Patrick|author-link1=Patrick Wintour|last2=Burke|first2=Jason|author-link2=Jason Burke|last3=Livsey|first3=Anna|date=January 13, 2018|title='There's no other word but racist': Trump's global rebuke for 'shithole' remark|url=https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2018/jan/12/unkind-divisive-elitist-international-outcry-over-trumps-shithole-countries-remark|work=[[The Guardian]]|access-date=January 13, 2018}}</ref> Mu Julayi 2019, [[United States House of Representatives]] yikadumura chisankho chakususka Trump chifukwa cha mazgu agho wakayowoya pa ŵakwendeska ŵanakazi ŵanayi ŵa chipani cha Democratic awo ŵakaŵa ŵa mafuko ghachoko.<ref>{{cite news|last=Mak|first=Tim|author-link=Tim Mak|date=July 16, 2019|title=House Votes To Condemn Trump's 'Racist Comments'|url=https://www.npr.org/2019/07/16/742236610/condemnation-of-president-delayed-by-debate-can-lawmakers-call-trump-tweets-raci|work=[[NPR News]]|access-date=July 17, 2019}}</ref> Kampeni yake ya 2024 yikagwiliskira ntchito chomene mazgu ghakuyuyura ŵanthu (dehumanizing language) na [[racial stereotype|vikozgo vya mtundu]].<ref> * {{cite news|last1=Shear|first1=Michael D.|author-link1=Michael D. Shear|last2=Aleaziz|first2=Hamed|last3=Ulloa|first3=Jazmine|date=September 11, 2024|title=How Trump Uses Vitriol for Migrants to Sideline Other Issues|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2024/09/11/us/politics/trump-debate-migrants.html|work=[[The New York Times]]|url-access=limited|access-date=July 27, 2025}} * {{cite news|last1=Gold|first1=Michael|last2=Huynh|first2=Anjali|date=April 2, 2024|title=Trump Again Invokes 'Blood Bath' and Dehumanizes Migrants in Border Remarks|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2024/04/02/us/politics/trump-border-blood-bath.html|work=[[The New York Times]]|url-access=limited|access-date=July 27, 2025}} * {{cite news|last=Sullivan|first=Kate|date=October 6, 2023|title=Trump's anti-immigrant comments draw rebuke|url=https://www.cnn.com/2023/10/06/politics/trump-anti-immigrant-comments/|work=[[CNN]]|access-date=July 27, 2025}} * {{cite news|last=Ward|first=Myah|date=October 12, 2024|title=We watched 20 Trump rallies. His racist, anti-immigrant messaging is getting darker.|url=https://www.politico.com/news/2024/10/12/trump-racist-rhetoric-immigrants-00183537|work=[[Politico]]|access-date=July 27, 2025}} </ref> [[File:President Trump Visits St. John's Episcopal Church (49964153176).jpg|thumb|Trump wali na gulu la ŵalaraŵalara na ŵalongozgi ŵakwenda kufuma ku White House kuluta ku St. John's Church, pamanyuma pa [[Donald Trump photo op at St. John's Church#Clearing Lafayette Square and St. John's|kufumiskika kwa ŵakuwoneska maghanoghano ku Lafayette Square]] mu Juni 2020]] Mu Juni 2020, pa nyengo ya [[George Floyd protests]], ŵalaraŵalara ŵa boma la United States ŵakagwiliskira ntchito gasi wakukhozga maso na nthowa zinyake zakupatulira mzinda kuti ŵafumiske gulu la ŵanthu awo ŵakachitanga chiwoneskero mwamtende pa [[Lafayette Square, Washington, D.C.|Lafayette Square]], kufupi na [[White House]].<ref name="wb">{{cite news |last1=Leonnig |first1=Carol D. |author-link1=Carol D. Leonnig |last2=Zapotosky |first2=Matt |last3=Dawsey |first3=Josh |author-link3=Josh Dawsey |last4=Tan |first4=Rebecca |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/barr-personally-ordered-removal-of-protesters-near-white-house-leading-to-use-of-force-against-largely-peaceful-crowd/2020/06/02/0ca2417c-a4d5-11ea-b473-04905b1af82b_story.html |title=Barr personally ordered removal of protesters near White House, leading to use of force against largely peaceful crowd |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |date=June 2, 2020 |access-date=June 3, 2020 |url-access=limited}}</ref><ref name="bumpline">{{cite news |last=Bump |first=Philip |date=June 2, 2020 |title=Timeline: The clearing of Lafayette Square |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/2020/06/02/timeline-clearing-lafayette-square/ |access-date=June 6, 2020 |url-access=limited}}</ref> Pamanyuma pake, Trump [[Donald Trump photo op at St. John's Church|wakajipatura chithuzi wali wakukora Baibolo]] pa [[St. John's Episcopal Church, Lafayette Square|St. John's Episcopal Church]],<ref name="wb"/><ref>{{cite news |last1=Gittleson |first1=Ben |last2=Phelps |first2=Jordyn |title=Police use munitions to forcibly push back peaceful protesters for Trump church visit |url=https://abcnews.go.com/Politics/national-guard-troops-deployed-white-house-trump-calls/story?id=71004151 |access-date=June 29, 2021 |work=[[ABC News (United States)|ABC News]] |date=June 3, 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=O'Neil |first=Luke |date=June 2, 2020 |title=What do we know about Trump's love for the Bible? |work=[[The Guardian]] |url=https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2020/jun/02/what-do-we-know-about-trumps-love-for-the-bible |access-date=June 11, 2020}}</ref> ndipo ŵalongozgi ŵa visopa ŵakasuska umo ŵakachitira na ŵakuwoneska maghanoghano kweniso kujipatura chithuzi uko.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Stableford |first1=Dylan |last2=Wilson |first2=Christopher |title=Religious leaders condemn teargassing protesters to clear street for Trump |url=https://news.yahoo.com/religious-leaders-condemn-gassing-protesters-to-clear-street-for-trump-192800782.html |access-date=June 8, 2020 |work=[[Yahoo News]] |date=June 3, 2020}}</ref> Trump wali na mbiri ya kuyuyura ŵanakazi para wakuyowoya na ŵapharazgi panji pa malo ghakuchezgerapo gha pa intaneti.{{sfn|Rothe|Collins|2019}}<ref name="Shear">{{cite news |last1=Shear |first1=Michael D. |author-link1=Michael D. Shear |last2=Sullivan |first2=Eileen |author-link2=Eileen Sullivan |date=October 16, 2018 |title='Horseface,' 'Lowlife,' 'Fat, Ugly': How the President Demeans Women |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/10/16/us/politics/trump-women-insults.html |access-date=August 5, 2020 |work=[[The New York Times]] |url-access=limited}}</ref> Wakalongora mazgu ghakofya, wakasuskanga kawonekero ka ŵanakazi, ndipo wakaŵachemanga na mazina ghakunyoza.<ref name="Shear" /> Mu Okutobala 2016, vidiyo ya mu 2005 iyo yikajambulika kwambura kumanya yikafuma kuwaro umo [[Donald Trump Access Hollywood tape|wakajikuzgira]] kuti wakafyofyonanga na kukorakora ŵanakazi kwambura kuzomerezgeka, wakati, "para uli nyenyezi, ŵakukuzomerezga. Ungachita chilichose. ... Kora pa [[Pussy#Female genitalia|chiŵaro cha mwanakazi]]."<ref>{{cite news |last=Timm |first=Jane C. |title=Trump caught on hot mic making lewd comments about women in 2005 |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/politics/2016-election/trump-hot-mic-when-you-re-star-you-can-do-n662116 |work=[[NBC News]] |date=October 7, 2016 |access-date=June 10, 2018}}</ref> Iyo wakati mazgu agha ghakaŵa waka "mazgu gha mu chipinda cha kuseŵeramo".<ref>{{cite news |last=Fahrenthold |first=David |author-link=David Fahrenthold |title=Trump recorded having extremely lewd conversation about women in 2005 |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/trump-recorded-having-extremely-lewd-conversation-about-women-in-2005/2016/10/07/3b9ce776-8cb4-11e6-bf8a-3d26847eeed4_story.html |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |access-date=December 14, 2024 |url-access=limited}}</ref> Pamanyuma pa ukali ukuru wa ŵanthu, kusazgapo ŵa chipani cha Republican, Trump wakafumiska vidiyo yakuphepeska pagulu, kweniso wakawukira Hillary Clinton.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/10/08/us/politics/donald-trump-women.html |title=Donald Trump Apology Caps Day of Outrage Over Lewd Tape |date=October 7, 2016 |work=[[The New York Times]] |access-date=October 8, 2016 |last1=Burns |first1=Alexander |author-link1=Alex Burns (journalist) |last2=Haberman |first2=Maggie |author-link2=Maggie Haberman |last3=Martin |first3=Jonathan |author-link3=Jonathan Martin (journalist) |url-access=limited}}</ref> === Ivyo wakususkikira pa nkhaza za kugonana === {{main|Donald Trump sexual misconduct allegations}} Kufika mu Okutobala 2024, kwamba m'ma 1970, ŵanakazi ŵakukwana 28<ref name="NewRepublic10.31.24">{{cite magazine |url=https://newrepublic.com/post/187761/pageant-queen-beatrice-keul-trump-sexual-assault |title=Pageant Queen Shares Horrifying Details of Trump Sexual Assault |last=Ferguson |first=Malcolm |magazine=[[The New Republic]] |date=October 31, 2024 |access-date=August 21, 2025}}</ref> ŵamususka Trump pa milandu yakupambanapambana ya nkhaza za kugonana, kusazgapo kukoleska, kugonana na ŵana, kuwukira pa kugonana, nkhaza za thupi, kufyofyonanga na kukorakora kwambura kuzomerezgeka, kulaŵiska pasi pa masiketi gha ŵanakazi, kweniso kunjira mu vipinda umo ŵapikizgano ŵa umbeauty ŵakaŵiranga ŵali nkhule.<ref name="no26">{{cite news |last=Osborne |first=Lucy |date=September 17, 2020 |title='It felt like tentacles': the women who accuse Trump of sexual misconduct |url=https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2020/sep/17/amy-dorris-donald-trump-women-who-accuse-sexual-misconduct |access-date=June 6, 2024 |newspaper=[[The Guardian]]}}</ref> === Kukolerana na nkhaza na milandu ya chidani === {{further|Rhetoric of Donald Trump#Violence}} Trump wakumanyikwa kuti wali na ntchito yikuru pa kusazgirako nkhaza za ndyali mu United States, kwizira mu awo ŵakumovwira kweniso awo ŵakumususka.<ref>{{cite news |last=Baker |first=Peter |author-link=Peter Baker (journalist) |date=September 16, 2024 |title=Trump, Outrage and the Modern Era of Political Violence |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2024/09/16/us/politics/trump-violence-assassination-attempt.html |access-date=January 20, 2025 |url-access=limited}}</ref>{{sfn|Nacos|Shapiro|Bloch-Elkon|2020}}{{sfn|Piazza|Van Doren|2022}} Wakulongosoreka kuti wakupokelera maghanoghano gha ukali, [[List of conspiracy theories promoted by Donald Trump|visambizgo vya chiwembu]] nga ni [[QAnon]], kweniso magulu gha [[American militia movement|militia gha ku far-right]] kuluska pulezidenti munyake waliyose wa mazuŵa ghano wa America.<ref>{{cite news |last=Baker |first=Peter |author-link=Peter Baker (journalist) |date=December 1, 2022 |title=Trump Embraces Extremism as He Seeks to Reclaim Office |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/12/01/us/politics/trump-extremism-candidacy.html |access-date=January 20, 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Swenson |first1=Ali |last2=Kunzelman |first2=Michael |date=November 18, 2023 |title=Fears of political violence are growing as the 2024 campaign heats up and conspiracy theories evolve |work=[[AP News]] |url=https://apnews.com/article/depape-paul-pelosi-qanon-conspiracy-theories-violence-390ad310fa34b0edb925d88540a7ddcd |access-date=January 20, 2025}}</ref> Wawerezgapo kanandi kususka ŵakwimikana nayo pa ndyali kuti mbalwani za charu, ndipo wapempha kuti ŵajalikike panji kukomeka, ivyo vyapangiska ŵanandi kumususka kuti wakovwira kulimbikiska nkhaza.<ref>{{cite news |last=Basu |first=Zachary |date=November 16, 2019 |title=The 24 times Trump has accused somebody of "treason" |url=https://www.axios.com/2019/06/16/trump-treason-russia-investigation-new-york-times |access-date=May 13, 2026 |work=[[Axios (website)|Axios]]|url-access=limited}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=November 20, 2025 |title=Trump calls Democrats who told US military to refuse illegal orders 'traitors' who should face death penalty |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/us/trump-says-democrats-who-told-us-military-refuse-illegal-orders-deserve-death-2025-11-20 |access-date=May 13, 2026 |work=[[Reuters]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Chasan |first=Aliza |date=September 27, 2023 |title=Gen. Milley says he has "appropriate" safety measures after Trump social media threat |url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/general-milley-responds-to-trump-social-media-post-60-minutes/ |access-date=May 13, 2026 |work=[[CBS News]]}}</ref> Kafukufuku wakulongora kuti kayowoyero ka Trump kakukolerana na kusazgikira kwa milandu ya chidani,<ref>{{cite news |last1=Kunzelman |first1=Michael |last2=Galvan |first2=Astrid |date=August 7, 2019 |title=Trump words linked to more hate crime? Some experts think so |url=https://apnews.com/article/7d0949974b1648a2bb592cab1f85aa16 |access-date=October 7, 2021 |work=[[AP News]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Feinberg |first1=Ayal |last2=Branton |first2=Regina |last3=Martinez-Ebers |first3=Valerie |date=March 22, 2019 |title=Counties that hosted a 2016 Trump rally saw a 226 percent increase in hate crimes |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/2019/03/22/trumps-rhetoric-does-inspire-more-hate-crimes/ |access-date=October 7, 2021 |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |url-access=limited}}</ref> ndipo ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakamba kuyowoya mwakupambanapambana maghanoghano gha kusankhana chifukwa chakuti wakazgora mazgu ghakusankhana mafuko kuŵa ghakawiro.{{sfn|Stephens-Dougan|2021|p=306}} Ŵakufufuza ŵanyake nawo ŵati mazgu gha Trump agho ghakananga mbiri na kuyowoya vyautesi vya awo ŵakaŵa ŵakukomeka na gulu ilo likachita vivulupi pa Janyuwale 6, vikaŵa chiyelezgero cha [[stochastic terrorism]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Yousef |first=Odette |date=September 17, 2024 |title=The U.S. has had a long history of political violence, but experts see a new trend |work=[[NPR News]] |url=https://www.npr.org/2024/09/17/nx-s1-5113997/political-violence-trump |access-date=January 20, 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Angove |first=James |title=Stochastic terrorism: critical reflections on an emerging concept |journal=[[Taylor & Francis]] |date=February 3, 2024 |volume=17 |pages=21–43 |doi=10.1080/17539153.2024.2305742 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakasuzgikanga panji kususkika pa milandu ya nkhaza na milandu ya chidani ŵakayowoyanga kuti mazgu gha Trump ndigho ghakaŵachitiska kuchita nthena, panji ŵakeneranga kulangika pachoko.<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Tracy |first=Abigail |date=August 8, 2019 |title="The President of the United States Says It's Okay": The Rise of the Trump Defense |url=https://www.vanityfair.com/news/2019/08/donald-trump-domestic-terrorism-el-paso |access-date=October 7, 2021 |magazine=[[Vanity Fair (magazine)|Vanity Fair]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Helderman |first1=Rosalind S. |author-link1=Rosalind S. Helderman |last2=Hsu |first2=Spencer S. |last3=Weiner |first3=Rachel |date=January 16, 2021 |title='Trump said to do so': Accounts of rioters who say the president spurred them to rush the Capitol could be pivotal testimony |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/trump-rioters-testimony/2021/01/16/01b3d5c6-575b-11eb-a931-5b162d0d033d_story.html |access-date=September 27, 2021 |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |url-access=limited}}</ref> Kafukufuku wa charu chose wakuchitika na [[ABC News (United States)|ABC News]] mu Meyi 2020 ukasanga milandu yakukwana 54, kufuma mu Ogasiti 2015 m'paka Epulero 2020, umo zina la Trump likazunulikiranga mwachindunji pa milandu ya nkhaza panji viwopsezo vya nkhaza, chomenechomene yakuchitika na ŵanalume ŵatuŵa ndipo yikanangiranga ŵanthu ŵa mafuko ghanyake.<ref>{{cite news |last=Levine |first=Mike |date=May 30, 2020 |title='No Blame?' ABC News finds 54 cases invoking 'Trump' in connection with violence, threats, alleged assaults. |url=https://abcnews.go.com/Politics/blame-abc-news-finds-17-cases-invoking-trump/story?id=58912889 |access-date=February 4, 2021 |work=[[ABC News (United States)|ABC News]]}}</ref> Apo Trump wakakana kususka gulu la ŵa [[Proud Boys]] pa mkangano wa kusankha pulezidenti mu 2020,<ref>{{cite news |last1=Olorunnipa |first1=Toluse |author-link1=Toluse Olorunnipa |last2=Wootson |first2=Cleve R. Jr. |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/trump-debate-white-supremacist-question/2020/09/30/366df500-02c7-11eb-a2db-417cddf4816a_story.html |title=Trump refused to condemn white supremacists and militia members in presidential debate marked by disputes over race |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |date=September 30, 2020 |access-date=December 25, 2024 |url-access=limited}}</ref> na kuyowoya kuti, "Proud Boys, yimani kumanyuma ndipo lindilirani", ŵanthu ŵakati mazgu agha ghakachitiska kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵanjire mu gulu ilo likamovwiranga Trump.<ref>{{cite news |last=Cheney |first=Kyle |author-link=Kyle Cheney (journalist) |title=Enrique Tarrio, Proud Boys leader on Jan. 6, sentenced to 22 years for seditious conspiracy |url=https://www.politico.com/news/2023/09/05/sentencing-enrique-tarrio-proud-boys-00114095 |access-date=December 25, 2024 |newspaper=[[Politico]] |date=September 5, 2023}}</ref> Ŵakufufuza vya kulimbana na uchigandanga ŵati umo Trump wakapangiranga ŵanthu kuti ŵawone kuwukira kwa Nyumba ya Malango pa Janyuwale 6 nga ni chinthu chambura suzgo, kweniso [[Pardon of January 6 United States Capitol attack defendants|kugowokera ŵose awo ŵakachitako vivulupi pa Janyuwale 6]], vingawovwira kulimbikiska nkhaza za ndyali munthazi.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Hsu |first1=Spencer S. |last2=Silverman |first2=Ellie |last3=Zakrzewski |first3=Cat |date=January 22, 2025 |title=Clemency for Oath Keepers, Proud Boys fuels extremism threat, experts say |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/dc-md-va/2025/01/21/pardons-proud-boys-oath-keepers/ |access-date=January 22, 2025 |url-access=limited}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Feuer |first1=Alan |last2=Haberman |first2=Maggie |author-link2=Maggie Haberman |date=April 13, 2024 |title=Inside Donald Trump's Embrace of the Jan. 6 Rioters |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2024/04/13/us/politics/trump-jan-6.html |access-date=January 20, 2025 |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |url-access=limited}}</ref> === Mazgu ghautesi panji ghakupuluska na visambizgo vya chiwembu === {{main|False or misleading statements by Donald Trump|List of conspiracy theories promoted by Donald Trump}} [[File:2017- Donald Trump veracity - composite graph.png|thumb|upright=1.5|[[Fact-checkers]] ŵa ''The Washington Post'',<ref name="database">{{cite news |last1=Kessler |first1=Glenn |author-link1=Glenn Kessler (journalist) |last2=Kelly |first2=Meg |last3=Rizzo |first3=Salvador |last4=Lee |first4=Michelle Ye Hee |author-link4=Michelle Ye Hee Lee |date=January 20, 2021 |title=In four years, President Trump made 30,573 false or misleading claims |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/graphics/politics/trump-claims-database/ |access-date=October 11, 2021 |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |url-access=limited}}</ref> ''Toronto Star'',<ref>{{cite news |last=Dale |first=Daniel |author-link=Daniel Dale |date=June 5, 2019 |title=Donald Trump has now said more than 5,000 false things as president |url=https://www.thestar.com/news/world/analysis/2019/06/05/donald-trump-has-now-said-more-than-5000-false-claims-as-president.html |access-date=October 11, 2021 |work=[[Toronto Star]]}}</ref> na CNN<ref>{{cite news |last1=Dale |first1=Daniel |author-link=Daniel Dale |last2=Subramiam |first2=Tara |date=March 9, 2020 |title=Fact check: Donald Trump made 115 false claims in the last two weeks of February |url=https://www.cnn.com/2020/03/09/politics/fact-check-trump-false-claims-february/ |access-date=December 15, 2025 |work=[[CNN]]}}</ref> ŵakawunganya uthenga wa "mazgu ghautesi panji ghakupuluska" (mtundu wa orenji) na "mazgu ghautesi" (mtundu wa violet).|alt=Chati yakulongora mazgu ghautesi panji ghakupuluska agho Trump wakayowoyanga]] Trump wakuyowoya kanandi mazgu ghambura unenesko pa kuyowoya kwake pagulu,<ref name="finnegan">{{cite news |last=Finnegan |first=Michael |date=September 25, 2016 |title=Scope of Trump's falsehoods unprecedented for a modern presidential candidate |url=https://www.latimes.com/politics/la-na-pol-trump-false-statements-20160925-snap-story.html |access-date=October 10, 2021 |work=[[Los Angeles Times]]}}</ref><ref name="whoppers"/> mwakuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵati ivi vindachitikepo kale mu ndyali za United States.<ref name="finnegan"/><ref name="glasser">{{cite magazine |last=Glasser |first=Susan B. |author-link=Susan Glasser |date=August 3, 2018 |title=It's True: Trump Is Lying More, and He's Doing It on Purpose |url=https://www.newyorker.com/news/letter-from-trumps-washington/trumps-escalating-war-on-the-truth-is-on-purpose |access-date=January 10, 2019 |magazine=[[The New Yorker]]}}</ref><ref name="Konnikova">{{cite news |last=Konnikova |first=Maria |author-link=Maria Konnikova |date=January 20, 2017 |title=Trump's Lies vs. Your Brain |url=https://www.politico.com/magazine/story/2017/01/donald-trump-lies-liar-effect-brain-214658/ |access-date=March 31, 2018 |work=[[Politico Magazine]]}}</ref> Mazgu ghake ghautesi na ghakupuluska ghakalembekanga na [[fact-checker|ŵakuwona unenesko wa mazgu]], kusazgapo awo ŵali ku ''The Washington Post'', awo ŵakasanga kuti wakayowoya mazgu ghautesi panji ghakupuluska 30,573 pa nyengo yake yakwamba kuŵa pulezidenti,<ref name="database"/> ndipo chiŵelengero ichi chikamba kusazgikira nyengo yikati yajumphapo.<ref name="TermUntruth">{{cite news |last1=Kessler |first1=Glenn |author-link1=Glenn Kessler (journalist) |last2=Kelly |first2=Meg |last3=Rizzo |first3=Salvador |last4=Shapiro |first4=Leslie |last5=Dominguez |first5=Leo |date=January 23, 2021 |title=A term of untruths: The longer Trump was president, the more frequently he made false or misleading claims |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/interactive/2021/timeline-trump-claims-as-president/ |access-date=October 11, 2021 |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |url-access=limited}}</ref> Mazgu ghake ghautesi ghawoneka nga ntchigaŵa chakumanyikwa cha umo wakuchitira ndyali<ref name="glasser"/> ndipo ghafotokozeka kuti ni [[firehosing]].{{sfn|Kakutani|2018|pp=94–104}} Munthawi ya ulamuliro wake wachiŵiri, Trump wakalutilira kugwiliskira ntchito mazgu ghaboza, ghakupuluska, na ghakusazgirizga pakulongosora na kupembuzga malango ghake gha Executive Order na ndondomeko za boma.<ref>{{cite news |last=Qiu |first=Linda |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2025/04/29/us/politics/trump-100-days-fact-check.html |title=In Breakneck 2nd Term, Trump Turns to Falsehoods to Justify His Agenda |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=April 29, 2025 |access-date=March 17, 2026}}</ref> Wakalutilira kuyowoya vyautesi pafupipafupi nga umo wakachitiranga kale, kweni wakaŵa na mitundu yichoko ya mautesi uku wakuwoneskera kanandi "gulu likuru" la mautesi gheneghara.<ref>{{cite news |last=Dale |first=Daniel |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2025/12/27/politics/analysis-donald-trumps-top-25-lies-of-2025 |title=Analysis: Donald Trump's top 25 lies |work=[[CNN]] |date=December 27, 2025 |access-date=March 17, 2026}}</ref> Mautesi ghanyake gha Trump ghakaŵa ghambura kukhumbikwa chomene,<ref>{{cite news |last=Qiu |first=Linda |date=January 21, 2017 |title=Donald Trump had biggest inaugural crowd ever? Metrics don't show it |url=https://www.politifact.com/truth-o-meter/statements/2017/jan/21/sean-spicer/trump-had-biggest-inaugural-crowd-ever-metrics-don/ |access-date=March 30, 2018 |work=[[PolitiFact]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Rein |first=Lisa |date=March 6, 2017 |title=Here are the photos that show Obama's inauguration crowd was bigger than Trump's |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/powerpost/wp/2017/03/06/here-are-the-photos-that-show-obamas-inauguration-crowd-was-bigger-than-trumps/ |access-date=March 8, 2017 |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |url-access=limited}}</ref> kweni ghanyake ghakaŵa na vyakukhwaska vikuru, nga ni kupharazga kwake kwambura ukaboni kwakuti munkhwala wa [[malaria]] ungachizga [[COVID-19]],<ref>{{cite news |last=Wong |first=Julia Carrie |author-link=Julia Carrie Wong |date=April 7, 2020 |title=Hydroxychloroquine: how an unproven drug became Trump's coronavirus 'miracle cure' |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/apr/06/hydroxychloroquine-trump-coronavirus-drug |access-date=June 25, 2021 |work=[[The Guardian]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Spring |first=Marianna |author-link=Marianna Spring |date=May 27, 2020 |title=Coronavirus: The human cost of virus misinformation |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/stories-52731624 |access-date=June 13, 2020 |work=[[BBC News]]}}</ref> ivyo vikapangiska kusoŵa kwa munkhwala uwu mu United States kweniso [[panic buying|kugura mwaluŵiro chifukwa cha wofi]] mu Africa na South Asia.<ref>{{cite news |last=Rowland |first=Christopher |date=March 23, 2020 |title=As Trump touts an unproven coronavirus treatment, supplies evaporate for patients who need those drugs |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/2020/03/20/hospitals-doctors-are-wiping-out-supplies-an-unproven-coronavirus-treatment/ |access-date=March 24, 2020 |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |url-access=limited}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Parkinson |first1=Joe |last2=Gauthier-Villars |first2=David |date=March 23, 2020 |title=Trump Claim That Malaria Drugs Treat Coronavirus Sparks Warnings, Shortages |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/trump-claim-that-malaria-drugs-treat-coronavirus-sparks-warnings-shortages-11584981897 |url-access=subscription |access-date=March 26, 2020 |work=[[The Wall Street Journal]]}}</ref> Kuwukira kwake pa mavoti gha [[mail-in voting]] na nthowa zinyake za kuvotera kukachepeska kugomezga kwa ŵanthu mu unenesko wa [[chisankho cha pulezidenti cha United States cha 2020]],<ref>{{cite news |last=Siders |first=David |date=May 25, 2020 |title=Trump sees a 'rigged election' ahead. Democrats see a constitutional crisis in the making. |url=https://www.politico.com/news/2020/05/25/donald-trump-rigged-election-talk-fears-274477 |access-date=October 9, 2021 |work=[[Politico]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Riccardi |first=Nicholas |date=September 17, 2020 |title=AP Fact Check: Trump's big distortions on mail-in voting |url=https://apnews.com/article/virus-outbreak-election-2020-ap-fact-check-elections-voting-fraud-and-irregularities-8c5db90960815f91f39fe115579570b4 |access-date=October 7, 2020 |work=[[AP News]]}}</ref> apo uthesi wake wakukhwaskana na nthenda ya COVID-19 ukachedweska ndiposo kufowofya ivyo boma la charu likachitanga pakulimbana nayo.<ref name="NYT 4 11 20">{{cite news |first1=Eric |last1=Lipton |author-link1=Eric Lipton |first2=David E. |last2=Sanger |author-link2=David E. Sanger |first3=Maggie |last3=Haberman |author-link3=Maggie Haberman |first4=Michael D. |last4=Shear |author-link4=Michael D. Shear |first5=Mark |last5=Mazzetti |author-link5=Mark Mazzetti |first6=Julian E. |last6=Barnes |title=He Could Have Seen What Was Coming: Behind Trump's Failure on the Virus |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/04/11/us/politics/coronavirus-trump-response.html |access-date=April 11, 2020 |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=April 11, 2020 |url-access=limited}}</ref><ref name="USAT-Disinfo">{{cite news |last=Guynn |first=Jessica |date=October 5, 2020 |title=From COVID-19 to voting: Trump is nation's single largest spreader of disinformation, studies say |url=https://usatoday.com/story/tech/2020/10/05/trump-covid-19-coronavirus-disinformation-facebook-twitter-election/3632194001/ |access-date=October 7, 2020 |work=[[USA Today]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |last1=Bergengruen |first1=Vera |last2=Hennigan |first2=W.J. |date=October 6, 2020 |title='You're Gonna Beat It.' How Donald Trump's COVID-19 Battle Has Only Fueled Misinformation |url=https://time.com/5896709/trump-covid-campaign/ |access-date=October 7, 2020 |magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]]}}</ref> Kanandi wakupempha yayi chigowokero pa mautesi ghake.<ref>{{cite news |last=Allen |first=Jonathan |date=December 31, 2018 |title=Does being President Trump still mean never having to say you're sorry? |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/politics/donald-trump/does-being-president-trump-still-mean-never-having-say-you-n952841 |access-date=June 14, 2020 |work=[[NBC News]]}}</ref> M'paka mu 2018, manyuzipepala na vyakupharazga vikanyake vikakanizganga kuyowoya kuti mautesi ghake "mbutesi", nangauli wakawerezganga mazgu agho ghakaŵa ghakubozgeka pakuwonekera.<ref>{{cite news |last=Greenberg |first=David |author-link=David Greenberg (historian) |date=January 28, 2017 |title=The Perils of Calling Trump a Liar |url=https://www.politico.com/magazine/story/2017/01/the-perils-of-calling-trump-a-liar-214704/ |access-date=June 13, 2020 |work=[[Politico Magazine]]}}</ref><ref name="DBauder">{{cite news |last=Bauder |first=David |date=August 29, 2018 |title=News media hesitate to use 'lie' for Trump's misstatements |url=https://apnews.com/8d3c7387eff7496abcd0651124caf891 |access-date=September 27, 2023 |work=[[AP News]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Farhi |first=Paul |date=June 5, 2019 |title=Lies? The news media is starting to describe Trump's 'falsehoods' that way. |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/style/lies-the-news-media-is-starting-to-describe-trumps-falsehoods-that-way/2019/06/05/413cc2a0-8626-11e9-a491-25df61c78dc4_story.html |access-date=April 11, 2024 |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |url-access=limited}}</ref> Kwambira pambere wandambe ulamuliro wake wakwamba, Trump wakalimbikiska [[List of conspiracy theories promoted by Donald Trump|visambizgo vinandi vya chiŵembu]]. Mu 2011, Trump wakaŵa yumoza wa ŵanthu ŵakumanyikwa chomene pakupharazga [[Barack Obama citizenship conspiracy theories|chisambizgo cha "birther"]], icho chikatengeka kuti [[Barack Obama]], pulezidenti wakwamba wa United States wakafuma ku ŵanthu ŵafipa, wakababikira yayi mu United States.<ref>{{cite news |last=John |first=Arit |date=June 23, 2020 |title=From birtherism to 'treason': Trump's false allegations against Obama |url=https://www.latimes.com/politics/story/2020-06-23/trump-obamagate-birtherism-false-allegations |access-date=February 17, 2023 |work=[[Los Angeles Times]]}}</ref> Wakati ndiyo wakapangiska boma kufumiska satifiketi ya kubabikira ya Obama, nangauli wakati nayo yikaŵa yautesi.<ref>{{cite news |last=Keneally |first=Meghan |date=September 18, 2015 |title=Donald Trump's History of Raising Birther Questions About President Obama |url=https://abcnews.go.com/Politics/donald-trumps-history-raising-birther-questions-president-obama/story?id=33861832 |access-date=August 27, 2016 |work=[[ABC News (United States)|ABC News]]}}</ref> Mu Seputembala 2016, wakazomera pakweru kuti Obama wakababikira ku United States, kweni mwautesi wakati [[Hillary Clinton]] ndiyo wakambiska mphara izi pa nyengo ya [[Hillary Clinton 2008 presidential campaign|kampeni yake ya chisankho cha pulezidenti ya 2008]].<!-- DO NOT CHANGE preceding sentence without prior consensus; see [[Talk:Donald Trump#C27|consensus 27]]. --><ref>{{cite news |work=[[The New York Times]] |title=Trump Drops False 'Birther' Theory, but Floats a New One: Clinton Started It |first1=Maggie |last1=Haberman |author-link1=Maggie Haberman |first2=Alan |last2=Rappeport |date=September 16, 2016 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/09/17/us/politics/donald-trump-birther-obama.html}}</ref> Kanandi Trump wakambanga kuyowoya kuti wapulika visambizgo vya chiŵembu ivi kwa munthu munyake,<ref name="Haberman2016"/> ndipo wakalimbikiska visambizgo nga ni [[climate change denial]], [[Conspiracy theories related to the 2019 Trump–Ukraine scandal|vyakuti Ukraine yikanjilirapo pa visankho vya United States]], ndiposo vya [[vaccines and autism]].<ref name="Haberman2016">{{cite news |last=Haberman |first=Maggie |author-link=Maggie Haberman |date=February 29, 2016 |title=Even as He Rises, Donald Trump Entertains Conspiracy Theories |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/03/01/us/politics/donald-trump-conspiracy-theories.html |access-date=October 11, 2021 |work=[[The New York Times]] |url-access=limited}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Fichera |first1=Angelo |last2=Spencer |first2=Saranac Hale |date=October 20, 2020 |title=Trump's Long History With Conspiracy Theories |url=https://www.factcheck.org/2020/10/trumps-long-history-with-conspiracy-theories/ |access-date=September 15, 2021 |work=[[FactCheck.org]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Bump |first=Philip |date=November 26, 2019 |title=President Trump loves conspiracy theories. Has he ever been right? |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/2019/11/26/president-trump-loves-conspiracy-theories-has-he-ever-been-right/ |access-date=October 11, 2021 |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |url-access=limited}}</ref> Pamanyuma pa [[chisankho cha pulezidenti cha United States cha 2020]], wakalimbikiska visambizgo vya chiŵembu vyakukhwaskana na kutondeka kwake, ivyo vikachemeka kuti "[[Big lie (2020 United States presidential election)|boza likuru]]".<ref>{{cite magazine |last=McEvoy |first=Jemima |date=December 17, 2020 |title=These Are The Voter Fraud Claims Trump Tried (And Failed) To Overturn The Election With |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/jemimamcevoy/2020/12/17/these-are-the-voter-fraud-claims-trump-tried-and-failed-to-overturn-the-election-with/ |access-date=September 13, 2021 |magazine=[[Forbes]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Block |first=Melissa |author-link=Melissa Block |date=January 16, 2021 |title=Can The Forces Unleashed By Trump's Big Election Lie Be Undone? |work=[[NPR News]] |url=https://www.npr.org/2021/01/16/957291939/can-the-forces-unleashed-by-trumps-big-election-lie-be-undone |access-date=December 25, 2024}}</ref> === Ubwezi wake na nkhani za vyakupharazga === {{main|Nkhondo ya Donald Trump na vyakupharazga}} Pa nyengo ya kampeni ya chisankho cha 2016, Trump wakapokera uthenga unandi waulere mu vyakupharazga kuluska kale,{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/the-fix/wp/2016/06/14/this-harvard-study-is-a-powerful-indictment-of-the-medias-role-in-donald-trumps-rise/ |title=This Harvard study is a powerful indictment of the media's role in Donald Trump's rise |first=Chris |last=Cillizza |author-link=Chris Cillizza |date=June 14, 2016 |access-date=October 1, 2021 |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |url-access=limited}} uwo ukawerengekanga kuti ukaŵa wakukwana madola mabiliyoni ghaŵiri.{{cite news |title=$2 Billion Worth of Free Media for Donald Trump |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/03/16/upshot/measuring-donald-trumps-mammoth-advantage-in-free-media.html |first1=Nicholas |last1=Confessore |author-link1=Nicholas Confessore |first2=Karen |last2=Yourish |date=March 15, 2016 |work=[[The New York Times]] |url-access=limited}} Apo wakaŵa wakuphalizga kampeni kweniso apo wakaŵa pulezidenti, kanandi wakasuska vyakupharazga kuti vikutemwera chigaŵa chinyake, ndipo wakavichemanga kuti "vyakupharazga vya nkhani zautesi" na "mulwani wa ŵanthu".{{cite web |last1=Hetherington |first1=Marc |last2=Ladd |first2=Jonathan M. |date=May 1, 2020 |title=Destroying trust in the media, science, and government has left America vulnerable to disaster |url=https://www.brookings.edu/blog/fixgov/2020/05/01/destroying-trust-in-the-media-science-and-government-has-left-america-vulnerable-to-disaster/ |access-date=October 11, 2021 |publisher=[[Brookings Institution]]}} Mu ulamuliro wake wakwamba, boma la Trump likachepeskako misonkhano yakudumbiskana na ŵapharazgi kufuma pa pafupifupi 100 mu 2017 kufika pa yiŵiri pera mu 2019, ndipo likawuskapo zilolezgo za ŵapharazgi ŵaŵiri ŵa ku White House, ivyo vikaweleraso na makhoti.{{cite news |last=Grynbaum |first=Michael M. |date=December 30, 2019 |title=After Another Year of Trump Attacks, 'Ominous Signs' for the American Press |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/12/30/business/media/trump-media-2019.html |access-date=October 11, 2021 |work=[[The New York Times]] |url-access=limited}} Kufika mu 2024, Trump wakalutilira kuyowoya kuti wakovwira [[Kuzomerezga yayi kususka boma|kuŵika dango lakukanizga kususka boma]] na kumususka,{{cite news |last=Kapur |first=Sahil |date=October 13, 2024 |title='Totally illegal': Trump escalates rhetoric on outlawing political dissent and criticism |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/politics/2024-election/totally-illegal-trump-escalates-rhetoric-outlawing-political-dissent-c-rcna174280 |access-date=November 23, 2024 |work=[[NBC News]]}} ndipo wakati ŵapharazgi ŵakwenera kusuzgika na dango usange ŵakukana kuvumbura awo ŵakuŵapa uthenga mwachisisi, kweniso kuti makampani gha vyakupharazga ghangaŵavya mazaza ghakupharazga usange ghakupharazga vinthu viheni vyakukhwaskana na iyo.{{cite news |last=Folkenflik |first=David |author-link=David Folkenflik |date=October 21, 2024 |title=Could Trump's threats against news outlets carry weight if he wins the presidency? |url=https://www.npr.org/2024/10/21/nx-s1-5150039/could-trumps-threats-against-news-outlets-carry-weight-if-he-wins-the-presidency |access-date=November 23, 2024 |work=[[NPR News]]}} Mu ulamuliro wake wachiŵiri, ivyo Trump wakachitira vyakupharazga vikaŵa vyambura kuchitikapo mu mbiri yasono ya United States,{{cite news |last1=Spike |first1=Justin |last2=Riccardi |first2=Nicholas |date=September 18, 2025 |title=Trump's moves against the media mirror approaches by authoritarian leaders to silence dissent |work=[[AP News]] |url=https://apnews.com/article/trump-dictators-media-putin-russia-orban-hungary-2de4b920e9d7952eed132d38e1934ce5 |access-date=September 18, 2025}} ndipo ŵakulemba mbiri ŵakati vikayananga na ivyo ŵalongozgi ŵankhongono ŵakuchita pakukanizga ŵakususkana nawo pa ndyali ndipo vikakhwaska viheni [[wanangwa wa kuyowoya]] na [[wanangwa wa vyakupharazga]].{{cite news |last1=Abels |first1=Grace |last2=Sherman |first2=Amy |date=April 29, 2025 |title=President Trump said he 'brought back free speech.' His first 100 days tell a different story. |work=[[PolitiFact]] |url=https://www.politifact.com/article/2025/apr/29/donald-trump-free-speech-First-Amendment-100-days/ |access-date=May 4, 2025}}{{cite news |last1=Gilliand |first1=Olivia |last2=Dumalaon |first2=Janelle |date=April 26, 2025 |title=Trump's attacks on media test US press freedom rules |work=[[Deutsche Welle]] |url=https://www.dw.com/en/trumps-attacks-on-media-tests-us-first-amendment-press-freedom/a-72359073 |access-date=May 4, 2025}} Kampeni yakulamulira kayowoyero yikayaniskika na [[cancel culture]], boma lakusezga wanangwa wa kayowoyero, na [[McCarthyism]].{{cite news |last1=Riccardi |first1=Nicholas |last2=Konstantin |first2=Toropin |date=September 15, 2025 |title=Trump administration joins Republicans' campaign to police speech in reaction to Kirk's murder |url=https://apnews.com/article/charlie-kirk-speech-republicans-firings-government-vance-e65a4939b80e4f4822db188e978d8812 |access-date=September 15, 2025 |work=[[AP News]]}}{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2025/sep/16/charlie-kirk-shooting-trump-progressive-groups |title=Progressive groups fear 'McCarthy era' attacks in wake of Charlie Kirk shooting |first=George |last=Chidi |date=September 16, 2025 |website=[[The Guardian]] |access-date=September 18, 2025}}{{cite news |last=Yerushalmy |first=Jonathan |date=September 18, 2025 |title='Censoring you in real time': suspension of Jimmy Kimmel show sparks shock and fears for free speech |url=https://www.theguardian.com/tv-and-radio/2025/sep/18/jimmy-kimmel-suspension-sparks-shock-fears-for-free-speech-censoring-realtime |access-date=September 18, 2025 |work=[[The Guardian]]}} [[Federal Communications Commission]] yikamba kufufuza vyakupharazga ivyo vikapusikikanga kuti vikutemwera ŵakususkana nayo.{{cite news |last=Brodkin |first=Jon |date=January 23, 2025 |title=Trump's FCC chair gets to work on punishing TV news stations accused of bias |work=[[Ars Technica]] |url=https://arstechnica.com/tech-policy/2025/01/trumps-fcc-chair-gets-to-work-on-punishing-news-stations-accused-of-bias/ |access-date=March 20, 2025}} Chifukwa cha vyakofya vya Trump, ŵalongozgi ŵa vyakupharazga ŵakaphalira ŵapharazgi na ŵantchito ŵawo kuti [[kujikanizga ŵekha]] ndipo ŵachepeskeko kumususka Trump.{{cite news |last1=Fischer |first1=Sara |last2=Wang |first2=Christine |date=May 27, 2025 |title=Journalism under pressure amid fear of retribution |work=[[Axios (website)|Axios]] |url=https://www.axios.com/2025/05/27/trump-journalism-pressure |access-date=May 31, 2025}} Ŵanandi ŵakati Trump wakapangiska kuchepa kukuru kwa [[wanangwa wa vyakupharazga]], kusazgapo magulu ghakovwira ŵapharazgi{{cite web |last=Ferragamo |first=Mariel |title=World Press Freedom Continues Decline at a Time of Upheaval |url=https://www.cfr.org/article/world-press-freedom-continues-decline-time-upheaval |website=[[Council on Foreign Relations]] |date=May 2, 2025 |access-date=January 15, 2026}}{{cite web |title=United States |url=https://rsf.org/en/country/united-states |website=[[Reporters Without Borders]] |access-date=January 15, 2026}}{{cite web |title=Press freedom in the US |url=https://cpj.org/issue/press-freedom-in-the-us/ |website=[[Committee to Protect Journalists]] |access-date=January 15, 2026}}{{cite web |title=Will press freedom decline further? |url=https://www.media-diversity.org/2026-the-year-ahead-will-press-freedom-decline-further/ |website=[[Media Diversity Institute]] |date=January 6, 2026 |access-date=January 15, 2026}} kweniso mabuku gha masambiro.{{cite journal |last=West |first=Sonja R. |title=Presidential Attacks on the Press |journal=[[Missouri Law Review]] |volume=83 |pages=915 |year=2018 |url=https://digitalcommons.law.uga.edu/fac_artchop/1276/ |access-date=January 16, 2026}}{{cite journal |last1=Jones |first1=RonNell Andersen |last2=West |first2=Sonja R. |title=The Fragility of the Free American Press |journal=[[Northwestern University Law Review]] |volume=112 |issue=3 |pages=567 |year=2017 |url=https://scholarlycommons.law.northwestern.edu/nulr/vol112/iss3/5/ |access-date=January 16, 2026}}{{cite book |last=Kalb |first=Marvin |title=Enemy of the People: Trump's War on the Press, the New McCarthyism, and the Threat to American Democracy |publisher=[[Brookings Institution Press]] |year=2018 |url=https://www.hks.harvard.edu/publications/enemy-people-trumps-war-press-new-mccarthyism-and-threat-american-democracy |access-date=January 16, 2026}} === Vyakupharazga vya pa Intaneti === {{main|Kugwiliskira ntchito vyakupharazga vya pa Intaneti na Donald Trump|Kugwiliskira ntchito X na Donald Trump}} Kufuma mu 2009 mpaka apo wakakanizgikira mu Janyuwale 2021, Trump wakalemba pa Twitter mauthenga ghakujumpha 57,000.{{cite news |last1=Madhani |first1=Aamer |last2=Colvin |first2=Jill |date=January 9, 2021 |title=A farewell to @realDonaldTrump, gone after 57,000 tweets |url=https://apnews.com/article/twitter-donald-trump-ban-cea450b1f12f4ceb8984972a120018d5 |access-date=October 10, 2021 |work=[[AP News]]}} Pamanyuma pa vyaka vinandi vya kususkika chifukwa chakuzomerezga Trump kulemba uthenga wa upusikizgi na mautesi, Twitter yikamba kuŵika vimanyikwiro vya kusimikizga unenesko pa mauthenga ghanyake gha Trump mu Meyi 2020.{{cite news |last=Dwoskin |first=Elizabeth |date=May 27, 2020 |title=Twitter labels Trump's tweets with a fact check for the first time |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/technology/2020/05/26/trump-twitter-label-fact-check/ |access-date=July 7, 2020 |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]}} Wakakanizgika kugwiliskira ntchito Facebook, [[Instagram]], Twitter, na mapulatifomu ghanyake pamanyuma pa [[Kuukira Nyumba ya Malango ya United States pa Janyuwale 6, 2021]].{{cite news |last1=Fischer |first1=Sara |last2=Gold |first2=Ashley |date=January 11, 2021 |title=All the platforms that have banned or restricted Trump so far |url=https://www.axios.com/platforms-social-media-ban-restrict-trump-d9e44f3c-8366-4ba9-a8a1-7f3114f920f1.html |access-date=January 16, 2021 |work=[[Axios (website)|Axios]]}}{{cite news |last1=Conger |first1=Kate |author-link1=Kate Conger |last2=Isaac |first2=Mike |author-link2=Mike Isaac |date=January 16, 2021 |title=Inside Twitter's Decision to Cut Off Trump |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/01/16/technology/twitter-donald-trump-jack-dorsey.html |access-date=October 10, 2021 |work=[[The New York Times]] |url-access=limited}} Kutaya mwayi wake wa vyakupharazga vya pa Intaneti kukachepeska nkhongono yake yakukhwaska ivyo vikachitikanga{{cite news |last=Timberg |first=Craig |date=January 14, 2021 |title=Twitter ban reveals that tech companies held keys to Trump's power all along |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/technology/2021/01/14/trump-twitter-megaphone/ |access-date=February 17, 2021 |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |url-access=limited}}{{cite news |last1=Alba |first1=Davey |author-link1=Davey Alba |last2=Koeze |first2=Ella |last3=Silver |first3=Jacob |date=June 7, 2021 |title=What Happened When Trump Was Banned on Social Media |url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2021/06/07/technology/trump-social-media-ban.html |access-date=December 21, 2023 |work=[[The New York Times]] |url-access=limited}} ndipo kukayaniskika na kuchepa kukuru kwa uthenga wa upusikizgi pa Twitter.{{cite news |last1=Dwoskin |first1=Elizabeth |last2=Timberg |first2=Craig |date=January 16, 2021 |title=Misinformation dropped dramatically the week after Twitter banned Trump and some allies |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/technology/2021/01/16/misinformation-trump-twitter/ |access-date=February 17, 2021 |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |url-access=limited}} Mu Febuluwale 2022, wakambiska pulatifomu ya vyakupharazga vya pa Intaneti ya [[Truth Social]], uko wakakopa ŵakulondezga ŵachoko waka pakuyaniska na Twitter.{{cite news |last1=Harwell |first1=Drew |author-link1=Drew Harwell |last2=Dawsey |first2=Josh |author-link2=Josh Dawsey |date=November 7, 2022 |title=Trump once reconsidered sticking with Truth Social. Now he's stuck. |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/technology/2022/11/07/trump-once-reconsidered-sticking-with-truth-social-now-hes-stuck/ |access-date=May 7, 2023 |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |url-access=limited}} Twitter yikamuwezgerapo akaunti yake mu Novembala 2022.{{cite news |last1=Mac |first1=Ryan |author-link1=Ryan Mac |last2=Browning |first2=Kellen |date=November 19, 2022 |title=Elon Musk Reinstates Trump's Twitter Account |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/11/19/technology/trump-twitter-musk.html |access-date=November 21, 2022 |work=[[The New York Times]] |url-access=limited}}{{cite news |last1=Dang |first1=Sheila |last2=Coster |first2=Helen |date=November 20, 2022 |title=Trump snubs Twitter after Musk announces reactivation of ex-president's account |url=https://www.reuters.com/technology/musks-twitter-poll-showing-narrow-majority-want-trump-reinstated-2022-11-20/ |access-date=May 10, 2024 |work=[[Reuters]] |url-access=limited}} Kuletshelereka kwa vyaka viŵiri pa [[Meta Platforms]] kukamara mu Janyuwale 2023, ndipo wakazomerezgekaso kugwiliskira ntchito Facebook na Instagram.{{cite news |last=Bond |first=Shannon |date=January 23, 2023 |title=Meta allows Donald Trump back on Facebook and Instagram |url=https://www.npr.org/2023/01/25/1146961818/trump-meta-facebook-instagram-ban-ends |work=[[NPR News]]}}</ref> == Kuwonelera == === Chithuzithuzi cha ŵanthu === {{main|Chithuzithuzi cha Donald Trump pa maso pa ŵanthu|Kafukufuku wa maghanoghano pa nyengo yakwamba ya ulamuliro wa Trump}} Mu nyengo yakwamba ya Trump, kufuma mu 2017 m'paka 2021, ŵanthu pa charu chose ŵakakhumbanga chomene yayi ulongozgi wa United States. Kuvomerezga kukakhira kufuma pafupifupi pa 22&nbsp;peresenti mu kafukufuku wa [[Gallup, Inc.|Gallup]]<ref>{{cite news |last=Datta |first=Monti |date=September 16, 2019 |title=3 countries where Trump is popular |url=https://theconversation.com/3-countries-where-trump-is-popular-120317 |access-date=October 3, 2021 |work=[[The Conversation (website)|The Conversation]]}}</ref> wa vyaru 134 kufika pa 16&nbsp;peresenti mu kafukufuku wa [[Pew Research|Pew Research]]<ref>{{cite web |last1=Wike |first1=Richard |last2=Fetterolf |first2=Janell |last3=Mordecai |first3=Mara |date=September 15, 2020 |title=U.S. Image Plummets Internationally as Most Say Country Has Handled Coronavirus Badly |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/global/2020/09/15/us-image-plummets-internationally-as-most-say-country-has-handled-coronavirus-badly/ |access-date=December 24, 2020 |publisher=[[Pew Research Center]]}}</ref> wa vyaru 13. Mu 2017, kuwona makora ulongozgi wa United States kukakhira chomene pakati pa vyaru vyabwezi.<ref>{{cite news |title=Rating World Leaders: 2018 The U.S. vs. Germany, China and Russia |url=https://www.politico.com/f/?id=00000161-0647-da3c-a371-867f6acc0001 |access-date=October 3, 2021 |publisher=[[Gallup, Inc.]] |via=[[Politico]]}} Page 9</ref> Mu United States, Trump wakasindikizgika chomene na ŵa chipani cha Republican: 88&nbsp;peresenti ya ŵa Republican na 7&nbsp;peresenti ya ŵa Democratic.<ref name="Jones">{{cite web |last=Jones |first=Jeffrey M. |date=January 18, 2021 |title=Last Trump Job Approval 34%; Average Is Record-Low 41% |url=https://news.gallup.com/poll/328637/last-trump-job-approval-average-record-low.aspx |access-date=October 3, 2021 |publisher=[[Gallup, Inc.]]}}</ref> Mu kafukufuku wa Gallup wa 2021, wakaŵa pulezidenti yekha uyo wandafikepo pa 50&nbsp;peresenti ya kuvomerezgeka, ndipo wakaŵaso wakwamba kuleka kusankhika kuŵa munthu wakutemweka chomene mu chaka chake chakwamba pa udindo.<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Bach |first=Natash |date=December 28, 2017 |title=Trump Is the Only Elected U.S. President Not to Be Named America's Most Admired Man In His First Year |url=https://fortune.com/2017/12/28/gallup-most-admired-man-and-woman-obama-clinton/ |access-date=November 19, 2024 |magazine=[[Fortune (magazine)|Fortune]]}}</ref> === Masanjiro gha ŵasambizgi === {{further|Masanjiro gha mbiri ya ŵapulezidenti ŵa United States}} Pamanyuma pa nyengo yakwamba ya Trump, [[Historical rankings of presidents of the United States#2021 C-SPAN|ŵakulemba mbiri ŵakasanja Trump]] kuŵa pulezidenti wa nambara yachinayi kufuma pasi mu kafukufuku wa [[C-SPAN]] wa 2021 wa ŵakulemba mbiri ya ŵapulezidenti.<ref>{{cite web |year=2021 |url=https://www.c-span.org/presidentsurvey2021/ |title=Presidential Historians Survey 2021 |work=[[C-SPAN]] |access-date=June 30, 2021}}</ref> Wakasanga mavoti ghachoko chomene mu magulu gha ulongozgi wakwenerera na luso lwa kuwusa.<ref>{{cite news |last=Sheehey |first=Maeve |date=June 30, 2021 |title=Trump debuts at 41st in C-SPAN presidential rankings |work=[[Politico]] |url=https://www.politico.com/news/2021/06/30/trump-cspan-president-ranking-497184 |access-date=March 31, 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Brockell |first=Gillian |title=Historians just ranked the presidents. Trump wasn't last. |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/history/2021/06/30/presidential-rankings-2021-cspan-historians/ |access-date=July 1, 2021 |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |date=June 30, 2021 |url-access=limited}}</ref> Kafukufuku wa [[Siena College Research Institute]] wa 2022 [[Historical rankings of presidents of the United States#2022 Siena College|ukamusanja]] kuŵa wachitatu kufuma pasi. Wakasangika pafupi na umaliro mu magulu ghose kupatulako mwaŵi, kukhumbisiska kutora viwopsezo, na ulongozgi wa chipani, ndipo wakamalira paumaliro mu magulu ghanandi.<ref name="scri_22">{{cite web |url=https://scri.siena.edu/2022/06/22/american-presidents-greatest-and-worst/ |title=American Presidents: Greatest and Worst |publisher=[[Siena College Research Institute]] |date=June 22, 2022 |access-date=July 11, 2022}}</ref> Mu 2018 na 2024, [[American Political Science Association]] yikamusanja kuŵa pulezidenti muheni chomene.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Rottinghaus |first1=Brandon |last2=Vaughn |first2=Justin S. |date=February 19, 2018 |title=Opinion: How Does Trump Stack Up Against the Best—and Worst—Presidents? |url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2018/02/19/opinion/how-does-trump-stack-up-against-the-best-and-worst-presidents.html |access-date=July 13, 2024 |work=[[The New York Times]] |url-access=limited}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Chappell |first=Bill |date=February 19, 2024 |title=In historians' Presidents Day survey, Biden vs. Trump is not a close call |url=https://www.npr.org/2024/02/19/1232447088/historians-presidents-survey-trump-last-biden-14th |work=[[NPR News]]}}</ref> == Umoyo wa munthu == === Banja === {{main|Banja la Trump}} [[File:State Visit of King Fahd of Saudi Arabia State Dinner Receiving Line with Ivana Trump and Donald Trump in East Room - DPLA - 1a44d05819eab8ba3dcf7a6883ad92ba.jpg|thumb|Trump na muwoli wake Ivana pa chakurya cha boma mu 1985 pakupokelera Fumu [[Fahd wa Saudi Arabia]] pamoza na Pulezidenti [[Ronald Reagan]] na Muwoli Wakwamba [[Nancy Reagan]]|alt=Ivana Trump na Fumu Fahd ŵakukorana mawoko, apo Ronald Reagan wali pafupi nawo wakuseka.]] Mu 1977, Trump wakatora [[Ivana Zelníčková]].{{sfn|Blair|2015|p=300}} Ŵakaŵa na ŵana ŵatatu: [[Donald Jr.]] (wakababika mu 1977), [[Ivanka Trump|Ivanka]] (wakababika mu 1981), na [[Eric Trump|Eric]] (wakababika mu 1984). Ivana wakachita ntchito yikuru pakupangiska kuti manyuzipepala na mawailesi vimulembere makora Trump, ivyo vikawovwira kupanga chithuzithuzi chake kuŵa munthu mukuru wa bizinesi ya malo.<ref>{{cite news |last=Blair |first=Gwenda |url=https://www.politico.com/news/magazine/2022/07/17/without-ivana-trump-there-is-no-donald-trump |title=Without Ivana, There's No 'The Donald' |work=[[Politico]] |date=July 17, 2022 |access-date=April 3, 2026}}</ref> Ŵakapatukana mu 1990, pamanyuma pakuti wakaŵa na chibwezi na modeli kweniso mulembi wa mafilimu [[Marla Maples]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Barron |first=James |author-link=James Barron (journalist) |date=December 12, 1990 |title=Trumps Get Divorce; Next, Who Gets What? |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1990/12/12/nyregion/trumps-get-divorce-next-who-gets-what.html |access-date=March 5, 2023 |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |url-access=limited}}</ref> Iyo na Maples ŵakatorana mu 1993 ndipo ŵakapatukana mu 1999. Ŵali na mwana mwanakazi yumoza, [[Tiffany Trump|Tiffany]] (wakababika mu 1993), uyo wakakulira na Maples ku California.<ref>{{cite news |last=Hafner |first=Josh |date=July 19, 2016 |title=Get to know Donald's other daughter: Tiffany Trump |url=https://usatoday.com/story/news/politics/onpolitics/2016/07/19/who-is-tiffany-trump/87321708/ |access-date=July 10, 2022 |newspaper=[[USA Today]]}}</ref> Mu 2005, wakatora modeli wa ku Slovenia [[Melania Knauss]].{{sfn|Kranish|Fisher|2017|p=266}} Mwana wawo mwanalume [[Barron Trump|Barron]] wakababika mu 2006.<ref>{{cite news |date=July 2, 2021 |title=Donald Trump Fast Facts |url=https://www.cnn.com/2013/07/04/us/donald-trump-fast-facts/ |access-date=September 29, 2021 |work=[[CNN]]}}</ref> ===Usambazi=== {{main|Usambazi wa Donald Trump}} [[File:1982- Net worth of Donald Trump.svg|thumb|left|upright=1.2|Usambazi wake pa nyengo zakupambanapambana, nga umo ukawerengekera na ''[[Forbes]]''<ref name="Forbes1982-">Source for years 1982–2000: {{cite magazine |date=October 3, 2023 |last=Alexander |first=Dan |title=Here's How Much Donald Trump Is Worth |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/danalexander/article/the-definitive-networth-of-donaldtrump/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231110003952/https://www.forbes.com/sites/danalexander/article/the-definitive-networth-of-donaldtrump/ |archive-date=November 10, 2023<!-- DO NOT REMOVE the archive parameters in this citation. This cite is an exception case exempted from [[Talk:Donald Trump#C25|consensus 25]]. --> |magazine=[[Forbes]] |access-date=March 28, 2026}} Data is not available for 1990 through 1995 because Trump was not included in the [[Forbes 400|''Forbes'' 400]] list.</ref><ref name=Forbes2001->Source for years 2001–2026: {{cite magazine |date=March 25, 2026 |last1=Alexander |first1=Dan |last2=Khan-Mullins |first2=Kyle |title=Here's How Much Donald Trump Is Worth |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/danalexander/article/the-definitive-networth-of-donaldtrump/ |magazine=[[Forbes]]}}</ref>]] Trump wakayowoya kuti wakamba ntchito yake na "ngongoli yichoko ya madola miliyoni yimoza" yakufuma kwa awiske, ndipo wakayenera kuyiwezga pamoza na chiwongolero.<ref>{{cite news |last=Stump |first=Scott |date=October 26, 2015 |title=Donald Trump: My dad gave me 'a small loan' of $1 million to get started |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2015/10/26/donald-trump-my-dad-gave-me-a-small-loan-of-1-million-to-get-started.html |access-date=November 13, 2016 |work=[[CNBC]]}}</ref> Wakabwereka ndalama zakuluska madola miliyoni 60 kufuma kwa awiske, wakabwezga yayi ngongoli zinandi, ndipo wakapokera madola miliyoni 413 (mwakuyana na ndalama za 2018, para kwasazgikapo kukwera kwa mitengo) kufuma ku kampani ya malo ya awiske.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Barstow |first1=David |author-link1=David Barstow |last2=Craig |first2=Susanne |author-link2=Susanne Craig |last3=Buettner |first3=Russ |author-link3=Russ Buettner |date=October 2, 2018 |title=11 Takeaways From The Times's Investigation into Trump's Wealth |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/10/02/us/politics/donald-trump-wealth-fred-trump.html |access-date=October 3, 2018 |work=[[The New York Times]] |url-access=limited}}</ref><ref name="Tax_Schemes"/> Wakati wakujichemanga kuti ni msilikali wa [[Trump Organization]] zina lake "[[John Barron (zina lakubisika)|John Barron]]", Trump wakachema mulembi wa nkhani Jonathan Greenberg mu 1984 kuti waleke kumupa malo ghapachanya pa mndandanda wa [[Forbes 400|''Forbes'' 400]] wa ŵanthu ŵasambazi chomene mu America.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.cnn.com/2018/04/20/politics/trump-forbes-400-list-cnntv/ |title=Ex-Forbes reporter says Trump posed as executive, lied to him to crack Forbes 400 list |last=Stracqualursi |first=Veronica |date=April 20, 2018 |access-date=December 25, 2024 |work=[[CNN]]}}</ref>{{pb}}Trump wakajiyowoyera yekha kuti usambazi wake ukasintha chomene, kufuma pa minus madola miliyoni 900 mu 1990,<ref name="broke">{{cite news |last1=Hilzenrath |first1=David S. |last2=Singletary |first2=Michelle |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1992/11/29/trump-went-broke-but-stayed-on-top/e1685555-1de7-400c-99a8-9cd9c0bca9fe/ |title=Trump went broke, but stayed on top |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |date=November 29, 1992 |access-date=June 19, 2025 |url-access=limited}}</ref> kufika pa madola biliyoni 10 mu 2015.{{sfn|Johnston|2021|p=20}} Pamanyuma pa kubankirapusi kwa mabizinesi ghake mu ma 1990, awo wakabwerekako ndalama ŵakamugowokera ngongoli zakuluska 80% za ngongoli zake ndipo ŵakamuzomerezga kulutilira kuŵa na malo ghanyake.<ref name="broke"/> Mu 2015, ''[[Forbes]]'' yikawona kuti usambazi wake ukaŵa madola biliyoni 4.5, mwakutolera pa mafumbo na ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 80.<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Lane |first=Randall |date=September 29, 2015 |title=Inside The Epic Fantasy That's Driven Donald Trump For 33 Years |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/randalllane/2015/09/29/inside-the-epic-fantasy-thats-driven-donald-trump-for-33-years/ |magazine=[[Forbes]] |access-date=April 3, 2025}}</ref> Mu 2026, magazini iyi yikati usambazi wake ukaŵa madola biliyoni 6.5 ndipo yikamwika pa nambara 645 pa ŵanthu ŵasambazi chomene pa charu chose.<!-- UPDATE ANNUALLY (around early April) per [[Talk:Donald Trump#C5|consensus 5]]. --><ref>{{cite magazine |last1=Peterson-Withorn |first1=Chase |last2=Chung |first2=Grace |last3=Durot |first3=Matt |year=2026 |title=Forbes World's Billionaires List - The Richest in 2026 |url=https://www.forbes.com/billionaires/ |magazine=[[Forbes]] |access-date=March 24, 2026}} – Scroll down and enter "trump" in the search box.</ref> ===Ubwezi na Jeffrey Epstein=== {{main|Ubwezi wa Donald Trump na Jeffrey Epstein}} Trump wakaŵa paubwezi na [[Jeffrey Epstein]] kwa vyaka 15. Ŵanthu awo ŵakaŵamanyanga pa nyengo iyi ŵakati kanandi ŵakakhumbanga ŵanakazi ŵeneŵara ndipo ŵakachitanga mpikisano chifukwa cha ŵanakazi.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Feuer |first1=Alan |last2=Goldstein |first2=Matthew |date=July 19, 2025 |title=Inside the Long Friendship Between Trump and Epstein |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2025/07/19/us/politics/inside-trump-epstein-friendship.html |work=[[The New York Times]] |access-date=August 27, 2025 |url-access=limited}}</ref> Nkhani iyi yikamba kutchukanga chomene mu mawayilesi na pakati pa ŵanthu mu 2025 apo boma lake likafumiska yayi [[Mafayilo gha Epstein|mafayilo ghakukhwaskana na Epstein]], nangauli Trump wakalayizga kuchita nthena pa kampeni ya chisankho cha 2024.<ref>{{cite news |first1=Victoria |last1=Bisset |first2=Dylan |last2=Wells |date=August 2, 2025 |title=A timeline of how the Epstein controversy became a headache for Trump |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/2025/07/24/trump-jeffrey-epstein-relationship-controversy-timeline/ |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |access-date=August 27, 2025 |url-access=limited}}</ref> Mafayilo ghanyake ghakafumiskika mu Disembala 2025, kweni ghanandi ghakaŵa ghakufipiskika kuti ghawonekeso yayi.<ref>{{cite news |last=Feuer |first=Alan |date=December 20, 2025 |title=6 Takeaways From the First Batch of the Epstein Files |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2025/12/19/us/politics/epstein-files-takeaways.html |work=[[The New York Times]] |access-date=December 20, 2025}}</ref> Pafupifupi mapeji miliyoni zitatu agho ghakafumiskika mu 2026 ghakaŵa na mazgu pafupifupi 38,000 agho ghakayowoyanga vya Trump, muwoli wake, Mar-a-Lago, na mazina ghanyake ghakukhwaskana na Trump. Vinthu ivyo vikayowoyanga vya Trump vikapangiska "nkhani zakukopa chidwi" kweniso mazgu ghambura kukhozgeka agho ŵakaboni ŵakayowoya mu malemba agho ghakalembeka kwamba m'ma 2000.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Eder |first1=Steve |last2=Bender |first2=Michael C. |author-link2=Michael C. Bender |last3=Enrich |first3=David |author-link3=David Enrich |date=February 1, 2026 |title=How Trump Appears in the Epstein Files |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2026/02/01/us/trump-epstein-files.html |work=[[The New York Times]] |access-date=February 6, 2026}}</ref> ===Umoyo=== {{main|Ukulu wa vyaka na nkhawa za umoyo wa Donald Trump}} Trump wakuti wandamwengepo moŵa, wandasutepo sigareti, panji kugwiliskira ntchito munkhwala wakuzweteska bongo,<!-- DO NOT CHANGE preceding sentence without prior consensus; see [[Talk:Donald Trump#C67|consensus 67]]. --><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/10/30/us/trump-biden-alcohol.html |title=In Trump and Biden, a Choice of Teetotalers for President |last=Nagourney |first=Adam |author-link=Adam Nagourney |date=October 30, 2020 |work=[[The New York Times]] |access-date=February 5, 2021 |url-access=limited}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/kavanaugh-likes-beer--but-trump-is-a-teetotaler-he-doesnt-like-drinkers/2018/10/02/783f585c-c674-11e8-b1ed-1d2d65b86d0c_story.html |title=Kavanaugh likes beer — but Trump is a teetotaler: 'He doesn't like drinkers.' |last1=Parker |first1=Ashley |author-link1=Ashley Parker |last2=Rucker |first2=Philip |author-link2=Philip Rucker |date=October 2, 2018 |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |access-date=February 5, 2021 |url-access=limited}}</ref> ndipo wakuti wakugona maora ghanayi panji ghankhondi pera usiku uliwose.<!-- DO NOT CHANGE preceding sentence without prior consensus; see [[Talk:Donald Trump#C67|consensus 67]]. --><ref>{{cite news |url=https://globalnews.ca/news/3970379/donald-trump-sleep-hours-night/ |title=Donald Trump sleeps 4–5 hours each night; he's not the only famous 'short sleeper' |last=Dangerfield |first=Katie |date=January 17, 2018 |work=[[Global News]] |access-date=February 5, 2021}}</ref>{{sfn|Almond|Du|2020}} Wakuti kuseŵera gofu ndiyo ni "nthowa yake yikuru yakuchitira maseŵero gha thupi", kweni kanandi wakwenda yayi pa malo ghose gha maseŵero agha.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://thegolfnewsnet.com/golfnewsnetteam/2018/07/14/donald-trump-exercise-golf-cart-turnberry-110166/ |title=Donald Trump says he gets most of his exercise from golf, then uses cart at Turnberry |work=Golf News Net |date=July 14, 2018 |access-date=July 4, 2019 |first=Ryan |last=Ballengee}}</ref> Wakuwona kuti kuchita maseŵero gha thupi nkhusakwenelera chifukwa wakugomezga kuti thupi "lili nga ni batire, ilo lili na nkhongono zakumara", ndipo nkhongono izi zikumarapo chifukwa cha kuchita maseŵero gha thupi.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/national/health-science/trump-thinks-that-exercising-too-much-uses-up-the-bodys-finite-energy/2017/05/12/bb0b9bda-365d-11e7-b4ee-434b6d506b37_story.html |first=Rachael |last=Rettner |title=Trump thinks that exercising too much uses up the body's 'finite' energy |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |date=May 14, 2017 |access-date=September 29, 2021 |url-access=limited}}</ref>{{sfn|O'Donnell|Rutherford|1991|p=133}} In 2015, kampani ya Trump yikafumiska kalata yakufuma kwa dokotala wake wa nyengo yitali, [[Harold Bornstein]], iyo yikati wakazamuŵa "munthu wathanzi chomene uyo wakusankhika kuŵa pulezidenti".<ref name="dictation">{{cite news |first1=Alex |last1=Marquardt |first2=Lawrence III |last2=Crook |title=Exclusive: Bornstein claims Trump dictated the glowing health letter |url=https://www.cnn.com/2018/05/01/politics/harold-bornstein-trump-letter/ |work=[[CNN]] |date=May 1, 2018 |access-date=May 20, 2018}}</ref> Mu 2018, Bornstein wakayowoya kuti Trump ndiyo wakamuphalira ivyo vilembeke mu kalata iyi ndipo ŵanthu ŵatatu awo ŵakimiranga Trump ŵakapoka mafayilo gha chipatala chake pa nyengo iyo ŵakachita msokwe mu ofesi yake mu Febuluwale 2017.<ref name="dictation" /><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/politics/donald-trump/trump-doc-says-trump-bodyguard-lawyer-raided-his-office-took-n870351 |title=Trump doctor Harold Bornstein says bodyguard, lawyer 'raided' his office, took medical files |last=Schecter |first=Anna |date=May 1, 2018 |work=[[NBC News]] |access-date=June 6, 2019}}</ref> Kwambira mu 2025, Trump wakawonekanga nga wakugona pa maungano, ndipo ichi chikapangiska ŵanthu kufumba vya nkhongono zake na umo wakupwelelera umoyo wake.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Rogers |first1=Katie |author-link1=Katie Rogers (journalist) |last2=Freedman |first2=Dylan |date=November 25, 2025 |title=Shorter Days, Signs of Fatigue: Trump Faces Realities of Aging in Office |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2025/11/25/us/politics/trump-age-health.html |access-date=May 11, 2026}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Allison |first1=Natalie |last2=Diamond |first2=Dan |last3=Reiger |first3=JM |date=December 2, 2025 |title=Trump appears to doze off in another meeting |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/2025/12/02/donald-trump-drowsy-cabinet-meeting/ |url-access=limited |access-date=May 11, 2026}}</ref> ===Chisopa=== {{main|Donald Trump na chisopa|Ŵakhristu awo ŵakukhozgera Donald Trump}} [[File:AI-Generated Image depicting Donald Trump as Jesus Christ.jpg|thumb|upright|Nkhani ya Epulero 2026|alt=Trump mu munjilira utope na chakuvwara chakofira panthazi pa mbendera ya America, na mawoko ghake ghakuwala ghakuchizga munthu uyo wagona pa bedi la chipatala. Ŵanthu ŵanayi, kusazgapo nesi na msilikari, ŵakulaŵiska apo mphwembe na ndege za nkhondo zikuluta kuchanya, ndipo kumanyuma kuli vimoto vya kusangwa pa [[Statue of Liberty]], pamoza na ŵasilikari ŵakuwoneka nga ni vivuzga na nyali zakufuma mu mabingu.]] Trump wakayowoya mu 2016 kuti wakaŵa [[Presbyterian]] ndiposo [[Protestant]].<ref>{{cite web |last=Campbell |first=Colin |title=Trump: If I'm president, 'Christianity will have power' in the US |url=https://www.businessinsider.com/donald-trump-christianity-merry-christmas-2016-1 |website=[[Business Insider]] |access-date=January 20, 2025 |date=January 23, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Engel |first=Pamela |title=Trump on God: 'Hopefully I won't have to be asking for much forgiveness' |url=https://www.businessinsider.com/donald-trump-on-god-jesus-2016-6 |website=[[Business Insider]] |access-date=January 20, 2025 |date=June 8, 2016}}</ref> Mu 2020, wakayowoya kuti wakaŵa Mkhristu wambura kuŵikika ku chisopa chimoza.<ref>{{cite magazine |last1=Jenkins |first1=Jack |last2=Mwaura |first2=Maina |title=Trump, confirmed a Presbyterian, now identifies as 'non-denominational Christian' |url=https://www.americamagazine.org/politics-society/2020/10/24/trump-confirmed-presbyterian-now-identifies-non-denominational |magazine=[[America (magazine)|America]] |access-date=January 20, 2025 |date=October 24, 2020}}</ref> Mu nyengo yake yakwamba ya u pulezidenti, Trump wakasankha muphara wake wa chisopa,<ref>{{cite news |last1=Peters |first1=Jeremy W. |author-link1=Jeremy W. Peters |last2=Dias |first2=Elizabeth |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/11/02/us/politics/paula-white-trump.html |title=Paula White, Newest White House Aide, Is a Uniquely Trumpian Pastor |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=November 2, 2019 |access-date=August 14, 2025 |url-access=limited}}</ref> ndiposo mlangizi wake wa vyauzimu,<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Shellnut |first=Faith |url=https://www.christianitytoday.com/2019/11/white-house-appoints-paula-white-to-oversee-faith-outreach/ |title=Trump Appoints Paula White to Oversee Faith Office |magazine=[[Christianity Today]] |date=February 10, 2025 |access-date=August 14, 2025}}</ref> mupharazgi wa pa TV [[Paula White-Cain]], kuŵa mu [[Office of Public Liaison|Ofesi ya Maubwezi gha Ŵanthu ya ku White House]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Peters |first1=Jeremy W. |author-link1=Jeremy W. Peters |last2=Haberman |first2=Maggie |author-link2=Maggie Haberman |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/10/31/us/politics/paula-white-trump.html |title=Paula White, Trump's Personal Pastor, Joins the White House |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=October 31, 2019 |access-date=September 29, 2021 |url-access=limited}}</ref> Mu nyengo yake yachiŵiri, wakamusankha kuŵa mlangizi mukuru wa [[White House Faith Office|Ofesi ya Chisopa ya White House]] iyo yikapangika sonosono.<ref>{{cite news |last=Gabbatt |first=Adam |url=https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2025/apr/05/paula-white-faith-office-trump |title='False teacher': Trump's pick to head the 'White House faith office' roils some fellow Christians |newspaper=[[The Guardian]] |date=April 5, 2025 |access-date=August 14, 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Bridges |first1=C. A. |last2=Walker |first2=Diamond |url=https://palmbeachpost.com/story/news/trump/2025/02/20/pastor-paula-white-facts-trumps-head-white-house-faith-office/78604425007/ |title=Trump's new faith office. What to know about controversial Florida pastor Paula White |newspaper=[[The Palm Beach Post]] |date=February 20, 2025 |access-date=August 14, 2025}}</ref> Kafukufuku munyengo yake yakwamba ya u pulezidenti wakalongora kuti 63% ya ŵanthu mu America ŵakagomezganga yayi kuti wakaŵa munthu wa chisopa ndipo 44% ŵakagomezganga kuti wakaŵa Mkhristu.<ref>{{cite web |last=Fahmy |first=Dalia |date=March 25, 2020 |title=Most Americans don't see Trump as religious; fewer than half say they think he's Christian |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2020/03/25/most-americans-dont-see-trump-as-religious/ |access-date=April 21, 2023 |publisher=[[Pew Research Center]]}}</ref> Mu kafukufuku wa Epulero 2026, 70% ya awo ŵakafumbika ŵakati Trump ngwakusopa yayi chomene panji wakusopa yayi nadi.<ref>{{cite web |last=Rotolo |first=Chip |date=April 16, 2026 |title=Americans have become more likely to say Trump is not too or not at all religious |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2026/04/16/americans-have-become-more-likely-to-say-trump-is-not-too-or-not-at-all-religious/?cb_viewport=tablet |access-date=June 2, 2026 |work=[[Pew Research Center]]}}</ref> Ivyo Trump wakayowoya vya Baibolo panji milimo ya Chikhristu vyapangiska ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakumususka kuyowoya kuti kumanya kwake Chikhristu nkhwachoko panji kwambura kwenelera, ndipo ŵalembi ŵachoko waka ŵa mbiri ya umoyo wake ŵakamulongosora kuti wakaŵa munthu wakusopa chomene yayi panji kuti wakaŵa wakusopa chomene nadi yayi.<ref name="LATimes17">{{cite news |last1=Friedman |first1=Ann |title=Op-Ed: Is Trump religious? Who cares? |url=https://www.latimes.com/opinion/op-ed/la-oe-friedman-trump-religion-20170419-story.html |access-date=March 31, 2025 |newspaper=[[Los Angeles Times]] |date=April 19, 2017}}</ref><ref name="NPR16">{{cite news |last1=Taylor |first1=Jessica |title=Citing 'Two Corinthians,' Trump Struggles To Make The Sale To Evangelicals |url=https://www.npr.org/2016/01/18/463528847/citing-two-corinthians-trump-struggles-to-make-the-sale-to-evangelicals |access-date=March 31, 2025 |work=[[NPR News]] |date=January 18, 2016}}</ref> Mu Epulero 2026, Trump wakatumizga chithuzithuzi chakapangika na [[AI art|AI]] icho chikamulongora nga ni Yesu Khristu. Chithuzithuzi ichi chikafufutika pamanyuma pa kususkika. Pamanyuma wakayowoya kuti wakaghanaghananga kuti chithuzithuzi ichi chikamulongoranga nga ni dokotala.<ref>{{cite news |last=Rogers |first=Katie |author-link1=Katie Rogers (journalist) |date=April 13, 2026 |title=Trump Posted a Picture of Himself as Jesus. Now He's Trying to Explain It Away. |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2026/04/13/us/politics/trump-jesus-picture-pope-leo.html |url-access=subscription |access-date=May 4, 2026}}</ref> ==Wonaniso== * [[List of awards and honors received by Donald Trump]] * [[Pseudonyms used by Donald Trump]] ==Vyakuti mumanye== {{notelist}} ==Ukaboni== ===Citations=== {{reflist}} ===Mabuku ghakulembeka=== ====Wabuku waka==== <!-- This section is ONLY for books that are cited in footnotes of this Wikipedia article. --> {{refbegin|30em}} * {{cite book |last=Barrett |first=Wayne |author-link=Wayne Barrett |date=2016 |orig-date=1992 |title=Trump: The Greatest Show On Earth: The Deals, the Downfall, the Reinvention |publisher=[[Regan Arts]] |isbn=978-1-68245-079-6}} * {{cite book |title=[[The Trumps: Three Generations That Built an Empire]] |last=Blair |first=Gwenda |author-link=Gwenda Blair |publisher=[[Simon & Schuster]] |year=2015 |orig-year=2001 |isbn=978-1-5011-3936-9}} * {{cite book |last1=Buettner |first1=Russ |author-link1=Russ Buettner |last2=Craig |first2=Susanne |author-link2=Susanne Craig |title=[[Lucky Loser (book)|Lucky Loser: How Donald Trump Squandered His Father's Fortune And Created The Illusion of Success]] |publisher=[[Penguin Press]] |date=2024 |isbn=978-0-593-29864-0}} * {{cite book |title=Never enough : Donald Trump and the pursuit of success |last=D'Antonio |first=Michael |author-link=Michael D'Antonio |date=2015 |publisher=Thomas Dunne Books, St. Martin's Press |isbn=978-1-250-04238-5}} * {{cite book |title=[[Confidence Man: The Making of Donald Trump and the Breaking of America]] |last=Haberman |first=Maggie |author-link=Maggie Haberman |date=2022 |publisher=Penguin Press |isbn=978-0-593-29734-6}} * {{cite book |last=Harvey |first=Michael |url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9781003110361-1/introduction-michael-harvey |title=Donald Trump in Historical Perspective |date=2022 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-003-11036-1 |editor-last=Harvey |editor-first=Michael |chapter=Introduction: History's Rhymes |doi=10.4324/9781003110361-1}} * {{cite book |last=Hurt III |first=Harry |author-link=Harry Hurt III |year=1993 |title=Lost Tycoon |publisher=[[W. W. Norton & Company]]. |pages=447 |isbn=0-393-03029-6}} * {{cite book |last=Johnston |first=David Cay |author-link=David Cay Johnston |year=2016 |title=[[The Making of Donald Trump]] |publisher=[[Melville House Publishing]] |isbn=978-1-61219-658-9}} * {{cite book |last=Johnston |first=David Cay |author-link=David Cay Johnston |date=2021 |title=The Big Cheat: How Donald Trump Fleeced America And Enriched Himself And His Family |publisher=[[Simon & Schuster]] |isbn=978-1-9821-7804-8}} * {{cite book |last1=Kakutani |first1=Michiko |title=The Death of Truth: Notes on Falsehood in the Age of Trump |date=2018 |publisher=[[Crown/Archetype]] |isbn=978-0-525-57484-2 |chapter=The Firehose of Falsehood: Propaganda and Fake News |author-link=Michiko Kakutani |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vlw_DwAAQBAJ&pg=PT94}} * {{cite book |last=Klein |first=Naomi |author-link=Naomi Klein |date=2017 |title=[[No Is Not Enough]] |publisher=[[Penguin Books]] |isbn=978-0-14-198679-1}} * {{cite book |title=Trump Revealed: The Definitive Biography of the 45th President |last1=Kranish |first1=Michael |author-link1=Michael Kranish |last2=Fisher |first2=Marc |author-link2=Marc Fisher |publisher=[[Simon & Schuster]] |year=2017 |orig-year=2016 |isbn=978-1-5011-5652-6 |title-link=Trump Revealed}} * {{cite book |first=Jon |last=Meacham |author-link=Jon Meacham |title=[[Destiny and Power: The American Odyssey of George Herbert Walker Bush]] |date=2016 |publisher=[[Random House]] |isbn=978-0-8129-7947-3}} * {{cite book |title=TrumpNation: The Art of Being The Donald |year=2005a |author-link=Timothy L. O'Brien |last=O'Brien |first=Timothy L. |publisher=[[Grand Central Publishing]] |isbn=978-0-446-69617-3}} * {{cite book |title=Trumped! |last1=O'Donnell |first1=John R. |last2=Rutherford |first2=James |publisher=Crossroad Press Trade Edition |year=1991 |isbn=978-1-946025-26-5 |title-link=Trumped! (book)}} {{refend}}<!-- Resolve 5 harv no-citation script warnings in the cite bundle in #Racial_views -->{{cite whitelink|CITEREFLopez2019|CITEREFDesjardins2018|CITEREFDawsey2018|CITEREFStoddardMfula2018|CITEREFWeaver2018b}}{{sfn whitelist|CITEREFKranishFisher2017|CITEREFBlair2015|CITEREFO'DonnellRutherford1991}} ====Mapepala==== {{refbegin|30em}} * {{cite journal |last1=Adams |first1=Kenneth Alan |date=Spring 2021 |title=The Trump Death Cult |url=https://www.proquest.com/openview/c5d4601ebe8dcb232f9ab2965e900d70/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=35407 |journal=[[Journal of Psychohistory]] |volume=48 |issue=4 |access-date=February 22, 2026 |pages=256–276 |issn=0145-3378}} * {{cite journal |last1=Diamond |first1=Michael J. |date=February 22, 2023 |title=Perverted Containment: Trumpism, Cult Creation, and the Rise of Destructive American Populism |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/07351690.2023.2163147 |journal=Psychoanalytic Inquiry |volume=43 |issue=2 |access-date=February 22, 2026 |pages=96–109 |issn=0735-1690 |doi=10.1080/07351690.2023.2163147 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241106102947/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/07351690.2023.2163147 |archive-date=November 6, 2024 |publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]] |url-access=subscription}} * {{cite journal |first1=Douglas |last1=Almond |first2=Xinming |last2=Du |journal=[[Economics Letters]] |title=Later bedtimes predict President Trump's performance |volume=197 |doi=10.1016/j.econlet.2020.109590 |date=December 2020 |article-number=109590 |pmid=33012904 |pmc=7518119 |issn=0165-1765}} * {{cite journal |last=Berman |first=Sheri |author-link=Sheri Berman |date=May 2021 |title=The Causes of Populism in the West |journal=Annual Review of Political Science |volume=24 |issue= |pages=71–88 |issn=1094-2939 |doi=10.1146/annurev-polisci-041719-102503 |doi-access=free}} * {{cite journal |last1=Campani |first1=Giovanna |last2=Concepción |first2=Sunamis Fabelo |last3=Soler |first3=Angel Rodriguez |last4=Savín |first4=Claudia Sánchez |date=November 2, 2022 |title=The Rise of Donald Trump Right-Wing Populism in the United States: Middle American Radicalism and Anti-Immigration Discourse |journal=Societies |volume=12 |issue=6 |page=154 |doi=10.3390/soc12060154 |doi-access=free}} * {{cite journal |last1=Castañeda |first1=Ernesto |last2=Jenks |first2=Daniel |date=April 17, 2023 |title=January 6th and De-Democratization in the United States |editor-last1=Costa |editor-first1=Bruno Ferreira |editor-last2=Parton |editor-first2=Nigel |journal=Social Sciences |publisher=[[MDPI]] |volume=12 |issue=4 |pages=238–253 |doi=10.3390/socsci12040238 |doi-access=free |issn=2076-0760}} * {{cite journal |year=2018 |doi=10.1080/01463373.2018.1438485 |title=Make America Great Again: Donald Trump and Redefining the U.S. Role in the World |journal=[[Communication Quarterly]] |volume=66 |issue=2<!-- |pages=176–195 --> |page=176 |first=Jason A. |last=Edwards}} * {{cite journal |last1=Gaufman |first1=Elizaveta |last2=Ganesh |first2=Bharath |title=The Trump Carnival: Populism, Transgression and the Far Right Bias - Chapter 6: Laughing Culture |journal=De Gruyter Contemporary Social Sciences |volume=35 |date=2024 |pages=69–70 |doi=10.1515/9783111238135-006 |doi-access=free}} * {{cite journal |last1=Goldsmith |first1=Benajmin E. |last2=Moen |first2=Lars J. K. |date=May 14, 2024 |title=The personality of a personality cult? Personality characteristics of Donald Trump's most loyal supporters |journal=[[Political Psychology]] |volume=46 |issue=Special Issue |pages=225–243 |issn=0162-895X |doi=10.1111/pops.12991 |doi-access=free|hdl=1885/733752725 |hdl-access=free}} * {{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Kevin R. |author-link=Kevin Johnson (lawyer) |title=Immigration and civil rights in the Trump administration: Law and policy making by executive order |journal=[[Santa Clara Law Review]] |year=2017a |volume=57 |issue=3 |pages=611–665 |url=https://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?handle=hein.journals/saclr57&div=21&id=&page=}} * {{cite journal |last1=Johnson |first1=Kevin R. |author-link1=Kevin Johnson (lawyer) |last2=Cuison-Villazor |first2=Rose |title=The Trump Administration and the War on Immigration Diversity |journal=[[Wake Forest Law Review]] |date=May 2, 2019 |url=https://www.wakeforestlawreview.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/w10_VillazorJohnson.pdf |pages=575–616 |volume=54 |issue=2}} * {{cite journal |last1=Kaufman |first1=Robert R. |last2=Haggard |first2=Stephan |author-link2=Stephan Haggard |title=Democratic Decline in the United States: What Can We Learn from Middle-Income Backsliding? |journal=[[Perspectives on Politics]] |date=2019 |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=417–432 |doi=10.1017/S1537592718003377 |s2cid=149457724 |doi-access=free}} * {{cite journal |last1=Lajevardi |first1=Nazita |last2=Oskooii |first2=Kassra A. R. |year=2018 |title=Old-Fashioned Racism, Contemporary Islamophobia, and the Isolation of Muslim Americans in the Age of Trump |journal=Journal of Race, Ethnicity, and Politics |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=112–152 |doi=10.1017/rep.2017.37}} * {{cite journal |last=McGurk |first=Brett |author-link=Brett McGurk |url=https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/iran/2020-01-22/cost-incoherent-foreign-policy |title=The Cost of an Incoherent Foreign Policy: Trump's Iran Imbroglio Undermines U.S. Priorities Everywhere Else |journal=[[Foreign Affairs]] |date=January 22, 2020}} * {{cite journal |last1=Nacos |first1=Brigitte L. |author-link1=Brigitte L. Nacos |last2=Shapiro |first2=Robert Y. |author-link2=Robert Y. Shapiro |last3=Bloch-Elkon |first3=Yaeli |date=2020 |title=Donald Trump: Aggressive Rhetoric and Political Violence |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26940036 |journal=[[Perspectives on Terrorism]] |volume=14 |issue=5 |pages=2–25 |issn=2334-3745 |jstor=26940036 |access-date=January 20, 2025}} * {{cite journal |last=O'Brien |first=Shannon |url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-030-50551-6_3 |title=Donald Trump and the Kayfabe Presidency - Wrestling with the Presidency: How Donald Trump Uses Wrestling and Theatrical Tactics in the Public Sphere |journal=Rhetoric, Politics and Society |date=July 22, 2020 |doi=10.1007/978-3-030-50551-6_3 |pages=39–58 |url-access=subscription}} * {{cite journal |last1=Parker |first1=Christopher Sebastian |last2=Towler |first2=Christopher C. |date=May 2019 |title=Race and Authoritarianism in American Politics |journal=[[Annual Review of Political Science]] |volume=22 |issue= |pages=503–519 |issn=1094-2939 |doi=10.1146/annurev-polisci-050317-064519 |doi-access=free}} * {{cite journal |last1=Perry |first1=Samuel L. |author-link1=Samuel L. Perry |last2=Whitehead |first2=Andrew L. |last3=Grubbs |first3=Joshua B. |date=April 21, 2021 |title=The Devil That You Know: Christian Nationalism and Intent to Change One's Voting Behavior For or Against Trump in 2020 |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S175504832100002X/type/journal_article |journal=Politics and Religion |volume=15 |issue=2 |pages=229–246 |doi=10.1017/S175504832100002X |hdl=11244/334967 |hdl-access=free}} * {{cite journal |last1=Piazza |first1=James |last2=Van Doren |first2=Natalia |date=October 8, 2022 |title=It's About Hate: Approval of Donald Trump, Racism, Xenophobia and Support for Political Violence |journal=[[American Politics Research]] |volume=51 |issue=3 |pages=299–314 |issn=1532-673X |doi=10.1177/1532673X221131561 |pmid=40787175 |pmc=12333664}} * {{cite journal |last1=Pion-Berlin |first1=David |author-link1=David Pion-Berlin |last2=Bruneau |first2=Thomas |last3=Goetze |first3=Richard B. Jr. |date=April 7, 2022 |title=The Trump self-coup attempt: comparisons and civil–military relations |journal=[[Government and Opposition]] |volume=FirstView |issue=4 |pages=789–806 |doi=10.1017/gov.2022.13 |s2cid=248033246 |doi-access=free|hdl=10945/72654 |hdl-access=free}} * {{cite journal |last1=Reyes |first1=Antonio |date=May 4, 2020 |title=I, Trump The cult of personality, anti-intellectualism and the Post-Truth era |url=https://www.jbe-platform.com/content/journals/10.1075/jlp.20002.rey |journal=Journal of Language and Politics |volume=19 |issue=6 |access-date=February 22, 2026 |pages=869–892 |issn=1569-2159 |doi=10.1075/jlp.20002.rey |url-access=subscription}} * {{cite journal |last1=Rothe |first1=Dawn L. |last2=Collins |first2=Victoria E. |date=November 17, 2019 |title=Turning Back the Clock? Violence against Women and the Trump Administration |journal=Victims & Offenders |volume=14 |issue=8 |pages=965–978 |doi=10.1080/15564886.2019.1671284}} * {{cite journal |last=Ross |first=Bertrall L. |date=July 1, 2024 |title=Polarization, Populism, and the Crisis of American Democracy |journal=[[Annual Review of Law and Social Science]] |volume=20 |pages=293–308 |doi=10.1146/annurev-lawsocsci-041922-035113 |doi-access=free}} * {{cite journal |last1=Schaffner |first1=Brian F. |author-link1=Brian Schaffner |last2=Macwilliams |first2=Matthew |last3=Nteta |first3=Tatishe |date=March 2018 |title=Understanding White Polarization in the 2016 Vote for President: The Sobering Role of Racism and Sexism |journal=[[Political Science Quarterly]] |volume=133 |issue=1 |pages=9–34 |doi=10.1002/polq.12737 |doi-access=free}} * {{cite journal |last=Stephens-Dougan |first=LaFluer |date=May 2021 |title=The Persistence of Racial Cues and Appeals in American Elections |journal=[[Annual Review of Political Science]] |volume=24 |issue= |pages=301–320 |issn=1094-2939 |doi=10.1146/annurev-polisci-082619-015522 |doi-access=free}} * {{cite journal |last1=Sundahl |first1=Anne-Mette Holmgård |title=Personality Cult or a Mere Matter of Popularity? |journal=[[International Journal of Politics, Culture, and Society]] |volume=36 |issue=4 |date=May 4, 2022 |pages=431–458 |doi=10.1007/s10767-022-09423-0 |pmid=35528318 |pmc=9066393}} * {{cite journal |last=Urbinati |first=Nadia |author-link=Nadia Urbinati |date=May 2019 |title=Political Theory of Populism |url=https://www.annualreviews.org/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-polisci-050317-070753 |journal=[[Annual Review of Political Science]] |volume=22 |access-date=December 20, 2024 |pages=111–127 |issn=1094-2939 |doi=10.1146/annurev-polisci-050317-070753 |url-access=subscription}} {{refend}} ==Wonani vinandi== * [[Bibliography of Donald Trump#Credited to Trump|Books credited to Trump]] * [[Bibliography of Donald Trump#About Trump|Books about Trump]] ==Ma webusaiti== {{library resources box|by=yes}} <!-- Please be cautious about adding external links. 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kugwiriska ntchito munkhwala wakuzweteska]] [[Category:Ŵasambiri ŵa Wharton School]] 7pyphxdxfubdtjd3yl6jx5nacynxfen 0 7254 119322 118888 2026-08-13T22:50:01Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260813sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 119322 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|U.S. state}} {{about|the U.S. state}} {{pp-semi-indef|small=yes}} {{pp-move-indef}} {{Use mdy dates|date=December 2019}} {{Infobox U.S. state | official_name = State of Arkansas | name = Arkansas | image_flag = Flag of Arkansas.svg | flag_link = Flag of Arkansas | image_seal = Seal of Arkansas.svg | seal_link = Great Seal of Arkansas | image_map = Arkansas in United States.svg | nicknames = The Natural State (current){{break}}Land of Opportunity (former) | motto = ''[[Regnat populus]]'' ([[Latin]]: The People Rule) | anthem = "[[Arkansas (song)|Arkansas]]", "[[Arkansas (You Run Deep in Me)]]", "[[Oh, Arkansas]]", and "[[The Arkansas Traveler (song)|The Arkansas Traveler]]" | Former = Arkansas Territory | seat = [[Little Rock, Arkansas|Little Rock]] | OfficialLang = [[English language|English]]{<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://law.justia.com/codes/arkansas/2020/title-1/chapter-4/section-1-4-117/ |title= 2020 Arkansas Code Title 1 - General Provisions Chapter 4 - State Symbols, Motto, Etc. § 1-4-117. Official language |website=[[Justia|Justia US Law]] |access-date=27 April 2023}}</ref> | population_demonym = [[Adjectivals and demonyms for U.S. states|Arkansan{{break}}Arkansawyer{{break}}Arkanite]]<ref>Blevins 2009, p. 2.</ref> | LargestCity = capital | LargestMetro = [[Central Arkansas]] | Governor = {{nowrap|[[Sarah Huckabee Sanders]] ([[Republican Party (United States)|R]])}} | Lieutenant Governor = {{nowrap|[[Leslie Rutledge]] (R)}} | Legislature = [[Arkansas General Assembly]] | Upperhouse = [[Arkansas Senate|Senate]] | Lowerhouse = [[Arkansas House of Representatives|House of Representatives]] | Judiciary = [[Arkansas Supreme Court]] | Senators = {{nowrap|[[John Boozman]] (R)}}{{break}}{{nowrap|[[Tom Cotton]] (R)}} | Representative = 4 Republicans | postal_code = AR | TradAbbreviation = Ark. | area_rank = 29th | area_total_km2 = 137,732 | area_total_sq_mi = 53,179 | area_land_km2 = 134,771 | area_land_sq_mi = 52,035 | area_water_km2 = 2,961 | area_water_sq_mi = 1,143 | area_water_percent = 2.15 | population_as_of = 2020 | population_rank = 34th | 2010Pop = 3,013,756<ref name="Bureau 2021">{{cite web | last=Bureau | first=US Census | title=2020 Census Apportionment Results | website=The United States Census Bureau | date=2021-04-26 | url=https://www.census.gov/data/tables/2020/dec/2020-apportionment-data.html | access-date=2021-04-27}}</ref> | MedianHouseholdIncome = ${{round|49475|-2}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/quickfacts/fact/table/AR/INC110220|title=US Census Bureau QuickFacts|access-date=April 30, 2022}}</ref> | IncomeRank = [[List of U.S. states and territories by income#States and territories ranked by median household income|48th]] | population_density_rank = 34th | 2000Density = 21.8 | 2000DensityUS = 56.4 | AdmittanceOrder = 25th | AdmittanceDate = June 15, 1836 | timezone1 = [[Central Time Zone (North America)|Central]] | utc_offset1 = −06:00 | timezone1_DST = CDT | utc_offset1_DST = −05:00 | Latitude = 33° 00′ N to 36° 30′ N | Longitude = 89° 39′ W to 94° 37′ W | width_km = 435 | width_mi = 270 | length_km = 386 | length_mi = 240 | elevation_max_point = [[Mount Magazine]]<ref>{{cite ngs|id=FG1888|designation=Mag|access-date = October 20, 2011}}</ref><ref name=USGS>{{cite web|url=http://egsc.usgs.gov/isb/pubs/booklets/elvadist/elvadist.html |title=Elevations and Distances in the United States |publisher=[[United States Geological Survey]] |year=2001 |access-date=October 21, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111015012701/http://egsc.usgs.gov/isb/pubs/booklets/elvadist/elvadist.html |archive-date=October 15, 2011 }}</ref><ref name=NAVD88 group = "lower-alpha">Elevation adjusted to [[North American Vertical Datum of 1988]].</ref>{{refn|The Geographic Names Index System (GNIS) of the [[United States Geological Survey]] (USGS) indicates that the official name of this feature is Magazine Mountain, not "Mount Magazine". Although not a hard and fast rule, generally "Mount X" is used for a peak and "X Mountain" is more frequently used for ridges, which better describes this feature. Magazine Mountain appears in the GNIS as a ridge,<ref>{{cite web |url= {{GNIS 3|67051}} |title= Magazine Mountain |website= [[Geographic Names Information System]] | publisher= [[United States Geological Survey]] | access-date= January 2, 2013}}</ref> with Signal Hill identified as its summit.<ref name="sh">{{cite web |url= {{GNIS 3|73578}} |title = Signal Hill | website= Geographic Names Information System | publisher= United States Geological Survey | access-date = January 2, 2013 }}</ref> "[[Mount Magazine]]" is the name used by the [[Arkansas Department of Parks and Tourism]], which follows what the locals have used since the area was first settled.|group= "lower-alpha"}} | elevation_max_m = 839 | elevation_max_ft = 2,753 | elevation_m = 200 | elevation_ft = 650 | elevation_min_point = [[Ouachita River]] at {{nobreak |[[Louisiana]] border}}<ref name=USGS /><ref name=NAVD88 group="lower-alpha" /> | elevation_min_m = 17 | elevation_min_ft = 55 | iso_code = US-AR | website = www.arkansas.gov | Capital = | Representatives = }} {{Infobox region symbols|country=United States |state = Arkansas |image_flag = Flag of Arkansas.svg |image_seal = Seal of Arkansas.svg |bird = [[Northern mockingbird|Mockingbird]] |butterfly = [[Diana fritillary]] |flower = [[Apple]] blossom |insect = [[Western honeybee]] |mammal = [[White-tailed deer]] |tree = [[Pinus taeda|Pine tree]] |beverage = [[Milk]] |dance = [[Square dance]] |food = [[Pecan]] |gemstone = [[Diamond]] |mineral = [[Quartz]] |rock = [[Bauxite]] |soil = [[Stuttgart (soil)|Stuttgart]] |vegetable = [[Tomato|South Arkansas vine ripe pink tomato]] |image_route = Arkansas_1.svg |image_quarter = 2003 AR Proof.png |quarter_release_date = 2003 }} '''Arkansas''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|ɑːr|k|ən|s|ɔː|audio=En-us-Arkansas3.ogg}} {{Respell|AR|kən|saw}}<ref name="Arkansas" group = "lower-alpha"/>) ni boma ilo lili na mphepete mwa nyanja yayi ilo lili ku chigaŵa cha pakati na kumwera kwa United States.<ref>Jones, Daniel (1997) ''English Pronouncing Dictionary'', 15th ed. Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN|0-521-45272-4}}.</ref><ref name="wsc">{{cite web|title=Census Regions and Divisions of the United States |url=https://www.census.gov/geo/www/us_regdiv.pdf |publisher=Geography Division, United States Census Bureau |access-date=June 23, 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130120131930/http://www.census.gov/geo/www/us_regdiv.pdf |archive-date=January 20, 2013 }}</ref> Ku mpoto kuli [[Missouri]], kumafumiro gha dazi kuli [[Tennessee]] na [[Mississippi]], kumwera kuli Louisiana, ndipo kumanjiliro gha dazi kuli Texas na Oklahoma. Zina lake likufuma ku ciyowoyero ca Osage, ciyowoyero ca Dhegiha Siouan, ndipo likuyowoya za ŵabali ŵawo, ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Quapaw.<ref>{{cite journal |last= Lyon | first= Owen | title= The Trail of the Quapaw |journal= Arkansas Historical Quarterly | volume= 9 |date=Autumn 1950 | issue= 3 | pages= 206–7| doi= 10.2307/40017228 | jstor= 40017228 }}</ref> Malo ghakupambanapambana gha mu chigaŵa ichi ghakukwana ku mapiri gha Ozark na Ouachita, agho ghakupanga U.S. Ku mapiri gha ku America, ku malo gha nkhorongo gha ku Arkansas, ku mapiri gha ku Mississippi na Arkansas. Arkansas ni boma la 29 pa vigaŵa vikuru na la 34 pa vigaŵa ivyo vili na ŵanthu ŵanandi, ndipo ŵanthu awo ŵakukhala mu chigaŵa ichi ŵalipo ŵakujumpha 3 miliyoni.<ref name="Bureau 2021" /> Msumba ukuru na uwo uli na ŵanthu ŵanandi comene ni Little Rock, uwo uli pakati pa boma ili. Msumba uwu ndiwo ukwendeska vinthu vinandi, ni malo gha malonda, gha mitheto, na gha boma. Kumpoto chakumadzulo kwa chigawochi, kuphatikizapo Fayetteville  -  Springdale - Rogers Metropolitan Area ndi Fort Smith metropolitan area, ndi chigawo cha anthu, maphunziro, ndi chuma. Msumba ukuru comene uwo uli kumafumiro gha dazi kwa caru ici ni Jonesboro. Msumba ukuru comene uwo uli kumwera ca kumafumiro gha dazi kwa boma ili ni Pine Bluff. Charu cha Arkansas, icho kale chikaŵa chigaŵa cha French Louisiana, chikazomerezgeka kuŵa chigaŵa cha United States pa Juni 15, 1836.<ref>{{cite journal |last= Cash |first= Marie |title= Arkansas Achieves Statehood |journal= Arkansas Historical Quarterly |volume= 2 | date= December 1943 |issue= 4 |pages= 292–308 |doi= 10.2307/40018776 |jstor= 40018776 }}</ref> Mu Delta, ŵanthu ŵakamba kulima thonje, ndipo awo ŵakagwiranga nchito mu vigaŵa ivi ŵakagwiranga nchito za ŵazga ŵa ku America. Mu 1861, boma la Arkansas likafumako ku United States ndipo likamba kuwungana na Confederate States of America mu nyengo ya Nkhondo ya pa Caru Cose. Ŵakati ŵawelera ku United States mu 1868, boma la Arkansas likalutilira kusuzgika pa nkhani ya ndalama chifukwa cha kugomezga chomene ulimi wa minda yikuruyikuru. Cotton ndiyo yikaŵa cakurya cikuru comene, ndipo msika wa cotton ukakhira. Pakuti ŵalimi na ŵamalonda ŵakaŵavya vinthu vinandi, ndipo mafakitale ghakaŵavya ndalama zinandi, boma likaŵa na suzgo la ndalama. Kuumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1800, boma likapeleka malango ghanyake agho ghakaŵa nga ni la Jim Crow kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku America awo ŵakaŵa ŵa ku Africa ŵaleke kupika wanangwa wa kusankha. Ŵazungu ndiwo ŵakendeskanga ndyali mu boma la Arkansas, ndipo ŵakaŵavya wanangwa wa kuvota. Ŵakaŵavya wanangwa wa kuvota. Pa nyengo ya nkhondo ya wanangwa wa ŵanthu ya m'ma 1950 na 1960, ku Arkansas na ku Little Rock kukaŵa nkhondo yikuru iyo yikacitikanga kuti ŵasambizgi ŵa sukulu ŵakolerane. Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Caru Cose yikati yamara, mu 1940, boma la Arkansas likamba kuŵa na vinthu vinandi ndipo vinthu vikendanga makora. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1960, boma ili ndilo likaŵa likuru la kampani ya Walmart, iyo yikaŵa yikuru chomene pa charu chose. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 2000, chuma cha ku Arkansas chikuthemba pa ntchito za pa msewu, ndege, viyuni, visulo, na vyakurya vya ku malo ghakupambanapambana. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Arkansas ŵakusangika mu nyumba zakuwoneskeramo vinthu vyakale, mu malo ghakuwoneskeramo mafilimu, mu mabuku, pa TV, mu malo ghakurya, na mu malo ghanyake ghakuwoneskeramo maseŵero. Ŵanthu ŵakumanyikwa ku chigaŵa ichi ni William Fulbright, uyo wakaŵa wandale kweniso wakwimira masambiro gha ŵanthu; Bill Clinton, uyo wakaŵaso kazembe wa chigaŵa cha Arkansas; Wesley Clark, uyo wakaŵaso mulongozgi wa ŵasilikari ŵa NATO; Sam Walton, uyo wakambiska Walmart; Johnny Cash, Charlie Rich, Jimmy Driftwood, na Glen Campbell; Billy Bob Thornton, uyo wakapanganga mafilimu; C. D. Wright; William L. McMillan, uyo wakambiska kafukufuku wakukhwaskana na vinthu ivyo vikwenda makora comene; Maya Angelou, uyo wali kupika nkhombo ya Nobel; Douglas MacArthur; Al Green, uyo wakwimba; Alan Ladd, uyo wakwimba; Scottie Pippen, uyo wakuseŵera basketball; Ne-Yo, uyo wakwimba; Chelsea Clinton; Sheryl Underwood, uyo wakwimba; na John Grisham, uyo wakulemba mabuku.<ref>{{cite news |last= Parker |first= Suzy |title= Arkansas's hillbilly image persists into 21st century |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-hillbilly-arkansas-idUSTRE78O2UT20110925 |location= Little Rock, AR |date= September 25, 2011 |work = Reuters }}</ref> ==Zina== {{Listen | filename = En-us-Arkansas.ogg | title = Kuyowoyeka kwa Arkansas | description = | pos = left }} Zina lakuti Arkansas pakwamba likayowoyanga vya Mlonga wa Arkansas. Lizgu ili likung'anamulika kufuma ku lizgu la Cifurenci lakuti, Arkansas, ilo ni lizgu la ŵanthu ŵanandi ilo likung'anamulika kufuma ku lizgu lakuti akansa, ilo ni lizgu la ŵanthu ŵa ku Algonquian la ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Quapaw. Ŵanthu aŵa ŵakaŵa ŵa mtundu wa Dhegiha Siouan ndipo ŵakakhala mu Arkansas ca m'ma 1200. Zina lakuti Kansa likwenera kuti likufuma ku zina la msumba wa Kansas, uwo ukathya zina la ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Kaw.<ref name="bright">{{cite book |last1=Bright |first1=William |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5XfxzCm1qa4C&q=Akancea%2C%20Acansea%2C%20Acansa%20(Dickinson%2C%201995)&pg=PA47 |title=Native American Placenames of the United States |date=2007 |publisher=University of Oklahoma Press |isbn=978-0-806135984 |location=Norman |page=47}}</ref> Zina ili likuzunulika na kulembeka mu nthowa zakupambanapambana.<ref name="Arkansas" group = "lower-alpha"/> Mu 1881, boma la Arkansas likati mazgu gha mu malo agha ghakwenera kuŵa na "s" yayi (nga umo vikuŵira mu Cifurenci). Pakaŵa mphindano pakati pa ŵaŵiri ŵa mu wupu wa ŵalara ŵa boma pa nkhani ya umo mazgu ghakwenera kuyowoyekera. Ŵanyake ŵakumutemwa {{IPAc-en|ˈ|ɑr|k|ən|s|ɔː}} ({{respell|AR|kən|saw}}), ndipo ŵanji {{IPAc-en|ɑr|ˈ|k|æ|n|z|ə|s}} ({{respell|ar|KAN|zəs}}).{{Refn | name="Arkansas" | group = "lower-alpha" | The region was organized as the [[Territory of Arkansaw]] on July 4, 1819, but the territory was admitted to the United States as the state of Arkansas on June 15, 1836. The name was historically pronounced {{IPAc-en|ˈ|ɑr|k|ən|s|ɔː}}, {{IPAc-en|ɑr|ˈ|k|æ|n|z|ə|s}}, and several other variants. The residents of Arkansas have called themselves either "Arkansans" or "Arkansawyers". In 1881, the [[Arkansas General Assembly]] passed the following concurrent resolution, now Arkansas Code{{nbs}}1 April{{nbs}}105:<ref>{{Cite journal|url=http://www.arkleg.state.ar.us/assembly/ArkansasCode/0/1-4-105.htm |format=official text |title=Code |place=AR, [[United States|US]] |publisher=Assembly |issue=1‐4‐105 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110924223556/http://www.arkleg.state.ar.us/assembly/ArkansasCode/0/1-4-105.htm |archive-date=September 24, 2011 }}</ref> {{Blockquote |Whereas, confusion of practice has arisen in the pronunciation of the name of our state and it is deemed important that the true pronunciation should be determined for use in oral official proceedings. And, whereas, the matter has been thoroughly investigated by the State Historical Society and the Eclectic Society of Little Rock, which have agreed upon the correct pronunciation as derived from history, and the early usage of the American immigrants. Be it therefore resolved by both houses of the General Assembly, that the only true pronunciation of the name of the state, in the opinion of this body, is that received by the French from the native Indians and committed to writing in the French word representing the sound. It should be pronounced in three (3) syllables, with the final "s" silent, the "a" in each syllable with the Italian sound, and the accent on the first and last syllables. The pronunciation with the accent on the second syllable with the sound of "a" in "man" and the sounding of the terminal "s" is discouraged by Arkansans.}} Despite this, the state's name is still frequently mispronounced, especially by non-Americans; in fact, it is spelled in [[Cyrillic alphabet|Cyrillic]] with the {{respell|ar|KAN|zəs}} pronunciation. Citizens of the [[state of Kansas]] often pronounce the [[Arkansas River]] as {{IPAc-en|ɑr|ˈ|k|æ|n|z|ə|s}}, in a manner similar to the common pronunciation of the name of their state.}} Mu 2007, wupu wa malango wa boma ukadumura fundo yambura kuzomerezgeka iyo yikayowoya kuti zina la boma ni Arkansas, ndipo boma la boma ili likulondezga fundo iyi.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://itre.cis.upenn.edu/~myl/languagelog/archives/004291.html|title=Language Log: Arkansas apostrophism|website=Itre.cis.upenn.edu|access-date=April 17, 2021}}</ref> ==Mbili== {{Main|History of Arkansas}} ===Early history=== [[File:Chromesun toltec mounds photo01.jpg|thumb|left|[[Platform mound]]s were constructed frequently during the [[Woodland Period|Woodland]] and [[Mississippian culture|Mississippian periods]].]] Pambere ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe ŵandambe kukhala ku North America, ŵanthu ŵa ku Arkansas ŵakakhalanga mu charu ichi vyaka vinandi. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Caddo, Osage, na Quapaw ŵakakumana na ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe awo ŵakamba kupenja malo. Munthu wakwamba kufika ku Europe wakaŵa Hernando de Soto wa ku Spain mu 1541, ndipo wakambuka Mlonga wa Mississippi na kwambuka Arkansas na mapiri gha Ozark. Wakati wasanga kuti palije cinthu cilicose cakuzirwa ndipo wakakumana na ŵanthu ŵa ku malo agha, iyo na ŵanalume ŵake ŵakawelera ku Mlonga wa Mississippi uko De Soto wakalwara. Apo wakaŵa pafupi kufwa, wakalangura ŵanalume ŵake kuti ŵakome ŵanalume wose ŵa mu muzi wapafupi wa Anilco, awo wakawopanga kuti ŵakakolerananga na gulu linyake lankhongono ku Quigualtam. Ŵanalume ŵake ŵakapulikira ndipo ŵakakoma ŵanalume pera yayi, kweni ŵakakomaso ŵanakazi na ŵana wuwo. Wakafwira pafupi na McArthur, Arkansas, mu Meyi 1542. Thupi lake likathika na mchenga ndipo ŵanthu ŵake ŵakamuŵika mu dindi la maji mu Mlonga wa Mississippi. De Soto wakayezga kupusika ŵanthu ŵa ku malo agha kuti ŵaghanaghanenge kuti iyo ni ciuta wambura kufwa, zuŵa la dazi, mwakuti ŵaleke kutimbanizgika na Ŵamwenye ŵa ku America awo ŵakakwiya na ŵasilikari ŵake awo pa nyengo iyi ŵakaŵa kuti ŵamba kufota. Kuti ŵalutilire kucita cinthu ici, ŵanalume ŵake ŵakaphalira ŵanthu ŵa mu cigaŵa ici kuti De Soto wakwera kucanya. Wati wafwa, wakalemba mu chikalata chake kuti "ŵapika ŵanayi ŵa ku India, mahachi ghatatu, na nkhumba 700" ŵaguliskike. Ŵanalume aŵa ŵakamba kukoma nkhumba, ndipo pamasinda, ŵakayezga kuwelera ku Mexico. Ŵakafika ku Texas pambere ŵandafike mu cigaŵa ico kukaŵa kwakomira comene kuti munthu wangalimamo tirigu, ndipo ŵanthu ŵakaŵanga ŵacoko comene mwakuti ŵakatondekanga kusanga cakurya mwa kwiba ŵanthu ŵa mu cigaŵa ici. Ŵakawelera ku Arkansas mwaluŵiro. Ŵakati ŵapanga maboti ghacoko waka, ŵakakhilira ku Mississippi ndipo pamasinda ŵakaluta ku Mexico.<ref name="HUDSONKNIGHTS">{{cite book| author-link =Charles M. Hudson (author) |last= Hudson| first=Charles M.|title= Knights of Spain, Warriors of the Sun| url =https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780820318882 | url-access =registration | year=1997|publisher= [[University of Georgia Press]] |pages = [https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780820318882/page/341 341–351] |isbn= 9780820318882}}</ref><ref>Davidson, James West. ''After the Fact: The Art of Historical Detection'' Volume 1. Mc Graw Hill, New York 2010, Chapter 1, p. 2,3</ref> Mu 1673, ŵanthu ŵa ku France, Jacques Marquette na Louis Jolliet, ŵakaluta ku malo agha, ndipo mu 1681, ŵanthu ŵa ku France, Robert La Salle na Henri de Tonti, nawo ŵakaluta ku malo agha. Mu 1686, Tonti wakambiska malo ghakucemeka Arkansas Post mu muzi wa Quapaw, ndipo uwu ukaŵa msumba wakwamba wa ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe kukhala mu chigaŵa ichi. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Spain panji ŵa ku France ndiwo ŵakamba kupenja malo agha, ndipo ŵakacipa zina ili. Zina ili likwenera kuti likafuma ku zina la fuko la Quapaw, ilo likakhalanga musi mwa mlonga.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://listserv.linguistlist.org/cgi-bin/wa?A2=ind0302b&L=ads-l&P=7800 |title=Linguist list 14.4 |publisher=Listserv.linguistlist.org |date=February 11, 2003 |access-date=July 30, 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081208035440/http://listserv.linguistlist.org/cgi-bin/wa?A2=ind0302b&L=ads-l&P=7800 |archive-date=December 8, 2008 }}</ref><ref name="Arkansas" group="lower-alpha" /> Zina lakuti Arkansas likuzunulika na kulembeka mu nthowa zakupambanapambana. Chigaŵa ichi chikapangika kuŵa chigaŵa cha Arkansaw pa Julayi 4, 1819, ndipo pa Juni 15, 1836, chikapangika kuŵa chigaŵa cha Arkansas. Zina ili kale likaŵa /ˈɑːrkənsɔː/, /ɑːrˈkænzəs/, na ghanyake ghanandi. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Arkansas ŵakujichema kuti "Arkansans" panji "Arkansawyers". Mu 1881, Nyumba ya Malamulo ya ku Arkansas yikapeleka dango la Arkansas Code 1-4-105 (lemba lakuzomerezgeka): <blockquote>Pakuti pali kukhuŵara pa umo zina la boma lithu likuyowoyekera, ntchakukhumbikwa kumanya umo zina ili likuyowoyekera nadi para tikuyowoya na ŵalara ŵa boma.</blockquote> <blockquote>Ndipo nkhani iyi yasanda makora comene na wupu wa State Historical Society na wa Eclectic Society of Little Rock, ndipo wose ŵakukolerana kuti zina ili likwenera kuzunulika makora.</blockquote> <blockquote>Ntheura nyumba zose ziŵiri za wupu wa malango zikwenera kusankhirathu kuti zina la boma ili, ilo likuyowoyeka na ŵanthu ŵa ku France, ndilo likazunulikanga makora na ŵanthu ŵa ku India, ndipo likalembeka mu mazgu gha Chifurenchi agho ghakwimira lizgu ili. Lizgu ili likwenera kuzunulika mu vilembo vitatu, ndipo paumaliro wa vilembo ivi, "s" waleke kuzunulika, ndipo pa vilembo vyose viŵiri, "a" waleke kuzunulika, ndipo pa vilembo vyose viŵiri, "a" waleke kuzunulika, ndipo pa vilembo vyose viŵiri, "a" waleke kuzunulika. Kuyowoya mazgu mwakudumura pa lizgu laciŵiri na lizgu la "a" mu "man" na lizgu laumaliro la "s" ni cinthu ciphya ico tikwenera kucikanizga.</blockquote> Ŵanthu ŵa ku chigaŵa cha Kansas kanandi ŵakuzunura mlonga wa Arkansas kuti /ɑːrˈkænzəs ˈrɪvər/, mu nthowa yakuyana waka na umo zina la chigaŵa chawo likuyowoyekera. Ŵanthu awo ŵakambanga kukhalamo, nga ni awo ŵakagwiranga nchito ya kupenja vikumba, ŵakasamira ku Arkansas mu vyaka vya m'ma 1700. Ŵanthu aŵa ŵakagwiliskiranga nchito ofesi ya Arkansas Post nga ni malo ghakusungiramo katundu. Mu nyengo ya Ŵakoloni, caru ca Arkansas cikaŵa mu mawoko gha France na Spain pamasinda pa Nkhondo ya Vyaka 7, nangauli pakaŵavya uyo wakakhumbanga kuti malo agha ghaŵe gha Ŵakoloni. Mu Epulero 1783, ku Arkansas kukacitika nkhondo yimoza pera mu Nkhondo ya Kujiyimira ku America, apo ŵasilikari ŵa boma la Britain, Captain James Colbert na ŵasilikari ŵa mtundu wa Choctaw na Chickasaw, ŵakazingilizga malo agha kwa kanyengo.<ref>{{cite journal |last= Din |first= Gilbert C. |title= Arkansas Post in the American Revolution |journal= The Arkansas Historical Quarterly |date= Spring 1981 |volume= 40 |issue= 1 |pages= 17–28 |doi= 10.2307/40023280 |jstor= 40023280 }}</ref> ===Purchase and statehood=== {{Main|Louisiana Purchase|District of Louisiana|Louisiana Territory|Missouri Territory|Organic act#List of organic acts|Arkansas Territory}} [[File:Arkansasterritory.PNG|thumb|Map of the [[Arkansas Territory]]]] Mu 1803, Napoleon Bonaparte wakaguliska Louisiana ku United States, pamoza na chigaŵa chose cha Arkansas. Ŵasilikari ŵa ku France ŵakakhalanga ku Arkansas Post. Ŵakati ŵagura malo agha, vinthu vikamba kusintha pakati pa ŵanthu ŵa ku America na ŵa ku Arkansas. Ŵakapangana kuti ŵazga ŵaŵepo mu chigaŵa ichi, ndipo pa Julayi 4, 1819 ŵakaŵika boma la Arkansas. Mu Arkansas, ŵanthu ŵakakana kuti ŵazga ŵaŵe ŵazga, ndipo mulara wa nyumba ya malango, Henry Clay, wakazomerezga kuti ŵazga ŵaŵe ŵazga. Mu Arkansas, nkhani ya wuzga yikaŵa yakusuzga chomene, ndipo yikaŵa yakusuzga kwa vyaka vinandi. Awo ŵakagwiranga nchito ya kulima vipasi ku Arkansas ŵakakhozgeranga comene wuzga, cifukwa ŵakawonanga kuti nchito ya muzga ndiyo yikaŵa yiwemi panji "yekha" yakovwira pa mulimo wa kuvuna. "Chipiri" cha kumpoto chakumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Arkansas chikaŵavya vyakurya vyakupambanapambana, ndipo ŵanthu ŵakagwiranga waka ntchito zaulimi.<ref>Scroggs 1961, pp. 231–232.</ref> Apo ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe ŵakamba kukhala mu vigaŵa vyose vya East Coast na Midwest, mu ma 1830, boma la United States likamba kufumiska mafuko ghanandi gha ku America na kughatolera ku Arkansas na Indian Territory kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Mlonga wa Mississippi. Ŵakaŵafumiskaso mu 1833 apo ŵakaŵachimbizganga mu chigaŵa icho chikaŵa pasi pa Ŵachiindiya. Mu 1821, msumba ukuru ukasamuka ku Arkansas Post na kuluta ku Little Rock.<ref>{{cite journal |title= Territorial Governors of Arkansas |last= Eno |first= Clara B. |journal= Arkansas Historical Quarterly |date= Winter 1945 |volume= 4 |issue= 4 |page= 278 |doi= 10.2307/40018362 |jstor= 40018362 }}</ref>{{See also|Admission to the Union|List of U.S. states by date of admission to the Union}} Apo boma la Arkansas likapempha kuti liŵe laciŵiri ku United States, nkhani ya wuzga yikayambikaso ku Washington, D.C. Paumaliro, pamanyuma pa maora 25, khoti likakolerana na dango la Arkansas, ndipo pa Juni 15, 1836, likapokelera Arkansas kuŵa boma la nambara 25 kweniso la nambara 13. Boma la Arkansas likaŵa na suzgo la misonkho, ndipo suzgo ili likalutilira chifukwa cha suzgo la ndalama, kweniso chifukwa cha suzgo la vyachuma ilo likaŵako mu 1837.<ref>Scroggs 1961, p. 243.</ref> ===Civil War and Reconstruction=== {{Main|Ordinance of Secession|Confederate States of America|Arkansas in the American Civil War}} [[File:Lakeport Plantation, Lake Village, Chicot County, Arkansas.jpg|thumb|[[Lakeport Plantation]], built {{circa|1859}}]] Mu nyengo ya nkhondo, ŵanthu ŵakagwiliskiranga nchito ŵazga kuti ŵasange ndalama. Pa zuŵa lakwamba la nkhondo ya cikaya ya ku America mu 1860, ŵazga ŵa ku America awo ŵakaŵa ŵa ku Africa ŵakaŵa 111,115, ndipo ŵakaŵa pafupifupi 25 peresenti ya ŵanthu wose ŵa mu boma ili. Nkhondo yikati yamara, ŵanthu ŵakamba kulimbikira chomene kulima thonje, ndipo ivi vikapangiska kuti boma na chigaŵa ichi vileke kuŵa pa mtende na charu vyaka vinandi. Usambazi uwo ŵanthu ŵa ku Arkansas ŵakasanganga ukacitiska kuti paŵe kugaŵikana pa ndyali pakati pa Northwest na Southeast. Ŵandyali ŵanandi ŵakasankhika kufuma mu gulu la Family, ilo likaŵa gulu lakuvikilira wanangwa wa ŵanthu ŵa ku South ku Arkansas pambere nkhondo yindambe. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakakhumbanga kuti nkhondo yileke kucitika. Apo vyaru vya ku Gulf vikafumako ku United States mu 1861, ŵimiliri ŵa ungano uwo ukacitikira ku Arkansas ŵakadumbiskana usange Arkansas nayo yikwenera kufumako ku United States.<ref name="bol">Bolton 1999, p. 22.</ref> Ŵasilikari ŵa boma la Arkansas ŵakafumapo yayi mu boma ili m'paka apo Abraham Lincoln wakapempha kuti ŵatumizge ŵasilikari ku Fort Sumter kuti ŵakakome ŵanthu awo ŵakagalukira boma. Pa Meyi 6, ŵimiliri ŵa boma la Arkansas, ŵakati ŵakumbuskika na mulongozgi wa boma ili, ŵakavota kuti boma la Arkansas lileke kuŵa mu wupu wa United States na kunjira mu wupu wa Confederate States of America.<ref name="bol" />[[File:Cannons from Battle of Pea Ridge, 2016.jpg|thumb|Cannons at [[Battle of Pea Ridge]] site]] Boma la Arkansas likaŵa lakuzirwa comene ku ŵakugaluka, cifukwa likaŵa na mazaza pa Mlonga wa Mississippi na vigaŵa vinyake vya kumwera. Nkhondo ya ku Wilson's Creek iyo yikachitikira ku Missouri, yikawofya ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Arkansas awo ŵakaghanaghananga kuti nkhondo iyi yizamovwira kuti Ŵamwera ŵathereske luŵiro. Nkhondo izo zikachitika ku Arkansas, zikusazgapo Nkhondo ya Cane Hill, Nkhondo ya Pea Ridge, na Nkhondo ya Prairie Grove. Mu 1862, Samuel Curtis, uyo wakaŵa mulara wa ŵasilikari ŵa boma la Union, wakambukira ku Helena mu Delta. Chaka chakulondezgapo, msumba wa Little Rock ukapokeka. Boma likawuskako likuru la Confederate ku Hot Springs, ndipo kufuma apo likaweleraso ku Washington kufuma mu 1863 kufika mu 1865, mpaka nkhondo yikamara. Mu cigaŵa cose ici, nkhondo za ŵasilikari zikayuzga mizi na kuparanya misumba. Ŵakapulikiranga yayi ivyo ŵasilikari ŵa Confederate ŵakayowoyanga. Kuyana na dango la Reconstruction Act, Congress yikayowoya kuti boma la Arkansas laweleraso ku United States mu Juni 1868, pamanyuma pakuti boma la Arkansas lazomera ivyo vyayowoyeka mu dango la 14 la mu United States. Wupu wakulongozga wa Republican ukakhazikiska mazaza gha ŵanalume (nangauli nyengo yeneyiyo ŵakakanizga ŵasilikari ŵa Confederate awo wose ŵakaŵa ŵa Democrats), sukulu ya ŵanthu wose ya ŵanthu ŵafipa na ŵazungu, na kukhazikiska malango ghakovwira kuti boma liŵe na ŵanthu ŵanandi. Boma ili likamba kulongozgeka na ŵa Radical Republicans na ŵa Unionists, ndipo ŵakalongozgekanga na Kazembe Powell Clayton, ndipo ŵakalongozga nyengo iyo vinthu vikasuzga chomene chifukwa ŵanthu ŵa ku Confederate na ŵa Ku Klux Klan ŵakalimbana na vinthu viphya, chomenechomene vya kuvota kwa ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa. ===End of Reconstruction and late 19th century=== Mu 1874, Nkhondo ya Brooks-Baxter, iyo yikaŵa pakati pa magulu gha chipani cha Republican, yikasunkhunya Little Rock na boma. Kweni nkhani iyi yikamara apo Pulezidenti Ulysses S. Grant wakalangura Joseph Brooks kuti waparanyenge ŵalwani ŵake. Nkhondo ya Brooks-Baxter yikati yamara, boma liphya likazomerezga dango la boma, ndipo likapeleka wanangwa ku awo ŵakaŵa ku Confederate, na kumazga Reconstruction. Mu 1881, boma la Arkansas likapeleka dango lakuti zina la boma ili lipharazgike mwakupambana na umo likayowoyekeranga. (Wonani Law and Government pasi apa.) Pamanyuma pa nyengo ya Reconstruction, boma ili likamba kupokelera ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakasamira ku United States. Ŵanalume ŵa ku China, Italy, na ku Syria ŵakagwiranga nchito za mu minda mu cigaŵa ca Delta. Palije yumoza wa ŵanthu aŵa uyo wakakhala nyengo yitali ku munda; comene-comene Ŵacitchayina, cifukwa ŵakazgoka ŵamalonda ŵacoko mu matawuni ghakuzingilizga Delta. Ŵacina ŵanandi ŵakamba kucita malonda mu matawuni ghacoko, mwakuti ŵana ŵawo ŵakasambira ku koleji.<ref>William D. Baker, ''[http://www.arkansaspreservation.org/pdf/publications/Minority_Settlement.pdf Minority Settlement in the Mississippi River Counties of the Arkansas Delta, 1870–1930] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080527190216/http://www.arkansaspreservation.org/pdf/publications/Minority_Settlement.pdf |date=May 27, 2008 }}'', Arkansas Preservation Commission. Retrieved May 14, 2008</ref> Kuzengeka kwa njanji kukawovwira kuti ŵalimi ŵanandi ŵafike pa msika. Vinthu vikasintha mu vigaŵa vinyake vya boma ili, nga ni Ozarks, uko ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakamba kukhala mu malo ghakupumulirako. Mwaciyelezgero, mu vilimika vicoko waka kuumaliro wa vilimika vya m'ma 1800, msumba wa Eureka Springs, ku Carroll County, ukaŵa na ŵanthu 10,000. Mu tawuni iyi mukaŵa mahotelo ghaphya na malo ghakupumulirapo agho ghakazengeka kuzingilizga visimi vya maji, ivyo ŵanthu ŵakaghanaghananga kuti ni vyakovwira pa umoyo. Mu tawuni iyi mukaŵanga maseŵero gha kucimbira pa mahaci na vyakusanguluska vinyake. Ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yakupambanapambana ŵakakolerananga nayo comene, ndipo ŵakamba kutemweka comene nga ni umo ŵakutemwera maji ghakuzizima. ===Rise of the Jim Crow laws and early 20th century=== {{See also|Elaine massacre}} [[File:Colored boys playing on top of Coca Cola stand. Little Rock, Arkansas.jpg|thumb|upright|right|A group of [[African American]] boys in [[Little Rock, Arkansas|Little Rock]] in 1938.]] Kuumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1880, suzgo ya vyaulimi yikakura chomene, ndipo ivi vikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yinyake ŵambe kukolerana. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1890, Ŵademocratic ku Arkansas ŵakalondezga ivyo vyaru vinyake vya kumwera vikacita, ŵakazomerezga malango agho ghakakanizganga ŵanthu ŵafipa na ŵakavu kuŵa na wanangwa wa kusankha. Mu 1891 ŵaboma ŵakazomerezga kuti paŵe mayeso gha kuŵazga na kulemba, cifukwa ŵakamanyanga kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵafipa na ŵazungu ŵaleke kuŵazgika. Pa nyengo iyo, ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 25 peresenti mu caru ici ŵakamanyanga yayi kuŵazga na kulemba. Mu 1892, ŵakasintha dango la boma kuti ŵaŵike msonkho pa ŵanthu awo ŵakukhala mu chigaŵa icho, ndipo ivi vikakhwaska chomene ŵanthu ŵakavu na ŵalimi ŵacitima, ndipo ŵakafumiska ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵafipa na ŵazungu ŵanandi awo ŵakaŵa ŵakavu mu mavoti. Kuzakafika mu 1900, chipani cha Democratic Party chikamba kugwiliskira nchito mazina gha ŵanthu ŵacisungu pa mavoti gha mu vigaŵa na gha mu vigaŵa, ndipo ici cikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵafipa ŵaleke kunjira mu ndyali. Pa mavoti ghakwambilira pera ndipo pakaŵa mpikisano pakati pa awo ŵakakhumbanga kupika maudindo, chifukwa awo ŵakaŵa na mazaza ghose ŵakaŵa ŵa chipani cha Democratic. Boma ili likaŵa la chipani chimoza cha Democratic kwa vyaka vinandi, mpaka apo ŵakazomerezga dango la Civil Rights Act la mu 1964 na Voting Rights Act la mu 1965 kuti ŵanthu ŵaŵeso na wanangwa wakuvota.<ref>[http://www.oldstatehouse.com/educational_programs/classroom/arkansas_news/detail.asp?id=800&issue_id=36&page=3 "White Primary" System Bars Blacks from Politics—1900, ''The Arkansas News'', Old State House, Spring 1987, p.3. Retrieved March 22, 2008.] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090115152140/http://www.oldstatehouse.com/educational_programs/classroom/arkansas_news/detail.asp?id=800&issue_id=36&page=3 |date=January 15, 2009 }}</ref> Pakati pa 1905 na 1911, ku Arkansas kukamba kwiza ŵanthu ŵachoko waka ŵa ku Germany, Slovakia, na Scots-Irish kufuma ku Europe. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Germany na ku Slovakia ŵakamba kukhala mu vigaŵa vya kumafumiro gha dazi kwa charu ichi, ndipo ŵanthu ŵa ku Ireland ŵakamba kukhala mu vigaŵa vya kumwera kwa charu ichi. Ŵanandi ŵa ku Germany ŵakaŵa ŵa Lutere ndipo ŵa ku Slovakia ŵakaŵa Ŵakatolika. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Ireland ŵakaŵa ŵaprotesitanti ŵa ku Ulster, Scots, na Northern Borders. Mu virimika vya m'ma 1900, ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakafuma ku mafumiro gha dazi kwa Europe. Ŵanthu aŵa ŵakapangiska kuti mu Delta muŵe ŵanthu ŵanandi kuluska mu vigaŵa vinyake. Mu vyaka ivi, ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵafipa ŵakasamira mu chigaŵa ichi chifukwa chakuti kukaŵa malo ghawemi ghakukanilira vyakurya na katundu wawo. Ŵakulima ŵafipa ŵakamba kuyezga kupanga wupu wa ŵalimi pamanyuma pa Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Caru Cose. Ŵakapemphanga ŵabwana ŵacaru ŵa ku malo agha kuti ŵaŵapenge ndalama zinandi. Ŵazungu ŵakakhumbanga yayi kuti vinthu visinthe ndipo kanandi ŵakayezganga kutimbanizga maungano ghawo. Pa Seputembala 30, 1919, ŵazungu ŵaŵiri, kusazgapo nduna yinyake, ŵakakhumba kutimbanizga ungano wa ŵanthu ŵafipa awo ŵakakhumbanga kupanga wupu wa ŵalimi. Pamanyuma pakuti mulara wa ŵasilikari wazungu wakomeka pa ungano uwu, nkhani iyi yikathandazgika mu tawuni yose. Ŵazungu ŵanandi ŵa ku Phillips na vigaŵa vyapafupi ŵakacimbira kuti ŵakome ŵazungu, ndipo ŵakamba kuŵawukira. Kazembe Charles Hillman Brough wakapempha ŵasilikari ŵa boma kuti ŵalekeske ivyo ŵakacemanga kuti kukomeka kwa Elaine. Ŵazungu ŵakambukira mu chigaŵa chose, ŵakakoma ŵanthu ŵafipa pafupifupi 237 pambere nkhaza zikamara pa Okutobala 1.<ref name="encyclopediaofarkansas.net">[http://www.encyclopediaofarkansas.net/encyclopedia/entry-detail.aspx?entryID=1102 Elaine Massacre, Arkansas Encyclopedia of History and Culture]; accessed April 3, 2008.</ref> Ŵazungu ŵankhondi nawo ŵakakomeka. Kazembe uyu wakaluta na ŵasilikari aŵa ku malo agha, ndipo Pulezidenti Woodrow Wilson wakazomerezga kuti ŵagwirenge nchito ŵasilikari aŵa.[[File:Arkansas State Planning Board Areas Inundated by Flood in 1927.jpg|thumb|Map of the flood of 1927 in Arkansas]] Cigumula cikuru ico cikacitika mu 1927, cikazuzga malo agho ghakaŵa mumphepete mwa Mlonga wa Ouachita na milonga yinyake yinandi. Pakulondezga dango la Pulezidenti Franklin D. Pamasinda pakuti boma la Japan laŵawukira ku Pearl Harbor, ŵanthu pafupifupi 16,000 ŵa ku Japan ŵakafumiskika ku West Coast na kuŵikika mu misasa yiŵiri ku Arkansas Delta. Msasa wa Rohwer uwo ukaŵa mu Desha County, ukaŵako kwambira mu Seputembala 1942 m'paka mu Novembala 1945. Mu msasa uwu mukaŵa ŵakayidi pafupifupi 8,475. Ku malo agha kukaŵanga ŵanthu pafupifupi 8,000.<ref name="encyclopedia">{{cite web |title=Japanese American Relocation Camps—Encyclopedia of Arkansas |url=http://www.encyclopediaofarkansas.net/encyclopedia/entry-detail.aspx?entryID=2273 |website=encyclopediaofarkansas.net}}</ref> ===Fall of segregation=== Khoti Likuru Chomene likati kusankhana mitundu mu masukulu gha boma nkhuswa dango. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas (1954), ŵasambiri ŵanyake ŵakagwiranga nchito ya kukolerana mu masukulu gha mu boma ili. Mu 1957, boma la Arkansas likamanyikwa chomene na ŵanthu ŵa ku Little Rock chifukwa boma likaŵavikilira ŵana ŵa sukulu ŵa mtundu wa African-American awo ŵakakhumbanga kuti ŵasambirenge ku sukulu ya sekondare ya mu msumba uwu. Kazembe Orval Faubus wakalangura ŵasilikari ŵa boma la Arkansas kuti ŵawovwire ŵanthu awo ŵakakhumbanga kupatura ŵanthu ŵa mtundu unyake kuti ŵaleke kuzomerezga ŵana ŵasukulu 9 ŵa mtundu wa African-American kuti ŵanjire sukulu ku Little Rock. Wakati wayezgapo maulendo ghatatu kuti wayowoye na Faubus, Pulezidenti Dwight D. Eisenhower wakatuma ŵasilikari 1,000 kufuma ku 101st Airborne Division kuti ŵavikilire ŵana ŵa sukulu ŵa ku America awo ŵakaŵa ŵa ku Africa apo ŵakalutanga ku sukulu pa Seputembala 25, 1957. Pakukana kupulikira ivyo khoti likadumura, kazembe na msumba wa Little Rock ŵakadumura kuti ŵasunge masukulu ghapachanya mu cilimika cose ici. Kuzakafika mu 1959, masukulu gha ku Little Rock ghakaŵa ghakukolerana.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.encyclopediaofarkansas.net/encyclopedia/entry-detail.aspx?search=1&entryID=723 |title=Little Rock Nine—Encyclopedia of Arkansas |access-date=August 24, 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929115012/http://www.encyclopediaofarkansas.net/encyclopedia/entry-detail.aspx?search=1&entryID=723 |archive-date=September 29, 2007 |url-status=live }}</ref> ==Makhalilo gha malo== {{Main|Geography of Arkansas}} [[File:Boxley Valley 001.jpg|thumb|View from the [[Ozark Highlands Scenic Byway]] in [[Boxley Valley Historic District|Boxley Valley]]]] ===Boundaries=== Kumwera, Arkansas wakuthyana na Louisiana, kumwera kwakumanjiliro gha dazi na Texas, kumanjiliro gha dazi na Oklahoma, kumpoto na Missouri, ndipo kumafumiro gha dazi na Tennessee na Mississippi. Ofesi ya United States Census Bureau yikulongosora kuti Arkansas ni boma la kumwera kwa United States.<ref name="wsc" /> Mlonga wa Mississippi ndiwo uli kumafumiro gha dazi kwa chigaŵa ichi, kupaturako mu Clay na Greene, uko mlonga wa St. Francis River ndiyo ni mphaka ya kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Missouri Bootheel, ndipo mu malo ghanandi, mlonga wa Mississippi wazgoka (panji kuti wazgoka wakunyoloka na munthu) kufuma pa nthowa yake yakwamba ya mu 1836. ===Terrain=== [[File:Buffalo national river steel creek overlook.jpg|thumb|The [[Ozarks]] rise behind a bend in the [[Buffalo National River|Buffalo River]] from an overlook on the Buffalo River Trail.]] Kanandi Arkansas wakugaŵikana paŵiri, malo ghapachanya kumpoto na kumanjiliro gha dazi na malo ghapachanya kumwera na kumafumiro gha dazi. Malo agha ghali ku chigaŵa cha mapiri gha Ozarks na Ouachita Mountains. Kumwera kwa chigaŵa ichi kuli malo ghakucemeka Gulf Coastal Plain na Arkansas Delta. Kugaŵikana uku kungapangiska kuti malo ghagaŵikike kumpoto, kumwera, kumafumiro gha dazi, kumwera, na pakati pa Arkansas. Vigaŵa ivi ni vyakutali ndipo vikupambana na vigaŵa vinyake. Arkansas ili na vigaŵa 7 vyakupambana: Ozark Mountains, Ouachita Mountains, Arkansas River Valley, Gulf Coastal Plain, Crowley's Ridge, na Arkansas Delta, ndipo Central Arkansas nyengo zinyake yikusazgapo vigaŵa vinandi.<ref>{{cite web|title=Arkansas Regions |url=http://www.arkansasheritage.com/discover/natural_environments/regions.aspx |website=Discover Arkansas History |publisher=The Department of Arkansas Heritage |access-date=June 28, 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120614023536/http://www.arkansasheritage.com/discover/natural_environments/regions.aspx |archive-date=June 14, 2012 }}</ref> [[File:Arkansas Delta, Desha County, AR.jpg|thumb|The flat terrain and rich soils of the Arkansas Delta near [[Arkansas City, Arkansas|Arkansas City]] are in stark contrast to the northwestern part of the state.]] Chigaŵa chakumafumiro gha dazi kwa Arkansas icho chili kuyana na Dambo la Mississippi nyengo zinyake chikuchemeka Arkansas Delta. Malo agha ghakaŵa ghakuthambalara ndipo ghakaŵanga na dongo liwemi chifukwa cha maji ghanandi agho ghakendanga mu Mlonga wa Mississippi. Kufumira kutali na mlonga, ku cigaŵa ca kumwera ca kumafumiro gha dazi kwa caru ici, ku Grand Prairie, kuli malo ghakutowa comene. Vigaŵa vyose viŵiri ni vyakurya vinandi. Mumphepete mwa Delta muli malo agho ghakumanyikwa kuti Crowley's Ridge. Mumphepete mwa mapiri, Crowley's Ridge wakwera mamita 76 mpaka 152 kufuma pa mapiri agho ghakazingilizga malo agha ndipo ghakukhala mu matawuni ghakuru gha ku Arkansas. Kumpoto chakumafumiro gha dazi kwa Arkansas ni chigaŵa cha Ozark Plateau na Ozark Mountains, kumwera kuli Ouachita Mountains, ndipo vigaŵa ivi vikupambana na Mlonga wa Arkansas; vigaŵa vya kumwera na kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Arkansas vikuchemeka Lowlands. Mapiri agha ghali ku U.S. Cigaŵa ca Interior Highlands, ico cili pakati pa Rocky Mountains na Appalachian Mountains. Malo ghapachanya chomene mu chigaŵa ichi ni mapiri gha Ouachita, agho ghali pa mtunda wa mamita 839 kufuma pasi pa nyanja.<ref name="sh" />[[File:Cedar Falls Trail, Petit Jean State Park 010.jpg|thumb|Cedar Falls in [[Petit Jean State Park]]]] Ku Arkansas kuli mphanji zinandi, nga ni za Blanchard Springs Caverns. Wupu wa State Archeologist ukalemba malo ghakujumpha 43,000 agho Ŵamwenye ŵa ku America ŵakakhalanga, uko ŵakasoperanga, na kupanga viteŵetero. Crater of Diamonds State Park kufupi na Murfreesboro ni malo ghekha pa caru capasi agho ghali na dayamondi agho ŵanthu ŵangacimapo.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.craterofdiamondsstatepark.com/history/ |title=Crater of Diamonds: History of diamonds, diamond mining in Arkansas |publisher=Craterofdiamondsstatepark.com |access-date=July 30, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100821235457/http://www.craterofdiamondsstatepark.com/history/ |archive-date=August 21, 2010 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://geology.com/gemstones/united-states-diamond-production.shtml |title=US Diamond Mines—Diamond Mining in the United States |publisher=Geology.com |access-date=July 30, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100724122236/http://geology.com/gemstones/united-states-diamond-production.shtml |archive-date=July 24, 2010 |url-status=live }}</ref> Ku Arkansas kuli vigaŵa vinandi ivyo vili na malo ghakukwana mahekitala 158,444. Mu vigaŵa ivi muli malo agho ŵanthu ŵakuluta kukasopa, kukasomba, kukendera mapiri, na kuzenga misasa. Mu vigaŵa ivi mulije magalimoto panji malo ghakukanizgika.<ref>{{cite book |title= Arkansas Atlas and Gazetteer |year= 2004 |publisher= DeLorme |page= 12 |location= Yarmouth, Maine }}</ref> ===Hydrology=== [[File:Buffalo National River.jpg|right|thumb|The [[Buffalo National River]] is one of many attractions that give the state its nickname, ''The Natural State'']] Ku Arkansas kuli milonga yinandi, nyanja, na madambo. Mlonga wa Arkansas, White, na wa St. Francis River. Mlonga wa Arkansas ukwenda mu Mlonga wa Mulberry na Fourche LaFave mu chigodobu cha Mlonga wa Arkansas, uko kuli Nyanja ya Dardanelle. Mlonga wa Buffalo, Little Red, Black na Cache ni milonga iyo yikuthira mu Mlonga wa White, uwo nawo ukuthira mu Mlonga wa Mississippi. Mlonga wa Bayou Bartholomew, Saline, Little Missouri, na Caddo ni milonga iyo yikuthira mu Mlonga wa Ouachita kumwera kwa Arkansas, ndipo yikuthira mu Mlonga wa Mississippi ku Louisiana. Mlonga wa Red River ndiwo ukuyana na Texas. Ku Arkansas kuli nyanja zichoko waka na visimi vinandi: [[Bull Shoals Lake]], [[Lake Ouachita]], [[Greers Ferry Lake]], [[Millwood Lake]], [[Beaver Lake (Arkansas)|Beaver Lake]], [[Norfork Lake]], [[DeGray Lake]], na [[Lake Conway]].<ref>Smith 1989, p. 25.</ref> ===Flora and fauna=== [[File:White River, Arkansas.jpg|right|thumb|The [[White River (Arkansas)|White River]] in eastern Arkansas]] Nkhalango ya ku Arkansas yili na vigaŵa vitatu: Ozark, Ouachita-Appalachian Forests, Mississippi Alluvial and Southeast USA Coastal Plains, and the Southeastern USA Plains. Boma ili liri na vigaŵa vinkhondi na viŵiri: Arkansas Valley, Boston Mountains, Mississippi Alluvial Plain, Mississippi Valley Loess Plain, Ozark Highlands, Ouachita Mountains, na South Central Plains. Kafukufuku wa United States Forest Service mu 2010 wakalongora kuti malo ghakukwana mahekitala 7,580,000 gha ku Arkansas ni nkhorongo, panji 56% ya malo ghose gha boma ili. Vinyama ivyo vikusangika mu nkhorongo ya Arkansas ni Quercus (oak), Carya (hickory), Pinus echinata (shortleaf pine) na Pinus taeda (loblolly pine).<ref>{{cite journal |title= Proceedings of the Symposium on Arkansas Forests: A Conference on the Results of the Recent Forest Survey of Arkansas |url=http://www.treesearch.fs.fed.us/pubs/2793 |publisher= [[United States Forest Service]] |date= May 30–31, 1997 |page= 74 |doi=10.2737/SRS-GTR-41 |last1=Guldin |first1=James M. |last2=Technical Compiler |journal=Gen. Tech. Rep. SRS-41. Asheville, Nc: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Research Station. 125 P |volume=041 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1= Dale |first1= Edward E. Jr. |last2= Ware |first2= Stewart |title= Distribution of Wetland Tree Species in Relation to a Flooding Gradient and Backwater versus Streamside Location in Arkansas, U.S.A |url= https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-the-torrey-botanical-society_april-june-2004_131_2/page/177 |date= April–June 2004 |journal= Journal of the Torrey Botanical Society |volume= 131 |issue= 2 |pages= 177–186 |doi= 10.2307/4126919 |jstor= 4126919 }}</ref> Vyakumera vya ku Arkansas vikupambana kuyana na nyengo na malo agho vili. Mumphepete mwa phiri ili muli makuni ghanandi agho ghakufuma ku Arkansas m'paka ku Texas. Mu cigaŵa cose ici muli makampani ghakupanga mathabwa na mapepara. Kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Arkansas, kuli Taxodium (cypress), Quercus nigra (water oaks), na hickories. Kufupi na malo agha kuli malo ghekha agho kuli makuni gha tulips. Malo gha ku mapiri gha kumpoto kwa charu ichi ghali na makuni gha oak na hickory, kweniso makuni gha Ozark white cedar, cornus, na Cercis canadensis. Ku malo ghapachanya gha mu Mlonga wa Arkansas, kuli mitundu yinandi ya viyuni vyamuthengere, nga ni Physematium scopulinum na Adiantum (maidenhair fern) pa Phiri la Magazine. Vinyama vyamuthengere vya ku Arkansas vikumanyikwa comene cifukwa ca viyuni vya white-tailed deer, elk, na bald eagle. Nyama ya White-tailed deer ndiyo ni nyama yakututuŵa ya boma.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.animalsaroundtheglobe.com/animals-of-arkansas/ |title=Animals of Arkansas |date=May 2, 2022 |publisher=animalsaroundtheglobe.com |access-date=July 29, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220715130017/https://www.animalsaroundtheglobe.com/animals-of-arkansas/ |archive-date=July 1, 2022 |url-status=live }}</ref> ===Climate=== {{see also|Climate of Arkansas}} {{further|Climate change in Arkansas}} [[File:SnowstormPics1-9-2011 (14).jpg|thumb|Winter at [[Historic Washington State Park]] in [[Hempstead County, Arkansas|Hempstead County]]]] Ku Arkansas nyengo njakuthukira comene. Nangauli ku Arkansas kulije mphaka na Gulf of Mexico, kweni uko kuli maji ghakutentha, ndiko kukupangiska kuti nyengo yiŵe yiwemi mu boma ili. Ku Arkansas, nyengo ya chihanya yikuŵa yakotcha kweniso ya chithukivu, ndipo nyengo ya chiwuvi yikuŵa yakuzizima. Ku Little Rock, nyengo yakuzizima yikufika pa 34 °C ndipo nyengo yakuzizima yikufika pa 23 °C mu mwezi wa Julayi. Mu mwezi wa Janyuwale, nyengo ya maji yikukwera kufika pa 11°C ndipo nyengo ya maji yikukhira kufika pa 32°C. Ku Siloam Springs kumpoto chakumadzulo kwa chigawochi, kutentha kwapakati pa mwezi wa Julayi ndi 89 ndi 67 ° F (32 ndi 19 ° C) ndipo mu Januwale kutentha kwapakati ndi 44 ndi 23 ° F (7 ndi -5 ° C). Chaka chilichose mu chigaŵa ichi mukuwa maji ghakukwana mamilimita 1,000 na 1,500. Kumwera kwa chigaŵa ichi kuli maji ghanandi, ndipo kumpoto kwake kukuwa. Mu chigaŵa cha kumpoto kwa chigaŵa ichi mukuŵa chiwuvi chichoko waka. Ku chigaŵa cha kumwera kwa Little Rock ndiko kuli viwuvi vyakofya chomene. Ku Arkansas, nyengo yakotcha chomene ni 49 °C pa Ozark pa Ogasiti 10, 1936; nyengo yakotcha chomene ni -29 °F pa Gravette, pa Febuluwale 13, 1905.<ref>{{cite web|title= State Climate Records |url= http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/extremes/scec/records |date= July 23, 2012 |publisher= National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Climatic Data Center |website= State Climate Extremes Committee |access-date= January 4, 2013}}</ref> Ku Arkansas kukucitika vinthu vyakofya comene ndipo nyengo zinyake kukuŵa mphepo. Caka cilicose cikuŵa na mphepo za ŵaleza, vivula vya mphepo, vula ya matalala, na mphepo za ciwuvi. Pakati pa mapiri gha ku Great Plains na Gulf States, ku Arkansas kukuŵavya vula mazuŵa 60. Arkansas wali mu chigaŵa chakuchemeka Tornado Alley, ndipo ntheura mu chigaŵa ichi mukachitika vindindindi vyakofya chomene mu mbiri ya United States. Nangauli Arkansas yili kutali na mphepete mwa nyanja, kweni para kwawa cimphepo cikuru, nyengo zinyake cikuŵa nga ni mphepo ya cimphepo ico cikucitiska kuti kuŵe vula yinandi mu nyengo yichoko waka, ndipo kanandi pakuŵa vindindindi vichoko. {| class="wikitable" "text-align:center;font-size:90%;"| | colspan="14" style="text-align:center;font-size:120%;background:#E8EAFA;"|Monthly Normal High and Low Temperatures For Various Arkansas Cities |- ! style="background:#e5afaa; color:Black; height:17px;"| City ! style="background:#e5afaa; color:Black; height:17px;"| Jan ! style="background:#e5afaa; color:Black; height:17px;"| Feb ! style="background:#e5afaa; color:Black; height:17px;"| Mar ! style="background:#e5afaa; color:Black; height:17px;"| Apr ! style="background:#e5afaa; color:Black; height:17px;"| May ! style="background:#e5afaa; color:Black; height:17px;"| Jun ! style="background:#e5afaa; color:Black; height:17px;"| Jul ! style="background:#e5afaa; color:Black; height:17px;"| Aug ! style="background:#e5afaa; color:Black; height:17px;"| Sep ! style="background:#e5afaa; color:Black; height:17px;"| Oct ! style="background:#e5afaa; color:Black; height:17px;"| Nov ! style="background:#e5afaa; color:Black; height:17px;"| Dec ! style="background:#e5afaa; color:Black; height:17px;"| Avg |- ! style="background:#f8f3ca; color:Black; height:16px;"| [[Fayetteville, Arkansas|Fayetteville]]<ref>{{cite web |title= Climate—Fayetteville—Arkansas |publisher= U.S. Climate Data |url= http://www.usclimatedata.com/climate.php?location=USAR0189 |access-date= June 28, 2012 }}</ref> | style="text-align:center; background:#f8f3ca; color:Black;"| 44/24<br />(7/-4) | style="text-align:center; background:#f8f3ca; color:Black;"| 51/29<br />(10/-2) | style="text-align:center; background:#f8f3ca; color:Black;"| 59/38<br />(15/3) | style="text-align:center; background:#f8f3ca; color:Black;"| 69/46<br />(20/8) | style="text-align:center; background:#f8f3ca; color:Black;"| 76/55<br />(24/13) | style="text-align:center; background:#f8f3ca; color:Black;"| 84/64<br />(29/18) | style="text-align:center; background:#f8f3ca; color:Black;"| 89/69<br />(32/20) | style="text-align:center; background:#f8f3ca; color:Black;"| 89/67<br />(32/19) | style="text-align:center; background:#f8f3ca; color:Black;"| 81/59<br />(27/15) | style="text-align:center; background:#f8f3ca; color:Black;"| 70/47<br />(21/9) | style="text-align:center; background:#f8f3ca; color:Black;"| 57/37<br />(14/3) | style="text-align:center; background:#f8f3ca; color:Black;"| 48/28<br />(9/-2) | style="text-align:center; background:#f8f3ca; color:Black;"| 68/47<br />(20/8) |- ! style="background:#c5dfe1; color:Black; height:16px;"| [[Jonesboro, Arkansas|Jonesboro]]<ref>{{cite web |title= Climate—Jonesboro—Arkansas |publisher= U.S. Climate Data |url= http://www.usclimatedata.com/climate.php?location=USAR0189 |access-date= June 28, 2012 }}</ref> | style="text-align:center; background:#c5dfe1; color:Black;"| 45/26<br />(7/-3) | style="text-align:center; background:#c5dfe1; color:Black;"| 51/30<br />(11/-1) | style="text-align:center; background:#c5dfe1; color:Black;"| 61/40<br />(16/4) | style="text-align:center; background:#c5dfe1; color:Black;"| 71/49<br />(22/9) | style="text-align:center; background:#c5dfe1; color:Black;"| 80/58<br />(26/15) | style="text-align:center; background:#c5dfe1; color:Black;"| 88/67<br />(31/19) | style="text-align:center; background:#c5dfe1; color:Black;"| 92/71<br />(34/22) | style="text-align:center; background:#c5dfe1; color:Black;"| 91/69<br />(33/20) | style="text-align:center; background:#c5dfe1; color:Black;"| 84/61<br />(29/16) | style="text-align:center; background:#c5dfe1; color:Black;"| 74/49<br />(23/9) | style="text-align:center; background:#c5dfe1; color:Black;"| 60/39<br />(15/4) | style="text-align:center; background:#c5dfe1; color:Black;"| 49/30<br />(10/-1) | style="text-align:center; background:#c5dfe1; color:Black;"| 71/49<br />(21/9) |- ! style="background:#f8f3ca; color:Black; height:16px;"| [[Little Rock, Arkansas|Little Rock]]<ref>{{cite web |title= Monthly Averages for Little Rock, AR |publisher= The Weather Channel |url= http://www.weather.com/weather/wxclimatology/monthly/graph/72201 |access-date= June 28, 2012 }}</ref> | style="text-align:center; background:#f8f3ca; color:Black;"| 51/31<br />(11/-1) | style="text-align:center; background:#f8f3ca; color:Black;"| 55/35<br />(13/2) | style="text-align:center; background:#f8f3ca; color:Black;"| 64/43<br />(18/6) | style="text-align:center; background:#f8f3ca; color:Black;"| 73/51<br />(23/11) | style="text-align:center; background:#f8f3ca; color:Black;"| 81/61<br />(27/16) | style="text-align:center; background:#f8f3ca; color:Black;"| 89/69<br />(32/21) | style="text-align:center; background:#f8f3ca; color:Black;"| 93/73<br />(34/23) | style="text-align:center; background:#f8f3ca; color:Black;"| 93/72<br />(34/22) | style="text-align:center; background:#f8f3ca; color:Black;"| 86/65<br />(30/18) | style="text-align:center; background:#f8f3ca; color:Black;"| 75/53<br />(24/12) | style="text-align:center; background:#f8f3ca; color:Black;"| 63/42<br />(17/6) | style="text-align:center; background:#f8f3ca; color:Black;"| 52/34<br />(11/1) | style="text-align:center; background:#f8f3ca; color:Black;"| 73/51<br />(23/11) |- ! style="background:#c5dfe1; color:Black; height:16px;"| [[Texarkana, Arkansas|Texarkana]]<ref>{{cite web |title= Climate—Texarkana—Texas |publisher= U.S. Climate Data |url= http://www.usclimatedata.com/climate.php?location=USTX1347 |access-date= June 28, 2012 }}</ref> | style="text-align:center; background:#c5dfe1; color:Black;"| 53/31<br />(11/-1) | style="text-align:center; background:#c5dfe1; color:Black;"| 58/34<br />(15/1) | style="text-align:center; background:#c5dfe1; color:Black;"| 67/42<br />(19/5) | style="text-align:center; background:#c5dfe1; color:Black;"| 75/50<br />(24/10) | style="text-align:center; background:#c5dfe1; color:Black;"| 82/60<br />(28/16) | style="text-align:center; background:#c5dfe1; color:Black;"| 89/68<br />(32/20) | style="text-align:center; background:#c5dfe1; color:Black;"| 93/72<br />(34/22) | style="text-align:center; background:#c5dfe1; color:Black;"| 93/71<br />(34/21) | style="text-align:center; background:#c5dfe1; color:Black;"| 86/64<br />(30/18) | style="text-align:center; background:#c5dfe1; color:Black;"| 76/52<br />(25/11) | style="text-align:center; background:#c5dfe1; color:Black;"| 64/41<br />(18/5) | style="text-align:center; background:#c5dfe1; color:Black;"| 55/33<br />(13/1) | style="text-align:center; background:#c5dfe1; color:Black;"| 74/52<br />(23/11) |- ! style="background:#f8f3ca; color:Black; height:16px;"| [[Monticello, Arkansas|Monticello]]<ref>{{cite web |title= Climate—Monticello—Arkansas |publisher= U.S. Climate Data |url= http://www.usclimatedata.com/climate.php?location=USAR0385 |access-date= June 28, 2012 }}</ref> | style="text-align:center; background:#f8f3ca; color:Black;"| 52/30<br />(11/-1) | style="text-align:center; background:#f8f3ca; color:Black;"| 58/34<br />(14/1) | style="text-align:center; background:#f8f3ca; color:Black;"| 66/43<br />(19/6) | style="text-align:center; background:#f8f3ca; color:Black;"| 74/49<br />(23/10) | style="text-align:center; background:#f8f3ca; color:Black;"| 82/59<br />(28/15) | style="text-align:center; background:#f8f3ca; color:Black;"| 89/66<br />(32/19) | style="text-align:center; background:#f8f3ca; color:Black;"| 92/70<br />(34/21) | style="text-align:center; background:#f8f3ca; color:Black;"| 92/68<br />(33/20) | style="text-align:center; background:#f8f3ca; color:Black;"| 86/62<br />(30/17) | style="text-align:center; background:#f8f3ca; color:Black;"| 76/50<br />(25/10) | style="text-align:center; background:#f8f3ca; color:Black;"| 64/41<br />(18/5) | style="text-align:center; background:#f8f3ca; color:Black;"| 55/34<br />(13/1) | style="text-align:center; background:#f8f3ca; color:Black;"| 74/51<br />(23/10) |- ! style="background:#c5dfe1; color:Black; height:16px;"| [[Fort Smith, Arkansas|Fort Smith]]<ref>{{cite web |title= Climate—Fort Smith—Arkansas |publisher= U.S. Climate Data |url= http://www.usclimatedata.com/climate.php?location=USAR0197 |access-date= May 29, 2013 }}</ref> | style="text-align:center; background:#c5dfe1; color:Black;"| 48/27<br />(8/-2) | style="text-align:center; background:#c5dfe1; color:Black;"| 54/32<br />(12/0) | style="text-align:center; background:#c5dfe1; color:Black;"| 64/40<br />(17/4) | style="text-align:center; background:#c5dfe1; color:Black;"| 73/49<br />(22/9) | style="text-align:center; background:#c5dfe1; color:Black;"| 80/58<br />(26/14) | style="text-align:center; background:#c5dfe1; color:Black;"| 87/67<br />(30/19) | style="text-align:center; background:#c5dfe1; color:Black;"| 92/71<br />(33/21) | style="text-align:center; background:#c5dfe1; color:Black;"| 92/70<br />(33/21) | style="text-align:center; background:#c5dfe1; color:Black;"| 84/62<br />(29/17) | style="text-align:center; background:#c5dfe1; color:Black;"| 75/50<br />(23/10) | style="text-align:center; background:#c5dfe1; color:Black;"| 61/39<br />(16/4) | style="text-align:center; background:#c5dfe1; color:Black;"| 50/31<br />(10/0) | style="text-align:center; background:#c5dfe1; color:Black;"| 72/50<br />(22/10) |- | style="text-align:center;" colspan="14"| Average high °F/average low °F (average high °C/average low°C) |} ===Cities and towns=== {{See also|List of cities and towns in Arkansas|Arkansas metropolitan areas|List of townships in Arkansas}} [[File:Cleveland County Arkansas Courthouse.jpg|right|thumb|[[Cleveland County Courthouse (Arkansas)|Cleveland County Courthouse]] in [[Rison, Arkansas|Rison]]]] Little Rock ni msumba ukuru wa boma la Arkansas kwambira mu 1821 apo ukasinthira malo gha Arkansas Post kuŵa msumba ukuru wa chigaŵa cha Arkansas. Nyumba ya boma yikasamukira ku Hot Springs ndipo pamasinda yikaluta ku Washington mu nyengo ya Nkhondo ya pa caru ca America apo ŵasilikari ŵa boma la Union ŵakasuzga msumba uwu mu 1862, ndipo boma la boma ili likawelera ku Little Rock yayi mpaka nkhondo yikamara. Mazuŵa ghano, Little Rock na North Little Rock ni vigaŵa vikuruvikuru chomene mu chigaŵa ichi, ndipo mu 2013 mukaŵa ŵanthu ŵakukwana 724,385. Chigawo cha Fayetteville- Springdale -  Rogers Metropolitan ndi chigawo chachiwiri chachikulu kwambiri ku Arkansas, chomwe chikukula mofulumira kwambiri chifukwa cha kuchuluka kwa mabizinesi komanso kukula kwa University of Arkansas ndi Walmart.<ref>{{cite web |title= Estimates of Population Change for Metropolitan Statistical Areas and Rankings |url= https://www.census.gov/popest/data/metro/totals/2011/tables/CBSA-EST2011-05.xls |date= July 1, 2010 – July 1, 2011 |publisher= United States Census Bureau |format= XLS |access-date= July 8, 2012 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120707055911/http://www.census.gov/popest/data/metro/totals/2011/tables/CBSA-EST2011-05.xls |archive-date= July 7, 2012 |url-status= dead |df= mdy-all }}</ref> Boma ili lili na misumba 8 iyo yili na ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 50,000 (kuyana na census ya mu 2010). Vili mu malo ghakupambanapambana, ni Little Rock, Fort Smith, Fayetteville, Springdale, Jonesboro, North Little Rock, Conway, na Rogers. Pa malo agha, Fort Smith na Jonesboro pera ndigho ghakaŵa kuwaro kwa mizi yiŵiri yikuru. Mizinda yinyake ya ku Arkansas yikusazgapo: [[Pine Bluff, Arkansas|Pine Bluff]], [[Crossett, Arkansas|Crossett]], [[Bryant, Arkansas|Bryant]], [[Lake Village, Arkansas|Lake Village]], [[Hot Springs, Arkansas|Hot Springs]], [[Bentonville, Arkansas|Bentonville]], [[Texarkana, Arkansas|Texarkana]], [[Sherwood, Arkansas|Sherwood]], [[Jacksonville, Arkansas|Jacksonville]], [[Russellville, Arkansas|Russellville]], [[Bella Vista, Arkansas|Bella Vista]], [[West Memphis, Arkansas|West Memphis]], [[Paragould, Arkansas|Paragould]], [[Cabot, Arkansas|Cabot]], [[Searcy, Arkansas|Searcy]], [[Van Buren, Arkansas|Van Buren]], [[El Dorado, Arkansas|El Dorado]], [[Blytheville, Arkansas|Blytheville]], [[Harrison, Arkansas|Harrison]], [[Dumas, Arkansas|Dumas]], [[Rison, Arkansas|Rison]], [[Warren, Arkansas|Warren]], and [[Mountain Home, Arkansas|Mountain Home]]. {{Largest cities | country = Arkansas | stat_ref = Source:<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.biggestuscities.com/ar|title=Biggest US Cities By Population—Arkansas—2017 Populations|access-date=March 2, 2019|publisher=United States Census Bureau}}</ref> | list_by_pop = | div_name = | div_link = Counties of Arkansas{{!}}County | city_1 = Little Rock, Arkansas{{!}}Little Rock | div_1 = Pulaski County, Arkansas{{!}}Pulaski | pop_1 = 198,606 | img_1 = Little Rock.jpg | city_2 = Fort Smith, Arkansas{{!}}Fort Smith | div_2 = Sebastian County, Arkansas{{!}}Sebastian | pop_2 = 88,037 | img_2 = Fort Smith, AR 002.jpg | city_3 = Fayetteville, Arkansas{{!}}Fayetteville | div_3 = Washington County, Arkansas{{!}}Washington | pop_3 = 85,257 | img_3 = Fayetteville, Arkansas skyline featuring University of Arkansas.jpg | city_4 = Springdale, Arkansas{{!}}Springdale | div_4 = Washington County, Arkansas{{!}}Washington | pop_4 = 79,599 | img_4 = | city_5 = Jonesboro, Arkansas{{!}}Jonesboro | div_5 = Craighead County, Arkansas{{!}}Craighead | pop_5 = 75,866 | img_5 = | city_6 = Rogers, Arkansas{{!}}Rogers | div_6 = Benton County, Arkansas{{!}}Benton | pop_6 = 66,430 | img_6 = | city_7 = North Little Rock, Arkansas{{!}}North Little Rock | div_7 = Pulaski County, Arkansas{{!}}Pulaski | pop_7 = 65,911 | img_7 = | city_8 = Conway, Arkansas{{!}}Conway | div_8 = Faulkner County, Arkansas{{!}}Faulkner | pop_8 = 65,782 | img_8 = | city_9 = Bentonville, Arkansas{{!}}Bentonville | div_9 = Benton County, Arkansas{{!}}Benton | pop_9 = 49,298 | img_9 = | city_10 = Pine Bluff, Arkansas{{!}}Pine Bluff | div_10 = Jefferson County, Arkansas{{!}}Jefferson | pop_10 = 42,984 | img_10 = | city_11 = Hot Springs, Arkansas{{!}}Hot Springs | div_11 = Garland County, Arkansas{{!}}Garland | pop_11 = 36,915 | img_11 = | city_12 = Benton, Arkansas{{!}}Benton | div_12 = Saline County, Arkansas{{!}}Saline | pop_12 = 35,789 | img_12 = | city_13 = Sherwood, Arkansas{{!}}Sherwood | div_13 = Pulaski County, Arkansas{{!}}Pulaski | pop_13 = 31,081 | img_13 = | city_14 = Texarkana, Arkansas{{!}}Texarkana | div_14 = Miller County, Arkansas{{!}}Miller | pop_14 = 30,259 | img_14 = | city_15 = Russellville, Arkansas{{!}}Russellville | div_15 = Pope County, Arkansas{{!}}Pope | pop_15 = 29,318 | img_15 = | city_16 = Jacksonville, Arkansas{{!}}Jacksonville | div_16 = Pulaski County, Arkansas{{!}}Pulaski | pop_16 = 28,513 | img_16 = | city_17 = Bella Vista, Arkansas{{!}}Bella Vista | div_17 = Benton County, Arkansas{{!}}Benton | pop_17 = 28,511 | img_17 = | city_18 = Paragould, Arkansas{{!}}Paragould | div_18 = Greene County, Arkansas{{!}}Greene | pop_18 = 28,488 | img_18 = | city_19 = Cabot, Arkansas{{!}}Cabot | div_19 = Lonoke County, Arkansas{{!}}Lonoke | pop_19 = 26,141 | img_19 = | city_20 = West Memphis, Arkansas{{!}}West Memphis | div_20 = Crittenden County, Arkansas{{!}}Crittenden | pop_20 = 24,860 | img_20 = }} == Chiwerengero cha ŵanthu == {{Main|Demographics of Arkansas}} ===Population=== {{multiple image |direction = horizontal |width1 = 195 |image1 = Arkansas population map.png |width2 = 200 |image2 = Arkansas, Percent Change in Population by County, 2000 to 2010.png |alt1 = Map of Arkansas, showing density of population by county. |alt2 = Map of Arkansas, with many southern and eastern counties recording population losses with the rest of the state showing moderate gains. Benton and Faulkner counties were the most rapidly growing in population between 2000 and 2010. |footer = Left: Arkansas's population distribution. Red indicates high density in urban areas, green indicates low density in rural areas.{{break}}Right: Map showing population changes by county between 2000 and 2010. Blue indicates population gain, purple indicates population loss, and shade indicates magnitude. }} Ofesi ya United States Census Bureau yikati pa Julayi 1, 2019, chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu ku Arkansas chikaŵa 3,017,804, ndipo ichi chikulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵakwera na 3.49% kufuma pa chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu icho chikachitika mu 2010. Kuyana na census ya ku U.S ya mu 2020, Arkansas yikaŵa na ŵanthu 3,011,524. Mu 1820, ŵanthu ŵa ku Arkansas ŵakaŵapo 15,000, kweni mu 1835 ŵakaŵapo 52,240. Mu 1836, boma likati laŵikika, ŵanthu ŵakasazgikiranga kaŵiri pa vyaka khumi. Boma ili likalutilira kukura mu vyaka 10 ivyo vikajumpha, kweni likalutilira kuchepa mu vyaka vya m'ma 1900. Mu 1950 na 1960, ŵakalemba ciŵelengero ca ŵanthu awo ŵakafwa. Ŵanthu aŵa ŵakafumanga chifukwa cha vinthu vinandi, nga ni umo minda yikapangikira na mashini, kuchepa kwa ntchito, kweniso chifukwa chakuti mu boma mukaŵavya vinthu vinyake vyakupambana na ulimi. Mu Arkansas ŵanthu ŵakasazgikirangaso, ndipo kufuma pa nyengo iyi ŵanthu ŵakasazgikirangaso comene, ndipo mu 1980 ŵanthu ŵakasazgikirangaso kufika pa 2 miliyoni. Kuyana na umo vinthu vikusinthira mu Arkansas, vyaka ivyo ŵanthu ŵakukhala, kweniso umo ŵanthu ŵakugwilira ntchito vikukolerana na umo vinthu viliri mu charu chose. Kweniso ivyo vikulongosoreka vya ŵanthu ŵachoko mu vyaru vinyake vikuyana waka na ivyo vikuchitika mu vyaru vinyake. Ku Arkansas kuli ŵanthu ŵachoko chomene ŵa ku Spain panji ŵa ku Latin America kuluska ku United States. Mu 2000, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakakhalanga mu chigaŵa cha Perry, pafupi na Nogal.<ref>{{cite web |title= Arkansas 2000 Census Population Center |url= http://www.ngs.noaa.gov/INFO/COP/ar_links.htm |publisher= NOAA |access-date= July 4, 2012 }}</ref> Kuyana na lipoti la HUD la mu 2022, ku Arkansas kukaŵa ŵanthu ŵakukwana 2,459 awo ŵakaŵavya nyumba.<ref>{{Cite web |title=2007-2022 PIT Counts by State |url=https://view.officeapps.live.com/op/view.aspx?src=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.huduser.gov%2Fportal%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2Fxls%2F2007-2022-PIT-Counts-by-State.xlsx&wdOrigin=BROWSELINK}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite web |title=The 2022 Annual Homelessness Assessment Report (AHAR) to Congress |url=https://www.huduser.gov/portal/sites/default/files/pdf/2022-AHAR-Part-1.pdf}}</ref> {{US Census population |1810= 1062 |1820= 14273 |1830= 30388 |1840= 97574 |1850= 209897 |1860= 435450 |1870= 484471 |1880= 802525 |1890= 1128211 |1900= 1311564 |1910= 1574449 |1920= 1752204 |1930= 1854482 |1940= 1949387 |1950= 1909511 |1960= 1786272 |1970= 1923295 |1980= 2286435 |1990= 2350725 |2000= 2673400 |2010= 2915918 |2020= 3011524 |align-fn=center |footnote=Source: 1910–2020<ref name="Census2010">[https://www.census.gov/data/tables/time-series/dec/popchange-data-text.html Historical Population Change Data (1910–2020)] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210429012609/https://www.census.gov/data/tables/time-series/dec/popchange-data-text.html |date=April 29, 2021 }}</ref> }} ===Race and ethnicity=== Kuyana na kawonekero ka ŵanthu ka mu 2019, ku Arkansas, ŵanthu 72.0% ŵakaŵa ŵazungu, 15.4% ŵakaŵa ŵafipa, 0.5% ŵakaŵa ŵa ku America, 1.5% ŵakaŵa ŵa ku Asia, 0.4% ŵakaŵa ŵa ku Hawaii, 0.1% ŵakaŵa ŵa mafuko ghanyake, 2.4% ŵakaŵa ŵa mafuko ghaŵiri panji kujumpha apa, ndipo 7.7% ŵakaŵa ŵa ku America. Mu chaka cha 2011, chigaŵa ichi chikaŵa na ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yakuwaro 80.1% (74.2% ŵakaŵa ŵazungu), 15.6% ŵakaŵa Ŵachifwiti panji Ŵafirika, 0.9% ŵakaŵa Ŵachihebere na Ŵazungu, 1.3% ŵakaŵa ŵa ku Asia, ndipo 1.8% ŵakaŵa ŵa mitundu yiŵiri panji kujumpha apa. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Spain panji ŵa ku Latin America, panji ŵa mtundu uliwose, ŵakaŵapo 6.6 peresenti ya ŵanthu wose. Mu 2011, 39.0% ya ŵanthu ŵa ku Arkansas awo ŵakaŵa na vyaka vyambura kukwana 1 ŵakaŵa ŵachoko.<ref>{{cite news|last=Exner|first=Rich|url=https://www.cleveland.com/datacentral/2012/06/americas_under_age_1_populatio.html|title=Americans under age 1 now mostly minorities, but not in Ohio: Statistical Snapshot|date=June 3, 2012|work=[[The Plain Dealer]]}}</ref> {| class="wikitable sortable collapsible"; text-align:right; font-size:80%;" |+ style="font-size:90%" |Ethnic composition as of the [[2020 United States census|2020 census]] |- ! Race and ethnicity<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.census.gov/library/visualizations/interactive/race-and-ethnicity-in-the-united-state-2010-and-2020-census.html |title=Race and Ethnicity in the United States: 2010 Census and 2020 Census |author=<!--Not stated--> |date=August 12, 2021 |website=census.gov |publisher=United States Census Bureau |access-date=2021-09-26}}</ref> ! colspan="2" data-sort-type=number |Alone ! colspan="2" data-sort-type=number |Total |- | [[Non-Hispanic or Latino whites|White (non-Hispanic)]] |align=right| {{bartable|68.5|%|2||background:gray}} |align=right| {{bartable|73.2|%|2||background:gray}} |- | [[African Americans|African American (non-Hispanic)]] |align=right| {{bartable|14.9|%|2||background:mediumblue}} |align=right| {{bartable|16.2|%|2||background:mediumblue}} |- | [[Hispanic and Latino Americans|Hispanic or Latino]]{{efn|Persons of Hispanic or Latino origin are not distinguished between total and partial ancestry.}} |align=right| {{bartable}} |align=right| {{bartable|8.5|%|2||background:green}} |- | [[Asian Americans|Asian]] |align=right| {{bartable|1.7|%|2||background:purple}} |align=right| {{bartable|2.2|%|2||background:purple}} |- | [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] |align=right| {{bartable|0.7|%|2||background:gold}} |align=right| {{bartable|3.4|%|2||background:gold}} |- | [[Pacific Islander Americans|Pacific Islander]] |align=right| {{bartable|0.5|%|2||background:pink}} |align=right| {{bartable|0.6|%|2||background:pink}} |- | Other |align=right| {{bartable|0.3|%|2||background:brown}} |align=right| {{bartable|1.1|%|2||background:brown}} |} [[File:Ethnic Origins in Arkansas.png|thumb|330x330px|Ethnic origins in Arkansas]] [[File:Arkansas counties by race.svg|thumb|187x187px|Map of counties in Arkansas by racial plurality, per the 2020 U.S. census{{Collapsible list | title = Legend|{{col-start}}{{col-2}} '''Non-Hispanic White''' {{legend|#dd7e6b|40–50%}} {{legend|#cc4125|50–60%}} {{legend|#a61c00|60–70%}} {{legend|#85200c|70–80%}} {{legend|#5b0f00|80–90%}} {{legend|#410b00|90%+}} {{col-2}} '''Black or African American''' {{legend|#ffe599|40–50%}} {{legend|#ffd966|50–60%}} {{legend|#f1c232|60–70%}} {{col-end}} }}]] {| class="wikitable sortable collapsible" style="font-size: 90%;" |+ '''Arkansas Racial Breakdown of Population''' |- ! Racial composition !! 1990<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/population/www/documentation/twps0056/twps0056.html|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080725044857/http://www.census.gov/population/www/documentation/twps0056/twps0056.html|url-status=dead|title=Historical Census Statistics on Population Totals By Race, 1790 to 1990, and By Hispanic Origin, 1970 to 1990, For The United States, Regions, Divisions, and States|archivedate=July 25, 2008|access-date=April 17, 2021}}</ref> !! 2000<ref>{{cite web|url=http://censusviewer.com/state/AR|title=Population of Arkansas—Census 2010 and 2000 Interactive Map, Demographics, Statistics, Quick Facts—CensusViewer|website=Censusviewer.com|access-date=January 6, 2014|archive-date=January 27, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140127074230/http://censusviewer.com/state/AR|url-status=dead}}</ref>!! 2010<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/programs-surveys/decennial-census/decade.html|title=Decennial Census by Decades|first=US Census|last=Bureau|website=The United States Census Bureau|access-date=April 17, 2021}}</ref> |- | [[White American|White]] || 82.7% || 80.0% || 77.0% |- | [[African American]] || 15.9% || 15.7% || 15.4% |- | [[Asian American|Asian]] || 0.5% || 0.8% || 1.2% |- | [[Native Americans in the United States|Native]] || 0.5% || 0.7% || 0.8% |- | [[Native Hawaiian]] and{{break}}[[Pacific Islander|other Pacific Islander]] || – || 0.1% || 0.2% |- | [[Race and ethnicity in the United States Census|Other race]] || 0.3% || 1.5% || 3.4% |- | [[Multiracial American|Two or more races]] || – || 1.3% || 2.0% |} Ŵazungu ŵa ku America ŵali na ŵanthu ŵanandi ku mpoto kwa Ozarks na ku chigaŵa chapakati cha boma ili. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa ŵakukhala comene kumwera na kumafumiro gha dazi kwa boma ili. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Arkansas awo mbakufuma ku Ireland, England, na Germany ŵakukhala kumpoto ca kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Ozarks kufupi na mphaka ya Missouri. Ŵasekuru ŵa ŵanthu ŵa ku Ireland awo ŵakakhalanga ku Ozark ŵakaŵa ŵa ku Scotland na Ireland, ndipo ŵanji ŵakaŵa ŵa ku Northern Ireland, Scotland, na kumpoto kwa England. Ŵasekuru ŵawo ŵakaŵa ŵa ku Great Britain na Ireland pambere Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya pa Charu Chose yindambe. Ŵanthu ŵa ku England na Scotland awo ŵakasamira ku Ireland ŵakamba kukhala mu vigaŵa vya ku mizi. Ŵanthu ŵa ku America awo ŵali kufuma ku England ŵakusangika mu chigaŵa chose ichi. Mu 2010, kafukufuku wakukhwaskana na ŵanthu ŵa ku Arkansas wakalongora kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku America ni: 15.5%, ŵa ku Ireland 12.3%, ŵa ku Germany 11.5%, ŵa ku America 11.0%, ŵa ku England 10.1%, ŵa ku Mexico 4.7%, ŵa ku France 2.1%, ŵa ku Scotland 1.7%, ŵa ku Netherlands 1.7%, ŵa ku Italy 1.6%, na ŵa ku Ireland 1.4%. Ŵanandi awo ŵakuti "Ŵamerica" ni ŵa ku England panji ŵa ku Scotland na Ireland. Mbumba zawo zikaŵa mu boma ili kwa nyengo yitali, kanandi zikaŵanga zindaŵeko, ntheura ŵakasankha kuti ŵaŵe waka ŵa ku America panji ŵakamanyanga yayi uko ŵakafuma. Mphapu yawo yikamba na ŵanthu ŵa mu vyaru 13 ivyo vikaŵa pasi pa United States, ndipo pa cifukwa ici, ŵanandi mwa iwo lero ŵakuyowoya waka kuti mba ku America. Ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakuti mbakufuma ku Ireland, mbakufuma ku Scotland na Ireland.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=SVoAXh-dNuYC&dq=Sharing+the+dream:+white+males+in+multicultural+America++english+ancestry&pg=PA57 Sharing the Dream: White Males in a Multicultural America] By Dominic J. Pulera.</ref><ref>Reynolds Farley, 'The New Census Question about Ancestry: What Did It Tell Us?', ''Demography'', Vol. 28, No. 3 (August 1991), pp. 414, 421.</ref><ref>Stanley Lieberson and Lawrence Santi, 'The Use of Nativity Data to Estimate Ethnic Characteristics and Patterns', ''Social Science Research'', Vol. 14, No. 1 (1985), pp. 44–6.</ref><ref>Stanley Lieberson and Mary C. Waters, 'Ethnic Groups in Flux: The Changing Ethnic Responses of American Whites', ''Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science'', Vol. 487, No. 79 (September 1986), pp. 82–86.</ref> Kuyana na kafukufuku uyo wakacitika mu America mu 2006 na 2008, ŵanthu 93.8% ŵa ku Arkansas (awo ŵakaŵa na vyaka vyakujumpha vinkhondi) ŵakayowoyanga waka Chingelezi pa nyumba. Pafupifupi 4.5% ya ŵanthu ŵa mu boma ili ŵakayowoyanga Cisipanishi pa nyumba zawo. Pafupifupi 0.7% ya ŵanthu ŵa mu boma ili ŵakayowoyanga ciyowoyero cinyake ca ku India. Pafupifupi 0.8% ya ŵanthu ŵa mu boma ili ŵakayowoyanga ciyowoyero ca ku Asia, ndipo 0.2% ŵakayowoyanga viyowoyero vinyake. ===Religion=== {{bar box |title = Religion in Arkansas (2014)<ref name="pew2014">{{Cite web|url=https://www.pewforum.org/religious-landscape-study/|title=Religion in America: U.S. Religious Data, Demographics and Statistics|website=Pewforum.org|access-date=April 17, 2021}}</ref> |titlebar=#ddd |left1=Religion |right1=Percent |float=right |bars = {{bar percent|[[Protestant]]|Blue|70}} {{bar percent|[[Irreligion|Unaffiliated]]|Grey|18}} {{bar percent|[[Catholic]]|DarkOrchid|8}} {{bar percent|[[Muslim]]|Green|2}} {{bar percent|[[Mormon]]|pink|1}} {{bar percent|Other|grey|1}} }} Nga ni vyaru vinandi vya kumwera, Arkansas nayo njimoza mwa vyaru ivyo vili na ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa chisopa cha Chiprotesitanti. Vipingo vikuru-vikuru mu 2010 ni Southern Baptist Convention na 661,382; United Methodist Church na 158,574; non-denominational Evangelical Protestants na 129,638; Catholic Church na 122,662; na Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints na 31,254. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵa mu boma ili ŵali mu visopa vinyake, nga ni Chisilamu, Chiyuda, Wicca/Paganism, Chihindu, Chibuda, ndipo ŵanyake ŵalije chisopa.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.thearda.com/rcms2010/r/s/05/rcms2010_05_state_adh_2010.asp |title=The Association of Religion Data Archives &#124; State membership Report |publisher=Thearda.com |access-date=November 7, 2013 |archive-date=December 2, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131202225650/http://www.thearda.com/rcms2010/r/s/05/rcms2010_05_state_adh_2010.asp |url-status=dead }}</ref> Mu 2014, Pew Research Center yikati ŵanthu 79 pa ŵanthu 100 ŵaliwose ku America ŵakaŵa Ŵakhristu, ndipo ŵanandi ŵakaŵa ŵa mpingo wa Southern Baptist. Mwakupambana na vyaru vinyake, Tchalitchi cha Katolika ndilo likaŵa likuru chomene yayi ku Arkansas. Mu 2014, pa ŵanthu awo ŵakagomezganga kuti Chiuta kulije, ŵanthu 2 pa ŵanthu 100 ŵakaŵa kuti ŵakugomezga yayi kuti Chiuta waliko. Kuzakafika mu 2020, wupu wa Public Religion Research Institute ukati 71% ya ŵanthu wose mu caru ici ŵakaŵa Ŵakhristu. Ŵaprotesitanti ŵanandi na ŵa visopa vya ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wakufipa ŵakalutilira kuwusa mu Arkansas. ==Chuma== {{See also|Economy of Arkansas|List of Arkansas companies|Arkansas locations by per capita income}} [[File:Metropolitan Bank Tower.png|right|thumb|upright|The [[Simmons Tower]] in [[Little Rock, Arkansas|Little Rock]] is the state's tallest building.]] Mu Arkansas, ŵanthu ŵakagwiliskiranga nchito ndalama yayi, ndipo ku malo ghapachanya kukaŵanga minda ya viŵeto. Mu 2015, GDP ya boma ili yikaŵa $119 biliyoni. Makampani ghankhondi na limoza gha mu Fortune 500 ghali mu Arkansas, kusazgapo Walmart, Tyson Foods, J.B. Maofesi gha Hunt, Dillard's, Murphy USA, na Windstream nagho ghali mu chigaŵa ichi. Mu 2015, ndalama izo munthu waliyose wakasanganga zikaŵanga $39,107, ndipo zikaŵa pa nambara 45 mu caru cose. Mu 2011 kufika mu 2015, ndalama izo mbumba zikasanganga zikaŵanga $41,371, ndipo zikaŵanga pa nambala 49 mu caru cose. Vyakurya ivyo vikufumiskika mu charu ichi ni nkhuku na mazira, mbuto za soya, sorghum, ng'ombe, thonje, mpunga, nkhumba, na mkaka. Vinthu ivyo vikupangika mu mafakitale ni vyakurya, vinthu vya magesi, visulo, makina, na mapepara. Mu migodi ya ku Arkansas mukufuma gasi, mafuta, malibwe, bromu, na vanadium. Kuyana na CNBC, Arkansas ni boma la 20 pa maboma ghose pa charu chose pa nkhani ya bizinesi, ndipo ni lachiŵiri pa maboma ghose pa nkhani ya ndalama zakwendeskera bizinesi, lachiŵiri pa nkhani ya ndalama zakwendeskera umoyo, lachiŵiri pa nkhani ya ndalama zakwendeskera umoyo, la 11 pa nkhani ya ntchito, la 20 pa nkhani ya ndalama, la 28 pa nkhani ya ntchito za ŵanthu ŵakusambira, la 31 pa nkhani ya vinthu vyakukhumbikwa, kweniso la 32 pa nkhani ya malango ghakwendeskera bizinesi. Kufuma mu 2011, boma la Arkansas lili kukwera chomene pa malo 12 pa malo agho ŵanthu ŵakuchita bizinesi. Kuzakafika mu 2014, uwu ukaŵa msumba uwo ukaŵa na ndalama zinandi yayi. Kufika mu mwezi wa June, 2021 chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu awo ŵakaŵavya nchito chikaŵa pa 4.4%; ndipo chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu awo ŵakaŵavya nchito mu mwezi wa November, 2021 chikaŵa pa 3.4%.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bls.gov/eag/eag.ar.htm|title=Arkansas Economy at a Glance|website=www.bls.gov|access-date=2021-10-31}}</ref> ===Industry and commerce=== Vinthu vyakwamba ivyo vikacitikanga ku Arkansas vikaŵa malonda gha vikumba na ulimi, ndipo ŵanthu ŵakamba kulima viŵeto vya thonje mu malo ghakufupi na Mlonga wa Mississippi. Mu nyengo ya Nkhondo ya pa Caru Cose ku America, ŵanthu ŵakagwiliskiranga nchito ŵazga. Mazuŵa ghano, ŵanthu pafupifupi 3 pa ŵanthu 100 ŵaliwose ŵakugwira nchito zaulimi, kweni ni mulimo wakuzirwa comene mu vyaru ivi. Arkansas ndiyo yikupanga comene mpunga, viŵeto vya nkhuku, na viyuni vya ku Turkey, ndipo yili pa malo ghatatu pa vyakurya vya thonje, viŵeto vya nkhuku, na somba. Ku Arkansas kuli makuni ghanandi, ndipo charu ichi chili pa malo ghachinayi pa charu chose kweniso pa malo ghakwamba ku South pa nkhani ya makuni. Makampani agho ghakupanga vigaŵa vinyake vya galimoto ghakujura mafakitare ku Arkansas kuti ghapange magalimoto mu vigaŵa vinyake. Bauxite kale yikaŵa yakukhumbikwa chomene pa chuma cha boma ili, ndipo yikafumanga mu chigaŵa cha Saline.<ref>{{cite web |first= William V. |last= Bush |title= History of Bauxite in Arkansas |url= http://www.geology.arkansas.gov/pdf/pamphlets/Bauxite.pdf |publisher= Arkansas Geological Survey |access-date= October 4, 2012 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130117082700/http://www.geology.arkansas.gov/pdf/pamphlets/Bauxite.pdf |archive-date= January 17, 2013 |url-status= dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Flagel |first=Thomas R. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7dH3lmpMbkgC&dq=arkansas+were+dependent+on+slave+labor+during+civil+war&pg=PA21 |title=The History Buff's Guide to the Civil War: The best, the worst, the largest, and the most lethal top ten rankings of the Civil War |date=2010-09-01 |publisher=Sourcebooks, Inc. |isbn=978-1-4022-5487-1 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title= Selected Economic Characteristics 2006–2010 American Community Survey 5-Year Estimates |publisher= United States Census Bureau |url= http://factfinder.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/productview.xhtml?pid=ACS_10_5YR_DP03&prodType=table |archive-url= https://archive.today/20200212213253/http://factfinder.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/productview.xhtml?pid=ACS_10_5YR_DP03&prodType=table |url-status= dead |archive-date= February 12, 2020 |year= 2011 |access-date= October 4, 2012 }}</ref><ref>U.S. Department of Agriculture, National Agricultural Statistics Service, ''Poultry—Production and Value, 2010 Summary'', data indicates Arkansas led the nation in 2008, 2009, and 2010, in both broilers and turkeys.</ref><ref name="agcensus">{{cite web |website= Census of Agriculture |title= Arkansas State Profile |publisher= United States Department of Agriculture |url= http://www.agcensus.usda.gov/Publications/2007/Online_Highlights/County_Profiles/Arkansas/cp99005.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.agcensus.usda.gov/Publications/2007/Online_Highlights/County_Profiles/Arkansas/cp99005.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |year= 2007 |access-date= October 4, 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |first= Matthew H. |last= Pelkki |title= An Economic Assessment of Arkansas's Forest Industries: Challenges and Opportunities for the 21st Century |publisher= University of Arkansas-Monticello School of Forest Resources, Arkansas Forest Resources Center, University of Arkansas Division of Agriculture |url= http://arkansasagnews.uark.edu/afrc-007.2.1-20.pdf |access-date= October 4, 2012 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120928163327/http://arkansasagnews.uark.edu/afrc-007.2.1-20.pdf |archive-date= September 28, 2012 |url-status= dead |df= mdy-all }}</ref><ref name="agcensus" /> Ntchito ya zokopa alendo ndiyofunikanso kwambiri pa chuma cha Arkansas; dzina la boma la boma "The Natural State" linalengedwa kuti liwonetsere zokopa alendo m'zaka za m'ma 1970, ndipo likugwiritsidwabe ntchito lero. Boma la Arkansas lili na malo ghakupambanapambana ghakusungirako vinthu, ndipo National Park Service yili na malo 7. Nyumba ya William Jefferson Clinton Presidential Library iyo yili ku Little Rock yikamara kuzengeka, ntheura ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakwiza mu tawuni iyi na kuzakasanga malo ghakuguliskirako mabuku mu chigaŵa cha River Market. Mizinda yinandi yikupangaso viphikiro, ivyo vikukopa ŵalendo kuti ŵamanye mitheto ya ku Arkansas, nga ni The Bradley County Pink Tomato Festival ku Warren, [[King Biscuit Blues Festival]], [[Ozark Folk Center|Ozark Folk Festival]], [[Toad Suck Daze]], na [[Tontitown, Arkansas|Tontitown Grape Festival]]. ==Mayendelo== {{Main|List of Arkansas railroads|Aviation in Arkansas|Arkansas Highway System}} {{See also|List of Arkansas railroads|List of airports in Arkansas}} [[File:River cruise 2009 27b2.jpg|thumb|The [[Greenville Bridge]] crosses over the [[Mississippi River]] into [[Shives, Arkansas|Shives]].]] Boma la Arkansas ndilo likulaŵilira za mendero mu chigaŵa ichi. Pali misewu yinandi iyo yikujumpha mu Little Rock, kusazgapo Interstate 30 (I-30) na I-40 (msewu wachitatu uwo ŵanthu ŵakwendamo comene mu caru ici). Mu 1924, boma la Arkansas likamba kupanga misewu yinandi. Ku Arkansas kukaŵa misewu yakwamba ya msewu wa Dollarway, ndipo yikaŵa yakwamba pa misewu yose ya Interstate Highway System. Boma ili lili na misewu yinandi, kweniso misewu yinyake 8 na misewu yinyake 20 ya ku United States. Nthowa. Kumpoto chakumafumiro gha dazi kwa Arkansas, I-55 yikwenda kumpoto kufuma ku Memphis kuya ku Missouri, na nthowa yiphya ya ku Jonesboro (I-555). Kumpoto chakumadzulo kwa Arkansas kumatumikiridwa ndi gawo la I-49 kuchokera ku Fort Smith mpaka kumayambiriro kwa Bella Vista Bypass. Chigawo cha I-49 panopa chimatsatira njira yomweyi monga gawo lakale la I-540 lomwe linkafikira kumpoto kwa I-40. Boma ili lili na misewu yikuru chomene ya 13 mu charu chose.<ref>{{cite web |title= 19th Annual Report on the Performance of State Highway Systems (1984–2008) |url=http://reason.org/files/19th_annual_highway_report.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://reason.org/files/19th_annual_highway_report.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |date= September 2010 |first1= David T. |last1= Hartgen |first2= M. Gregory |last2= Karanam |last3= Fields |first4= Travis A. |last4= Kerscher |publisher= Reason Foundation |page= 46 |type = PDF }}</ref>[[File:MNA 2167.jpg|thumb|The [[Missouri and Northern Arkansas Railroad]]]] Ku Arkansas kuli njanji ya mtunda wa makilomita 4,430, iyo yili na makampeni gha njanji ghakukwana 26, kusazgapo njanji zitatu za Class I. Njanji zakunyamulira katundu zikugwira nchito comene kumwera ca kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Arkansas kuti ziwovwire mafakitale mu cigaŵa ici. Sitima ya Texas Eagle, iyo yikwenda na ŵanthu ŵa Amtrak, yikwenda pa malo ghankhondi mu chigaŵa cha Walnut Ridge, Little Rock, Malvern, Arkadelphia, na Texarkana. Kweniso Arkansas wakusangirapo candulo cifukwa ca kugwiliskira nchito milonga yake pa malonda. Mlonga wa Mississippi na wa Arkansas ni milonga yikuru. Gulu la ŵasilikari la United States Army Corps of Engineers likusungilira nthowa ya McClellan-Kerr Arkansas River Navigation System, iyo yikovwira kuti maboti ghamanyenge kwambuka mlonga wa Arkansas kuya ku Port of Catoosa ku Tulsa, Oklahoma. Pali vipatala vinayi vya malonda: Clinton National Airport (kale Little Rock National Airport panji Adams Field), Northwest Arkansas Regional Airport, Fort Smith Regional Airport, na Texarkana Regional Airport, na vipatala vinyake vichoko-vikuru mu boma ili. Ŵalaraŵalara na ŵanthu awo ŵali na suzgo la kupendera ŵakwendeska magalimoto mu malo ghakupambanapambana. ==Boma== {{Main|Politics and government of Arkansas}} Nga umo viliri na boma la United States, mazaza gha ndyali mu Arkansas ghali kugaŵikana mu vigaŵa vitatu: wupu wakulongozga, wupu wa malango, na wupu wa ŵeruzgi. Ŵalaraŵalara wose ŵakugwira nchito kwa vilimika vinayi. Awo ŵakugwira nchito mu ofesi iyi ŵakukhala mu ofesi yiliyose kwa nyengo yichoko waka, ndipo ŵakukhala mu ofesi iyi kwa nyengo yichoko waka.<ref>{{cite web |last1= English |first1= Art |last2= Weberg |first2= Brian |title= Term Limits in the Arkansas General Assembly: A Citizen Legislature Responds |year= 2005 |publisher= National Conference of State Legislatures |website= Joint Project on Term Limits |page= 1 |url= http://www.ncsl.org/Portals/1/documents/jptl/casestudies/Arkansasv2.pdf |access-date= February 3, 2013 |archive-date= June 3, 2013 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130603142221/http://www.ncsl.org/Portals/1/documents/jptl/casestudies/Arkansasv2.pdf |url-status= dead }}</ref> ===Executive=== {{Main|Governor of Arkansas}} {{See also|List of governors of Arkansas|Arkansas Cabinet}} Kazembe wa boma la Arkansas ni Sarah Huckabee Sanders, wa ku Republican, uyo wakimikika pa Janyuwale 10, 2023.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://archive.stateline.org/weekly/Stateline.org-Weekly-Original-Content-2006-11-06.pdf |title=Winners in '06 Governors races |access-date=July 30, 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110728055148/http://archive.stateline.org/weekly/Stateline.org-Weekly-Original-Content-2006-11-06.pdf |archive-date=July 28, 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://dwe.arkansas.gov/GenIfo/administration.html |title=Arkansas.gov Administration page for Governor |publisher=Dwe.arkansas.gov |date=March 16, 2007 |access-date=July 30, 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060614164225/http://dwe.arkansas.gov/GenIfo/administration.html |archive-date=June 14, 2006 }}</ref> Mu Arkansas, ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵankhondi na umoza awo ŵakwimikika na boma ni mulara wa boma, nduna ya boma, loya wa boma, musungichuma, mulaŵiliri wa ndalama, na mulaŵiliri wa vyaru. Kazembe wakwimikaso ŵalongozgi ŵa mabungwe ghanyake gha boma, makomiti, na maofesi. Ŵabwanamkubwa ŵa ku Arkansas ŵakateŵeteranga kwa vyaka viŵiri, ndipo pamanyuma ŵakaŵasazgirako vyaka vinayi. Ŵanthu awo ŵakusankhika kuti ŵateŵetere mu maofesi agha ŵakukhala mu maofesi ghaŵiri kwa vyaka vinayi. Ku Arkansas, mulongozgi wa boma wakusankhika mwakupambana na mulongozgi wa boma, ntheura wangaŵa wa chipani chinyake.<ref>{{cite web |title= Office of Lieutenant Governor |url= http://www.encyclopediaofarkansas.net/encyclopedia/entry-detail.aspx?entryID=5722 |date= February 28, 2011 |publisher= The Pryor Center |website= Encyclopedia of Arkansas |access-date= January 6, 2013 }}</ref> ===Legislative=== {{Main|Arkansas General Assembly}} Wupu wa Arkansas General Assembly ni wupu wa boma uwo uli na nyumba ziŵiri za malango, Senate na House of Representatives. Nyumba ya Senate yili na mamembara 35 kufuma ku vigaŵa ivyo vili na ŵanthu ŵakuyana. Vigaŵa ivi vikusankikaso para kucitika kalembera wa ŵanthu ku United States, ndipo mu vilimika vya mavoti ivyo vikumalira pa "2", wupu wose ukuŵaso na mazaza. Pambuyo pa chisankhochi, theka la mipandoyo imadziwika kuti mipando ya zaka ziwiri ndipo imatha kusankhidwa kachiwiri mzaka ziwiri, "zigawozigawozi" siziwerengera malire a nyumba yamalamulo. Ŵanyake wose ŵakugwira nchito kwa vilimika vinayi. Ivi vikupangiska kuti mavoti ghaŵengeko pachokopachoko mwakuti hafu ya wupu uwu yikusankhikaso para pajumpha vyaka viŵiri. Mu 2012, ŵanthu ŵa ku Arkansas ŵakasankha ŵa Republican kuti ŵaŵe na mazaza ghanandi mu Nyumba ya Senate. Ŵabali ŵa ku Arkansas ŵakukhala mu Nyumba ya Malamulo kwa vyaka viŵiri. Nyumba za mu chigaŵa ichi zikugaŵika na boma la Arkansas Board of Apportionment. Mu 2012, maRepublican ghakasanga vigaŵa 51 pa 49 mu Nyumba ya Malamulo. Chipani cha Republican chili na unandi mu Nyumba ya Wimiliri ya boma la Arkansas pamanyuma pa visankho vya mu 2012, ndipo ni chipani chakwamba kufuma mu 1874. Arkansas ndiyo yikaŵa boma laumaliro mu Confederation kuti lileke kuŵa na vipani vya Republican mu nyumba yiliyose kufuma apo nkhondo ya pakati pa vyaru vya America yikambira. Para malango gha boma ghasintha, kafukufuku wakulongora kuti ŵanthu awo ŵakukhumba kuti vinthu vyendenge makora mu boma ŵalije nkhongono. Ŵalaraŵalara ŵa boma ŵali na mazaza ghanandi chifukwa chakuti ŵamazaza awo ŵakusoleka ŵakusinthana.<ref>{{cite web |last1= English |first1= Art |last2= Weberg |first2= Brian |title= Term Limits in the Arkansas General Assembly: A Citizen Legislature Responds |year= 2005 |publisher= National Conference of State Legislatures |website= Joint Project on Term Limits |url= http://www.ncsl.org/Portals/1/documents/jptl/casestudies/Arkansasv2.pdf |pages= 33–34 |access-date= February 3, 2013 |archive-date= June 3, 2013 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130603142221/http://www.ncsl.org/Portals/1/documents/jptl/casestudies/Arkansasv2.pdf |url-status= dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last= Greenberg |first= Dan |url= http://arkansaseconomics.org/policy/050105.html |title= The Dangers of Diluting Term Limits |publisher= Arkansas Policy Center |access-date= February 3, 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title= Republicans Take Control of Arkansas House, Senate |url= http://5newsonline.com/2012/11/13/republicans-take-control-of-arkansas-house-senate/ |first= Mallory |last= Cooke |date= November 14, 2012 |publisher= [[KFSM-TV]] |access-date= January 8, 2013 }}</ref><ref name="sen">{{cite web |title= Arkansas Senate flips; first time since Reconstruction |date= November 7, 2012 |publisher= The Courier |url= http://www.couriernews.com/view/full_story/20738303/article-Arkansas-Senate-flips--first-time-since-Reconstruction |access-date= January 8, 2013 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130117082700/http://www.couriernews.com/view/full_story/20738303/article-Arkansas-Senate-flips--first-time-since-Reconstruction |archive-date= January 17, 2013 |url-status= dead |df= mdy-all }}</ref> ===Judicial=== {{Main|Courts of Arkansas}} Boma la Arkansas lili na makhoti ghankhondi: Arkansas Supreme Court, Arkansas Court of Appeals, Circuit Courts, District Courts na City Courts. Milandu yinandi yikwamba mu khoti la ku chigaŵa, ilo likugaŵikana mu makhoti gha ku chigaŵa na makhoti gha ku chigaŵa. Makhoti gha chigaŵa gha boma ghakupanga malango pa chigaŵa chose pa chigaŵa icho chapangika na General Assembly, ndipo makhoti gha chigaŵa ghakupanga malango pa chigaŵa ichi na ŵeruzgi awo ŵakugwira ntchito ya nyengo yichoko. Pali makhoti 28 gha Circuit Court, ndipo makhoti ghose ghali na vigaŵa vinkhondi. Khoti Likuru ku Arkansas ndilo likusankha malo agho khoti ili likwenera kuzenga mulandu, ndipo palije mwaŵi wakuti khoti ili lichite apilu ku khoti likuru. Khoti Likuru Chomene la ku Arkansas lingawonaso milandu ya ku Court of Appeals para pali munthu yumoza uyo wali mu mulandu, para Court of Appeals ndiyo yapempha, panji usange khoti likuru la ku Arkansas likuwona kuti likwenera kupika mulandu uwu. Ŵeruzgi 12 ŵa khoti la apilu la Arkansas ŵakusoleka kufuma mu vigaŵa vyawo kuti ŵeruzgenge kwa vyaka 6. Khoti Likuru Chomene la Arkansas ni khoti laumaliro mu boma ili, ndipo lili na ŵeruzgi 7 awo ŵakwimikika kwa vyaka 8. Khoti ili likakhazikiskika mu 1836 na dango la boma la Arkansas. ===Federal=== Ŵanalume ŵaŵiri ŵa ku Arkansas awo ŵali mu wupu wa United States, [[John Boozman]] na [[Tom Cotton]], ni Ŵarepabulikani. Boma ili lili na mipando yinayi mu U.S. Nyumba ya Malamulo. Vipando vyose vinayi vya mu wupu wa Republican: [[Rick Crawford (politician)|Rick Crawford]] ([[Arkansas's 1st congressional district|1st district]]), [[French Hill (politician)|French Hill]] ([[Arkansas's 2nd congressional district|2nd district]]), [[Steve Womack]] ([[Arkansas's 3rd congressional district|3rd district]]), na [[Bruce Westerman]] ([[Arkansas's 4th congressional district|4th district]]).<ref name="sw">{{cite web |title= New Arkansas Rep. Cotton Draws Spotlight; 113th Congress Sworn In |url= http://swtimes.com/sections/news/politics/new-arkansas-rep-cotton-draws-spotlight-113th-congress-sworn.html |date= January 4, 2013 |last= Urban |first= Peter |publisher= [[Southwest Times Record|The Times-Record]] |access-date= January 6, 2013 |archive-date= January 17, 2013 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130117082706/http://swtimes.com/sections/news/politics/new-arkansas-rep-cotton-draws-spotlight-113th-congress-sworn.html |url-status= dead }}</ref> ===Politics=== {{Main|Politics and government of Arkansas}} {| class=wikitable floatright" ! colspan = 6 | Party registration as of June 2, 2021<ref>{{cite web |title=VR Statistics Report for June 2021|access-date=June 9, 2021 |url=https://www.sos.arkansas.gov/uploads/VR_Statistics_Report_for_June_2021.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.sos.arkansas.gov/uploads/VR_Statistics_Report_for_June_2021.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live}}</ref> |- ! colspan = 2 | Party ! Total voters ! Percentage |- | {{party color cell|Independent politician}} | [[Independent voter|Nonpartisan]] | align=center | 1,552,641 | align=center | 87.93% |- | {{party color cell|Republican Party (US)}} | [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] | align=center | 123,726 | align=center | 7.01% |- | {{party color cell|Democratic Party (US)}} | [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]] | align=center | 88,508 | align=center | 5.01% |- | {{party color cell|Other parties (US)}} |[[List of political parties in the United States|Other]] | align=center | 806 | align=center | 0.05% |- ! colspan = 2 | Total ! align=center | 1,765,681 ! align=center | 100.00% |} [[File:William J. Clinton Presidential Library, Little Rock, Arkansas (exterior view - 2007).jpg|thumb|The [[Clinton Presidential Center]] in Little Rock]] Kazembe wa boma la Arkansas, Bill Clinton, wakayowoya nkhani yitali pa ungano wa chipani cha Democratic National Convention mu 1988, ndipo wakakhozgera Michael Dukakis. Ŵanandi ŵakayowoya kuti ivyo wakayowoya vikaŵa vyakofya ku ivyo wakakhumbanga. Clinton wakati nkhani iyi yikaŵa "yakukhozga waka maghanoghano ghambura kwenelera". Mu 1992, wakasoleka kuŵa pulezidenti wa caru ici. Wakayowoya kuti ni "Mdemokratiki Muphya" ndipo wakagwiliskira nchito George H. W. Mu 1992, Clinton wakathereska mavoti 43.0 pa 100 gha mavoti gha Bush 37.5 pa 100 gha mavoti gha mulara wa boma Ross Perot 18.9 pa 100 gha mavoti gha mulara wa boma. Ŵakaŵa na nkhongono chomene ku chigaŵa cha kumpoto chakumanjiliro gha dazi kwa boma ili, chomenechomene ku Fort Smith na Bentonville, kweniso kumpoto kwa Central Arkansas kuzingilizga chigaŵa cha Mountain Home. Mu vigaŵa ivi, awo ŵakakolerananga na boma la Republican ŵakasanga mavoti 90 pa 100 panji kujumpha apa, apo awo ŵakakolerananga na boma la Democratic ŵakasanga mavoti ghanandi. Pamanyuma pa chaka cha 2010, ŵasilikari ŵa Republican ŵakalutilira kuthandazgikira kumpoto na kumwera. Ŵademocrat ŵakukhala ku Little Rock, Mississippi Delta, Pine Bluff, na vigaŵa vinyake vya ku Louisiana. Ku Arkansas, ŵanthu ŵatatu pera ndiwo ŵali kuvota ku U.S. Wupu wa Senate kufuma pa Reconstruction: Tim Hutchinson, uyo wakathereskeka na Mark Pryor; John Boozman, uyo wakathereska Blanche Lincoln; na Tom Cotton, uyo wakathereska Pryor mu 2014. Pambere chaka cha 2013 chindafike, Nyumba ya Malamulo yikaŵavya mazaza gha chipani cha Republican, chifukwa chipani cha GOP chikaŵa na mipando 51 mu Nyumba ya Malamulo ya chigaŵa ichi ndipo chikaŵa na mipando 21 (pa mipando 35) mu Nyumba ya Senate ya chigaŵa ichi. Boma la Arkansas likaŵa limoza mwa maboma ghatatu agho ghakatumizga ŵanthu ŵaŵiri ŵa chipani cha Democratic ku United States. Ŵanyake ŵakaŵa ŵa ku Florida na Virginia. Mu 2010, ŵa Republican ŵakathereska mipando yitatu pa mipando yinayi ya ku United States. Nyumba ya Malamulo. Mu 2012, ŵakasora ŵanthu wose ŵanayi ŵa mu Nyumba ya Malamulo. Boma la Arkansas likaŵa na mazaza ghakupambanapambana pa vyaru vyose vya U.S. Wupu wa Nyumba ya Malamulo ukapangika na ŵanthu awo ŵakaŵapo pa nkhondo (Rick Crawford, Army; Tim Griffin, Army Reserve; Steve Womack, Army National Guard; Tom Cotton, Army). Apo Pryor wakathereskeka mu 2014, gulu lose la mavoti likaŵa mu mawoko gha chipani cha Republican, ndipo aka kakaŵa kakwamba kufuma apo vinthu vikasinthira. Ku Arkansas kuli ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakugomezga visambizgo vya Cikhristu. Ivi vikacitika pamanyuma pakuti Khoti Likuru Chomene ladumura mulandu wa Dobbs v. Wupu wakuwona vya umoyo wa ŵanakazi wa Jackson, ku Arkansas, ukaŵa yumoza wa vigaŵa vinkhondi na vinayi ivyo vikukanizga kubaba. Kuyana na dango la boma la Arkansas, munthu waliyose wali na wanangwa wa kugwira nchito. Ŵanthu awo ŵakasora boma ili ŵakakanizga nthengwa za ŵanalume panji ŵanakazi pera mu 2004, ndipo 75% ŵakakolerana nayo, nangauli dango ili likagwira ntchito yayi kufuma apo Khoti Likuru Chomene likadumulira mulandu wa Obergefell v. Hodges. Mu Arkansas ŵakulutilira kupeleka chilango cha nyifwa. Nthowa zinyake izo ŵakutolera kuti ŵamukome ni mpando wa magesi.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://deathpenaltyinfo.org/executions/methods-of-execution | title=Methods of Execution }}</ref> ===Military=== Chipatala cha Strategic Air Command ku Little Rock Air Force Base chikaŵa chimoza mwa vipatala 18 vya 308th Strategic Missile Wing (308th SMW), ndipo chimoza mwa vipatala 9 vya 374th Strategic Missile Squadron (374th SMS). Gulu la asilikari ili ndilo likagwiranga nchito ya Launch Complex 374 ⁇ 7, uko mu 1980 kukawa bomba la Titan II Intercontinental Ballistic Missile (ICBM) ku Damascus, Arkansas.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Command and Control: Nuclear Weapons, the Damascus Accident, and the Illusion of Safety|last=Schlosser|first=Eric|author-link=Eric Schlosser|publisher=Penguin Press|year=2013|isbn=978-1594202278|pages=[https://archive.org/details/commandcontrol00eric/page/ Title]|url=https://archive.org/details/commandcontrol00eric/page/}}</ref> ===Taxation=== Dipatimenti ya Arkansas ya Vyachuma na ya Vyakupwelelera Boma ndiyo yikusonkheska misonkho.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.dfa.arkansas.gov/|title=Department of Finance and Administration|website=Dfa.arkansas.gov|access-date=April 17, 2021}}</ref> ==Umoyo== {{See also|List of hospitals in Arkansas}} [[File:UAMSmedcenter.JPG|thumb|[[UAMS Medical Center]], Little Rock]] Kuyana na 2012, Arkansas, nga ni vigaŵa vinandi vya kumwera kwa United States, wali na ŵanthu ŵanandi chomene awo ŵakufwa mwamabuchi, awo ŵakufwa na nthenda ya mtima, kweniso awo ŵakufwa chifukwa cha ntchito. Boma ili lili pa malo gha nambara 43 pamoza na New York pa ciŵerengero ca ŵanthu ŵalara awo ŵakucita maseŵero mwakukhazikika. Kanandi boma la Arkansas ndilo likuŵa na ŵanthu ŵambura umoyo uwemi chomene chifukwa cha unandi wa ŵanthu awo ŵakututuŵa chomene, awo ŵakukhweŵa hona, na awo ŵakukhala waka, kweni kuyana na kafukufuku wa Gallup, boma la Arkansas ndilo likachita makora chomene pa nkhani ya kuchepeska unandi wa ŵanthu awo ŵalije inshuwalansi. Chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu awo ŵalije inshuwalansi mu Arkansas chikakhira kufuma pa 22.5 mu 2013 kufika pa 12.4 mu Ogasiti 2014. Mu 2006, boma la Arkansas likakanizga ŵanthu kusumba hona mu nyumba zawo, kweni mu malo ghanyake yayi. Mu Arkansas, chipatala chilichose icho chili mu gulu la chipatala cha Arkansas Hospital Association ndicho chikupeleka wovwiri wa vyaumoyo. Vinthu vikuru ivyo vikuŵa na maofesi ghakupambanapambana ni Baptist Health, Community Health Systems, na HealthSouth. Yunivesite ya Arkansas ya Medical Sciences (UAMS) ku Little Rock yili na UAMS Medical Center, chipatala icho chikusambizga vya kansa na nthenda ya misipa. Dipatimenti ya vya ŵana ya UAMS Medical Center yikumanyikwa kuti Arkansas Children's Hospital, ndipo yikumanyikwa chomene pa nkhani ya nthenda ya mtima na opareshoni ya mtima. Vipatala viŵiri ivi ni vyekha ivyo vili na malo ghakuponerako ŵalwari.<ref>{{cite web |title= Designated Trauma Centers |url= http://www.healthy.arkansas.gov/programsServices/injuryPreventionControl/TraumaticSystems/Pages/DesignatedTraumaCenters.aspx |date= December 17, 2012 |publisher= Arkansas Department of Health |access-date= January 21, 2013 |url-status= dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120211165823/http://www.healthy.arkansas.gov/programsServices/injuryPreventionControl/TraumaticSystems/Pages/DesignatedTraumaCenters.aspx |archive-date= February 11, 2012 |df= mdy-all }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title= Arkansas Children's Hospital |url= http://health.usnews.com/best-hospitals/area/ar/arkansas-children%27s-hospital-6710340 |publisher= U.S. News & World Report |website= Health & Hospitals |access-date= January 21, 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title= University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences |url= http://health.usnews.com/best-hospitals/area/ar/uams-medical-center-6710440 |publisher= U.S. News & World Report |website= Health & Hospitals |access-date= January 21, 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title= Arkansas Smoking Ban |date= July 22, 2006 |url= http://www.fox16.com/news/local/story/Arkansas-Smoking-Ban/v0FkUVtPPUeQz0oXGgskjQ.cspx |publisher= [[KLRT-TV]] |access-date= January 21, 2013 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130517165120/http://www.fox16.com/news/local/story/Arkansas-Smoking-Ban/v0FkUVtPPUeQz0oXGgskjQ.cspx |archive-date= May 17, 2013 |url-status= dead |df= mdy-all }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Wilson|first1=Reid|title=Arkansas is the Best State in America|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/govbeat/wp/2014/08/08/arkansas-is-the-best-state-in-america|newspaper=The Washington Post|access-date=August 9, 2014}}</ref><ref name="health" /><ref name="health">{{cite web |title= Arkansas |website= America's Health Rankings |year= 2012 |url= http://www.americashealthrankings.org/AR/2012 |publisher= United Health Foundation |access-date= January 21, 2013 |archive-date= January 30, 2013 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130130120851/http://www.americashealthrankings.org/AR/2012 |url-status= dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title= Physical exercise (most recent) by state |website= Health Statistics |url= http://www.statemaster.com/graph/hea_phy_exe-health-physical-exercise |access-date= January 21, 2013 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130513182949/http://www.statemaster.com/graph/hea_phy_exe-health-physical-exercise |archive-date= May 13, 2013 |url-status= dead }}</ref> ==Masambiro== {{See also|List of colleges and universities in Arkansas|List of high schools in Arkansas|List of school districts in Arkansas}} Ku Arkansas kuli vipatala vyakukwana 1,064 ivyo vikusanga ndalama kufuma ku boma, kweniso masukulu gha pulayimale, gha junior na gha sekondare. Boma likugwiliska nchito yunivesite na makoleji gha boma, kusazgapo yunivesite ziŵiri zikuruzikuru: Arkansas State University System na University of Arkansas System. Yunivesite ya Arkansas, iyo yili ku Fayetteville, yikaŵa pa malo gha 63 pa masukulu gha boma mu charu chose cha United States. News & World Report. Maunivesite ghanyake ni University of Arkansas ku Pine Bluff, Arkansas Tech University, Henderson State University, Southern Arkansas University, na University of Central Arkansas. Kweniso mu tawuni iyi muli makoleji na mayunivesite ghakukwana 11, kusazgapo Hendrix College, limoza mwa makoleji 100 gha maluso agho ghakusangika mu charu ichi. News & World Report. Mu ma 1920, boma likalangura kuti ŵana wose ŵanjire sukulu za boma. Chaka cha sukulu chikaŵa na mazuŵa 131, nangauli vigaŵa vinyake vikaŵavya mazuŵa agha.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Holley|first1=Marc J|title=Encyclopedia of Arkansas}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Wilson|first1=William Oscar|title=History of Public School Education in Arkansas; 1900–1918|date=August 30, 1918|publisher=University of Chicago, Department of Education|page=Page}}</ref> Ku Arkansas, ŵana ŵa sukulu 20,083 ŵali kukomeka pa sukulu ya boma, kuyana na ivyo boma likayowoya mu 2011-12. Ciŵerengero ca ŵana awo ŵakutambuzgika mu masukulu gha boma cikuluska mu Mississippi pera.<ref name="CORPUN_US_SCHOOL">{{cite web|url=http://corpun.com/counuss.htm |title= Corporal punishment in US schools |publisher=World Corporal Punishment Research | last = Farrell | first = Colin | date=February 2016|access-date=April 4, 2016}}</ref> ===Educational attainment=== Arkansas ni limoza mwa vyaru ivyo vili na ŵanthu ŵambura kusambira comene. Pa ŵanthu awo ŵali na digiri ya ku sekondare panji ya ku koleji, caru ici cili pa malo ghaumaliro. Boma ili likutondeka kupeleka ndalama zakukwana ku sukulu, malipiro gha ŵasambizgi ngakudokeka, kweniso ndyali zikunjilirapo pa masambiro. Malipoti ghakukhwaskana na masambiro mu nyengo yakale ghakaŵa ghambura kukolerana ndipo ghakaŵa ghakugomezgeka yayi. Maofesi ghanandi gha boma ghakapelekanga lipoti lose yayi kwa nduna ya boma, iyo yikaŵanga nga ni mulara wa masukulu gha boma. Kweni ciŵerengero ca ŵazungu ŵa vyaka vyakujumpha 20 awo ŵakamanyanga yayi kuŵazga na kulemba cikaŵa: :1840, 21% :1850, 25% :1860, 17%<ref>{{cite book|last1=Wilson|first1=William Oscar|title=History of Public School Education in Arkansas; 1900–1918|date=August 30, 1918|publisher=University of Chicago, Department of Education|page=7}}</ref> Mu 2010, ŵana ŵa sukulu ku Arkansas ŵakalemba 20.3 pa mayeso gha ACT, ndipo pa charu chose ŵakalemba 21. Ivi vikacitika cifukwa ca kusazgikira kwa unandi wa ŵana ŵa sukulu awo ŵakalemba mayeso kufuma apo ŵakambiskira sukulu ya Academic Challenge. Masukulu ghapachanya ghakumanyikwa na U.S. Nkhani & World Report zikupharazgika mu chigaŵa chose, kusazgapo Haas Hall Academy mu Fayetteville, KIPP Delta Collegiate mu Helena-West Helena, Bentonville, Rogers, Rogers Heritage, Valley Springs, Searcy, na McCrory. Sukulu zose za ku Arkansas zikaŵa 81 ndipo zikaŵa pa malo ghakwamba. Lipoti la mu 2012 la News & World.<ref>{{cite magazine|title=Arkansas High Schools |url=https://www.usnews.com/education/best-high-schools/arkansas/rankings |magazine=U.S. News & World Report |year=2012 |access-date=September 3, 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120830033733/http://www.usnews.com/education/best-high-schools/arkansas/rankings |archive-date=August 30, 2012 }}</ref> [[File:OldMainUofA.jpg|thumb|upright|right|[[Old Main (University of Arkansas)|Old Main]], part of the [[University of Arkansas Campus Historic District|Campus Historic District]] at the [[University of Arkansas]] in Fayetteville]] Arkansas wali pa malo gha 32 pa malo gha Morgan Quitno Smartest State Award, 44 pa malo gha ŵanthu awo ŵali na diploma ya high school, na 48 pa malo gha ŵanthu awo ŵali na degree ya bachelor's degree.<ref>{{cite web | title = 2006–2007 Smartest State Award | publisher = Morgan Quitno Press | url = http://www.morganquitno.com/edrank.htm | access-date = September 3, 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title= Educational Attainment, American Community Survey 1-Year Estimates |year= 2010 |url= http://factfinder.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/productview.xhtml?pid=ACS_10_1YR_S1501&prodType=table |archive-url= https://archive.today/20200212212928/http://factfinder.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/productview.xhtml?pid=ACS_10_1YR_S1501&prodType=table |url-status= dead |archive-date= February 12, 2020 |publisher= United States Census Bureau |website= 2010 United States Census |access-date= September 3, 2012 }}</ref> Boma la Arkansas lacita makora comene pa nkhani ya kusintha masambiro. Mlungu wa Masambililo walumba boma ili, likukhala pa malo 10 pachanya pa Quality Counts Education Rankings chaka chilichose kufuma mu 2009 apo likukhala pa malo 5 pachanya mu 2012 na 2013.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.edweek.org/ew/qc/2009/17src.h28.html|title=Quality Counts 2009—State Report Cards—Education Week|website=edweek.org|date=January 8, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.edweek.org/media/qualitycounts2012_release.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.edweek.org/media/qualitycounts2012_release.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |title=Quality counts |date=2012 |website=edweek.org }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.edweek.org/media/QualityCounts2013_Release.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.edweek.org/media/QualityCounts2013_Release.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |title=Qua;ity counts |date=2013 |newspaper=Education Week }}</ref> Boma la Arkansas likapokera A pa nkhani ya kusintha vinthu na kulondezga malango gha boma pa nkhani ya sukulu za ŵana ŵachoko, masambiro gha ku koleji, na ntchito. Kazembe Mike Beebe wakuyezgayezga kuti waŵike ndalama zinandi pa masambiro, ndipo ivi vyawovwira kuti masambiro ghaŵeko ghawemi. Boma ili ndilo likwamba kusintha masukulu kuti ghaŵe na masukulu ghakukonkhera ŵana ŵa sukulu kuti ŵalute ku masukulu gha sekondare, ndipo likutumbika ŵasambizgi awo ŵakufiska makora masambiro ghawo, kweniso likutumbika ŵalongozgi ŵa masukulu awo ŵakugwira nchito mu masukulu gha pasi pa sekondare.<ref>{{cite web |title= The states with the best and worst schools |date= January 30, 2013 |url= http://homes.yahoo.com/news/where-the-best-and-worst-schools-are-021737613.html |publisher= Yahoo |last1= Sauter |first1= Michael |last2= Weigley |first2= Samuel |access-date= February 1, 2013 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130202160339/http://homes.yahoo.com/news/where-the-best-and-worst-schools-are-021737613.html |archive-date= February 2, 2013 |url-status= dead }}</ref> ===Funding=== Nga ni umo vyaru vikapangikira, ndipo pamasinda mu mazuŵa ghakwambilira gha kuŵa boma, masambiro ghakaŵanga na ndalama izo zikafumanga ku malonda gha malo gha boma agho ghakaŵa pasi pa boma. Ndondomeko iyi yikaŵa yakukwana yayi ndipo yikaŵanga yakusuzga kupokera vimbundi. Mu 1854, Kazembe Elias N. Conway wakati, "Tili na dango la masukulu ghakukolerana, ilo likukhumba kuti tisange masukulu ghakukolerana mu vigaŵa vyose vya boma; kweni pakuti kulije ndalama zakukwana, masukulu ghachoko waka ghakugwira nchito mwakuyana na dango ili". Pa nyengo iyo, pa ŵana 100, mwana yumoza pa ŵana ŵanayi ndiyo wakaŵa pa sukulu. Apo Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Caru Cose yikambanga, boma likaŵa na masukulu 25 pera gha ŵanthu wose. Mu 1867, ŵamazaza ŵa boma ŵakaŵa ŵa Confederate. Likapeleka dango la masukulu agho ghakazomerezganga kuti masukulu gha ŵanthu wose ghaŵe gha ŵazungu pera. Mu 1868, wupu wa malango ukakanizga ŵanthu awo ŵakakolerananga na Confederate kuti ŵaleke kunjira usilikari, ndipo ukapeleka dango likuru chomene ilo likalongosoranga vya ndalama na vinthu vinyake, na kuzomerezga ŵana ŵa ŵanthu ŵafipa kuti ŵalute ku sukulu. Kuti ivi vicitike, mu 1868 boma likapeleka dango lakuti munthu waliyose wapelekenge msonkho wa ndalama zakwendeskera masukulu. Mu 1868, ŵanthu ŵakamba kulongozga masukulu gha mu County. Mu 2014, boma la Arkansas likagwiliskira nchito ndalama zakukwana $9,616 pa msambiri waliyose, pakuyaniska na ndalama zakukwana $11,000 izo boma la Arkansas likagwiliskiranga nchito pa sukulu zose.<ref>{{cite web|title=Education Spending Per Student by State|date=February 9, 2012|url=http://www.governing.com/gov-data/education-data/state-education-spending-per-pupil-data.html|publisher=Governing|access-date=August 27, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Wilson|first1=William Oscar|title=History of Public School Education in Arkansas; 1900–1918|date=August 30, 1918|publisher=University of Chicago, Department of Education|page=4}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Wilson|first1=William Oscar|title=History of Public School Education in Arkansas; 1900–1918|date=August 30, 1918|publisher=University of Chicago, Department of Education|page=8}}</ref><ref name="auto1">{{cite book|last1=Wilson|first1=William Oscar|title=History of Public School Education in Arkansas; 1900–1918|date=August 30, 1918|publisher=University of Chicago, Department of Education|page=3}}</ref> ===Timeline=== * 1829 Territorial legislature permits townships to establish schools<ref name="auto1"/> * 1868 State law requires racial segregation of schools * 1871 [[University of Arkansas]] established * 1873 [[University of Arkansas at Pine Bluff]] established as a school to train black teachers * 1877 [[Philander Smith College]] established as a school for black students * 1890 [[Henderson State University]] established (as a private school, becoming Henderson ''State'' Teachers ''College'' in 1929) * 1885 [[Arkansas School for the Deaf]] and [[Arkansas School for the Blind]] established * 1909 [[Arkansas Tech University]], [[Southern Arkansas University]], [[University of Arkansas at Monticello]] and [[Arkansas State University]] established as schools offering high school diplomas and vocational training * {{circa|1920}} Schooling made compulsory<ref name="auto">{{cite web |last1=Holley |first1=Marc J |title=Encyclopedia of Arkansas |url=http://www.encyclopediaofarkansas.net/encyclopedia/entry-detail.aspx?entryID=2164 |access-date=August 27, 2017 |website=Education Reform |publisher=University of Arkansas}}</ref> * 1925 [[University of Central Arkansas]] established (as Arkansas State Normal School) * 1948 [[University of Arkansas School of Law]] admits a black student * 1957 Governor [[Orval Faubus]] uses National Guard troops to oppose racial integration of [[Little Rock Central High School]] * 1958 United States Supreme Court [[Cooper v. Aaron|overrules]] the governor * 1983 [[Arkansas State Supreme Court]] rules that the state's funding of education is Constitutionally deficient<ref name="auto"/> ==Media== Mu 2010, manyuzipepara gha ku Arkansas ghakaŵa gha WEHCO Media, Lancaster Management, Paxton Media Group, Rust Communications, Stephens Media, na GateHouse Media.<ref>{{citation |url=http://www.encyclopediaofarkansas.net/encyclopedia/entry-detail.aspx?entryID=2191 |title= Mass Media |author=C. Dennis Schick |publisher= Central Arkansas Library System |encyclopedia= [[Encyclopedia of Arkansas]] |access-date= March 24, 2017 }}</ref> ==Culture== {{Main|Culture of Arkansas}} [[File:Van Buren Confederate Monument 001.jpg|thumb|188x188px|[[Van Buren Confederate Monument]] at the [[Crawford County, Arkansas|Crawford County]] Courthouse in [[Van Buren, Arkansas]]]] Ŵanthu ŵa ku Arkansas ŵakutemwa kurya vyakurya vyakupambanapambana, kuyowoya viyowoyero vyakupambanapambana, na viphikiro vyawo. Maseŵero nagho ngakuzirwa comene ku ŵanthu aŵa, kusazgapo bola, baseball, basketball, kuvina, na ulovi. Cinthu cinyake ico cikumanyikwa comene mu cikaya ca ku Arkansas nchakuti ŵanthu ŵa mu cikaya ici mbanthu awo ŵakukhala mu mapiri. Zina ili likamba kumanyikwa apo ŵanthu ŵakwambilira awo ŵakendanga mu vyaru vinyake ŵakayowoya kuti malo agha ghakaŵa nga ni mapopa ghakofya agho mukaŵa vigeŵenga na ŵankhungu. Chinthu chinyake icho chikulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Arkansas ŵakaŵa na nkharo yiwemi ni buku la The Arkansas Traveller, ilo likulongosora nkhani ya ŵanthu ŵa ku Arkansas mu vyaka vya m'ma 1840. Nangauli mazgu agha ghakayowoyanga vya ŵanthu ŵasambazi ŵa ku Arkansas na ŵanthu ŵakavu ŵa ku mapiri gha kumpoto kwa Arkansas, kweni ghakazgoka waka mazgu gha munthu wa ku mpoto uyo wali mu mapiri gha Ozarks pa hachi lituŵa. Boma ili likusuzgikaso cifukwa ca kusankhana mitundu uko kukacitikanga mu vyaru ivyo kale vikaŵa pasi pa Confederate, ndipo vinthu vyapadera nga ni ivyo vikacitika ku Little Rock vikawovwira kuti zina la Arkansas liŵe likuru. Mu nyumba zakuwoneskeramo vinthu vyakale muli vinthu vyakuzirwa ivyo ŵanthu ŵa ku Arkansas na ŵalendo ŵakukondwa navyo. Mu 2012, ŵanthu 604,000 ŵakaluta ku Crystal Bridges Museum of American Art ku Bentonville. Mu nyumba iyi muli nthowa zakwenda na malo ghakusambizgirapo, kweniso muli vinthu vyakujumpha 450 ivyo vikulongora luso la ku America lwa vyaka 500 ivyo vyajumpha. Mzinda wa Arkansas uli na malo ghanandi agho ghakusungirako vinthu vyakale. Ghanyake mwa malo agha ni Historic Washington State Park, Powhatan Historic State Park na Davidsonville Historic State Park. Mu Arkansas muli nyimbo zakupambanapambana za ŵanthu ŵa ku West Memphis, Pine Bluff, Helena ⁇ West Helena, rockabilly, bluegrass, na nyimbo za ku Ozarks. Vyakukondwelera nga ni King Biscuit Blues Festival na Bikes, Blues, na BBQ vikulumba mbiri ya blues mu boma ili. Ozark Folk Festival ku Mountain View ndi chikondwerero cha chikhalidwe cha Ozark ndipo nthawi zambiri chimakhala ndi oimba a folk ndi bluegrass. Mabuku gha ku Arkansas nga ni I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings gha Maya Angelou na A Painted House gha John Grisham ghakulongosora umo ŵanthu ŵakakhaliranga mu nyengo zakupambanapambana.<ref>{{cite web |title=600K visitors later, Crystal Bridges turns 1 |last=Bartels |first=Chuck |url=http://www.newsok.com/article/feed/461683 |date=November 12, 2012 |access-date=June 18, 2017 |publisher=News Ok }}{{Dead link|date=July 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref>Sutherlin 1996, p. 17.</ref><ref>{{cite news |title= Crystal Bridges art museum is reshaping Wal-Mart's hometown |last= Reynolds |first= Chris |newspaper= Chicago Tribune |url= http://www.chicagotribune.com/travel/la-tr-arkansas-20121014,0,3925043.story?page=2 |date= October 14, 2012 |access-date= November 18, 2012 }}</ref><ref>Sutherlin 1996, p. 20.</ref><ref>Blevins 2009, p. 30.</ref><ref>Arnold et al. 2002, p. 115.</ref><ref>Blevins 2009, p. 15.</ref> ===Sports and recreation=== [[File:Wapanocca National Wildlife Refuge Crittenden County AR 052.jpg|thumb|The flooded, forested [[Upland and lowland (freshwater ecology)#Lowland|bottomlands]] of east Arkansas attract wintering waterfowl.]] Ŵanthu ŵa ku Arkansas ŵakutemwa comene maseŵero, ndipo ŵakukondwa kuŵapo pa maseŵero ghakupambanapambana na kuwona ivyo vikucitika. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Arkansas ŵakutemwa maseŵero gha pa timu, comenecomene maseŵero gha pa koleji. Mpira wa pa koleji ku Arkansas ukayamba mu 1894. Kwa vyaka vinandi, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Arkansas ŵakuwona kuti timu ya Arkansas Razorbacks ndiyo yikulongora kuti boma ili ndakuzirwa. Nangauli Yunivesite ya Arkansas yili ku Fayetteville, kweni timu ya Razorbacks yikaseŵereskanga kamoza pa nyengo yiliyose pa War Memorial Stadium ku Little Rock kuti yikondweske ŵanthu ŵa ku Arkansas. Arkansas State University ndiyo yikaŵa timu yaciŵiri ya NCAA Division I Football Bowl Subdivision (FBS) (iyo pa nyengo iyo yikamanyikwanga kuti Division I-A) mu boma ili mu 1992 pamanyuma pakuseŵera mu vigaŵa vya pasi kwa vilimika pafupifupi makumi ghaŵiri. Masukulu ghaŵiri agha ghakaŵa kuti ghandachitepo maseŵero agha chifukwa cha dango la Yunivesite ya Arkansas lakuti ŵaleke kuseŵera maseŵero gha mu vigaŵa vinyake. Masukulu ghanyake ghaŵiri gha ku Yunivesite ya Arkansas ghakaŵa mu gulu la I. Yunivesite ya Arkansas ku Pine Bluff ndi membala wa Southwestern Athletic Conference, ligi yomwe mamembala ake onse amasewera mpira mu Football Championship Subdivision (FCS). Yunivesite ya Arkansas ku Little Rock, iyo yikumanyikwa na zina lakuti Little Rock, yikamba kuseŵera mu Sun Belt Conference, ndipo yikamba kuseŵera mu Ohio Valley Conference mu 2022. Wina wa chigawo I membala wa boma ndi University of Central Arkansas (UCA), amene anagwirizana ndi ASUN Conference mu 2021 atachoka ku FCS Southland Conference. Chifukwa chakuti ASUN sikukonzekera kuyamba mpikisano wa mpira wa FCS mpaka chaka cha 2022, mpira wa UCA ukuchita mpikisano ku Western Athletic Conference ngati gawo la mgwirizano wapakati pa masewera awiriwa. Ma koleji ghanayi gha ku Arkansas ghakwimba mu NCAA Division II, ghanayi mu Great American Conference ndipo limoza mu Lone Star Conference. Masukulu ghanyake ghaŵiri gha ku Arkansas ghakuseŵera mu NCAA Division III, uko masukulu gha maseŵero ghakukanizgika. Maseŵero gha mpira mu masukulu gha ku sekondare ghakamba kutchuka ku Arkansas mu vyaka vya m'ma 1900. Maseŵero gha baseball ghakaŵako ku Arkansas ndipo ghakatemwekanga chomene pambere charu ichi chindambe kuchitiska maseŵero gha baseball ku Hot Springs kwambira mu 1886 m'paka m'ma 1920. Timu ziŵiri za ku Little League zili mu chigaŵa ichi. Gulu la Arkansas Travelers likusewera ku Dickey  ⁇  Stephens Park ku North Little Rock, ndipo Northwest Arkansas Naturals ikusewera ku Arvest Ballpark ku Springdale. Timu yiliyose yikupambana mu Double-A Central. Ŵalwani ŵakulutilira kupenja nyama mu caru ici. Mu 1915, boma la Arkansas likakhazikiska wupu wakuwona vya somba na nyama. Mazuŵa ghano, ŵanthu ŵanandi mu Arkansas ŵakutemwa kupenja nkhunda mu mlonga wa Mississippi, kweniso mbaŵala mu chigaŵa chose.<ref name="Sutherlin 1996, p. 164">Sutherlin 1996, p. 164.</ref> Wupu wa Ducks Unlimited ukati msumba wa Stuttgart, ku Arkansas, "ni malo ghakupambanapambana pa caru cose". Ŵanthu awo ŵakutemwa kupenja vilwero na mauta ŵali na malo ghakukwana mahekitala ghanandi. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ku Arkansas ŵakutemwa chomene kukoma somba, ndipo boma la Arkansas nalo likovwirika chifukwa cha kuzenga madamu ghanandi mu chigaŵa ichi. Ŵasambiri ŵa Baibolo ŵakamba kupenja nthowa zakovwilira ŵanthu kuti ŵasambire unenesko wa mu Baibolo. Ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵakukhala mu nyumba za ŵacekuru, nga ni Bull Shoals, Hot Springs Village, na Fairfield Bay, ŵakukondwa comene cifukwa cakuti ŵali pafupi na nyanja ya somba. Wupu wa National Park Service ukasungilira Mlonga wa Buffalo National River kuti uleke kunangika, ndipo ŵalovi ŵakuluta kukawuwona chaka chilichose. ==Attractions== [[File:Blanchard Springs II.jpg|thumb|[[Blanchard Springs Caverns]] ku [[Stone County, Arkansas|Stone County]]]] Ku Arkansas kuli malo ghanandi agho ghakusungika na National Park System. Zina mwa izo ni izi:<ref name="ArkNPS">{{cite web |title=Arkansas |publisher=National Park Service |access-date=July 15, 2008 |url=http://www.nps.gov/state/ar}}</ref> * [[Arkansas Post National Memorial]] at [[Gillett, Arkansas|Gillett]] * [[Blanchard Springs Caverns]] * [[Buffalo National River]] * [[Fort Smith National Historic Site]] * [[Hot Springs National Park]] * [[Little Rock Central High School National Historic Site]] * [[Pea Ridge National Military Park]] * [[President William Jefferson Clinton Birthplace Home National Historic Site]] * [[Arkansas State Capitol Building]] * [[List of Arkansas state parks]] ==Wonaniso== * [[Index of Arkansas-related articles]] * [[Outline of Arkansas]] * [[Spanish Empire]] * [[History of Louisiana]] * [[USS Arkansas|USS ''Arkansas'']], 5 ships * '''''<small>{{portal-inline|Arkansas}}</small>''''' * '''''<small>{{portal-inline|United States}}</small>''''' ==Vyakulemba== {{Reflist|group=lower-alpha}} ==Ukaboni== {{reflist}} ===Bibliography=== * {{cite journal | last1= Arnold | first1= Morris S | title= The Significance of the Arkansas Colonial Experience | pages= 69–82 |volume= 51 |date= Spring 1992 |journal = Arkansas Historical Quarterly| issue= 1 | doi= 10.2307/40038202 | jstor= 40038202 }} * {{cite book | last4= Whayne | first4= Jeannie M | last2= DeBlack | first2= Thomas A | last3= Sabo III | first3= George | last1= Arnold | first1= Morris S. | title= Arkansas: A narrative history | edition= 1st | year= 2002 | publisher= The University of Arkansas Press | location= Fayetteville, AR | isbn= 978-1-55728-724-3 | oclc= 49029558 | url-access= registration | url= https://archive.org/details/arkansasnarrativ0000unse }} * {{Cite book |last=Blevins |first= Brooks |title= Arkansas/Arkansaw, How Bear Hunters, Hillbillies & Good Ol' Boys Defined a State |url=https://archive.org/details/arkansasarkansaw0000blev |location= Fayetteville, AR |year= 2009 | publisher= [[University of Arkansas Press]] | isbn= 978-1-55728-952-0 }} * {{cite journal |last= Bolton |first= S. Charles |title= Slavery and the Defining of Arkansas |journal= The Arkansas Historical Quarterly |date= Spring 1999 |volume= 58 |issue= 1 |pages= 1–23 |doi= 10.2307/40026271 |jstor= 40026271 }} * {{cite book |last= Fletcher |first= John Gould |title= Arkansas |year= 1989 |volume= 2 |editor-last = Carpenter |editor-first= Lucas |publisher= University of Arkansas Press |location= Fayetteville, AR | isbn = 978-1-55728-040-4 |oclc= 555740849}} * {{cite journal |last= Johnson |first= William R. |title= Prelude to the Missouri Compromise: A New York Congressman's Effort to Exclude Slavery from Arkansas Territory | journal = Arkansas Historical Quarterly |volume= 24 |date= Spring 1965 |issue= 1 |pages= 47–66|doi= 10.2307/40023964 |jstor= 40023964 }} * {{cite journal |title= Arkansas Statehood: A Study in State and National Political Schism |first= Jack B | last = Scroggs |pages= 227–244 |volume= 20 |date= Autumn 1961 | journal = Arkansas Historical Quarterly|issue= 3 |doi= 10.2307/40038048 |jstor= 40038048 }} * {{cite book |last= Smith |first= Richard M. |title= The Atlas of Arkansas |url= https://archive.org/details/atlasofarkansas0000unse |publisher= The University of Arkansas Press |year= 1989 |isbn= 978-1557280473}} * {{Cite journal |title= Arkansas Territorial Indian Affairs |first= Lonnie J. |last= White |journal= Arkansas Historical Quarterly |volume= 21 |date= Autumn 1962 |issue= 3 |pages= 193–212 |doi= 10.2307/40018929 |jstor= 40018929 }} * {{Cite book |title= The Arkansas Handbook |url= https://archive.org/details/arkansashandbook0000suth |last= Sutherlin |first= Diann |year= 1996 | edition= 2nd | publisher = Fly By Night Press |location= Little Rock, Arkansas |isbn= 978-0-932531-03-2 |lccn= 95-90761}} * {{Cite book | title= The WPA Guide to 1930s Arkansas | year= 1987 | edition= 1st paperback | series = [[Federal Writers' Project]] |publisher= University Press of Kansas |location= [[Lawrence, Kansas|Lawrence, KS]] | orig-year = 1941 | isbn =978-0700603411 |lccn= 87-81307}} == Vyakulemba vinyake == {{Refbegin|30em}} * Blair, Diane D. & Jay Barth ''Arkansas Politics & Government: Do the People Rule?'' (2005) * Deblack, Thomas A. ''With Fire and Sword: Arkansas, 1861–1874'' (2003) * Donovan, Timothy P. and Willard B. Gatewood Jr., eds. ''The Governors of Arkansas'' (1981) * Dougan, Michael B. ''Confederate Arkansas'' (1982), * Duvall, Leland. ed., ''Arkansas: Colony and State'' (1973) * [https://books.google.com/books?id=dvMZ_YNpYrYC&dq=peter+joseph+hamilton+reconstruction+period&pg=PP16 Hamilton, Peter Joseph. ''The Reconstruction Period''] (1906), full length history of era; [[Dunning School]] approach; 570 pp; ch 13 on Arkansas * Hanson, Gerald T. and Carl H. Moneyhon. ''Historical Atlas of Arkansas'' (1992) * Key, V. O. ''Southern Politics'' (1949) * Kirk, John A., ''Redefining the Color Line: Black Activism in Little Rock, Arkansas, 1940–1970'' (2002). * McMath, Sidney S. ''Promises Kept'' (2003) * Moore, Waddy W. ed., ''Arkansas in the Gilded Age, 1874–1900'' (1976). * Peirce, Neal R. ''The Deep South States of America: People, Politics, and Power in the Seven Deep South States'' (1974). * Thompson, Brock. ''The Un-Natural State: Arkansas and the Queer South'' (2010) * Thompson, George H. ''Arkansas and Reconstruction'' (1976) * Whayne, Jeannie M. ''Arkansas Biography: A Collection of Notable Lives'' (2000) * White, Lonnie J. ''Politics on the Southwestern Frontier: Arkansas Territory, 1819–1836'' (1964) * Williams, C. Fred. ed. ''A Documentary History Of Arkansas'' (2005) {{Refend}} == Vigaŵa vya kuwalo == {{Sister project links|voy=Arkansas|Arkansas|n=Category:Arkansas}} * [http://www.arkansas.gov/ Arkansas.gov]—Official State Website * [https://web.archive.org/web/20160824212729/http://www.ers.usda.gov/data-products/state-fact-sheets/state-data.aspx?StateFIPS=05&StateName=Arkansas#.U8FpBLH-ItU Arkansas State Facts from USDA] * [http://www.arkansas.com Official State tourism website] * [http://www.encyclopediaofarkansas.net/ ''Encyclopedia of Arkansas''] * [http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/state/state_energy_profiles.cfm?sid=AR Energy & Environmental Data for Arkansas] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110104031416/http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/05000.html U.S. Census Bureau] * [http://www2.census.gov/census_2000/datasets/demographic_profile/Arkansas/2kh05.pdf 2000 Census of Population and Housing for Arkansas], [[U.S. Census Bureau]] * [http://www.usgs.gov/state/state.asp?State=AR USGS real-time, geographic, and other scientific resources of Arkansas] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20120728123638/http://www.summercampsus.com/arkansas-summer-camps/ Arkansas Summer Camps] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20201219003526/https://www.arkshakes.com/ Arkansas Shakespeare Theatre] * {{Ballotpedia|Arkansas|Arkansas}} * {{curlie|Regional/North_America/United_States/Arkansas}} * {{OSM relation|161646}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20081013051630/http://www.arkleg.state.ar.us/data/ar_code.asp Arkansas State Code (the state statutes of Arkansas)] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20150518075409/http://wikis.ala.org/godort/index.php/Arkansas Arkansas State Databases]—Annotated list of searchable databases produced by Arkansas state agencies and compiled by the Government Documents Roundtable of the American Library Association. {{break}}<!--to put visual space between the last information and the following template if needed--> {{s-start}} {{s-bef|before=[[Missouri]]}} {{s-ttl|title=[[List of U.S. states by date of admission to the Union]]|years=Admitted on June 15, 1836 (25th)}} {{s-aft|after=[[Michigan]]}} {{s-end}} {{Navboxes |title = <span style="font-size:11pt;">Topics related to Arkansas</span>{{break}}''The Natural State'' |list = {{Arkansas|expanded}} {{Protected areas of Arkansas}} {{Southern United States}} {{New France}} {{New Spain}} {{Confederate States political divisions}} {{United States political divisions}} |state=expanded}} {{Authority control}} {{coord|35|-92|dim:300000_region:US-AR_type:adm1st|name=State of Arkansas|display=title}} [[Category:Arkansas| ]]<!--please leave the empty space as standard--> [[Category:1836 establishments in the United States]] [[Category:South Central United States]] [[Category:Southern United States]] [[Category:States and territories established in 1836]] [[Category:States of the Confederate States of America]] [[Category:States of the United States]] [[Category:Contiguous United States]] p708de07g1lj5b4hwu7tbzlipbdtdb2 0 9924 119294 118895 2026-08-13T22:04:31Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Add 3 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260813sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 119294 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Bantu Phillipson.png|thumb|320px|Chronological overview after Nurse and Philippson (2003):<ref>Derek Nurse und Gérard Philippson: The Bantu Languages. Routledge, London 2003.]] '''Kukula kwa ŵa Bantu''' ni sachizgo waka la umo ŵakayendelanga malo pa malo kufumila ku gulu la Ẇa-Bantu-Ẇakwamba ilo likafalikila ku Manjililo gha dazi chapakati pa Afilika kudumula chigaŵa cha Sahara.Ẇanthu aŵa ŵakaŵa na mbembe chomene ndipo palipose apo ŵiza ŵakadikizganga magulu ghanyake. Ukaboni ukulu wa wakusanuzgika kwa malo ni malilimi ghanandi- viyowoyelo vinandi ivyo vikuyowoyeka mwakudumula Sub-Equatorial Africa vyakukogana mu mayowoyelo,icho chikung'anamula kuti vikukozgana mwambo wa vinthu vinyake.Chitundu chachi Bantu icho chikfumila mu malo gha Atlantic-Congo agho gha kummwela kwa charu cha Cameroon.Nangauli vinandi vindamanyikwe vya gulu ili kwizila mu kafukufuku wakujima vinthu vya pasi. == Kuŵerenga vinandi == {{refbegin}} * {{cite journal |last1=Bostoen |first1=Koen |last2=Clist |first2=Bernard |last3=Doumenge |first3=Charles |last4=Grollemund |first4=Rebecca |last5=Hombert |first5=Jean-Marie |last6=Muluwa |first6=Joseph Koni |last7=Maley |first7=Jean |title=Middle to Late Holocene Paleoclimatic Change and the Early Bantu Expansion in the Rain Forests of Western Central Africa |journal=Current Anthropology |date=June 2015 |volume=56 |issue=3 |pages=354–384 |doi=10.1086/681436 |s2cid=129501938 }} *{{cite journal |title=The Chronological Evidence for the Introduction of Domestic Stock into Southern Africa |first=C. Britt |last=Bousman |s2cid=161428419 |journal=The African Archaeological Review |volume=15 |issue=2 |pages=133–150 |date=June 1998 |jstor=25130649|doi=10.1023/A:1022110818616 }} * {{cite journal |last1=Currie |first1=Thomas E. |last2=Meade |first2=Andrew |last3=Guillon |first3=Myrtille |last4=Mace |first4=Ruth |title=Cultural phylogeography of the Bantu Languages of sub-Saharan Africa |journal=Proceedings: Biological Sciences |date=2013 |volume=280 |issue=1762 |pages=1–8 |doi=10.1098/rspb.2013.0695 |jstor=23478639 |pmid=23658203 |pmc=3673054 }} * {{cite journal |last1=de Filippo |first1=Cesare |last2=Bostoen |first2=Koen |last3=Stoneking |first3=Mark |last4=Pakendorf |first4=Brigitte |title=Bringing together linguistic and genetic evidence to test the Bantu expansion |journal=Proceedings: Biological Sciences |date=2012 |volume=279 |issue=1741 |pages=3256–3263 |doi=10.1098/rspb.2012.0318 |jstor=41622670 |pmid=22628476 |pmc=3385717 }} * {{cite journal |last1=Grollemund |first1=Rebecca |last2=Branford |first2=Simon |last3=Bostoen |first3=Koen |last4=Meade |first4=Andrew |last5=Venditti |first5=Chris |last6=Pagel |first6=Mark |title=Bantu expansion shows that habitat alters the route and pace of human dispersals |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |date=2015 |volume=112 |issue=43 |pages=13296–13301 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1503793112 |jstor=26465769 |pmid=26371302 |pmc=4629331 |bibcode=2015PNAS..11213296G |doi-access=free }} * {{cite journal |last1=Holden |first1=Clare Janaki |title=Bantu Language Trees Reflect the Spread of Farming across Sub-Saharan Africa: A Maximum-Parsimony Analysis |journal=Proceedings: Biological Sciences |date=2002 |volume=269 |issue=1493 |pages=793–799 |doi=10.1098/rspb.2002.1955 |jstor=3067712 |pmid=11958710 |pmc=1690959 }} * {{cite journal |last1=Li |first1=Sen |last2=Schlebusch |first2=Carina |last3=Jakobsson |first3=Mattias |title=Genetic variation reveals large-scale population expansion and migration during the expansion of Bantu-speaking peoples |journal=Proceedings: Biological Sciences |date=2014 |volume=281 |issue=1793 |pages=1–9 |jstor=43600725 }} * {{cite book |last1=Njoku |first1=Raphael Chijioke |chapter=Bantu Migrations and Cultural Transnationalism in the Ancient Global Age, c. 2500 BCE–1400 CE |pages=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781787447202/page/67 67]–88 |jstor=j.ctv114c79k.8 |title=West African Masking Traditions and Diaspora Masquerade Carnivals |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781787447202 |date=2020 |publisher=Boydell & Brewer |isbn=978-1-58046-984-5 }} * {{Cite journal |last=Vansina |first=Jan |title=Western Bantu Expansion |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-african-history_1984_25_2/page/n2 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=25 |issue=2 |date=1984 |pages=129–45 |doi=10.1017/S0021853700022829 |jstor=181385|s2cid=163034445 }}. {{refend}} == Links zakunja == * {{cite journal |last1=Berniell-Lee |first1=G. |last2=Calafell |first2=F. |last3=Bosch |first3=E. |last4=Heyer |first4=E. |last5=Sica |first5=L. |last6=Mouguiama-Daouda |first6=P. |last7=van der Veen |first7=L. |last8=Hombert |first8=J.-M. |last9=Quintana-Murci |first9=L. |last10=Comas |first10=D. |title=Genetic and Demographic Implications of the Bantu Expansion: Insights from Human Paternal Lineages |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_molecular-biology-and-evolution_2009-07_26_7/page/1581 |journal=Molecular Biology and Evolution |date=1 July 2009 |volume=26 |issue=7 |pages=1581–1589 |doi=10.1093/molbev/msp069 |pmid=19369595 }} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20210227035404/http://www.ddl.ish-lyon.cnrs.fr/fulltext/hombert/Hombert_2009_Bantu_Hunter_Gatherers.pdf Bantu Expansion and Hunter-gatherers] * {{cite journal |last1=Patin |first1=Etienne |last2=Lopez |first2=Marie |last3=Grollemund |first3=Rebecca |last4=Verdu |first4=Paul |last5=Harmant |first5=Christine |last6=Quach |first6=Hélène |last7=Laval |first7=Guillaume |last8=Perry |first8=George H. |last9=Barreiro |first9=Luis B. |last10=Froment |first10=Alain |last11=Heyer |first11=Evelyne |last12=Massougbodji |first12=Achille |last13=Fortes-Lima |first13=Cesar |last14=Migot-Nabias |first14=Florence |last15=Bellis |first15=Gil |last16=Dugoujon |first16=Jean-Michel |last17=Pereira |first17=Joana B. |last18=Fernandes |first18=Verónica |last19=Pereira |first19=Luisa |last20=Van der Veen |first20=Lolke |last21=Mouguiama-Daouda |first21=Patrick |last22=Bustamante |first22=Carlos D. |last23=Hombert |first23=Jean-Marie |last24=Quintana-Murci |first24=Lluís |title=Dispersals and genetic adaptation of Bantu-speaking populations in Africa and North America |url=https://archive.org/details/science_2017-05-05_356_6337/page/543 |journal=Science |date=5 May 2017 |volume=356 |issue=6337 |pages=543–546 |doi=10.1126/science.aal1988 |pmid=28473590 |bibcode=2017Sci...356..543P |hdl=10216/109265 |s2cid=3094410 }} {{Bantu}} [[Category:Kusama mu nyengo yakale]] [[Category:M'paka mu nyengo yakale]] [[Category:Kusama mu vyaru vinyake mu Africa]] [[Category:Ivyo Ŵanthu Ŵakufukura Vinthu Vyakale Ŵakasanga ku Central Africa]] [[Category:Ivyo Ŵanthu Ŵakufukura Vinthu Vyakale Ŵakasanga ku Southern Africa]] [[Category:Ivyo Ŵanthu Ŵakufukura Vinthu Vyakale Ŵakasanga ku East Africa]] a1vsjaofz5oc0wxl6qr3jqveyewc8zq 0 11678 119329 118881 2026-08-13T23:04:29Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Add 7 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260813sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 119329 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Country primarily located in North America}} {{pp-move-indef}} {{Redirect-several|America|US|USA|The United States of America|United States}} {{pp-30-500|small=yes}} {{Use American English|date=September 2019}} {{Use mdy dates|date=November 2022}} {{Infobox country | conventional_long_name = United States of America | common_name = United States | image_flag = Flag of the United States (DoS ECA Color Standard).svg | alt_flag = {{nbsp}} <!--Used to denote purely decorative images--> | flag_type_article = Flag of the United States | image_coat = Greater coat of arms of the United States.svg | coat_alt = {{nbsp}} <!--Used to denote purely decorative images--> | symbol_type_article = Great Seal of the United States#Obverse | national_motto = "[[In God We Trust]]"<ref>{{USC|36|302}}</ref>{{collapsible list |title={{nowrap|Other traditional mottos:<ref name="de facto Motto">{{cite web|publisher=[[U.S. Department of State]], [[Bureau of Public Affairs]]|year=2003|url= https://2009-2017.state.gov/documents/organization/27807.pdf|title=The Great Seal of the United States|access-date=February 12, 2020}}</ref>}} |titlestyle=background:transparent;text-align:center;line-height:1.15em; |liststyle=text-align:center;white-space:nowrap; |{{native phrase|la|"[[E pluribus unum]]"|italics=off}}<br />"Out of many, one" |{{native phrase|la|"[[Annuit cœptis]]"|italics=off}}<br />"Providence favors our undertakings" |{{native phrase|la|"[[Novus ordo seclorum]]"|italics=off}}<br />"New order of the ages" }} | national_anthem = "[[The Star-Spangled Banner]]"<ref>{{cite act|date=March 3, 1931|article=14|article-type=H.R.|legislature=[[71st United States Congress]]|title=An Act To make The Star-Spangled Banner the national anthem of the United States of America|url=https://uscode.house.gov/statviewer.htm?volume=46&page=1508}}</ref><div style="display:inline-block;margin-top:0.4em;">[[File:Star_Spangled_Banner_instrumental.ogg]]</div> <!-- Commented out, as not [[WP:DUE]] for lead. | march = "[[The Stars and Stripes Forever]]"{{sfn|Kidder|Oppenheim|2007|p=91}}<ref name="urluscode.house.gov">{{cite web|url=https://uscode.house.gov/statviewer.htm?volume=112&page=1263|title=uscode.house.gov|date=August 12, 1999|website=Public Law 105-225|publisher=uscode.house.gov|pages=112 Stat. 1263|quote=Section 304. "The composition by John Philip Sousa entitled 'The Stars and Stripes Forever' is the national march."|access-date=September 10, 2017}}</ref><div style="display:inline-block;margin-top:0.4em;">[[File:March, "The Stars and Stripes Forever" · Colonel John R. Bourgeois, Director · John Philip Sousa · United States Marine Band.ogg]]</div> --> <!-- Consensus map, see talk page. -->| image_map = {{Switcher|[[File:USA orthographic.svg|frameless|alt=Orthographic map of the U.S. in North America]]|Show globe ([[U.S. state|states]] and [[Washington, D.C.|D.C.]] only)|[[File:US insular areas SVG.svg|upright=1.15|frameless|alt=World map showing the U.S. and its territories]]|Show the U.S. and [[Territories of the United States|its territories]]|[[File:NOAA Map of the US EEZ.svg|upright=1.15|frameless]]|Show territories with [[Exclusive economic zone of the United States|EEZ]]|default=1}} | map_width = | capital = [[Washington, D.C.]]<br />{{coord|38|53|N|77|01|W|display=inline}} | largest_city = [[New York City]]<br />{{coord|40|43|N|74|00|W|display=inline}} | official_languages = None at the [[Federal government of the United States|federal level]]{{efn|name=officiallanguage|30 of 50 states recognize only English as an official language. The state of [[Hawaii]] recognizes both [[Hawaiian language|Hawaiian]] and English as official languages, and the state of [[Alaska]] officially recognizes 20 [[Alaska Native languages]] alongside English.}} | languages_type = [[National language]] | languages = [[English language|English]] (''[[de facto]]'') <!-- NOTE: For English, don't add "American English" -->| ethnic_groups = {{plainlist| * 57.8% [[White Americans|White]] * 18.7% [[Hispanic and Latino Americans|Latino]] * 12.1% [[African Americans|Black]] * 5.9% [[Asian Americans|Asian]] * 0.7% [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] * 0.2% [[Pacific Islander Americans|Pacific Islander]] * 4.1% [[Multiracial Americans|multiracial]] * 0.5% [[Race and ethnicity in the United States census|other]]}} | ethnic_groups_year = 2020 | ethnic_groups_ref = <ref name="2020CensusData">{{cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/library/stories/2021/08/improved-race-ethnicity-measures-reveal-united-states-population-much-more-multiracial.html|title=2020 Census Illuminates Racial and Ethnic Composition of the Country|work=[[United States Census]]|access-date=August 13, 2021}}</ref><ref name="2020InteractiveCensusData">{{cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/library/visualizations/interactive/race-and-ethnicity-in-the-united-state-2010-and-2020-census.html?linkId=100000060666476|title=Race and Ethnicity in the United States: 2010 Census and 2020 Census|work=[[United States Census]]|access-date=August 13, 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.npr.org/2021/08/13/1014710483/2020-census-data-us-race-ethnicity-diversity|title=A Breakdown of 2020 Census Demographic Data|author=|date=August 13, 2021|website=NPR|publisher=|access-date=|quote=}}</ref> | demonym = [[Americans|American]]{{efn|name=demonym|The historical and informal demonym [[Yankee]] has been applied to Americans, New Englanders, or northeasterners since the 18th century.}}<ref>{{cite book|title=Compton's Pictured Encyclopedia and Fact-index: Ohio|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uV5tvKPO684C&q=%22national+nicknames%22+Yankee|year=1963|page=336}}</ref> | government_type = [[Federalism in the United States|Federal]] [[presidential system|presidential]] [[republic|constitutional republic]] and a [[liberal democracy|liberal]] [[representative democracy]]<ref>{{cite news |last1=Elving |first1=Ron |title=Is America a democracy or a republic? Yes, it is |url=https://www.npr.org/2022/09/10/1122089076/is-america-a-democracy-or-a-republic-yes-it-is |publisher=[[National Public Radio]] |date=September 10, 2022}}</ref> <!-- Consensus is to list President, Vice President, Chief Justice, and House Speaker -->| leader_title1 = [[President of the United States|President]] | leader_name1 = [[Donald Trump]] | leader_title2 = [[Vice President of the United States|Vice President]] | leader_name2 = [[JD Vance]] | leader_title3 = [[Speaker of the United States House of Representatives|House Speaker]] | leader_name3 = [[Kevin McCarthy]] | leader_title4 = [[Chief Justice of the United States|Chief Justice]] | leader_name4 = [[John Roberts]] | legislature = [[United States Congress|Congress]] | upper_house = [[United States Senate|Senate]] | lower_house = [[United States House of Representatives|House of Representatives]] | sovereignty_type = [[History of the United States|Independence]] | sovereignty_note = from [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Great Britain]] | established_event1 = [[American Revolution|Revolution]] | established_date1 = {{Start date|1765|3|22}} | established_event2 = [[United States Declaration of Independence|Declaration]] | established_date2 = {{Start date|1776|7|4}} | established_event3 = [[Confederation Period|Confederation]] | established_date3 = {{Start date|1781|3|1}} | established_event4 = [[Treaty of Paris (1783)|Recognized]] | established_date4 = {{Start date|1783|9|3}} | established_event5 = [[Constitution of the United States|Constitution]] | established_date5 = {{Start date|1788|6|21}} | established_event6 = [[Twenty-seventh Amendment to the United States Constitution|Last Amendment]] | established_date6 = {{Start date|1992|5|5}} | area_link = Geography of the United States | area_label = Total area | area_footnote = <ref>Areas of the 50 states and the District of Columbia but not Puerto Rico nor other island territories per {{cite web| date = August 2010| title = State Area Measurements and Internal Point Coordinates| work = [[Census.gov]]| url = https://www.census.gov/geographies/reference-files/2010/geo/state-area.html| access-date = March 31, 2020| quote = reflect base feature updates made in the MAF/TIGER database through August, 2010.}}</ref> | area_rank = 3rd{{efn|name=largestcountry}} | area_sq_mi = 3,796,742 | percent_water = 4.66<ref>{{cite web|title=Surface water and surface water change|access-date=October 11, 2020|publisher=[[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development]] (OECD)|url=https://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?DataSetCode=SURFACE_WATER#|date=2015}}</ref> (2015) | area_label2 = Land area | area_data2 = {{convert|3,531,905|sqmi|km2|abbr=on}} (3rd) | population_census = 331,449,281{{efn|name="pop"}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/newsroom/press-releases/2021/2020-census-apportionment-results.htmlpid=2020CENSUS&src=pt|title=Census Bureau's 2020 Population Count|work=[[United States Census]]|access-date=April 26, 2021}} The 2020 census is as of April 1, 2020.</ref> | population_census_year = 2020 | population_estimate = {{IncreaseNeutral}} 333,287,557<ref>{{Cite web |last=Bureau |first=US Census |title=Growth in U.S. Population Shows Early Indication of Recovery Amid COVID-19 Pandemic |url=https://www.census.gov/newsroom/press-releases/2022/2022-population-estimates.html |access-date=2022-12-24 |website=Census.gov}}</ref> | population_estimate_year = 2022 | population_census_rank = 3rd | population_density_sq_mi = 87<!-- Figure uses (population/land + water area) as of July 2019. --> | population_density_rank = 185th | GDP_PPP = {{increase}} $26.855&nbsp;trillion<ref name="IMF.WEO.US">{{cite web |url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2023/April/weo-report?c=512,914,612,171,614,311,213,911,314,193,122,912,313,419,513,316,913,124,339,638,514,218,963,616,223,516,918,748,618,624,522,622,156,626,628,228,924,233,632,636,634,238,662,960,423,935,128,611,321,243,248,469,253,642,643,939,734,644,819,172,132,646,648,915,134,652,174,328,258,656,654,336,263,268,532,944,176,534,536,429,433,178,436,136,343,158,439,916,664,826,542,967,443,917,544,941,446,666,668,672,946,137,546,674,676,548,556,678,181,867,682,684,273,868,921,948,943,686,688,518,728,836,558,138,196,278,692,694,962,142,449,564,565,283,853,288,293,566,964,182,359,453,968,922,714,862,135,716,456,722,942,718,724,576,936,961,813,726,199,733,184,524,361,362,364,732,366,144,146,463,528,923,738,578,537,742,866,369,744,186,925,869,746,926,466,112,111,298,927,846,299,582,487,474,754,698,&s=NGDPD,&sy=2020&ey=2027&ssm=0&scsm=1&scc=0&ssd=1&ssc=0&sic=0&sort=country&ds=.&br=1 |title=World Economic Outlook Database, April 2023 |date=April 10, 2023 |website=IMF.org |publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]] |access-date=April 10, 2023 |archive-date=October 11, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221011140637/https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2021/October/weo-report?c=512,914,612,171,614,311,213,911,314,193,122,912,313,419,513,316,913,124,339,638,514,218,963,616,223,516,918,748,618,624,522,622,156,626,628,228,924,233,632,636,634,238,662,960,423,935,128,611,321,243,248,469,253,642,643,939,734,644,819,172,132,646,648,915,134,652,174,328,258,656,654,336,263,268,532,944,176,534,536,429,433,178,436,136,343,158,439,916,664,826,542,967,443,917,544,941,446,666,668,672,946,137,546,674,676,548,556,678,181,867,682,684,273,868,921,948,943,686,688,518,728,836,558,138,196,278,692,694,962,142,449,564,565,283,853,288,293,566,964,182,359,453,968,922,714,862,135,716,456,722,942,718,724,576,936,961,813,726,199,733,184,524,361,362,364,732,366,144,146,463,528,923,738,578,537,742,866,369,744,186,925,869,746,926,466,112,111,298,927,846,299,582,487,474,754,698,&s=NGDPD,&sy=2020&ey=2027&ssm=0&scsm=1&scc=0&ssd=1&ssc=0&sic=0&sort=country&ds=.&br=1 |url-status=live }}</ref> | GDP_PPP_year = 2023 | GDP_PPP_rank = 2nd | GDP_PPP_per_capita = {{increase}} $80,035<ref name="IMF.WEO.US"/> | GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 8th | GDP_nominal = {{increase}} $26.855&nbsp;trillion<ref name="IMF.WEO.US"/> | GDP_nominal_year = 2023 | GDP_nominal_rank = 1st | GDP_nominal_per_capita = {{increase}} $80,035<ref name="IMF.WEO.US"/> | GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 7th | Gini = 39.4<!-- Number only. --> | Gini_year = 2020 | Gini_change = increase | Gini_ref = {{efn|After adjustment for taxes and transfers}}<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/data/tables/2021/demo/income-poverty/p60-273.html|title=Income and Poverty in the United States: 2020|first=US Census|last=Bureau|newspaper=Census.gov |page=48|access-date=July 26, 2022}}</ref> | Gini_rank = | HDI = 0.921<!-- Number only. --> | HDI_year = 2021<!-- Please use the year to which the data refers, not the publication year. --> | HDI_change = increase<!-- Increase/decrease/steady. --> | HDI_ref = <ref name="UNHDR">{{cite web|url=https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2021-22pdf_1.pdf|title=Human Development Report 2021/2022|language=en|publisher=[[United Nations Development Programme]]|date=September 8, 2022|access-date=September 8, 2022}}</ref> | HDI_rank = 21st | currency = [[United States dollar|U.S. dollar]] ($) | currency_code = USD | utc_offset = −4 to −12, +10, +11 | utc_offset_DST = −4 to −10{{efn|name="time"}} | date_format = mm/dd/yyyy{{efn|See [[Date and time notation in the United States]].}} | drives_on = Right{{efn|name="drive"}} | calling_code = [[North American Numbering Plan|+1]] | iso3166code = US | cctld = [[.com]], [[.us]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://cozab.com/the-difference-between-us-vs-com/|title=The Difference Between .us vs .com|date=January 3, 2022|website=Cozab}}</ref> | area_km2 = | today = | religion = {{ublist|item_style=white-space:nowrap; |{{Tree list}} * 63% [[Christianity in the United States|Christianity]] ** 40% [[Protestantism in the United States|Protestantism]] ** 21% [[Catholic Church in the United States|Catholicism]] ** 2% other [[List of Christian denominations|Christian]] {{Tree list/end}} |29% [[Irreligion in the United States|no religion]] |1% [[Buddhism in the United States|Buddhism]] |1% [[Hinduism in the United States|Hinduism]] |1% [[Islam in the United States|Islam]] |1% [[American Jews|Judaism]] |2% [[Religion in the United States|other]] |2% unanswered }} | religion_year = 2021 | religion_ref = <ref name="Pew2021">{{cite web|title=About Three-in-Ten U.S. Adults Are Now Religiously Unaffiliated|url=https://www.pewforum.org/2021/12/14/about-three-in-ten-u-s-adults-are-now-religiously-unaffiliated/|website=Measuring Religion in Pew Research Center's American Trends Panel|publisher=Pew Research Center|access-date=December 21, 2021|date=December 14, 2021}}</ref> |latm=|latNS=|longd=|longm=|longEW=|languages2_type=|leader_name5=|leader_name6=|leader_name7=|leader_name8=|leader_name9=|FR_total_population_estimate_year=|FR_foot=|FR_total_population_estimate=|FR_total_population_estimate_rank=|FR_metropole_population_estimate_rank=}} '''United States of America''' ('''U.S.A.''' panji '''USA'''), panji '''United States''' (U.S. panji US) panji '''America''', ni chalo icho chili ku [[Amelika wa Kumpoto|North America]]. Chigaŵa ichi chili na vigaŵa 50, chigaŵa chimoza, vigaŵa vikuruvikuru vinkhondi, virwa vinkhondi na viŵiri, na malo 326 gha ŵanthu ŵa ku [[India]]. United States ni caru cacitatu pa vyaru vyose pa caru capasi. Charu ichi chili na mphaka na [[Canada]] kumpoto na [[Mexico]] kumwera, kweniso chili na mphaka na [[Bahamas]], [[Cuba]], [[Russia]], na vyaru vinyake. Mu charu ichi muli ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 333 miliyoni. [[Washington, D.C.|Washington, D.C]]., ni msumba ukuru wa United States, ndipo [[New York City]] ndiyo ni msumba ukuru chomene. Ŵanthu ŵakwambilira ŵakakhalanga mu vyaru vya ku [[America]] vyaka vinandi chomene. Kwamba mu 1607, ŵanthu ŵa ku [[Britain]] ŵakambiska vyaru 13 ivyo sono vili kumafumiro gha dazi kwa United States. Ŵakaŵa na mphindano na boma la [[Great Britain|Britain]] pa nkhani ya msonkho na ndyali, ndipo ivi vikapangiska kuti ku America kuŵe [[Nkhondo ya ku America]]. Pa Julayi 4, 1776, charu cha United States chikapharazga kuti chajiyimira paŵekha. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800, vinjeru vya ndyali vya ku United States vikakhwaskika na fundo yakuti vinthu vyose vili kulengeka kuti vichitike. Kugawikana kwa vigaŵa ivyo vikazingilizga wuzga ku [[Southern United States]] kukapangiska kuti [[Confederate States of America]] yipatuke, iyo yikarwa nkhondo na vyaru vinyake vya ku America mu nyengo ya Nkhondo ya ku America (1861-1865). Pakuwona kuti wupu wa United States watonda, ŵazga ŵakalekeskeka pa caru cose. Kuzakafika mu 1900, caru ca United States cikaŵa kuti cazgoka ufumu wankhongono comene pa caru cose. Mu 1941, charu cha Japan chikati chawukira msumba wa [[Pearl Harbor]], charu cha United States chikamba kurwa Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Charu Chose. Nkhondo iyi yikapangiska kuti charu cha United States na [[Soviet Union]] viŵe na mazaza pa charu chose. Pa nyengo ya [[Nkhondo Yakuzizima]], vyaru vyose viŵiri vikayezgayezga kuti viŵe na maghanoghano ghakwenelera, kweni vikagega nkhondo. Kweniso ŵakathereskeka pa mpikisano wa mu mlengalenga, uwo ukafika pachanya mu 1969 apo ndege ya Apollo 11 yikakhira pa charu chapasi. [[Nkhondo ya Cigaŵa Ciphya]] yikati yamara mu 1991, caru ca United States cikazgoka ufumu wankhongono comene pa caru cose.<!-- Government and citizens --> Boma la United States ni boma la wupu wakulongozga ndipo muli maboma ghatatu. Boma ili lili na nyumba ziŵiri za malango, Nyumba ya Wupu Wakulongozga, iyo ni nyumba yakudikanya, na Senate, iyo ni nyumba yakudikanya. Nkhani zinandi za ndyali ni zakupambana, ndipo malango ghakupambana mu vigaŵa vyakupambanapambana. Mu vyaru vinyake, charu cha United States chili pa malo ghapacanya pa nkhani ya umoyo, ndalama, usambazi, kusalana pa nkhani za ndalama, wanangwa wa ŵanthu, luso, na masambiro. Mu caru ici muli ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakukhala mu jele kweniso palije urunji. Ku United States kuli ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakufuma mu vyaru vinyake. Charu icho chili na ndalama zinandi chomene pa charu chose, ndipo chuma cha ku America chikupanga pafupifupi chigaŵa chimoza pa vigaŵa vinayi vya GDP pa charu chose. United States ndiyo yikuru comene pa caru cose pa kunjizga vyakurya mu vyaru vinyake ndipo ndiyo yikuru comene pa vyakurya vinyake. Boma la United States ndilo likambiska wupu wa United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States, NATO, World Health Organization, ndipo lili na wanangwa wakuŵa mu wupu wa United Nations Security Council. Boma la United States ndilo lili na ŵasilikari ŵanandi chomene pa charu chose, ndipo ndilo likulamulira pa nkhani za ndyali, vya maluso, na sayansi. ==Kwiza kwa zina== <!-- linked --> {{Further|Mazina gha United States|Mazina gha ŵanthu ŵa ku United States}} Ukaboni wakwamba wakulongora kuti mazgu ghakuti "United States of America" ghakalembeka mu kalata iyo Stephen Moylan wakalembera Joseph Reed, uyo wakaŵa movwiri wa George Washington. Moylan wakayowoya kuti wakukhumba kuluta "ku Spain na mazaza ghose kufuma ku United States of America" kukapempha wovwiri pa nkhondo ya kuwukira boma.<ref>DeLear, Byron (July 4, 2013) [https://www.csmonitor.com/USA/Politics/2013/0704/Who-coined-United-States-of-America-Mystery-might-have-intriguing-answer Who coined 'United States of America'? Mystery might have intriguing answer.] "Historians have long tried to pinpoint exactly when the name 'United States of America' was first used and by whom&nbsp;... This latest find comes in a letter that Stephen Moylan, Esq., wrote to Col. Joseph Reed from the Continental Army Headquarters in Cambridge, Mass., during the siege of Boston. The two men lived with Washington in Cambridge, with Reed serving as Washington's favorite military secretary and Moylan fulfilling the role during Reed's absence." ''Christian Science Monitor'' (Boston, MA).</ref><ref>Touba, Mariam (November 5, 2014) [https://blog.nyhistory.org/coined-phrase-united-states-america-may-never-guess/ Who Coined the Phrase 'United States of America'? You May Never Guess] "Here, on January 2, 1776, seven months before the Declaration of Independence and a week before the publication of Paine's ''Common Sense'', Stephen Moylan, an acting secretary to General George Washington, spells it out, 'I should like vastly to go with full and ample powers from the United States of America to Spain' to seek foreign assistance for the cause." ''New-York Historical Society Museum & Library''</ref><ref>Fay, John (July 15, 2016) [https://www.irishcentral.com/roots/history/The-forgotten-Irishman-who-named-the-United-States-of-America.html The forgotten Irishman who named the 'United States of America'] "According to the NY Historical Society, Stephen Moylan was the man responsible for the earliest documented use of the phrase 'United States of America'. But who was Stephen Moylan?" ''IrishCentral.com''</ref> Mazgu ghakuti "United States of America" ghakalembeka kakwamba mu nyuzipepara ya The Virginia Gazette ku Williamsburg pa Epulero 6, 1776. Kuzakafika mu Juni 1776, zina lakuti "United States of America" likaŵa kuti lalembeka kale mu chikalata chakuchemeka Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union, icho chikalembeka na John Dickinson, kweniso mu chikalata chakuchemeka Declaration of Independence, icho chikalembeka na Thomas Jefferson.{{sfn|Safire|2003|p=199}} Mazgu ghakuti "United States" ghakafuma ku lizgu lakuti "United States". Likayowoyanga za vyaru vinandi nga ni "United States of America". Mazgu agha ghakatchuka chomene pamanyuma pa Nkhondo ya pa Mbumba. Munthu uyo ni mwenekaya wa United States wakucemeka "Mamerika". "United States", "American", na "U.S". vikuyowoya vya charu ("American values", "U.S. forces"). Mu Cingelezi, lizgu lakuti "America" likuyowoya viŵi yayi za vinthu ivyo vikukolerana yayi na United States.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Wilson|first1=Kenneth G.|title=The Columbia guide to standard American English|url=https://archive.org/details/columbiaguidetos00wils_0|url-access=registration|date=1993|publisher=Columbia University Press|location=New York|isbn=978-0-231-06989-2|pages=[https://archive.org/details/columbiaguidetos00wils_0/page/27 27–28]}}</ref> ==Mbili== {{Main|Mbili ya United States}} {{For outline|Outline of United States history}} === Nyengo ya Columbian (pambere 1492) === {{Further|Native Americans in the United States|Pre-Columbian era}} [[File:Extreme_Makeover,_Mesa_Verde_Edition_-_panoramio.jpg|thumb|left|Nyumba iyi yili ku Colorado, ndipo yikazengeka na ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Ancestral Puebloans pakati pa 1190 na 1260.|alt=Aerial view of the Cliff Palace]] Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakugomezga kuti ŵanthu ŵakwambilira awo ŵakakhalanga ku North America ŵakafuma ku Siberia na kuluta pa Bering land bridge ndipo ŵakafika vyaka 12,000 ivyo vyajumpha.{{sfn|Erlandson|Rick|Vellanoweth|2008|p=19}}{{sfn|Savage|2011|page= 55}}{{sfn|Haviland|Walrath|Prins|2013|page=219}} Ŵanthu ŵakugomezga kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Clovis ndiwo ŵakamba kukhala mu vyaru vya ku America.{{sfn|Waters|Stafford|2007|pages=1122–1126}}{{sfn|Flannery|2015|pages=173–185}} Ichi chikwenera kuti chikaŵa chakwamba pa ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakaluta ku North America. Nyengo yikati yajumphapo, ŵanthu ŵa ku North America ŵakamba kuŵa na maluso ghanandi, ndipo ŵanyake, nga ni ŵanthu ŵa ku Mississippian kumwera kwa charu ichi, ŵakamba kulima, kuzenga, na kupanga vinthu vinandi. Msumba wa Cahokia ndiwo ni malo ghakuru comene na ghakupambanapambana agho ŵanthu ŵakufukura vinthu vyakale ŵakuwona mu United States. Mu chigaŵa cha Four Corners, ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Puebloan ŵakamba kuchita ulimi kwa vyaka vinandi. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Algonquian ndiwo mbanandi chomene mu North America. Gulu ili lili na ŵanthu awo ŵakuyowoya viyowoyero vya Algonquian. Kale ŵanthu aŵa ŵakakhalanga mumphepete mwa nyanja ya Atlantic na mu vigaŵa vya mukati mwa charu mumphepete mwa Mlonga wa Saint Lawrence na kuzingilizga Nyanja Yikuru. Pambere ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe ŵandambe kukumana nawo, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Algonquian ŵakakhalanga mwa kuvina na kuloŵa somba, nangauli ŵanandi ŵakakuranga chomene vyakurya nga ni chimanga, nyungu, na ma squash. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Ojibwe ŵakaliskanga mpunga. Gulu la Haudenosaunee la ŵanthu ŵa ku Iroquois, ilo lili kumwera kwa chigaŵa cha Great Lakes, likaŵako pakati pa vyaka vya m'ma 1200 na 1500. Ntchakusuzga kumanya unandi wa ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga ku North America pa nyengo iyo ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe ŵakalutanga ku charu ichi.{{sfn|Perdue|Green|2005|page=40}}{{sfn|Haines|Haines|Steckel|2000|page=12}} Douglas H. Ubelaker wa ku Smithsonian Institution wakati ŵanthu 93,000 ŵakukhala mu vyaru vya kumwera kwa Atlantic na 473,000 mu vyaru vya ku Gulf, kweni ŵasayansi ŵanandi ŵakuwona kuti ciŵerengero ici nchicoko comene. Henry F. Dobyns wakagomezganga kuti ŵanthu aŵa ŵakaŵa ŵanandi comene, ndipo ŵakaghanaghananga kuti ŵanthu pafupifupi 1.1 miliyoni ŵakakhalanga mumphepete mwa nyanja ya Gulf of Mexico, ŵanthu 2.2 miliyoni ŵakakhalanga pakati pa Florida na Massachusetts, 5.2 miliyoni ŵakakhalanga mu dambo la Mississippi na milonga yinyake, ndipo ŵanthu pafupifupi 700,000 ŵakakhalanga mu Florida.{{sfn|Perdue|Green|2005|page=40}}{{sfn|Haines|Haines|Steckel|2000|page= 12}} === Nyengo ya Ŵakoloni (1492-1763) === {{Further|Colonial history of the United States|European colonization of the Americas|Slavery in the colonial history of the United States}}[[File:The_Mayflower_Compact_1620_cph.3g07155.jpg|thumb|Phangano la Mayflower ilo likalembeka mu 1620, likaŵa lakwamba kuti ŵanthu ŵajilamulire ŵekha.]] Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakususka kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Scandinavia ndiwo ŵakambiska charu cha New England.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The New England Colonies and the Native Americans {{!}} National Geographic Society |url=https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/new-england-colonies-and-native-americans |access-date=2023-01-07 |website=[[History (American TV network)|History]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=2016-06-21 |title=Forgotten History: How The New England Colonists Embraced The Slave Trade |language=en |work=[[NPR]] |url=https://www.npr.org/2016/06/21/482874478/forgotten-history-how-the-new-england-colonists-embraced-the-slave-trade |access-date=2023-01-07}}</ref> Christopher Columbus wakaluta ku Puerto Rico mu 1493, ndipo pakati pajumpha vyaka 10, ŵanthu ŵa ku Spain ŵakamba kukhala ku San Juan. Ŵanthu ŵakwambilira awo ŵakafika ku United States ŵakaŵa ŵa ku Spain nga ni Juan Ponce de León, uyo wakaluta kakwamba ku Florida mu 1513. Munthu munyake wa ku Italy, zina lake Giovanni da Verrazzano, uyo wakatumika na France ku New World mu 1525, wakakumana na ŵanthu ŵa ku America awo ŵakakhalanga mu malo agho sono ghakuchemeka New York Bay. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Spain ndiwo ŵakambiska malo ghakwamba ku Florida na New Mexico, nga ni Saint Augustine, msumba wakale chomene mu charu ichi, na Santa Fe. Ŵafarisi ŵakakhazikiska mizi yawo mumphepete mwa mlonga wa Mississippi na Gulf of Mexico, chomenechomene ku New Orleans na Mobile. Ŵanthu ŵa ku England ŵakamba kukhazikika mu vigaŵa vya kumafumiro gha dazi kwa North America mu 1607 apo ŵakazenga malo gha Virginia Colony ku Jamestown. Nyumba ya Malango ya ku Virginia ndiyo yikaŵa yakwamba mu charu ichi. Ku Massachusetts Bay Colony ndiko kukakhazikiskikira koleji ya Harvard mu 1636. Phangano la Mayflower Compact na malango gha Connecticut ghakawovwira kuti ŵanthu ŵajilamulirenge ŵekha mu America. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku England awo ŵakakhalanga ku malo agha ŵakaŵa Ŵakhristu awo ŵakakhumbanga wanangwa wa kusopa. Ŵanthu ŵakwambilira ŵa ku America ŵakamba kuchepa chifukwa cha vifukwa vyakupambanapambana, chomenechomene matenda nga ni nthomba na nthomba.<ref>"''[https://books.google.com/books?id=qubTdDk1H3IC&pg=PA205 The Cambridge encyclopedia of human paleopathology] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160208032805/https://books.google.com/books?id=qubTdDk1H3IC&pg=PA205|date=February 8, 2016}}''". Arthur C. Aufderheide, Conrado Rodríguez-Martín, Odin Langsjoen (1998). [[Cambridge University Press]]. p. 205. {{ISBN|978-0-521-55203-5}}</ref><ref>[[#Bianchine|Bianchine, Russo, 1992]] pp. 225–232</ref> Pakati pa vyaka vya m'ma 1670, Ŵanandi ŵakathereska na kupoka malo gha Ŵadachi ku New Netherland, mu chigaŵa chapakati pa nyanja ya Atlantic.[[File:Thirteencolonies_politics_cropped.jpg|alt=Map of the U.S. showing the original Thirteen Colonies along the eastern seaboard|thumb|The [[United Colonies]] in 1775: * Dark Red = [[New England Colonies|New England colonies]]. * Bright Red = [[Middle Colonies|Middle Atlantic colonies]]. * Red-brown = [[Southern Colonies|Southern colonies]]|left]] Mu nyengo yakwambilira, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Europe ŵakasuzgikanga na njara, matenda, kweniso nkhondo na ŵanthu ŵa ku America. Ŵanthu ŵakwambilira ŵa ku America ŵakakumananga na mafuko ghanyake agho ghakaŵa pafupi na kwawo kweniso ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe. Kanandi ŵanthu ŵa ku malo agha ŵakathembanga ŵanyawo. Ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga ku malo agha ŵakaguliskanga vyakurya na vikumba vya nyama. Ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakakhalanga ku America ŵakasambira kulima mbuto, nyungu, na vyakurya vinyake. Ŵamishonale ŵa ku Europe na ŵanji ŵakawona kuti nchakuzirwa comene "kusambizga" ŵanthu ŵa ku America kuti ŵaŵe na nkharo yiwemi.<ref>[[#Ripper2008|Ripper, 2008]] p. 5</ref><ref>[[#Calloway1998|Calloway, 1998]], p. 55</ref> Kweni chifukwa chakuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe ŵakamba kukhazikika ku North America, ŵanthu ŵa ku America ŵakachimbizgika mu vikaya vyawo ndipo kanandi ŵakakomekanga pa nkhondo. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe nawo ŵakamba kuguliska ŵazga ŵa ku Africa mu vyaru vya ku America. Kuumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1800, ŵazga ndiwo ŵakagwiranga nchito mu vyaru vya kumwera kwa America. Mu vyaru vinyake, ŵanthu ŵakagaŵikana pa nkhani ya kusopa na nkharo ya ŵazga. Vyaru 13 ivyo vikazgoka United States of America vikaŵa pasi pa mazaza gha Britain. Ndipouli, wose ŵakaŵa na maboma gha mu vigaŵa vyawo, ndipo ŵanalume ŵatuŵa awo ŵakaŵa na malo ŵakasankhikanga.<ref name="Wood1998">{{cite book |author=Wood |first=Gordon S. |url=https://archive.org/details/creationofameric0000wood_r7v4 |title=The Creation of the American Republic, 1776–1787 |publisher=UNC Press Books |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-8078-4723-7 |page=263}}</ref>{{Sfn|Ratcliff|2013|p=220}}Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakababikanga, ŵanandi ŵakafwanga, ndipo ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakakhalanga mu vyaru vinyake. Mu ma 1730 na ma 1740, gulu la Ŵakhristu ilo likamanyikwanga kuti Great Awakening, likawovwira kuti ŵanthu ŵambe kutemwa chisopa kweniso wanangwa wawo. Mu nyengo ya Nkhondo ya Vyaka vinkhondi na viŵiri (1756-1763), iyo ku United States yikumanyikwa na zina lakuti Nkhondo ya ku France na ku India, ŵasilikari ŵa Britain ŵakapoka Canada. Phangano la Paris (1763) likapangiska chigaŵa chichoko chomene cha Quebec, icho chikasazgapo chipalamba cha Ohio na chipalamba cha Mississippi, mwantheura ŵanthu ŵa ku Canada awo ŵakayowoyanga Cifurenci ŵakaŵavya mwaŵi wakuyowoya Cingelezi. Ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga mu vyaru ivi ŵakakwana 2.1 miliyoni mu 1770. Nangauli ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakizanga, kweni ŵakasazgikiranga comene mwakuti mu 1770 ŵanthu ŵachoko waka ŵa ku America ndiwo ŵakababikira ku vyaru vinyake. Pakuti malo agha ghakaŵa kutali na Britain, ghakaŵa na wanangwa wakujiwusa ŵekha, kweni cifukwa ca umo vinthu vikaŵira makora, mafumu gha ku Britain ghakambaso kuwusa.<ref>{{cite book |author=Otis |first=James |url=https://archive.org/details/cihm_52678 |title=The Rights of the British Colonies Asserted and Proved |year=1763 |isbn=9780665526787}}</ref> ===Revolutionary period (1763–1789)=== {{Main|History of the United States (1776–1789)|History of the United States (1789–1849)|l2 = 1789–1849}} {{further|American Revolution|American Revolutionary War|Confederation period|}} [[File:Declaration independence.jpg|thumb|''[[Declaration of Independence (Trumbull)|Declaration of Independence]]'', a painting by [[John Trumbull]], depicts the [[Committee of Five]]{{efn|John Adams, Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Franklin, Roger Sherman, and Robert R. Livingston}} presenting the draft of the [[United States Declaration of Independence|Declaration]] to the [[Second Continental Congress|Continental Congress]], June 28, 1776, in [[Philadelphia]].|alt=See caption]] Nkhondo ya ku America yikapatura vyaru 13 ku ufumu wa Britain, ndipo yikaŵa nkhondo yakwamba ya kujithemba iyo yikacitika na boma la ku Europe yayi. Kuzakafika m'ma 1800, visambizgo vya ŵanthu ŵa ku America na visambizgo vya ndyali vya wanangwa vikazara chomene pakati pa ŵalongozgi. Ŵanthu ŵa ku America ŵakamba kulondezga fundo yakuti boma likuthemba pa kuzomerezgeka na ŵanthu. Iwo ŵakakhumbanga kuti ŵaŵe na "wenelero wakuŵa ŵanthu ŵa ku England" kweniso kuti "ŵaleke kupeleka msonkho kwambura munthu wakuŵawimira". Ŵanalume ŵa ku Britain ŵakaŵikapo mtima kuti ŵachitenge vinthu mu vyaru ivyo vikaŵa pasi pawo kwizira mu Nyumba ya Malamulo iyo yikaŵavya mwimiliri yumoza, ndipo nkhondo yikakura.<ref name="Humphrey2003">{{cite book|author=Humphrey, Carol Sue|title=The Revolutionary Era: Primary Documents on Events from 1776 To 1800|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=19NWMZ6Ec_sC&pg=PA8|year=2003|publisher=Greenwood Publishing|isbn=978-0-313-32083-5|pages=8–10}}</ref> Mu 1774, ungano wakwamba wa ŵasilikari ŵa charu ichi ukazomerezga kuti maboma gha Britain ghaleke kuguliska vinthu vyawo. Nkhondo ya ku America yikamba mu chaka chakulondezgapo, ndipo yikakhwaskika na vinthu nga ni Stamp Act na Boston Tea Party. Pa Julayi 4, 1776, pa ungano unyake uwo ukachitikira ku United Colonies, ŵakalemba chikalata chakuyowoya za wanangwa wa charu. Mu chikalata ichi pakalembeka kuti: "Tikuwona kuti unenesko ngwakuti ŵanthu wose ŵali kulengeka ŵakuyana waka, ndipo Mlengi wawo wali kuŵapa wanangwa unyake, uwo ngwakuti umoyo, wanangwa, na cimwemwe". Stephen Lucas wakati ni "mazgu agho ghakumanyikwa comene mu Cingelezi", ndipo Joseph Ellis, wakulemba mdauko, wakalemba kuti mu buku ili muli "mazgu agho ghakaŵa ghankhongono comene mu mdauko wa ku America". Mu nyengo ya ufumu wa Britain, ŵazga ŵakaŵa na wanangwa mu vyaru vyose ivyo vikaŵa pasi pa America. Ndipouli, mu nyengo ya Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Caru Cose, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakamba kukayikira ivyo ŵakacitanga. Mu 1781, mabuku gha Confederation and Perpetual Union ghakaŵa na boma lakugaŵikana ilo likagwira ntchito m'paka mu 1789. Mu 1777, ŵasilikari ŵa ku America ŵakathereska ŵasilikari ŵa ku Britain mu nkhondo ya ku Saratoga. Nkhondo yaciŵiri ya ŵasilikari ŵa Britain yikati yamara mu 1781, Britain yikacita phangano la mtende. Ŵanthu ŵa mu vyaru vinandi ŵakazomera kuti charu cha America ndicho chili na mazaza pa charu chose, ndipo charu chiphya ichi chikamba kulamulira chigaŵa chikuru cha kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Mlonga wa Mississippi.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/paris.asp |title=British-American Diplomacy: The Paris Peace Treaty of September 30, 1783 |editor-first=Hunter |editor-last=Miller |publisher=The Avalon Project at Yale Law School}}</ref> As it became increasingly apparent that the Confederation was insufficient to govern the new country, [[American nationalism|nationalists]] advocated for and led the [[Constitutional Convention (United States)|Philadelphia Convention]] of 1787 in writing the [[Constitution of the United States|United States Constitution]] to replace it, [[Ratification of the United States Constitution|ratified]] in state conventions in 1788. === Early national period (1789–1849) === {{Main|History of the United States (1789–1849)}} U.S. Ndondomeko iyi ndiyo njakukhora comene pa vyose ivyo vili kulembeka mu malango gha caru cose.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20180105011354/http://www.politifact.com/virginia/statements/2014/sep/22/bob-goodlatte/goodlatte-says-us-has-oldest-working-national-cons/ Goodlatte says U.S. has the oldest working national constitution], Politifact Virginia website, September 22, 2014.</ref>Mu 1789, dango ili likamba kugwira ntchito, ndipo likapangiska kuti boma liŵe na maofesi ghatatu (ghawemi, ghaulamuliri, na ghakusora malango). George Washington, uyo wakalongozga ŵasilikari ŵa ku America kuti ŵathereske ŵasilikari ŵa ku America ndipo pamanyuma wakaleka mazaza ghake, ndiyo wakaŵa pulezidenti wakwamba uyo wakasankhika mwakuyana na dango liphya. Mu 1791, ŵakalemba chikalata chakuyowoya za wanangwa wa ŵanthu, icho chikakanizga boma kukanizga wanangwa wa munthu waliyose. Mu 1803 apo boma la Louisiana likagura charu ichi, chigaŵa chake chikakwera pafupifupi kaŵiri. Nkhondo ya ku Britain yikalutilira, ndipo yikapangiska kuti paŵe Nkhondo ya 1812, iyo yikaŵa yambura umaliro. Spain wakapeleka Florida na vigaŵa vinyake vya ku Gulf Coast mu 1819.<ref>{{cite book |author1=Klose, Nelson |url=https://archive.org/details/unitedstateshist00klos_0/page/150 |title=United States History to 1877 |author2=Jones, Robert F. |publisher=Barron's Educational Series |year=1994 |isbn=978-0-8120-1834-9 |page=[https://archive.org/details/unitedstateshist00klos_0/page/150 150]}}</ref> [[File:Cotton gin harpers.jpg|thumb|William L. Sheppard "First Use of a [[Cotton Gin]]" (1790–1800), ''Harper's weekly'', Dec. 18, 1869]] Mu vyaka vyakulondezgapo, ŵanthu ŵakamba kupambana maghanoghano pa nkhani ya wuzga. Ku North, ŵanthu ŵakumanyikwa chomene nga ni John Adams, Roger Sherman, Alexander Hamilton, John Jay, na Benjamin Franklin, ŵakazomerezga kuti ŵazga ŵaleke kugwira ntchito, ndipo mu 1810 boma lililose mu chigaŵa ichi likazomerezga. Mu 1820 Missouri Compromise yikazomerezga Missouri kuŵa boma la ŵazga na Maine kuŵa boma lakufwatuka ndipo yikayowoya kuti ŵazga ŵaleke kuŵa ŵazga mu vyaru vinyake ivyo vikaŵa kumpoto kwa 36°30′. Ivyo vikachitika vikapangiska kuti charu chigaŵike vigaŵa viŵiri: vyaru vya wanangwa, ivyo vikakanizganga wuzga; na vyaru vya ŵazga, ivyo vikavikiliranga wuzga.{{sfn|Walker Howe|2007|p=153-157}} In [[Southern United States|the South]], the invention of the [[cotton gin]] spurred entrenchment of slavery, with regional elites and intellectuals increasingly viewing [[Slavery as a positive good in the United States|the institution as a positive good]] instead of a [[necessary evil]].{{sfn|Walker Howe|2007|p=478, 481-482, 587-588}} Although the federal government [[Act Prohibiting Importation of Slaves|outlawed]] American participation in the [[Atlantic slave trade]] in 1807, after 1820, cultivation of the highly profitable cotton crop exploded in the [[Deep South]], and along with it, the use of [[Slavery in the United States|slave labor]].<ref name="Cogliano2008">{{cite book|author=Cogliano, Francis D.|title=Thomas Jefferson: Reputation and Legacy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1f-wAfE0mpsC&pg=PA219|year=2008|publisher=University of Virginia Press|isbn=978-0-8139-2733-6|page=219}}</ref><ref>[[#Walton|Walton, 2009]], p. 43</ref><ref>[[#Gordon|Gordon, 2004]], pp. 27,29</ref> The [[Second Great Awakening]], especially in the period 1800–1840, converted millions to [[Evangelicalism in the United States|evangelical]] Protestantism. In the North, it energized multiple social reform movements, including [[Abolitionism in the United States|abolitionism]];<ref name="Clark2012iu">{{cite book|author=Clark, Mary Ann|title=Then We'll Sing a New Song: African Influences on America's Religious Landscape|url=https://archive.org/details/thenwellsingnews0000clar/page/47|date=May 2012|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=978-1-4422-0881-0|page=[https://archive.org/details/thenwellsingnews0000clar/page/47 47] }}</ref> in the South, [[History of Methodism in the United States|Methodists]] and [[Baptists in the United States|Baptists]] proselytized among slave populations.<ref>Heinemann, Ronald L., et al., Old Dominion, New Commonwealth: a history of Virginia 1607–2007, 2007 {{ISBN|978-0-8139-2609-4}}, p. 197</ref> {{anchor|Independence and expansion}} [[File:United_States_evolution.gif|thumb|An animation of US [[Territorial evolution of the United States|territorial expansion]] over time.]] Kuumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1800, ŵanthu ŵakufuma ku America ŵakamba kusamira kumanjiliro gha dazi. Mu 1803 boma la Spain likagura malo ghaŵiri gha charu ichi. Mu 1819, charu cha Spain chikapeleka Florida na vigaŵa vinyake vya ku Gulf Coast. Mu 1845, boma la Texas likapokeka na boma la United States.<ref name="Kemp2010">{{cite book|author=Kemp, Roger L.|title=Documents of American Democracy: A Collection of Essential Works|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JHawgM-WnlUC&pg=PA180|year=2010|publisher=McFarland|isbn=978-0-7864-4210-2|page=180|access-date=October 25, 2015}}</ref> Apo boma likalutiliranga kuthandazga mu vyaru ivyo mukaŵa ŵanthu ŵakwambilira ŵa ku America, kanandi likaŵachimbizganga panji kuŵawuskamo mu charu chawo. Mu ma 1830, ŵanthu ŵakakanizgika kuluta ku malo ghanyake. Ŵanthu aŵa ŵakamba kurwa nkhondo na ŵanthu ŵa ku America kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Mlonga wa Mississippi. Nkhondo zinandi zikamara para Ŵandyali ŵa ku America ŵafumako ku malo ghawo na kuluta ku malo gha Ŵandyali. Nkhondo ya ku Mexico na America yikati yamara, mu 1848, charu cha Mexico chikapoka chigaŵa cha California na chigaŵa chikuru cha kumwera kwa America. Nkhondo ya ku California iyo yikachitika mu 1848-1849 yikapangiska ŵanthu ŵanandi kusamira ku Pacific Coast, ndipo ichi chikapangiska kuti ku California kuŵe nkhondo.<ref name="Rawls1999">{{cite book|author=Rawls, James J.|title=A Golden State: Mining and Economic Development in Gold Rush California|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UPUsIaHZTm0C&pg=PA20|year=1999|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-21771-3|page=20}}</ref> Pakuti ku United States kukaŵa vyakurya vinandi, malo ghakurya ghakaŵa ghanandi ndipo vyakurya vyakukwana ku vyaru vinyake vikakura. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe ŵakapika malo ghanandi, pafupifupi 10 peresenti ya malo ghose gha ku United States.<ref>Paul Frymer, "Building an American Empire: The Era of Territorial and Political Expansion," (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2017)</ref> Pambere nkhondo ya pawenenawene yindambe, ŵanthu ŵakamba kukayikira usange ŵazga ŵangaŵako mu vyaru ivi. ===Civil War and Reconstruction (1849–1877)=== {{main|History of the United States (1849–1865)}} {{Further|Slave states and free states|American Civil War|Reconstruction era}} {{see also|Lost Cause of the Confederacy}} [[File:US Secession map 1861.svg|thumb|{{center|'''Status of the states, 1861'''}} {{legend|#A40000| Slave states that seceded before April 15, 1861}} {{legend|#EF2929| Slave states that seceded after April 15, 1861}} {{legend|#FCE94F| Union states that permitted slavery (border states)}} {{legend|#204A87| Union states that banned slavery}} {{legend|#D3D7CF| Territories}}|alt=Map of U.S. showing two kinds of Union states, two phases of secession and territories]] Irreconcilable sectional conflict regarding the [[Slavery in the United States|enslavement of those of black African descent]]<ref>{{cite book|first=Stuart|last=Murray|title=Atlas of American Military History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bJ_sy7mmmxQC&pg=PA76|year=2004|publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=978-1-4381-3025-5|page=76|access-date=October 25, 2015}}<br />{{cite book|first=Harold T.|last=Lewis|title=Christian Social Witness|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kr-xNru5vZkC&pg=PA53|year=2001|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=978-1-56101-188-9|page=53}}</ref> was the [[Origins of the American Civil War|primary cause of the American Civil War]].<ref name="Woods 2012 pp. 415–439">{{cite journal | last=Woods | first=Michael E. | title=What Twenty-First-Century Historians Have Said about the Causes of Disunion: A Civil War Sesquicentennial Review of the Recent Literature | journal=The Journal of American History | publisher=[Oxford University Press, Organization of American Historians] | volume=99 | issue=2 | year=2012 | issn=0021-8723 | jstor=44306803 | pages=415–439 | doi=10.1093/jahist/jas272 | url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/44306803 | access-date=2023-04-29}}</ref> With the [[1860 United States presidential election|1860 election]] of Republican [[Abraham Lincoln]], conventions in eleven slave states—all in the [[Southern United States]]—declared [[secession]] and formed the [[Confederate States of America]], while the federal government (the "[[Union (American Civil War)|Union]]") maintained that [[Perpetual Union|secession was unconstitutional and illegitimate]].<ref name="Silkenat 2019 p. 25">{{cite book | last=Silkenat | first=D. | title=Raising the White Flag: How Surrender Defined the American Civil War | publisher=University of North Carolina Press | series=Civil War America | year=2019 | isbn=978-1-4696-4973-3 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nHWKDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA25 | access-date=2023-04-29 | page=25}}</ref> On April 12, 1861, the Confederacy initiated military conflict by [[Battle of Fort Sumter|bombarding Fort Sumter]], a federal garrison in [[Charleston, South Carolina|Charleston harbor]], South Carolina. The ensuing Civil War (1861–1865) was the deadliest military conflict in American history resulting in the deaths of approximately 620,000 soldiers from both sides and upwards of 50,000 civilians, almost all of them in the South.<ref>{{cite book|last=Vinovskis|first=Maris|date=1990|title=Toward A Social History of the American Civil War: Exploratory Essays|url=https://archive.org/details/towardsocialhist0000unse|page=[https://archive.org/details/towardsocialhist0000unse/page/4 4]|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge; New York|isbn=978-0-521-39559-5}}</ref> [[Reconstruction (United States)|Reconstruction]] began in earnest following the defeat of the Confederates. While President Lincoln attempted to foster cooperation and reconciliation between the Union and the former Confederacy, [[Assassination of Abraham Lincoln|his assassination]] on April&nbsp;14, 1865 drove a wedge between North and South again.{{fact|date=April 2023}} Republicans in the federal government made it their goal to oversee the rebuilding of the South and to [[Civil rights movement (1865–1896)|ensure the rights of African Americans]], and the so-called [[Reconstruction Amendments]] to the Constitution guaranteed the [[Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|abolishment of slavery]], [[Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|full citizenship to Americans of African descent]], and [[Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|suffrage for adult Black males]]. They persisted until the [[Compromise of 1877]], when the Republicans agreed to cease enforcing the rights of African Americans in the South in order for Democrats to concede the [[1876 United States presidential election|presidential election of 1876]].{{fact|date=April 2023}} Influential Southern whites, calling themselves "[[Redeemers]]", took local control of the South after the end of Reconstruction, beginning the [[nadir of American race relations]]. From 1890 to 1910, the Redeemers established so-called [[Jim Crow laws]], [[Disenfranchisement after the Reconstruction Era|disenfranchising]] almost all blacks and some impoverished whites throughout the region. Blacks would face [[Racial segregation in the United States|racial segregation]] nationwide, especially in the South.<ref>{{cite book|author=Shearer Davis Bowman|title=Masters and Lords: Mid-19th-Century U.S. Planters and Prussian Junkers|url=https://archive.org/details/masterslordsmid10000bowm|url-access=registration|year=1993|publisher=Oxford UP|page=[https://archive.org/details/masterslordsmid10000bowm/page/221 221]|isbn=978-0-19-536394-4 }}</ref> They also lived under constant threat of vigilante violence, including [[Lynching in the United States|lynching]].<ref>{{cite book|first=Jason E.|last=Pierce|title=Making the White Man's West: Whiteness and the Creation of the American West|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zJPgCwAAQBAJ&pg=PT256|year=2016|publisher=University Press of Colorado|page=256|isbn=978-1-60732-396-9 }}</ref> ===Gilded Age, Progressive Era, and World War I (1877–1929)=== {{Main|History of the United States (1865–1918)}} {{further|United States in World War I|Economic history of the United States|Immigration to the United States|Technological and industrial history of the United States|Gilded Age|Progressive Era}} [[File:Emigrants (i.e. immigrants) landing at Ellis Island -.webm|thumb|left|Film by [[Edison Studios]] showing immigrants at [[Ellis Island]] in [[New York Harbor]], that was a major entry point for European [[Immigration to the United States|immigration into the U.S.]]<ref name="PriceBenton-Short2008">{{cite book|first1=Marie|last1=Price|first2=Lisa|last2=Benton-Short|title=Migrants to the Metropolis: The Rise of Immigrant Gateway Cities|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_Tb5HMB63xAC&pg=PA51|year=2008|publisher=Syracuse University Press|isbn=978-0-8156-3186-6|page=51}}</ref>]] National infrastructure, including [[First Transcontinental Telegraph|telegraph]] and [[First transcontinental railroad|transcontinental railroads]], spurred economic growth and greater settlement and development of the [[American frontier|American Old West]]. After the [[American Civil War]], new transcontinental [[Rail transportation in the United States#History|railways]] made relocation easier for settlers, expanded internal trade, and increased conflicts with Native Americans.<ref name="Black2011kj">{{cite book|last=Black|first=Jeremy|author-link=Jeremy Black (historian)|title=Fighting for America: The Struggle for Mastery in North America, 1519–1871|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EIst_CSWOqIC&pg=PA275|year=2011|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=978-0-253-35660-4|page=275}}</ref> Mainland expansion also included the [[Alaska Purchase|purchase of Alaska]] from [[Russian Empire|Russia]] in 1867.<ref>{{cite web|title=Purchase of Alaska, 1867|url=https://history.state.gov/milestones/1866-1898/alaska-purchase|publisher=U.S. Department of State|website=Office of the Historian|access-date=December 23, 2014}}</ref> In 1893, pro-American elements in Hawaii [[Overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawaii|overthrew]] the [[Kingdom of Hawaii|Hawaiian monarchy]] and formed the [[Republic of Hawaii]], which the U.S. [[Newlands Resolution|annexed]] in 1898. Puerto Rico, [[Guam]], and the [[Philippines]] were ceded by Spain in the same year, by the [[Treaty of Paris (1898)]] following the [[Spanish–American War]].<ref>{{cite web|title=The Spanish–American War, 1898|url=https://history.state.gov/milestones/1866-1898/spanish-american-war|publisher=U.S. Department of State|website=Office of the Historian|access-date=December 24, 2014}}</ref> Neither the [[Foraker Act]] (1900), nor the [[Insular Cases]] (1901) accorded US citizenship to Puerto Ricans. One month prior to [[American entry into World War I]], citizenship was extended to Puerto Ricans via the [[Jones–Shafroth Act]] (1917).<ref name=HoE>{{Cite book | title = Harvest of Empire: A History of Latinos in America | url = https://archive.org/details/harvestofempireh0000gonz | first = Juan | last = Gonzalez | publisher = Penguin | date = 2011 }}</ref>{{rp|60–63}} In November 1903, the US acquired a perpetual lease of the [[Panama Canal Zone]] via the [[Hay–Bunau-Varilla Treaty]] after providing naval aid preventing [[Colombia]] from putting down the [[Separation of Panama from Colombia|rebellion]] which led to the creation of an independent Panama. The logistics of the November uprising were prepared in New York.<ref name=HoE />{{rp|67}} [[American Samoa]] was acquired by the United States in 1900 after the end of the [[Second Samoan Civil War]].<ref>Ryden, George Herbert. ''The Foreign Policy of the United States in Relation to Samoa''. New York: Octagon Books, 1975.</ref> The [[United States Virgin Islands|U.S. Virgin Islands]] were purchased from [[Denmark]] in 1917.<ref>{{cite web|title=Virgin Islands History|url=https://www.vinow.com/general_usvi/history/|publisher=Vinow.com|access-date=January 5, 2018}}</ref> [[File:Ford Motor Company assembly line.jpg|thumb|Workers [[Mass production|mass producing]] [[Automotive industry in the United States|automobiles]] on an [[assembly line]] in Chicago in 1913.<ref>Rubin, A. (2021). Postindustrial America. In S. P. Holland (Ed.), ''Encyclopedia of American studies''. Johns Hopkins University Press. </ref>]] [[Gilded Age|Rapid economic development]] during the late 19th and early 20th centuries fostered the rise of [[Robber baron (industrialist)|many prominent industrialists]]. [[Tycoon|Tycoons]] like [[Cornelius Vanderbilt]], [[John D. Rockefeller]], and [[Andrew Carnegie]] led the nation's progress in the [[Railways|railroad]], [[Petroleum industry|petroleum]], and [[History of the steel industry (1850–1970)|steel]] industries. Banking became a major part of the economy, with [[J. P. Morgan]] playing a notable role. The United States also emerged as a pioneer of the [[Automotive industry in the United States|automotive industry]] in the early 20th century.<ref>{{cite web |author1=The Pit Boss |title=The Pit Stop: The American Automotive Industry Is Packed With History |url=https://pitstop.rumbleon.com/american-automotive-history |website=Rumble On |access-date=5 December 2021 |date=26 February 2021}}</ref> In the North, [[urbanization]] and an unprecedented [[History of immigration to the United States|influx of immigrants]] from [[Southern Europe|Southern]] and [[Eastern Europe]] supplied a surplus of labor for the country's industrialization.<ref name="Powell2009qwet">{{cite book|first=John|last=Powell|title=Encyclopedia of North American Immigration|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VNCX6UsdZYkC&pg=PA74|year=2009|publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=978-1-4381-1012-7|page=74|access-date=October 25, 2015}}</ref> [[Incandescent light bulb|Electric light]] and the [[telephone]] drastically changed communication and urban life.{{sfn|Winchester|2013|pp=351, 385}} The American economy boomed, becoming the world's largest.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Kirkland|first1=Edward|title=Industry Comes of Age: Business, Labor, and Public Policy|pages=400–405|edition=1961}}</ref> These dramatic changes were accompanied by significant increases in [[economic inequality]], [[Effects of immigration to the United States|immigration]], and [[List of incidents of civil unrest in the United States|social unrest]], which prompted the rise of [[Labor history of the United States|organized labor]] along with [[Populism in the United States|populist]], [[History of the socialist movement in the United States|socialist]], and [[Anarchism in the United States|anarchist]] movements.<ref>Tindall, George Brown and Shi, David E. (2012). ''America: A Narrative History (Brief Ninth Edition) (Vol. 2).'' [[W. W. Norton & Company]]. {{ISBN|978-0-393-91267-8}} p. 589</ref><ref>[[#Zinn|Zinn, 2005]], pp. 321–357</ref><ref name="Fraser">{{cite book |last=Fraser |first=Steve |title=The Age of Acquiescence: The Life and Death of American Resistance to Organized Wealth and Power |url=https://archive.org/details/ageofacquiescenc0000fras |publisher=[[Little, Brown and Company]] |year=2015 |isbn=978-0-316-18543-1 |page=[https://archive.org/details/ageofacquiescenc0000fras/page/66 66]}}</ref> This period eventually ended with the advent of the [[Progressive Era]], which saw significant reforms including [[Consumer protection|health and safety regulation]] of consumer goods, the rise of [[Labor unions in the United States|labor unions]], and greater [[United States antitrust law|antitrust measures]] to ensure competition among businesses and attention to worker conditions. The [[Great Migration (African American)|Great Migration]] beginning around 1910 also brought millions of African Americans to Northern urban centers from the rural South.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.archives.gov/research/african-americans/migrations/great-migration|title=The Great Migration (1910-1970)|date=May 20, 2021}}</ref> [[File:The center of New York 1932.jpg|thumb|The newly constructed [[Empire State Building]] in [[midtown Manhattan]], 1932]] The last vestiges of the Progressive Era resulted in [[women's suffrage]] and [[Prohibition in the United States|alcohol prohibition]].<ref>Paige Meltzer, "The Pulse and Conscience of America" The General Federation and Women's Citizenship, 1945–1960,"&nbsp;''Frontiers: A Journal of Women Studies''&nbsp;(2009), Vol. 30 Issue 3, pp. 52–76.</ref><ref>James Timberlake,&nbsp;''Prohibition and the Progressive Movement, 1900–1920''&nbsp;(Harvard UP, 1963)</ref><ref>George B. Tindall, "Business Progressivism: Southern Politics in the Twenties,"&nbsp;''South Atlantic Quarterly''&nbsp;62 (Winter 1963): 92–106.</ref> The first state to grant women the right to vote was Wyoming, in 1869, followed by some other states<ref>{{cite web | title=Timeline and Map of Woman Suffrage Legislation|website=Mapping American Social Movements Project|url=https://depts.washington.edu/moves/WomanSuffrage_map.shtml|publisher=University of Washington|access-date=25 September 2022}}</ref> before the women's rights movement won passage of a [[Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|constitutional amendment]] granting nationwide [[Women's suffrage in the United States|women's suffrage]] in 1920.<ref name="voris">{{cite book|last1=Voris|first1=Jacqueline Van|title=Carrie Chapman Catt: A Public Life|url=https://archive.org/details/carriechapmancat0000vanv|series=Women and Peace Series|year=1996|publisher=Feminist Press at CUNY|location=New York City|isbn=978-1-55861-139-9|page=vii|quote=Carrie Chapmann Catt led an army of voteless women in 1919 to pressure Congress to pass the constitutional amendment giving them the right to vote and convinced state legislatures to ratify it in 1920.&nbsp;... Catt was one of the best-known women in the United States in the first half of the twentieth century and was on all lists of famous American women.}}</ref> The United States remained neutral from the outbreak of [[World War I]] in 1914 until 1917 when it joined the war as an "associated power" alongside the [[Allies of World War I]], helping to turn the tide against the [[Central Powers]]. In 1919, President [[Woodrow Wilson]] took a leading diplomatic role at the [[Paris Peace Conference (1919–1920)|Paris Peace Conference]] and advocated strongly for the U.S. to join the [[League of Nations]]. However, the Senate refused to approve this and did not ratify the [[Treaty of Versailles]] that established the League of Nations.<ref name="autogenerated418">McDuffie, Jerome; Piggrem, Gary Wayne; Woodworth, Steven E. (2005). ''U.S. History Super Review''. Piscataway, NJ: Research & Education Association. p. 418. {{ISBN|978-0-7386-0070-3}}.</ref> === Great Depression, New Deal, and World War II (1929–1945) === {{main|History of the United States (1918–1945)}} {{Further|Roaring Twenties|Great Depression in the United States|United States home front during World War II|Military history of the United States during World War II}} The 1920s and 1930s saw the rise of [[radio]] for [[mass communication]] and the invention of early [[television]].{{sfn|Winchester|2013|pp=410–411}} The prosperity of the [[Roaring Twenties]] ended with the [[Wall Street Crash of 1929]] and the onset of the [[Great Depression in the United States|Great Depression]]. After his election as President in 1932, [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] responded with the [[New Deal]] economic policies.<ref>{{cite book|title=Social Welfare: A History of the American Response to Need|url=https://archive.org/details/socialwelfarehis0000axin_i6r5|first1=June|last1=Axinn|first2=Mark J.|last2=Stern|isbn=978-0-205-52215-6|edition=7th|publisher=Allyn & Bacon|location=Boston|year=2007}}</ref> The [[Dust Bowl]] of the mid-1930s impoverished many farming communities and spurred a new wave of western migration.<ref>{{cite book|author=James Noble Gregory|title=American Exodus: The Dust Bowl Migration and Okie Culture in California|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qNdtGwnXYrIC|year=1991|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-507136-8|access-date=October 25, 2015}}<br />{{cite web|url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/general-article/dustbowl-mass-exodus-plains/|title=Mass Exodus From the Plains|author=<!-- Staff writer(s); no by-line. -->|year=2013|website=American Experience|publisher=WGBH Educational Foundation|access-date=October 5, 2014}}<br />{{cite web|url=https://memory.loc.gov/ammem/afctshtml/tsme.html|title=The Migrant Experience|last1=Fanslow|first1=Robin A.|date=April 6, 1997|website=American Folklore Center|publisher=Library of Congress|access-date=October 5, 2014}}<br />{{cite book|first=Walter J.|last=Stein|title=California and the Dust Bowl Migration|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hGuGAAAAIAAJ|year=1973|publisher=Greenwood Press|isbn=978-0-8371-6267-6|access-date=October 25, 2015}}</ref> [[File:Trinity_Detonation_T&B_(cropped).jpg|thumb|[[Mushroom cloud]] formed by the [[Trinity (nuclear test)|Trinity Experiment]] in [[New Mexico]], part of the [[Manhattan Project]], the first detonation of a [[nuclear weapon]] in history, July 1945]] At first [[United States non-interventionism before entering World War II|neutral during World War II]], the United States began supplying [[Lend-Lease|war material]] to the [[Allies of World War II|Allies]] in March 1941. A total of [[United States dollar|$]]50.1 billion (equivalent to ${{Formatprice|{{Inflation|US-GDP|50100000000|1941|r=-8}}}} in {{Inflation/year|US-GDP}}) worth of supplies was shipped in 1941–1945, or 17% of the total war expenditures of the U.S.<ref name="McNeill 778">{{cite book|author= McNeill| title=America, Britain and Russia|page= 778}}</ref> On December&nbsp;7, 1941, the [[Empire of Japan]] launched a surprise [[attack on Pearl Harbor]], prompting the United States to militarily join the Allies against the [[Axis powers]], and in the following year, to [[Internment of Japanese Americans|intern]] about 120,000 Japanese and Japanese Americans.<ref>The official WRA record from 1946 state it was 120,000 people. See {{cite book |author=[[War Relocation Authority]] |url=https://ddr.densho.org/ddr-densho-282-5/ |title=The Evacuated People: A Quantitative Study |year=1946 |page=8}} This number does not include people held in other camps such as those run by the DoJ or U.S. Army. Other sources may give numbers slightly more or less than 120,000.</ref><ref name="Pearl Harbor">{{cite web|last1=Yamasaki|first1=Mitch|title=Pearl Harbor and America's Entry into World War II: A Documentary History|url=https://www.hawaiiinternment.org/static/ush_yamasaki_documentary_history.pdf|publisher=World War II Internment in Hawaii|access-date=January 14, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141213122046/https://www.hawaiiinternment.org/static/ush_yamasaki_documentary_history.pdf|archive-date=December 13, 2014}}</ref> The U.S. pursued a "[[Europe first]]" defense policy,<ref>{{cite web|last1=Stoler|first1=Mark A.|title=George C. Marshall and the "Europe-First" Strategy, 1939–1951: A Study in Diplomatic as well as Military History|url=https://marshallfoundation.org/marshall/wp-content/uploads/sites/22/2014/04/EDStoler.pdf|access-date=April 4, 2016}}</ref> with the Philippines being [[Philippines campaign (1941–42)|invaded]] and [[Japanese occupation of the Philippines|occupied by Japan]] until the country's [[Philippines campaign (1944–45)|liberation]] by the U.S.-led forces in 1944–1945. During the war, the United States was one of the "[[Four Policemen]]"<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.iup.edu/WorkArea/DownloadAsset.aspx?id=37681|title=The Four Policemen and. Postwar Planning, 1943–1945: The Collision of Realist and. Idealist Perspectives|last=Kelly|first=Brian|access-date=June 21, 2014}}</ref> who met to plan the postwar world, along with Britain, the Soviet Union, and China.{{sfn|Hoopes|Brinkley|1997|p=100}}{{sfn|Gaddis|1972|p=25}} The United States emerged [[World War II casualties#Human losses by country|relatively unscathed]] from the war, and with even greater economic and military influence.<ref>Kennedy, Paul (1989). ''The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers''. New York: Vintage. p. 358. {{ISBN|978-0-679-72019-5}}</ref> The United States played a leading role in the [[Bretton Woods Conference|Bretton Woods]] and [[Yalta Conference|Yalta]] conferences, which signed agreements on new international financial institutions and Europe's postwar reorganization. As an [[Victory in Europe Day|Allied victory was achieved in Europe]], a 1945 [[United Nations Conference on International Organization|international conference]] held in [[San Francisco]] produced the [[United Nations Charter]], which became active after the war.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://2001-2009.state.gov/r/pa/ho/pubs/fs/55407.htm|title=The United States and the Founding of the United Nations, August 1941 – October 1945|date=October 2005|access-date=June 11, 2007|publisher=U.S. Dept. of State, Bureau of Public Affairs, Office of the Historian}}</ref> The United States developed the [[Manhattan Project|first nuclear weapons]] and used them on Japan [[Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki|in the cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki]] in August 1945; the Japanese subsequently [[Surrender of Japan|surrendered]] on September 2, ending [[World War II]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.japantimes.co.jp/opinion/2016/08/06/commentary/japan-surrender-world-war-ii/|title=Why did Japan surrender in World War II? {{!}} The Japan Times|newspaper=The Japan Times|access-date=February 8, 2017|language=en}}</ref><ref>Pacific War Research Society (2006). ''Japan's Longest Day''. New York: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|978-4-7700-2887-7}}.</ref> ===Cold War (1945–1990)=== {{Main|History of the United States (1945–1964)|History of the United States (1964–1980)|History of the United States (1980–1991)|l2 = 1964–1980|l3 = 1980–1991|History of the United States (1991–2008)|l4 = 1991–2008}} [[File:LevittownPA.jpg|thumb|[[Post–World War II economic expansion]] in the U.S. led to [[Suburbanization|suburban development]] and [[urban sprawl]], as shown in this aerial photograph of [[Levittown, Pennsylvania]], {{Circa|1959}}.]] After World War II, the United States financed and implemented the [[Marshall Plan]] to help rebuild and economically revive war-torn Europe; disbursements paid between 1948 and 1952 would total $13 billion ($115 billion in 2021).<ref>See {{cite journal |last=Frankenfeld |first=Peter |title=A Marshall Plan for Greece? The European Union and the Financial Crisis in Greece. A Theoretical and Political Analysis in the Global World Against a Background of Regional Integration: Table 1. European Recovery Programme – Marshall Plan ($ million) |date=2012 |pages=69 |url=http://bazekon.icm.edu.pl/bazekon/element/bwmeta1.element.ekon-element-000171238489 |journal=Prace i Materiały Instytutu Handlu Zagranicznego Uniwersytetu Gdańskiego |language=EN |issue=31/1 |issn=2300-6153}}</ref> Also at this time, [[Geopolitics|geopolitical]] tensions between the United States and Soviet Russia led to the [[Cold War]], driven by an ideological divide between [[capitalism]] and [[communism]].<ref name="WaggAndrews2012">{{cite book|last1=Wagg|first1=Stephen|last2=Andrews|first2=David|title=East Plays West: Sport and the Cold War|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qmjLR5YyUhEC&pg=PR11|year=2012|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-134-24167-5|page=11}}</ref> The two countries dominated the military affairs of Europe, with the U.S. and its [[NATO]] allies on one side and the Soviet Union and its [[Warsaw Pact]] [[Satellite state#Soviet satellite states|satellite states]] on the other.<ref name="Blakemore-2019">{{cite web|last=Blakemore|first=Erin|date=March 22, 2019|title=What was the Cold War?|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/culture/topics/reference/cold-war/|access-date=August 28, 2020|website=National Geographic|language=en}}</ref> Unlike the US, the USSR concentrated on its own recovery, seizing and transferring most of Germany's industrial plants, and it exacted [[World War II reparations|war reparations]] from its [[Eastern Bloc|Soviet Bloc]] satellites using Soviet-dominated joint enterprises.{{efn|[The Soviet Union] instituted trading arrangements deliberately designed to favour the country. Moscow controlled the Communist parties that ruled the satellite states, and they followed orders from the Kremlin. Historian Mark Kramer concludes: "The net outflow of resources from eastern Europe to the Soviet Union was approximately $15 billion to $20 billion in the first decade after World War II, an amount roughly equal to the total aid provided by the United States to western Europe under the Marshall Plan."}}<ref>Mark Kramer, "The Soviet Bloc and the Cold War in Europe," in {{Cite book |editor-first=Klaus | editor-last=Larresm |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EyNcCwAAQBAJ&pg=PT174 |title=A Companion to Europe Since 1945 |publisher=Wiley |year=2014 |isbn=978-1-118-89024-0 |page=79}}</ref> The U.S. sometimes opposed [[Third World]] movements that it viewed as Soviet-sponsored, occasionally pursuing direct action for [[United States involvement in regime change|regime change]] against [[Left-wing politics|left-wing]] governments.<ref>[[#Blakeley|Blakeley, 2009]], [https://books.google.com/books?id=rft8AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA92 p. 92]</ref> American troops fought the communist forces in the [[Korean War]] of 1950–1953,<ref name="Proxy">{{cite book |last=Collins |first=Michael |url=https://archive.org/details/liftoff00coll |title=Liftoff: The Story of America's Adventure in Space |publisher=Grove Press |year=1988 |isbn=9780802110114 |location=New York |author-link=Michael Collins (astronaut) |url-access=registration}}</ref> and the U.S. became increasingly involved in the [[Vietnam War]] (1955–1975), introducing combat forces in 1965.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |last=Chapman |first=Jessica M. |title=Origins of the Vietnam War |date=August 5, 2016 |url=https://oxfordre.com/americanhistory/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780199329175.001.0001/acrefore-9780199329175-e-353 |encyclopedia=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of American History |publisher=Oxford University Press |language=en |doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780199329175.013.353 |isbn=978-0-19-932917-5 |access-date=August 28, 2020}}</ref> Their competition to achieve superior [[spaceflight]] capability led to the [[Space Race]], which culminated in the U.S. becoming the first and only nation to [[Apollo 11|land people on the Moon]] in 1969.<ref name="Proxy" /> While both countries engaged in [[proxy war]]s and developed powerful [[nuclear weapon]]s, they avoided direct military conflict.<ref name="Blakemore-2019" /> At home, the United States experienced [[Post–World War II economic expansion|sustained economic expansion]], [[Urbanization in the United States|urbanization]], and a [[Post–World War II baby boom|rapid growth of its population]] and [[American middle class|middle class]] following World War II. Construction of an [[Interstate Highway System]] transformed the nation's transportation infrastructure in decades to come.{{sfn|Winchester|2013|pp=305–308}}<ref name="IntHighways">{{cite web|last1=Blas|first1=Elisheva|title=The Dwight D. Eisenhower National System of Interstate and Defense Highways|url=https://www.societyforhistoryeducation.org/pdfs/N10_NHD_Blas_Junior.pdf|website=societyforhistoryeducation.org|publisher=Society for History Education|access-date=January 19, 2015}}</ref> In 1959, the United States admitted [[Alaska]] and [[Hawaii]] to become the 49th and 50th states, formally expanding beyond the [[contiguous United States]].<ref name="Lightner2004">{{cite book|first=Richard|last=Lightner|title=Hawaiian History: An Annotated Bibliography|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Yei4fDrecWsC&pg=PA141|year=2004|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-313-28233-1|page=141}}</ref> [[File:Martin_Luther_King_-_March_on_Washington_colorized_photo.jpg|thumb|[[Martin Luther King Jr.]] gives his famous "[[I Have a Dream]]" speech at the [[Lincoln Memorial]] during the [[March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom|March on Washington]], 1963.|alt=See caption]]The growing [[civil rights movement]] used [[nonviolence]] to confront [[Racism in the United States|racism]], with [[Martin Luther King Jr.]] becoming a prominent leader.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.pbs.org/johngardner/chapters/4b.html|title=The Civil Rights Movement|website=PBS.org|access-date=January 5, 2019}}</ref> President [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] initiated legislation that led to a series of policies addressing poverty and racial inequalities, in what he termed the "[[Great Society]]". The launch of a "[[War on Poverty]]" expanded [[Social programs in the United States|entitlements and welfare]] spending, leading to the creation of the [[Food Stamp Program]], [[Aid to Families with Dependent Children]], along with national [[health insurance]] programs [[Medicare (United States)|Medicare]] and [[Medicaid]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ssa.gov/history/lbjsm.html|title=Social Security|website=ssa.gov|access-date=October 25, 2015}}</ref> A combination of court decisions and legislation, culminating in the [[Civil Rights Act of 1968]], made significant improvements.<ref>{{cite book|last=Dallek|first=Robert|year=2004|title=Lyndon B. Johnson: Portrait of a President|page=[https://archive.org/details/lyndonbjohnsonpo00dall/page/169 169]|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-515920-2|url=https://archive.org/details/lyndonbjohnsonpo00dall/page/169 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ourdocuments.gov/doc.php?flash=old&doc=97|title=Our Documents—Civil Rights Act (1964)|publisher=United States Department of Justice|access-date=July 28, 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.lbjlib.utexas.edu/Johnson/archives.hom/speeches.hom/651003.asp|title=Remarks at the Signing of the Immigration Bill, Liberty Island, New York|date=October 3, 1965|access-date=January 1, 2012|archive-url=http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160516063650/https://www.lbjlib.utexas.edu/Johnson/archives.hom/speeches.hom/651003.asp|archive-date=May 16, 2016|url-status=live }}</ref> Meanwhile, a [[counterculture of the 1960s|counterculture movement]] grew, which was fueled by [[Opposition to United States involvement in the Vietnam War|opposition to the Vietnam War]], mainstream [[Philosophy of psychedelics|experimentation with psychedelics]] and [[Cannabis culture|cannabis]], the [[Black Power movement]], and the [[sexual revolution]].<ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://time.com/5106608/protest-1968/?amp=true|title=Behind the Protests Against the Vietnam War in 1968|last=Levy|first=Daniel|date=January 19, 2018|magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]]|access-date=May 5, 2021}}</ref> The [[Women's Movement in the United States (1963-1982)|women's movement]] in the U.S. broadened the debate on women's rights and made [[gender equality]] a major social goal. The [[Sexual revolution in 1960s United States|1960s Sexual Revolution]] liberalized American attitudes to sexuality and eventually spread to the rest of the developed world,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://study.com/learn/lesson/sexual-liberation-movement-origin-timeline-impact-revolution.html |title=The Sexual Revolution Origins and Impact |website=study.com |author=Svetlana Ter-Grigoryan |date=February 12, 2022 |access-date=April 27, 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=August 25, 2022 |title=Playboy: American Magazine |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Playboy |access-date=February 2, 2023 |website=[[Encyclopedia Britannica]] |quote=...the so-called sexual revolution in the United States in the 1960s, marked by greatly more permissive attitudes toward sexual interest and activity than had been prevalent in earlier generations.}}</ref> and the 1969 [[Stonewall riots]] in New York City marked the beginning of the modern [[gay liberation|gay rights]] movement in the [[Western world|West]].<ref name="StonewallNYC1">{{cite web|url=https://theculturetrip.com/north-america/usa/new-york/articles/why-new-york-city-is-a-major-destination-for-lgbt-travelers/|title=Why New York City Is a Major Destination for LGBT Travelers|first=Julia|last=Goicichea|publisher=The Culture Trip|date=August 16, 2017|access-date=July 15, 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.uky.edu/~lbarr2/gws250spring11_files/Page1186.htm|title=Brief History of the Gay and Lesbian Rights Movement in the U.S|publisher=University of Kentucky|access-date=July 15, 2022}}; {{cite web|url=http://www.pinknews.co.uk/2013/06/28/feature-how-the-stonewall-riots-started-the-gay-rights-movement/|title=Feature: How the Stonewall riots started the LGBT rights movement|first=Nell|last=Frizzell|publisher=Pink News UK|date=June 28, 2013|access-date=July 15, 2022}}; {{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Stonewall-riots|title=Stonewall riots|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=July 15, 2022}}</ref> The United States supported [[Israel]] during the [[Yom Kippur War]]; in response, the country faced an oil [[embargo]] from [[OPEC]] nations, sparking the [[1973 oil crisis]]. The presidency of [[Richard Nixon]] saw the American withdrawal from Vietnam but also the [[Watergate scandal]], which led to [[Nixon resignation|his resignation]] and a decline in public trust of government that expanded for decades.<ref name="watergate_committee_final_report">[[Sam Ervin|Ervin, Sam]], et al., ''Final Report of the Watergate Committee''.</ref> After a surge in female labor participation around the 1970s, by 1985, the majority of women aged 16 and over were employed.<ref>{{cite web|title=Women in the Labor Force: A Databook|url=https://www.bls.gov/cps/wlf-databook-2012.pdf|publisher=U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics|access-date=March 21, 2014|page=11|year=2013}}</ref> The 1970s and early 1980s also saw the onset of [[stagflation]]. [[File:President Ronald Reagan and Soviet General Secretary Gorbachev at The First Summit in Geneva Switzerland - DPLA - b534f3d00bb05c3cc293789b180d2116.jpg|thumb|U.S. President [[Ronald Reagan]] (left) and Soviet general secretary [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] at the [[Geneva Summit (1985)|Geneva Summit]] in 1985]] After his election in 1980, President [[Ronald Reagan]] responded to economic stagnation with [[Reaganomics|neoliberal reforms]] and accelerated the [[Rollback|rollback strategy]] towards the Soviet Union after its [[Soviet–Afghan War|invasion of Afghanistan]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Allen|first=Robert C.|date=November 2001|title=The rise and decline of the Soviet economy|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_canadian-journal-of-economics_2001-11_34_4/page/859|journal=Canadian Journal of Economics|volume=34|issue=4|pages=859–881|doi=10.1111/0008-4085.00103|issn=0008-4085}}</ref>{{sfn|Gerstle|2022|pp=106–108, 121-128}}<ref>[[#Soss|Soss, 2010]], p. 277</ref><ref>[[#Fraser|Fraser, 1989]]</ref> During Reagan's presidency, the federal debt held by the public nearly tripled in nominal terms, from $738 billion to $2.1 trillion.<ref>{{cite report|url=https://fred.stlouisfed.org/graph/?g=k977|title=Federal Debt Held by the Public|publisher=Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis |date=May 31, 2018|access-date=June 12, 2018}}</ref> This led to the United States moving from the world's largest international creditor to the world's largest debtor nation.<ref name="U.S. Debt">{{Cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A26402-2004Jun8.html |title=Reagan Policies Gave Green Light to Red Ink |access-date= May 25, 2007 |newspaper= The Washington Post | date=June 9, 2004}}</ref> The [[Revolutions of 1989|collapse]] of the USSR's [[Eastern Bloc|network of satellite states]] in Eastern Europe in 1989 and the subsequent [[dissolution of the Soviet Union|dissolution of the country itself]] in 1991 ended the Cold War with American victory,<ref name="Gaidar">{{cite book|last=Gaĭdar|first=E.T.|year=2007|title=Collapse of an Empire: Lessons for Modern Russia|url={{GBUrl|bDSfnxYjVwAC|pg=PA102}}|pages=190–205|location=Washington, D.C.|publisher=[[Brookings Institution#Publications|Brookings Institution Press]]|isbn=978-0-815-73114-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Howell|first=Buddy Wayne|title=The Rhetoric of Presidential Summit Diplomacy: Ronald Reagan and the U.S.-Soviet Summits, 1985–1988|year=2006|publisher=Texas A&M University|isbn=978-0-549-41658-6|page=352 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Kissinger|first=Henry|author-link=Henry Kissinger|title=Diplomacy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0IZboamhb5EC&pg=PA731|year=2011|publisher=Simon & Schuster|isbn=978-1-4391-2631-8|pages=781–784|access-date=October 25, 2015}}<br />{{cite book|last=Mann|first=James|title=The Rebellion of Ronald Reagan: A History of the End of the Cold War|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BgZyXNIrvB4C&pg=PT12|year=2009|publisher=Penguin|isbn=978-1-4406-8639-9|page=432}}<br /></ref><ref>[[#Hayes|Hayes, 2009]]</ref> ensuring a global [[unipolarity]]<ref>[[Charles Krauthammer]], "The Unipolar Moment", ''Foreign Affairs'', 70/1, (Winter 1990/1), 23–33.</ref> in which the U.S. was unchallenged as the world's sole [[superpower]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Judt|first1=Tony|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nVDHAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA61|title=With Us Or Against Us: Studies in Global Anti-Americanism|last2=Lacorne|first2=Denis|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|year=2005|isbn=978-1-4039-8085-4|page=61}}<br />{{cite book|first=Richard J.|last=Samuels|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K751AwAAQBAJ&pg=PT666|title=Encyclopedia of United States National Security|publisher=Sage Publications|year=2005|isbn=978-1-4522-6535-3|page=666}}<br />{{cite book|first=Paul R.|last=Pillar|url=https://archive.org/details/terrorismusforei00pill|title=Terrorism and U.S. Foreign Policy|publisher=Brookings Institution Press|year=2001|isbn=978-0-8157-0004-3|page=[https://archive.org/details/terrorismusforei00pill/page/57 57]|url-access=registration}}<br />{{cite book|first=Gabe T.|last=Wang|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CbPJ7KZ9FvIC&pg=PA179|title=China and the Taiwan Issue: Impending War at Taiwan Strait|publisher=University Press of America|year=2006|isbn=978-0-7618-3434-2|page=179}}<br />{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qgdmiw4VUHsC&pg=PA1|title=Understanding the "Victory Disease", From the Little Bighorn to Mogadishu and Beyond|publisher=Diane Publishing|year=2004|isbn=978-1-4289-1052-2|page=1}}<br />{{cite book|first1=Akis|last1=Kalaitzidis|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tzwYzL9KcwEC&pg=PA313|title=U.S. Foreign Policy: A Documentary and Reference Guide|first2=Gregory W.|last2=Streich|publisher=ABC-CLIO|year=2011|isbn=978-0-313-38375-5|page=313}}<br />[[#Cohen|Cohen, 2004: History and the Hyperpower]]</ref> ===Contemporary period (1990–present)=== {{Main|History of the United States (1991–2008)|History of the United States (2008–present)|l2 = 2008–present}} Fearing the spread of [[Middle East|regional]] international instability from the [[Iraqi invasion of Kuwait]], in August 1991, President [[George H. W. Bush]] launched and led the [[Gulf War]] against Iraq, expelling Iraqi forces and dissolving the [[Republic of Kuwait|Iraqi-backed puppet state]] in Kuwait.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Halliday|first=Fred|title=The Gulf War and Its Aftermath: First Reflections|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_international-affairs_1991-04_67_2/page/223|volume=67|number=2|pages=223–234|date=April 1991|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|journal=[[International Affairs (journal)|International Affairs]]|doi=10.2307/2620827|jstor=2620827|s2cid=154565052 }}</ref> During the administration of President [[Bill Clinton]] in 1994, the U.S. signed the [[North American Free Trade Agreement]] (NAFTA), causing trade among the U.S., Canada, and Mexico to soar.<ref>{{cite web|title=North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) {{!}} United States Trade Representative|url=https://www.ustr.gov/trade-agreements/free-trade-agreements/north-american-free-trade-agreement-nafta|website=www.ustr.gov|access-date=January 11, 2015|archive-date=March 17, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130317011855/https://www.ustr.gov/trade-agreements/free-trade-agreements/north-american-free-trade-agreement-nafta|url-status=dead }}<br />{{cite book|author1=Thakur|author2=Manab Thakur Gene E Burton B N Srivastava|title=International Management: Concepts and Cases|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J2SbAuVzHBMC&pg=PA334|year=1997|publisher=Tata McGraw-Hill Education|isbn=978-0-07-463395-3|pages=334–335|access-date=October 25, 2015 }}<br />{{cite book|first1=Akis|last1=Kalaitzidis|first2=Gregory W.|last2=Streich|title=U.S. Foreign Policy: A Documentary and Reference Guide|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c9rhlt2Ke3gC&pg=PA201|year=2011|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-0-313-38376-2|page=201 }}</ref> Due to the [[dot-com bubble|dot-com boom]], stable monetary policy, and [[Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Act|reduced social welfare spending]], the 1990s saw the [[1990s United States boom|longest economic expansion]] in modern U.S. history.<ref>{{cite news|title=Did Clinton Do It, or Was He Lucky?|author=Dale, Reginald|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2000/02/18/business/worldbusiness/18iht-think.2.t_2.html|newspaper=The New York Times|date=February 18, 2000|access-date=March 6, 2013}}<br />{{cite book|last=Mankiw|first=N. Gregory|title=Macroeconomics|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=58KxPNa0hF4C&pg=PA463|year=2008|publisher=Cengage Learning|isbn=978-0-324-58999-3|page=559|access-date=October 25, 2015}}</ref> On [[September 11 attacks|September 11, 2001]], [[al-Qaeda]] terrorist hijackers flew passenger planes into the [[World Trade Center (1973–2001)|World Trade Center]] in New York City and [[the Pentagon]] near Washington, D.C., killing nearly 3,000 people.<ref>{{cite AV media|date=September 9, 2011|title=Flashback 9/11: As It Happened|url=https://video.foxnews.com/v/1151859712001/flashback-911-as-it-happened/|access-date=March 6, 2013|work=Fox News}}<br />{{cite news|title=America remembers Sept. 11 attacks 11 years later|agency=Associated Press|url=https://www.cbsnews.com/8301-201_162-57510234/america-remembers-sept-11-attacks-11-years-later/|work=CBS News|date=September 11, 2012|access-date=March 6, 2013|archive-date=October 17, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131017215138/https://www.cbsnews.com/8301-201_162-57510234/america-remembers-sept-11-attacks-11-years-later/|url-status=dead }}<br />{{cite news|url=https://www.cnn.com/SPECIALS/2001/trade.center/multimedia.day.html|title=Day of Terror Video Archive|year=2005|work=CNN|access-date=March 6, 2013 }}</ref> In response, President [[George W. Bush]] launched the [[war on terror]], which included a nearly 20-year [[War in Afghanistan (2001–present)|war in Afghanistan]] from 2001 to 2021 and the 2003–2011 [[Iraq War]].<ref>{{cite news|title=The 'War on Terror' Is Critical to President George W. Bush's Legacy|author=Walsh, Kenneth T.|url=https://www.usnews.com/news/articles/2008/12/09/the-war-on-terror-is-critical-to-president-george-w-bushs-legacy|newspaper=U.S. News & World Report|date=December 9, 2008|access-date=March 6, 2013}}<br />{{cite book|last=Atkins|first=Stephen E.|title=The 9/11 Encyclopedia: Second Edition|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PDDIgWRN_HQC&pg=PA210|year=2011|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-59884-921-9|page=872|access-date=October 25, 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Overview: The Iraq War|last=Wong|first=Edward|url=https://www.nytimes.com/ref/timestopics/topics_iraq.html|newspaper=The New York Times|date=February 15, 2008|access-date=March 7, 2013 }}<br />{{cite book|last=Johnson|first=James Turner|title=The War to Oust Saddam Hussein: Just War and the New Face of Conflict|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SF7U27JsLC4C&q=iraq+invasion+removes+hussein|year=2005|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=978-0-7425-4956-2|page=159|access-date=October 25, 2015 }}<br />{{cite news|title=Timeline: Key moments in the Iraq War|author=Durando, Jessica|author2=Green, Shannon Rae|agency=Associated Press|url=https://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/world/iraq/story/2011-12-21/iraq-war-timeline/52147680/1|newspaper=USA Today|date=December 21, 2011|access-date=March 7, 2013|archive-date=September 4, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200904084312/https://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/world/iraq/story/2011-12-21/iraq-war-timeline/52147680/1|url-status=dead }}</ref> Government policy designed to promote affordable housing,<ref>{{Cite book|title=Hidden in Plain Sight: What Really Caused the World's Worst Financial Crisis and Why It Could Happen Again|url=https://archive.org/details/hiddeninplainsig0000wall|last=Wallison|first=Peter|publisher=Encounter Books|year=2015|isbn=978-978-59407-7-0|author-link=Peter J. Wallison}}</ref> widespread failures in corporate and regulatory governance,<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/GPO-FCIC/pdf/GPO-FCIC.pdf|title=Financial Crisis Inquiry Report|year=2011|author=Financial Crisis Inquiry Commission|isbn=978-1-60796-348-6|author-link=Financial Crisis Inquiry Commission }}</ref> and historically low interest rates set by the [[Federal Reserve]]<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Taylor|first=John B.|author-link=John B. Taylor|access-date=January 21, 2017|title=The Financial Crisis and the Policy Responses: An Empirical Analysis of What Went Wrong|url=https://www.nber.org/papers/w14631.pdf|journal=Hoover Institution Economics Paper Series|date=January 2009}}</ref> led to a [[United States housing bubble|housing bubble]] in 2006. This culminated in the [[financial crisis of 2007–2008]] and the [[Great Recession]], the nation's largest economic contraction since the Great Depression.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB122169431617549947|title=Worst Crisis Since '30s, With No End Yet in Sight|last1=Hilsenrath|first1=Jon|last2=Ng|first2=Serena|last3=Paletta|first3=Damian|date=September 18, 2008|work=[[The Wall Street Journal]]| url-access=subscription}}</ref> [[Barack Obama]], the first [[Multiracial American|multiracial]]<ref>{{cite news|author=<!-- Staff writer(s); no by-line. -->|title=Barack Obama: Face Of New Multiracial Movement?|url=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=96916824| work=[[NPR]]|date=November 12, 2008}}</ref> President with [[African-American]] ancestry, [[2008 United States presidential election|was elected in 2008]] amid the financial crisis.<ref name="Washington-2011">{{cite news|title=African-American Economic Gains Reversed By Great Recession|agency=[[Associated Press]]| last1=Washington| first1=Jesse| last2=Rugaber| first2=Chris|url=https://www.oklahoman.com/article/3584442/economic-gains-for-blacks-reversed-in-great-recession|date=July 10, 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130616183529/https://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/10/black-recession-economy-african-americans_n_894046.html|archive-date=June 16, 2013}}</ref> By the end of his second term, the stock market, median household income and net worth, and the number of persons with jobs were all at record levels, while the unemployment rate was well below the historical average.<ref name=RSKrugman1>{{Cite magazine|url=https://www.rollingstone.com/politics/news/in-defense-of-obama-20141008|title=In Defense of Obama|magazine=Rolling Stone|access-date=November 19, 2016|date=October 8, 2014|archive-date=November 19, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161119140244/http://www.rollingstone.com/politics/news/in-defense-of-obama-20141008|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="Obama_Inequality">{{cite web|url=https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/sites/default/files/docs/chapter_1-eight_years_of_recovery_reinvestment_2017.pdf|title=CEA 2017 Economic Report of the President-Chapter One-Eight Years of Recovery and Reinvestment|website=Whitehouse.gov|access-date=March 12, 2017}}</ref><ref name=Politico_Awesome>{{cite web|url=http://www.politico.com/magazine/story/2016/12/everything-is-still-awesome-214554|title=Everything is Awesome|website=Politico.com|date=December 29, 2016 |access-date=December 30, 2016}}</ref><ref name="Factcheck_Inherits">{{cite news|url=https://www.factcheck.org/2017/01/what-president-trump-inherits/|title=What President Trump Inherits|first=Brooks|last=Jackson|date=January 20, 2017|via=Factcheck.org}}</ref><ref name="Factcheck_Obama#">{{cite news|url=https://www.factcheck.org/2017/09/obamas-final-numbers/|title=Obama's Final Numbers|first=Brooks|last=Jackson|date=September 29, 2017|via=Factcheck.org}}</ref> His signature legislative accomplishment was the [[Affordable Care Act]] (ACA), popularly known as "Obamacare". It represented the [[U.S. healthcare system|U.S. health care system]]'s most significant regulatory overhaul and expansion of coverage since Medicare in 1965. As a result, the uninsured share of the population was cut in half, while the number of newly insured Americans was estimated to be between 20 and 24 million.<ref name="HHS_ASPE16">{{Cite web |url=https://aspe.hhs.gov/pdf-report/health-insurance-coverage-and-affordable-care-act-2010-2016 |first1 = Namrata| first2 = Kenneth |first3 =Emily | last1= Uberoi |last2 =Finegold| last3=Gee |title=Health Insurance Coverage and the Affordable Care Act, 2010–2016|publisher = U.S. Department of Health and Human Services |department= Assistant Secretary for Planning and Evaluation |access-date=December 7, 2016 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20211205091604/https://aspe.hhs.gov/sites/default/files/migrated_legacy_files//142146/ACA2010-2016.pdf | archive-date = December 5, 2011|date=March 2, 2016}}</ref> After Obama served two terms, Republican [[Donald Trump]] was elected as the [[List of Presidents of the United States|45th president]] in 2016. [[2016 United States presidential election|His election]] is viewed as one of the biggest political upsets in American and world history.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Smith|first1=Harrison|title=Donald Trump is elected president of the United States|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/kidspost/donald-trump-is-elected-president-of-the-united-states/2016/11/09/58046db4-a684-11e6-ba59-a7d93165c6d4_story.html|newspaper=The Washington Post|access-date=October 27, 2020|date=November 9, 2016}}</ref> Trump held office through [[Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States|the first waves]] of the [[COVID-19 pandemic]] and the resulting [[COVID-19 recession]] starting in 2020 that exceeded even the Great Recession earlier in the century.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kochhar |first=Rakesh |title=Unemployment rose higher in three months of COVID-19 than it did in two years of the Great Recession |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2020/06/11/unemployment-rose-higher-in-three-months-of-covid-19-than-it-did-in-two-years-of-the-great-recession/ |access-date=October 1, 2022 |website=Pew Research Center |language=en-US}}</ref> [[Political polarization in the United States|Political polarization]] increased beginning in the 2010s, with [[Abortion in the United States|abortion access]], [[Same-sex marriage in the United States|same-sex marriage]], the [[transgender rights movement]], [[Institutional racism|lingering systemic racism]], [[Police brutality in the United States|police brutality]], [[Illegal immigration to the United States|undocumented immigration]], [[Mass shootings in the United States|mass shootings]] and [[Legalization of non-medical cannabis in the United States|recreational marijuana use]] becoming central topics of debate. [[List of protests and demonstrations in the United States by size|Several protests have since become among the largest]] in U.S. history.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Hamid |first=Shadi |date=January 8, 2022 |title=The Forever Culture War |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2022/01/republicans-democrats-forever-culture-war/621184/ |access-date=2023-04-18 |website=The Atlantic |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Hammond |first=Michael |date=2018 |title=Chapter 30: The Recent Past |url=https://www.americanyawp.com/text/30-the-recent-past/ |access-date=2023-04-18 |website=[[Stanford University Press]] |language=en-US}}</ref> On January 6, 2021, supporters of the outgoing President Trump [[2021 United States Capitol attack|stormed the U.S. Capitol]] in an unsuccessful effort to disrupt the [[U.S. Electoral College|Electoral College]] vote count that would confirm Democrat [[Joe Biden]] as the 46th president.<ref>{{cite web |last=Peñaloza |first=Marisa |date=January 6, 2021 |title=Trump Supporters Storm U.S. Capitol, Clash with Police |url=https://www.npr.org/sections/congress-electoral-college-tally-live-updates/2021/01/06/953616207/diehard-trump-supporters-gather-in-the-nations-capital-to-protest-election-resul |access-date=January 16, 2021 |website=NPR |publisher=[[NPR]]}}</ref> In 2022, the Supreme Court [[Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization|ruled that there is no constitutional right to an abortion]], causing [[2022 abortion protests|another wave of protests]].<ref>{{Cite news |title=Protests erupt in D.C., around the country as Roe v. Wade falls |language=en-US |newspaper=Washington Post |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/dc-md-va/2022/06/24/supreme-court-abortion-protests-roe/ |access-date=September 28, 2022 |issn=0190-8286}}</ref> The United States responded to Russia and Belarus after their [[Russian invasion of Ukraine|invasion of Ukraine]], with the country applying [[International sanctions during the Russo-Ukrainian War|harsh sanctions]] on Russia and [[United States and the Russian invasion of Ukraine|sending tens of billions of dollars of military and humanitarian aid]] to Ukraine.<ref>{{Cite news |title=The Senate has approved roughly $40 billion in aid to Ukraine |language=en |work=NPR.org |url=https://www.npr.org/2022/05/19/1100228289/the-senate-has-approved-roughly-40-billion-in-aid-to-ukraine |access-date=September 28, 2022}}</ref> ==Geography== {{Main|Geography of the United States}} [[File:Uspaintedrelief.png|thumb|[[Topographic map]] of the United States]] The [[List of states and territories of the United States|48 contiguous states and the District of Columbia]] occupy a combined area of {{convert|3,119,885|sqmi|km2|abbr=}}. Of this area, {{convert|2,959,064|sqmi|km2|abbr=}} is contiguous land, composing 83.65% of total U.S. land area.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/279.html#as|work=The World Factbook|publisher=cia.gov|title=Field Listing: Area|access-date=April 21, 2020|archive-date=July 7, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200707180005/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/279.html#as|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="urlState Area Measurements and Internal Point Coordinates—Geography—U.S. Census Bureau">{{cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/geographies/reference-files/2010/geo/state-area.html|title=State Area Measurements and Internal Point Coordinates—Geography—U.S. Census Bureau|website=State Area Measurements and Internal Point Coordinates|publisher=U.S. Department of Commerce|access-date=September 11, 2017}}</ref> About 15% is occupied by [[Alaska]], a state in northwestern North America, with the remainder in [[Hawaii]], a state and [[archipelago]] in the central [[Pacific Ocean|Pacific]], and the five populated but [[Unincorporated area|unincorporated]] insular territories of [[Puerto Rico]], [[American Samoa]], [[Guam]], the [[Northern Mariana Islands]], and the [[United States Virgin Islands|U.S. Virgin Islands]].<ref>{{cite web|title=2010 Census Area|url=https://www.census.gov/prod/cen2010/cph-2-1.pdf|website=census.gov|publisher=[[U.S. Census Bureau]]|page=41|access-date=January 18, 2015}}</ref> Measured by only land area, the United States is third in size behind Russia and China, and just ahead of Canada.<ref name="CIA Factbook Area">{{cite web|title=Area|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2147.html|website=The World Factbook|publisher=Central Intelligence Agency|access-date=January 15, 2015|archive-date=January 31, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140131115000/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2147.html|url-status=dead }}</ref> [[File:Wonder Lake and Denali.jpg|thumb|[[Denali]], or Mount McKinley, in [[Alaska]], the highest [[mountain]] peak in [[North America]]]] The United States is the world's [[List of countries and dependencies by area|third- or fourth-largest]] nation by total area (land and water), ranking behind Russia and Canada and nearly equal to China. The ranking varies depending on how two territories disputed by China and India are counted, and how the total size of the United States is measured.{{efn|name=largestcountry}}<ref name="WF">{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/united-states/|title=United States|publisher=Central Intelligence Agency|website=The World Factbook|date=January 3, 2018|access-date=January 8, 2018}}</ref> The [[Atlantic coastal plain|coastal plain]] of the [[Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic]] seaboard gives way further inland to [[deciduous]] forests and the rolling hills of the [[Piedmont (United States)|Piedmont]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Geographic Regions of Georgia|url=https://georgiainfo.galileo.usg.edu/topics/geography/article/geographic-regions-of-georgia|website=Georgia Info|publisher=Digital Library of Georgia|access-date=December 24, 2014}}</ref> The [[Appalachian Mountains]] and the [[Adirondack Mountains|Adirondack]] [[massif]] divide the eastern seaboard from the [[Great Lakes]] and the grasslands of the [[Midwestern United States|Midwest]].<ref name="NAU">{{cite web|last=Lew|first=Alan|title=PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF THE US|url=https://www.geog.nau.edu/courses/alew/gsp220/text/chapters/ch2.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160409112252/https://www.geog.nau.edu/courses/alew/gsp220/text/chapters/ch2.html|archive-date=April 9, 2016|website=GSP 220—Geography of the United States|publisher=North Arizona University|access-date=December 24, 2014}}</ref> The [[Mississippi River|Mississippi]]–[[Missouri River]], the world's [[List of rivers by length|fourth longest river system]], runs mainly north–south through the heart of the country. The flat, fertile [[prairie]] of the [[Great Plains]] stretches to the west, interrupted by [[U.S. Interior Highlands|a highland region]] in the southeast.<ref name="NAU" /> The [[Rocky Mountains]], west of the Great Plains, extend north to south across the country, peaking at over {{convert|14000|ft}} in [[Colorado]].<ref>{{cite web|last=Harms|first=Nicole|title=Facts About the Rocky Mountain Range|url=https://traveltips.usatoday.com/rocky-mountain-range-11967.html|website=Travel Tips|publisher=USA Today|access-date=December 24, 2014}}</ref> Farther west are the rocky [[Great Basin]] and deserts such as the [[Chihuahuan Desert|Chihuahua]], [[Sonoran Desert|Sonoran]], and [[Mojave Desert|Mojave]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Tinkham|first=Ernest R.|title=Biological, Taxonomic and Faunistic Studies on the Shield-Back Katydids of the North American Deserts|jstor=2421073|doi=10.2307/2421073|journal=[[The American Midland Naturalist]]|volume=31|number=2|date=March 1944|pages=257–328|publisher=The [[University of Notre Dame]]}}</ref> The [[Sierra Nevada (U.S.)|Sierra Nevada]] and [[Cascade Range|Cascade]] mountain ranges run close to the [[West Coast of the United States|Pacific coast]], both ranges also reaching altitudes higher than {{convert|14000|ft}}. The [[Extreme points of the United States|lowest and highest points]] in the contiguous United States are in the state of California,<ref>{{cite web|title=Mount Whitney, California|url=https://www.peakbagger.com/peak.aspx?pid=2829|publisher=Peakbagger|access-date=December 24, 2014}}</ref> and only about {{convert|84|mi|km}} apart.<ref>{{cite web|title=Find Distance and Azimuths Between 2 Sets of Coordinates (Badwater 36-15-01-N, 116-49-33-W and Mount Whitney 36-34-43-N, 118-17-31-W)|url=https://transition.fcc.gov/fcc-bin/distance?dlat=36&mlat=15&slat=01&ns=1&dlon=116&mlon=49&slon=33&ew=1&dlat2=36&mlat2=34&slat2=43&sn=1&dlon2=118&mlon2=17&slon2=31&we=1&iselec=1|publisher=Federal Communications Commission|access-date=December 24, 2014}}</ref> At an elevation of {{convert|20310|ft|1}}, Alaska's [[Denali]] is the highest peak in the country and in North America.<ref>{{cite web|last=Poppick|first=Laura|title=US Tallest Mountain's Surprising Location Explained|date=August 28, 2013|url=https://www.livescience.com/39245-us-tallest-mountain-location-explained.html|publisher=LiveScience|access-date=May 2, 2015}}</ref> Active [[volcano]]es are common throughout Alaska's [[Alexander Archipelago|Alexander]] and [[Aleutian Islands]], and Hawaii consists of volcanic islands. The [[supervolcano]] underlying [[Yellowstone National Park]] in the [[Rockies]] is the continent's largest volcanic feature.<ref>{{cite web|last=O'Hanlon|first=Larry|title=America's Explosive Park|url=https://dsc.discovery.com/convergence/supervolcano/under/under.html|date=March 14, 2005|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050314034001/https://dsc.discovery.com/convergence/supervolcano/under/under.html|archive-date=March 14, 2005|publisher=Discovery Channel|access-date=April 5, 2016}}</ref> ===Climate=== {{Main|Climate of the United States|Climate change in the United States}} [[File:Köppen Climate Types US 50.png|thumb|[[Köppen climate classification|Köppen climate types]] of the U.S.]] The United States, with its large size and geographic variety, includes most climate types. To the east of the [[100th meridian west|100th meridian]], the climate ranges from [[humid continental climate|humid continental]] in the north to [[humid subtropical climate|humid subtropical]] in the south.<ref>{{cite web|last=Boyden|first=Jennifer|title=Climate Regions of the United States|url=https://traveltips.usatoday.com/climate-regions-united-states-21570.html|website=Travel Tips|publisher=USA Today|access-date=December 24, 2014}}</ref> The Great Plains west of the 100th meridian are [[Semi-arid climate|semi-arid]]. Many mountainous areas of the American West have an [[alpine climate]]. The climate is [[Desert climate|arid]] in the Great Basin, desert in the Southwest, [[Mediterranean climate|Mediterranean]] in [[coastal California]], and [[oceanic climate|oceanic]] in coastal [[Oregon]] and [[Washington (state)|Washington]] and southern Alaska. Most of Alaska is [[Subarctic climate|subarctic]] or [[Polar climate|polar]]. Hawaii and the southern tip of [[Florida]] are [[Tropical climate|tropical]], as well as its territories in the [[Caribbean]] and the Pacific.<ref>{{cite web|title=World Map of Köppen–Geiger Climate Classification|url=https://koeppen-geiger.vu-wien.ac.at/pdf/kottek_et_al_2006_A4.pdf|access-date=August 19, 2015|archive-date=January 26, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220126115149/http://koeppen-geiger.vu-wien.ac.at/pdf/kottek_et_al_2006_A4.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> States bordering the [[Gulf of Mexico]] are prone to [[Tropical cyclone|hurricanes]], and most of the world's [[tornado]]es occur in the country, mainly in [[Tornado Alley]] areas in the Midwest and South.<ref>{{cite news|author=Perkins, Sid|url=https://www.sciencenews.org/articles/20020511/bob9.asp|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070701131631/https://www.sciencenews.org/articles/20020511/bob9.asp|archive-date=July 1, 2007|title=Tornado Alley, USA|access-date=September 20, 2006|date=May 11, 2002|work=Science News}}</ref> Overall, the United States receives more high-impact extreme weather incidents than any other country in the world.<ref>{{cite web|title=USA has the world's most extreme weather|url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/weather/2013/05/16/extreme-weather-north-america/2162501/|last=Rice|first=Doyle|website=USA Today|language=en|access-date=May 17, 2020}}</ref> Extreme weather has become more frequent in the U.S., with three times the number of reported [[heat waves]] as in the 1960s. Of the ten warmest years ever recorded in the 48 contiguous states, eight have occurred since 1998. In the [[Southwestern United States|American Southwest]], droughts have become more persistent and more severe.<ref>{{Cite web|last=US EPA|first=OAR|date=June 27, 2016|title=Climate Change Indicators: Weather and Climate|url=https://www.epa.gov/climate-indicators/weather-climate|access-date=June 19, 2022|website=www.epa.gov|language=en}}</ref> ===Biodiversity and conservation=== {{Anchor|Wildlife and conservation}} {{Main|Fauna of the United States|Flora of the United States}} [[File:Bald Eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) in Kachemak Bay, Alaska.jpg|alt=A bald eagle|thumb|The [[bald eagle]] has been the [[National bird of the United States|national bird]] of the United States since 1782.<ref name="McDougall2004">{{cite book|first=Len|last=McDougall|title=The Encyclopedia of Tracks and Scats: A Comprehensive Guide to the Trackable Animals of the United States and Canada|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9XOc2_u7z6cC&pg=PA325|year=2004|publisher=Lyons Press|isbn=978-1-59228-070-4|page=325}}</ref>]] The U.S. is one of 17 [[megadiverse countries]] containing large numbers of [[List of endangered species in North America|endemic species]]: about 17,000 species of [[vascular plant]]s occur in the contiguous United States and Alaska, and more than 1,800 species of [[flowering plant]]s are found in Hawaii, few of which occur on the mainland.<ref>{{cite web|author=Morin, Nancy|url=https://www.fungaljungal.org/papers/National_Biological_Service.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130724222726/https://www.fungaljungal.org/papers/National_Biological_Service.pdf|title=Vascular Plants of the United States|publisher=National Biological Service|website=Plants|access-date=October 27, 2008|archive-date=July 24, 2013}}</ref> The United States is home to 428 [[mammal]] species, 784 [[bird]]s, 311 [[reptile]]s, and 295 [[amphibian]]s,<ref name="Current Results # of native species in the US">{{cite web|last1=Osborn|first1=Liz|title=Number of Native Species in United States|url=https://www.currentresults.com/Environment-Facts/Plants-Animals/number-of-native-species-in-united-states.php|publisher=Current Results Nexus|access-date=January 15, 2015}}</ref> and 91,000 [[insect]] species.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.si.edu/Encyclopedia_SI/nmnh/buginfo/bugnos.htm|title=Numbers of Insects (Species and Individuals)|publisher=Smithsonian Institution|access-date=January 20, 2009}}</ref> There are 63 [[List of national parks of the United States|national parks]] which are managed by the [[National Park Service]], and [[Federal lands|hundreds of other federally managed]] parks, forests, and [[National Wilderness Preservation System|wilderness areas]] managed by it and other agencies.<ref>{{cite web|title= National Park FAQ|url=https://www.nps.gov/aboutus/national-park-system.htm/|last1=Park|first1=National|website=nps|access-date=May 8, 2015}}</ref> Altogether, the government owns about 28% of the country's land area,<ref name="NYTimes Federal Land">{{cite news|last1=Lipton|first1=Eric|last2=Krauss|first2=Clifford|title=Giving Reins to the States Over Drilling|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/08/24/us/romney-would-give-reins-to-states-on-drilling-on-federal-lands.html?pagewanted=2&_r=0|access-date=January 18, 2015|newspaper=The New York Times|date=August 23, 2012}}</ref> mostly in the [[Western United States|western states]].<ref name="AKLeg CRS Federal Land">{{Cite report|url=https://www.akleg.gov/basis/get_documents.asp?session=31&docid=47224|title=Federal Land Ownership: Overview and Data|publisher=Congressional Research Service|date=March 3, 2017|access-date=June 18, 2020|last1=Vincent|first1=Carol H.|last2=Hanson|first2=Laura A.|last3=Argueta|first3=Carla N.|page=2}}</ref> Most of this land is [[Protected areas of the United States|protected]], though some is [[Bureau of Land Management|leased for oil and gas drilling, mining, logging, or cattle ranching]], and about .86% is used for military purposes.<ref name="Federal Land Ownership">{{cite web|last1=Gorte|first1=Ross W.|last2=Vincent|first2=Carol Hardy.|last3=Hanson|first3=Laura A.|last4=Marc R.|first4=Rosenblum|title=Federal Land Ownership: Overview and Data|url=https://fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/R42346.pdf|website=fas.org|publisher=Congressional Research Service|access-date=January 18, 2015}}</ref><ref name="Fed Land Uses">{{cite web|title=Chapter 6: Federal Programs to Promote Resource Use, Extraction, and Development|url=https://www.doi.gov/pmb/oepc/wetlands2/v2ch6.cfm|website=doi.gov|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150318005744/https://www.doi.gov/pmb/oepc/wetlands2/v2ch6.cfm|publisher=U.S. Department of the Interior|access-date=January 19, 2015|archive-date=March 18, 2015}}</ref> [[Environmental issues in the United States|Environmental issues]] include debates on oil and [[nuclear binding energy|nuclear energy]], dealing with air and water pollution, the economic costs of protecting [[wildlife]],{{explain|date=March 2023}} logging and [[deforestation]],<ref>{{cite web|author=The National Atlas of the United States of America|url=https://www.nationalatlas.gov/articles/biology/a_forest.html|title=Forest Resources of the United States|publisher=Nationalatlas.gov|date=January 14, 2013|access-date=January 13, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090507195541/https://www.nationalatlas.gov/articles/biology/a_forest.html|archive-date=May 7, 2009 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.fs.fed.us/pnw/pubs/gtr587.pdf|title=Land Use Changes Involving Forestry in the United States: 1952 to 1997, With Projections to 2050|year=2003|access-date=January 13, 2014}}</ref> and [[Climate change in the United States|climate change]].<ref>[[#Daynes|Daynes & Sussman, 2010]], pp. 3, 72, 74–76, 78</ref><ref>Hays, Samuel P. (2000). ''A History of Environmental Politics since 1945''.</ref> The most prominent environmental agency is the [[United States Environmental Protection Agency|Environmental Protection Agency]] (EPA), created by presidential order in 1970.<ref name="Collin2006">{{cite book|last=Collin|first=Robert W.|title=The Environmental Protection Agency: Cleaning Up America's Act|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OVPoqXeTYTwC&pg=PA1|year=2006|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-313-33341-5|page=1|access-date=October 25, 2015}}</ref> The idea of wilderness has shaped the management of public lands since 1964, with the [[Wilderness Act]].<ref>Turner, James Morton (2012). ''The Promise of Wilderness''</ref> The [[Endangered Species Act]] of 1973 is intended to protect threatened and endangered species and their habitats, which are monitored by the [[United States Fish and Wildlife Service]].<ref name="Office">{{cite book|title=Endangered species Fish and Wildlife Service|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a8BEuUPJb58C&pg=PA1|publisher=General Accounting Office, Diane Publishing|isbn=978-1-4289-3997-4|page=1|access-date=October 25, 2015|year=2003 }}</ref> As of 2020, the U.S. ranked 24th among 180 nations in the [[Environmental Performance Index]].<ref>{{cite web|title=What Is the Greenest Country in the World?|url=https://www.atlasandboots.com/greenest-country-in-the-world/|website=Atlas & Boots|date=June 6, 2020|publisher=Environmental Performance Index|access-date=November 18, 2020}}</ref> The country joined the [[Paris Agreement]] on climate change in 2016, and has many other environmental commitments.<ref>{{cite web|title=United States of America|url=https://climateaction.unfccc.int/views/country.html?country=US|website=Global Climate Action – NAZCA|publisher=United Nations|access-date=November 18, 2020}}</ref> It [[United States withdrawal from the Paris Agreement|withdrew]] from the Paris Agreement in 2020<ref>{{cite news|last1=Nugent|first1=Ciara|title=The U.S. Just Officially Left the Paris Agreement. Can it Be a Leader in the Climate Fight Again?|url=https://time.com/5907210/us-leaves-paris-agreement-2020-election/|access-date=November 18, 2020|agency=Times|date=November 4, 2020}}</ref> but rejoined it in 2021.<ref>{{cite news|title=Biden announces return to global climate accord, new curbs on U.S. oil industry|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/usa-biden-climate-idINKBN29P12S|date=January 20, 2021|work=Reuters|department=Money News|access-date=February 9, 2021}}</ref> ==Government and politics== {{Main|Politics of the United States}} {{Further|Political parties in the United States|Elections in the United States|Political ideologies in the United States|American patriotism|American civil religion}} [[Image:US Capitol west side.JPG|thumb|The [[United States Capitol]], where [[United States Congress|Congress]] meets: the [[United States Senate|Senate]], left; the [[United States House of Representatives|House]], right]] [[File:White House lawn (long tightly cropped).jpg|thumb|The [[White House]], residence and workplace of the [[President of the United States|U.S. President]]]] [[Image:Panorama of United States Supreme Court Building at Dusk.jpg|thumb|The [[United States Supreme Court Building|Supreme Court Building]], where the [[Supreme Court of the United States|nation's highest court]] sits]] The United States is a [[federal republic]] of 50 [[U.S. state|states]], a [[District of Columbia|federal district]], [[Territories of the United States|five territories]] and several uninhabited [[United States Minor Outlying Islands|island possessions]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Common Core Document of the United States of America|url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/drl/rls/179780.htm|date=December 30, 2011|publisher=[[United States Department of State|U.S. Department of State]]|access-date=July 10, 2015}}</ref>{{sfn|The New York Times|2007|p=670}}{{sfn|Onuf|2010|p=xvii}} It is the world's oldest surviving [[federation]], and, according to the [[World Economic Forum]], the oldest [[democracy]] as well.<ref>Desjardins, Jeff (August 8, 2019) [https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2019/08/countries-are-the-worlds-oldest-democracies/ "Mapped: The world's oldest democracies"] [[World Economic Forum]]</ref> It is a [[Liberal democracy|liberal]] [[representative democracy]] "in which [[majority rule]] is tempered by [[minority rights]] protected by [[Law of the United States|law]]."<ref name="Scheb">Scheb, John M.; Scheb, John M. II (2002). ''An Introduction to the American Legal System''. Florence, KY: Delmar, p. 6. {{ISBN|978-0-7668-2759-2}}.</ref> [[List of democracy indices|Major democracy indexes]] uniformly classify the country as a liberal democracy.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Greenwood |first=Shannon |date=2022-12-06 |title=Appendix A: Classifying democracies |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/global/2022/12/06/online-civic-engagement-spring-2022-appendix-a-classifying-democracies/ |access-date=2023-03-05 |website=Pew Research Center's Global Attitudes Project |language=en-US}}</ref> The 2022 [[Corruption Perceptions Index]] and [[Global Corruption Barometer]] rank the United States as having low levels of both actual and perceived [[corruption]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Global Corruption Barometer |url=https://www.transparency.org/en/gcb |access-date=2023-03-05 |website=[[Transparency International]] |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=2022 Corruption Perceptions Index |url=https://www.transparency.org/en/cpi/2022 |access-date=2023-03-05 |website=[[Transparency International]] |date=January 31, 2023 |language=en}}</ref> The [[Constitution of the United States|U.S. Constitution]] serves as the country's supreme legal document, establishing the structure and responsibilities of the federal government and its relationship with the individual states. The Constitution has been amended 27 times;<ref>[[#Feldstein|Feldstein, Fabozzi, 2011]], p. 9</ref> the first ten amendments ([[United States Bill of Rights|Bill of Rights]]) and the [[Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Fourteenth Amendment]] form the central basis of Americans' individual rights. All laws and governmental procedures are subject to [[judicial review]], and any law can be voided if the courts determine that it violates the Constitution. The principle of [[Judicial review in the United States|judicial review]], not explicitly mentioned in the Constitution, was established by the Supreme Court in ''[[Marbury v. Madison]]'' (1803).<ref>[[#Schultz|Schultz, 2009]], pp. 164, 453, 503</ref> In the American [[federalism|federal]] system, sovereignty is shared between [[Political divisions of the United States|two levels of government]]: federal and state. Citizens of the states are also governed by local governments, which are administrative divisions of the states. The territories are administrative divisions of the federal government. Governance on many issues is [[Decentralization|decentralized]], with [[Political ideology of states in the United States|widely differing state laws]] on [[Abortion in the United States|abortion]], [[Legality of cannabis by U.S. jurisdiction|cannabis]], the [[Capital punishment in the United States|death penalty]],{{efn|Capital punishment is a ''de jure'' legal penalty throughout the country at the federal level, in 27 states, and [[capital punishment in American Samoa|in American Samoa]]. The death penalty is sanctioned for certain federal and military crimes.<ref>{{cite web |title=Death Penalty States [2022] |url=https://deathpenaltyinfo.org/state-and-federal-info/state-by-state |access-date=September 8, 2022 |publisher=Death Penalty Info}}</ref> The country had a high ''per capita'' execution rate between the 1960s and 1990s, but execution rates and public support have fallen sharply since. According to [[Ian Millhiser]] of ''[[Vox Media|Vox]]'', "only five states — Texas, Alabama, Georgia, Missouri, and Tennessee — conducted executions in 2020. And of these five states, only one, Texas, killed more than one person on death row."<ref>[https://deathpenaltyinfo.org/news/dpic-adds-eleven-cases-to-innocence-list-bringing-national-death-row-exoneration-total-to-185 DPIC adds Eleven cases to the Innocence List bringing national death-row exonerations to 185], ''[[Death Penalty Information Center]]'', Robert Durham, February 18, 2021. Retrieved November 9, 2021.</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Millhiser |first=Ian |author-link=Ian Millhiser |date=2020-12-30 |title=The decline and fall of the American death penalty |url=https://www.vox.com/2020/12/30/22187578/death-penalty-united-states-executions-decline-gregg-georgia-bucklew-precythe |access-date=2023-04-06 |website=Vox |language=en}}</ref>}} [[Gun law in the United States|guns]], economic policy, and other issues.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Feldstein |first=Martin |date=March 2017 |title=Why is Growth Better in the United States Than in Other Industrial Countries? |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.3386/w23221 |journal=[[National Bureau of Economic Research]] |location=Cambridge, MA|doi=10.3386/w23221 }}</ref> States have increasingly restricted so-called "[[List of U.S. jurisdictions banning conversion therapy|conversion therapy]]".<ref>{{Cite web |last=Migdon |first=Brooke |date=2023-02-17 |title=Utah Senate votes to ban conversion therapy from health care providers |url=https://thehill.com/homenews/state-watch/3863652-utah-senate-votes-to-ban-conversion-therapy-from-health-care-providers/ |access-date=2023-04-06 |website=The Hill |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name="Drescher">{{cite journal |last1=Drescher |first1=Jack |last2=Schwartz |first2=Alan |last3=Casoy |first3=Flávio |last4=McIntosh |first4=Christopher A. |last5=Hurley |first5=Brian |last6=Ashley |first6=Kenneth |last7=Barber |first7=Mary |last8=Goldenberg |first8=David |last9=Herbert |first9=Sarah E. |last10=Lothwell |first10=Lorraine E. |last11=Mattson |first11=Marlin R. |last12=McAfee |first12=Scot G. |last13=Pula |first13=Jack |last14=Rosario |first14=Vernon |last15=Tompkins |first15=D. Andrew |date=2016 |title=The Growing Regulation of Conversion Therapy |journal=Journal of Medical Regulation |volume=102 |issue=2 |pages=7–12 |doi=10.30770/2572-1852-102.2.7 |pmc=5040471 |pmid=27754500}}</ref> [[Prostitution]] is only [[Prostitution in the United States|legal]] in [[Prostitution in Nevada|several counties of Nevada]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Rodriguez |first=Barbara |date=2021-07-29 |title=What is the future of prostitution and sex work? Two states preview diverging paths |url=https://19thnews.org/2021/07/future-of-prostitution-and-sex-work-two-states-preview-diverging-paths/ |access-date=2023-04-06 |website=The 19th |language=en-us}}</ref> The United States has operated under an uncodified informal [[two-party system]] for most of its history, although [[List of political parties in the United States|other parties have run candidates]].<ref name="twsNovGe">{{cite news|author1=Etheridge, Eric|author2=Deleith, Asger|title=A Republic or a Democracy?|newspaper=The New York Times blogs|quote=The US system seems essentially a two-party system.&nbsp;...|date=August 19, 2009|url=https://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2009/08/19/a-republic-or-a-democracy/|access-date=November 7, 2010}}</ref> What the two [[Major party|major parties]] are has changed over time: the [[Republican Party (United States)|Republicans]] and [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrats]] presently are, and the country is currently in either the [[Fifth Party System|Fifth]] or [[Sixth Party System]].<ref>{{cite book|first1=David|last1=Mosler|first2=Robert|last2=Catley|title=America and Americans in Australia|date=1998|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|page=83|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YungugjvIaQC&pg=PA83|access-date=April 11, 2016|isbn=978-0-275-96252-4 }}</ref> Both parties have no formal central organization at the national level that controls membership, elected officials or political policies; thus, each party has traditionally had factions and individuals that deviated from party positions.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.shmoop.com/political-parties/founding-fathers-political-parties.html |title=Political Parties - The Founding Fathers & Political Parties |website=Shmoop |date= |access-date=2022-02-25}}</ref> Since the 2000s, the country has [[Political polarization in the United States|suffered from significant political polarization]].<ref>{{Cite web |last1=McCoy |first1=Jennifer |last2=Press |first2=Benjamin |date=January 18, 2022 |title=What Happens When Democracies Become Perniciously Polarized? |url=https://carnegieendowment.org/2022/01/18/what-happens-when-democracies-become-perniciously-polarized-pub-86190 |access-date=April 2, 2023 |website=[[Carnegie Endowment for International Peace]]}}</ref> ===Federal government=== {{Main|Government of the United States}} The federal government comprises three branches, which are headquartered in Washington, D.C. and regulated by a system of [[separation of powers|checks and balances]] defined by the Constitution.<ref>{{cite web |author=Killian, Johnny H. |title=Constitution of the United States |url=https://www.senate.gov/civics/constitution_item/constitution.htm |access-date=February 11, 2012 |publisher=The Office of the Secretary of the Senate}}</ref> * [[Legislature|Legislative]]: The [[United States Congress|bicameral Congress]], made up of the [[United States Senate|Senate]] and the [[United States House of Representatives|House of Representatives]], makes [[federal law]], [[declaration of war|declares war]], approves treaties, has the [[power of the purse]],<ref>{{cite web|title=The Legislative Branch|publisher=United States Diplomatic Mission to Germany|url=https://usa.usembassy.de/government-legislative.htm|access-date=August 20, 2012}}</ref> and has the power of [[impeachment]], by which it can remove sitting members of the federal government.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Process for impeachment|publisher=ThinkQuest|url=https://library.thinkquest.org/25673/process.htm|access-date=August 20, 2012|archive-date=April 8, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130408102119/https://library.thinkquest.org/25673/process.htm|url-status=dead }}</ref> * [[Executive (government)|Executive]]: [[President of the United States|The president]] is the [[commander-in-chief]] of the military, can veto [[bill (law)|legislative bills]] before they become law (subject to congressional override), and appoints the [[Cabinet of the United States|members of the Cabinet]] (subject to Senate approval) and other officers, who administer and enforce federal laws and policies through their respective [[List of federal agencies in the United States|agencies]].<ref>{{cite web|title=The Executive Branch|url=https://www.whitehouse.gov/about-the-white-house/our-government/the-executive-branch/|website=The White House|access-date=February 11, 2017}}</ref> * [[Judiciary|Judicial]]: The [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] and lower [[Federal judiciary of the United States|federal courts]], whose judges are appointed by the President with Senate approval, interpret laws and overturn those they find [[constitutionality|unconstitutional]].<ref>{{cite book|first1=Kermit L.|last1=Hall|first2=Kevin T.|last2=McGuire|title=Institutions of American Democracy: The Judicial Branch|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6rWCaMAdUzgC|year=2005|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-988374-5}}<br />{{cite book|author=U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services|title=Learn about the United States: Quick Civics Lessons for the Naturalization Test|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8X1CzvBXHksC&pg=PA4|date=2013|publisher=Government Printing Office|isbn=978-0-16-091708-0|page=4}}<br />{{cite book|first=Bryon|last=Giddens-White|title=The Supreme Court and the Judicial Branch|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mbZw3bJsWtUC|year=2005|publisher=Heinemann Library|isbn=978-1-4034-6608-2}}<br />{{cite book|first=Charles L.|last=Zelden|title=The Judicial Branch of Federal Government: People, Process, and Politics|url=https://archive.org/details/judicialbranchof0000zeld|url-access=registration|year=2007|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-85109-702-9|access-date=October 25, 2015}}<br />{{cite web|url=https://www.uscourts.gov/FederalCourts.aspx|title=Federal Courts|author=<!-- Staff writer(s); no by-line. -->|publisher=United States Courts|access-date=October 19, 2014}}</ref> The [[lower house]], the [[United States House of Representatives|House of Representatives]], has 435 voting members, each representing a [[congressional district]] for a two-year term. House seats are [[United States congressional apportionment|apportioned]] among the states by population. Each state then draws single-member districts to conform with the census apportionment. The District of Columbia and the five major U.S. territories each have [[Non-voting members of the United States House of Representatives|one member of Congress]]—these members are not allowed to vote.<ref name="Territories1" /> The [[upper house]], the [[United States Senate|Senate]], has 100 members with each state having two senators, elected [[at-large|at large]] to six-year terms; one-third of Senate seats are up for election every two years. The District of Columbia and the five major U.S. territories do not have senators.<ref name="Territories1" /> The Senate is unique among upper houses in being the most prestigious and powerful portion of the country's [[Bicameralism|bicameral system]]; political scientists have frequently labeled it the "most powerful upper house" of any government.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Shell |first1=Donald |title=Second Chambers |last2=Baldwin |first2=Nicholas |publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]] |year=2013 |isbn=9781136337000 |pages=43 |quote=The United States Senate is frequently characterised as the most powerful upper house in the world.}}</ref> The President serves a four-year term and may be elected to the office [[Term limits in the United States|no more than twice]]. The President is [[United States presidential election|not elected by direct vote]], but by an indirect [[Electoral College (United States)|electoral college]] system in which the determining votes are apportioned to the states and the District of Columbia.<ref name="Avaliktos2004">{{cite book |last=Avaliktos |first=Neal |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XR21acqXy28C&pg=PA111 |title=The Election Process Revisited |publisher=Nova Publishers |year=2004 |isbn=978-1-59454-054-7 |page=111}}</ref> The Supreme Court, led by the [[Chief Justice of the United States|chief justice of the United States]], has nine members, who serve for life. They are appointed by the sitting President when a vacancy becomes available.<ref>{{cite news|title=Beyond politics: Why Supreme Court justices are appointed for life|first=Roger|last=Cossack|url=https://archives.cnn.com/2000/LAW/07/columns/cossack.scotus.07.12/|work=CNN|date=July 13, 2000|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120712085825/https://archives.cnn.com/2000/LAW/07/columns/cossack.scotus.07.12|archive-date=July 12, 2012 }}</ref> ===Political subdivisions=== {{Main|Political divisions of the United States|State government in the United States|Local government in the United States|U.S. state}} {{Further|List of states and territories of the United States|Indian reservation|Territories of the United States}} {{see also|Territorial evolution of the United States}} Each of the 50 states holds jurisdiction over a geographic territory, where it shares [[sovereignty]] with the federal government. They are subdivided into [[List of United States counties and county equivalents|counties or county equivalents]], and further divided into [[Municipality|municipalities]]. The District of Columbia is a [[federal district]] that contains the capital of the United States, the [[Washington, D.C.|city of Washington]].<ref>{{usc|8|1101}}(a)(36) and {{usc|8|1101}}(a)(38) U.S. Federal Code, Immigration and Nationality Act. {{USC|8|1101a}}</ref> Each state has an amount of [[presidential electors]] equal to the number of their representatives plus senators in Congress, and the District of Columbia has three electors.<ref>{{cite web|title=Electoral College Fast Facts {{!}} U.S. House of Representatives: History, Art & Archives|url=https://history.house.gov/Institution/Electoral-College/Electoral-College/|website=history.house.gov|access-date=August 21, 2015}}</ref> Territories of the United States do not have presidential electors, therefore people there cannot vote for the president.<ref name="Territories1">{{cite magazine|url=https://time.com/3736845/john-oliver-last-week-tonight-voting-rights/|title=Watch John Oliver Cast His Ballot for Voting Rights for U.S. Territories|last=Locker|first=Melissa|date=March 9, 2015|magazine=Time|access-date=November 11, 2019}}</ref> [[Citizenship of the United States|Citizenship is granted at birth in all states]], the District of Columbia, and all major U.S. territories except American Samoa.{{efn|People born in American Samoa are non-citizen U.S. nationals unless one of their parents is a U.S. citizen.<ref name="AS_citizenship"/> In 2019, a court ruled that American Samoans are U.S. citizens, but the litigation is ongoing.<ref>{{cite news|last=Alvarez|first=Priscilla|title=Federal judge rules American Samoans are US citizens by birth|url=https://edition.cnn.com/2019/12/12/politics/american-samoa-citizenship/index.html|date=December 12, 2019|website=CNN|access-date=October 6, 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Romboy|first=Dennis|title=Judge puts citizenship ruling for American Samoans on hold|url=https://www.ksl.com/article/46690822|date=December 13, 2019|website=KSL.com|access-date=October 6, 2020}}</ref>}}<ref>{{cite journal |last=Keating |first=Joshua |date=June 5, 2015 |title=How Come American Samoans Still Don't Have U.S. Citizenship at Birth? |url=https://www.slate.com/blogs/the_slatest/2015/06/05/american_samoa_the_only_place_in_the_u_s_where_citizenship_isn_t_granted.html |journal=Slate}}</ref><ref name="AS_citizenship">{{cite web |title=American Samoa and the Citizenship Clause: A Study in Insular Cases Revisionism |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/2017/04/american-samoa-and-the-citizenship-clause/ |access-date=January 5, 2018 |website=harvardlawreview.org|date=April 10, 2017 }}</ref> The United States observes limited [[Tribal sovereignty in the United States|tribal sovereignty]] of the American Indian nations, like states' sovereignty. American Indians are U.S. citizens and tribal lands are subject to the jurisdiction of the U.S. Congress and the federal courts. Like the states, tribes have some autonomy restrictions. They are prohibited from making war, engaging in their own foreign relations, and printing or issuing independent currency.<ref>{{cite web|title=Frequently Asked Questions|url=https://www.bia.gov/FAQs/|publisher=U.S. Department of the Interior Indian Affairs|access-date=January 16, 2016}}</ref> [[Indian reservation]]s are usually contained within one state, but there are 12 reservations that cross state boundaries.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/tribal/tribes-organizations-health/tribes/geography.html|title=Tribal Geography in Relation to State Boundaries}}</ref> {{USA image map}} ===Foreign relations=== {{Main|Foreign relations of the United States|Foreign policy of the United States}} [[File:Midtown Manhattan Skyline 004.jpg|thumb|The [[Headquarters of the United Nations|United Nations headquarters]] has been situated along the [[East River]] in [[Midtown Manhattan]] since 1952. The United States is a founding member of the UN.|alt=see caption]] The United States has an established structure of foreign relations, and it had the world's second-largest diplomatic corps in 2019.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://globaldiplomacyindex.lowyinstitute.org/country_rank.html |title=Global Diplomacy Index&nbsp;– Country Rank|publisher=[[Lowy Institute]]|access-date=July 15, 2022}}</ref> It is a [[Permanent members of the United Nations Security Council|permanent member]] of the [[United Nations Security Council]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/securitycouncil/content/current-members|title=Current Members|work=[[United Nations Security Council]]|access-date=July 15, 2022}}</ref> and home to the [[Headquarters of the United Nations|United Nations headquarters]].<ref>{{cite journal|title=United Nations Headquarters Agreement|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-journal-of-international-law_1948-04_42_2/page/445|journal=The American Journal of International Law |volume=42|number=2|date=April 1948|pages=445–447|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|doi=10.2307/2193692|jstor=2193692|s2cid=246008694 }}</ref> The United States is also a member of the [[G7]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/where-g7-headed|title=Where is the G7 Headed?|work=[[Council on Foreign Relations]]|location=New York City|date=June 28, 2022}}</ref> [[G-20 major economies|G20]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/the-united-states-and-g20-building-a-more-peaceful-stable-and-prosperous-world-together/|title=The United States and G20: Building a More Peaceful, Stable, and Prosperous World Together|date=July 6, 2022|work=[[United States Department of State]]|access-date=July 15, 2022}}</ref> and [[OECD]] intergovernmental organizations.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.oecd.org/about/members-and-partners/|title=Our global reach|work=[[OECD]]|access-date=July 15, 2022}}</ref> Almost all countries have [[List of diplomatic missions in the United States|embassies]] and many have [[consul (representative)|consulates]] (official representatives) in the country. Likewise, nearly all nations host formal [[diplomatic mission]]s with United States, except [[Iran–United States relations|Iran]],<ref>{{cite report |last1=Fialho |first1=Livia Pontes |last2=Wallin |first2=Matthew |title=Reaching for an Audience: U.S. Public Diplomacy Towards Iran |date=August 1, 2013 |publisher=American Security Project |jstor=resrep06070}}</ref> [[North Korea–United States relations|North Korea]],<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-42351336|title=Which are the countries still talking to North Korea?|newspaper=[[BBC News]]|location=London|date=December 19, 2017|access-date=July 15, 2022|last1=Oliver|first1=Alex|last2=Graham|first2=Euan|quote=The United States has never established diplomatic relations with North Korea.}}</ref> and [[Foreign relations of Bhutan#Other countries|Bhutan]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://thediplomat.com/2014/12/the-case-for-a-stronger-bhutanese-american-relationship/|title=The Case for Stronger Bhutanese-American Ties|newspaper=[[The Diplomat]]|date=December 22, 2014|last=Ferraro|first=Matthew F.|quote=While Bhutan joined the United Nations in 1971, it does not have diplomatic relations with any of the permanent members of the UN Security Council, including the United States and China.|access-date=July 15, 2022}}</ref> Though [[Taiwan–United States relations|Taiwan]] does not have formal diplomatic relations with the U.S., it maintains close, if unofficial, relations.<ref>{{Cite web |date=September 28, 2022 |title=US will continue to strengthen 'unofficial ties' with Taiwan, says Harris |url=https://www.scmp.com/news/china/diplomacy/article/3194126/us-will-continue-strengthen-unofficial-ties-taiwan-vice |access-date=September 28, 2022 |website=South China Morning Post |language=en}}</ref> The United States also regularly supplies Taiwan with [[Six Assurances|military equipment]] to deter potential Chinese aggression.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.npr.org/2020/09/22/915818283/formal-ties-with-u-s-not-for-now-says-taiwan-foreign-minister|title=Formal Ties With U.S.? Not For Now, Says Taiwan Foreign Minister|newspaper=[[NPR]]|date=September 22, 2020|last=Ruwitch|first=John|access-date=July 15, 2022}}</ref> The United States has a "[[Special Relationship]]" with the [[United Kingdom–United States relations|United Kingdom]]<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jLy-NKnQitIC&q=uk+us+special+relationship&pg=PA45|title=America's 'Special Relationships': Foreign and Domestic Aspects of the Politics of Alliance|page=45|first1=John|first2=Axel|last2=Schäfer|last1=Dumbrell|year=2009|isbn=978-0-203-87270-3|access-date=October 25, 2015}}</ref> and strong ties with [[Canada–United States relations|Canada]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://fas.org/sgp/crs/row/96-397.pdf|title=Canada–U.S. Relations|author1=Ek, Carl|first2=Ian F.|last2=Fergusson|name-list-style=amp|publisher=Congressional Research Service|date=September 3, 2010|access-date=August 28, 2011}}</ref> [[Australia–United States relations|Australia]],<ref>{{cite book|title=Australia: Background and U.S. Relations|author=Vaughn, Bruce|publisher=Congressional Research Service|date=August 8, 2008|oclc = 70208969}}</ref> [[New Zealand–United States relations|New Zealand]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://fas.org/sgp/crs/row/RL32876.pdf|title=New Zealand: Background and Bilateral Relations with the United States|author=Vaughn, Bruce|publisher=Congressional Research Service|date=May 27, 2011|access-date=August 28, 2011}}</ref> the [[Philippines]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://fas.org/sgp/crs/row/RL33233.pdf|title=The Republic of the Philippines and U.S. Interests|author=Lum, Thomas|publisher=Congressional Research Service|date=January 3, 2011|access-date=August 3, 2011}}</ref> [[Japan–United States relations|Japan]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://fas.org/sgp/crs/row/RL33436.pdf|title=Japan-U.S. Relations: Issues for Congress|author=Chanlett-Avery, Emma|publisher=Congressional Research Service|date=June 8, 2011|access-date=August 28, 2011|display-authors=etal}}</ref> [[South Korea–United States relations|South Korea]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://fas.org/sgp/crs/row/R41481.pdf|title=U.S.–South Korea Relations: Issues for Congress|first1=Mark E.|last1=Manyin|first2=Emma|last2=Chanlett-Avery|first3=Mary Beth|last3=Nikitin|publisher=Congressional Research Service|date=July 8, 2011|access-date=August 28, 2011}}</ref> [[Israel–United States relations|Israel]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://fas.org/sgp/crs/mideast/RL33476.pdf|title=Israel: Background and U.S. Relations|author=Zanotti, Jim|publisher=Congressional Research Service|date=July 31, 2014|access-date=September 12, 2014}}</ref> and several [[European Union]] countries ([[France–United States relations|France]], [[Italy–United States relations|Italy]], [[Germany–United States relations|Germany]], [[Spain–United States relations|Spain]], and [[Poland–United States relations|Poland]]).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/u-s-relations-with-poland/|title=U.S. Relations With Poland}}</ref> The U.S. works closely with its [[NATO]] allies on military and [[national security]] issues, and with nations in the Americas through the [[Organization of American States]] and the [[United States–Mexico–Canada Agreement|United States–Mexico–Canada Free Trade Agreement]]. In [[South America]], [[Colombia]] is traditionally considered to be the closest ally of the United States.<ref>{{cite news|title=The Untapped Potential of the US-Colombia Partnership|url=https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/in-depth-research-reports/report/untapped-potential-us-colombia-partnership/|date=September 26, 2019|website=Atlantic Council|language=en|access-date=May 30, 2020|last1=Kimer |first1=James }}</ref> The U.S. exercises full international defense authority and responsibility for [[Federated States of Micronesia|Micronesia]], the [[Marshall Islands]], and [[Palau]] through the [[Compact of Free Association]].<ref>{{cite book |first=Charles L. |last=Zelden |url=https://archive.org/details/judicialbranchof0000zeld |title=The Judicial Branch of Federal Government: People, Process, and Politics |publisher=ABC-CLIO |year=2007 |isbn=978-1-85109-702-9 |page=[https://archive.org/details/judicialbranchof0000zeld/page/217 217] |access-date=October 25, 2015 |url-access=registration}}<br />{{cite book |first1=Loren |last1=Yager |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TfoBd7_KsZMC&pg=PA7 |title=Foreign Relations: Migration from Micronesian Nations Has Had Significant Impact on Guam, Hawaii, and the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands |first2=Emil |last2=Friberg |first3=Leslie |last3=Holen |date=2003 |publisher=Diane Publishing |isbn=978-0-7567-3394-0 |page=7}}</ref> It has increasingly conducted strategic cooperation [[India–United States relations|with India]],<ref>{{cite web |title=INDO- PACIFIC STRATEGY OF THE UNITED STATES |url=https://www.whitehouse.gov/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/U.S.-Indo-Pacific-Strategy.pdf |publisher=White House |access-date=3 February 2022}}</ref> and its [[China–United States relations|ties with China]] have steadily deteriorated.<ref>{{cite report |last=Meidan |first=Michal |title=US-China: The Great Decoupling |date=July 1, 2019 |publisher=[[Oxford Institute for Energy Studies]] |jstor=resrep33982}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Bala |first=Sumathi |title=U.S.-China relations are going downhill with 'no trust' on either side, Stephen Roach says |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2023/03/28/us-china-ties-on-dangerous-path-with-no-trust-on-both-sides-roach-cohen.html |access-date=2023-05-07 |website=CNBC |date=March 28, 2023 |language=en}}</ref> The U.S. has become a key ally of [[Ukraine]] since Russia [[Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation|annexed Crimea in 2014]] and began an [[2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine|invasion of Ukraine in 2022]], significantly deteriorating relations with Russia in the process.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Rumer|first1=Eugene|last2=Sokolsky|first2=Richard|url=https://carnegieendowment.org/2019/06/20/thirty-years-of-u.s.-policy-toward-russia-can-vicious-circle-be-broken-pub-79323|title=Thirty Years of U.S. Policy Toward Russia: Can the Vicious Circle Be Broken?|newspaper=[[Carnegie Endowment for International Peace]]|location=Washington, D.C.|date=June 20, 2019|access-date=July 14, 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Macias |first=Amanda |title=Here's a look at the $5.6 billion in firepower the U.S. has committed to Ukraine in its fight against Russia |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2022/06/17/russia-ukraine-war-summary-of-weapons-us-has-given-to-ukraine.html |access-date=September 28, 2022 |website=CNBC |date=June 17, 2022 |language=en}}</ref> ===Military=== {{Main|United States Armed Forces|Military history of the United States}} [[File:B-2 Spirit.jpg|thumb|[[Northrop Grumman B-2 Spirit|B-2 Spirit]], the [[Stealth technology|stealth]] [[Heavy bomber|heavy]] [[strategic bomber]] of the [[United States Air Force|USAF]]]] [[File:Aerial view of the Pentagon, Arlington, VA (38285035892).jpg|thumb|[[The Pentagon]], near Washington, D.C., is home to the [[United States Department of Defense|U.S. Department of Defense]].]] The President is the [[Commander-in-Chief of the United States|commander-in-chief]] of the United States Armed Forces and appoints its leaders, the [[United States Secretary of Defense|secretary of defense]] and the [[Joint Chiefs of Staff]]. The [[United States Department of Defense|Department of Defense]], which is headquartered at [[the Pentagon]] near Washington, D.C., administers five of the six service branches, which are made up of the [[United States Army|Army]], [[United States Marine Corps|Marine Corps]], [[United States Navy|Navy]], [[United States Air Force|Air Force]], and [[United States Space Force|Space Force]]. The [[United States Coast Guard|Coast Guard]] is administered by the [[United States Department of Homeland Security|Department of Homeland Security]] in peacetime and can be transferred to the [[United States Department of the Navy|Department of the Navy]] in wartime.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cfr.org/blog/happy-231st-birthday-united-states-coast-guard|title=Happy 231st Birthday to the United States Coast Guard!|last=Lindsay|first=James M.|publisher=[[Council on Foreign Relations]]|location=New York City|date=August 4, 2021|access-date=July 16, 2022|quote=During peacetime it is part of the Department of Homeland Security. During wartime, or when the president or Congress so direct, it becomes part of the Department of Defense and is included in the Department of the Navy.}}</ref> The United States spent $877 billion on its military in 2022, 39% of global military spending, accounting for 3.5% of the country's GDP.'''''<ref name="SIPRI-20202">{{cite web |date=April 2023 |title=Trends in World Military Expenditure, 2022 |url=https://www.sipri.org/sites/default/files/2023-04/2304_fs_milex_2022.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url= |archive-date= |access-date=29 April 2023 |publisher=[[Stockholm International Peace Research Institute]]}}</ref>'''''<ref>{{cite web| url=https://sipri.org/sites/default/files/Data%20for%20all%20countries%20from%201988%E2%80%932020%20in%20constant%20%282019%29%20USD%20%28pdf%29.pdf| title=Data for all countries from 1988–2020 in constant (2019) USD (pdf)| publisher=SIPRI| access-date=28 April 2021| archive-date=28 April 2021| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210428180002/https://sipri.org/sites/default/files/Data%20for%20all%20countries%20from%201988%E2%80%932020%20in%20constant%20(2019)%20USD%20(pdf).pdf| url-status=live}}</ref> The U.S. has [[Nuclear weapons of the United States|more than 40% of the world's nuclear weapons]], the second-largest amount after Russia.<ref>{{cite web|last=Reichmann|first=Kelsey|date=June 16, 2019|title=Here's how many nuclear warheads exist, and which countries own them|url=https://www.defensenews.com/global/2019/06/16/heres-how-many-nuclear-warheads-exist-and-which-countries-own-them/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://conifer.rhizome.org/mossypiglet/wikipedia-citations/20200923183006/https://www.defensenews.com/global/2019/06/16/heres-how-many-nuclear-warheads-exist-and-which-countries-own-them/|archive-date=September 23, 2020|access-date=September 23, 2020|website=defensenews.com|publisher=Sightline Media Group}}</ref> In 2019, all six branches of the U.S. Armed Forces reported 1.4&nbsp;million personnel on active duty.<ref name="IISS">{{cite book|author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.-->|title=The Military Balance 2019|url=https://www.iiss.org/publications/the-military-balance/the-military-balance-2019|location=London|publisher=International Institute for Strategic Studies|page=47|date=2019|isbn=978-1-85743-988-5|url-status=dead|archive-date=September 22, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200922054426/https://www.iiss.org/publications/the-military-balance/the-military-balance-2019|access-date=September 23, 2020}}</ref> The [[Reserve components of the United States Armed Forces|Reserves]] and [[National Guard of the United States|National Guard]] brought the total number of troops to 2.3&nbsp;million.<ref name="IISS" /> The Department of Defense also employed about 700,000 civilians, not including [[Military-industrial complex|contractors]].<ref>{{cite news| url=https://www.cnn.com/2018/12/20/politics/james-mattis-resignation-letter-doc/index.html| title=Read: James Mattis' resignation letter| date=December 21, 2018| work=[[CNN]]| access-date=January 8, 2020| url-status=dead| archive-date=December 4, 2019| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191204140006/https://www.cnn.com/2018/12/20/politics/james-mattis-resignation-letter-doc/index.html}}</ref> Military service in the United States is voluntary, although [[Conscription in the United States|conscription]] may occur in wartime through the [[Selective Service System]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.sss.gov/what.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120915102215/https://www.sss.gov/what.htm|title=What does Selective Service provide for America?|publisher=Selective Service System|access-date=February 11, 2012|archive-date=September 15, 2012}}</ref> The United States has the third-largest combined armed forces in the world, behind the [[People's Liberation Army|Chinese People's Liberation Army]] and [[Indian Armed Forces]].<ref>[[#IISS2020|IISS 2020]], pp. 46</ref> Today, American forces can be rapidly deployed by the Air Force's large fleet of [[transport aircraft]], the Navy's 11 active [[aircraft carrier]]s, and [[Marine expeditionary unit]]s at sea with the Navy, and Army's [[XVIII Airborne Corps]] and [[75th Ranger Regiment]] deployed by Air Force transport aircraft. The Air Force can strike targets across the globe through its fleet of [[strategic bomber]]s, maintains the [[air defense]] across the United States, and provides [[close air support]] to Army and Marine Corps ground forces.<ref>{{cite web|title=Noble Eagle Without End|url=https://www.airforcemag.com/article/0205eagle/|access-date=February 1, 2005}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=The Ups and Downs of Close Air Support|url=https://www.airforcemag.com/article/the-ups-and-downs-of-close-air-support/|access-date=December 1, 2019}}</ref> The Space Force operates the [[Global Positioning System]] (GPS, also widespread in civilian use worldwide), the [[Eastern Range|Eastern]] and [[Western Range (USSF)|Western Range]]s for all space launches, and the United States's [[United States Space Surveillance Network|Space Surveillance]] and [[United States national missile defense|Missile Warning]] networks.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.airforcemag.com/article/building-the-space-range-of-the-future/|title=Building the Space Range of the Future|access-date=May 1, 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.schriever.spaceforce.mil/GPS/#:~:text=The+GPS-dedicated+ground+system+consists+of+six+U.S.,passively+track+the+navigation+signals+on+all+satellites|title=Global Positioning System|website=www.schriever.spaceforce.mil}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Space surveillance technologies a top need for U.S. military|date=November 22, 2020|url=https://spacenews.com/space-surveillance-technologies-a-top-need-for-u-s-military/|access-date=November 22, 2020}}</ref> The military operates about 800 bases and facilities abroad,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.vox.com/2015/5/18/8600659/military-bases-united-states|title=Why does the US have 800 military bases around the world?|last=Harris|first=Johnny|date=May 18, 2015|website=Vox|access-date=September 23, 2020|url-status=dead|archive-date=September 24, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200924114313/https://www.vox.com/2015/5/18/8600659/military-bases-united-states}}</ref> and maintains [[United States military deployments|deployments greater than 100 active duty personnel]] in 25 foreign countries.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://siadapp.dmdc.osd.mil/personnel/MILITARY/history/hst1003.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130724211511/https://siadapp.dmdc.osd.mil/personnel/MILITARY/history/hst1003.pdf|title=Active Duty Military Personnel Strengths by Regional Area and by Country (309A)|publisher=Department of Defense|date=March 31, 2010|access-date=October 7, 2010|archive-date=July 24, 2013}}</ref> ===Law enforcement and crime=== {{Main|Law enforcement in the United States|Crime in the United States}} There are about 18,000 U.S. police agencies from local to federal level in the United States.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Banks |first1=Duren |last2=Hendrix |first2=Joshua |last3=Hickman |first3=Mathhew |date=October 4, 2016 |title=National Sources of Law Enforcement Employment Data |url=https://bjs.ojp.gov/content/pub/pdf/nsleed.pdf |journal=[[U.S. Department of Justice]] |pages=1}}</ref> Law in the United States is mainly [[Law enforcement in the United States|enforced]] by local police departments and [[sheriff]]'s offices. The [[state police]] provides broader services, and [[Federal law enforcement in the United States|federal agencies]] such as the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]] (FBI) and the [[United States Marshals Service|U.S. Marshals Service]] have specialized duties, such as protecting [[civil rights]], [[National Security of the United States|national security]] and enforcing [[U.S. federal courts]]' rulings and federal laws.<ref>{{cite web|title=U.S. Federal Law Enforcement Agencies, Who Governs & What They Do|publisher=Chiff.com|url=https://www.chiff.com/police/federal-police-agencies.htm|access-date=November 10, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140210040432/https://www.chiff.com/police/federal-police-agencies.htm|archive-date=February 10, 2014|url-status= }}</ref> [[State court (United States)|State court]]s conduct most civil and criminal trials,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Manweller|first1=Mathew|editor1-last=Hogan|editor1-first=Sean O.|title=The Judicial Branch of State Government: People, Process, and Politics|date=2006|publisher=[[ABC-Clio]]|location=[[Santa Barbara, California]]|isbn=978-1-851-09751-7|pages=37–96|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ong5k8n97P4C&pg=PA55|access-date=October 5, 2020|chapter=Chapter 2, The Roles, Functions, and Powers of State Courts}}</ref> and federal courts handle designated crimes and appeals from the state criminal courts.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.justice.gov/usao/justice-101/federal-courts|title=Introduction To The Federal Court System|work=[[United States Attorney]]|date=November 7, 2014 |publisher=[[United States Department of Justice]]|access-date=July 14, 2022|location=Washington, D.C.}}</ref> {{as of|2020}}, the United States has an [[List of countries by intentional homicide rate|intentional homicide rate]] of 7 per 100,000 people.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/VC.IHR.PSRC.P5?locations=US|title=Intentional homicides (per 100,000 people) - United States|work=[[World Bank]]|access-date=July 14, 2022}}</ref> A cross-sectional analysis of the [[World Health Organization]] Mortality Database from 2010 showed that United States homicide rates "were 7.0 times higher than in other high-income countries, driven by a gun homicide rate that was 25.2 times higher."<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Grinshteyn|first1=Erin|last2=Hemenway|first2=David|date=March 2016|title=Violent Death Rates: The US Compared with Other High-income OECD Countries, 2010|url=https://www.amjmed.com/article/S0002-9343(15)01030-X/fulltext|journal=[[The American Journal of Medicine]]|volume=129|issue=3|pages=226–273|doi=10.1016/j.amjmed.2015.10.025|pmid=26551975|access-date=June 18, 2017|doi-access=free}}</ref> As of January 2023, the United States has the [[List of countries by incarceration rate|sixth highest per-capita incarceration rate]] in the world, at 531 people per 100,000; and the largest [[Incarceration in the United States|prison and jail population]] in the world at 1,767,200.<ref>[http://www.prisonstudies.org/country/united-states-america United States of America]. [[World Prison Brief]].</ref><ref name="WorldPrisonBrief">[https://web.archive.org/web/20231118142542/https://www.prisonstudies.org/highest-to-lowest/prison-population-total Highest to Lowest]. [[World Prison Brief]] (WPB). Use the dropdown menu to choose lists of countries by region or the whole world. Use the menu to select highest-to-lowest lists of prison population totals, prison population rates, percentage of pre-trial detainees/remand prisoners, percentage of female prisoners, percentage of foreign prisoners, and occupancy rate. Column headings in WPB tables can be clicked to reorder columns lowest to highest, or alphabetically. For detailed information for each country click on any country name in lists. See also the [http://www.prisonstudies.org/world-prison-brief-data WPB main data page] and click on the map links and/or the sidebar links to get to the region and country desired.</ref> In 2019, the total prison population for those sentenced to more than a year was 1,430,800, corresponding to a ratio of 419 per 100,000 residents and the lowest since 1995.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bjs.gov/content/pub/press/p19_pr.pdf|title=US Department of Justice, Oct. 22, 2020}}</ref> Some [[think tank]]s place that number higher, such as [[Prison Policy Initiative]]'s estimate of 1.9 million.<ref name="WholePie2023">{{cite report|url=https://www.prisonpolicy.org/reports/pie2023.html|title=Mass Incarceration: The Whole Pie 2023|last1=Sawyer|first1=Wendy|last2=Wagner|first2=Peter|date=March 14, 2023|publisher=Prison Policy Initiative|issue=|doi=|volume=|pmid=|access-date=May 13, 2023}}</ref> Various states have attempted to [[Decarceration in the United States|reduce their prison populations]] via government policies and grassroots initiatives.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.sentencingproject.org/publications/decarceration-strategies-5-states-achieved-substantial-prison-population-reductions/|title=Decarceration Strategies: How 5 States Achieved Substantial Prison Population Reductions|date=September 5, 2018|access-date=July 16, 2022|last1=Schrantz|first1=Dennis|last2=DeBor|first2=Stephen|last3=Mauer|first3=Marc|publisher=[[The Sentencing Project]]|location=Washington, D.C.}}</ref> ==Economy== {{Main|Economy of the United States}} {{Further|Economic history of the United States|Taxation in the United States|United States federal budget|Federal Reserve}} [[File:US one dollar bill, obverse, series 2009.jpg|thumb|alt=see caption|The [[United States dollar|U.S. dollar]] (featuring [[George Washington]]) is the currency most used in [[international trade|international transactions]] and is the world's foremost [[reserve currency]].<ref name="federalreserve.gov"/>]] [[File:Gaming-Wall-Street_BTS_Prodigium-266.jpg|thumb|The [[New York Stock Exchange]] on [[Wall Street]], the world's largest stock exchange by [[market capitalization]] of its listed companies<ref name=NYSEhighestcap>{{cite web|url=https://www.forbes.com/advisor/investing/nyse-new-york-stock-exchange/|title=NYSE: What Is The New York Stock Exchange|author= Kat Tretina and Benjamin Curry|work=Forbes|date=April 9, 2021|access-date=July 24, 2022}}</ref>]] [[File:West side of Manhattan from Hudson Commons (95103p).jpg|thumb|[[Midtown Manhattan]], the world's largest [[central business district]]<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/business/new-york-widens-lead-over-london-top-finance-centres-index-2022-03-24/ |title=New York widens lead over London in top finance centres index |website=www.reuters.com |date= March 24, 2022|access-date=June 25, 2022|last1= Jones|first1= Huw}}</ref>]] According to the [[International Monetary Fund]], the U.S. [[gross domestic product]] (GDP) of $25.5&nbsp;trillion constitutes over 25% of the [[gross world product]] at market exchange rates and over 15% of the gross world product at [[purchasing power parity]] (PPP).<ref name="IMF-2023">{{cite web |title=Report for Selected Countries and Subjects |url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2023/April/weo-report?c=111,&s=NGDP_R,NGDP_RPCH,NGDP,NGDPD,PPPGDP,NGDP_D,NGDPRPC,NGDPRPPPPC,NGDPPC,NGDPDPC,PPPPC,NGAP_NPGDP,PPPSH,PPPEX,NID_NGDP,NGSD_NGDP,PCPI,PCPIPCH,PCPIE,PCPIEPCH,FLIBOR6,TM_RPCH,TMG_RPCH,TX_RPCH,TXG_RPCH,LUR,LE,LP,GGR,GGR_NGDP,GGX,GGX_NGDP,GGXCNL,GGXCNL_NGDP,GGSB,GGSB_NPGDP,GGXONLB,GGXONLB_NGDP,GGXWDN,GGXWDN_NGDP,GGXWDG,GGXWDG_NGDP,NGDP_FY,BCA,BCA_NGDPD,&sy=2021&ey=2023&ssm=0&scsm=1&scc=0&ssd=1&ssc=0&sic=0&sort=country&ds=.&br=1 |website=www.imf.org}}</ref><ref name="IMF.WEO.US" /> From 1983 to 2008, U.S. real compounded annual GDP growth was 3.3%, compared to a 2.3% weighted average for the rest of the G7.<ref name="Hagopian">{{cite journal |author=Hagopian |first=Kip |last2=Ohanian |first2=Lee |date=August 1, 2012 |title=The Mismeasure of Inequality |url=https://www.hoover.org/publications/policy-review/article/123566 |url-status=dead |journal=Policy Review |volume= |issue=174 |pages= |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203012353/https://www.hoover.org/publications/policy-review/article/123566 |archive-date=December 3, 2013 |access-date=January 23, 2020 |via=}}</ref> The country ranks first in the world by [[List of countries by GDP (nominal)|nominal GDP]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bea.gov/news/2023/gross-domestic-product-fourth-quarter-and-year-2022-third-estimate-gdp-industry-and|title=Gross Domestic Product, Fourth Quarter and Year 2022 (Third Estimate), GDP by Industry, and Corporate Profits|publisher=[[United States Department of Commerce|U.S. Department of Commerce]]}}</ref> second by [[List of countries by GDP (PPP)|GDP (PPP)]],<ref name="IMF.WEO.US"/> seventh by [[List of countries by GDP (nominal) per capita|nominal GDP per capita]],<ref name="IMF-2023"/> and eighth by [[List of countries by GDP (PPP) per capita|GDP (PPP) per capita]].<ref name="IMF.WEO.US"/> As of 2022, the United States was ranked 25th out of 169 countries on the [[Social Progress Index]], which measures "the extent to which countries provide for the social and environmental needs of their citizens."<ref>{{cite web |title=Explore the 2022 Social Progress Index Map: United States |url=https://www.socialprogress.org/?tab=2&code=USA |website=Social Progress Imperative |access-date=April 18, 2023}}</ref> The U.S. has been the world's largest economy since at least 1900.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fordham |first=Benjamin |date=October 2017 |title=Protectionist Empire: Trade, Tariffs, and United States Foreign Policy, 1890–1914 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0898588x17000116 |journal=Studies in American Political Development |volume=31 |issue=2 |pages=170–192 |doi=10.1017/s0898588x17000116 |s2cid=148917255 |issn=0898-588X}}</ref> The United States is at or near the forefront of [[Science and technology in the United States|technological advancement]] and [[innovation]]<ref>{{Cite book |last=WIPO |title=Global Innovation Index 2022, 15th Edition |url=https://www.wipo.int/global_innovation_index/en/2022/index.html |access-date=2023-02-25 |website=www.wipo.int |series=Global Innovation Index |year=2022 |publisher=World Intellectual Property Organization |doi=10.34667/tind.46596 |isbn=9789280534320 |language=en}}</ref> in many economic fields, especially in [[artificial intelligence]]; [[computers]]; [[pharmaceuticals]]; and [[medical]], [[aerospace]] and [[military equipment]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/united-states/ |title=United States reference resource |work=[[The World Factbook]] [[Central Intelligence Agency]] |access-date=May 31, 2019}}</ref> The nation's economy is fueled by abundant [[natural resource]]s, a well-developed infrastructure, and high productivity.<ref name="Wright, Gavin 2007 p. 185">Wright, Gavin, and Jesse Czelusta, "Resource-Based Growth Past and Present", in ''Natural Resources: Neither Curse Nor Destiny'', ed. Daniel Lederman and William Maloney (World Bank, 2007), p. 185. {{ISBN|0821365452}}.</ref> It has the second-highest total-estimated value of natural resources, valued at [[United States dollar|US$]]44.98{{spaces}}trillion in 2019, although sources differ on their estimates. Americans have the highest average [[Household income|household]] and [[List of countries by average wage|employee]] income among [[OECD]] member states.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.oecdbetterlifeindex.org/topics/income/|title=Income|work=Better Life Index|publisher=OECD|access-date=September 28, 2019|quote=In the United States, the average household net adjusted disposable income per capita is USD 45 284 a year, much higher than the OECD average of USD 33 604 and the highest figure in the OECD.}}</ref> In 2013, they had the sixth-highest [[median household income]], down from fourth-highest in 2010.<ref name="Household Income">{{cite journal|title=Household Income|url=http://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/social-issues-migration-health/society-at-a-glance-2014_soc_glance-2014-en|journal=Society at a Glance 2014: OECD Social Indicators|publisher=OECD Publishing|access-date=May 29, 2014|doi=10.1787/soc_glance-2014-en |date=March 18, 2014|series=Society at a Glance|isbn=9789264200722|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name=autogenerated4>{{cite web |title=OECD Better Life Index |url= http://www.oecdbetterlifeindex.org/#/11111111111 |publisher=OECD |access-date=November 25, 2012}}</ref> The [[United States dollar|U.S. dollar]] is the currency most used in [[international trade|international transactions]] and is the world's foremost [[reserve currency]], backed by the country's dominant economy, [[United States Armed Forces|its military]], the [[petrodollar|petrodollar system]], and its linked [[eurodollar]] and large [[U.S. Treasury|U.S. treasuries market]].<ref name="federalreserve.gov">{{cite web|url=http://www.federalreserve.gov/pf/pdf/pf_4.pdf |title=The Implementation of Monetary Policy – The Federal Reserve in the International Sphere|access-date=August 24, 2010}}</ref> Several countries [[International use of the US dollar|use it as their official currency]] and in others it is the [[de facto currency|''de facto'' currency]].<ref name="Benjamin J. Cohen 2006, p. 17">Benjamin J. Cohen, ''The Future of Money'', Princeton University Press, 2006, {{ISBN|0691116660}}; ''cf.'' "the dollar is the de facto currency in Cambodia", Charles Agar, ''[[Frommer's]] Vietnam'', 2006, {{ISBN|0471798169}}, p. 17</ref><ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.multpl.com/us-gdp-growth-rate/table/by-year|title = US GDP Growth Rate by Year |date=March 31, 2014 |access-date=June 18, 2014 |website = multpl.com|publisher = US Bureau of Economic Analysis}}</ref> [[New York City]] is the world's principal [[financial center]], with the [[List of cities by GDP|largest]] economic output, and the epicenter of the principal American metropolitan economy.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/business/new-york-widens-lead-over-london-top-finance-centres-index-2022-03-24/|title=New York widens lead over London in top finance centres index |website=www.reuters.com |date=March 24, 2022 |access-date=July 29, 2022|last1=Jones |first1=Huw }}{{SemiBareRefNeedsTitle|date=July 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.longfinance.net/programmes/financial-centre-futures/global-financial-centres-index/gfci-32-explore-the-data/gfci-32-rank/|title=The Global Financial Centres Index 32|date=September 22, 2022|publisher=Long Finance|access-date=September 22, 2022}}</ref><ref name=NYCEpicenterUSMetroEconomy>{{cite web|url=https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2020/09/united-states-america-economic-output-new-york-la/|title=This 3D map shows the U.S. cities with the highest economic output|author=Iman Ghosh|publisher=World Economic Forum|date=September 24, 2020|access-date=March 5, 2023|quote=The New York metro area dwarfs all other cities for economic output by a large margin.}}</ref> The [[New York Stock Exchange]] and [[Nasdaq]] are the world's [[List of stock exchanges|largest stock exchanges]] by [[market capitalization]] and [[trade volume]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.world-exchanges.org/our-work/statistics|title=Monthly Reports - World Federation of Exchanges|publisher=WFE}}</ref><ref name="sfc.hk">[http://www.sfc.hk/web/doc/EN/research/stat/a01.pdf Table A – Market Capitalization of the World's Top Stock Exchanges (As at end of June 2012)]. Securities and Exchange Commission (China).</ref> The [[List of the largest trading partners of the United States|largest U.S. trading partners]] are the [[European Union]], [[Mexico]], [[Canada]], [[China]], [[Japan]], [[South Korea]], the [[United Kingdom]], [[Vietnam]], [[India]], and [[Taiwan]].<ref name="auto">{{cite web |date=October 2022 |title=Top Trading Partners - October 2022 |url=https://www.census.gov/foreign-trade/statistics/highlights/top/top1612yr.html |access-date=12 May 2023 |publisher=U.S. Census Bureau}}</ref> The United States is the world's [[List of countries by imports|largest]] importer and the [[List of countries by exports|second-largest]] exporter after China.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.wto.org/english/res_e/statis_e/wts2019_e/wts2019_e.pdf |title=World Trade Statistical Review 2019 |work=[[World Trade Organization]] |page=100 |access-date=May 31, 2019}}</ref> It has [[free trade agreements]] with [[Free trade agreements of the United States|several countries]], including the [[United States–Mexico–Canada Agreement|USMCA]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://ustr.gov/trade-agreements/free-trade-agreements |title=United States free trade agreements |work=[[Office of the United States Trade Representative]] |access-date=May 31, 2019}}</ref> The U.S. ranked second in the [[Global Competitiveness Report]] in 2019, after [[Singapore]].<ref name="World Economic Forum">{{cite web |url=http://www3.weforum.org/docs/GCR2013-14/GCR_Rankings_2013-14.pdf |title=Rankings: Global Competitiveness Report 2013–2014 |publisher=World Economic Forum |access-date=June 1, 2014}}</ref> Many of the world's [[List of largest companies by revenue|largest]] companies, such as [[Alphabet Inc.|Alphabet]] ([[Google]]), [[Amazon (company)|Amazon]], [[AT&T]], [[Apple Inc.|Apple]], [[The Coca-Cola Company|Coca-Cola]], [[The Walt Disney Company|Disney]], [[General Motors]], [[McDonald's]], [[Nike, Inc.|Nike]], [[Meta Platforms|Meta]], [[Microsoft]], [[PepsiCo|Pepsi]], and [[Walmart]], were founded and are headquartered in the United States.<ref name="Fortune-2022">{{Cite web |title=Global 500 |url=https://fortune.com/global500/2022/ |access-date=2022-08-25 |website=Fortune |language=en}}</ref> Of the world's [[Fortune Global 500|500 largest companies]], 124 are headquartered in the U.S.<ref name="Fortune-2022"/> While its economy has reached a [[post-industrial society|post-industrial]] level of development, the United States remains an industrial power.<ref name="Econ">{{cite web|title=USA Economy in Brief|url=https://usinfo.state.gov/products/pubs/economy-in-brief/page3.html|publisher=U.S. Dept. of State, International Information Programs|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080312123609/https://usinfo.state.gov/products/pubs/economy-in-brief/page3.html|archive-date=March 12, 2008}}</ref> As of 2018, the U.S. is the [[List of countries by manufacturing output|second-largest]] manufacturing nation after China.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-02-25 |title=These are the top 10 manufacturing countries in the world |url=https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2020/02/countries-manufacturing-trade-exports-economics/ |access-date=2023-04-03 |website=World Economic Forum |language=en}}</ref> In 2013, the [[National debt of the United States|U.S. national debt]] to GDP ratio surpassed 100% when both debt and GDP were approximately $16.7 trillion; in 2022, U.S. national debt was $30.93 trillion, while debt to GDP ratio was 124%.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://fiscaldata.treasury.gov/americas-finance-guide/national-debt/|title=What is the national debt?|publisher=[[United States Department of the Treasury|U.S. Department of Treasury]]}}</ref> ===Income and poverty=== {{Main|Income in the United States|Poverty in the United States}} {{Further|Affluence in the United States|Income inequality in the United States}}At US$69,392 in 2020, the United States was ranked first in the world by [[List of countries by average wage|average yearly wage]] based on the [[OECD]] data, and it had the world's highest [[median income]] at US$46,625 in 2021.<ref>{{cite web |title=Labour > Earnings > Average annual wages |publisher=[[OECD]] |url=https://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?DataSetCode=AV_AN_WAGE}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Income Distribution: Median equivalised disposable income |url=https://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?DataSetCode=IDD |access-date=January 21, 2023 |website=OECD}}</ref> Despite the fact that the U.S. only accounted for 4.24% of the [[World population|global population]], residents of the U.S. collectively [[List of countries by total wealth|possessed 30.2%]] of the world's total wealth as of 2021, the largest percentage of any country.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Shorrocks|first1=Anthony|url=https://www.credit-suisse.com/media/assets/corporate/docs/about-us/research/publications/global-wealth-databook-2021.pdf|title=Global wealth databook 2021|last2=Davies|first2=James|last3=Lluberas|first3=Rodrigo|publisher=[[Credit Suisse]] Research Institute|year=2021}}</ref> The U.S. also ranks first in the number of dollar [[List of countries by number of billionaires|billionaires]] and [[List of countries by number of millionaires|millionaires]], with 724 billionaires (as of 2021)<ref>{{Cite web |last=Jackson |first=Sarah |title=These 20 countries and territories are home to most of the world's 2,755 billionaires |url=https://www.businessinsider.com/these-20-countries-are-home-to-the-most-billionaires-forbes-2021-10 |access-date=July 15, 2022 |website=Business Insider |language=en-US}}</ref> and nearly 22 million millionaires (2021).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cnbc.com/2021/12/22/heres-how-22-million-americans-became-millionaires.html|title=Nearly 22 million Americans are millionaires. Here's how they got wealthy|last=Exley|first=Robert Jr.|date=December 22, 2021|access-date=July 16, 2022|work=[[CNBC]]}}</ref> The United States has a smaller [[welfare state]] and redistributes less income through government action than most other [[World Bank high-income economy|high-income]] countries.<ref>{{cite web|first1=Isabelle|last1=Joumard|first2=Mauro|last2=Pisu|first3=Debbie|last3=Bloch|title=Tackling income inequality The role of taxes and transfers|url=https://www.oecd.org/eco/public-finance/TacklingincomeinequalityTheroleoftaxesandtransfers.pdf|publisher=OECD|access-date=May 21, 2015|date=2012}}</ref> The U.S. ranked the 52nd highest in [[List of countries by income equality|income inequality]] among 167 countries in 2014,<ref name="Data for urban households only">{{Cite book |last1=Monino |first1=Jean-Louis |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/9781119285199.ch3 |title=Data Development Mechanisms |last2=Sedkaoui |first2=Soraya |date=2016-03-11 |work=Big Data, Open Data and Data Development |publisher=John Wiley & Sons, Inc. |isbn=978-1-119-28519-9 |place=Hoboken, N.J. |pages=43–72 |doi=10.1002/9781119285199.ch3 |access-date=2021-06-26}}</ref> and the highest compared to the rest of the [[Developed country|developed world]] in 2018.<ref>{{cite news |last=Gray |first=Sarah |date=June 4, 2018 |title=Trump Policies Highlighted in Scathing U.N. Report On U.S. Poverty|url=http://fortune.com/2018/06/04/trump-policies-u-n-report-u-s-poverty/|work=[[Fortune (magazine)|Fortune]]|access-date=September 13, 2018|quote="The United States has the highest rate of income inequality among Western countries", the report states.}}</ref><ref name="OHCHR">{{cite news|url=https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2018/06/contempt-poor-us-drives-cruel-policies-says-un-expert|title="Contempt for the poor in US drives cruel policies," says UN expert|date=June 4, 2018|work=[[Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights|OHCHR]]|access-date=June 5, 2018}}</ref> Wealth in the United States is [[Wealth inequality in the United States|highly concentrated]]; the richest 10% of the adult population own 72% of the country's household wealth, while the bottom 50% own just 2%.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Piketty|first1=Thomas|title=Capital in the Twenty-First Century|title-link=Capital in the Twenty-First Century|date=2014|publisher=Belknap Press|page=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780674430006/page/257 257]|author-link1=Thomas Piketty}} {{ISBN|978-0-674-43000-6}}</ref> Income inequality in the U.S. remains at record highs,<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/2019/09/26/income-inequality-america-highest-its-been-since-census-started-tracking-it-data-show/ |title=Income inequality in America is the highest it's been since Census Bureau started tracking it, data shows |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |access-date=July 27, 2020}}</ref> with the top fifth of earners taking home more than half of all income<ref>{{Cite news|last=Long|first=Heather|date=September 12, 2017|title=U.S. middle-class incomes reached highest-ever level in 2016, Census Bureau says|newspaper=The Washington Post|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/economy/us-middle-class-incomes-reached-highest-ever-level-in-2016-census-bureau-says/2017/09/12/7226905e-97de-11e7-b569-3360011663b4_story.html|access-date=November 11, 2019}}</ref> and giving the U.S. one of the widest income distributions among [[OECD]] members.<ref name="Sme">{{cite journal|last1=Smeeding|first1=T.M.|year=2005|title=Public Policy: Economic Inequality and Poverty: The United States in Comparative Perspective|url=https://semanticscholar.org/paper/81b4d972c7a40d051d9ee3ced2ab2ddfc221fbf9|journal=Social Science Quarterly|volume=86|pages=955–983|doi=10.1111/j.0038-4941.2005.00331.x|s2cid=154642286}}</ref> The United States is the only [[advanced economy]] that does not [[List of statutory minimum employment leave by country|guarantee its workers paid vacation]] nationally<ref>{{cite news |last=Min |first=Sarah |date=May 24, 2019 |title=1 in 4 workers in U.S. don't get any paid vacation time or holidays|url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/one-in-four-workers-in-us-dont-get-any-paid-vacation-time-or-holidays/|work=CBS News |location= |access-date=July 15, 2022|quote=The United States is the only advanced economy that does not federally mandate any paid vacation days or holidays. }}</ref> and is one of a few countries in the world without federal [[paid family leave]] as a legal right.<ref>{{cite news |last=Bernard |first=Tara Siegel |date=February 22, 2013 |title=In Paid Family Leave, U.S. Trails Most of the Globe |newspaper=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/02/23/your-money/us-trails-much-of-the-world-in-providing-paid-family-leave.html |access-date=August 27, 2013}}</ref> The United States also has a higher percentage of low-income workers than almost any other developed nation, largely because of a weak [[collective bargaining]] system and lack of government support for at-risk workers.<ref>{{cite news|last=Van Dam|first=Andrew|date=July 4, 2018|title=Is it great to be a worker in the U.S.? Not compared with the rest of the developed world.|newspaper=The Washington Post|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/wonk/wp/2018/07/04/is-it-great-to-be-a-worker-in-the-u-s-not-compared-to-the-rest-of-the-developed-world/?noredirect=on|access-date=July 12, 2018}}</ref> There were about 567,715 sheltered and unsheltered [[Homelessness in the United States|homeless persons in the U.S.]] in January 2019, with almost two-thirds staying in an emergency shelter or transitional housing program.<ref name="Culp2013">{{cite book| editor = Anne McDonald Culp| date = June 25, 2013| title = Child and Family Advocacy: Bridging the Gaps Between Research, Practice, and Policy| publisher = Springer Science & Business Media| pages = 77–| isbn = 978-1-4614-7456-2| oclc = 1026456872| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=GZBDAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA77}}</ref> Attempts to combat homelessness include the [[Section 8 (housing)|Section 8]] housing voucher program and implementation of the [[Housing First]] strategy across all levels of government.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Solving Homelessness from a Complex Systems Perspective: Insights for Prevention Responses|journal=Annual Review of Public Health|date=2019|volume=40|pmid=30601718|last1=Fowler|first1=P. J.|last2=Hovmand|first2=P. S.|last3=Marcal|first3=K. E.|last4=Das|first4=S.|pages=465–486|doi=10.1146/annurev-publhealth-040617-013553|pmc=6445694 }}</ref> In 2011, [[Hunger in the United States#Children|16.7&nbsp;million children lived in food-insecure households]], about 35% more than 2007 levels, though only 845,000 U.S. children (1.1%) saw reduced food intake or disrupted eating patterns at some point during the year, and most cases were not chronic.<ref>{{cite web|title=Household Food Security in the United States in 2011|url=https://www.ers.usda.gov/media/884525/err141.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121007231515/https://www.ers.usda.gov/media/884525/err141.pdf|archive-date=October 7, 2012|publisher=USDA|access-date=April 8, 2013|date=September 2012}}</ref> {{as of|2018|June|post=,}} 40&nbsp;million people, roughly 12.7% of the U.S. population, were living in poverty, including 13.3&nbsp;million children;<ref name="OHCHR"/> the [[poverty threshold]] in the United States was at $12,880 for a single-person household and $26,246 for a family of four in 2021.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2015/07/22/what-it-means-to-be-poor-by-global-standards/ |title=What it means to be poor by global standards |author=Rakesh Kochhar |website=[[Pew Research Center]] |date=July 22, 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://aspe.hhs.gov/2021-poverty-guidelines |title=2021 Poverty Guidelines |website=aspe.hhs.gov |access-date=April 27, 2023}}</ref> As of 2019, 2% of the U.S. population earned less than $10 per day.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Poverty and Inequality Forum |url=https://pip.worldbank.org/poverty-calculator?src=EAP,SAS,SSA,LAC,MNA,ECA,OHI,WLD&pv=2.15&oc=pop_in_poverty&on=Population%20living%20in%20poverty&os=millions&od=Population%20living%20below%20the%20poverty%20line%20(2011%20PPP)&tab=table&ppp=2017 |access-date=April 27, 2023 |website=[[World Bank]]}}</ref> 0.25% of the U.S. population lived below the international poverty line of $2.15 per day in 2020.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Fact Sheet: An Adjustment to Global Poverty Lines |url=https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/factsheet/2022/05/02/fact-sheet-an-adjustment-to-global-poverty-lines#:~:text=The%20new%20international%20poverty%20line,be%20living%20in%20extreme%20poverty. |access-date=April 27, 2023 |website=World Bank}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Country Profile: United States |url=https://pip.worldbank.org/country-profiles/USA |access-date=April 27, 2023 |website=World Bank}}</ref> ===Science, technology, and energy=== {{Main|Science and technology in the United States|Science policy of the United States|Energy in the United States}} [[File:Buzz_salutes_the_U.S._Flag-crop.jpg|thumb|U.S. astronaut [[Buzz Aldrin]] saluting the [[United States flag|flag]] on the [[lunar surface|Moon]] during the [[Apollo 11]], 1969. The United States is the only country that has sent [[Moon landing|crewed missions to the lunar surface]].]] The United States has been a leader in technological [[innovation]] since the late 19th century and scientific research since the mid-20th century. Methods for producing [[interchangeable parts]] and the establishment of a [[machine tool]] industry enabled the [[American system of manufacturing|U.S. to have large-scale manufacturing]] of sewing machines, bicycles, and other items in the late 19th century. In the early 20th century, factory [[electrification]], the introduction of the [[assembly line]], and other labor-saving techniques created the system of [[mass production]].<ref>{{Hounshell1984}}</ref> In the 21st century, approximately two-thirds of research and development funding comes from the private sector.<ref>{{cite web|title=Research and Development (R&D) Expenditures by Source and Objective: 1970 to 2004|url=https://www.census.gov/compendia/statab/2008/tables/08s0775.xls|publisher=U.S. Census Bureau|archive-url=http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20120210170338/https://www.census.gov/compendia/statab/2008/tables/08s0775.xls|archive-date=February 10, 2012|access-date=June 19, 2007|url-status=live}}</ref> In 2022, the United States was the country with the [[List of countries by number of scientific and technical journal articles|second-highest]] number of published scientific papers.<ref>{{Cite web|title=SJR - International Science Ranking|url=https://www.scimagojr.com/countryrank.php?order=itp&ord=desc&year=2020|access-date=2022-02-05|website=www.scimagojr.com|language=en-uk}}</ref> As of 2021, the U.S. ranked second by the number of [[World Intellectual Property Indicators|patent applications]], and third by trademark and industrial design applications.<ref>{{cite book |title=World Intellectual Property Indicators 2021 |url=https://www.wipo.int/publications/en/details.jsp?id=4571&plang=EN |access-date=2022-04-27 |website=www.wipo.int | doi=10.34667/tind.44461 |language=en | author1=World Intellectual Property Organization. | series=World IP Indicators (WIPI) | year=2021 | publisher=World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) | isbn=9789280533293 }}</ref> In 2021, the United States launched a total of 51 [[spaceflights]] (China reported 55).<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Hines |first1=R. Lincoln |last2=Ben-Itzhak |first2=Svetla |title=NASA's head warned that China may try to claim the Moon – two space scholars explain why that's unlikely to happen |url=http://theconversation.com/nasas-head-warned-that-china-may-try-to-claim-the-moon-two-space-scholars-explain-why-thats-unlikely-to-happen-186614 |access-date=July 11, 2022 |website=The Conversation |language=en}}</ref> The U.S. had 2,944 active [[satellites]] in space in December 2021, the highest number of any country.<ref>{{cite web |title=Satellite Database|url=https://www.ucsusa.org/resources/satellite-database|access-date=July 14, 2022|website=[[Union of Concerned Scientists]]}}</ref> In 1876, [[Alexander Graham Bell]] was awarded the first U.S. [[Invention of the telephone|patent for the telephone]]. [[Thomas Edison]]'s [[Research institute|research laboratory]] developed the [[phonograph]], the first [[Incandescent light bulb|long-lasting light bulb]], and the first viable [[Kinetoscope|movie camera]].<ref name="Edison">{{cite web|title=Thomas Edison's Most Famous Inventions|url=https://www.thomasedison.org/index.php/education/inventions/|website=Thomas A Edison Innovation Foundation|access-date=January 21, 2015|archive-date=March 16, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160316154517/https://www.thomasedison.org/index.php/education/inventions/|url-status=dead }}</ref> The [[Wright brothers]] in 1903 made the [[Wright Flyer|first sustained and controlled heavier-than-air powered flight]], and the automobile companies of [[Ransom E. Olds]] ([[Oldsmobile]]) and [[Henry Ford]] ([[Ford Motor Company]]) popularized the assembly line in the early 20th century.<ref>{{cite web|author=Benedetti, François|url=https://www.fai.org/news_archives/fai/000295.asp|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070912065254/https://www.fai.org/news_archives/fai/000295.asp|archive-date=September 12, 2007|title=100 Years Ago, the Dream of Icarus Became Reality|publisher=Fédération Aéronautique Internationale (FAI)|date=December 17, 2003|access-date=August 15, 2007}}</ref> The rise of [[fascism]] and [[Nazism]] in the 1920s and 30s led many European scientists, such as [[Albert Einstein]], [[Enrico Fermi]], and [[John von Neumann]], to immigrate to the United States.<ref name="fraser">{{cite book|last1=Fraser|first1=Gordon|title=The Quantum Exodus: Jewish Fugitives, the Atomic Bomb, and the Holocaust|date=2012|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=New York|isbn=978-0-19-959215-9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-NYknwEACAAJ}}</ref> During World War II, the [[Manhattan Project]]. developed nuclear weapons, ushering in the [[Atomic Age]]. During the Cold War, competition for superior missile capability led to the [[Space Race]] between the United States and Soviet Union.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qYZmj7Us3m8C&q=Space+Race++rapid+advances+in+rocketry,+materials+science,+and+computers&pg=PA68|title=10 Little Americans|via=Google Books|access-date=September 15, 2014|isbn=978-0-615-14052-0}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.computerworld.com/article/2525898/app-development/nasa-s-apollo-technology-has-changed-history.html|title=NASA's Apollo technology has changed the history|date=July 20, 2009|publisher=Sharon Gaudin|access-date=September 15, 2014}}</ref> The great American technological breakthroughs of the 20th century stem from the invention of the [[transistor]] in the 1950s, a key component in almost all modern [[electronics]], which led to the development of [[microprocessor]]s, [[software]], [[personal computer]]s, and the [[Internet]].<ref name="Sawyer2012">{{cite book|last=Sawyer|first=Robert Keith|title=Explaining Creativity: The Science of Human Innovation|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QyJjyZ_YBAkC&pg=PA256|year=2012|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-973757-4|page=256}}</ref> In 2022, the United States ranked 2nd in the [[Global Innovation Index]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=WIPO |title=Global Innovation Index 2022, 15th Edition |url=https://www.wipo.int/global_innovation_index/en/2022/index.html |access-date=2022-11-16 |website=www.wipo.int |series=Global Innovation Index |year=2022 |publisher=World Intellectual Property Organization |doi=10.34667/tind.46596 |isbn=9789280534320 |language=en}}</ref> The United States also developed the [[Global Positioning System]] (GPS), the world's pre-eminent [[satellite navigation]] system.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.cbsnews.com/pictures/made-in-the-usa-american-tech-inventions/|first=Chenda|last=Ngak|publisher=[[CBS News]]|title=Made in the USA: American tech inventions|date=July 4, 2012}}</ref> {{as of|2021}}, the United States receives approximately 79.1% of its energy from fossil fuels.<ref name="visu">{{cite web |date= |title=Energy Flow Charts: Charting the Complex Relationships among Energy, Water, and Carbon |url=https://flowcharts.llnl.gov/ |access-date=16 May 2023 |publisher=Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory}}</ref> In 2021, the largest source of the country's energy came from [[petroleum]] (36.1%), followed by [[natural gas]] (32.2%), [[coal]] (10.8%), renewable sources (12.5%), and [[nuclear power]] (8.4%).<ref name="visu" /><!--Numbers do not add up to 100 due to rounding errors. --> The United States constitutes less than 5% of the [[world population|world's population]], but consumes 17% of the [[Energy use in the United States|world's energy]].<ref>{{cite news |date=November 5, 2021 |title=What is the United States' share of world energy consumption? |work=[[Energy Information Administration|U.S. Energy Information Administration]] |url=https://www.eia.gov/tools/faqs/faq.php?id=87&t=1}}</ref> It accounts for about 25% of the world's [[Oil consumption|petroleum consumption]], while producing only 6% of the world's annual petroleum supply.<ref name="EIA">{{cite web |title=EIA – Petroleum Basic Data |url=https://www.eia.doe.gov/basics/quickoil.html |access-date=March 30, 2012 |publisher=Eia.doe.gov}}</ref> The U.S. ranks as second-highest emitter of greenhouse gases, exceeded only by China.<ref>{{cite web |last=US EPA |first=OAR |date=February 8, 2017 |title=Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks |url=https://www.epa.gov/ghgemissions/inventory-us-greenhouse-gas-emissions-and-sinks |access-date=December 3, 2020 |website=US EPA |language=en}}</ref> ===Transportation=== {{Main|Transportation in the United States}} [[File:Atlanta Airport Aerial Angle (31435634003) (2) (cropped).jpg|thumb|[[Hartsfield–Jackson Atlanta International Airport]] is the world's busiest by [[List of busiest airports by passenger traffic|passenger traffic]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cnn.com/travel/article/worlds-busiest-airports-2021/index.html|title=This US airport has reclaimed its title as the world's busiest|website=CNN.com|first=Marnie|last=Hunter|date=April 11, 2022}}</ref>]] The United States's [[Rail transport in the United States|rail network]], nearly all [[Standard-gauge railway|standard gauge]], is the [[List of countries by rail transport network size|longest in the world]], and exceeds {{convert|293564|km|mi|-2|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/railways/country-comparison|title=Railways – The World Factbook|work=[[The World Factbook]]|publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency]]|access-date=July 14, 2022}}</ref> It handles mostly [[Freight transport|freight]], with intercity passenger service primarily provided by [[Amtrak]], a government-managed company that took over services previously run by private companies, to all but four states.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.transtats.bts.gov/osea/seasonaladjustment/?PageVar=RAIL_PM|title=Seasonally Adjusted Transportation Data|publisher=Bureau of Transportation Statistics|location=Washington, D.C.|date=2021|access-date=February 16, 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Fitzsimmons |first=Emma G. |date=April 24, 2017 |title=Amtrak at a Junction: Invest in Improvements, or Risk Worsening Problems |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/04/24/nyregion/amtrak-infrastructure-crisis.html |work=The New York Times |accessdate=April 16, 2023}}</ref> Personal transportation is [[Car dependency|dominated by automobiles]],<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-05-19 |title=Cars still dominate the American commute |url=https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2022/05/commute-america-sustainability-cars/ |access-date=2023-05-21 |website=World Economic Forum |language=en}}</ref> which operate on a network of {{convert|4|e6mi|abbr=off|sp=us}} of public roads, making it the [[List of countries by road network size|longest network]] in the world.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Roadways - The World Factbook |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/roadways/country-comparison |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210712201909/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/roadways/country-comparison |archive-date=2021-07-12 |access-date=2021-07-15 |website=www.cia.gov}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Public Road and Street Mileage in the United States by Type of Surface|url=https://www.rita.dot.gov/bts/sites/rita.dot.gov.bts/files/publications/national_transportation_statistics/html/table_01_04.html|website=United States Department of Transportation|access-date=January 13, 2015|archive-date=January 2, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150102141414/https://www.rita.dot.gov/bts/sites/rita.dot.gov.bts/files/publications/national_transportation_statistics/html/table_01_04.html|url-status=dead }}</ref> The United States became the first country in the world to have a mass market for vehicle production and sales, and mass market production process.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=automotive industry |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |last=Rae |first=John Bell |url=https://www.britannica.com/technology/automotive-industry |access-date=5 December 2021}}</ref> As of 2022, the United States is the [[List of countries by motor vehicle production|second-largest]] manufacturer of motor vehicles<ref>{{Cite web |title=2022 production statistics |url=https://www.oica.net/category/production-statistics/2022-statistics/ |access-date=2023-04-14 |website=International Organization of Motor Vehicle Manufacturers}}</ref> and is home to [[Tesla, Inc.|Tesla]], the world's most valuable car company.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Klebnikov |first=Sergei |title=Tesla Is Now The World's Most Valuable Car Company With A $208 Billion Valuation |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/sergeiklebnikov/2020/07/01/tesla-is-now-the-worlds-most-valuable-car-company-with-a-valuation-of-208-billion/ |access-date=2023-04-14 |website=Forbes |language=en}}</ref> [[General Motors]] held the title of the world's best-selling automaker from 1931 to 2008.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Bunkley |first=Nick |date=2009-01-21 |title=Toyota Ahead of G.M. in 2008 Sales |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/01/22/business/22auto.html |access-date=2023-04-14 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref> Currently, the U.S. has the world's second-largest automobile market by sales<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/business/2010/jan/08/china-us-car-sales-overtakes|title=China overtakes US in car sales|newspaper=The Guardian|date=January 8, 2010|access-date=July 10, 2011|location=London}}</ref> and the [[List of countries by vehicles per capita|highest]] vehicle ownership per capita in the world, with 816.4 vehicles per 1,000 Americans (2014).<ref>{{cite web|last=|first=|date=January 30, 2017|title=Fact #962: Vehicles per Capita: Other Regions/Countries Compared to the United States|url=https://www.energy.gov/eere/vehicles/fact-962-january-30-2017-vehicles-capita-other-regionscountries-compared-united-states|access-date=January 23, 2021|website=Energy.gov|language=en}}</ref> In 2017, there were 255 million non-two wheel motor vehicles, or about 910 vehicles per 1,000 people.<ref name="USBTS">{{cite web|url=https://capitol-tires.com/how-many-cars-per-capita-in-the-us.html|title=Vehicle Statistics: Cars Per Capita|date=August 2017 |publisher=Capitol Tires}}</ref> The [[List of airlines of the United States|civil airline industry]] is entirely privately owned and has been largely [[Airline Deregulation Act|deregulated since 1978]], while [[List of airports in the United States|most major airports]] are publicly owned.<ref>{{cite web|last=Edwards|first=Chris|date=July 12, 2020|title=Privatization|url=https://www.downsizinggovernment.org/privatization|access-date=January 23, 2021|website=Downsizing the Federal Government|publisher=Cato Institute|language=en}}</ref> The three largest airlines in the world by passengers carried are U.S.-based; [[American Airlines]] is number one after its 2013 acquisition by [[US Airways]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.iata.org/publications/pages/wats-passenger-carried.aspx|title=Scheduled Passengers Carried|publisher=International Air Transport Association (IATA)|year=2011|access-date=February 17, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150102034843/https://www.iata.org/publications/pages/wats-passenger-carried.aspx|archive-date=January 2, 2015}}</ref> Of the [[List of the world's busiest airports by passenger traffic|world's 50 busiest passenger airports]], 16 are in the United States, including the top five and the busiest, [[Hartsfield–Jackson Atlanta International Airport]].<ref name="PANYNJ 2021 report">{{cite web|url=https://www.panynj.gov/content/dam/airports/statistics/statistics-general-info/annual-atr/ATR_2021.pdf|title=2021 Airport Traffic Report|work=Port Authority of New York and New Jersey|date=April 2022|page=32}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.aci.aero/News/Releases/Most-Recent/2014/03/31/Preliminary-World-Airport-Traffic-and-Rankings-2013--High-Growth-Dubai-Moves-Up-to-7th-Busiest-Airport-|title=Preliminary World Airport Traffic and Rankings 2013—High Growth Dubai Moves Up to 7th Busiest Airport|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140401052319/https://www.aci.aero/News/Releases/Most-Recent/2014/03/31/Preliminary-World-Airport-Traffic-and-Rankings-2013--High-Growth-Dubai-Moves-Up-to-7th-Busiest-Airport-|archive-date=April 1, 2014|date=March 31, 2014|access-date=May 17, 2014}}</ref> {{As of|2020}}, there are 19,919 airports in the United States, of which 5,217 are designated as "public use", including for [[general aviation]] and other activities.<ref>{{cite web |title=Number of U.S. Airports |url=https://www.bts.gov/content/number-us-airportsa |publisher=Bureau of Transportation Statistics |accessdate=April 16, 2023}}</ref> Of the [[List of busiest container ports|fifty busiest container ports]], four are located in the United States, of which the busiest is the [[Port of Los Angeles]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.worldshipping.org/top-50-ports|title=The Top 50 Container Ports|work=[[World Shipping Council]]|location=[[Washington, D.C.]]|access-date=July 14, 2022}}</ref> The country's [[Inland waterways of the United States|inland waterways]] are the world's [[List of countries by waterways length|fifth-longest]], and total {{convert|41009|km|0|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/waterways/country-comparison |title=Waterways – The World Factbook |work=[[The World Factbook]] |publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency]] |access-date=July 14, 2022}}</ref> ==Demographics== {{Main|Americans|Demographics of the United States|Race and ethnicity in the United States|Religion in the United States|Family structure in the United States}} ===Population=== {{See also|List of U.S. states by population}} <!--As prose text is preferred, overly detailed statistical charts and diagrams such as economic trends, weather boxes, historical population charts, past elections results, etc. should be reserved for main sub articles on the topic as per WP:DETAIL as outlined at WP:NOTSTATS.--> {{US Census population |1790= 3929326 |1800= 5308483 |1810= 7239881 |1820= 9638453 |1830= 12866020 |1840= 17069453 |1850= 23191876 |1860= 31443321 |1870= 38925598 |1880= 50189209 |1890= 62979766 |1900= 76212168 |1910= 92228496 |1920= 106021537 |1930= 122775046 |1940= 132164569 |1950= 150697361 |1960= 179323175 |1970= 203392031 |1980= 226545805 |1990= 248709873 |2000= 281421906 |2010= 308745538 |2020= 331449281 |estimate= 333287557 |estyear= 2022 |estref= <ref>{{cite web|url= https://www.census.gov/quickfacts/fact/table/US/PST045222#PST045222|title=U.S. Census Bureau QuickFacts: United States|publisher= United States Census Bureau|access-date= March 13, 2023}}</ref> |footnote= U.S. Decennial Census }} The [[United States Census Bureau|U.S. Census Bureau]] reported 331,449,281 residents as of April 1, 2020,{{efn|This figure, like most official data for the United States as a whole, excludes the five unincorporated territories ([[Puerto Rico]], [[Guam]], the [[U.S. Virgin Islands]], [[American Samoa]], and the [[Northern Mariana Islands]]) and minor island possessions.}}<ref name=2020CENSUS>{{cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/newsroom/press-releases/2021/2020-census-apportionment-results.htmlpid=2020CENSUS&src=pt|title=Census Bureau's 2020 Population Count|work=[[United States Census]]|access-date=April 26, 2021}}</ref> making the United States the [[List of countries and dependencies by population|third most populous]] nation in the world, after China and India.<ref name="CIA-2018">{{cite web|title=The World Factbook: United States|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/united-states/|access-date=November 10, 2018|publisher=Central Intelligence Agency}}</ref> According to the Bureau's [[U.S. and World Population Clock|U.S. Population Clock]], on January&nbsp;28, 2021, the U.S. population had a net gain of one person every 100 seconds, or about 864 people per day.<ref>{{cite web|title=Population Clock|url=https://www.census.gov/popclock/|website=www.census.gov}}</ref> In 2018, 52% of Americans age 15 and over were married, 6% were widowed, 10% were divorced, and 32% had never been married.<ref>{{cite web|title=Table MS-1. Marital Status of the Population 15 Years Old and Over, by Sex, Race and Hispanic Origin: 1950 to Present|url=https://www.census.gov/data/tables/time-series/demo/families/marital.html|access-date=September 11, 2019|website=Historical Marital Status Tables|publisher=U.S. Census Bureau}}</ref> In 2021, the [[total fertility rate]] for the U.S. stood at 1.7 children per woman,<ref>{{Cite web |last=McPhillips |first=Deidre |date=2023-01-31 |title=Covid-19 'baby bump' brought an increased US fertility rate in 2021 -- but also record high preterm births |url=https://www.cnn.com/2023/01/31/health/us-birth-rate-fertility-trends-2021/index.html |access-date=2023-04-16 |website=CNN |language=en}}</ref> and it had the world's highest rate of children (23%) living in [[Single parents in the United States|single-parent]] households in 2019.<ref>{{cite web|title=U.S. has world's highest rate of children living in single-parent households|url=https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2019/12/12/u-s-children-more-likely-than-children-in-other-countries-to-live-with-just-one-parent/|access-date=March 17, 2020|website=Pew Research Center|language=en}}</ref> The United States has a diverse population; 37 [[American ancestries|ancestry groups]] have more than one million members.<ref name="An2000">{{cite web|title=Ancestry 2000|url=https://www.census.gov/prod/2004pubs/c2kbr-35.pdf|date=June 2004|publisher=U.S. Census Bureau|url-status=live|archive-url=http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20041204015245/https://www.census.gov/prod/2004pubs/c2kbr-35.pdf|archive-date=December 4, 2004|access-date=December 2, 2016}}</ref> [[Non-Hispanic whites|White Americans]] with ancestry from Europe, the Middle East or North Africa, form the largest [[race (human classification)|racial]] and [[ethnic group]] at 57.8% of the United States population.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.census.gov/library/stories/2021/08/2020-united-states-population-more-racially-ethnically-diverse-than-2010.html | title=The Chance That Two People Chosen at Random Are of Different Race or Ethnicity Groups Has Increased Since 2010 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Table 52. Population by Selected Ancestry Group and Region: 2009|url=https://www.census.gov/compendia/statab/2012/tables/12s0052.pdf|date=2009|publisher=U.S. Census Bureau|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121225031832/https://www.census.gov/compendia/statab/2012/tables/12s0052.pdf|archive-date=December 25, 2012|access-date=February 11, 2017}}</ref> [[Hispanic and Latino Americans]] form the second-largest group and are 18.7% of the United States population. [[African Americans]] constitute the nation's third-largest ancestry group and are 12.1% of the total United States population.<ref name="An2000" /> [[Asian Americans]] are the country's fourth-largest group, composing 5.9% of the United States population, while the country's 3.7 million [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]] account for about 1%.<ref name="An2000" /> In 2020, the [[median age]] of the United States population was 38.5 years.<ref name="CIA-2018" /> ===Immigration=== {{main|Immigration to the United States}} The United States has by far the highest [[List of sovereign states and dependent territories by immigrant population|number of immigrant population]] in the world, with 50,661,149 people.<ref name="UNdef">{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/migration/data/estimates2/docs/MigrationStockDocumentation_2019.pdf|title=INTERNATIONAL MIGRANT STOCK 2019 DOCUMENTATION}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/migration/data/estimates2/data/UN_MigrantStockTotal_2019.xlsx|title=UN_MigrantStockTotal_2019}}</ref> In 2018, there were almost 90 million immigrants and [[Second-generation immigrants in the United States|U.S.-born children of immigrants]] in the United States, accounting for 28% of the overall U.S. population.<ref>{{cite news|date=March 14, 2019|title=Frequently Requested Statistics on Immigrants and Immigration in the United States|work=[[Migration Policy Institute]]|url=https://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/frequently-requested-statistics-immigrants-and-immigration-united-states}}</ref> In 2017, out of the U.S. foreign-born population, some 45% (20.7&nbsp;million) were naturalized citizens, 27% (12.3&nbsp;million) were lawful permanent residents, 6% (2.2&nbsp;million) were temporary lawful residents, and 23% (10.5&nbsp;million) were unauthorized immigrants.<ref name="KeyFindings">{{cite web|date=June 17, 2019|title=Key findings about U.S. immigrants|url=https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2019/06/17/key-findings-about-u-s-immigrants/|publisher=Pew Research Center}}</ref> The United States led the world in [[refugee resettlement]] for decades, admitting more refugees than the rest of the world combined.<ref name="PewRefugees">{{cite web|title=Key facts about refugees to the U.S.|url=https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2019/10/07/key-facts-about-refugees-to-the-u-s/|author=Jens Manuel Krogstad|date=October 7, 2019|publisher=Pew Research Center}}</ref> ===Language=== {{Main|Languages of the United States}} While many languages are spoken in the United States, English is the most common.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kaur |first=Harmeet |date=2018-05-20 |title=FYI: English isn't the official language of the United States |url=https://www.cnn.com/2018/05/20/us/english-us-official-language-trnd/index.html |access-date=2023-05-11 |website=CNN |language=en}}</ref> Although there is no [[official language]] at the federal level, some laws—such as [[Naturalized citizen of the United States|U.S. naturalization requirements]]—standardize English, and most states have declared English as the official language.<ref>{{cite news|date=August 12, 2014|title=States Where English Is the Official Language|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/govbeat/wp/2014/08/12/states-where-english-is-the-official-language/|access-date=September 12, 2020|newspaper=The Washington Post}}</ref> Three states and four U.S. territories have recognized local or indigenous languages in addition to English, including Hawaii ([[Hawaiian language|Hawaiian]]),<ref>{{cite web|date=November 7, 1978|title=The Constitution of the State of Hawaii, Article XV, Section 4|url=https://www.hawaii.gov/lrb/con/conart15.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130724231656/https://hawaii.gov/lrb/con/conart15.html|archive-date=July 24, 2013|access-date=June 19, 2007|publisher=Hawaii Legislative Reference Bureau}}</ref> Alaska ([[Alaska Native languages|twenty Native languages]]),{{efn|[[Inupiaq language|Inupiaq]], [[Central Siberian Yupik language|Siberian Yupik]], [[Central Alaskan Yup'ik language|Central Alaskan Yup'ik]], [[Alutiiq language|Alutiiq]], [[Aleut language|Unanga]] (Aleut), [[Denaʼina language|Denaʼina]], [[Deg Xinag language|Deg Xinag]], [[Holikachuk language|Holikachuk]], [[Koyukon language|Koyukon]], [[Upper Kuskokwim language|Upper Kuskokwim]], [[Gwichʼin language|Gwichʼin]], [[Lower Tanana language|Tanana]], [[Upper Tanana language|Upper Tanana]], [[Tanacross language|Tanacross]], [[Hän language|Hän]], [[Ahtna language|Ahtna]], [[Eyak language|Eyak]], [[Tlingit language|Tlingit]], [[Haida language|Haida]], and [[Coast Tsimshian dialect|Tsimshian]]}}<ref>{{cite news|last1=Chapel|first1=Bill|date=April 21, 2014|title=Alaska OKs Bill Making Native Languages Official|url=https://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2014/04/21/305688602/alaska-oks-bill-making-native-languages-official|newspaper=NPR}}</ref> South Dakota ([[Sioux language|Sioux]]),<ref name="LakotaCommon">{{cite web|title=South Dakota recognizes official indigenous language|url=https://eu.argusleader.com/story/news/politics/2019/03/22/south-dakota-recognizes-official-indigenous-language-governor-noem/3245113002/|access-date=March 26, 2019|publisher=[[Argus Leader]]}}</ref> American Samoa ([[Samoan language|Samoan]]), Puerto Rico ([[Spanish language|Spanish]]), Guam ([[Chamorro language|Chamorro]]), and the Northern Mariana Islands ([[Carolinian language|Carolinian]] and Chamorro). In Puerto Rico, Spanish is more widely spoken than English.<ref name="PuertoRicoTranslation">{{cite web|title=Translation in Puerto Rico|url=https://www.puertorico.com/translation/|access-date=December 29, 2013|website=Puerto Rico Channel|archive-date=December 30, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131230233259/http://www.puertorico.com/translation/|url-status=dead}}</ref> According to the [[American Community Survey]], in 2010 some 229 million people (out of the total U.S. population of 308 million) spoke only English at home. More than 37 million spoke [[Spanish language in the United States|Spanish]] at home, making it the second most commonly used language in the United States. Other languages spoken at home by one million people or more include [[Chinese language|Chinese]] (2.8 million), [[Tagalog language|Tagalog]] (1.6 million), [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]] (1.4 million), [[French language|French]] (1.3 million), [[Korean language|Korean]] (1.1 million), and [[German language|German]] (1 million).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://factfinder.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/productview.xhtml?pid=ACS_10_1YR_B16001&prodType=table|title=American FactFinder—Results|first=U.S. Census|last=Bureau|access-date=May 29, 2017|archive-date=February 12, 2020|archive-url=https://archive.today/20200212213140/https://factfinder.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/productview.xhtml?pid=ACS_10_1YR_B16001&prodType=table|url-status=dead }}</ref> The [[List of most commonly learned foreign languages in the United States|most widely taught foreign languages]] in the United States, in terms of enrollment numbers from kindergarten through university [[undergraduate education]], are Spanish, French, and [[German language in the United States|German]]. Other commonly taught languages include [[Latin]], [[Japanese language education in the United States|Japanese]], [[American Sign Language]], [[Italian language in the United States|Italian]], and [[Chinese language in the United States|Chinese]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.actfl.org/sites/default/files/pdfs/ReportSummary2011.pdf|title=Foreign Language Enrollments in K–12 Public Schools|date=February 2011|publisher=American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages (ACTFL)|access-date=October 17, 2015|archive-date=April 8, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160408184754/https://www.actfl.org/sites/default/files/pdfs/ReportSummary2011.pdf|url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.mla.org/pdf/2013_enrollment_survey.pdf|title=Enrollments in Languages Other Than English in United States Institutions of Higher Education, Fall 2013|last1=Goldberg|first1=David|last2=Looney|first2=Dennis|last3=Lusin|first3=Natalia|date=February 2015|publisher=Modern Language Association|access-date=May 20, 2015}}</ref> ===Religion=== {{Main|Religion in the United States}} {{See also|List of religious movements that began in the United States}} {{Pie chart | thumb = right | caption = Self-identified religious affiliation in the United States (2023 ''[[The Wall Street Journal]]-[[Associated Press|NORC]]'' poll):<ref name="WSJ-2022">{{Cite web |date=2022 |title=March 2023 NORC/AP poll |url=https://s.wsj.net/public/resources/documents/WSJ_NORC_ToplineMarc_2023.pdf |access-date=March 27, 2023 |website=[[Wall Street Journal]]}}</ref> | label1 = [[Protestantism in the United States|Protestantism]] | value1 = 26 | color1 = DarkBlue | label2 = [[Catholicism in the United States|Catholicism]] | value2 = 21 | color2 = Purple | label3 = "Just [[Christians|Christian]]" | value3 = 20 | color3 = Lightblue | label4 = [[Mormonism]] | value4 = 2 | color4 = Teal | label5 = [[Unitarianism]] | value5 = 1 | color5 = Red | label6 = [[Judaism in the United States|Judaism]] | value6 = 2 | color6 = Pink | label7 = [[Buddhism in the United States|Buddhism]] | value7 = 2 | color7 = Yellow | label8 = Other religious affilation | value8 = 2 | color8 = Salmon | label9 = [[Islam in the United States|Islam]] | value9 = 1 | color9 = Green | label10 = [[Irreligion in the United States|Nothing in particular]] | value10 = 12 | color10 = White | label11 = [[Agnosticism]] | value11 = 8 | color11 = LightGrey | label12 = [[Atheism]] | value12 = 4 | color12 = Black }} Religious affiliation in the United States is among the [[List of countries ranked by ethnic and cultural diversity level|most diverse in the world]]<ref name="alesina1">{{cite journal |first=Alberto |last=Alesina |display-authors=etal |year=2003 |title=Fractionalization |url=http://www.economics.harvard.edu/faculty/alesina/files/fractionalization.pdf |journal=Journal of Economic Growth |volume=8 |issue=2 |pages=155–194 |doi=10.1023/a:1024471506938 |access-date=September 13, 2012}}</ref> and varies significantly [[List of regions of the United States|by region]]<ref name="Williams-2023">{{Cite web |last=Williams |first=Daniel |date=March 1, 2023 |title='Christian America' Isn't Dying. It's Dividing. |url=https://www.christianitytoday.com/ct/2023/february-web-only/christianity-america-pew-research-statistics-minority.html |access-date=2023-03-25 |website=[[Christianity Today]] |language=en}}</ref> and age.<ref name="Burge-2023">{{Cite web |last=Burge |first=Ryan |author-link=Ryan Burge (political scientist) |date=2023-04-03 |title=Gen Z and Religion in 2022 |url=https://religioninpublic.blog/2023/04/03/gen-z-and-religion-in-2022/ |access-date=2023-04-04 |website=Religion in Public |language=en}}</ref> The [[First Amendment to the United States Constitution|First Amendment]] guarantees the [[Free Exercise Clause|free exercise]] of religion and forbids Congress from passing laws respecting its [[Establishment Clause|establishment]].<ref name="Donadio-2021">{{Cite web |last=Donadio |first=Rachel |date=2021-11-22 |title=Why Is France So Afraid of God? |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2021/12/france-god-religion-secularism/620528/ |access-date=2023-03-25 |website=The Atlantic |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date= |title=First Amendment |url=https://constitution.congress.gov/constitution/amendment-1/#:~:text=Congress%20shall%20make%20no%20law,for%20a%20redress%20of%20grievances. |work=Constitution Annotated |publisher=[[United States Congress]]}}</ref> The country has the world's [[Christianity by country|largest Christian population]]<ref name="Global Christianity">{{cite web|author=ANALYSIS|url=https://www.pewforum.org/Christian/Global-Christianity-exec.aspx|title=Global Christianity|publisher=Pewforum.org|date=December 19, 2011|access-date=August 17, 2012|archive-date=July 30, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130730062627/http://www.pewforum.org/christian/global-christianity-exec.aspx|url-status=dead }}</ref> and a majority of Americans identify as [[Christians|Christian]], predominately [[Catholic Church|Catholic]], [[mainline Protestant]], or [[Evangelicalism|evangelical]]. According to Gallup, 58% and 17% reporting [[Prayer|praying]] often or sometimes, respectively, and 46% and 26% reporting that religion plays a very important or fairly important role, respectively, in their lives.<ref name="Gallup Poll">{{cite web |date=2022 |title=Religion Historical Trends |url=https://news.gallup.com/poll/1690/religion.aspx |website=Gallup}}</ref> Most do not regularly attend religious services<ref name="WSJ-2022" /> and have low confidence in religious institutions.<ref name="McCarthy-2019">{{Cite web |last=McCarthy |first=Justin |date=2019-07-08 |title=U.S. Confidence in Organized Religion Remains Low |url=https://news.gallup.com/poll/259964/confidence-organized-religion-remains-low.aspx |access-date=2023-01-01 |website=Gallup.com |language=en}}</ref> Until the 1990s, the country was a [[outlier|significant outlier]] among [[Developed country|highly developed]] countries, notably having [[Wealth and religion|a high level of religiosity and wealth]], although this has lessened since.<ref name="Nadeem-2022">{{Cite web |last=Nadeem |first=Reem |date=2022-09-13 |title=Modeling the Future of Religion in America |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2022/09/13/modeling-the-future-of-religion-in-america/ |access-date=2023-01-01 |website=[[Pew Research Center]] |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name="Thompson-2019">{{Cite web |last=Thompson |first=Derek |date=2019-09-26 |title=Three Decades Ago, America Lost Its Religion. Why? |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2019/09/atheism-fastest-growing-religion-us/598843/ |access-date=2022-10-02 |website=The Atlantic |language=en |quote=}}</ref> According to Gallup and Pew 81%-90% of Americans believe in a [[Higher Power|higher power]]<ref name=":8">{{Cite web |last=Jones |first=Jeffrey |date=2022-06-17 |title=Belief in God in U.S. Dips to 81%, a New Low |url=https://news.gallup.com/poll/393737/belief-god-dips-new-low.aspx |access-date=2023-01-01 |website=Gallup |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Key findings about Americans' belief in God |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2018/04/25/key-findings-about-americans-belief-in-god/ |website=Pew Research Center |date=April 25, 2018 |quote= The vast majority of Americans (90%) believe in some kind of higher power, with 56% professing faith in God as described in the Bible and another 33% saying they believe in another type of higher power or spiritual force. Only one-in-ten Americans say they don’t believe in God or a higher power of any kind.}}</ref> while "31% report attending a church, synagogue, mosque or temple weekly or nearly weekly today."<ref name="Jones-2022">{{Cite web |last=Jones |first=Jeffrey |date=2022-12-21 |title=In U.S., Childhood Churchgoing Habits Fade in Adulthood |url=https://news.gallup.com/poll/467354/childhood-churchgoing-habits-fade-adulthood.aspx |access-date=2023-01-01 |website=Gallup.com |language=en}}</ref> In the "[[Bible Belt]]", located within the [[Southern United States]], evangelical Protestantism plays a significant role culturally. [[New England]] and the [[Western United States]] tend [[Unchurched Belt|to be less religious]].<ref name="Williams-2023" /> Around 6% of Americans claim a non-Christian faith;<ref name="Nadeem-2022" /> the largest of which are [[Judaism]], [[Islam in the United States|Islam]], [[Hinduism in the United States|Hinduism]], and [[Buddhism in the United States|Buddhism]].<ref name="pew2015">{{cite web |date=May 12, 2015 |title=America's Changing Religious Landscape |url=https://www.pewforum.org/2015/05/12/americas-changing-religious-landscape/ |publisher=[[Pew Research Center]]: Religion & Public Life}}</ref> The United States either has the [[American Jews|first or second-largest Jewish population]] in the world, the largest outside of [[Israel]].<ref name="JDB">{{cite report |editor1-last=Dashefsky |editor1-first=Arnold |editor-link1=Arnold Dashefsky |editor2-last=Della Pergola |editor2-first=Sergio |editor-link2=Sergio Della Pergola |editor3-last=Sheskin |editor3-first=Ira |date=2018 |title=World Jewish Population|url=https://www.jewishdatabank.org/content/upload/bjdb/2018-World_Jewish_Population_(AJYB,_DellaPergola)_DB_Final.pdf|publisher=[[Berman Jewish DataBank]]|access-date=22 June 2019}}</ref> "[[Ceremonial deism]]" is common in American culture.<ref name="Donadio-2021" /><ref>{{Cite web |last1=Merriam |first1=Jesse |last2=Lupu |first2=Ira |last3=Elwood |first3=F |last4=Davis |first4=Eleanor |date=August 28, 2008 |title=On Ceremonial Occasions, May the Government Invoke a Deity? |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2008/08/28/on-ceremonial-occasions-may-the-government-invoke-a-deity/ |access-date=March 31, 2023 |website=Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project |language=en-US}}</ref> Around 30% of Americans describe themselves as having [[irreligion|no religion]].<ref name="Nadeem-2022" /> Membership in a house of worship fell from 70% in 1999 to 47% in 2020.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Jones |first1=Jeffrey M. |date=March 29, 2021 |title=U.S. Church Membership Falls Below Majority for First Time |language=en |work=[[Gallup Inc.]] |url=https://news.gallup.com/poll/341963/church-membership-falls-below-majority-first-time.aspx |access-date=April 5, 2021}}</ref> ===Urbanization=== {{Main|Urbanization in the United States|List of United States cities by population}} About 82% of Americans live in [[United States urban area|urban areas]], including suburbs;<ref name="WF" /> about half of those reside in cities with populations over 50,000.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/GCTTable?_bm=y&-state=gct&-ds_name=DEC_2000_SF1_U&-_box_head_nbr=GCT-P1&-mt_name=&-_caller=geoselect&-geo_id=&-format=US-1&-_lang=en|title=United States—Urban/Rural and Inside/Outside Metropolitan Area|publisher=U.S. Census Bureau|archive-url=http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20090403024532/https://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/GCTTable?_bm=y&-state=gct&-ds_name=DEC_2000_SF1_U&-_box_head_nbr=GCT-P1&-mt_name=&-_caller=geoselect&-geo_id=&-format=US-1&-_lang=en|archive-date=April 3, 2009|access-date=September 23, 2008|url-status=dead }}</ref> In 2008, 273 [[List of United States cities by population|incorporated municipalities]] had populations over 100,000, nine cities had more than one million residents, and four cities ([[New York City]], [[Los Angeles]], [[Chicago]], and [[Houston]]) had populations exceeding two million.<ref name="PopEstBigCities">{{cite web|url=https://hawaii.gov/dbedt/info/census/popestimate/copy_of_2008-subcounty-population-hawaii/SUB_EST2008_01.pdf|archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/5lpvuJk99?url=https://hawaii.gov/dbedt/info/census/popestimate/copy_of_2008-subcounty-population-hawaii/SUB_EST2008_01.pdf|archive-date=December 7, 2009|title=Table 1: Annual Estimates of the Resident Population for Incorporated Places Over 100,000, Ranked by July 1, 2008 Population: April 1, 2000 to July 1, 2008|website=2008 Population Estimates|publisher=U.S. Census Bureau, Population Division|date=July 1, 2009 }}</ref> Many U.S. metropolitan populations are growing rapidly, particularly in the South and West.<ref>{{cite web|date=April 18, 2019|title=Counties in South and West Lead Nation in Population Growth|url=https://www.census.gov/newsroom/press-releases/2019/estimates-county-metro.html|access-date=August 29, 2020|website=The United States Census Bureau|language=en}}</ref> {{Largest metropolitan areas of the United States}} ===Education=== {{Main|Education in the United States|Higher education in the United States}} [[File:University-of-Virginia-Rotunda.jpg|thumb|The [[University of Virginia]], founded by [[Thomas Jefferson]], is one of the many public colleges and universities in the United States.|alt=Photograph of the University of Virginia]] American [[state school|public education]] is operated by state and local governments and regulated by the [[United States Department of Education]] through restrictions on federal grants. In most states, children are required to attend school from the age of five or six (beginning with [[kindergarten]] or [[first grade]]) until they turn 18 (generally bringing them through [[twelfth grade]], the end of [[high school]]); some states allow students to leave school at 16 or 17.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d02/dt150.asp|title=Ages for Compulsory School Attendance ...|access-date=June 10, 2007|publisher=U.S. Dept. of Education, National Center for Education Statistics}}</ref> Of Americans 25 and older, 84.6% graduated from high school, 52.6% attended some college, 27.2% earned a [[bachelor's degree]], and 9.6% earned graduate degrees.<ref>{{cite web|title=Educational Attainment in the United States: 2003|url=https://www.census.gov/prod/2004pubs/p20-550.pdf|access-date=August 1, 2006|publisher=U.S. Census Bureau}}</ref> The basic [[literacy]] rate is approximately 99%.<ref name="WF" /><ref>For more detail on U.S. literacy, see [https://nces.ed.gov/NAAL/PDF/2006470.PDF A First Look at the Literacy of America's Adults in the 21st century], U.S. Department of Education (2003).</ref> The United States has many private and public [[Lists of American institutions of higher education|institutions of higher education]]. There are also local [[community college]]s with generally more open admission policies, shorter academic programs, and lower tuition.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Pannoni|first1=Alexandra|last2=Kerr|first2=Emma|url=https://www.usnews.com/education/community-colleges/articles/2015/02/06/frequently-asked-questions-community-college|title=Everything You Need to Know About Community Colleges: FAQ|work=[[U.S. News & World Report]]|date=July 14, 2020|access-date=July 9, 2022}}</ref> The U.S. spends more on education per student than any nation in the world,<ref>{{Cite news|last=Rushe|first=Dominic|date=September 7, 2018|title=The US spends more on education than other countries. Why is it falling behind?|language=en-GB|work=The Guardian|url=https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2018/sep/07/us-education-spending-finland-south-korea|access-date=August 29, 2020|issn=0261-3077}}</ref> spending an average of $12,794 per year on public elementary and secondary school students in the 2016–2017 school year.<ref>{{cite web|date=April 2020|title=Fast Facts: Expenditures|url=https://nces.ed.gov/fastfacts/display.asp?id=66|access-date=August 29, 2020|website=nces.ed.gov|language=EN}}</ref> As for [[public expenditure]]s on higher education, the U.S. spends more per student than the [[OECD]] average, and more than all nations in combined public and private spending.<ref name="education spending">{{cite news|date=June 25, 2013|title=U.S. education spending tops global list, study shows|publisher=CBS|agency=AP|url=https://www.cbsnews.com/8301-202_162-57590921/u.s-education-spending-tops-global-list-study-shows/|access-date=October 5, 2013}}</ref> Despite some student [[loan forgiveness]] programs in place,<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Biden administration cancelled $9.5B in student loan debt. Here's who it affects. |url=https://usafacts.org/articles/the-biden-administration-cancelled-95b-in-student-loan-debt-heres-who-it-affects/ |access-date=July 15, 2022 |website=USAFacts |language=en}}</ref> [[Student debt|student loan debt]] has increased by 102% in the last decade,<ref>{{cite news|last=Hess|first=Abigail Johnson|date=December 22, 2020|title=U.S. student debt has increased by more than 100% over the past 10 years|work=CNBC|location=|url=https://www.cnbc.com/2020/12/22/us-student-debt-has-increased-by-more-than-100percent-over-past-10-years.html|access-date=January 8, 2022}}</ref> and exceeded 1.7&nbsp;trillion dollars as of 2022.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Dickler|first1=Jessica|last2=Nova|first2=Annie|date=May 6, 2022|title=This is how student loan debt became a $1.7 trillion crisis|url=https://www.cnbc.com/2022/05/06/this-is-how-student-loan-debt-became-a-1point7-trillion-crisis.html|work=CNBC|location=|access-date=July 8, 2022}}</ref> The large majority of the world's top universities, as listed by various ranking organizations, are in the United States, including 19 of the top 25, and the most prestigious{{ww|date=May 2023}}{{or|date=May 2023}} – the [[Harvard University]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Fink |first=Jenni |date=2019-10-22 |title=U.S. Schools Take 8 of 10 Top Spots on U.S. News' Best Global Universities |url=https://www.newsweek.com/us-news-best-global-universities-american-schools-dominate-top-10-1466768 |access-date=2023-04-18 |website=Newsweek |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Nietzel |first=Michael T. |date=March 22, 2023 |title=U.S. Universities Dominate Latest QS World Rankings By Academic Field |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/michaeltnietzel/2023/03/22/us-universities-dominate-latest-qs-world-rankings-by-academic-field/ |access-date=2023-04-18 |website=Forbes |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.usnews.com/news/best-countries/best-countries-for-education |title=Best Countries for Education: North American and European countries are seen as offering the best opportunities for education. |website=U.S. News & World Report |date=April 19, 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.usnews.com/education/best-global-universities/rankings |title=2022-2023 Best Global Universities Rankings |website=[[U.S. News & World Report]] |access-date=April 27, 2023}}</ref> The country also has by far the most [[List of Nobel laureates by country|Nobel Prize winners]] in history, with 403 (having won 406 awards).<ref>{{Cite web |title=All Nobel Prizes |url=https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/lists/all-nobel-prizes |website=NobelPrize.org}}</ref> ===Health=== {{See also|Health care in the United States|Health care reform in the United States|Health insurance in the United States}} [[File:Texas medical center.jpg|thumb|The [[Texas Medical Center]] in downtown [[Houston]] is the largest medical complex in the world.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.newsweek.com/texas-medical-center-largest-medical-complex-world-reaches-98-percent-icu-capacity-1526180 | title=Texas Medical Center, largest medical complex in the world, reaches 98 percent ICU capacity | website=[[Newsweek]] | date=August 19, 2020 }}</ref> |alt=The Texas Medical Center, a cluster of contemporary skyscrapers, at night]] In a preliminary report, the [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]] (CDC) announced that U.S. [[life expectancy]] at birth had dropped to 76.4 years in 2021 (73.2 years for men and 79.1 years for women), down 0.9 years from 2020. This was the second year of overall decline, and the chief causes listed were the [[COVID-19]] pandemic, accidents, drug overdoses, heart and liver disease, and suicides.<ref>{{cite web|title=Life Expectancy in the United States Declines, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Health Statistics|url=https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/pressroom/nchs_press_releases/2022/20220831.htm|website=www.cdc.gov|access-date=September 3, 2022|date=August 31, 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Noguchi|first=Yuki |date=December 22, 2022 |title=American life expectancy is now at its lowest in nearly two decades|url=https://www.npr.org/sections/health-shots/2022/12/22/1144864971/american-life-expectancy-is-now-at-its-lowest-in-nearly-two-decades|work=[[NPR]] |location= |access-date=December 27, 2022}}</ref> Life expectancy was highest among Asians and Hispanics and lowest among Blacks and American Indian–Alaskan Native ([[AIAN (U.S. Census)|AIAN]]) peoples.<ref>{{cite web|date=November 29, 2018|title=Mortality in the United States, 2017|url=https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/products/databriefs/db328.htm|access-date=December 27, 2018|website=www.cdc.gov}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last1=Bernstein|first1=Lenny|date=November 29, 2018|title=U.S. life expectancy declines again, a dismal trend not seen since World War I|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/national/health-science/us-life-expectancy-declines-again-a-dismal-trend-not-seen-since-world-war-i/2018/11/28/ae58bc8c-f28c-11e8-bc79-68604ed88993_story.html|access-date=December 27, 2018}}</ref> Starting in 1998, the average life expectancy in the U.S. fell behind that of other wealthy industrialized countries, and Americans' "health disadvantage" gap has been increasing ever since.<ref>{{cite news|last=Achenbach|first=Joel|date=November 26, 2019|title='There's something terribly wrong': Americans are dying young at alarming rates|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/health/theres-something-terribly-wrong-americans-are-dying-young-at-alarming-rates/2019/11/25/d88b28ec-0d6a-11ea-8397-a955cd542d00_story.html|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|access-date=December 19, 2019}}</ref> The U.S. also has one of the highest [[Suicide in the United States|suicide]] rates among [[high-income countries]],<ref>{{cite web|date=January 30, 2020|title=New International Report on Health Care: U.S. Suicide Rate Highest Among Wealthy Nations {{!}} Commonwealth Fund|url=https://www.commonwealthfund.org/press-release/2020/new-international-report-health-care-us-suicide-rate-highest-among-wealthy|access-date=March 17, 2020|website=www.commonwealthfund.org|language=en}}</ref> and approximately one-third of the U.S. adult population is obese and another third is overweight.<ref>{{cite web|title=Prevalence of Overweight and Obesity Among Adults: United States, 2003–2004|url=https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/products/pubs/pubd/hestats/overweight/overwght_adult_03.htm|access-date=June 5, 2007|publisher=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Health Statistics}}</ref> In 2010, [[coronary artery disease]], [[lung cancer]], [[stroke]], [[chronic obstructive pulmonary disease]]s, and traffic collisions caused the most years of life lost in the U.S. [[Low back pain]], [[major depressive disorder|depression]], [[musculoskeletal disorder]]s, [[neck pain]], and [[anxiety]] caused the most years lost to disability. The most harmful [[risk factor]]s were poor diet, [[tobacco smoking]], obesity, [[Hypertension|high blood pressure]], [[Hyperglycemia|high blood sugar]], [[physical inactivity]], and [[Alcohol consumption and health|alcohol consumption]]. [[Alzheimer's disease]], [[substance use disorder]]s, [[kidney disease]], [[cancer]], and falls caused the most additional years of life lost over their age-adjusted 1990 per-capita rates.<ref name="Murray2013">{{cite journal|first=Christopher J.L.|last=Murray|title=The State of US Health, 1990–2010: Burden of Diseases, Injuries, and Risk Factors|journal=Journal of the American Medical Association|doi=10.1001/jama.2013.13805|date=July 10, 2013|volume=310|issue=6|pages=591–608|pmid=23842577|pmc=5436627 }}</ref> [[Teenage pregnancy in the United States|Teenage pregnancy]] and [[Abortion in the United States|abortion]] rates in the U.S. are substantially higher than in other Western nations, especially among blacks and Hispanics.<ref>{{cite web|title=About Teen Pregnancy|url=https://www.cdc.gov/TeenPregnancy/AboutTeenPreg.htm|publisher=Center for Disease Control|access-date=January 24, 2015}}</ref> The U.S. health care system far [[List of countries by total health expenditure (PPP) per capita|outspends]] that of any other nation, measured both in per capita spending and as a percentage of GDP but attains worse health care outcomes when compared to peer nations.<ref>{{cite web|year=2001|title=The U.S. Healthcare System: The Best in the World or Just the Most Expensive?|url=https://dll.umaine.edu/ble/U.S.+HCweb.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/20070309142240/https://dll.umaine.edu:80/ble/U.S.%20HCweb.pdf|archive-date=March 9, 2007|access-date=November 29, 2006|publisher=University of Maine}}{{cbignore}}</ref> The United States is the only developed nation [[Healthcare reform in the United States|without a system of universal health care]], and a [[Health insurance coverage in the United States|significant proportion of the population that does not carry health insurance]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Vladeck|first=Bruce|title=Universal Health Insurance in the United States: Reflections on the Past, the Present, and the Future|date=January 2003|volume=93|number=1|pages=16–19|pmid=12511377|doi=10.2105/ajph.93.1.16|journal=[[American Journal of Public Health]]|pmc=1447684 }}</ref> The U.S., however, is a global leader in medical innovation, measured either in terms of revenue or the number of new drugs and devices introduced.<ref name="EFPIA">{{cite web|url=http://www.efpia.org/content/Default.asp?PageID=388|title=Improving Europe's competitiveness|publisher=[[European Federation of Pharmaceutical Industries and Associations|EFPIA]]|access-date=November 6, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090823030103/http://www.efpia.org/content/Default.asp?PageID=388|archive-date=August 23, 2009}}</ref><ref name="Europe">Stats from 2007 Europ.Fed.of Pharm.Indust.and Assoc. Retrieved June 17, 2009, from [http://212.3.246.100/Objects/2/Files/infigures2007.pdf]{{dead link|date=October 2017|bot=InternetArchiveBot|fix-attempted=yes}}</ref> The Foundation for Research on Equal Opportunity ranked the United States 11th in its World Index of Healthcare Innovation; it concluded that the U.S. dominates science & technology, which "was on full display during the COVID-19 pandemic, as the U.S. government [delivered] coronavirus vaccines far faster than anyone had ever done before," but lags behind in fiscal sustainability, with "[government] spending [...] growing at an unsustainable rate."<ref>{{cite web|url=https://freopp.org/united-states-11-in-the-2022-world-index-of-healthcare-innovation-7175b47ab5d7|title=United States: #11 in the 2022 World Index of Healthcare Innovation. America's runaway leadership in science & technology is marred by a fiscally unsustainable system of costly health care.|website=freopp.org|author=Grant Rigney|date=March 3, 2023|access-date=April 27, 2023}}</ref> Government-funded health care coverage for the poor ([[Medicaid]], established in 1965) and for those age 65 and older ([[Medicare (United States)|Medicare]], begun in 1966) is available to Americans who meet the programs' income or age qualifications. In 2010, former President Obama passed the [[Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act]] or ACA,{{efn|Also known less formally as Obamacare}}<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Oberlander|first=Jonathan|date=June 1, 2010| title=Long Time Coming: Why Health Reform Finally Passed|journal=Health Affairs|language=en|volume=29|issue=6|pages=1112–1116|doi=10.1377/hlthaff.2010.0447| pmid=20530339|issn=0278-2715|doi-access=free}}</ref> with the law roughly halving the uninsured share of the population according to the CDC.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/nhis/earlyrelease/earlyrelease201611_01.pdf|title=National Health Interview Survey, January to June 2016|website=CDC.gov|access-date=November 23, 2016}}</ref> Multiple studies have concluded that ACA had reduced the mortality of enrollees.<ref name="NYT20200323GoodnoughAbelsonetAl">{{cite news|first1=Abby|last1=Goodnough|first2=Reed|last2=Abelson|first3=Margot|last3=Sanger-Katz|first4=Sarah|last4=Kliff|title=Obamacare Turns 10. Here's a Look at What Works and Doesn't.|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/03/23/health/obamacare-aca-coverage-cost-history.html|access-date=March 31, 2020|date=March 23, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200330105840/https://www.nytimes.com/2020/03/23/health/obamacare-aca-coverage-cost-history.html|archive-date=March 30, 2020|work=The New York Times}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Miller|first1=Sarah|last2=Altekruse|first2=Sean|last3=Johnson|first3=Norman|last4=Wherry|first4=Laura|date=July 2019|title=Medicaid and Mortality: New Evidence from Linked Survey and Administrative Data|location=Cambridge, MA|publisher=National Bureau of Economic Research|series=NBER Working Paper No. 26081|doi=10.3386/w26081|s2cid=164463149|url=http://www.nber.org/papers/w26081.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Goldin|first1=Jacob|last2=Lurie|first2=Ithai Z.|last3=McCubbin|first3=Janet|title=Health Insurance and Mortality: Experimental Evidence from Taxpayer Outreach|journal=The Quarterly Journal of Economics|year=2020|volume=136|pages=1–49|language=en|doi=10.1093/qje/qjaa029|doi-access=free}}</ref> However, its legacy [[Criticism of Obamacare|remains controversial]].<ref>{{cite web|last=Mathews|first=Anna Wilde|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/why-is-aca-still-controversial-11-years-after-healthcare-law-known-as-obamacare-was-passed-11623962729|title=Why Is ACA Still Controversial 11 Years After Healthcare Law Known as Obamacare Was Passed?|work=[[Wall Street Journal]]|date=June 17, 2021|access-date=July 18, 2022}}</ref> ==Culture and society== {{Main|Culture of the United States|Society of the United States}} [[File:Liberty02.jpg|thumb|upright|The [[Statue of Liberty]] (''Liberty Enlightening the World''), a gift from [[France]], has become an iconic symbol of the [[American Dream]].<ref>{{cite web| title = Statue of Liberty| website=World Heritage| publisher=UNESCO| url = https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/307| access-date = January 4, 2022}}</ref>|alt=The Statue of Liberty, a large teal bronze sculpture on a stone pedestal]] Americans have traditionally [[Stereotypes of Americans|been characterized]] by a unifying belief in an "[[American civil religion|American creed]]" emphasizing liberty, [[equality under the law]], democracy, [[social equality]], [[property rights]], and a preference for [[limited government]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Huntington |first=Samuel P. |url=https://archive.org/details/whoarewechalleng00hunt |title=Who are We?: The Challenges to America's National Identity |publisher=Simon & Schuster |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-684-87053-3 |chapter=Chapters 2–4 |author-link=Samuel P. Huntington |access-date=October 25, 2015 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6xiYiybkE8kC&q=core}}: also see [[American Creed]], written by [[William Tyler Page]] and adopted by Congress in 1918.</ref><ref>Hoeveler, J. David, ''Creating the American Mind: Intellect and Politics in the Colonial Colleges'', Rowman & Littlefield, {{ISBN|978-0742548398}}, 2007, p. xi</ref> [[Individualism]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Grabb |first1=Edward |last2=Baer |first2=Douglas |last3=Curtis |first3=James |year=1999 |title=The Origins of American Individualism: Reconsidering the Historical Evidence |journal=[[Canadian Journal of Sociology]] |publisher=[[University of Alberta]] |volume=24 |pages=511–533 |doi=10.2307/3341789 |issn=0318-6431 |jstor=3341789 |number=4}}</ref> having a strong [[work ethic]],<ref>{{cite journal |last=Porter |first=Gayle |date=November 2010 |title=Work Ethic and Ethical Work: Distortions in the American Dream |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-business-ethics_2010-11_96_4/page/535 |journal=[[Journal of Business Ethics]] |publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]] |volume=96 |pages=535–550 |doi=10.1007/s10551-010-0481-6 |jstor=29789736 |s2cid=143991044 |number=4}}</ref> [[Competition (economics)|competitiveness]],<ref>{{cite journal |last=Stephens |first=R.H. |date=September 1952 |title=The Role Of Competition In American Life |journal=[[The Australian Quarterly]] |publisher=[[Australian Institute of Policy and Science]] |volume=24 |pages=9–14 |jstor=41317686 |number=3}}</ref> and [[altruism]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://good2give.ngo/wp-content/uploads/2022/09/2022-CAF-World-Giving-Index.pdf |title=World Giving Index 2022 |website=[[Charities Aid Foundation]] |access-date=April 27, 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Country-level estimates of altruism |url=https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/cross-country-variation-in-altruism |access-date=2023-03-14 |website=Our World in Data}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Marsh |first=Abigail |date=February 5, 2018 |title=Could A More Individualistic World Also Be A More Altruistic One? |url=https://www.npr.org/sections/13.7/2018/02/05/581873428/could-a-more-individualistic-world-also-be-a-more-altruistic-one |access-date=March 14, 2023 |website=[[National Public Radio]]}}</ref> are also cited values. According to a 2016 study by the [[Charities Aid Foundation]], Americans donated 1.44% of total GDP to charity, the [[List of countries by charitable donation|highest]] in the world by a large margin.<ref>{{cite web |date=January 2016 |title=GROSS DOMESTIC PHILANTHROPY: An international analysis of GDP, tax and giving |url=https://www.cafonline.org/docs/default-source/about-us-policy-and-campaigns/gross-domestic-philanthropy-feb-2016.pdf |access-date=July 18, 2022 |publisher=[[Charities Aid Foundation]]}}</ref> The United States is home to a [[Multiculturalism|wide variety]] of ethnic groups, traditions, and values,<ref name="DD">{{cite book |last1=Adams |first1=J.Q. |title=Dealing with diversity : the anthology |url=https://archive.org/details/dealingwithdiver0000adam |last2=Strother-Adams |first2=Pearlie |date=2001 |publisher=Kendall/Hunt Pub |isbn=978-0-7872-8145-8 |location=Chicago}}</ref><ref name="Society in Focus">{{cite book |last1=Thompson |first1=William E. |title=Society in focus : an introduction to sociology |url=https://archive.org/details/societyinfocusin0000will |last2=Hickey |first2=Joseph V. |date=2004 |publisher=Pearson/Allyn and Bacon |isbn=978-0-205-41365-2 |edition=5th |location=Boston}}</ref> and exerts major cultural influence on a global scale,<ref>[[#BBC18may|BBC, April 2008: Country Profile: United States of America]]</ref><ref>{{Cite magazine |last1=Fergie |first1=Dexter |date=March 24, 2022 |title=How American Culture Ate the World |url=https://newrepublic.com/article/165836/american-culture-ate-world-righteous-smokescreen-globalization-review |magazine=The New Republic |issn=0028-6583 |access-date=July 3, 2022}}</ref> with the phenomenon being termed ''[[Americanization]]''.<ref name="stead1901">{{cite book | url=https://archive.org/stream/americanizationo01stea#page/392/mode/2up | title=The Americanization of the World | publisher=Horace Markley | author=Stead, W. T. | year=1901 | page=393}}</ref> As such, the U.S. is considered a [[cultural superpower]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Berghahn |first=Volker R. |date=2010-02-01 |title=The debate on 'Americanization' among economic and cultural historians |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/14682740903388566 |journal=Cold War History |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=107–130 |doi=10.1080/14682740903388566 |s2cid=144459911 |issn=1468-2745}}</ref> Nearly all present Americans or their ancestors came from [[Afro-Eurasia|Eurafrasia]] ("the [[Old World]]") within the past five centuries.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Fiorina|first1=Morris P.|author-link1=Morris P. Fiorina|last2=Peterson|first2=Paul E.|title=The New American democracy|url=https://archive.org/details/newamericandemoc0007edunse|date=2010|publisher=Longman|location=London|isbn=978-0-205-78016-7|page=[https://archive.org/details/newamericandemoc0007edunse/page/97 97]|edition=7th}}</ref> [[wikt:mainstream|Mainstream]] American culture is a [[Western culture]] largely derived from the [[European American|traditions of European immigrants]] with influences from many other sources, such as [[African-American culture|traditions brought by slaves from Africa]].<ref name="DD" /><ref>{{cite book|last1=Holloway|first1=Joseph E.|title=Africanisms in American culture|url=https://archive.org/details/africanismsiname0000unse|date=2005|publisher=Indiana University Press|location=Bloomington|isbn=978-0-253-21749-3|pages=[https://archive.org/details/africanismsiname0000unse/page/18 18]–38|edition=2nd}}<br />{{cite book|last1=Johnson|first1=Fern L.|title=Speaking culturally : language diversity in the United States|url=https://archive.org/details/speakingcultural0000john|publisher=Sage Publications|isbn=978-0-8039-5912-5|page=[https://archive.org/details/speakingcultural0000john/page/116 116]|year=2000 }}</ref> More recent immigration from [[Asian American|Asia]] and especially [[Latin American culture|Latin America]] has added to a cultural mix that has been described as a homogenizing [[melting pot]], and a heterogeneous [[salad bowl (cultural idea)|salad bowl]], with immigrants contributing to, and often [[Assimilation (phonology)|assimilating]] into, mainstream American culture.<ref name="DD" /> The [[American Dream]], or the perception that Americans enjoy high [[Socio-economic mobility in the United States|social mobility]], plays a key role in attracting immigrants.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.gallup.com/poll/161435/100-million-worldwide-dream-life.aspx|title=More Than 100 Million Worldwide Dream of a Life in the U.S. More than 25% in Liberia, Sierra Leone, Dominican Republic want to move to the U.S.|last=Clifton|first=Jon|date=March 21, 2013|publisher=Gallup|access-date=January 10, 2014}}</ref> Whether this perception is accurate has been a topic of debate.<ref name="socialmobility">*{{cite web|url=https://www.oecd.org/tax/public-finance/chapter%205%20gfg%202010.pdf|title=A Family Affair: Intergenerational Social Mobility across OECD Countries|publisher=OECD|website=Economic Policy Reforms: Going for Growth|year=2010|access-date=September 20, 2010}} *{{cite web|url=https://www.suttontrust.com/reports/IntergenerationalMobility.pdf|title=Intergenerational Mobility in Europe and North America|author1=Blanden, Jo|author2=Gregg, Paul|author3=Machin, Stephen|publisher=Centre for Economic Performance|date=April 2005|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060623094610/https://www.suttontrust.com/reports/IntergenerationalMobility.pdf|archive-date=June 23, 2006}} *{{cite web|last1=Gould|first1=Elise|title=U.S. lags behind peer countries in mobility|url=https://www.epi.org/publication/usa-lags-peer-countries-mobility/|website=[[Economic Policy Institute]]|access-date=July 15, 2013|date=October 10, 2012}} *{{cite journal|last=Winship|first=Scott|title=Overstating the Costs of Inequality|journal=National Affairs|date=Spring 2013|url=https://www.brookings.edu/~/media/Research/Files/Articles/2013/03/overstating%20inequality%20costs%20winship/overstating%20inequality%20costs%20winship.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131024141452/https://www.brookings.edu/~/media/Research/Files/Articles/2013/03/overstating%20inequality%20costs%20winship/overstating%20inequality%20costs%20winship.pdf|archive-date=October 24, 2013|access-date=January 10, 2014 }}</ref><ref name="CAP">{{cite web|title=Understanding Mobility in America|url=https://www.americanprogress.org/issues/economy/news/2006/04/26/1917/understanding-mobility-in-america/|website=Center for American Progress|date=April 26, 2006}}</ref><ref name="Schneider">{{cite web|last=Schneider|first=Donald|title=A Guide to Understanding International Comparisons of Economic Mobility|url=https://www.heritage.org/research/reports/2013/07/a-guide-to-understanding-international-comparisons-of-economic-mobility|publisher=The Heritage Foundation|access-date=August 22, 2013|date=July 29, 2013}}</ref> While mainstream culture holds that the United States is a [[classless society]],<ref>{{cite book|last=Gutfeld|first=Amon|year=2002|title=American Exceptionalism: The Effects of Plenty on the American Experience|publisher=Sussex Academic Press|location=Brighton and Portland|page=65|isbn=978-1-903900-08-6}}</ref> scholars identify significant differences between [[Social class in the United States|the country's social classes]], affecting [[socialization]], language, and values.<ref>{{cite book|last=Zweig|first=Michael|year=2004|title=What's Class Got To Do With It, American Society in the Twenty-First Century|publisher=Cornell University Press|location=Ithaca, NY|isbn=978-0-8014-8899-3}} {{cite web|url=https://eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/Home.portal?_nfpb=true&_pageLabel=RecordDetails&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=ED309843&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=eric_accno&objectId=0900000b800472a5|title=Effects of Social Class and Interactive Setting on Maternal Speech|publisher=Education Resource Information Center|access-date=January 27, 2007}}</ref> Americans tend to greatly value [[socioeconomics|socioeconomic]] achievement, but being [[Average Joe|ordinary or average]] is promoted by some as a noble condition.<ref>{{cite book|last=O'Keefe|first=Kevin|year=2005|title=The Average American|publisher=PublicAffairs|location=New York|isbn=978-1-58648-270-1|url=https://archive.org/details/averageamericant00okee }}</ref> The United States is considered to have the [[Freedom of speech by country|strongest protections of free speech of any country]] in the world under the [[First Amendment to the United States Constitution|First Amendment]],<ref>{{Cite book |last=Coleman |first=Gabriella |title=Coding Freedom |url=https://archive.org/details/codingfreedometh0000cole |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |year=2013 |isbn=9780691144610 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/codingfreedometh0000cole/page/10 10], 201 |author-link=Gabriella Coleman}}</ref> with the Supreme Court ruling that [[flag desecration]], [[Hate speech laws by country|hate speech]], [[Blasphemy law|blasphemy]], and [[Lèse-majesté|lese-majesty]] are all forms of protected expression.<ref>{{Cite web |date=September 19, 2012 |title=Held Dear In U.S., Free Speech Perplexing Abroad |url=https://www.npr.org/2012/09/19/161439562/held-dear-in-u-s-free-speech-perplexing-abroad |access-date=March 4, 2023 |website=[[National Public Radio]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Liptak |first=Adam |date=11 June 2008 |title=Hate speech or free speech? What much of West bans is protected in U.S. |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/06/11/world/americas/11iht-hate.4.13645369.html |url-access=limited |access-date=February 21, 2023 |work=[[The New York Times]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Durkee |first=Alison |date=April 25, 2018 |title=What if we didn't... have the First Amendment? |url=https://www.mic.com/articles/188402/what-if-we-didnt-have-the-first-amendment |access-date=2023-02-06 |website=Mic |language=en}}</ref> A 2016 [[Pew Research Center]] poll found that Americans were the most supportive of free expression of any polity measured.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Wike |first=Richard |title=Americans more tolerant of offensive speech than others in the world |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2016/10/12/americans-more-tolerant-of-offensive-speech-than-others-in-the-world/ |access-date=2023-02-06 |website=Pew Research Center |language=en-US}}</ref> They are also the "most supportive of [[freedom of the press]] and the [[Right to Internet access|right to use the Internet]] without government censorship."<ref>{{Cite web |last=Gray |first=Alex |date=November 8, 2016 |title=Freedom of speech: which country has the most? |url=https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2016/11/freedom-of-speech-country-comparison/ |access-date=2023-02-06 |website=World Economic Forum |language=en}}</ref> It is a [[Cultural liberalism|socially progressive]] country<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Norris |first=Pippa |author-link=Pippa Norris |date=February 2023 |title=Cancel Culture: Myth or Reality? |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/00323217211037023 |journal=Political Studies |language=en |volume=71 |issue=1 |pages=145–174 |doi=10.1177/00323217211037023 |s2cid=238647612 |issn=0032-3217 |quote=As predicted, in post-industrial societies, characterized by predominately liberal social cultures, like the US, Sweden, and UK...}}</ref> with [[Permissive society|permissive]] attitudes surrounding [[human sexuality]].<ref name="auto1">{{Cite book |last1=Derks |first1=Marco |title=Public Discourses About Homosexuality and Religion in Europe and Beyond |last2=van den Berg |first2=Mariecke |publisher=[[Springer International Publishing]] |year=2020 |isbn=9783030563264 |pages=338 |quote=...(the United States and [Western] Europe) as "already in crisis" for their permissive attitudes toward nonnormative sexualities...}}</ref> [[LGBT rights in the United States|LGBT rights in the U.S.]] are among the most advanced in the world.<ref name="auto1" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=Leveille |first=Dan |date=December 4, 2009 |title=LGBT Equality Index: The most LGBT-friendly countries in the world |url=https://www.equaldex.com/equality-index |access-date=January 26, 2023 |website=[[Equaldex]] |quote=13.) United States}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Garretson |first=Jeremiah |title=The Path to Gay Rights: How Activism and Coming Out Changed Public Opinion |url=https://archive.org/details/pathtogayrightsh0000garr |publisher=[[New York University Press]] |year=2018 |isbn=9781479850075 |page= |chapter=A Transformed Society: LGBT Rights in the United States |quote=In the late 1980s and early 1990s, a dramatic wave began to form in the waters of public opinion: American attitudes involving homosexuality began to change... The transformation of America's response to homosexuality has been — and continues to be — one of the most rapid and sustained shifts in mass attitudes since the start of public polling.}}</ref> ===Literature and visual arts=== {{Main|American literature|American philosophy|Architecture of the United States|Visual art of the United States}} [[File:Mark Twain by AF Bradley.jpg|thumb|253x253px|[[Mark Twain]], American author and [[humorist]]|alt=Photograph of Mark Twain]] In the 18th and early 19th centuries, American art and literature took most of their cues from Europe, contributing to Western culture. Writers such as [[Washington Irving]], [[Nathaniel Hawthorne]], [[Edgar Allan Poe]], and [[Henry David Thoreau]] established a distinctive American literary voice by the middle of the 19th century. [[Mark Twain]] and poet [[Walt Whitman]] were major figures in the century's second half; [[Emily Dickinson]], virtually unknown during her lifetime, is recognized as an essential American poet.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Harold|first1=Bloom|author-link1=Harold Bloom|title=Emily Dickinson|date=1999|publisher=Chelsea House Publishers|location=Broomall, PA|isbn=978-0-7910-5106-1|page=[https://archive.org/details/emilydickinson00bloo/page/9 9]|url=https://archive.org/details/emilydickinson00bloo/page/9 }}</ref> In the 1920s, the [[Harlem Renaissance|New Negro Movement]] coalesced in Harlem, where many writers had migrated (some coming from the South, others from the West Indies). Its pan-African perspective was a significant cultural export during the [[Jazz Age]] in Paris and as such was a key early influence on the ''[[négritude]]'' philosophy.<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Philipson | first = Robert | title = The Harlem Renaissance as Postcolonial Phenomenon | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_african-american-review_spring-2006_40_1/page/145 | journal = African American Review | volume = 40 | issue = 1 | year = 2006 | pages = 145–160 | jstor = 40027037}}</ref> There have been a multitude of candidates for the "[[Great American Novel]]"—works seen as embodying and examining the essence and character of the United States—including [[Herman Melville]]'s ''[[Moby-Dick]]'' (1851), [[Harriet Beecher Stowe]]'s ''[[Uncle Tom's Cabin]]'' (1852), Twain's ''[[Adventures of Huckleberry Finn|The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn]]'' (1885), [[F. Scott Fitzgerald]]'s ''[[The Great Gatsby]]'' (1925), [[John Steinbeck]]'s ''[[The Grapes of Wrath]]'' (1939), [[Harper Lee]]'s ''[[To Kill a Mockingbird]]'' (1960), [[Toni Morrison]]'s [[Beloved (novel)|''Beloved'']] (1987), and [[David Foster Wallace]]'s ''[[Infinite Jest]]'' (1996).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Buell |first=Lawrence |title=The Dream of the Great American Novel |url=https://archive.org/details/dreamofgreatamer0000buel |publisher=[[Harvard University Press]] |year=2014 |isbn=9780674051157 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/dreamofgreatamer0000buel/page/57 57] |oclc=871257583 |author-link=Lawrence Buell}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | first = Lawrence | last = Buell | title = The Rise and 'Fall' of the Great American Novel | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_american-antiquarian-society-proceedings_1994_104_2/page/261 | journal = Proceedings of the American Antiquarian Society | date = October 1994 | volume = 104 | issue = 2 | pages = 261–283 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=Buell, Lawrence|title=The Unkillable Dream of the Great American Novel: ''Moby-Dick'' as Test Case|date=Spring–Summer 2008|volume=20|issue=1–2|pages=132–155|doi=10.1093/alh/ajn005|journal=American Literary History|s2cid=170250346|issn=0896-7148|url=https://nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:31740086 }}</ref> Thirteen U.S. citizens have won the [[Nobel Prize in Literature]], most recently [[Louise Glück]], [[Bob Dylan]], and Toni Morrison.<ref>{{Cite web | title = All Nobel Prizes in Literature | website = NobelPrize.org | author = Nobel Prize Outreach AB 2023 | access-date = 23 Mar 2023 | url = https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/lists/all-nobel-prizes-in-literature | language = en}}</ref> Earlier laureates [[William Faulkner]], [[Ernest Hemingway]] and John Steinbeck have also been recognized as influential 20th century writers.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Edward|first1=Quinn|title=A dictionary of literary and thematic terms|date=2006|publisher=Facts On File|isbn=978-0-8160-6243-0|page=[https://archive.org/details/dictionaryoflite0002quin/page/361 361]|edition=2nd|url=https://archive.org/details/dictionaryoflite0002quin/page/361 }}</ref> In the visual arts, the [[Hudson River School]] was a mid-19th-century movement in the tradition of European [[Realism (arts)|naturalism]]. The 1913 [[Armory Show]] in New York City, an exhibition of European [[modern art|modernist art]], shocked the public and transformed the U.S. art scene.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Brown|first1=Milton W.|title=The Story of the Armory Show|date=1963|publisher=Abbeville Press|location=New York|isbn=978-0-89659-795-2|edition=2nd|url=https://archive.org/details/storyofarmorysho00brow }}</ref> [[Georgia O'Keeffe]], [[Marsden Hartley]], and others experimented with new, individualistic styles, which would become known as [[American modernism]]. Major artistic movements such as the [[abstract expressionism]] of [[Jackson Pollock]] and [[Willem de Kooning]] and the [[pop art]] of [[Andy Warhol]] and [[Roy Lichtenstein]] developed largely in the United States. The tide of modernism and then [[postmodernism]] has brought global fame to American architects such as [[Frank Lloyd Wright]], [[Philip Johnson]], and [[Frank Gehry]].<ref name="JansonJanson2003">{{cite book|last1=Janson|first1=Horst Woldemar|last2=Janson|first2=Anthony F.|title=History of Art: The Western Tradition|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MMYHuvhWBH4C&pg=PT955|year=2003|publisher=Prentice Hall Professional|isbn=978-0-13-182895-7|page=955}}</ref> Major photographers include [[Alfred Stieglitz]], [[Edward Steichen]], [[Dorothea Lange]], [[Edward Weston]], [[James Van Der Zee]], [[Ansel Adams]], and [[Gordon Parks]].<ref name="Davenport1991">{{cite book|last=Davenport|first=Alma|title=The History of Photography: An Overview|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hca5H_rJZnUC&pg=PA67|year=1991|publisher=UNM Press|isbn=978-0-8263-2076-6|page=67}}</ref> The most notable American architectural innovation has been the [[skyscraper]]. By some measures, what came to be known as a "skyscraper" in the modern world, first appeared in [[Chicago]] with the 1885 completion of the world's first largely steel-frame structure, the [[Home Insurance Building]]. One culturally significant early skyscraper was New York City's [[Woolworth Building]] designed by architect [[Cass Gilbert]]. Raising previous technological advances to new heights, 793&nbsp;ft (233 m), it was the world's tallest building in 1913–1930.<ref name="WDL">{{cite web |url = http://www.wdl.org/en/item/11376/ |title = Study for Woolworth Building, New York |website = [[World Digital Library]] |date = 1910-12-10 |access-date = 2013-07-25 }}</ref> ===Cinema and theater=== {{Main|Cinema of the United States|Theater in the United States}} [[File:Hollywood Sign (Zuschnitt).jpg|thumb|230px|The iconic [[Hollywood Sign]] in [[Los Angeles]], California|alt=The Hollywood Sign, large white block letters on a hillside]] The United States movie industry has a worldwide influence and following. [[Hollywood, Los Angeles|Hollywood]], a northern district of Los Angeles, California, is the leader in motion picture production and the most recognizable movie industry in the world.<ref>{{cite book|title=Annual Report of the Controller of the City of Los Angeles, California|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1VbOAAAAMAAJ&q=Hollywood+merged+with+City+of+Los+Angeles+in+1910&pg=PA193|publisher=By[[Office controller|Office of Controller]] Los Angeles, CA (1914)|access-date=February 22, 2014|year = 1914}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Report of the Auditor of the City of Los Angeles California of the Financial Affairs of the Corporation in Its Capacity as a City for the Fiscal Year|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cPo2AQAAMAAJ&q=Hollywood+merged+with+City+of+Los+Angeles+in+1910&pg=PA173|publisher=By [[State auditor|Auditor's Office]] of Los Angeles, CA (1913)|access-date=February 22, 2014|year = 1913}}</ref><ref>{{cite press release|url=https://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=30707|title=Nigeria surpasses Hollywood as world's second-largest film producer|publisher=United Nations|date=May 5, 2009|access-date=February 17, 2013}}</ref> The [[major film studios]] of the United States are the primary source of the [[List of highest-grossing films|most commercially successful]] and most ticket selling movies in the world.<ref name="Kerrigan_Page_18">{{cite book |last1=Kerrigan |first1=Finola |title=Film Marketing |date=2010 |publisher=Butterworth-Heinemann |location=Oxford |isbn=9780750686839 |page=18 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ufMdvuuTQ7MC&pg=PA18 |access-date=4 February 2022}}</ref><ref name="Davis">{{cite book |last1=Davis |first1=Glyn |last2=Dickinson |first2=Kay |last3=Patti |first3=Lisa |last4=Villarejo |first4=Amy |title=Film Studies: A Global Introduction |date=2015 |publisher=Routledge |location=Abingdon |isbn=9781317623380 |page=299 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dnXABgAAQBAJ&pg=PA299 |access-date=24 August 2020}}</ref> The world's first commercial motion picture exhibition was given in New York City in 1894, using the [[Kinetoscope]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Billboard|url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_cBoEAAAAMBAJ|date=April 29, 1944|page=[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_cBoEAAAAMBAJ/page/n67 68]|publisher=Nielsen Business Media|issn=0006-2510}}</ref> Since the early 20th century, the U.S. film industry has largely been based in and around Hollywood, although in the 21st century an increasing number of films are not made there, and film companies have been subject to the forces of globalization.<ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/john-landis-rails-studios-theyre-659222|title=John Landis Rails Against Studios: 'They're Not in the Movie Business Anymore'|magazine=The Hollywood Reporter|access-date=January 24, 2015}}</ref> The [[Academy Awards]], popularly known as the Oscars, have been held annually by the [[Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences]] since 1929,<ref name="DrowneHuber2004">{{cite book |last1=Drowne |first1=Kathleen Morgan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CecCHiI95dYC&pg=PA236 |title=The 1920s |last2=Huber |first2=Patrick |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-313-32013-2 |page=236}}</ref> and the [[Golden Globe Award]]s have been held annually since January 1944.<ref name="Kroon2014">{{cite book |last=Kroon |first=Richard W. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HjmNAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA338 |title=A/V A to Z: An Encyclopedic Dictionary of Media, Entertainment and Other Audiovisual Terms |publisher=McFarland |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-7864-5740-3 |page=338}}</ref> Director [[D. W. Griffith]], an American [[filmmaker]] during the [[silent film]] period, was central to the development of [[film grammar]], and producer/entrepreneur [[Walt Disney]] was a leader in both [[animation|animated film]] and movie [[merchandising]].<ref name="KrasniewiczDisney2010">{{cite book|last1=Krasniewicz|first1=Louise|last2=Disney|first2=Walt|title=Walt Disney: A Biography|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lZ3vTgpHgFoC&pg=PR10|year=2010|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-0-313-35830-2|page=10}}</ref> Directors such as [[John Ford]] redefined the image of the American Old West, and, like others such as [[John Huston]], broadened the possibilities of cinema with location shooting. The industry enjoyed its golden years, in what is commonly referred to as the "[[Classical Hollywood cinema|Golden Age of Hollywood]]", from the early sound period until the early 1960s,<ref>{{cite news|last1=Matthews|first1=Charles|title=Book explores Hollywood 'Golden Age' of the 1960s-'70s|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/entertainment/books/book-explores-hollywood-golden-age-of-the-1960s-70s/2011/02/10/AGh5xJIH_story.html|newspaper=The Washington Post|access-date=August 6, 2015|date=June 3, 2011}}</ref> with screen actors such as [[John Wayne]] and [[Marilyn Monroe]] becoming iconic figures.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Banner|first1=Lois|title=Marilyn Monroe, the eternal shape shifter|url=https://articles.latimes.com/2012/aug/05/opinion/la-oe-0805-banner-marilyn-monroe-icon-biography-20120805|newspaper=Los Angeles Times|access-date=August 6, 2015|date=August 5, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Rick|first1=Jewell|title=John Wayne, an American Icon|url=https://www.usc.edu/uscnews/stories/15465.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080822102812/https://www.usc.edu/uscnews/stories/15465.html|archive-date=August 22, 2008|publisher=University of Southern California|access-date=August 6, 2015|date=August 8, 2008}}</ref> In the 1970s, "[[New Hollywood]]" or the "Hollywood Renaissance"<ref name="Greven2013">{{cite book|last=Greven|first=David|title=Psycho-Sexual: Male Desire in Hitchcock, De Palma, Scorsese, and Friedkin|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QIyNBQAAQBAJ&pg=PT23|year=2013|publisher=University of Texas Press|isbn=978-0-292-74204-8|page=23}}</ref> was defined by grittier films influenced by French and Italian realist pictures of the [[Aftermath of World War II|post-war period]].<ref name="Morrison1998">{{cite book|last=Morrison|first=James|title=Passport to Hollywood: Hollywood Films, European Directors|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dWRif68I3igC&pg=PA11|year=1998|publisher=SUNY Press|isbn=978-0-7914-3938-8|page=11}}</ref> The 21st century has been marked by the rise of the American streaming platforms, such as [[Netflix]], [[Disney+]], [[Paramount+]], and [[Apple TV+]], which came to rival traditional cinema.<ref name="RE">{{cite news |last=Seitz|first=Matt Zoller|author-link=Matt Zoller Seitz|title=What's Next: Avengers, MCU, Game of Thrones, and the Content Endgame|url=https://www.rogerebert.com/mzs/avengers-mcu-and-the-content-endgame|access-date=July 21, 2021|work=[[RogerEbert.com]]|publisher=Ebert Digital LLC|date=April 29, 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=Hannah Avery |title=US streaming market growth continues, despite changes in the industry |url=https://www.kantar.com/inspiration/technology/us-streaming-market-growth-continues-despite-changes-in-the-industry |date=January 18, 2023 |website=[[Kantar Group]] |access-date=April 29, 2023}}</ref> Mainstream theater in the United States derives from the old European theatrical tradition and has been heavily influenced by the [[Theatre of the United Kingdom|British theater]].<ref name="Saxon2011">{{cite book| first = Theresa| last = Saxon| date = October 11, 2011| title = American Theatre: History, Context, Form| publisher = Edinburgh University Press| pages = 7–| isbn = 978-0-7486-3127-8| oclc = 1162047055| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=2-AkDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA7}}</ref> The central hub of the American theater scene has been [[Manhattan]], with its divisions of [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]], [[off-Broadway]], and [[off-off-Broadway]].<ref name="LondréWatermeier1998">{{cite book| first1 = Felicia Hardison | last1 = Londré| first2 = Daniel J.| last2 = Watermeier| date = 1998| title = The History of North American Theater: From Pre-Columbian Times to the Present| url = https://archive.org/details/historyofnortham0000lond | publisher = Continuum| pages =| isbn = 978-0-8264-1079-5| oclc = 1024855967}}</ref> Many movie and television [[Celebrity|stars]] have gotten their big break working in New York productions. Outside New York City, many cities have professional [[Regional theater in the United States|regional or resident theater companies]] that produce their own seasons, with some works being produced regionally with hopes of eventually moving to New York. The biggest-budget theatrical productions are [[musical theatre|musicals]]. U.S. theater also has an active [[community theater]] culture, which relies mainly on local volunteers who may not be actively pursuing a theatrical career.<ref>Stephen Watt, and Gary A. Richardson, ''American Drama: Colonial to Contemporary'' (1994).</ref> ===Music=== <!---Wikipedia:WikiProject Countries. Caution should be taken to ensure that the section is not simply a listing of names or mini biographies.--> {{Main|Music of the United States}} [[File:Country_music_hall_of_fame2.jpg|thumb|The [[Country Music Hall of Fame and Museum]] in [[Nashville, Tennessee]]]] [[American folk music]] encompasses numerous music genres, variously known as traditional music, traditional [[folk music]], contemporary folk music, or roots music. Many traditional songs have been sung within the same family or folk group for generations, and sometimes trace back to such origins as the [[British Isles]], [[Mainland Europe]], or [[African-American music|Africa]].<ref name=afc>{{Cite web|url=https://www.loc.gov/folklife/guide/folkmusicandsong.html|title=Folk Music and Song: American Folklife Center: An Illustrated Guide (Library of Congress)|website=www.loc.gov}}</ref> Among the country's earliest composers was [[William Billings]] who, born in Boston, composed patriotic hymns in the 1770s;<ref name="Eggart2007">{{cite book|first=Elise|last=Eggart|title=Let's Go USA 24th Edition|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SMGOgKLHbz8C&pg=PA68|date=2007|publisher=St. Martin's Press|isbn=978-0-312-37445-7|page=68}}</ref> Billings was a part of the [[Yankee tunesmiths|First New England School]], who dominated American music during its earliest stages. [[Anthony Heinrich]] was the most prominent composer before the Civil War. From the mid- to late 1800s, [[John Philip Sousa]] of the late [[Romantic music|Romantic era]] composed numerous military songs—[[List of marches by John Philip Sousa|particularly marches]]—and is regarded as one of the nation's greatest composers.<ref name="Bierley1973">{{cite book|first=Paul E.|last=Bierley|title=John Philip Sousa: American Phenomenon|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QcabC2avFLsC&pg=PA5|year=1973|publisher=Alfred Music|isbn=978-1-4574-4995-6|page=5|edition=Revised}}</ref> The rhythmic and lyrical styles of [[African-American music]] have significantly influenced American music at large, distinguishing it from European and African traditions. The [[Smithsonian Institution]] states, "African-American influences are so fundamental to American music that there would be no American music without them."<ref>{{cite web |title=Musical Crossroads: African American Influence on American Music |url=https://music.si.edu/story/musical-crossroads |website=Smithsonian |date=September 22, 2016 |access-date=April 14, 2023}}</ref> [[Country music]] developed in the 1920s, and [[rhythm and blues]] in the 1940s. Elements from folk idioms such as the [[blues]] and what is known as [[old-time music]] were adopted and transformed into [[popular music|popular genres]] with global audiences. [[Jazz]] was developed by innovators such as [[Louis Armstrong]] and [[Duke Ellington]] early in the 20th century.<ref name="autogenerated2001">{{cite book|last1=Biddle|first1=Julian|title=What Was Hot!: Five Decades of Pop Culture in America|date=2001|publisher=Citadel|location=New York|isbn=978-0-8065-2311-8|page=[https://archive.org/details/whatwashotroller00bidd/page/ ix]|url=https://archive.org/details/whatwashotroller00bidd/page/ }}</ref> Known for singing in a wide variety of genres, [[Aretha Franklin]] is considered one of the all-time greatest American singers.<ref>{{cite web |title=Why Aretha was the greatest singer in US history |url=https://www.bbc.com/culture/article/20180816-aretha-greatest-singer-in-us-history |website=BBC |access-date=April 14, 2023}}</ref> [[Elvis Presley]] and [[Chuck Berry]] were among the pioneers of [[rock and roll]] in the mid-1950s. Rock bands such as [[Metallica]], the [[Eagles (band)|Eagles]], and [[Aerosmith]] are among the [[List of best-selling music artists|highest grossing]] in worldwide sales.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Hartman|first1=Graham|title=Metallica's 'Black album' is Top-Selling Disc of last 20 years|url=https://loudwire.com/metallica-black-album-top-selling-disc-last-20-years/|website=Loudwire|access-date=October 12, 2015|date=January 5, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last1=Vorel|first1=Jim|title=Eagles tribute band landing at Kirkland|url=https://herald-review.com/entertainment/local/eagles-tribute-band-landing-at-kirkland/article_a8dcd506-08d0-11e2-82ac-001a4bcf887a.html|access-date=October 12, 2015|agency=Herald & Review|date=September 27, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Aerosmith will rock Salinas with July concert|url=https://www.ksbw.com/news/central-california/salinas/aerosmith-will-rock-salinas-with-july-concert/31042330|access-date=October 12, 2015|date=February 2, 2015}}</ref> In the 1960s, [[Bob Dylan]] emerged from the [[American folk music revival|folk revival]] to become one of the country's most celebrated songwriters.<ref>{{cite magazine |date=April 10, 2020 |title=No. 1 Bob Dylan |url=https://www.rollingstone.com/interactive/lists-100-greatest-songwriters/#bob-dylan |magazine=Rolling Stone |access-date=January 29, 2021}}</ref> Mid-20th-century American [[Popular music|pop stars]] such as [[Bing Crosby]], [[Frank Sinatra]],<ref>{{cite web|date=December 8, 2015|title=10 ways that Frank Sinatra changed the world|url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/life/music/2015/12/08/10-ways-frank-sinatra-changed-world/76381754/|access-date=June 24, 2021|website=USA Today}}</ref> and Elvis Presley became global celebrities,<ref name="autogenerated2001" /> as have artists of the late 20th century such as [[Prince (musician)|Prince]], [[Michael Jackson]], [[Madonna]], [[Whitney Houston]], and [[Mariah Carey]].<ref>{{cite web |date=February 13, 2012 |title=Whitney Houston's Global Impact |url=https://edition.cnn.com/videos/bestoftv/2012/02/13/exp-nr-bilchik-whitney-international-reaction.cnn |access-date=June 24, 2021 |website=CNN}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=How Prince and his music challenged the music industry |url=https://globalnews.ca/news/2654768/how-prince-and-his-music-challenged-the-music-industry/ |access-date=June 25, 2016 |website=Global News}}</ref> The musical forms of [[Punk rock|punk]] and [[hip hop]] both originated in the United States.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://ohiostate.pressbooks.pub/artandmusicbiographies/chapter/reading-9-neo-expressionism-and-music-reaching-into-the-1980s/|title=A Quick and Dirty Guide to Art, Music, and Culture|author=Clayton Funk|chapter=9. Neo-Expressionism, Punk, and Hip Hop Emerge|publisher=The Ohio State University|date=August 16, 2016}}</ref> American professional opera singers have reached the highest level of success in that form, including [[Renée Fleming]], [[Leontyne Price]], [[Beverly Sills]], [[Nelson Eddy]], and many others.<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://journals.openedition.org/lisa/2966#:~:text=The%20American%20Opera%20Boom%20of,1960s%3A%20History%20and%20Stylistic%20Analysis|title=The American Opera Boom of the 1950s and 1960s: History and Stylistic Analysis|author=Rachel Hutchins-Viroux|journal=Revue Lisa / Lisa e-Journal |year=2004 |issue=Vol. II - n°3 |pages=145–163 |publisher=OpenEdition Journals|doi=10.4000/lisa.2966 |access-date=April 28, 2023}}</ref> [[American popular music]], as part of the wider U.S. pop culture, has a worldwide influence and following.<ref>{{cite book |author =Ewen, David|title=Panorama of American Popular Music|url =https://archive.org/details/panoramaofameric00ewen|url-access =registration|publisher=Prentice Hall|year=1957 |isbn=0-13-648360-7}} pg. 3 ''Of all the contributions made by Americans to world culture—automation and the assembly line, advertising, innumerable devices and gadgets, skyscrapers, supersalesmen, baseball, ketchup, mustard and hot dogs and hamburrgers—one, undeniably native has been taken to heart by the entire world. It is American popular music.''</ref> [[Beyoncé]], [[Taylor Swift]], [[Miley Cyrus]], [[Ariana Grande]], [[Eminem]], [[Lady Gaga]], [[Katy Perry]], and many other contemporary artists dominate [[List of most-streamed artists on Spotify|global streaming rankings]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://variety.com/2022/music/news/spotify-wrapped-bad-bunny-taylor-swift-1235444491|title=Spotify Launches Wrapped 2022: Bad Bunny, Taylor Swift Are Most-Streamed Artists of the Year|last=Spangler|first=Todd|date=November 30, 2022|website=[[Variety (magazine)|Variety]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221130153903/https://variety.com/2022/music/news/spotify-wrapped-bad-bunny-taylor-swift-1235444491/|archive-date=November 30, 2022|url-status=live|access-date=November 30, 2022}}</ref> The United States has the world's [[List of largest recorded music markets|largest music market]] with a total retail value of $4.9 billion in 2014.<ref name="RIAJ Yearbook 2012">{{cite web |url=http://www.riaj.or.jp/riaj/pdf/issue/industry/RIAJ2015E.pdf|title=RIAJ Yearbook 2015: IFPI 2013, 2014 Report: 28. Global Sales of Recorded Music (Page 24)|publisher=[[Recording Industry Association of Japan]]|access-date=2016-03-20}}</ref> The American music industry includes a number of fields, ranging from record companies to [[Radio in the United States|radio stations]] and community orchestras. Most of the world's [[Record label#Major labels|major record companies]] are based in the U.S.; they are represented by the [[Recording Industry Association of America]] (RIAA).<ref>{{cite web |url=https://universitytimes.ie/2014/03/how-american-music-took-over-the-world/ |title=How American Music Took Over the World |author=Eoin Hennessy |website=[[The University Times]] |access-date=April 28, 2023 |date=March 27, 2014}}</ref> ===Mass media=== {{further|Mass media in the United States}} {{see also|Newspapers in the United States|Television in the United States|Internet in the United States|Radio in the United States|Video games in the United States}} [[File:Comcast_Philly.JPG|upright|thumb|The [[Comcast Center]] in [[Philadelphia]], headquarters of the [[Comcast Corporation]], which is the nation's largest [[Multinational corporation|multinational]] [[telecommunications]] [[conglomerate (company)|conglomerate]]{{cn|date=April 2023}}]] The four major broadcasters in the U.S. are the [[National Broadcasting Company]] (NBC), [[Columbia Broadcasting System]] (CBS), [[American Broadcasting Company]] (ABC), and [[Fox Broadcasting Company]] (FOX). The four major broadcast [[television network]]s are all commercial entities. [[Cable television in the United States|Cable television]] offers hundreds of channels catering to a variety of niches.<ref>{{cite news|title=Streaming TV Services: What They Cost, What You Get|url=https://www.nytimes.com/aponline/2015/10/12/business/ap-us-streaming-tv-options.html|access-date=October 12, 2015|work=[[The New York Times]]|agency=Associated Press|date=October 12, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151015023520/https://www.nytimes.com/aponline/2015/10/12/business/ap-us-streaming-tv-options.html|archive-date=October 15, 2015}}</ref> {{as of|2021}}, about 83% of Americans over age 12 listen to [[radio broadcasting|broadcast radio]], while about 41% listen to [[podcast]]s.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.pewresearch.org/journalism/fact-sheet/audio-and-podcasting/|title=Audio and Podcasting Fact Sheet|publisher=[[Pew Research Center]]|location=Washington, D.C.|date=June 29, 2021|access-date=July 3, 2022}}</ref> {{As of|2014|09|30|df=US}}, there are 15,433 licensed full-power radio stations in the U.S. according to the U.S. [[Federal Communications Commission]] (FCC).<ref>{{cite web|last=Waits|first=Jennifer|date=October 17, 2014|title=Number of U.S. Radio Stations on the Rise, Especially LPFM, according to New FCC Count|url=https://www.radiosurvivor.com/2014/10/17/number-u-s-radio-stations-rise-especially-lpfm-according-latest-fcc-count/|access-date=January 6, 2015|website=Radio Survivor}}</ref> Much of the public radio broadcasting is supplied by [[NPR]], incorporated in February 1970 under the [[Public Broadcasting Act of 1967]].<ref>{{Cite news|date=June 20, 2013|title=History: NPR|publisher=NPR|url=https://www.npr.org/about-npr/192827079/overview-and-history|access-date=May 5, 2021}}</ref> Internationally well-known U.S. newspapers include ''[[The Wall Street Journal]]'', ''[[The New York Times]]'', ''[[The Washington Post]]'' and ''[[USA Today]]''.<ref name="Shaffer2006">{{cite book|first=Brenda|last=Shaffer|title=The Limits of Culture: Islam and Foreign Policy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uEOd-cDWVwQC&pg=PA116|year=2006|publisher=MIT Press|isbn=978-0-262-19529-4|page=116}}</ref> More than 800 publications are produced in Spanish, the second most commonly used language in the United States behind English.<ref>{{cite web|title=Spanish Newspapers in United States|url=https://www.w3newspapers.com/usa/spanish|access-date=August 5, 2014|publisher=W3newspapers}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Spanish Language Newspapers in the USA : Hispanic Newspapers : Periódiscos en Español en los EE.UU|url=https://www.onlinenewspapers.com/usstate/spanish-language-newspapers-usa.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140626114455/https://www.onlinenewspapers.com/usstate/spanish-language-newspapers-usa.htm|archive-date=June 26, 2014|access-date=August 5, 2014|publisher=Onlinenewspapers.com}}</ref> With very few exceptions, all the newspapers in the U.S. are privately owned, either by large chains such as [[Gannett Company|Gannett]] or [[The McClatchy Company|McClatchy]], which own dozens or even hundreds of newspapers; by small chains that own a handful of papers; or, in a situation that is increasingly rare, by individuals or families. Major cities often have [[alternative newspaper]]s to complement the mainstream daily papers, such as New York City's ''[[The Village Voice]]'' or Los Angeles' ''[[LA Weekly]]''. The five most popular websites used in the U.S. are [[Google]], [[YouTube]], [[Amazon (company)|Amazon]], [[Yahoo]], and [[Facebook]], with all of them being American companies.<ref name="alexa-topsitesus">{{cite web|year=2021|title=Top Sites in United States|url=https://www.alexa.com/topsites/countries/US|access-date=October 6, 2021|publisher=Alexa|archive-date=June 21, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200621221154/https://www.alexa.com/topsites/countries/US|url-status=dead}}</ref> Widely regarded as the birthplace of the modern video gaming industry,{{cn|date=May 2023}} the United States is the world's second-largest video game market by revenue.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Asian countries make up 40% of the world's top 10 video gaming markets |url=https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2021/08/which-countries-have-the-largest-video-gaming-markets/ |access-date=2023-04-15 |website=World Economic Forum |language=en}}</ref> Major publishers headquartered in the United States are [[Sony Interactive Entertainment]], [[Take-Two Interactive|Take-Two]], [[Activision Blizzard]], [[Electronic Arts]], [[Xbox Game Studios]], [[Bethesda Softworks]], [[Epic Games]], [[Valve Corporation|Valve]], [[Warner Bros. Interactive Entertainment|Warner Bros.]], [[Riot Games]], and others.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Asian countries make up 40% of the world's top 10 video gaming markets |url=https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2021/08/which-countries-have-the-largest-video-gaming-markets/ |access-date=2022-12-12 |website=World Economic Forum |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=2022-05-13 |title=Top 10 gaming companies made $126bn revenue last year |language=en-gb |work=Eurogamer.net |url=https://www.eurogamer.net/top-10-gaming-companies-made-126bn-revenue-last-year |access-date=2022-12-14}}</ref> There are 444 publishers, developers, and hardware companies in [[California]] alone.<ref>{{Cite web |title=California (CA) |url=https://www.theesa.com/video-game-impact-map/state/california/ |access-date=2022-12-14 |website=ESA Impact Map |language=en-US}}</ref> ===Cuisine=== {{Main|American cuisine}} {{further|List of American regional and fusion cuisines}} [[File:Cheeseburger with fries.jpg|thumb|A [[cheeseburger]] served with [[French fries|fries]] and [[coleslaw]]]] Early settlers were introduced by Native Americans to such indigenous, non-European foods as [[Turkey as food|turkey]], [[sweet potato]]es, [[maize|corn]], [[Cucurbita|squash]], and [[maple syrup]]. They and later immigrants combined these with foods they had known, such as [[wheat flour]],<ref name="Wheat">{{cite web|title=Wheat Info|url=https://www.wheatworld.org/wheat-info/fast-facts/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091011012758/https://www.wheatworld.org/wheat-info/fast-facts/|archive-date=October 11, 2009|website=Wheatworld.org|access-date=January 15, 2015 }}</ref> beef, and milk to create a distinctive American cuisine.<ref>{{cite web|title=Traditional Indigenous Recipes|url=https://aihd.ku.edu/recipes/index.html|publisher=American Indian Health and Diet Project|access-date=September 15, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Akenuwa|first=Ambrose|title=Is the United States Still the Land of the Free and Home to the Brave?|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7aw5CgAAQBAJ&pg=PT93|date=July 1, 2015|pages=92–94|publisher=Lulu Press|isbn=978-1-329-26112-9|access-date=November 20, 2020}}</ref> Homegrown foods are part of a shared national menu on one of America's most popular holidays, [[Thanksgiving (United States)|Thanksgiving]], when many Americans make or purchase traditional foods to celebrate the occasion.<ref name="Mintz1996">{{cite book|author=Sidney Wilfred Mintz|title=Tasting Food, Tasting Freedom: Excursions Into Eating, Culture, and the Past|url=https://archive.org/details/tastingfoodtasti00mint_0|url-access=registration|year=1996|publisher=Beacon Press|isbn=978-0-8070-4629-6|pages=[https://archive.org/details/tastingfoodtasti00mint_0/page/134 134]–|access-date=October 25, 2015}}</ref> The American [[fast food]] industry, the world's first and largest, is also often viewed as being a symbol of U.S. marketing dominance. Companies such as [[McDonald's]],<ref name="DeBres2005">Karen DeBres, "A Cultural Geography of McDonald's UK," Journal of Cultural Geography, 2005</ref> [[Burger King]], [[Pizza Hut]], [[Kentucky Fried Chicken]], and [[Domino's Pizza]] among others, have numerous outlets around the world,<ref>{{cite news|title=Why McDonald's in France Doesn't Feel Like Fast Food|url=https://www.npr.org/blogs/thesalt/2012/01/24/145698222/why-mcdonalds-in-france-doesnt-feel-like-fast-food|last1=Breadsley|first1=Eleanor|website=NPR|date=January 24, 2012|access-date=January 15, 2015}}</ref> and pioneered the [[drive-through]] format in the 1940s.<ref name="drivethru">{{cite web|title=When Was the First Drive-Thru Restaurant Created?|url=https://www.wisegeek.org/when-was-the-first-drive-thru-restaurant-created.htm|website=Wisegeek.org|access-date=January 15, 2015}}</ref> Characteristic American dishes such as [[apple pie]], [[fried chicken]], [[doughnuts]], [[french fries]], [[macaroni and cheese]], [[ice cream]], [[Pizza in the United States|pizza]], [[hamburgers]], and [[hot dogs]] derive from the recipes of various immigrants.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bizjournals.com/louisville/news/2020/12/31/consumer-spending-data-kfc-is-the-most-popular.html|title=KFC is America's favorite fried chicken, data suggests|last=Cawthon|first=Haley|date=December 31, 2020|website=BizJournals.com|access-date=May 8, 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.pastemagazine.com/food/america/the-history-of-the-pizza/|title=How Pizza Became America's Favorite Food|last=Russell|first=Joan|date=May 23, 2016|website=PasteMagazine.com|access-date=May 8, 2021}}</ref> [[Mexican cuisine|Mexican]] dishes such as [[burritos]] and [[tacos]] and [[pasta]] dishes freely adapted from [[Italian cuisine|Italian]] sources are widely consumed.<ref name="IFT">{{cite web|url=https://www.newswise.com/articles/what-when-and-where-americans-eat-in-2003|author=Klapthor, James N.|title=What, When, and Where Americans Eat in 2003|publisher=Newswise/Institute of Food Technologists|date=August 23, 2003|access-date=June 19, 2007}}</ref> American [[chef]]s have been influential both in the food industry and in popular culture. Some important 19th-century American chefs include [[Charles Ranhofer]] of [[Delmonico's Restaurant]] in [[New York City|New York]], and [[Bob Payton]], who is credited with bringing American-style pizza to the UK.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/people/obituary-bob-payton-1413990.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090421080253/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/people/obituary-bob-payton-1413990.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=21 April 2009| title= Obituary: Bob Payton|work= The Independent|access-date= 15 September 2015}}</ref> Later, chefs Charles Scotto, Louis Pacquet, John Massironi founded the [[American Culinary Federation]] in 1930, taking after similar organizations across Europe. In the 1940s, Chef [[James Beard]] hosted the first nationally televised cooking show ''I Love to Eat.'' His name is also carried by the foundation and prestigious cooking award recognizing excellence in the American cooking community.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Home {{!}} James Beard Foundation |url=https://www.jamesbeard.org/ |access-date=October 11, 2022 |website=www.jamesbeard.org |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=James Beard, Authority On Food, Dies |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1985/01/24/nyregion/james-beard-authority-on-food-dies.html |quote=James Beard, the bald and portly chef and cookbook writer who was one of the country's leading authorities on food and drink and its foremost champion of American cooking, died of cardiac arrest yesterday at the New York Hospital-Cornell Medical Center. He was 81 years old and lived in ... |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=January 24, 1985 |access-date=April 11, 2010 | first=Albin | last=Krebs}}</ref> Since Beard, many chefs and cooking personalities have taken to television, and the success of the [[Cooking Channel]] and [[Food Network]] have contributed to the popularity of American cuisine. Probably the best-known television chef was [[Julia Child]] who taught French cuisine in her weekly show, [[The French Chef]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Julia Child {{!}} Biography, Cookbooks, & Facts|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Julia-Child|access-date=2021-10-15|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en}}</ref> In 1946, the [[Culinary Institute of America]] was founded by [[Katharine Cramer Angell|Katharine Angell]] and [[Frances Roth]]. This would become the United States' most prestigious culinary school, where many of the most talented American chefs would study prior to successful careers.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Our Story: CIA History {{!}} Culinary Institute of America |url=https://www.ciachef.edu/our-story/ |access-date=October 11, 2022 |website=www.ciachef.edu |language=en}}</ref><ref name="FTfbs">{{cite news|last=Averbuch|first=Bonnie|title=Attention Food Entrepreneurs: School's Back in Business|publisher=[[Food Tank]]|url=https://foodtank.com/news/2015/09/attention-food-entrepreneurs-its-time-to-head-back-to-school/|date=September 2015|access-date=June 19, 2017}}</ref> ===Sports=== {{Main|Sports in the United States}} {{See also|Professional sports leagues in the United States|National Collegiate Athletic Association|United States at the Olympics}} [[File:Commanders vs. Jaguars (52379056543).jpg|thumb|[[American football]] is the most popular sport in the United States.]] The most popular spectator sports in the U.S. are [[American football]], [[basketball]], [[baseball]], [[association football|soccer]], and [[ice hockey]], according to a 2017 ''[[Gallup, Inc.|Gallup]]'' poll.<ref>{{cite web |title=Sports |date=September 25, 2007 |url=https://news.gallup.com/poll/4735/sports.aspx |publisher=Gallup, Inc. |accessdate=April 16, 2023}}</ref> While most major U.S. sports such as baseball and American football have evolved out of European practices, basketball, [[volleyball]], [[skateboarding]], and [[snowboarding]] are American inventions, some of which have become popular worldwide.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Sarah Krasnoff|first=Lindsay|date=December 26, 2017|title=How the NBA went global|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/made-by-history/wp/2017/12/26/how-the-nba-went-global/|access-date=January 24, 2021}}</ref> [[Lacrosse]] and [[surfing]] arose from Native American and Native Hawaiian activities that predate European contact.<ref name="liss">Liss, Howard. ''Lacrosse'' (Funk & Wagnalls, 1970) pg 13.</ref> The market for [[professional sports]] in the United States was roughly $69&nbsp;billion in July 2013, roughly 50% larger than that of all of Europe, the Middle East, and Africa combined.<ref>{{cite web|date=June 18, 2008|title=Global sports market to hit $141 billion in 2012|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-pwcstudy-idUSN1738075220080618|access-date=July 24, 2013|website=Reuters}}</ref> American football is by several measures the most popular spectator sport in the United States;<ref>{{cite web|author=Krane, David K.|title=Professional Football Widens Its Lead Over Baseball as Nation's Favorite Sport|url=https://www.harrisinteractive.com/Insights/HarrisVault8482.aspx?PID=337|publisher=Harris Interactive|date=October 30, 2002|access-date=September 14, 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100709111448/https://www.harrisinteractive.com/Insights/HarrisVault8482.aspx?PID=337|archive-date=July 9, 2010}} MacCambridge, Michael (2004). ''America's Game: The Epic Story of How Pro Football Captured a Nation''. New York: Random House. {{ISBN|978-0-375-50454-9}}.</ref> the [[National Football League]] (NFL) has the highest average attendance of any sports league in the world, and the [[Super Bowl]] is watched by tens of millions globally.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.espn.com/nfl/story/_/id/27321898/how-nfl-took-america-100-years|title=How the NFL took over America in 100 years|last=Guliza|first=Anthony|date=August 14, 2019|publisher=[[ESPN]]|access-date=May 8, 2021}}</ref> Baseball has been regarded as the U.S. [[national sport]] since the late 19th century, with [[Major League Baseball]] being the top league. Basketball and [[ice hockey]] are the country's next two most popular professional team sports, with the top leagues being the [[National Basketball Association]] and the [[National Hockey League]], which are also the premier leagues worldwide for these sports. The most-watched [[individual sport]]s in the U.S. are [[golf]] and [[auto racing]], particularly [[NASCAR]] and [[IndyCar]].<ref>{{cite web|date=January 16, 2014|title=As American as Mom, Apple Pie and Football? Football continues to trump baseball as America's Favorite Sport|url=https://www.harrisinteractive.com/vault/Harris%20Poll%205%20-%202014%20Fave%20Sport_1.16.14.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140309053431/https://www.harrisinteractive.com/vault/Harris%20Poll%205%20-%202014%20Fave%20Sport_1.16.14.pdf|archive-date=March 9, 2014|access-date=July 2, 2014|website=Harris Interactive}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author1=Cowen, Tyler|author2=Grier, Kevin|date=February 9, 2012|title=What Would the End of Football Look Like?|url=https://www.grantland.com/story/_/id/7559458/cte-concussion-crisis-economic-look-end-football|access-date=February 12, 2012|publisher=Grantland/ESPN}}</ref> On the [[collegiate athletics|collegiate]] level, earnings for the member institutions exceed $1 billion annually,<ref name="si">{{Cite web|url=https://www.si.com/college-basketball/2018/03/07/ncaa-1-billion-revenue|title=Sports Illustrated: NCAA Reports $1.1 Billion in Revenues|date=March 7, 2018 }}</ref> and [[college football]] and [[College basketball|basketball]] attract large audiences, as the [[NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament|NCAA Final Four]] is one of the most watched national sporting events.<ref>{{cite web|date=March 19, 2013|title=Passion for College Football Remains Robust|url=https://www.footballfoundation.org/tabid/567/Article/53380/Passion-for-College-Football-Remains-Robust.aspx|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140407075223/https://www.footballfoundation.org/tabid/567/Article/53380/Passion-for-College-Football-Remains-Robust.aspx|archive-date=April 7, 2014|access-date=April 1, 2014|publisher=National Football Foundation}}</ref> Eight [[Olympic Games]] have taken place in the United States. The [[1904 Summer Olympics]] in [[St. Louis]], [[Missouri]], were the first-ever Olympic Games held outside of Europe.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Schaus|first=Gerald P.|last2=Wenn|first2=Stephen R.|title=Onward to the Olympics: Historical Perspectives on the Olympic Games|url=https://archive.org/details/onwardtoolympics0000unse|date=February 9, 2007|publisher=[[Wilfrid Laurier University Press]]|page=[https://archive.org/details/onwardtoolympics0000unse/page/224 224]|isbn=978-0-889-20505-5}}</ref> The Olympic Games will be held in the U.S. for a ninth time when [[Los Angeles]] hosts the [[2028 Summer Olympics]]. [[United States at the Olympics|U.S. athletes]] have won a total of 2,959 medals (1,173 gold) at the [[Olympic Games]], by far the most of any country.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://greatestsportingnation.com/|title=Greatest Sporting Nation|website=greatestsportingnation.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite news| url = https://www.washingtonpost.com/graphics/sports/olympics/the-1000-medals-of-the-united-states/| title = 1,000 times gold – The thousand medals of Team USA – Washington Post| newspaper = [[The Washington Post]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=The 10 most fascinating facts about the all-time Winter Olympics medal standings|first=Chris|last=Chase|date=February 7, 2014|work=USA Today|url=https://ftw.usatoday.com/2014/02/winter-olympics-medal-count-sochi-all-time-facts/|access-date=February 28, 2014}} {{cite news|title=With Sochi Olympics approaching, a history of Winter Olympic medals|date=February 6, 2014|first=Dan|last=Loumena|work=Los Angeles Times|url=https://articles.latimes.com/2014/feb/06/sports/la-sp-a-history-of-the-winter-olympic-medals-20140206|access-date=February 28, 2014}}</ref> In international [[Association football|soccer]], the [[United States men's national soccer team|men's national soccer team]] qualified for [[United States at the FIFA World Cup|eleven World Cups]], while the [[United States women's national soccer team|women's national team]] has [[United States at the FIFA Women's World Cup|won]] the [[FIFA Women's World Cup]] and [[Football at the Summer Olympics|Olympic soccer tournament]] four times each.<ref>{{cite web|last=Carlisle|first=Jeff|date=April 6, 2020|title=MLS Year One, 25 seasons ago: The Wild West of training, travel, hockey shootouts and American soccer|url=https://www.espn.com/soccer/major-league-soccer/story/4082408/mls-year-one25-seasons-ago-the-wild-west-of-trainingtravelhockey-shootouts-and-american-soccer|access-date=May 5, 2021|publisher=[[ESPN]]}}</ref> The United States hosted the [[1994 FIFA World Cup]] and will host the [[2026 FIFA World Cup]] along with [[Canada]] and [[Mexico]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Wamsley |first=Laurel |date=June 16, 2022 |title=The U.S. cities hosting the 2026 World Cup are announced |url=https://www.npr.org/2022/06/16/1105562734/us-cities-hosting-2026-world-cup-announcement |publisher=[[NPR]] |accessdate=April 16, 2023}}</ref> ==See also== * [[Index of United States–related articles]] * [[Lists of U.S. state topics]] * [[Outline of the United States]] {{clear}} <!--For wide-screen monitors, prevent image above from punching through the ref section. --> ==Notes== {{notelist | colwidth = | notes = {{efn | name = pop | Excludes [[Puerto Rico]] and the other [[Unincorporated territories of the United States|unincorporated islands]] because they are counted separately in [[U.S. census]] statistics. }} {{efn | name = time | See [[Time in the United States]] for details about laws governing time zones in the United States. }} {{efn | name = drive | A single jurisdiction, the [[U.S. Virgin Islands]], uses left-hand traffic. }} }} ==References== {{reflist|colwidth=30em}} ==Further reading== {{refbegin|30em}} * {{cite journal|last1=Bianchine|first1=Peter J.|last2=Russo|first2=Thomas A.|year=1992|title=The Role of Epidemic Infectious Diseases in the Discovery of America|volume=13|issue=5|pages=225–232|ref=Bianchine|doi=10.2500/108854192778817040|pmid=1483570|journal=Allergy and Asthma Proceedings}} * {{cite book|last=Blakeley|first=Ruth|date=2009|title=State Terrorism and Neoliberalism: The North in the South|url=https://www.routledge.com/books/details/9780415462402/|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-415-68617-4|ref=Blakeley}} * {{cite book|last1=Boyer|first1=Paul S.|last2=Clark Jr.|first2=Clifford E.|last3=Kett|first3=Joseph F.|last4=Salisbury|first4=Neal|last5=Sitkoff|first5=Harvard|last6=Woloch|first6=Nancy|title=The Enduring Vision: A History of the American People|ref=Boyer|year=2007|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9KT3lI76-0cC|publisher=Cengage Learning|page=588|isbn=978-0-618-80161-9}} * {{cite book|first=Colin G.|last=Calloway|title=New Worlds for All: Indians, Europeans, and the Remaking of Early America|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=edYbAZ7ECEoC|publisher=[[Johns Hopkins University Press|JHU Press]]|ref=Calloway1998|page=229|isbn=978-0-8018-5959-5|year=1998}} * {{cite book|last=Davis|first=Kenneth C.|title=Don't know much about the Civil War|ref=Davis96|publisher=William Marrow and Co.|location=New York|year=1996|url=https://archive.org/details/dontknowmuchabou00davi_1/page/518|isbn=978-0-688-11814-3|page=[https://archive.org/details/dontknowmuchabou00davi_1/page/518 518] }} * {{cite book|last1=Daynes|first1=Byron W.|last2=Sussman|first2=Glen|title=White House Politics and the Environment: Franklin D. Roosevelt to George W. Bush|ref=Daynes|publisher=[[Texas A&M University Press]]|year=2010|page=320|url=https://archive.org/details/whitehousepoliti0000dayn|url-access=registration|isbn=978-1-60344-254-1|oclc=670419432|quote=Presidential environmental policies, 1933–2009}} * {{cite book|first1=Jon M|last1=Erlandson|first2=Torben C|last2=Rick|first3=Rene L|last3=Vellanoweth|title=A Canyon Through Time: Archaeology, History, and Ecology of the Tecolote Canyon Area, Santa Barbara County|location=California|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GeTv2lmb79UC&pg=PA19|year=2008|publisher=University of Utah Press|isbn=978-0-87480-879-7}} * {{cite book|first=Brian M.|last=Fagan|title=Ancient Lives: An Introduction to Archaeology and Prehistory|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_9lqCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA390|date=2016|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-35027-9}} * {{cite book|first1=Sylvan G.|last1=Feldstein|first2=Frank J.|last2=Fabozzi|title=The Handbook of Municipal Bonds|ref=Feldstein|publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]]|year=2011|page=1376|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Juc4fb1Fx1cC|isbn=978-1-118-04494-0}} * {{cite journal|last1=Fladmark|first1=K.R.|title=Routes: Alternate Migration Corridors for Early Man in North America|journal=American Antiquity|volume=44|issue=1|year=2017|pages=55–69|issn=0002-7316|doi=10.2307/279189|jstor=279189|s2cid=162243347}} * {{cite book|first=Tim|last= Flannery|title=The Eternal Frontier: An Ecological History of North America and Its Peoples|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mkkyBgAAQBAJ|date=2015|publisher=Open Road + Grove/Atlantic|isbn=978-0-8021-9109-0}} * {{cite book|last1=Fraser|first1=Steve|first2=Gary|last2=Gerstle|author-link2=Gary Gerstle|ref=Fraser|title=The Rise and Fall of the New Deal Order: 1930–1980|series=American History: Political science|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yd4GqkP5XYgC&pg=PA229|year=1989|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-0-691-00607-9|page=311}} * {{cite book|last=Gaddis|first=John Lewis|title=The United States and the Origins of the Cold War, 1941–1947|url=https://archive.org/details/unitedstatesorig0000gadd|year=1972|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=978-0-231-12239-9 }} * {{cite book|first=Daniel J.|last= Gelo|title=Indians of the Great Plains|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KBBmDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT79|date=2018|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1-351-71812-7}} * {{cite book|first=Ofelia|last=García|title=Bilingual Education in the 21st Century: A Global Perspective|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bW6V__K95ckC&pg=PT167|year=2011|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-4443-5978-7}} *{{cite book |last=Gerstle|first=Gary|author-link=Gary Gerstle|date=2022 |title=The Rise and Fall of the Neoliberal Order: America and the World in the Free Market Era|location= |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|isbn=978-0197519646}} * {{cite book|last=Gold|first=Susan Dudley|title=United States V. Amistad: Slave Ship Mutiny|ref=Gold2006|publisher=Marshall Cavendish|year=2006|page=[https://archive.org/details/unitedstatesvami0000gold/page/144 144]|url=https://archive.org/details/unitedstatesvami0000gold/page/144|isbn=978-0-7614-2143-6 }} * {{cite book|last=Gordon|first=John Steele|author-link=John Steele Gordon|ref=Gordon|title=An Empire of Wealth: The Epic History of American Economic Power|year=2004|publisher=HarperCollins|url=https://archive.org/details/empireofwealthth00gord|url-access=registration|isbn=978-0-06-009362-4 }} * {{cite book|last1=Graebner|first1=Norman A.|last2=Burns|first2=Richard Dean|last3=Siracusa|first3=Joseph M.|ref=Burns2008|title=Reagan, Bush, Gorbachev: Revisiting the End of the Cold War|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=r71u_AgE7iYC&pg=PA142|year=2008|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|series=Praeger Security International Series|isbn=978-0-313-35241-6|page=180}} * {{cite book|first1=Michael Robert|last1=Haines|first2=Michael R.|last2= Haines|first3=Richard H.|last3=Steckel|title=A Population History of North America|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BPdgiysIVcgC&pg=PA12|date= 2000|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-49666-7 }} * {{cite book|title=The Routledge Handbook of Poverty in the United States|editor1-first=Stephen|editor1-last=Haymes|editor2-first= Maria|editor2-last=Vidal de Haymes|editor3-first= Reuben|editor3-last= Miller|publisher=Routledge|url=https://www.routledge.com/books/details/9780415673440/|year=2014|isbn=978-0-415-67344-0|ref=Haymes et al}} * {{cite book|first1=William A.|last1= Haviland|first2=Dana|last2= Walrath|first3=Harald E.L.|last3= Prins|title=Evolution and Prehistory: The Human Challenge|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9_qGhW338KQC&pg=PA219|date=2013|publisher=Cengage Learning|isbn=978-1-285-06141-2}} * {{cite book|last1=Hoopes|first1=Townsend|last2=Brinkley|first2=Douglas|title=FDR and the Creation of the U.N|url=https://archive.org/details/fdrcreationofun00hoop|url-access=registration|year=1997|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=978-0-300-08553-2 }} * {{cite book|first=Thomas N.|last=Ingersoll|title=The Loyalist Problem in Revolutionary New England|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qwdQDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA208|year=2016|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-12861-3}} * {{cite book|first=Moira|last=Inghilleri|title=Translation and Migration|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h1yuDQAAQBAJ&pg=PT117|year=2016|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1-315-39980-5}} * {{cite book|last=Jacobs|first=Lawrence R.|title=Health Care Reform and American Politics: What Everyone Needs to Know: What Everyone Needs to Know|ref=Jacobs10|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2010|isbn=978-0-19-978142-3|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/healthcarereform0000jaco }} * {{cite book|last=Johnson|first=Paul|title=A History of the American People|year=1997|publisher=HarperCollins|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RXSVQjz1_tMC|isbn=978-0-06-195213-5}} * {{Cite book|title=Encyclopedia of American studies|date=2001|publisher=Grolier Educational|editor-last=Kurian|editor-first=George T.|isbn=978-0-7172-9222-6|location=New York|oclc=46343385}} * {{cite book|first=Paul|last= Joseph|title=The Sage Encyclopedia of War: Social Science Perspectives|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=idw0DQAAQBAJ&pg=PA590|date=2016|publisher=Sage Publications|isbn=978-1-4833-5988-5 }} * {{cite book|title=Encyclopedia of Native American Wars and Warfare|series=[[Infobase Publishing|Facts on File]] library of American History|last1=Kessel|first1=William B.|last2=Wooster|first2=Robert|year=2005|publisher=Infobase Publishing|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=laxSyAp89G4C|isbn=978-0-8160-3337-9|page=398|ref=Kessel}} * {{cite book|first1=David S.|last1=Kidder|first2=Noah D.|last2=Oppenheim|title=The Intellectual Devotional: American History: Revive Your Mind, Complete Your Education, and Converse Confidently about Our Nation's Past|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PF39tMiwmWcC&pg=PA91|year=2007|publisher=Rodale|isbn=978-1-59486-744-6}} * {{cite book|title=One Nation Under God: How Corporate America Invented Christian America|first1=Kevin M.|last1=Kruse|publisher=Basic Books|year=2015|isbn=978-0-465-04949-3|url=https://archive.org/details/onenationundergo0000krus }} * {{cite book|last=Leckie|first=Robert|author-link=Robert Leckie (author)|title=None died in vain: The Saga of the American Civil War|ref=Leckie|publisher=Harper-Collins|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gvIeAAAAMAAJ|location=New York|year=1990|page=682|isbn=978-0-06-016280-1}} * {{cite book|first=Craig|last= Lockard|title=Societies, Networks, and Transitions, Volume B: From 600 to 1750|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=k91sCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA315|year=2010|publisher=Cengage Learning|isbn=978-1-111-79083-7}} * {{cite book|first1=Donna|last1=Martinez|first2=Jennifer L. Williams|last2=Bordeaux|title=50 Events That Shaped American Indian History: An Encyclopedia of the American Mosaic &#91;2 volumes&#93;|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KnB1DQAAQBAJ&pg=PA19|date= 2016|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-4408-3577-3}} * {{cite book|first1=Donna|last1=Martinez|first2=Grace|last2=Sage|first3=Azusa|last3=Ono|title=Urban American Indians: Reclaiming Native Space: Reclaiming Native Space|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2HjEDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA4|date=2016|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-4408-3208-6}} * {{cite book|first=Eric|last=Martone|title=Italian Americans: The History and Culture of a People|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MHJ1DQAAQBAJ&pg=PA504|year=2016|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-61069-995-2}} * {{cite book|last=Leffler|first=Melvyn P.|author-link=Melvyn P. Leffler|editor-last=Westad|editor-first=Odd Arne|year=2010|chapter=The emergence of an American grand strategy, 1945–1952|title=The Cambridge History of the Cold War|volume=1: Origins|pages=67–89|location=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-83719-4|oclc=309835719|language=en }} * {{cite book|last=Lemon|first=James T.|editor1-first=Robert D.|editor1-last=Mitchell|editor2-first=Paul A.|editor2-last=Groves|title=North America: the historical geography of a changing continent|chapter=Colonial America in the 18th Century|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|chapter-url=https://cascourses.uoregon.edu/geog471/wp-content/uploads/2010/01/Lemon.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130123135724/https://cascourses.uoregon.edu/geog471/wp-content/uploads/2010/01/Lemon.pdf|archive-date=January 23, 2013|year=1987|ref=Lemon}} * {{cite book|last=Lien|first=Arnold Johnson|title=Studies in History, Economics, and Public Law|volume=54|ref=Lien|publisher=Columbia University|location=New York|year=1913|page=604|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UYpVAAAAYAAJ}} * {{cite book|first=Karen Woods|last=Weierman|title=One Nation, One Blood: Interracial Marriage In American Fiction, Scandal, And Law, 1820–1870|year=2005|publisher=University of Massachusetts Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=24mIQuLBuN8C&pg=PA44|isbn=978-1-55849-483-1|page=214}} * {{cite book|last=Levenstein|first=Harvey|title=Revolution at the Table: The Transformation of the American Diet|url=https://archive.org/details/revolutionattabl0000leve_d6o6|ref=Levenstein|publisher=University of California Press|location=Berkeley and Los Angeles|year=2003|isbn=978-0-520-23439-0}} * {{cite book|first=David J.|last=Meltzer|title=First Peoples in a New World: Colonizing Ice Age America|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Rnc-bg2voI8C&pg=PA129|date=2009|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-94315-5}} * {{cite book|author=The New York Times|title=The New York Times Guide to Essential Knowledge: A Desk Reference for the Curious Mind|edition=2nd|url=https://archive.org/details/newyorktimesguid00|year=2007|publisher=St. Martin's Press|isbn=978-0-312-37659-8 }} * {{cite book|first=Mary|last=Mostert|title=The Threat of Anarchy Leads to the Constitution of the United States|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jntSQ-yn66AC&pg=PA18|year=2005|publisher=CTR Publishing, Inc.|isbn=978-0-9753851-4-2}} * {{cite book|first=Peter S.|last=Onuf|title=The Origins of the Federal Republic: Jurisdictional Controversies in the United States, 1775–1787|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WcUgLPqmfuYC|year=2010|publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press|isbn=978-0-8122-0038-6}} * {{cite book|first1=Theda|last1= Perdue|first2=Michael D|last2=Green|title=The Columbia Guide to American Indians of the Southeast|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-RBJCyp2bFIC&pg=PA40|date= 2005|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=978-0-231-50602-1}} * {{cite book|last=Quirk|first=Joel|title=The Anti-Slavery Project: From the Slave Trade to Human Trafficking|ref=Quirk|year=2011|publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qqxK4KlqKYMC|isbn=978-0-8122-4333-8|page=344}} * {{cite book|last=Ranlet|first=Philip|title=New England Encounters: Indians and Euroamericans Ca. 1600–1850|ref=Ranlet|publisher=North Eastern University Press|editor-first=Alden T.|editor-last=Vaughan|year=1999}} * {{cite book|last=Remini|first=Robert V.|title=The House: The History of the House of Representatives|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CAM6J6IoQFQC|year=2007|publisher=HarperCollins|isbn=978-0-06-134111-3}} * {{Cite book|editor1-last=Richter|editor1-first=Daniel K.|editor2-last=Merrell|editor2-first=James H.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZQnEwUaPAegC|title=Beyond the covenant chain : the Iroquois and their neighbors in Indian North America, 1600–1800|date=2003|publisher=Pennsylvania State University Press|isbn=978-0-271-02299-4|location=University Park|oclc=51306167}} * {{cite book|last=Ripper|first=Jason|title=American Stories: To 1877|year=2008|ref=Ripper2008|publisher=M.E. Sharpe|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vX-fYvoAeHwC|page=299|isbn=978-0-7656-2903-6}} * {{Cite book |last=Rodriguez |first=Junius |title=Encyclopedia of Emancipation and Abolition in the Transatlantic World |publisher=[[Routledge]] ([[Taylor & Francis]]) |year=2015 |isbn=9781317471806 |edition=Illustrated |pages=}} * {{cite book|last=Russell|first=John Henderson|title=The Free Negro in Virginia, 1619–1865|ref=Russell1913|publisher=Johns Hopkins University|url=https://archive.org/details/freenegroinvirg00russgoog|year=1913|page=[https://archive.org/details/freenegroinvirg00russgoog/page/n202 196]}} * {{cite book|first=William|last=Safire|title=No Uncertain Terms: More Writing from the Popular "On Language" Column in The New York Times Magazine|url=https://archive.org/details/nouncertainterms00safi|url-access=registration|page=[https://archive.org/details/nouncertainterms00safi/page/199 199]|year=2003|publisher=Simon and Schuster|isbn=978-0-7432-4955-3}} * {{cite book|first=Bunford|last=Samuel|title=Secession and Constitutional Liberty: In which is Shown the Right of a Nation to Secede from a Compact of Federation and that Such Right is Necessary to Constitutional Liberty and a Surety of Union|url=https://archive.org/details/secessionandcon03samugoog|page=[https://archive.org/details/secessionandcon03samugoog/page/n329 323]|year=1920|publisher=Neale publishing Company}} * {{cite book|first= Candace|last= Savage|title=Prairie: A Natural History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X1u9BwAAQBAJ&pg=PA55|date=2011|publisher=Greystone Books|isbn=978-1-55365-899-3}} * {{cite book|last1=Schneider|first1=Dorothy|last2=Schneider|first2=Carl J.|title=Slavery in America|ref=Schneider|publisher=Infobase Publishing|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QlemwRTsY20C|year=2007|page=554|isbn=978-1-4381-0813-1}} * {{cite book|last=Schultz|first=David Andrew|title=Encyclopedia of the United States Constitution|ref=Schultz|year=2009|publisher=Infobase Publishing|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f7m713xwK58C|page=904|isbn=978-1-4381-2677-7}} * {{cite book|first=Sandra|last=Sider|title=Handbook to Life in Renaissance Europe|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JtYy67FsRosC&pg=PA226|year=2007|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-533084-7}} * {{cite book|last=Simonson|first=Peter|title=Refiguring Mass Communication: A History|ref=Simonson|year=2010|publisher=University of Illinois Press|quote=He held high the Declaration of Independence, the Constitution, and the nation's unofficial motto, ''e pluribus unum'', even as he was recoiling from the party system in which he had long participated.|location=Urbana|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N6lrAmPlbvIC&pg=PA79|isbn=978-0-252-07705-0}} * {{cite book|last=Smith|first=Andrew F.|year=2004|title=The Oxford Encyclopedia of Food and Drink in America|url=https://archive.org/details/oxfordencycloped0001unse_d3n9|ref=Smith2004|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/oxfordencycloped0001unse_d3n9/page/131 131]–132|isbn=978-0-19-515437-5}} * {{cite book|last=Soss|first=Joe|editor-last=Hacker|editor-first=Jacob S.|editor2-last=Mettler|editor2-first=Suzanne|ref=Soss|title=Remaking America: Democracy and Public Policy in an Age of Inequality|year=2010|publisher=Russell Sage Foundation|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JttyjBoyb3AC|isbn=978-1-61044-694-5 }} * {{cite book|ref=Stannard|last=Stannard|first=David E.|author-link=David Stannard|title=American Holocaust: The Conquest of the New World|year=1993|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=New York|url=https://archive.org/details/americanholocaus00stan|isbn=978-0-19-508557-0 }} * {{Cite journal|ref=Tadman|last=Tadman|first=Michael|title=The Demographic Cost of Sugar: Debates on Slave Societies and Natural Increase in the Americas|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-historical-review_2000-12_105_5/page/1534|journal=American Historical 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Americas|journal=Science|volume=315|issue=5815|year=2007|pages=1122–1126|issn=0036-8075|doi=10.1126/science.1137166|pmid=17322060|bibcode=2007Sci...315.1122W|s2cid=23205379|url=https://semanticscholar.org/paper/2127cb07b275c5be603cef1434db0b167b94c94f}} * {{cite book|first1=Edith Brown|last1=Weiss|first2=Harold Karan|last2=Jacobson|title=Engaging Countries: Strengthening Compliance with International Environmental Accords|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W_JAw31U5qQC&pg=PA180|year=2000|publisher=MIT Press|isbn=978-0-262-73132-4}} * {{cite book|last=Winchester|first=Simon|title=The men who United the States|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780062079602|url-access=registration|year=2013|publisher=Harper Collins|isbn=978-0-06-207960-2|pages=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780062079602/page/198 198], 216, 251, 253}} * {{Cite journal |last=Wright |first=Gavin |year=2022 |title=Slavery and the Rise of the Nineteenth-Century American Economy |url=https://www.aeaweb.org/articles?id=10.1257/jep.36.2.123 |journal=[[Journal of Economic Perspectives]] |volume=36 |issue=2 |pages=123–148 |doi=10.1257/jep.36.2.123 |s2cid=248716718 |via=}} * {{cite book|last=Zinn|first=Howard|author-link=Howard Zinn|title=A People's History of the United States|ref=Zinn|year=2005|publisher=[[Harper Perennial]] Modern Classics|isbn=978-0-06-083865-2|title-link=A People's History of the United States }} {{refend}} '''Internet sources''' {{refbegin|30em}} * {{cite news|url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/country_profiles/1217752.stm|title=Country Profile: United States of America|ref=BBC18may|work=BBC News|location=London|date=April 22, 2008|access-date=May 18, 2008}} * {{cite magazine|last=Cohen|first=Eliot A.|ref=Cohen|location=Washington, DC|url=https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/59919/eliot-a-cohen/history-and-the-hyperpower|title=History and the Hyperpower|website=Foreign Affairs|date=July–August 2004|access-date=July 14, 2006}} * {{cite journal|last1=Wallander|first1=Celeste A.|year=2003|ref=Wallander2003|title=Western Policy and the Demise of the Soviet Union|journal=[[Journal of Cold War Studies]]|volume=5|issue=4|pages=137–177|doi=10.1162/152039703322483774|s2cid=57560487 }} * {{cite journal|title=Testing Theories of American Politics: Elites, Interest Groups, and Average Citizens|last1=Gilens|first1=Martin|last2=Page|first2=Benjamin I.|name-list-style=amp|journal=[[Perspectives on Politics]]|date=2014|volume=12|issue=3|pages=564–581|doi=10.1017/S1537592714001595|url=https://scholar.princeton.edu/sites/default/files/mgilens/files/gilens_and_page_2014_-testing_theories_of_american_politics.doc.pdf|doi-access=free }} {{refend}} ==External links== {{Library resources box}} <!-- Please: 1) Follow the [[WP:EL]] guideline where possible and consider discussing on the talk page. The MediaWiki software that powers Wikipedia has several parameters that limit the complexity of a page, thus limiting the number of templates that can be included. 2) Do not turn these bullets into headers! They expand the TOC too much. --> * [https://web.archive.org/web/20211212224932/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/united-states/ United States]. ''[[The World Factbook]]''. [[Central Intelligence Agency]]. * [https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-16761057 United States] from [[BBC News]] * [https://www.ifs.du.edu/ifs/frm_CountryProfile.aspx?Country=US Key Development Forecasts for the United States] from [[International Futures]] ; Government * [https://www.usa.gov/ Official U.S. Government Web Portal]. Gateway to government sites. * [https://www.house.gov/ House]. Official site of the United States House of Representatives. * [https://www.senate.gov/ Senate]. Official site of the United States Senate. * [https://www.whitehouse.gov/ White House]. Official site of the President of the United States. * [{{SCOTUS URL}} Supreme Court]. Official site of the Supreme Court of the United States. ; History * [https://web.archive.org/web/20080314143240/https://www.nationalcenter.org/HistoricalDocuments.html Historical Documents]. Collected by the National Center for Public Policy Research. * [https://www.religioustolerance.org/nat_mott.htm U.S. National Mottos: History and Constitutionality]. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221119213422/http://www.religioustolerance.org/nat_mott.htm |date=November 19, 2022 }}. Analysis by the Ontario Consultants on Religious Tolerance. * [https://www.historicalstatistics.org/index2.html USA]. Collected links to historical data. ; Maps * [https://web.archive.org/web/20091021182322/https://www.nationalatlas.gov/ National Atlas of the United States]. Official maps from the U.S. Department of the Interior. * {{wikiatlas|the United States}} * {{osmrelation-inline|148838}} * [https://www.measureofamerica.org/maps/ Measure of America]. A variety of mapped information relating to health, education, income, and demographics for the U.S. ; Photos * [https://www.flickr.com/search/?text=USA Photos of the USA] {{Anchor|Related information}} <!-- Target for Navbox link at See also section --> {{United States topics}} {{United States political divisions}} {{North America topic}} {{Portal bar|United States|North America|Countries}} {{Sister bar|auto=yes|voy=United States}} {{Authority control}} {{Coord|40|-100|dim:10000000_region:region:US_type:country|name=United States of America|display=title}} [[Category:United States| ]] [[Category:States and territories established in 1776]] [[Category:Countries in North America]] [[Category:English-speaking countries and territories]] [[Category:Federal constitutional republics]] [[Category:Former British colonies and protectorates in the Americas]] [[Category:Former confederations]] [[Category:G20 nations]] [[Category:Member states of NATO]] [[Category:Member states of the United Nations]] [[Category:Transcontinental countries]] p0hypq3j1kxlza6earx7d6lx0yzkg0t 0 19180 119271 112096 2026-08-13T13:11:18Z Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi 11606 /* growthexperiments-addlink-summary-summary:3|0|0 */ 119271 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox flag|Name=Republic of Malawi|Article=|Use=111110|Image=Flag_of_Malawi.svg|Design=A horizontal [[triband (flag)|triband]] of black, red, and green; charged with a red rising sun with 31 rays centred on the black stripe|Adoption=6 July 1964 (re-adopted on 28 May 2012)|Proportion=2:3}}'''Mbendela ya [[Malaŵi]]''' yikatoleka pa 6 July 1964 apo boma la [[Nyasaland]] likamba kulamulira charu ichi. == Makhalilo == Ndembela yakwamba ya Malaŵi yikaŵa ya July 6, 1964. Zuŵa lakwera pa malo ghafipa nalo lili pa cikumba ca Malaŵi, ndipo pa cikumba ca chalo ici, likulongora kuti caru ca Africa cili na cigomezgo ndiposo wanangwa. Mphepo 31 za dazi zikuyimira kuti Malaŵi yikaŵa caru ca 31 ca mu Africa apo yikaŵa pa wanangwa wake. Mtundu wakufipa ukwimira ŵanthu ŵakwambilira ŵa mu caru ici, muswesi ukwimira ndopa za awo ŵakasuzgika, ndipo wa ciŵisi ukwimira cilengiwa. Ndembera iyi yikuyana na ndembera ya ku Africa yose iyo yikapangika na wupu wa Marcus Garvey's Universal Negro Improvement Association, na mabelu ghaswesi na ghaswesi agho ghali kusinthika ndipo pachanya pali dazi liswesi. Likukozgana na ndembera ya Republic of Biafra iyo pasono kulije, kweniso ndembera ya charu cha [[Afghanistan]] iyo yikagwiranga nchito kwambira mu 1973 m'paka 1992. == 2010–2012 == Mbendera yiphya ya Malawi yikatoleka pa 29 July 2010, nga umo boma la Democratic Progressive Party likapangira. Viyuni ivi vikasinthika kufuma pa ndembera yakwambilira kuti vikolerane na ndembera yakwambilira ya ku Africa. Zuŵa lakwera ilo likaŵa pachanya pa ndembera likasinthika na dazi lituŵa ilo likaŵa na mizere 45, kulongora kuti Malaŵi "likwenda makora pa nkhani ya vyachuma" kufuma apo likamba kujiyimira pawekha. Gulu lakulimbana na boma la United Democratic Front likati lizamususka [[dango]] la kusintha ndembera. Mbendera iyi yikakolerana na purezidenti wa Malawi, Bingu wa Mutharika, uyo wakazomerezga kusintha kwa mbendera pa 29 July 2010. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakadandawura chomene usange chikaŵa chakwenelera kusintha ndembera, kweni ŵakalutilira nangauli ŵanandi ŵakakondwa yayi. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakachemanga ndembera iyi kuti "ndembera ya Bingu". Ŵanandi ŵakasuskanga ndembera yiphya, cifukwa ŵakawonanga kuti yikaŵa ya ndyali yayi.<ref>{{cite web |date=9 April 2012 |title=Dear President Banda: A piece of advice |url=https://www.nyasatimes.com/dear-president-banda-a-piece-of-advice/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203002232/http://www.nyasatimes.com/2012/04/09/dear-president-banda-a-piece-of-advice/ |archive-date=3 December 2013 |access-date=2013-11-30}}</ref> Pa Meyi 28, 2012, pa nyengo ya muwuso wa pulezidenti muphya Joyce Banda, Nyumba ya Malamulo yikazomerezga kuti ŵambeso kuvwara ndembera ya charu..<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.nyasatimes.com/malawi/2012/05/28/malawi-parliament-approves-to-revert-to-original-flag/|title=Malawi Parliament approves to revert to original flag|work=Nyasa Times|date=2012-05-28|access-date=2015-09-02|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121227040154/http://www.nyasatimes.com/malawi/2012/05/28/malawi-parliament-approves-to-revert-to-original-flag/|archive-date=27 December 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.timeslive.co.za/africa/2012/05/29/malawi-reverts-to-old-flag|title=Malawi reverts to old flag|work=The Sunday Times|date=2012-05-29|access-date=2015-09-02}}</ref> == Mitundu ya Mbendela == Mitundu ya ndembera yikulongosoreka mwakuyana na mitundu ya British Standard; mitundu yeneyiyi ndiyo yikugwiliskirika nchito pa ndembera ya [[Kenya]]:<ref>[http://flagspot.net/flags/mw.html Malawi] at ''Flags of the World''. Accessed {{Nowrap|17 February}} 2006.</ref> {| class="wikitable" ! ! style="background:#000000;color:white" |Black ! style="background:#CE1127;color:white" |Red ! style="background:#008C51;color:white" |Green |- !British Standard Colours |0-000 |0-005 |0-010 |} == Vithuzi == <gallery> File:Flag of the President of Malawi.svg|Flag of the [[President of Malawi]] File:Flag of the Governor-General of Malawi (1964-1966).svg|Flag of the [[List of heads of state of Malawi#Governor-General|Governor-General of Malawi]] (1964–1966) File:Flag of the Governor of Nyasaland (1914–1925).svg|Flag of the [[List of colonial governors of Nyasaland|Governor of Nyasaland]] (1914–1925) File:Flag of the Governor of Nyasaland (1925–1964).svg|Flag of the Governor of Nyasaland (1925–1964) File:Flag of the Governor-General of Rhodesia and Nyasaland (1953–1963).svg|Flag of the [[Governor-General of the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland]] (1953–1963) File:Flag of British Central Africa Protectorate.svg|Flag of [[British Central Africa Protectorate]] (1893–1914) File:Flag of Nyasaland (1914–1919).svg|Flag of [[Nyasaland]] (1914–1919) File:Flag of Nyasaland (1919–1925).svg|Flag of [[Nyasaland]] (1919–1925) File:Flag of Nyasaland (1925–1964).svg|Flag of [[Nyasaland]] (1925–1964) File:Flag of the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland (1953–1963).svg|Flag of the [[Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland]] (1953–1963) File:Flag of Malawi.svg|Flag of Malawi (1964–2010 and since 2012) File:Flag of Malawi (2010-2012).svg|"Bingu's Flag" (2010–2012) </gallery> == Maukaboni == jdgoseodkgygqxws15pajrl2xw7g9n1 0 20164 119266 112919 2026-08-13T13:06:07Z Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi 11606 /* growthexperiments-addlink-summary-summary:3|0|0 */ 119266 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Use dmy dates|date=June 2017}} {{Infobox person | name = Asif Aziz | image = | caption = | other_names = | birth_name = Asif Haroon Aziz | birth_date = 1967 | birth_place = Limbe, [[Malawi]] | death_date = | death_place = | death_cause = | nationality = | education = Emanuel School, Wandsworth | alma_mater = American College, Kensington | occupation = Businessman, philanthropist | employer = [[Criterion Capital]] | known_for = | height = | title = CEO | term = | predecessor = | successor = | party = | boards = | partner = | children = 4 | parents = | relatives = | website = [http://azizfoundation.org.uk/ Aziz Foundation] | signature = | footnotes = }} '''Asif Aziz''' ni munthu wa ndalama zinandi wa ku [[London]]. Pakuŵa mweneko wa kampani ya Criterion Capital, wakumanyikwa cifukwa ca kuŵa na malo ghakuzirwa nga ni London Trocadero na Criterion Building mu Piccadilly Circus. Aziz ndiyo wakambiska wupu wakuwona vya wovwiri wa mbumba. == Umoyo Wakwambilira == Aziz wakababikira ku Malawi mu 1967, ndipo wakasamira ku London apo wakaŵa na vyaka 6..<ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |date= |title=About Asif Aziz |url=https://www.asifaziz.com |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161001190406/http://asifaziz.co.uk/ |archive-date=2016-10-01 |access-date=2018-02-20 |website=About Asif Aziz |language=en}}</ref> Wakagura nyumba yake yakwamba ku London mu ma 1980, apo wakaŵa wachali ku sukulu. Wakamalizga masambiro ghake ku British American College ku London. == Ntchito == Aziz wakagwiranga nchito ku kampani yakuzenga katundu Morgan Grenfell Laurie pambere wandawelere ku [[Angola]], Africa mu 1993 uko wakapanga chuma chake mwa kuzenga mabungwe ghaŵiri ghakuzenga vyakurya, kusazgapo Golfrate Angola, agho wakaguliska mu 2005. Mu chaka chenechicho wakawelera ku Britain na kukhazikiska kampani ya Criterion Capital, iyo yikagura malo ghakusanguluskira gha London Trocadero, London Pavilion (1 Piccadilly Circus) na The Criterion Building (1 Jermyn Street). Mazuŵa ghano, Criterion Capital ndiyo ni mweneko wa malo ghakurughakuru pa Leicester Square na Piccadilly Circus. Pakuŵa CEO wa Criterion Capital, iyo wali na katundu wa ndalama zakukwana mapaundi 3.600,000,000 mu London na kumwera kwa England, kusazgapo nyumba zakuguliska zakukwana 15 mu West End, Docklands na Croydon. Nyumba ya London Trocadero, iyo Asif Aziz wakagura mu 2005 Mu 2005, nyuzipepara ya Evening Standard yikati wakagura nyumba yake yakwamba apo wakaŵa na vyaka 16. Wakapeleka ndalama zakukwana mapaundi 1.9 miliyoni pa nyumba iyo yili pafupi na siteshoni ya South Kensington. Mu 2009, ŵa Criterion ŵakavumbura kuti ŵakukhumba kuzgora Trocadero kuŵa hotelo ya vipinda 500. Mu 2014, ŵakayowoya kuti ŵakukhumba kujura sitoro ya TK Maxx pa malo gha Trocadero, nangauli ŵapharazgi ŵakayowoya kuti boma likususka. Aziz wakucemeka kuti ni Muislamu musambazi comene wa nambara 7 mu Britain. The Daily Telegraph yikati Asif Aziz wali pa nambara 12 pa ŵanthu 40 awo ŵali na maudindo pa charu chose. Aziz wakususkika na magazini ya ndyali ya Private Eye cifukwa ca kugwiliskira nchito makampani agho ghali kulembeska pa cirwa ca Man kugura katundu mu London, comenecomene malo ghakulyeramo, na kujarapo mwakuti ghaŵe na nyumba zakukwana.<ref>{{Cite news|date=27 November 2015|title=Manx for Nothing|pages=14|work=Private Eye|url=https://www.private-eye.co.uk/pictures/special_reports/tax-havens.pdf|access-date=2 August 2022}}</ref> == Kupeleka vyawanangwa == Mu 2015, Aziz wakambiska The Aziz Foundation kuti wawovwire ŵanthu ŵakusuzgika chomene mu Britain. Pasono, wupu uwu ukuŵawovwira kuti ŵasambire makora masambiro ghapachanya. Kwizira mu kusambizga ŵanthu, pulogiramu iyi yikovwira ŵanthu awo ŵakusambira kuti ŵaŵe na maluso na ndalama izo zingaŵawovwira kuti ŵafiske vilato vyawo na kusintha vinthu. Kufika sono, wupu wa Aziz Foundation wapeleka ndalama zakujumpha 350 ku ŵanthu ŵa ku Britain awo ŵakusintha vinthu mu Chisilamu. Padera pa wupu uwu, Aziz wali na milimo yinandi yakovwira ŵanthu. Pa caru cose, ivi vikusazgapo kovwira pulojekiti ya Thokomala ku [[South Africa]], iyo yikupwelelera ŵana ŵalanda awo ŵali kufwa na nthenda ya AIDS; kovwira pulojekiti ya kucenjezga ŵana ŵa sukulu ya ku pulayimale ya Mosaic Future kwizira mu Criterion Capital, Seeing is Believing; gulu la vyawanangwa ilo likovwira ŵanthu kuti ŵambeso kuwona makora kweniso kovwira kugega vinthu vinyake ivyo vingapangiska kuti ŵaŵe ŵachibulumutira; Camfed, wupu wa pa caru cose uwo ukuyezga kumazga ukavu mu Africa kwizira mu kusambizga ŵasungwana na kovwira ŵanakazi ŵawukirano; UNICEF, wupu wa wovwiri wa pa caru cose; The Olive Tree, ndondomeko ya masambiro iyo yikovwira ŵawukirano ŵawukirano ŵa ku Palestina na ŵa ku [[Israel]] pa nyengo ya masambiro ghawo; na The Next Step Diversity Mark, nthowa yakuti mawupu ghalongore kujipeleka kwawo pakupanga na kovwira ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yose. Ku UK, ndiyo wakambiska bungwe la Aziz Foundation, ilo likovwira ŵanthu ŵa mu vyaru vinyake nga ni Citizens UK, The Prince's Trust's Mosaic programme na Refugee Action.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Our Grantees – The Aziz Foundation |url=http://azizfoundation.org.uk/our-grantees/ |access-date=2018-01-25 |website=azizfoundation.org.uk |language=en-US}}</ref> == Wonaniso == * [[:en:Criterion_Capital|Criterion Capital]] == Ukaboni == <references responsive="0"></references> == Vigaŵa vya kuwaro == * [http://azizfoundation.org.uk/ Aziz Foundation website] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20230312173330/https://www.zedwellhotels.com/asif-aziz Asif Aziz's biography] oabt5j4osiueefni5m7xezqoqz22kx8 0 20442 119290 53629 2026-08-13T21:59:21Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260813sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 119290 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Phiri la Mbande''' ni malo ghakufukura vinthu vyakale ku [[Malawi]], kumpoto kwa [[Nyanja ya Malaŵi|Nyanja ya Malawi]], mu chigaŵa cha Karonga, kumpoto kwa Malawi. Malo agha ghakaŵa msumba ukuru wa ufumu wa Ngonde. Ŵalongozgi ŵake awo ŵakachemekanga 'Kyungu' ŵakalamuliranga kufuma ku malo agha. Vinthu ivyo vikusangika pa malo agha vikulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵakakhalanga pa malo agha kwambira mu 1500 m'paka 1800. Ŵanthu ŵakukayika kuti ufumu uwu ukaŵa na vinthu vyakukhwaskana na malonda gha pa nyanja ku Africa. Vingacitika kuti malo agho ghakaŵa pa Phiri la Mbande ghakaŵa na malo ghakukhozga. == Ukaboni == * {{cite journal|author=K. R. Robinson|title=A Preliminary Report on the Recent Archaeology of Ngonde, Northern Malawi|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-african-history_1966_7_2/page/169|journal=The Journal of African History|volume=7|issue=2|year=1966|pages=169–188|jstor=179948|doi=10.1017/s0021853700006253}} {{coord|9|56|50|S|33|49|50|E|display=title}} {{Malawi-geo-stub}} 7srify6qp8curc7v5krmfe2omh9yhri 0 20523 119304 118806 2026-08-13T22:15:36Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260813sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 119304 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|Rebellion against colonial rule (1915)}} {{Use dmy dates|date=January 2018}} {{Infobox historical event|title=Chilembwe uprising|image=Chilembwe supporters being led to be executed (cropped).jpg|caption=Chilembwe supporters being led to be executed|date={{start and end dates|1915|01|23|1915|01|26}}|location=[[Shire Highlands]], [[Nyasaland]]<br/><small>(modern-day [[Malawi]])</small>|type=|cause=|organisers=[[John Chilembwe]]|outcome=Uprising repressed by British|reported deaths=}} '''Chilembwe''' chikaŵa kuwukira boma la Britain mu charu cha Nyasaland (lero ni Malawi). Mubali John Chilembwe ndiyo wakalongozganga gulu ili. Ŵalongozgi ŵa chipani ichi ŵakakhalanga kufupi na tchalitchi lake mu muzi wa Mbombwe kumwera kwa charu ichi. Ŵanthu aŵa ŵakakhuŵara na vinthu ivyo ŵakakanizganga ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga mu vyaru vinyake, kusazgapo ntchito zachiwawa, kusankhana mitundu, na ivyo ŵanthu ŵakakhumbanga kufuma ku ŵanthu ŵa mu vyaru ivi.[[:en:World_War_I|I]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Thompson|first=T. Jack|author-link=T. Jack Thompson|date=March 2017|title=Religion and Mythology in the Chilembwe Rising of 1915 in Nyasaland and the Easter Rising of 1916 in Ireland: Preparing for the End Times?|url=http://www.euppublishing.com/doi/10.3366/swc.2017.0169|journal=Studies in World Christianity|language=en|volume=23|issue=1|pages=51–66|doi=10.3366/swc.2017.0169}}</ref> Nkhondo iyi yikamba pa Janyuwale 23, 1915. L. Wakayama Bruce Plantation ku Magomero ndipo wakakoma ŵanthu ŵatatu ŵatuŵa. Usiku unyake, ku Blantyre kukachitika cigeŵenga ico cikaponya vilwero mu sitoro. Pa zuŵa la 24 January mulenji, ŵamazaza ŵakakolerana na gulu la ŵasilikari na kutumizga ŵasilikari ŵa King's African Rifles (KAR). Pamanyuma pakuti ŵasilikari ŵa boma ŵatondeka kuwukira msumba wa Mbombwe pa Janyuwale 25, ŵakugaluka ŵakawukira mpingo wa Cikhristu wa ku Nguludi na kuwotcha. Gulu la KAR na gulu la ŵasilikari ŵakatora Mbombwe kwambura kukumana na ŵanthu ŵakususka pa 26 January. Ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakagaluka, kusazgapo Chilembwe, ŵakachimbilira ku chigaŵa cha Portuguese East Africa (sono ni Mozambique). Ŵalwani pafupifupi 40 ŵakakomeka, ndipo 300 ŵakakakika; Chilembwe wakakomeka na ŵapolisi pafupi na mphaka pa Febuluwale 3. Nangauli kugaluka uku kukacitika yayi, kweni ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuwona kuti kukaŵa kwapadera comene mu mbiri ya Malawi. Chigaluka ichi chikakhwaska chomene boma la Britain mu charu cha Nyasaland, ndipo pamasinda ŵakasintha vinthu vinyake. Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Caru Cose yikati yamara, ŵanthu ŵa ku Malawi ŵakamba kukhumba comene kuti ŵanthu ŵa Chilembwe ŵambeso kuwukira. Chikumbukiro cha Chilembwe, icho chikulutilira kuŵa na nkharo yiwemi mu chalo, kanandi chikuzunulika na ŵandyali ŵa Malawi. Mazuŵa ghano, ŵanthu ŵakukumbukira kuwukira uku chaka chilichose ndipo Chilembwe nayo wakuwoneka kuti ni munthu wakuzirwa chomene.. == Mbili == {{main|Chilembwe's motivation}} [[File:Nysaland_in_Africa_1913.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nysaland_in_Africa_1913.png|thumb|[[:en:Nyasaland|Nyasaland]] (modern-day Malawi), highlighted in dark red on a map of pre-World War I Africa]] Boma la Britain likamba kulamulira chigaŵa icho sono chikuchemeka Malawi, pakati pa 1899 na 1900. Chigaŵa ichi chikaŵa pasi pa Britain mu 1891 (pakuti "British Central Africa") ndipo mu 1907, chikachemeka Nyasaland. Mwakupambana na vigaŵa vinyake vya mu Africa, uko boma la Britain likathembanga ŵanthu ŵa ku malo agha, ku Nyasaland boma la Britain likathembanga ŵasilikari. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1890, boma likapoka ŵanthu ŵa ku Yao, Ngoni, na Cewa..{{sfn|Rotberg|1967|p=xi}} Ufumu wa Britain ukasintha chomene vinthu mu charu cha Nyasaland. Mu nyengo yakwambilira, ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakaluta ku vyaru vinyake na kukhazikika mu vyaru ivi, ndipo ŵakagura malo ghanandi ku ŵalongozgi ŵa ku malo agha. Malo ghanandi agho ŵakagura, comenecomene mu vigaŵa vya Shire Highlands, ghakazgoka minda ya ŵanthu ŵatuŵa uko ŵakakuliranga tiyi, khofi, katoni na hona.{{sfn|Rotberg|1967|p=xiv}} Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakakhalanga mu malo agha ŵakagwiranga ntchito za malipiro ndipo chifukwa cha ntchito izo ŵakagwiranga mu malo agha, ŵakazgoka ŵantchito.{{sfn|Rotberg|1967|pp=xv–xvii}} Ŵachikuda awo ŵakagwiranga nchito mu minda iyi, kanandi ŵakaŵatimbanga na kusankhana mitundu.{{sfn|Rotberg|1967|p=xiv}} Ŵakaŵaso na dango lakuti ŵagwirenge nchito zinandi nga ni renti, ndipo ŵakaŵachichizganga kuti ŵagwirenge nchito zinandi. === Chilembwe na Tchalitchi lake === {{main|John Chilembwe|Providence Industrial Mission}} [[File:John_Chilembwe.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:John_Chilembwe.jpg|thumb|The last known photo of John Chilembwe (left, with British missionary John Chorley "Sir Potts the 4th" on the right) taken in 1914 about a year before his death]] John Chilembwe, wakababikira mu malo agha mu 1871, ndipo wakasambira pa tchalitchi la Church of Scotland ndipo pamasinda wakakumana na Joseph Booth, mishonale wa tchalitchi la Baptist. Booth wakasambizganga kuti ŵanthu wose ŵaŵe ŵakuyana waka, ndipo Chilembwe wakakondwa chomene na ivyo wakayowoya. Pa nyengo iyi, Chilembwe wakaluta ku United States kuti wakasambire vya cisopa ku Virginia. Ku malo agha, wakasangananga na ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa na America ndipo wakasambizgika nkhani za John Brown uyo wakasuskanga kusopa kwaunenesko na Booker T. Washington.{{sfn|Rotberg|1967|pp=xxiv–xxv}} Nangauli wakaŵa Mkhristu wakutemwa mtende kweniso wakughanaghana vinthu mwamahara, kweni wakatinkhanga chomene maboma agho ghakalamuliranga charu cha Nyasaland. Wakaŵatinkhanga comene ŵamishonale ŵa Church of Scotland ku Blantyre, ndipo wakasuskanga umoyo wawo uwemi pakuyaniska na ukavu wa ŵalimi ŵa ku malo agha. Boma la ku malo agha na ŵamishonale ŵa mpingo wa Presbyterian ŵakafipanga mtima na "mzimu wakofya wa kuyana kwa ŵanthu" uwo Booth wakaŵa nawo.<ref name="morris1">{{Cite book|last=Morris|first=Brian|author-link=Brian Morris (anthropologist)|date=November 2016|title=An Environmental History of Southern Malawi: Land and People of the Shire Highlands|url=https://cloudflare-ipfs.com/ipfs/bafykbzacedwhqi26o7zukplkeoxlpzztywxpb5z225je4wq2mbjvkw6jcveww?filename=%28Palgrave%20Studies%20in%20World%20Environmental%20History%29%20Brian%20Morris%20%28auth.%29%20-%20An%20Environmental%20History%20of%20Southern%20Malawi_%20Land%20and%20People%20of%20the%20Shire%20Highlands-Palgrave%20Macmillan%20%282016%29.pdf|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|language=en|pages=152–155|doi=10.1007/978-3-319-45258-6|isbn=978-3-319-45257-9}}</ref> Kweniso Booth wakakhumbanga chomene kuti waŵeso na ntchito yinyake ya m'munda, ndipo wakagura malo ghakukwana mahekita 26,537 ku Mitsidi. Nangauli Booth wakaŵa wakususka comene boma la Scotland ndipo Johnston wakavikiliranga boma la Scotland, kweni wose ŵakakolerananga cifukwa ca kuyuyura mpingo wa Church of Scotland.<ref name="morris1" /> Mulimo wa Booth ukaŵa wakuti "ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa awo ŵakaŵa na masambiro ghapachanya ndiwo ŵajilamulirenge ŵekha, ndipo ŵakaghanaghaniranga chomene vya ulimi na mafakitale". Ŵacifurika ndiwo ŵakeneranga kovwira ŵanthu aŵa, ndipo ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe ndiwo ŵakeneranga kuŵa ŵalongozgi na ŵapharazgi. Booth wakaŵa na mazaza pa Chilembwe, ndipo maghanoghano ghake ghakukhwaskana na wanangwa wa ŵanthu ghakawovwira chomene Chilembwe kweniso chisopa chake cha Baptist.<ref name="morris1" /> Pakuŵa mishonale wa Ciphwitikizi, Booth wakasanga ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Africa awo ŵakasambizgika na ŵamishonale ndipo wakaŵafumiska ku Presbyterian. Ndipouli, wakapelekanga malipiro gha ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa mu calico, agho ghakaŵa gha mashilingi ghaŵiri pera. Wakayambiska wupu wa African Christian Union, ndipo wakadidimizga fundo yakuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa ndiwo ŵakwenera kulamulira chuma chawo m'malo mwa ŵazga ŵa ku Europe. Gulu lake likaŵa na vilato vitatu, "kuti likapharazge makani ghawemi gha Chikhristu mu vyaru vyose vya mu Africa; kukhazikiska ivyo wakavicemanga kuti "Milimo ya ku Africa"; ndipo paumaliro, kuwezgerapo Africa ku ŵanthu ŵa mu Africa". Wakayowoyanga kuti ŵanthu ŵa mu Africa ŵajilamulirenge ŵekha, ndipo wakakhumbanga kuti ŵanthu ŵa mu Africa ŵasambirenge chomene kuti ŵasange ndalama zakukwana. Morris wakawona kuti ivyo Booth wakayowoya vikaŵa vyakupambana chomene na ivyo Chilembwe wakahara, chifukwa wakaŵa wakutemwa kusopa mwakuyana waka. Kuti ivi vicitike, Chilembwe na Booth ŵakaŵa "ŵanthu awo ŵakalongora nkharo ya Ŵaprotesitanti ndiposo mzimu wa ŵantchito".<ref name="morris1" /> [[File:Providence_Industrial_Mission.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Providence_Industrial_Mission.jpg|left|thumb|View of [[:en:Mbombwe|Mbombwe]] with the Providence Industrial Mission in the background]] Mu 1900, Chilembwe wakawelera ku Nyasaland, ndipo na wovwiri wa African-American National Baptist Convention, wakambiska tchalitchi lake lakuchemeka Providence Industrial Mission mu muzi wa Mbombwe. Mu vyaka vyakwambilira vya upharazgi uwu, boma la ku Africa likamuwona kuti ni "muteŵeti uyo wakachitanga vinthu mwambura nkhaza". Wakambiska masukulu gha ŵanthu ŵafipa gha ku Africa, agho ghakaŵa na ŵana ŵakujumpha 900, ndipo wakambiska wupu wakuchemeka Natives' Industrial Union. Ndipouli, ivyo Chilembwe wakachitanga vikapangiska kuti ŵantchito ŵa ku Alexander Livingstone Bruce Plantation ŵaleke kukolerana nayo. Mu Novembala 1913, ŵantchito ŵa kampani yinyake ya ku malo agha ŵakamba kugwira ntchito mu ofesi ya munthavi. L. Wakayama Bruce Estates wakawotcha matchalitchi agho Chilembwe panji ŵalondezgi ŵake ŵakazenga pa malo agha.{{sfn|McCracken|2012|p=133}} Nangauli palije vinandi vyakukhwaskana na tchalitchi la Chilembwe pambere kugaluka uku kundambe, kweni fundo zake zikaŵa zakutchuka chomene. Kwa vyaka 12 vyakwambilira vya uteŵeti wake, wakapharazganga fundo za kujikuzga kwa ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa na kuwusa makora ŵanthu kwizira mu masambiro, kulimbikira ntchito, na udindo wawo, nga umo Booker T. Washington, ndipo wakaciska ŵalondezgi ŵake kuti ŵavwarenge nga mba ku Europe.{{sfn|McCracken|2012|p=137}}Nangauli palije vinandi vyakukhwaskana na tchalitchi la Chilembwe pambere kugaluka uku kundambe, kweni fundo zake zikaŵa zakutchuka chomene. Kwa vyaka 12 vyakwambilira vya uteŵeti wake, wakapharazganga fundo za kujikuzga kwa ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa na kuwusa makora ŵanthu kwizira mu masambiro, kulimbikira ntchito, na udindo wawo, nga umo Booker T. Washington, ndipo wakaciska ŵalondezgi ŵake kuti ŵavwarenge nga mba ku Europe.{{sfn|McCracken|2012|p=128}} Pakulondezga ciyelezgero ca Booth, Chilembwe wakacitanga nchito ya kusambizga na kupharazga, kweniso wakayezga kupanga munda wake. Wakagwiliskiranga nchito ŵantchito ŵa ku Lomwe awo ŵakagwiranga nchito mu minda yake ya khofi, mphira, yisiti na katoni. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa na ŵa ku Europe awo ŵakaŵa na malo ŵakamutemwanga comene.<ref name="morris7">{{Cite book|last=Morris|first=Brian|author-link=Brian Morris (anthropologist)|date=November 2016|title=An Environmental History of Southern Malawi: Land and People of the Shire Highlands|url=https://cloudflare-ipfs.com/ipfs/bafykbzacedwhqi26o7zukplkeoxlpzztywxpb5z225je4wq2mbjvkw6jcveww?filename=%28Palgrave%20Studies%20in%20World%20Environmental%20History%29%20Brian%20Morris%20%28auth.%29%20-%20An%20Environmental%20History%20of%20Southern%20Malawi_%20Land%20and%20People%20of%20the%20Shire%20Highlands-Palgrave%20Macmillan%20%282016%29.pdf|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|language=en|pages=156–157|doi=10.1007/978-3-319-45258-6|isbn=978-3-319-45257-9}}</ref> Wakazgoka mulongozgi wa ŵamalonda ŵa ku Africa awo ŵakamba kulima minda na kupanga vinthu vinyake. Mu nyengo iyi, Chilembwe wakamba kuwona kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa wose ŵakukondwa yayi. Ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yose ya ku Africa ŵakakhalanga kutali na ŵanyawo cifukwa ca dango la thangata, ilo likakhumbanga kuti munthu waliyose wagwirenge nchito kwa mweneko wa nyumba kuti walipire renti na msonkho. Pa nyengo ya vula, ŵanthu ŵakakhalanga mu vyaru vinyake ndipo ŵakagwiranga nchito mu minda ya ŵeneco. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa awo ŵakakhalanga mu malo agha ŵakeneranga kulondezga malango ghakudunjika, ndipo ŵakakanizgikanga kugura makuni panji kuvina. Mwakusazgirapo, ŵeneco ŵa caru ca ku Europe kanandi ŵakacicizganga ŵeneco awo ŵakagwiranga nchito kuti ŵagwirenge nchito zinandi comene kuluska izo ŵakazomerezgekanga. Chilembwe wakaŵa muyowoyeri wa ŵanthu ŵa ku Lomwe.<ref name="morris8">{{Cite book|last=Morris|first=Brian|author-link=Brian Morris (anthropologist)|date=November 2016|title=An Environmental History of Southern Malawi: Land and People of the Shire Highlands|url=https://cloudflare-ipfs.com/ipfs/bafykbzacedwhqi26o7zukplkeoxlpzztywxpb5z225je4wq2mbjvkw6jcveww?filename=%28Palgrave%20Studies%20in%20World%20Environmental%20History%29%20Brian%20Morris%20%28auth.%29%20-%20An%20Environmental%20History%20of%20Southern%20Malawi_%20Land%20and%20People%20of%20the%20Shire%20Highlands-Palgrave%20Macmillan%20%282016%29.pdf|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|language=en|pages=158–159|doi=10.1007/978-3-319-45258-6|isbn=978-3-319-45257-9}}</ref> Pa nyengo yeneyira, ŵalimi ŵa ku Africa ŵakakhuŵara cifukwa ca masuzgo gha vya cuma ndiposo kusankhana mitundu. Ŵakatondeka kusanga malo panji ngongoli ndipo ŵakaŵavya wanangwa wa kusayinira makalata gha msonkho wa ŵantchito ŵawo. Kweniso boma likakondweskanga ŵazungu awo ŵakaŵa na minda. Munthu waliyose wa ku Africa "wakeneranga kuvura cisoti cake para wakuwonekera kwa munthu wa ku Europe, kwali ni mulara wa boma panji yayi".<ref name="morris9">{{Cite book|last=Morris|first=Brian|author-link=Brian Morris (anthropologist)|date=November 2016|title=An Environmental History of Southern Malawi: Land and People of the Shire Highlands|url=https://cloudflare-ipfs.com/ipfs/bafykbzacedwhqi26o7zukplkeoxlpzztywxpb5z225je4wq2mbjvkw6jcveww?filename=%28Palgrave%20Studies%20in%20World%20Environmental%20History%29%20Brian%20Morris%20%28auth.%29%20-%20An%20Environmental%20History%20of%20Southern%20Malawi_%20Land%20and%20People%20of%20the%20Shire%20Highlands-Palgrave%20Macmillan%20%282016%29.pdf|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|language=en|pages=160–161|doi=10.1007/978-3-319-45258-6|isbn=978-3-319-45257-9}}</ref> Ŵazungu awo ŵakakhalanga mu vyaru vinyake na ŵaliska ŵa Ciphwitikizi, nangauli ŵakapharazganga kuti ŵanthu wose ŵaŵe ŵakuyana, kweni ŵakakwiyiranga awo ŵakakhalanga mu vyaru ivi. William Jervis Livingstone wakamanyikwanga comene cifukwa ca kuyowoya mazgu ghaheni ku ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa awo ŵakaŵa ŵakusambira comene ndiposo ŵakaŵa na malo, ndipo wakafumbanga kuti "Kasi mbazga ŵa njani?" Morris wakati kusankhana uku ndiko kukacitiska kuti ŵanthu ŵagaluke. Pamanyuma pa 1912, Chilembwe wakazgoka wankhaza comene ndipo wakamba kuyowoya vya kufwatuka kwa Ŵafrika na umaliro wa muwuso wa ŵakoloni. Kufuma mu 1914, wakapharazganga chomene nkhani za nkhondo, kanandi wakazunuranga nkhani za mu Cipangano Cakale, ndipo wakadodoliskanga pa ivyo Ŵaisrayeli ŵakacita kuti ŵafumemo mu wuzga ku Eguputo. Mulongozgi wa Watch Tower, Charles Taze Russell, wakayowoyerathu kuti Haramagedoni yizamwamba mu Okutobala 1914, ndipo ŵalondezgi ŵanyake ŵa Chilembwe ŵakaghanaghananga kuti Haramagedoni yizamuŵa umaliro wa muwuso wa maboma.{{sfn|McCracken|2012|p=136}} === Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Caru Cose === {{see also|World War I|East African Campaign (World War I)}} [[File:Ministry_of_Information_First_World_War_Official_Collection_Q15528.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ministry_of_Information_First_World_War_Official_Collection_Q15528.jpg|thumb|Nyasa porters, watched by British soldiers, during the [[:en:East_African_Campaign_(World_War_I)|East African campaign]]]] Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Caru Cose yikamba mu Julayi 1914. Kuzakafika mu Seputembala 1914, nkhondo yikafika mu vyaru vya ku Africa. Ku Nyasaland, nkhondo yikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Africa ŵanjire usilikari.Awo ŵakanyamuranga katundu ŵakakhalanga makora yayi, lekani ŵakasuzgikanga na matenda. Pa nyengo yeneyiyo pera, ŵantchito awo ŵakagwiranga nchito ya kunyamura katundu ŵakasoŵanga nchito, ndipo ici cikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa mu charu ca Nyasaland ŵasuzgike comene. Ŵanthu aŵa ŵakagomezganga kuti Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Caru Cose yizamuŵa Haramagedoni, iyo yizamuparanya maboma gha vyaru ivyo vikalamuliranga caru ca Africa na kucitiska kuti paŵe vyaru vyawo.{{sfn|Strachan|2004|p=132}} Chilembwe wakasuskanga ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Nyasan kuti ŵarwe nkhondo iyo wakawonanga kuti njambura kukolerana na iwo. Iyo wakakhumbanga kuti ŵanthu ŵa mu Africa ŵaleke kuchitako usilikari chifukwa chakuti ŵakaŵavya wanangwa. Mu Novembala 1914, Chilembwe wakalemba kalata ku nyuzipepara ya The Nyasaland Times ku Blantyre, ndipo wakapempha ŵamazaza kuti ŵaleke kulemba ŵasilikari ŵa ŵanthu ŵafipa mtima. {{blockquote|Pakuti nkhupulika kuti nkhondo yabuka pakati pa imwe na mitundu yinyake, ŵatuŵa pera, nkhumupemphani kuti muleke kutora ŵanthu ŵanyane, ŵabali ŵane awo ŵakumanya yayi cifukwa ca nkhondo yinu, awo ŵalije cilicose ico ŵangacita nayo. Cakuzirwa comene nkhulemba ŵamalonda, ŵamishonale, na ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵakukhala mu caru ici, awo mbakuzirwa comene ndiposo awo ŵakumanya ico cikupangiska nkhondo iyi.&nbsp;... (original syntax and grammar){{sfn|Rotberg|1967|pp=33–4}}}} === Vyakunozgekela === Preparations for the uprising had begun kuumaliro wa 1914. Vinthu ivyo Chilembwe wakakhumbanga vikumanyikwa makora yayi, kweni ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakagomezganga kuti wakakhumbanga kujizgora yekha "Themba la Nyasaland".{{sfn|Rotberg|1971|p=138}} Nyengo yichoko waka, wakasanga buku lakusambizgira vya usilikari ndipo wakamba kuwunganya ŵalondezgi ŵake na kuŵawovwira. Wakakhozga ubwezi wake na Filipo Chinyama ku Ncheu, mtunda wa makilomita 180 kumpoto ca kumanjiliro gha dazi, ndipo wakasimikizgika kuti wazamovwira ŵalondezgi ŵake kuti nawo ŵanjire mu gulu la ŵakugaluka. Ŵalaraŵalara ŵa boma ŵakapokera macenjezgo ghaŵiri ghakuti kugaluka kuli pafupi. Mu Ogasiti 1914, mulondezgi munyake wa Chilembwe uyo wakakondwa yayi na ivyo mupharazgi uyu wakacita wakaphalira Philip Mitchell, uyo wakaŵa muteŵeti wa boma (uyo pamanyuma wakazgoka kazembe wa Uganda na Kenya), kuti "uyo wakakhumbanga kucita nthena wakaŵa na maghanoghano ghaheni". Kweniso ŵakatuma uthenga ku ofesi yinyake ya Katolika, kweni pakaŵavya uyo wakacitapo kanthu. Brian Morris wakuyowoya kuti pakaŵavya ico cikacitika cifukwa boma la ŵakoloni likaŵa na nthowa ya kukhorweskera mphindano izi yayi, cifukwa ca cisisi ca kuwukira.<ref name="morris2">{{Cite book|last=Morris|first=Brian|author-link=Brian Morris (anthropologist)|date=November 2016|title=An Environmental History of Southern Malawi: Land and People of the Shire Highlands|url=https://cloudflare-ipfs.com/ipfs/bafykbzacedwhqi26o7zukplkeoxlpzztywxpb5z225je4wq2mbjvkw6jcveww?filename=%28Palgrave%20Studies%20in%20World%20Environmental%20History%29%20Brian%20Morris%20%28auth.%29%20-%20An%20Environmental%20History%20of%20Southern%20Malawi_%20Land%20and%20People%20of%20the%20Shire%20Highlands-Palgrave%20Macmillan%20%282016%29.pdf|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|language=en|pages=170–171|doi=10.1007/978-3-319-45258-6|isbn=978-3-319-45257-9}}</ref> == Kudelela == === Outbreak === {{Quote box|width=270px|bgcolor=#c6dbf7|align=right|quote="This is the only way to show the whitemen, {{sic}} that the treatment they are treating our men and women was most bad and we have determined to strike a first and a last blow and then we will all die by the heavy storm of the whiteman's army. The whitemen will then think, after we are dead, that the treatment they are treating {{sic}} our people is bad, and they might change to the better for our people."|source=Chilembwe's speech to the rebels, 23 January{{sfn|Rotberg|1967|p=48-9}}}} During the night of Saturday 23–24 January, the rebels met at the Mission church in Mbombwe, where Chilembwe gave a speech stressing that none of them should expect to survive the reprisals that would follow the revolt but that the uprising would draw greater attention to their conditions and destabilise the colonial system. This, Chilembwe believed, was the only way change would ever occur.{{sfn|Rotberg|1967|p=48-9}} A contingent of rebels was sent to [[:en:Blantyre|Blantyre]] and [[:en:Limbe,_Malawi|Limbe]], about {{convert|15|miles}} to the south, where most of the white colonists lived and where the insurgents hoped to capture the [[:en:African_Lakes|African Lakes Company]]'s store of weapons.{{sfn|Rotberg|1971|p=135}} Another group headed towards the Alexander Livingstone Bruce Plantation's headquarters at [[:en:Magomero|Magomero]]. Chilembwe sent a messenger to Ncheu to alert Chinyama that the rebellion was starting.{{sfn|Rotberg|1971|p=135}} Chilembwe also sought support for his uprising from the German forces in German East Africa, on Nyasaland's far northern border,{{sfn|Rotberg|1971|p=162}} hoping that a German offensive from the north combined with a native insurrection in the south might force the British out of Nyasaland permanently.{{sfn|Rotberg|1971|p=163}} On 24 January, he sent a letter to the German Governor by courier through Portuguese East Africa. The courier was intercepted and the letter was never received. During the latter stages of the East African Campaign, after the German invasion of Portuguese East Africa, the German colonial army actually helped to suppress anti-Portuguese rebellions, among the [[:en:Makonde_people|Makombe]] and [[:en:Báruè_District|Barue peoples]], worrying that African uprisings would destabilise the colonial order.{{sfn|Strachan|2004|p=177}} === Attack on the Livingstone Bruce Plantation === The major action of the Chilembwe uprising involved an attack on the Bruce plantation at Magomero. The plantation spanned about {{convert|5000|acres|km2}} and grew both [[:en:Cotton|cotton]] and [[:en:Tobacco|tobacco]].{{sfn|McCracken|2012|pp=130–1}} Around 5,000 locals worked on it as part of their ''thangata'' obligations.{{sfn|McCracken|2012|p=130}} The plantation had a reputation locally for the poor treatment of its workers and for the brutality of its managers,{{sfn|McCracken|2012|p=131}} who closed local schools, beat their workers and paid them less than had been promised.{{sfn|McCracken|2012|p=131}} Their burning of Chilembwe's church in November 1913 created a personal animosity with the rebel leadership.{{sfn|McCracken|2012|p=133}} The insurgents launched two roughly concurrent attacks—one group targeted Magomero, the plantation headquarters and home of the main manager [[:en:William_Jervis_Livingstone|William Jervis Livingstone]] and a few other white staff, while a second assaulted the plantation-owned village of Mwanje, where there were two white households.{{sfn|Rotberg|1971|p=135}}{{sfn|Shepperson & Price|1958|p=274}} [[File:Tea_plantation_near_Mulanje.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tea_plantation_near_Mulanje.JPG|left|thumb|Modern-day view of a tea plantation at [[:en:Mulanje|Mlanje]]]] The rebels moved into Magomero in the early evening, while Livingstone and his wife were entertaining some dinner guests. The estate official, Duncan MacCormick, was in another house nearby.{{sfn|Rotberg|1971|p=135}} A third building, occupied by Emily Stanton, Alyce Roach and five children, contained a small cache of weapons and ammunition belonging to the local rifle club.{{sfn|Rotberg|1971|p=135}} The insurgents quietly broke into the Livingstone's house and injured him during hand-to-hand fighting, prompting him to take refuge in the bedroom, where his wife attempted to treat his wounds. The rebels forced their way into the bedroom, and after capturing his wife, decapitated Livingstone.{{sfn|Rotberg|1971|p=136}}{{sfn|Shepperson & Price|1958|p=270}} MacCormick, who had been alerted, was killed by a rebel spear.{{sfn|Shepperson & Price|1958|p=272}} The attackers took the women and children of the village prisoner but shortly released them unhurt, having reportedly treated them well.{{sfn|Rotberg|1971|p=136}}{{sfn|McCracken|2012|p=127}} It has been suggested that Chilembwe may have hoped to use the women and children as hostages, but this remains unclear.{{sfn|Shepperson & Price|1958|p=272}} The attack on Magomero, and in particular the killing of Livingstone, had great symbolic significance for Chilembwe's men.{{sfn|Shepperson & Price|1958|p=273}} The two [[:en:Mauser|Mauser]] rifles captured from the plantation formed the basis of the rebel armoury for the rest of the uprising.{{sfn|Shepperson & Price|1958|p=273}} Mwanje had little military value but it has been proposed that the rebels may have hoped to find weapons and ammunition there.{{sfn|Rotberg|1971|p=136}} Led by Jonathan Chigwinya, the insurgents stormed one of the houses and killed the plantation's stock manager, Robert Ferguson, with a spear as he lay in bed reading a newspaper.{{sfn|Rotberg|1971|p=136}}{{sfn|Shepperson & Price|1958|p=274}} Two of the colonists, John Robertson and his wife Charlotte, escaped into the cotton fields and walked {{convert|6|miles}} to a neighbouring plantation to raise the alarm.{{sfn|Shepperson & Price|1958|p=277}} One of the Robertsons' African servants, who remained loyal, was killed by the attackers.{{sfn|Shepperson & Price|1958|p=277}} === Later actions === The rebels cut the Zomba–[[:en:Tete,_Mozambique|Tete]] and Blantyre–[[:en:Mikalongwe|Mikalongwe]] telephone lines, delaying the spread of the news.{{sfn|Rotberg|1971|p=136}} The African Lakes' Company weapons store in Blantyre was raided by a force of around 100 rebels at around 02:00 on 24 January, before the general alarm had been raised by news of the Magomero and Mwanje attacks.{{sfn|Shepperson & Price|1958|pp=279–280}} The defenders mobilised after an African watchman was shot dead by the rebels. The insurgents were repulsed, but not before they had captured five rifles and some ammunition, which was taken back to Mbombwe.{{sfn|McCracken|2012|p=141}} A number of rebels were taken prisoner during the retreat from Magomero.{{sfn|Shepperson & Price|1958|pp=281–282}} [[File:View_of_Zomba_plateau_from_north.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:View_of_Zomba_plateau_from_north.JPG|left|thumb|A modern view of the Shire Highlands]] After the initial attacks on the Bruce plantation, the rebels returned home. Livingstone's head was taken back and displayed at the Providence Industrial Mission on the second day of the uprising as Chilembwe preached a sermon.{{sfn|Power|2010|p=19}} During much of the rebellion, Chilembwe remained in Mbombwe praying and leadership of the rebels was taken by [[:en:David_Kaduya|David Kaduya]], a former soldier in the [[:en:King's_African_Rifles|King's African Rifles]] (KAR). Under Kaduya's command, the rebels ambushed a small party of government soldiers near Mbombwe on 24 January, described as the "one reverse suffered by the government" during the uprising.{{sfn|McCracken|2012|p=141}} By the morning of 24 January the government had levied the Nyasaland Volunteer Reserve, a settler [[:en:Militia|militia]] and redeployed the 1st Battalion, KAR from the north of the colony.{{sfn|Shepperson & Price|1958|pp=283, 286}} The rebels did not mount any further attack any of the many other isolated plantations in the region. They also did not occupy the ''[[:en:Boma_(enclosure)|boma]]'' (fort) at [[:en:Chiradzulu|Chiradzulu]] just {{convert|5|miles}} from Mbombwe, even though it was ungarrisoned at the time.{{sfn|Rotberg|1971|p=136}} Rumours of rebel attacks spread, but despite earlier offers of support, there were no parallel uprisings elsewhere in Nyasaland and the promised reinforcements from Ncheu did not materialise. The Mlanje or Zomba regions likewise refused to join the uprising.{{sfn|Rotberg|1971|p=136}}{{sfn|Shepperson & Price|1958|p=289}}{{clear}} === Siege of Mbombwe and attempted escape === [[File:Providence_Industrial_Mission_after_demolition.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Providence_Industrial_Mission_after_demolition.jpg|thumb|View of the Providence Industrial Mission shortly after its destruction by government troops]] Troops of the KAR launched a tentative attack on Mbombwe on 25 January but the engagement proved inconclusive.{{sfn|Shepperson & Price|1958|p=296}} Chilembwe's forces held a strong defensive position along the Mbombwe river and could not be pushed back. Two African government soldiers were killed and three were wounded;{{sfn|Shepperson & Price|1958|p=297}} Chilembwe's losses have been estimated as about 20.{{sfn|Shepperson & Price|1958|p=297}} On 26 January, a group of rebels attacked a [[:en:Catholic_Church|Catholic mission]] at [[:en:Nguludi|Nguludi]] belonging to Father Swelsen. The mission was defended by four African armed guards, one of whom was killed, Father Swelsen was also wounded in the fighting and the church was burnt down.{{sfn|Rotberg|1971|p=136}} The military and militia forces assaulted Mbombwe again the same day but encountered no resistance.{{sfn|Rotberg|1971|p=137}} Many rebels, including Chilembwe, had fled the village disguised as civilians.{{sfn|Rotberg|1971|p=137}} Mbombwe's fall and the government troops' subsequent demolition of Chilembwe's church with dynamite ended the rebellion.{{sfn|Rotberg|1971|p=137}} Kaduya was captured and brought back to Magomero where he was publicly executed.{{sfn|McCracken|2012|p=142}} This was the final attack of the rebellion, and Morris attributed the decision to attack the Catholic mission to "the pervasive anti-Catholic sentiments expressed by the independent Baptists".<ref name="morris3">{{Cite book|last=Morris|first=Brian|author-link=Brian Morris (anthropologist)|date=November 2016|title=An Environmental History of Southern Malawi: Land and People of the Shire Highlands|url=https://cloudflare-ipfs.com/ipfs/bafykbzacedwhqi26o7zukplkeoxlpzztywxpb5z225je4wq2mbjvkw6jcveww?filename=%28Palgrave%20Studies%20in%20World%20Environmental%20History%29%20Brian%20Morris%20%28auth.%29%20-%20An%20Environmental%20History%20of%20Southern%20Malawi_%20Land%20and%20People%20of%20the%20Shire%20Highlands-Palgrave%20Macmillan%20%282016%29.pdf|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|language=en|page=173|doi=10.1007/978-3-319-45258-6|isbn=978-3-319-45257-9}}</ref> Following the attacks, Chilembwe would meditate on the summit of Chilimankhanje hill instead of attempting to regroup the now dispersed rebel troops. He was eventually convinced to leave the hill and escape to Mozambique, a land that he had already been to numerous times during his hunting trips. Chilemwe also wrote a letter to the German colonial regime in [[:en:Tunduru|Tunduru]], asking for aid. He never received a response, and the letter was considered an embarrassment to his supporters, given the Germany's reputation as a particularly oppressive colonial power.<ref name="morris3" /> After the defeat of the rebellion, most of the remaining insurgents attempted to escape eastwards across the Shire Highlands, towards [[:en:Portuguese_East_Africa|Portuguese East Africa]], from where they hoped to head north to German territory.{{sfn|Rotberg|1971|p=137}} Chilembwe was seen by a patrol of Nyasaland police and shot dead on 3 February near [[:en:Mulanje|Mlanje]].{{sfn|Rotberg|1971|p=137}} Many other rebels were captured; 300 were imprisoned following the rebellion and 40 were executed.{{sfn|Rotberg|1971|p=137}} Around 30 rebels evaded capture and settled in Portuguese territory near the Nyasaland border.{{sfn|McCracken|2012|p=143}} == Aftermath == The colonial authorities responded quickly to the uprising with as much force and as many troops, police and settler volunteers it could muster to hunt down and kill suspected rebels. There was no official death toll, but perhaps 50 of Chilembwe's followers were killed in the fighting, when trying to escape after or summarily executed.<ref name="S Hynde, 2010 p. 547">S Hynde, (2010). ‘‘The extreme penalty of the law’’: mercy and the death penalty as aspects of state power in colonial Nyasaland, c. 1903 47. Journal of Eastern African Studies Vol. 4, No. 3, p. 547.</ref> Worrying that the rebellion might rapidly reignite and spread, the authorities instigated arbitrary reprisals against the local African population, including mass hut burnings. All weapons were confiscated and fines of 4 shillings per person were levied in the districts affected by the revolt, regardless of whether the people in question had been involved.{{sfn|McCracken|2012|p=143}} As part of the repression, a series of courts were hastily convened which passed death sentences on Forty-six men for the offences of murder and treason and 300 others were given prison sentences. Thirty-six were executed and, to increase the deterrent effect, some of the ringleaders were hanged in public on a main road close to the Magomero Estate where Europeans had been killed.<ref name="S Hynde, 2010 p. 547" /><ref>D D Phiri, (1999). Let Us Die for Africa: An African Perspective on the Life and Death of John Chilembwe of Nyasaland. Central Africana, Blantyre, pp. 86–7. {{ISBN|978-9-99081-417-0}}.</ref> The colonial government also began attacking the rights of missionaries in Nyasaland and, although Anglican missions, those of the Scottish churches and Catholic missions were not affected, it banned many smaller, often American-originated churches, including the Churches of Christ and Watchtower Society, from Nyasaland, and placed restrictions on other African-run churches. Public gatherings, especially those associated with African-initiated religious groups, were banned until 1919.{{sfn|McCracken|2012|p=144}} Fear of similar uprisings in other colonies, notably [[:en:Northern_Rhodesia|Northern Rhodesia]], also led to similar repression of independent churches and foreign missions beyond Nyasaland.{{sfn|Yorke|1990|pp=373–4}} Though the rebellion failed, the threat to colonial rule posed by the Chilembwe revolt compelled the local authorities to introduce some reform. The colonial government proposed to undermine the power of independent churches like Chilembwe's, by promoting secular education but lack of funding made this impossible. The government began to promote tribal loyalties in the colony, through the system of [[:en:Indirect_rule|indirect rule]], which was expanded after the revolt. In particular, the Muslim Yao people, who attempted to distance themselves from Chilembwe, were given more power and autonomy.{{sfn|Power|2010|p=20}} Although delayed by the war, the Nyasaland Police, which had been primarily composed of African ''[[:en:Askari|askaris]]'' levied by local white officials, was restructured as a professional force of white colonists.{{sfn|McCracken|2012|p=144}} Forced labour was retained, and would remain a resentment for decades afterwards.{{sfn|Power|2010|p=21}} While the uprising enjoyed sympathy amongst Yao commoners, none of the Yao chiefs in the Shire Highlands supported it. Most of them embraced Islam instead of Christianity and considered the African planters a threat to their political hegemony. The [[:en:Commission_of_Enquiry|Commission of Enquiry]] dismissed the uprising as a localised affair caused by harsh mistreatment of natives by the [[:en:Magomero|Magomero]] estate.<ref name="morris4">{{Cite book|last=Morris|first=Brian|author-link=Brian Morris (anthropologist)|date=November 2016|title=An Environmental History of Southern Malawi: Land and People of the Shire Highlands|url=https://cloudflare-ipfs.com/ipfs/bafykbzacedwhqi26o7zukplkeoxlpzztywxpb5z225je4wq2mbjvkw6jcveww?filename=%28Palgrave%20Studies%20in%20World%20Environmental%20History%29%20Brian%20Morris%20%28auth.%29%20-%20An%20Environmental%20History%20of%20Southern%20Malawi_%20Land%20and%20People%20of%20the%20Shire%20Highlands-Palgrave%20Macmillan%20%282016%29.pdf|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|language=en|page=174|doi=10.1007/978-3-319-45258-6|isbn=978-3-319-45257-9}}</ref> However, the grievances expressed by Chilembwe were not unique to his area, and the Africans across the entire Nyasaland identified with his struggle. Africans had no rights as tenants under the ''thangata'' system, had to pay rent in labour, and were prohibited from gathering wood or hunting wild animals in the woodlands surrounding the European estates, even though they considered woodland resources to be common property. Harry Kambwiri Matecheta noted that while the British colonial regime did suppress slave trade, the ''thangata'' system simply introduced a new form of slavery.<ref name="morris5">{{Cite book|last=Morris|first=Brian|author-link=Brian Morris (anthropologist)|date=November 2016|title=An Environmental History of Southern Malawi: Land and People of the Shire Highlands|url=https://cloudflare-ipfs.com/ipfs/bafykbzacedwhqi26o7zukplkeoxlpzztywxpb5z225je4wq2mbjvkw6jcveww?filename=%28Palgrave%20Studies%20in%20World%20Environmental%20History%29%20Brian%20Morris%20%28auth.%29%20-%20An%20Environmental%20History%20of%20Southern%20Malawi_%20Land%20and%20People%20of%20the%20Shire%20Highlands-Palgrave%20Macmillan%20%282016%29.pdf|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|language=en|page=178|doi=10.1007/978-3-319-45258-6|isbn=978-3-319-45257-9}}</ref> The rebels were of diverse social and economic backgrounds, consisting of Yao people, Lomwe immigrants, agricultural farmers and African pretty bourgeoisie. The colonial regime ignored African petitions and failed to translate their laws into local languages, leading to many locals not understanding them at all. Morris notes that Africans of Nyasaland were increasingly hostile to the British rule due to physical abuse and mistreatment they had to endure, and if the rebellion managed to get support from German East Africa and acquire weapon caches during the attack African Lakes Company depot in Blantyre, it could have turned into "a wider and more protracted struggle".<ref name="morris5" /> Morris concludes that the rebellion was a response to colonial oppression, particularly towards racial injustice. It was a "struggle for freedom" with elements of Christian utopianism, with Chilembwe expressing two contrasting political traditions - Booth's radical egalitarianism and a "petty capitalist orientation" of the Protestant churches, which stressed the right to private property, wage labour and commercial agriculture.<ref name="morris6">{{Cite book|last=Morris|first=Brian|author-link=Brian Morris (anthropologist)|date=November 2016|title=An Environmental History of Southern Malawi: Land and People of the Shire Highlands|url=https://cloudflare-ipfs.com/ipfs/bafykbzacedwhqi26o7zukplkeoxlpzztywxpb5z225je4wq2mbjvkw6jcveww?filename=%28Palgrave%20Studies%20in%20World%20Environmental%20History%29%20Brian%20Morris%20%28auth.%29%20-%20An%20Environmental%20History%20of%20Southern%20Malawi_%20Land%20and%20People%20of%20the%20Shire%20Highlands-Palgrave%20Macmillan%20%282016%29.pdf|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|language=en|pages=181–182|doi=10.1007/978-3-319-45258-6|isbn=978-3-319-45257-9}}</ref> === Commission of Enquiry === In the aftermath of the revolt, the colonial administration formed a [[:en:Commission_of_Enquiry|Commission of Enquiry]] to examine the causes and handling of the rebellion. The Commission, which presented its conclusions in early 1916, found that the revolt was chiefly caused by mismanagement of the Bruce plantation. The Commission also blamed Livingstone himself for "treatment of natives [that was] often unduly harsh" and for poor management of the estate.{{sfn|Rotberg|1971|pp=137–8}} The Commission found that the systematic discrimination, lack of freedoms and respect were key causes of resentment among the local population.{{sfn|Rotberg|1971|pp=137–8}} It also emphasised the effect of Booth's ideology on Chilembwe.{{sfn|McCracken|2012|p=145}} The Commission's reforms were not far-reaching—though it criticised the ''thangata'' system, it made only minor changes aimed at ending "casual brutality".{{sfn|McCracken|2012|p=146}}{{sfn|Power|2010|p=20}} Though the government passed laws banning plantation owners from using the services of their tenants as payment of rent in 1917, effectively abolishing ''thangata'', it was "uniformly ignored".{{sfn|McCracken|2012|p=146}} A further Commission in 1920 concluded that the ''thangata'' could not be effectively abolished, and it remained a constant source of friction into the 1950s.{{sfn|McCracken|2012|p=146}} == In later culture == [[File:The_National_Archives_UK_-_CO_1069-165-1.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:The_National_Archives_UK_-_CO_1069-165-1.jpg|thumb|[[:en:Hastings_Banda|Hastings Banda]], Malawi's independence leader, championed Chilembwe's legacy in the 1960s]] Despite its failure, the Chilembwe rebellion has since gained an important place in the modern Malawian cultural memory, with Chilembwe himself gaining "iconic status."{{sfn|Power|2010|p=27}} The uprising had "local notoriety" in the years immediately after it, and former rebels were kept under police observation.{{sfn|Rotberg|1971|p=139}} Over the next three decades, anti-colonial activists idealised Chilembwe and began to see him as a semi-mythical figure.{{sfn|Power|2010|p=27}} The [[:en:Nyasaland_African_Congress|Nyasaland African Congress]] (NAC) of the 1940s and 1950s used him as a symbolic figurehead, partly because its president, [[:en:James_Ralph_Nthinda_Chinyama|James Chinyama]], had a family connection to Filipo Chinyama, who had been believed to be an ally of Chilembwe's.{{sfn|Power|2010|p=27}} When the NAC announced that it intended to mark 15 February annually as Chilembwe Day, colonial officials were scandalised. One wrote that to "venerate the memory of the fanatic and blood thirsty Chilembwe seems to us to be nothing less than a confession of violent intention."{{sfn|Power|2010|p=27}} [[:en:Desmond_Dudwa_Phiri|D. D. Phiri]], a Malawian historian, characterised Chilembwe's uprising as an early expression of Malawian nationalism, as did [[:en:George_Shepperson|George Shepperson]] and Thomas Price in their 1958 book ''Independent African'', an exhaustive study of Chilembwe and his rebellion that was banned during the colonial era but still widely read by the educated classes.{{sfn|Power|2010|p=27}} Chilembwe became viewed as an "unproblematic" hero by many of the country's people.{{sfn|McCracken|2012|p=127}} The [[:en:Malawi_Congress_Party|Malawi Congress Party]] (MCP), which ultimately led the country to independence in 1964, made a conscious effort to identify its leader [[:en:Hastings_Banda|Hastings Banda]] with Chilembwe through speeches and radio broadcasts.{{sfn|Power|2010|p=28}} [[:en:Bakili_Muluzi|Bakili Muluzi]], who succeeded Banda in 1994, similarly invoked Chilembwe's memory to win popular support, inaugurating a new annual national holiday, Chilembwe Day, on 16 January 1995.{{sfn|Power|2010|p=28}} Chilembwe's portrait was soon added to the national currency, the [[:en:Malawian_kwacha|kwacha]],{{sfn|Power|2010|p=28}} and reproduced on [[:en:Postage_stamps_and_postal_history_of_Malawi|Malawian stamps]].{{sfn|McCracken|2012|p=127}} It has been argued that for Malawian politicians, Chilembwe has become "symbol, legitimising myth, instrument and propaganda".{{sfn|Power|2010|p=28}} == Historical analysis == The revolt has been the subject of much research and has been interpreted in various ways by historians. At the time, the uprising was generally considered to mark a turning point in colonial rule. The Governor of Nyasaland, [[:en:George_Smith_(Nyasaland)|George Smith]], declared that the revolt marked a "new phase in the existence of Nyasaland".{{sfn|McCracken|2012|p=127}} According to the military historian [[:en:Hew_Strachan|Hew Strachan]], the Chilembwe uprising tarnished British prestige in East Africa which contributed, after the appointment of the future Prime Minister [[:en:Bonar_Law|Bonar Law]] as [[:en:Secretary_of_State_for_the_Colonies|Secretary of State for the Colonies]], to renewed pressure for an Anglo-Belgian offensive against German East Africa.{{sfn|Strachan|2004|p=132}} Chilembwe's aims have also come under scrutiny. According to [[:en:Robert_I._Rotberg|Robert I. Rotberg]], Chilembwe's speech of 23 January appeared to stress the importance and inevitability of martyrdom as a principal motivation. The same speech depicted the uprising as a manifestation of desperation but because of his desire to "strike a blow and die", he did not have any idea of what he would replace colonialism with if the revolt succeeded.{{sfn|Rotberg|1971|p=133}} Rotberg concludes that Chilembwe planned to seize power in the Shire Highlands or perhaps in all of Nyasaland.{{sfn|Rotberg|1971|p=138}} John McCracken attacks the idea that the revolt could be considered nationalist, arguing that Chilembwe's ideology was instead fundamentally utopian and created in opposition to localised abuses of the colonial system, particularly ''thangata''.{{sfn|McCracken|2012|p=140}} According to McCracken, the uprising failed because Chilembwe was over-reliant on a small Europeanised ''[[:en:Petite_bourgeoisie|petite bourgeoisie]]'' and did not gain enough mass support.{{sfn|McCracken|2012|p=141}} Rotberg's examination the Chilembwe revolt from a [[:en:Psychoanalysis|psychoanalytical]] perspective concludes that Chilembwe's personal situation, his psychosomatic [[:en:Asthma|asthma]] and financial debt may have been contributory factors in his decision to plot the rebellion.{{sfn|Rotberg|1971|pp=158–60}} == See also == {{Portal|Malawi|History|World War I}} * [[:en:Bussa_rebellion|Bussa rebellion]]—a 1915 uprising against British indirect rule in northern [[:en:Colony_and_Protectorate_of_Nigeria|Nigeria]] * ''[[:en:Chimurenga|Chimurenga]]''—a rebellion against the [[:en:British_South_Africa_Company|British South Africa Company]] [[:en:Company_rule_in_Rhodesia|administration]] in nearby [[:en:Southern_Rhodesia|Southern Rhodesia]] in 1896–97. * [[:en:Maji_Maji_Rebellion|Maji Maji Rebellion]]—a war against German colonial rule in East Africa, 1905–08 * [[:en:History_of_Malawi|History of Malawi]] == References == <references group="" responsive="1"></references> === Bibliography === {{refbegin|2}} * {{cite journal|ref={{harvid|Linden & Linden|1971}}|last1=Linden|first1=Jane|last2=Linden|first2=Ian|title=John Chilembwe and the New Jerusalem|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-african-history_1971_12_4/page/631|jstor=181018|journal=[[The Journal of African History]]|volume=12|issue=4|year=1971|pages=631–51}} * {{cite book|last=McCracken|first=John|author-link=John McCracken (historian)|title=A History of Malawi, 1859–1966|publisher=James Currey|location=Woodbridge|year=2012|isbn=978-1-84701-064-3}} * {{cite book|last=Power|first=Joey|title=Political Culture and Nationalism in Malawi: Building Kwacha|series=Rochester Studies in African History and the Diaspora|year=2010|publisher=University of Rochester Press|location=New York|isbn=978-1-58046-310-2}} * {{cite book|last=Rotberg|first=R. I.|author-link=Robert I. Rotberg|title=Strike a Blow and Die: A Narrative of Race Relations in Colonial Africa by George Simeon Mwase|location=Cambridge, Mass.|year=1967|publisher=Harvard University Press|oclc=184725}} * {{cite book|last=Rotberg|first=R. I.|author-link=Robert I. Rotberg|chapter=Psychological Stress and the Question of Identity: Chilembwe's Revolt Reconsidered|editor1-last=Rotberg|editor1-first=R. I.|editor1-link=Robert I. Rotberg|editor2-last=Mazrui|editor2-first=A. A.|editor2-link=Ali Mazrui|title=Protest and Power in Black Africa|location=New York|year=1971|pages=133–64|oclc=139250}} * {{cite book|ref={{harvid|Shepperson & Price|1958}}|last1=Shepperson|first1=George|last2=Price|first2=Thomas|title=Independent African: John Chilembwe and the Origins, Setting and Significance of the Nyasaland Native Rising of 1915|location=Edinburgh|publisher=Edinburgh University Press|year=1958|oclc=421086}} * {{cite book|last=Strachan|first=Hew|author-link=Hew Strachan|title=The First World War in Africa|url=https://archive.org/details/firstworldwarina0000stra|location=Oxford|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2004|isbn=0-19-925728-0}} * {{cite journal|last=Yorke|first=Edmund|title=The Spectre of a Second Chilembwe: Government, Missions, and Social Control in Wartime Northern Rhodesia, 1914–18|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-african-history_1990_31_3/page/373|journal=[[The Journal of African History]]|date=1990|volume=31|issue=3|pages=373–91|doi=10.1017/S0021853700031145|jstor=182876|s2cid=161760025}} {{refend}} == External links == * [http://harvardmagazine.com/2005/03/john-chilembwe.html John Chilembwe: Brief life of an anticolonial rebel: 1871?–1915] at ''[[:en:Harvard_Magazine|Harvard Magazine]]'' {{Commons category_inline|Chilembwe uprising}}{{Uprisings against Entente Powers during WWI}}{{Malawi topics}}{{British colonial campaigns}}{{good article}} {{Coord|-15.739|35.192|display=title}} ocrdtyndjk70wef4j2c4tscwyjhg3wn 0 21072 119293 63723 2026-08-13T22:01:45Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260813sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 119293 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Fulata Lusungu Mbano Moyo''' ni nkhwantha ya vya cisopa ya ku [[Malawi]] ndipo wakuvikilira wanangwa wa banakazi. == Umoyo na masambiro == Fulata Mbano wakababikira kumpoto kwa Malaŵi, ku chigaŵa cha Mzimba. Sekuru wake, Songea, wakaŵa mulongozgi wa nkhondo. Zina lake lakuti Fulata likung'anamura kuti wakababika na malundi ghakwamba. Adada ŵake ŵakambiska mpingo wawo pamanyuma pakuti ŵandamuzomerezge mu matchalitchi ghanyake chifukwa cha kutora mitala.<ref name="discussion">{{cite web |date=20 May 2016 |title=A Discussion with Fulata L. Moyo, World Council of Churches |url=https://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/interviews/a-discussion-with-fulata-l-moyo-world-council-of-churches |access-date=1 February 2022 |publisher=Georgetown University}}</ref> Moyo wakasuzgika comene apo wakaŵa mwana. Wakakulira mu muzi ucoko wakucemeka Engcongolweni Lazaro Jere ndipo wakasambiranga ku tawuni yapafupi, Ekwendeni. Wakasambira ku sukulu ya Roman Catholic, Marymount Girls Secondary School, pambere wandambe masambiro ku University of Malawi, Chancellor College. Moyo wakamalizga masters degree mu Christian thought, systematic and feminist theology kufuma ku University of Zimbabwe mu 1993, ndipo wakapokera PhD kufuma ku School of Religion and Theology ku University of KwaZulu-Natal mu South Africa mu 2009, pakudodoliska pa ethics, gender and religion, kusazgapo ntchito zinyake za kafukufuku ku Yale University's Center for Interdisciplinary Research on AIDS. Wakasambiraso umo wangapharazgira ŵanthu na kuŵasambizga fundo za Viktor Frankl..<ref name="harv">{{cite web |title=Dr. Fulata Moyo |url=https://hfh.fas.harvard.edu/people/fulata-moyo |publisher=Harvard University}}</ref> == Ntchito == Moyo wakaŵa movwiri wa masambiro pa sukulu ya vya cisopa na vya cisopa pa yunivesite ya KwaZulu-Natal, ndipo pamanyuma wakaŵa yumoza wa ŵasambizgi pa yunivesite ya Malawi mu dipatimenti ya vya cisopa na vya cisopa. Kweniso wakacitako mulimo wa Tamar Campaign, uwo ukakhumbanga kumazga nkhaza za ŵanakazi na ŵana. Wakachita kafukufuku wa ŵanthu mu Malaŵi, ndipo wakagomezganga kuti ŵanthu awo ŵakukhala mu banja lakwamba "ŵangamba kulamulira ŵana ŵawo", kweni wakakhuŵara chomene kuwona kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakutemwa kulamulira ŵana ŵawo chifukwa cha Chikhristu. Pa nyengo iyi, caru cikaŵa pa suzgo likuru comene la HIV/AIDS, ndipo ici cikapangiska kuti wacite kafukufuku pa nkhani ya kugonana. Wakafumba kuti waŵe wasembe mu tchalitchi la Presbyterian kweni "wakakanika".<ref name="discussion" /> Moyo wakagwiranga nchito ku World Council of Churches nga ni Program Executive for Women in Church and Society kufuma mu 2007 mpaka 2019. Iyo wakakhalanga ku Geneva ndipo wakalaŵiliranga mulimo wa "A Just Community of Women and Men". Wakachiska matchalitchi kuti ghachitenge upharazgi wa "Thursdays in Black" wakususkana na nkhaza na kukaka ŵanthu, uwo ukafuma ku gulu la Mothers of the Disappeared ku Argentina ilo likachitanga viyezgelero pa Plaza de Mayo pa Lachinayi, na Women in Black ku Israel.<ref name="pp">{{cite web |title=Fulata L. Moyo, Malawi – Mediator |url=https://peaceandpluralism.org/portfolio-item/fulata-l-moyo-malawi-mediator/ |publisher=Peace and Pluralism}}</ref> Mu chaka cha masambiro cha 2016/2017, Moyo wakaŵa msambizgi wakuwona vya ŵanakazi na visopa vya ku Africa ku Harvard Divinity School, uko wakapangiska Ethic of Care kuti yovwire ŵanthu ŵavisopa kuti ŵamanye umo ŵangachitira na ŵanakazi awo ŵakuguliskika. Wakagwiraso lumoza nchito na Elisabeth Schüssler Fiorenza pa nkhani ya kusanda vinthu vya ŵanakazi. Mu chaka cha 2018, wakasankhika kuŵa mu gulu la ŵanthu ŵakujiyimira pawekha kuti ŵawonepo ndondomeko na ndondomeko za UNAIDS zakumazgira na kugega nthambuzgo. Mu 2020, Moyo wakambiska bungwe la "Stream", ilo lili kulembeska ku US ndipo likovwira na kusambizga ŵanthu awo ŵakuguliskika. Moyo ni yumoza wa banakazi ŵa ku Africa awo ŵakumanya vya cisopa, wakayamba ku Nairobi ndipo wakawuskaso Malawi chapter ndipo wakaŵa Secretary wa Board for Theological Studies mu 1996. Wakaŵa General Coordinator kufuma mu 2007 mpaka 2013. Kweniso ni muteŵeti wa gulu la Community Voices in Peace and Pluralism mu Africa, na Board of Life and Peace Institute mu Sweden. Ni muwusi wa komiti ya AfriAus iLEAC.<ref name="harv" /> === Kulemba === Moyo wali kulemba mabuku ghakujumpha 29 mu viyowoyero vinkhondi. Ivyo wakalemba vikulongosora chomene vya chisopa na kakhaliro ka ŵanthu pa nkhani ya kugonana. Iyo wakuti malemba gha cisopa ghakwenera kulongosoreka mwakuyana na ivyo ŵanakazi ŵakukumana navyo. Moyo wakalemba buku la AfricaPraying: buku ilo likulongosora umo ŵanthu ŵangasambizgira na kusambizga pa nkhani ya HIV-AIDS. Wakalemba buku lakuti Women Writing Africa: Eastern African Region, ilo likafuma ku Feminist Press mu 2007.<ref name="berk">{{cite web |title=Fulata L. Moyo |url=https://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/people/fulata-l-moyo |publisher=Berkley Center for Religion, Peace & World Affairs, Georgetown University}}</ref> Wakaŵa mulembi wa magazini ya Ecumenical Review mu 2012 na International Review of Mission mu 2015.<ref name="berk" /> == Vyakulemba vyakusankhika == === Nkhani za mu manyuzipepara === * {{cite journal|year=2001|title=The role of the Church in combating HIV/AIDS in Malawi: challenges and prospects|first1=Dixie M.|last1=Banda|first2=Fulata Lusungu|last2=Moyo|journal=Journal of Constructive Theology|volume=7|number=1|pages=45–61}} * {{cite journal|year=2004|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4066604|title=Religion, spirituality and being a woman in Africa: gender construction within the African religio-cultural experiences|first=Fulata Lusungu|last=Moyo|journal=Agenda: Empowering Women for Gender Equity|volume=61|issue=61|pages=72–78|jstor=4066604}} * {{cite journal|title=Sex, gender, power and HIV/AIDS in Malawi: threats and challenges to women being Church|first=Fulata Lusungu|last=Moyo|journal=Journal of Constructive Theology|volume=10|number=1|pages=85–102|year=2004}} * {{cite journal|year=2004|title=Can Divorce be a Solution to Marital Problems in a Christian Marriage?|first=Fulata|last=Moyo|journal=The Ecumenical Review|volume=56|number=4|pages=437–447|doi=10.1111/j.1758-6623.2004.tb00530.x|url=https://www.proquest.com/openview/40e0156b6919ec17c04ece4654e605bc/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=41812}} * {{cite journal|year=2005|title=The red beads and white beads: Malawian women's sexual empowerment in the HIV and AIDS era|first=Fulata Lusungu|last=Moyo|journal=Journal of Constructive Theology|volume=11|number=1|pages=53–66}} * {{cite journal|title=We Demand Bread and Roses When We are Hired: Gender Justice in Workplaces: A Feminist Ethical Perspective|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_ecumenical-review_2012-10_64_3/page/n23|year=2012|first=Fulata Lusungu|last=Moyo|journal=The Ecumenical Review|volume=64|number=3|pages=254–266|doi=10.1111/j.1758-6623.2012.00172.x}} * {{cite journal|year=2016|title="Traffic Violations": Hospitality, Foreignness, and Exploitation: A Contextual Biblical Study of Ruth|journal=Journal of Feminist Studies in Religion|volume=32|number=2|first=Fulata Lusungu|last=Moyo|pages=83–94|doi=10.2979/jfemistudreli.32.2.07|jstor=10.2979/jfemistudreli.32.2.07|s2cid=152203277|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2979/jfemistudreli.32.2.07}} * {{cite journal|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/irom.12305|title=Healing Together: Mission as a Journey of Healing Traumatic Memories|first=Fulata Lusungu|last=Moyo|journal=International Review of Mission|year=2020|volume=109|issue=1|pages=5–14|doi=10.1111/irom.12305|s2cid=219493390}} === Vigaŵa vya mabuku === * {{cite book|year=2002|first=Fulata Lusungu|last=Moyo|chapter=Singing and dancing women's liberation: my story of faith|title=Her-stories : hidden histories of women of faith in Africa|editor1=[[Isabel Apawo Phiri]]|editor2=Devarakshanam Betty Govinden|editor3=[[Sarojini Nadar]]|publisher=Cluster Publications|oclc=50682475|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/50682475}} * {{cite book|chapter=Navigating Healing: A Narrative Theology of Eschatological Hopes Healing|first=Fulata Lusungu|last=Moyo|pages=243–256|title=African Women, Religion, and Health: Essays in Honor of Mercy Amba Ewudziwa Oduyoye|editor1=Isabel Apawo Phiri|editor2=Sarojini Nadar|publisher=Wipf and Stock|year=2012}} * Moyo, Fulata Lusungu (2017). "'Ukugqiba inkaba'—Burying the Umbilical Cord: An African Indigenous Ecofeminist Perspective on Incarnation". In Grace Ji-Sun Kim; Hilda P. Koster (eds.). ''Planetary Solidarity: Global Women's Voices on Christian Doctrine and Climate Justice''. Fortress Press. pp. 179–192. * {{cite book|first=Fulata Lusungu|last=Moyo|chapter=Church and Politics: The Case of Livingstonia Synod|pages=133–146|title=Church, Law and Political Transition in Malawi 1992-1994|editor1=S Nzunda|editor2=R Ross|publisher=African Books Collective|year=2020}} * {{cite book|chapter=Called to Lament Injustice and Prophesy Equality, Justice, Peace and Healing for all|first=Fulata Lusungu|last=Moyo|pages=47–57|title=That all may live!: essays in honour of Nyambura J. Njoroge|publisher=University of Bamberg Press|year=2021|isbn=9783863098117|editor1=Ezra Chitando|editor2=Esther Mombo|editor3=Masiiwa Ragies Gunda|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6DZMEAAAQBAJ}} == Umoyo wa munthu == Moyo wakatorana na Solomon Moyo mpaka apo wakafwira na kansa ya chiwindi mu 1999. Wakalemba ivyo vikachitika apo wakagowokera mfumu wake..<ref name="discussion" /> == Ukaboni == <references group="" responsive="1"></references> == Vigaŵa vya kuwaro == * {{Twitter|fulamoyo}} {{authority control}} ph59srl0bzmtc78mi12foirpcpwt296 0 21082 119306 110907 2026-08-13T22:17:46Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260813sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 119306 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|President of Malawi from 2012 to 2014|noreplace|pagetype = }} {{Use dmy dates|date=June 2014}} {{nkhani iwemi}} {{Infobox officeholder|honorific-prefix=[[Wakulemekezeka Mama]] <br/>|name=Joyce Banda|image=President of Malawi Joyce Banda (8985928177).jpg|caption=Banda mu 2013|office=[[Mlongozgi wa Malaŵi]] wachinayi|vicepresident=[[Khumbo Kachali]]|term_start=7 April 2012|term_end=31 May 2014|predecessor=[[Bingu wa Mutharika]]|successor=[[Peter Mutharika]]|office1=[[Wachiŵiri kwa Pulezidenti wa Malawi|Wachiŵiri kwa Pulezidenti wa Malawi]]<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.opc.gov.mw/index.php/presidency/menu-showcase-2/dr-joyce-banda |title=Dr Joyce Banda |access-date=25 April 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180426082920/http://www.opc.gov.mw/index.php/presidency/menu-showcase-2/dr-joyce-banda |archive-date=26 April 2018 |url-status=dead }}</ref>|president1=[[Bingu wa Mutharika]]|term_start1=29 May 2009|term_end1=7 April 2012|predecessor1=[[Cassim Chilumpha]]|successor1=[[Khumbo Kachali]]|office2=[[Minister of Foreign Affairs (Malawi)|Minister of Foreign Affairs]]|president2=[[Bingu wa Mutharika]]|term_start2=1 June 2006|term_end2=29 May 2009|predecessor2=[[George Chaponda]]|successor2=[[Etta Banda]]|office3=Minister of Gender, Child Welfare, and Community Service|president3=[[Bingu wa Mutharika]]|term_start3=2004|term_end3=2006|birth_name=Joyce Hilda Ntila|birth_date={{birth date and age|1950|4|12|df=y}}|birth_place=[[Malemia, Zomba|Malemia]], [[Nyasaland]]<br />{{small|(now [[Malawi]])}}|death_date=|death_place=|party=[[United Democratic Front (Malawi)|United Democratic Front]] {{small|(Before 2004)}}<br />[[Democratic Progressive Party (Malawi)|Democratic Progressive Party]] {{small|(2004–2010)}}<br />[[People's Party (Malawi)|People's Party]] {{small|(2011–present)}}|spouse=Roy Kachale {{small|(Before 1981)}}<br />[[Richard Banda]]|children=5|alma_mater=[[Columbus University (Louisiana)|Columbus University]]<br />[[Atlantic International University]]<br />[[Royal Roads University]]}} '''Joyce Hilda Banda''' (wakababika pa 12 Epulero 1950<ref>{{cite web |date=21 September 2014 |title=EW's big Interview: Joyce Banda |url=https://mwnation.com/ew’s-big-interview-joyce-banda/ |access-date=5 February 2019 |publisher=The Nation}}</ref>) ngwa ndyali wamu [[Malawi]] uyo wakaŵa purezidenti wa Malawi kufuma pa 7 April 2012 mpaka 31 May 2014. Banda wakamba kuwusa pamanyuma pa nyifwa ya President Bingu wa Mutharika. Wakaŵa mweneko wa chipani cha People's Party, icho chikapangika mu 2011.<ref>{{cite web |last=Malawi |first=People's Party |title=People's Party |url=http://www.peoples-party-malawi.org/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120415140346/http://www.peoples-party-malawi.org/ |archive-date=15 April 2012 |access-date=10 April 2012 |publisher=People's Party Malawi |df=dmy-all}}</ref> Wakaŵa wasambizgi na wakuvikilira wanangwa wa ŵanakazi, wakaŵa nduna ya vyalo vyakuwaro kufuma mu 2006 kufika mu 2009 ndipo wakaŵa wachiŵiri kwa purezidenti wa Malawi kufuma mu Meyi 2009 mpaka April 2012.<ref>{{cite web |date=7 April 2012 |title=Joyce Banda sworn in as new Malawi president |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-17644009 |access-date=7 April 2012 |publisher=The BBC}}</ref> She had served in various roles as a member of Parliament and as Minister of Gender and Child Welfare before she became the President of the Republic of MalawiWakaŵa msambizgi kweniso wakuvikilira wanangwa wa ŵanakazi. Wakaŵa nduna ya vyaru vinyake kufuma mu 2006 m'paka mu 2009 ndipo wakaŵa wachiŵiri kwa pulezidenti wa Malawi kufuma mu Meyi 2009 m'paka Epulero 2012.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=2016-08-01 |title=Joyce Banda |url=https://www.wilsoncenter.org/person/joyce-banda |access-date=2019-05-08 |website=[[Wilson Center]] |language=en}}</ref> Pambere wandachitepo ndyali, wakaŵa mweneko wa Joyce Banda Foundation, mweneko wa National Association of Business Women (NABW), Young Women Leaders Network na Hunger Project. Banda wakaŵa pulezidenti wachinayi wa Malaŵi ndipo wakaŵa mwanakazi wakwamba kuŵa pulezidenti kweniso mwanakazi wachiŵiri kuŵa mulongozgi wa chalo, pamanyuma pa Elizabeth II. Wakaŵa mwanakazi waciŵiri kuŵa purezidenti mu Africa, pamanyuma pa Ellen Johnson Sirleaf wa ku Liberia. Kweniso wakaŵa wachiŵiri kwa pulezidenti wakwamba mwanakazi.<ref name="Tribune">{{cite journal|last=Olamitoke|first=Toluwani|date=14 April 2012|title=As Fate Throws Leadership in Joyce Banda's Path...Becomes Malawi's First Female President|url=http://www.tribune.com.ng/sat/index.php/women-affairs/7087-as-fate-throws-leadership-in-joyce-bandas-pathbecomes-malawis-first-female-president.html|url-status=dead|journal=[[Nigerian Tribune]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120414171037/http://www.tribune.com.ng/sat/index.php/women-affairs/7087-as-fate-throws-leadership-in-joyce-bandas-pathbecomes-malawis-first-female-president.html|archive-date=14 April 2012|access-date=14 April 2012}}</ref> Mu Juni 2014, Forbes wakathya President Banda kuŵa mwanakazi wankhongono comene pa caru cose ndiposo mwanakazi wankhongono comene mu Africa. Mu Okutobala 2014, wakalembeka mu BBC's 100 Women.<ref>{{cite web |date=26 October 2014 |title=Who are the 100 Women 2014? |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-29758792 |website=BBC}}</ref> == Umoyo wa munthu na wa mbumba == Joyce Hilda Ntila wakababika pa 12 Epulero 1950 ku Malemia, muzi wa mu chigaŵa cha Zomba ku Nyasaland (uno Malawi). Awiske ŵakaŵa mulara wa ŵapolisi. Wakamba nchito yake ya umishonale ndipo wakazgoka munthu wakumanyikwa comene mu nyengo ya muwuso wa Hastings Banda (wakutemwana nayo yayi).<ref name="Mponda">{{cite web |last=Mponda |first=Felix |date=6 April 2012 |title=Joyce Banda poised for Malawi presidency |url=https://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5jOpjFWpYrm2b4Zl0peP6slJ4dB3A?docId=CNG.d8ee654dd734a2011258c4f87f9da37b.b21 |access-date=20 April 2012 |work=Google hosted news: AFP}}</ref> Wali na digiri ya Cambridge School Certificate, Bachelor of Arts Degree in Early Childhood Education from Columbus University (a unaccredited distance education institution), Bachelor of Social Studies in Gender Studies from Atlantic International University (also a distance learning institution) and a Diploma in Management of NGOs from the International Labour Organization (ILO) Centre in Turin, Italy. Pasono wakusambira digiri ya Master of Arts in Leadership ku Royal Roads University ku Canada.<ref>{{cite web |title=The President's Profile |url=http://www.malawi.gov.mw/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=84&Itemid=197 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121112091140/http://www.malawi.gov.mw/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=84&Itemid=197 |archive-date=12 November 2012 |df=dmy}}</ref>Mu 2013, wakapokera digiri ya udokotala ku Jeonju University.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Korean University honour Malawi President: Now Dr. Joyce Banda |url=http://www.newstimeafrica.com/archives/30690}}</ref> Wakatora Roy Kachale, ndipo ŵakaŵa na ŵana ŵatatu. Apo wakaŵa na vyaka 25, wakakhalanga ku Nairobi, Kenya.<ref name="Nairobi">{{cite journal|last=Sigei|first=Julius|title=How Nairobi shaped future president|journal=Sunday Nation|publisher=Nation Media Group|location=Nairobi, Kenya|date=15 April 2012|url=http://www.nation.co.ke/News/How+Nairobi+shaped+future+president+/-/1056/1386170/-/item/1/-/c4548d/-/index.html|access-date=15 April 2012}}</ref> Mu 1975, gulu la ŵanakazi ku Kenya likapangiska Banda kuti watore ŵana ŵake ŵatatu na kufumamo mu nthengwa yake. Nthengwa yake na Roy Kachele yikamara mu 1981. Pasono wali kutengwa kwa Richard Banda, mulara wa ŵeruzgi ŵa ku Malawi, ndipo ŵali na ŵana ŵaŵiri.<ref name="energy">{{cite web |last=Tenthani |first=Raphael |date=13 April 2012 |title=Malawi's new president takes charge with energy |url=https://abcnews.go.com/International/wireStory/malawis-president-takes-charge-energy-16129884#.T4zdcNUzCSo |access-date=16 April 2012 |work=ABC News, Associated Press, 2nd page}}</ref><ref name="Al Jazeera">{{cite web |last=Mutasa |first=Haru |date=10 April 2013 |title=Malawi to begin treason trial of ex-officials |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/africa/2013/04/201341073057327861.html |access-date=10 April 2013 |work=Al Jazeera}}</ref> Pakati pa 1985 na 1997 Banda wakadangilira na kukhazikiska mabizinesi na mabungwe ghakupambanapambana kusazgapo Ndekani Garments (1985), Akajuwe Enterprises (1992), na Kalingidza Bakery (1995).<ref name="malawi">[http://www.malawi.gov.mw/information1/New%20Malawi/joycebpro.htm]{{dead link|date=April 2012}}</ref> Ivyo wakachita vikamovwira kuti wawovwire ŵanakazi ŵanyake kuti ŵaŵe na ndalama zinandi kweniso kuti ŵaleke kusuzgika na ukavu.<ref name="unfpa">[https://web.archive.org/web/20130625070631/http://www.americansforunfpa.org/NetCommunity/Page.aspx?pid=353 Friends of UNFPA] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101202061622/http://www.americansforunfpa.org/netcommunity/page.aspx?pid=353|date=2 December 2010}}. Americansforunfpa.org. Retrieved 10 April 2012.</ref> Ni mudumbu wa Anjimile Oponyo, CEO wakale wa Raising Malawi Academy for Girls, uyo wakawovwirika na Madonna.<ref name="Madonna">{{cite journal|last=Fekadu|first=Mesfin|title=Madonna: I'm happy Joyce Banda is Malawi's leader|journal=Boston Globe|publisher=Associated Press|location=Seattle, WA|date=13 April 2012|url=http://www.boston.com/ae/celebrity/articles/2012/04/13/madonna_im_happy_joyce_banda_is_malawis_leader/|access-date=17 April 2012}}</ref> == Umoyo wa ndyali == === Public offices (1999–2009) === Joyce Banda wakanjira mu ndyali mu chaka cha 1999. Wakawina mpando wa chalo mu chalo cha Malawi pa chisankho chachitatu cha demokilase nga ni chiŵaro cha chipani cha President Bakili Muluzi, United Democratic Front. Wakaŵa mwimiliri wa chigaŵa cha Zomba Malosa. Muluzi wakamwimika kuŵa Minisita wa vya Mkhalidwe na Vyakovwira Ŵanthu.<ref name="Mponda" /> Apo wakaŵa nduna, wakalimbikira kuti paŵe dango lakukanizga nkhaza za pa nyumba, ilo likathera yayi kwa vyaka 7. Wakapangiska National Platform for Action on Orphans and Vulnerable Children na Zero Tolerance Campaign Against Child Abuse.<ref name="unfpa" /> Mu chaka cha 2004, wakasankhikaso kuŵa yumoza wa chipani cha Muluzi. Bingu wa Mutharika wakaŵa purezidenti. Nangauli Banda wakaŵa wa chipani chakwake yayi, kweni Mutharika wakamwimika kuŵa Minisita wa vyalo vinyake mu 2006. Banda wakasintha kuti Malawi wamanye boma la China kufuma ku Republic of China (ku Taiwan) kuya ku People's Republic of China ku mainland. Iyo wakati kusintha uku kukovwira Malawi pa vyachuma. Mu 2010, boma la China likamalizga kuzenga Nyumba ya Ufumu ku Lilongwe.<ref name="parliament">{{cite web |date=22 May 2010 |title=China hands over new parliament building to Malawi |url=http://english.people.com.cn/90001/90776/90883/6994852.html |access-date=22 April 2012 |work=People's Daily Online, English |publisher=Xinhua}}</ref> === Vice-President (2009–2012) === Banda wakimilira nga ni vice-presidential candidate wa Democratic Progressive Party (DPP) mu 2009 presidential election, wakimilira pamoza na Mutharika, uyo wakaŵa presidential candidate wa DPP.<ref>[http://www.int.iol.co.za/index.php?set_id=1&click_id=84&art_id=nw20090517062152198C571749 "Women are ready to stand in Malawi poll"], Sapa-AFP (''IOL''), 17 May 2009.</ref> Wakaŵa wachiŵiri kwa pulezidenti wa mwanakazi wakwamba wa Malawi. Pa 12 Disembala 2010, Joyce Banda na wachiwiri kwa pulezidenti Khumbo Kachali ŵakachimbizgika pa udindo wawo chifukwa cha milimo yakususkana na chipani. Mu kuyezga kumucimbizga, Pulezidenti wakalutizga kupeleka maudindo agho wakaŵa nagho kale kwa Callista Mutharika, uyo wakaŵikika mu kabini mu Seputembala 2011. Khoti likakanizga ivyo Mutharika wakakhumbanga kuchita kuti waleke kuŵa mulaŵiliri wa boma. Ivi vikasazgapo kupoka galimoto yake ya boma na kumukanizga kulembeska chipani chake. Pa 8 Seputembala 2011, udindo wa Wachiwiri kwa Purezidenti udachotsedwa pakusintha nduna. Ndipouli, iyo wakaŵa waka wachiŵiri kwa pulezidenti chifukwa dango likati ndiyo waŵenge pulezidenti. Wakapempheka na muyowoyeri wa DPP Hetherwick Ntaba kuti wafumeko pa udindo wa Vice-President.<ref>[https://archive.is/20120904192203/http://www.nyasatimes.com/national/ntaba-argues-vp%E2%80%99s-%E2%80%98constructive-resignation%E2%80%99/ Ntaba argues VP’s ‘constructive resignation’] {{webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20120904192203/http://www.nyasatimes.com/national/ntaba-argues-vp%E2%80%99s-%E2%80%98constructive-resignation%E2%80%99/|date=4 September 2012}}. ''Nyasa Times''. Retrieved 10 April 2012.</ref> [[File:Joyce_Banda_Department_for_International_Development_photo_crop.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joyce_Banda_Department_for_International_Development_photo_crop.jpg|thumb|Banda in 2012]] === Factions in DPP === Ubwezi pakati pa Banda na Pulezidenti Bingu wa Mutharika ukaŵa wakusuzga comene cifukwa cakuti Mutharika wakayezga kuti waŵike mubali wake, Peter Mutharika kuŵa mulondezgi wake.<ref name="google">{{cite web |date=11 December 2010 |title=AFP: Malawi ruling party fires two vice presidents |url=https://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5hL67jrYgDT7owjKuvbRyuFCXkkqg?docId=CNG.52397de5df64c519397daac1afa54385.ed1 |access-date=7 April 2012}}</ref>Nangauli wakachimbizgika pa udindo wa Vice-President wa DPP pamoza na Second Vice-President Khumbo Kachali, kweni wakalutilira kuteŵetera nga ni Vice-President wa Malawi nga umo malango ghakulongosolera. Ichi chikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi mu chipani cha DPP ŵafumepo na kupanga mabungwe agho ghakamovwira kuti waŵe pulezidenti wa Malawi pa chisankho cha 2014. DPP yikakananga kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakaleka nchito ndipo yikati ŵanthu ŵacoko waka ndiwo ŵakaleka nchito..<ref name="woes">{{cite web |title=Malawi: Vice-President's woes dominate Malawi media |url=http://www.afriquejet.com/news/africa-news/malawi:-vice-president%27s-woes-dominate-malawi-media-2010121864614.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101220022503/http://www.afriquejet.com/news/africa-news/malawi%3A-vice-president%27s-woes-dominate-malawi-media-2010121864614.html |archive-date=20 December 2010 |access-date=18 December 2010}}</ref> === People's Party === Joyce Banda ndiyo wakambiska na kulongozga chipani cha People's Party, icho chikapangika mu chaka cha 2011 pamanyuma pakuti Banda wakachimbizgika mu chipani cha DPP apo wakakana kuvikilira munung'una wa President Mutharika Peter Mutharika pakuŵa mulondezgi wa president pa chisankho cha 2014.<ref>Jomo, Frank. (13 December 2010) [https://www.bloomberg.com/news/2010-12-13/malawi-s-vice-president-joyce-banda-expelled-from-ruling-party.html Malawi’s Vice President Joyce Banda Expelled From Ruling Party]. Bloomberg. Retrieved 10 April 2012.</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=People's Party file for registration &#124; Malawi news |url=http://www.nyasatimes.com/politics/people%E2%80%99s-party-file-for-registration.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110515105420/http://www.nyasatimes.com/politics/people%E2%80%99s-party-file-for-registration.html |archive-date=15 May 2011 |access-date=22 July 2011}}</ref> === President (2012 – May 2014) === ==== Transition of power ==== Pa Epulero 5, 2012, Mutharika wakafwa. Pamanyuma pa nyifwa yake, boma likakana kuphalira ŵanthu kuti pulezidenti wafwa. Ici cikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵambe kopa kuti mu Malawi muŵenge suzgo la malango.<ref>{{cite web |author=Faith Karimi |date=6 April 2012 |title=Potential crisis looms in Malawi amid reports of president's death |url=http://articles.cnn.com/2012-04-06/africa/world_africa_malawi-president_1_malawians-president-bingu-wa-mutharika-patricia-kaliati?_s=PM:AFRICA |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120515054125/http://articles.cnn.com/2012-04-06/africa/world_africa_malawi-president_1_malawians-president-bingu-wa-mutharika-patricia-kaliati?_s=PM%3AAFRICA |archive-date=15 May 2012 |access-date=23 May 2012 |publisher=Articles.cnn.com |df=dmy}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=6 April 2012 |title=Bingu Wa Mutharika's death leaves Malawi in constitutional crisis – One News Page [UK&#93; |url=http://www.onenewspage.co.uk/n/World/74r755rd3/Bingu-Wa-Mutharika-death-leaves-Malawi-in.htm |access-date=23 May 2012 |publisher=Onenewspage.co.uk}}</ref><ref>[https://archive.today/20130127043447/http://www.kitv.com/news/national/Banda-sworn-in-as-Malawi-president/-/8905418/10322828/-/14mg6em/-/ Banda sworn in as Malawi president | National News – KITV Home]. Kitv.com. Retrieved 10 April 2012.</ref><ref>[http://www.chicagotribune.com/sns-rt-malawi-mutharika-update-3-pix-tvl6e8f701d-20120407,0,2897156.story?page=1 Malawi VP Banda takes over after Mutharika death]{{Dead link|date=September 2018|bot=InternetArchiveBot|fix-attempted=yes}}, ''[[Chicago Tribune]]'', 7 April 2012.</ref> Wupu wa France-Presse ukati pulezidenti wakale wa Malawi Bakili Muluzi wakukosera pa "ndondomeko ya malango", wakuti wachiŵiri wa pulezidenti wakwenera kutora mazaza mwakuyana na dango. "Nkhupempha kuti paŵe ndondomeko ya malango, mtende na ndondomeko. Malango gha ku Malawi ghakulongosora makora kuti wachiŵiri wa pulezidenti ndiyo wakulongozga para pulezidenti uyo wali mu malo ghake wangakwaniska yayi kuwusa. Tikwenera kugega vinthu vyambura kwenelera. Tiyeni tilondezge dango. Tikwenera kulondezga malango gha boma. Nchakuzirwa comene kuti paŵe mtende". Ŵasilikari ŵa ku Malawi nawo ŵakakhumbanga kuti boma liŵikengepo malango. Bungwe la Malawi Law Society likati kuyana na chigaŵa cha 83 (4) cha malango gha Malawi, iyo ndiyo wakeneranga kunjira m'malo mwa pulezidenti.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120407104248/http://www.nyasatimes.com/malawi/2012/04/06/joyce-banda-next-malawi-leader-muluzi-and-law-society-say/ Joyce Banda next Malawi leader, Muluzi and Law Society say] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120407104248/http://www.nyasatimes.com/malawi/2012/04/06/joyce-banda-next-malawi-leader-muluzi-and-law-society-say/|date=7 April 2012}}, ''Nyasa Times'', 6 April 2012</ref> Pa 7 Epulero, boma la Malawi likapempha khoti kuti liŵakanizge Banda kuŵa pulezidenti. Iyo wakaimbira foni mulara wa ŵasilikari, Henry Odillo, na kumufumba usange wangamovwira. Mfumu wake wakazomera ndipo wakaŵika ŵasilikari kuzingilizga nyumba yake. Joyce Banda wakalapizga pa 7 Epulero 2012 pakuŵa purezidenti wa Malawi, mwanakazi wakwamba kugwira ntchito iyi. Mweruzgi Waluso Lovemore Munlo ndiyo wakadangiliranga pa ciphikiro ico cikacitikira pa Nyumba ya Malango ya chalo ku Lilongwe. Wakati walapa, Banda wakapempha kuti paŵe kukolerana. "Nkhukhumba kuti tose tilutire kunthazi na cigomezgo ndiposo mzimu wa umoza na kukolerana... Nkhugomezga kuti tiŵenge ŵakukolerana, ndipo nkhugomezga kuti nga ni mtundu wakopa Ciuta tizomerezgenge Ciuta kuti waŵe panthazi pithu, cifukwa usange tikuleka kucita nthena, ndikuti tatondeka".<ref name="swornin">[http://www.aljazeera.com/news/africa/2012/04/201247111815207836.html Joyce Banda sworn in as president of Malawi – Africa], ''Al Jazeera English'', 4 October 2011</ref> The Malawian and international media reported on Joyce Banda's smooth inauguration. They called it a triumph for democracy. A ''Malawi Sunday Times'' editorial said that the new president's inauguration had "helped to entrench and cement a democratic culture in the country."<ref name="Mwagiru">{{Cite journal|last=Mwagiru|first=Ciugu|date=18 April 2012|title=Malawi's Joyce Banda and the rise of women in African politics|url=http://www.monitor.co.ug/artsculture/Reviews/-/691232/1388740/-/diw45/-/|url-status=dead|journal=[[Daily Monitor]]|location=Kampala, Uganda|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140606205525/http://www.monitor.co.ug/artsculture/Reviews/-/691232/1388740/-/diw45/-/|archive-date=2014-06-06|access-date=19 April 2012}}</ref> ==== Cabinet appointments and loss of 2014 presidential election ==== Pa 26 Epulero 2012, Pulezidenti Banda wakasankha nduna zake, izo zikaŵa na nduna 23 na madokotala ghaŵiri. Wakajipa maudindo ghanandi kuti wakhozge mazaza ghake pakuŵa mulongozgi wa caru.<ref name="newcabinet">{{cite web |last1=Mapondera |first1=Derek |last2=Tenthani |first2=Raphael |date=26 April 2012 |title=Malawi's Pres Joyce Banda sacks predecessor's brother, hires new cabinet which includes ex-leader's son |url=http://www.maravipost.com/malawi-national-news/malawi-political-news/855-malawi-s-pres-joyce-banda-sacks-predecessor-s-brother,-hires-new-cabinet-which-includes-ex-leader-s-son.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210118064944/http://www.maravipost.com/malawi-national-news/malawi-political-news/855-malawi-s-pres-joyce-banda-sacks-predecessor-s-brother,-hires-new-cabinet-which-includes-ex-leader-s-son.html |archive-date=18 January 2021 |access-date=26 April 2012 |work=The Maravi Post}}</ref> Pa 10 Okutobala 2013, mazuŵa ghachoko waka wati wawerako ku UN, Pulezidenti Joyce Banda wakachimbizga nduna yake pamanyuma pa nkhani ya Capital Hill Cashgate. Pa Okutobala 15, nduna yiphya yikimikika, ndipo nduna ya vyachuma Ken Lipenga na nduna ya vya malango Ralph Kasambara ŵakasezgeka mu nduna. Mu Meyi 2014 Joyce Banda wakatondeka chomene pa chisankho cha pulezidenti. Wakayezgayezga kuti waparanye mavoti, kweni wakatondeka. Wakaŵapo yayi pa nyengo iyo Peter Mutharika wakapelekeranga mazgu gha chilapo. Wakakhala kuwaro kwa Malawi kwambira mu 2014. Pa 31 July 2017, boma likapharazga kuti lifumiskenge dango lakumukora chifukwa cha vimbundi ivyo wakachitanga apo wakaŵa pulezidenti. Iyo wakakana ivyo ŵakamuphalira ndipo wakati wawelerenge kuti wazakawonane nawo.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20170802141807/https://af.reuters.com/article/topNews/idAFKBN1AI0RC-OZATP "Malawi's former president says "innocent" of graft, will return home"], Reuters, 2 August 2017.</ref> ==== International relations ==== Pa nyengo ya muwuso wa Mutharika, Malawi wakaŵa mu suzgo la vyachuma chifukwa cha suzgo la vyalo vinyake. Mu caka caumaliro ca muwuso wa Mutharika, Britain, United States, Germany, Norway, European Union, World Bank, na African Development Bank, vyose vikayimiska wovwiri wa ndalama. Ŵakafipa mtima na umo Mutharika wakucitira vinthu na wanangwa wa ŵanthu mu caru cawo kweniso fundo zake izo zikuwoneka kuti ni zambura kwenelera. Mu Malichi 2012, Mutharika wakaphalira ŵanthu aŵa kuti "ŵalute ku helo". Wakaŵapa mulandu wakuti ŵakakhumbanga kupoka boma lake.<ref name="Somerville">{{cite web |last=Somerville |first=Keith |date=10 April 2012 |title=Malawi: New president must build support and mend donor relations (analysis) |url=http://www.afrika.no/Detailed/21370.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121027212215/http://www.afrika.no/Detailed/21370.html |archive-date=27 October 2012 |access-date=20 April 2012 |work=African Arguments |publisher=The Norwegian Council for Africa |df=dmy}}</ref> Cinyake ico Banda wakacita pakuŵa pulezidenti cikaŵa kuwezgerapo ubwezi na awo ŵakovwira ŵanthu. Kweniso wakaŵa na suzgo la kuwezgerapo ubwezi na vyaru vinyake nga ni Mozambique na Botswana. Mu sabata yakwamba ya kuwusa kwake, Banda wakambiska nkhondo ya vyaru vyakupambanapambana kuti wanozge ubwezi wa Malawi na vyaru vinyake. Wakadumbiskana na Henry Bellingham wa ku United Kingdom. Wakamusimikizgira kuti wazamutuma thenga liphya la Britain "mu nyengo yichoko waka". Wakadumbiskana na Secretary of State Hillary Clinton. Clinton wakalayizga kuti walutilirenge kudumbiskana vya ndalama zakukwana madola 350 miliyoni za munthazi. Banda wakapharazga kuti wakukhumba kuyowoyeskana na Baroness Ashton wa ofesi ya European Union's Foreign Affairs Office na Malawi's IMF Resident Representative, Ruby Randall. Iyo na pulezidenti wa Zambia Michael Sata ŵakadumbiskana za kwambaso kwendera lumoza.<ref name="JB">{{cite web |last=Munthali |first=Kondwani |date=11 April 2012 |title=JB cleans up Capital Hill |url=http://www.malawitoday.com/news/124476-joyce-banda-starts-cleaning-capital-hill |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130914030353/http://www.malawitoday.com/news/124476-joyce-banda-starts-cleaning-capital-hill |archive-date=14 September 2013 |access-date=22 April 2012 |work=[[The Nation (Malawi)]] |df=dmy-all}}</ref> Paumaliro, boma la Banda likakana kuchitiska ungano wa wupu wa African Union uwo ukachitika mu mwezi wa Julayi mu 2012, chifukwa chakuti wupu uwu ukakhumbanga kuti pulezidenti wa Sudan Omar al-Bashir waŵe na chigomezgo kuti Malawi wakukana kugwira ntchito ya khoti la International Criminal Court. Pulezidenti Banda wakucemeka na Forbes kuti ni mwanakazi wankhongono comene wa nambara 40 pa caru cose, zina likuru comene la mu Africa pa ndondomeko iyi.<ref name="Forbes14">{{cite web |title=The World's 100 Most Powerful Women |url=https://www.forbes.com/power-women/list/#tab:overall |access-date=24 June 2014 |work=Forbes}}</ref> ==== Domestic policy ==== [[File:Flag_of_Malawi.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Flag_of_Malawi.svg|right|thumb|200x200px|Malawi's flag was created in 1964 and readopted by MPs in 2012.]] [[File:Flag_of_Malawi_(2010–2012).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Flag_of_Malawi_(2010%E2%80%932012).svg|right|thumb|200x200px|Malawi's unpopular 2010–2012 flag]] Pa 18 May 2012, Banda wakapharazga kuti wakukhumba kuwuskapo dango lakuzomerezga kugonana kwa ŵanalume panji ŵanakazi ŵekhaŵekha. Ndondomeko iyi yikukhozgeka kale na ŵanthu ŵanandi mu Nyumba ya Malango. Usange vingachitika, Malawi ndiyo yizamuŵa caru caciŵiri mu Africa kuzomerezga kugonana kwa ŵanalume panji ŵanakazi ŵekhaŵekha kwambira mu 1994. Bungwe la Amnesty International likati mu Novembala 2012, Malawi "wakakanizga" malango agho ghakukanizga kugonana kwa ŵanalume panji ŵanakazi pera.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cnn.com/2012/11/06/world/africa/malawi-antigay-laws/index.html|agency=CNN|title=Amnesty: Malawi suspends anti-gay laws|date=6 November 2012|access-date=17 January 2013}}</ref> Pa upharazgi wa International Monetary Fund, mu Meyi 2012 Banda wakachepeska mtengo wa Malawi kwacha, icho Mutharika wakakana kuchita. BBC News yikati, pharazgo lakuti kwacha yikhizgikenge pa 33 peresenti pakuyaniska na dola ya ku United States, pakukhumba kusanga ndalama za wovwiri, likapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵa mu misumba ya ku Malawi "ŵagure vinthu mwakofya".<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-17982062|agency=BBC News|title=Malawi devalues kwacha by 33%, leading to panic-buying|date=7 May 2012|access-date=17 January 2013}}</ref> Wakati waŵa purezidenti, Banda wakasankha kuguliska ndege yake na kupeleka 30% ya malipiro ghake ku Malawi Council for the Handicapped. Ndipouli, ndalama izo zikafuma pa kuguliska ndege iyi zikalembeka yayi. Joyce Banda wakalongosora kuti ndege iyi yikaguliskika ku kampani yinyake ya ku South Africa iyo boma la Malawi likaŵa na ngongoli. Pakaŵavya ukaboni panji vikalata vyakukhozgera fundo iyi. Pa 17 January 2013, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Malawi ŵakachitapo kanthu ku Blantyre kwimikana na kukwera kwa unandi wa ndalama pamanyuma pakuti Banda, pamoza na mulara wa IMF Christine Lagarde, ŵakavikilira kuchepeskeka kwa ndalama ya kwacha na kuyowoya kuti wazgorengepo yayi pa ivyo ŵakadumura.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.nyasatimes.com/malawi/2013/01/06/jb-says-wont-reverse-malawi-kwacha-devaluation-imf-chief-defends-move/|title=JB says won't reverse Malawi Kwacha devaluation|agency=Nyasa Times|date=6 January 2013|access-date=17 January 2013|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130111085601/http://www.nyasatimes.com/malawi/2013/01/06/jb-says-wont-reverse-malawi-kwacha-devaluation-imf-chief-defends-move/|archive-date=11 January 2013|df=dmy}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-malawi-protests-idUKBRE90G0O120130117|work=Reuters|date=17 January 2013|access-date=17 January 2013|title=Malawi sees first major protest under President Banda}}</ref> ==== Presidential Initiatives ==== Pulezidenti Banda walongora kuti wakujipeleka pa umoyo wa mama na wanangwa wake wa kubaba, comenecomene mwa kovwira ŵanthu kuti ŵaŵe na umoyo uwemi ku Malawi. Wakalongora kuti wakukhozgera ndondomeko iyi apo wakambiska upharazgi wakuyowoya za umoyo wa ŵamama. Mu vilimika viŵiri pera, ciŵelengero ca ŵanakazi awo ŵakufwa cifukwa ca nthenda iyi cikakhira kufuma pa 675 pa ŵanthu 100,000 awo ŵakubabika ŵamoyo kuya pa 460 pa ŵanthu 100,000 awo ŵakubabika ŵamoyo.<ref name=":0" /> ==== Flag ==== {{Main|Flag of Malawi}} Boma la Mutharika likati lasintha ndembera mu 2010, ŵanthu ŵakasuska. Magulu ghanandi ghakususka kuti ndembera njakwenelera. Pa Meyi 28, 2012, Banda wakalongozga mamembara gha chalo ichi kuti ŵawelere ku ndembera ya wanangwa, iyo yikatoleka mu 1964. Maphwando onse, kupatula DPP, adavotera kubwerera ku mbendera ya ufulu.<ref>{{cite web |date=29 May 2012 |title=Malawi MPs vote to fly old rising sun flag |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-18255188 |access-date=8 June 2012 |work=BBC News Africa}}</ref> === Post-presidential life === Banda wakakhalanga ku United States kwa vyaka vitatu nga ni nkhwantha ya Woodrow Wilson Center na Center for Global Development, pambere wandawelere ku Malawi mu 2018.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-malawi-politics/former-malawi-president-joyce-banda-returns-from-exile-idUSKBN1HU2G8 Former Malawi president Joyce Banda returns from exile], [[Reuters]]</ref>Pa nyengo yasono, palije mulandu uwo Banda wali kupelekeka. Banda wakaluta ku mavoti gha 2019 nga ni munthu uyo wakimilira chipani cha People's Party, kweni wakafumako pambere mavoti ghandambe myezi yiŵiri.<ref>{{cite web |date=15 March 2019 |title=Joyce Banda Withdraws from Malawi Presidential Race |url=https://www.voanews.com/a/joyce-banda-withdraws-from-malawi-presidential-race/4831130.html |website=VOA |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=18 March 2019 |title=Malawi ex-leader Banda seals another opposition pact |url=https://ewn.co.za/2019/03/18/malawi-ex-leader-banda-seals-another-opposition-pact |website=AFP via Eyewitness News South Africa |language=en}}</ref> Pambuyo pa chisankho cha purezidenti cha 2019 chitathetsedwa, adathandizanso Chakwera kachiwiri mu 2020. Mwana wa Banda, Roy Kahele-Banda, wakasankhika kuŵa nduna ya vya vyamalonda. == Wupu wa Joyce Banda == Pambere wandaŵe vice-president, wakaŵa mweneko wa Joyce Banda Foundation for Better Education, wupu uwo ukovwira ŵana na ŵana ŵalanda ŵa ku Malawi. Ni sukulu ya primary na secondary mu chigaŵa cha Chimwankhunda ku Blantyre. Pa malo agha pali malo ghakusungirako ŵana ŵalanda agho ghali na ŵana 6.<ref name="thejackbrewerfoundation1">[http://www.thejackbrewerfoundation.org/programs-partnerships/partnerships/joyce-banda-foundation/]{{dead link|date=April 2012}}</ref>Kweniso likovwira ŵanthu ŵa mu mizi yapafupi mwa kupeleka ngongoli ku ŵanakazi 40 na magulu 10 gha ŵawukirano. Wakapeleka mbuto ku ŵalimi ŵakujumpha 10,000 na vyawanangwa vinyake. Wupu uwu uli kuzenga ma clinic ghanayi mu mizi yinayi pa mizi 200 iyo ukuwovwira. Wupu uwu ukovwiraso pa mulimo wa kuzenga vikaya. Yili na ubali na Jack Brewer Foundation, wupu wa pa caru cose uwo ukayambiskika na Jack Brewer. == National Association of Business Women == Banda ndiyo wakambiska bungwe la National Association of Business Women ku Malawi ilo likakhazikiskika mu 1990. Ni wupu wakuwona vya ndalama yayi uwo uli kulembeka mu Malawi. Wupu uwu uli na cilato cakuti ŵanakazi ŵafumemo mu ukavu mwa kukhozga maluso ghawo na kuŵapa nkhongono pa vya cuma. Iyi ni Intaneti ya ŵanakazi 30,000, ndipo yikovwira ŵanakazi awo ŵakukhumba kuchita bizinesi. Ntchito zake zikusazgapo masambiro gha bizinesi, masambiro gha maluso, kusungilira mabuku na maluso gha kuwusa. Ŵakuyezgayezga kuti ŵambiskane maungano na ŵanthu awo ŵakupanga malango kuti ŵanakazi awo ŵali na mabizinezi ŵasange chandulo. Mulara wake sono ni Mary Malunga. Kufuma mu 2003, wupu uwu uli kukolerana na Humanist Institute for Development Cooperation (Hivos) ku The Hague, Netherlands.<ref name="hivos">{{cite web |date=31 December 2008 |title=National Association of Business Women / Partners / Home – Ontwikkelingsorganisatie Hivos |url=http://www.hivos.nl/dut/community/partner/10003036 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120304054222/http://www.hivos.nl/dut/community/partner/10003036 |archive-date=4 March 2012 |access-date=7 April 2012 |publisher=Hivos.nl |language=nl |df=dmy-all}}</ref> == Philanthropy and development initiatives == Banda wakakhwaskika na milimo yinandi ya ŵanakazi kwambira waka apo wakaŵa na vilimika 25 kuti wasinthe ndondomeko, comenecomene mu vya masambiro. Wakayambiska Joyce Banda Foundation for Better Education. Wakayambiska bungwe la Young Women Leaders Network, National Association of Business Women na Hunger Project ku Malawi. Iyo pamoza na pulezidenti Joaquim Chissano wa Mozambique ŵakapokera chawanangwa cha 1997 cha Africa Prize for Leadership for the Sustainable End of Hunger na Hunger Project, bungwe la boma yayi ilo lili ku New York. Wakagwiliskira nchito ndalama izo wakapokera kuti wawovwirepo pakuzenga Joyce Banda Foundation ya ŵana. Mu chaka cha 2006, wakapokera chawanangwa cha International Award for the Health and Dignity of Women chifukwa cha kujipeleka kwake pa wanangwa wa ŵanakazi ŵa ku Malawi kufuma ku American for United Nations Population Fund.<ref name="unfpa" /> Wakateŵeteranga nga ni mwimiliri wa "Bridging a World Divided" pamoza na ŵanthu nga ni Bishop Desmond Tutu, na United Nations Human Rights Commissioner, Mary Robinson. Banda wakaŵaso mu gulu la ŵapharazgi ŵa vya masambiro ku Washington, D.C., kweniso mu gulu la ŵapharazgi ŵa Federation of World Peace and Love ku Taiwan (China). Mu Okutobala 2012, boma likadumura malipiro ghake na 30%. Kweniso wakapharazga kuti ndege ya pulezidenti yizamuguliskika.<ref>{{Citation|url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201210041137.html|title=Malawi: President Slashes Her Own Salary|year=2012|publisher=[[Allafrica.com]]|location=Africa|access-date=11 October 2012}}</ref> === Global Leaders Council for Reproductive Health === Mu 2010, Banda wakazgoka yumoza wa Global Leaders Council for Reproductive Health, gulu la ŵanthu 16 awo ŵalipo kale na ŵalara ŵa vyaru, ŵalaraŵalara ŵa boma na ŵalongozgi ŵanyake awo ŵakulimbikira kovwira ŵanthu kuti ŵaŵe na umoyo uwemi. Ŵalongozgi aŵa, awo ŵakulongozgeka na Mary Robinson, uyo wakaŵa purezidenti wa Ireland, ŵakukhumba kukhozga khumbo la ŵandyali na kusanga ndalama zakukhumbikwa kuti ŵanthu wose ŵasange wovwiri pa nkhani ya umoyo wa ŵana m'paka mu 2015.<ref name="womendeliver">{{cite web |date=21 September 2010 |title=Updates " The Launch of the Global Leaders Council for Reproductive Health |url=http://www.womendeliver.org/updates/entry/the-launch-of-the-global-leaders-council-for-reproductive-health/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120715020428/http://www.womendeliver.org/updates/entry/the-launch-of-the-global-leaders-council-for-reproductive-health |archive-date=15 July 2012 |access-date=1 November 2012 |publisher=Women Deliver |df=dmy}}</ref> == Malumbo == === National awards === * Woman of the Year, Malawi, 1997<ref name="malawi" /> * Woman of the Year, Malawi, 1998<ref name="malawi" /> * Nyasa Times Multimedia 'Person of the Year', 2010<ref>{{cite web |last=Lungu |first=M'theto |date=30 December 2010 |title=Media house awards Malawi Veep Joyce Banda 'Person of the Year 2010' accolade |url=http://www.africaglobalvillage.com/en/southern-africa/malawi/504-malawi.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130116154347/http://www.africaglobalvillage.com/en/southern-africa/malawi/504-malawi.html |archive-date=16 January 2013 |access-date=17 April 2012 |work=The Africa Global Village |df=dmy-all}}</ref> === International awards === * Martin Luther King Drum Major Award, 2012, Washington DC<ref>{{cite web |title=JB receives Martin Luther King 'Drum Major' award &#124; Malawi news, Malawi – NyasaTimes breaking online news source from Malawi |url=http://www.nyasatimes.com/malawi/2012/06/12/jb-receives-martin-luther-king-drum-major-award/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120618191308/http://www.nyasatimes.com/malawi/2012/06/12/jb-receives-martin-luther-king-drum-major-award/ |archive-date=18 June 2012 |access-date=1 November 2012 |publisher=Nyasatimes.com |df=dmy}}</ref> * Legends Award for Leadership, 2012, Greater African Methodist Episcopal Church<ref>{{cite web |date=5 April 2012 |title=Society delivers the latest Malawi breaking news and information on the latest top stories |url=http://www.maravipost.com/malawi-national-news/malawi-society/1119-unwavering-pres-banda-gets-legend-award-for-leadership.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130128065909/http://www.maravipost.com/malawi-national-news/malawi-society/1119-unwavering-pres-banda-gets-legend-award-for-leadership.html |archive-date=28 January 2013 |access-date=1 November 2012 |publisher=Maravipost.com |df=dmy-all}}</ref> * Women of Substance Award, 2010, African Women Development Fund<ref>{{cite web |title=nationmw.net |url=http://www.nationmw.net/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=10104:another-international-accolade-for-banda&catid=62:national-news&Itemid=59 |access-date=1 November 2012 |publisher=nationmw.net}}</ref> * Africa Prize for Leadership for the Sustainable End of Hunger, 1997, Hunger Project of NY<ref name="malawi" /> * International award for entrepreneurship development, 1998, Africa Federation of Woman Entrepreneurs and Economic Commission for Africa (ECA)<ref name="malawi" /> * 100 Heroines award, 1998, Rochester, New York<ref name="malawi" /> * Certificate of Honors, 2001, Federation of World Peace and Love, Taiwan, Republic of China<ref name="malawi" /> === Honors === * Most powerful woman in the world 2014, Forbes Magazine – rank #40<ref name="Forbes14" /> * Most powerful woman in the world 2013, Forbes Magazine – rank #47 * Most powerful woman in the world 2012, Forbes Magazine – rank #71 * Most powerful woman in Africa 2012, Forbes Magazine – rank #1 * Most powerful woman in Africa 2011, Forbes Magazine – rank #3 == Wonaniso == * [[:en:Malawian_Constitutional_Crisis_2012|Malawian Constitutional Crisis 2012]] * [[:en:List_of_current_members_of_the_National_Assembly_of_Malawi|List of current members of the National Assembly of Malawi]] == Wonani vinandi == * {{cite journal|title=Constitutional provisions and executive succession: Malawi's 2012 transition in comparative perspective|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_african-affairs_2013-01_112_446/page/111|author=Kim Yi Dionne, Boniface Dulani|journal=[[African Affairs]]|date=January 2013|volume=112|issue=446|pages=111–137|doi=10.1093/afraf/ads067|jstor=23357150}} == Ukaboni == <references group="" responsive="0"></references> == Vigaŵa vya kuwaro == {{commons category}} * [https://www.un.org/ecosocdev/geninfo/afrec/vol11no2/briefs3.htm United Nations 1997 Africa Prize] * {{cite journal|last=Donnelly|first=John|title=Joyce Banda: "Women lacked training, credit and information"|journal=Global Pulse|publisher=Global Post|location=Boston, Mass.|date=10 October 2011|url=http://www.globalpost.com/dispatches/globalpost-blogs/global-pulse/joyce-banda-women-lacked-training-credit-and-information|access-date=15 April 2012}} {{s-start}} {{s-off}} {{s-bef|before=[[George Chaponda]]}} {{s-ttl|title=Minister of Foreign Affairs|years=2006–2009}} {{s-aft|after=[[Etta Banda]]}} |- {{s-bef|before=[[Cassim Chilumpha]]}} {{s-ttl|title=[[Vice-President of Malawi|Vice President of Malawi]]|years=2009–2012}} {{s-aft|after=[[Khumbo Kachali]]}} |- {{s-bef|before=[[Bingu wa Mutharika]]}} {{s-ttl|title=[[President of Malawi]]|years=2012–2014}} {{s-aft|after=[[Peter Mutharika]]}} {{s-end}}{{MalawiPresidents}}{{Authority control}} c5k5tgl317nxhvjvvjeu5gny6bwkuj7 0 22648 119302 118884 2026-08-13T22:12:19Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260813sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 119302 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Revision}} {{Infobox country | conventional_long_name = Roman Empire | common_name = Roman Empire | native_name = {{unbulleted list |item3_style=font-size:80%;padding-top:0.15em;line-height:1.15em | {{native phrase|la|[[SPQR|Senatus Populusque Romanus]]}} | {{native phrase|la|Imperium Romanum{{Efn|Other ways of referring to the "Roman Empire" among the Romans and Greeks themselves included ''{{lang|la|Res publica Romana}}'' or ''{{lang|la|Imperium Romanorum}}'' (also in Greek: {{lang|grc|Βασιλεία τῶν Ῥωμαίων}} – {{grc-tr|Βασιλεία τῶν Ῥωμαίων}} – ["Dominion ('kingdom' but interpreted as 'empire') of the Romans"] and ''Romania''. ''{{lang|la|Res publica}}'' means Roman "commonwealth"<!--?: Usually,--> and can refer to both the Republican and the Imperial eras. ''{{lang|la|Imperium Romanum}}'' (or "{{lang|la|Romanorum}}") refers to the territorial extent of Roman authority. ''{{lang|la| Populus Romanus}}'' ("the Roman people") was/is often [[Metonym|used to indicate the Roman state]] in matters involving other nations. The term ''Romania'', initially a colloquial term for the empire's territory as well as a [[Collective noun|collective name]] for its inhabitants, appears in Greek and Latin sources from the 4th century onward and was eventually carried over to the [[Eastern Roman Empire]]<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Wolff |first=Robert Lee |author-link=Robert Lee Wolff |date=1948 |title=Romania: The Latin Empire of Constantinople |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_speculum_1948-01_23_1/page/1 |volume=23 |pages=1–34, especially 2–3 |journal=Speculum|issue=1 |doi=10.2307/2853672 |jstor=2853672 |s2cid=162802725 }}</ref>}}}} | {{native phrase|grc|Βασιλεία τῶν Ῥωμαίων|italics=off}}<br/>{{nobold|{{transliteration|grc|Basileía tôn Rhōmaíōn}}}} }} | status = Empire | life_span = {{line-height|1.3em|{{nowrap|27 BC–AD 395 {{nobold|(unified)}}}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Morley |first=Neville |title=The Roman Empire: Roots of Imperialism |date=17 August 2010 |isbn=978-0-7453-2870-6}}; {{Cite book |last=Diamond |first=Jared |title=Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed: Revised Edition |date=4 January 2011 |isbn=978-1-101-50200-6 |page=13 |author-link=Jared Diamond}}</ref><br/>{{nowrap|AD 395–476/480 {{nobold|([[Western Roman Empire|Western]])}}}}<br/>{{nowrap|AD 395–1453}} {{nobold|([[Byzantine Empire|Eastern]])}}}} | p1 = Roman Republic | s1 = Western Roman Empire | s2 = Byzantine Empire{{!}}Eastern Roman Empire | image_flag = Vexilloid of the Roman Empire.svg | flag_border = no | flag_size = 100px | flag_type = ''[[Vexillum]]''<br/>with the imperial ''[[Aquila (Roman)|aquila]]'' | image_coat = Better Imperial Aquila.png | coa_size = 100 px | symbol_type = Imperial [[Aquila (Roman)|''aquila'']] | image_map = Roman Empire Trajan 117AD.png | image_map_caption = The Roman Empire in AD 117 at its greatest extent, at the time of [[Trajan]]'s death (with its [[vassal state|vassal]]s in pink){{Sfnp|Bennett|1997}}{{Efn|Fig. 1. Regions east of the [[Euphrates]] river were held only in the years 116–117.}} | image_map2 = Animated map of the Roman territorial evolution from the rise of the city-state of Rome to the fall of the Western Roman Empire.gif | map_caption2 = The Roman Empire from the rise of the city-state of Rome to the fall of the Western Roman Empire | capital = {{plainlist}} * [[Rome]]<br/>(27 BC–AD 286) * [[Mediolanum]]<br/>(286–330, [[Western Roman Empire|West]]) * [[Nicomedia]]<br/>(286–330, [[Byzantine Empire|East]]) * [[Constantinople]]<br/>(330–395) * [[Constantinople]]<br/>{{nowrap|(395–1453, East)}}{{Efn|Between 1204 and 1261 there was an interregnum when the empire was divided into the [[Empire of Nicaea]], the [[Empire of Trebizond]] and the [[Despotate of Epirus]] – all contenders for the rule of the empire. The Empire of Nicaea is usually considered the "legitimate" continuation of the Roman Empire because it managed to re-take Constantinople.}} * [[Mediolanum]]<br/>(395–401, [[Western Roman Empire|West]]) * [[Ravenna]]<br/>(401–403, 408–450, 457–461, 475–476, [[Western Roman Empire|West]]) * [[Rome]]<br/>(403–408, 450–457, 461–475, [[Western Roman Empire|West]])<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Gillett |first=Andrew |author-link=Andrew Gillett |date=2001 |title=Rome, Ravenna and the Last Western Emperors |url=https://www.academia.edu/18189525 |journal=Papers of the British School at Rome |volume=69 |doi=10.1017/S0068246200001781 |issn=0068-2462 |pages=131–167 |s2cid=129373675}}</ref> {{Endplainlist}} | common_languages = [[Viyowoyero vya mu Ufumu wa Roma|Regional languages]] | official_languages = [[Chilatini]] | religion = {{plainlist}} * [[Roman imperial cult|Imperial cult]]-driven [[Religion in ancient Rome|polytheism]]<br/>(until AD 380; with [[Henotheism|henotheistic]] solar cult of [[Sol Invictus]] from 274–380) * [[Nicene Christianity]]<br/>([[State church of the Roman Empire|officially]] from AD 380) {{Endplainlist}} | government_type = [[Elective monarchy|Semi-elective]] [[absolute monarchy]] {{small|(de facto)}} | title_leader = [[Roman emperor#Titles and positions|Emperor]] | year_leader1 = {{nowrap|27 BC – AD 14}} | leader1 = [[Augustus]] (first) | year_leader2 = 98–117 | leader2 = [[Trajan]] | year_leader3 = 138–161 | leader3 = [[Antoninus Pius]] | year_leader4 = 270–275 | leader4 = [[Aurelian]] | year_leader5 = 284–305 | leader5 = [[Diocletian]] | year_leader6 = 306–337 | leader6 = [[Constantine I]] | year_leader7 = 379–395 | leader7 = [[Theodosius I]]{{Efn|The final emperor to rule over all of the Empire's territories before its conversion to a diarchy.}} | year_leader8 = 474–480 | leader8 = [[Julius Nepos]]{{Efn|Traditionally the final emperor of the Western empire.<!-- Romulus Augustus's reign was never confirmed by the imperial court in Constantinople, thus making him officially a usurper, only Julius Nepos's reign was legally confirmed until his death in 480. Many historians, wikipedia articles and others sources confirm this -->}} | year_leader9 = 475–476 | leader9 = [[Romulus Augustus]] | year_leader10 = 527–565 | leader10 = [[Justinian I]] | year_leader11 = 610–641 | leader11 = [[Heraclius]] | year_leader12 = 780–797 | leader12 = [[Constantine VI]]{{Efn|Final ruler to be universally recognized as Roman emperor, including by the surviving empire in the East, the Papacy, and by kingdoms in Western Europe.}} | year_leader13 = 976–1025 | leader13 = [[Basil II]] | year_leader14 = 1143–1180 | leader14 = [[Manuel I Komnenos|Manuel I]] | year_leader15 = 1449–1453 | leader15 = [[Constantine XI Palaiologos|Constantine XI]]<!--(Please retain following for sake of legibility:)-->{{Efn|Last emperor of the Eastern (Byzantine) empire.}} | era = [[Classical era]] to [[Late Middle Ages]] | date_pre = 32–30 BC | event_pre = [[War of Actium]] | year_start = 30–2 BC | event_start = [[Constitutional reforms of Augustus|Empire established]] | date_event1 = 16 January 27 BC | event1 = [[Octavian]] named ''[[augustus (title)|augustus]]'' | date_event2 = 11 May 330 | event2 = [[Constantinople#306–337|Constantinople]]<br/>becomes capital | date_event3 = 17 January 395 | event3 = {{nowrap|[[Western Roman Empire#Further divisions|Final]] [[Greek East and Latin West|East-West]] divide}} | date_event4 = 4 September 476 | event4 = [[Deposition of Romulus Augustus]] | date_event5 = 9 May 480 | event5 = Murder of [[Julius Nepos]] | date_event6 = 12 April 1204 | event6 = [[Fourth Crusade]] | date_event7 = 25 July 1261 | event7 = [[Reconquest of Constantinople]] | year_end = 1453 | date_end = 29 May | event_end = [[Fall of Constantinople]] | event_post = [[Fall of Trebizond]] | date_post = 15 August 1461 | stat_year1 = 25 BC | stat_area1 = 2750000 | stat_pop1 = 56,800,000 | stat_year2 = AD 117 | stat_area2 = 5000000 | stat_pop2 = | stat_year3 = AD 390 | stat_area3 = 3400000 | stat_pop3 = | currency = [[sestertius]],{{Efn|Abbreviated "HS". Prices and values are usually expressed in sesterces; see [[#Currency and banking]] for currency denominations by period.}} [[aureus]], [[Solidus (coin)|solidus]], [[Solidus (coin)|nomisma]] | demonym = [[Roman people|Roman]] | area_km2 = | area_rank = | GDP_PPP = | GDP_PPP_year = | HDI = | HDI_year = | ref_area1 = <ref name="size">{{Cite journal |last=Taagepera |first=Rein |author-link=Rein Taagepera |date=1979 |title=Size and Duration of Empires: Growth-Decline Curves, 600 B.C. to 600 A.D |journal=Social Science History |publisher=Duke University Press |volume=3 |issue=3/4 |doi=10.2307/1170959 |page=125|jstor=1170959 }}</ref> | ref_area2 = <ref name="size"/><ref name="East-West">{{Cite journal |last1=Turchin |first1=Peter |author-link=Peter Turchin |last2=Adams |first2=Jonathan M. |last3=Hall |first3=Thomas D. |date=2006 |title=East-West Orientation of Historical Empires |url=http://peterturchin.com/PDF/Turchin_Adams_Hall_2006.pdf |journal=Journal of World-Systems Research |volume=12 |issue=2 |issn=1076-156X |access-date=6 February 2016 |page=222}}</ref> | ref_area3 = <ref name="size"/> | ref_pop1 = <ref>{{Cite journal |last=Durand |first=John D. |date=1977 |title=Historical Estimates of World Population: An Evaluation |url=http://repository.upenn.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1009&context=psc_penn_papers |journal=Population and Development Review |volume=3 |issue=3 |doi=10.2307/1971891 |pages=253–296|jstor=1971891 }}</ref> }} '''Ufumu wa Roma''' (Latin: ''Imperium Romanum'' [ɪmˈpɛri.ũː roːˈmaːnũː]; Greek: Βασιλεία τῶν ??ωμαίων, translit. Basileía tôn Rhōmaíōn) yikaŵa nyengo ya ku Roma. Mu ufumu uwu mukaŵa vyaru vinandi ivyo vikaŵa kufupi na Nyanja ya Meditereniyani ku [[Europe]], North Africa, na Western Asia. Kufuma apo Kesare Augusto wakambira kuwusa mu ufumu wa Romu m'paka apo ufumu wa Romu ukambira kulamulira mu vyaka vya m'ma 300 C.E., msumba uwu ukaŵa wa Italy. Nyengo yikati yajumphapo, mafumu ghanandi ghakawusanga Ufumu wa Ŵaroma. Msumba wa Roma ndiwo ukaŵa msumba ukuru wa vigaŵa vyose viŵiri ivi m'paka mu 476 C.E. apo ŵasilikari ŵakatumizga vimanyikwiro vya ufumu ku Constantinople. Chikhristu chikati chazomerezgeka kuŵa tchalitchi la boma la Ufumu wa Roma mu 380 C.E. ndipo Ufumu wa Roma wa Kumanjiliro gha dazi ukathereskeka na mathemba gha ku Germany, vikaŵa nga ni para nyengo yakale yili kumara ndipo nyengo ya ku Middle Ages yikamba. Chifukwa cha ivyo vikachitika, kweniso chifukwa chakuti Ufumu wa Romu wa kumafumiro gha dazi ukazgoka wa Ŵagiriki, ŵanthu ŵakusanda mdauko ŵakuyowoya kuti Ufumu wa Romu uwo ukakhala mu vigaŵa vya kumafumiro gha dazi ukaŵa wa Byzantine. Ufumu wa Romu, uwo ukaŵa panthazi pa ufumu uwu, ukasuzgika chomene chifukwa cha nkhondo za pawenenawene na viwawa vya ndyali. Pakati pa vyaka vya m'ma 100 B.C.E., Julius Caesar wakimikika kuŵa ''dictator perpetuo'' ("munthu wakulamulira kwamuyirayira"), ndipo pamanyuma wakakomeka mu 44 B.C.E. Nkhondo za pawenenawene zikalutilira, ndipo paumaliro Octavian wakathereska Mark Antony na Cleopatra pa Nkhondo ya Actium mu 31 BC. Chaka chakulondezgapo, Octavian wakathereska ufumu wa Ptolemaic ku Egypt, ndipo nyengo ya Hellenistic yikamara. Octavian wakaŵaso na mazaza pa ŵanthu wose, ndipo wupu wa ku Rome ukamupa mazaza ghose na zina lakuti Augusto. Vyaru vikuruvikuru vya Romu vikaŵa vyakupambanapambana. Mu vyaka 200 vyakwambilira vya muwuso wa Ŵaroma, vinthu vikaŵa makora chomene. "Mtende wa Ŵaroma"). Mu nyengo ya Trajan (mu 98-117 C.E.), ufumu wa Roma ukafika pa malo ghakuru chomene. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 300 C.E., Ufumu wa Roma ukakumana na suzgo likuru chomene, chifukwa Ufumu wa Gallic na Palmyrene ukafumako ku ufumu wa Roma. Mu nyengo ya Aurelian (r. 270–275). Kuti wamazge suzgo ili, Diocletian wakimika makhoti ghaŵiri gha ufumu mu chigaŵa cha kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Greece na cha kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Latin mu 286; Ŵakhristu ŵakamba kuŵa na mazaza mu vyaka vya m'ma 300 C.E. pamanyuma pa dango la ku Milan mu 313. Pakati pajumpha nyengo yichoko waka, ŵanthu ŵa ku Germany na Ŵahuni ŵa ku Attila ŵakamba kugaluka. Apo msumba wa Ravenna ukathereskeka na Ŵageremani ŵa Herulian kweniso apo Odoacer wakathereska Romulus Augustus mu 476 C.E., Ufumu wa Ŵaroma ukawa. Ufumu wa ku mpoto wa Ŵaroma ukakhalako vyaka vinandi m'paka apo msumba wa Constantinople ukagolera mu 1453 na Ŵaturuki ŵa Ottoman. Chifukwa chakuti Ufumu wa Roma ukaŵa ukuru chomene kweniso ukakhala nyengo yitali, vinthu ivyo vikachitikanga mu ufumu uwu vikakhwaska chomene chiyowoyero, chisopa, luso, maofesi, mabuku, vinjeru vya ŵanthu, malango, na maboma. Chilatini icho Ŵaroma ŵakayowoyanga ndicho chikazgoka viyowoyero vya ŵanthu ŵa mu nyengo yakale na mazuŵa ghano. Ufumu wa Roma ukati wamba kugomezga Cikristu, pakaŵa cisopa cautesi. Ŵaroma na Ŵagiriki ŵakakhwaska comene luso lwa ku Italy. Maluso gha ku Roma ghakaŵa ghakovwira chomene ku ŵanthu awo ŵakazenganga nyumba za Ŵaroma, Renaissance, na Neoclassical. Ku Europe, sayansi ya Ŵagiriki na Ŵaroma (iyo yikapangiska sayansi ya Chisilamu) yikambaso. Dango la Ŵaroma lili na ŵanthu awo ŵali kulondezga malango gha mazuŵa ghano, nga ni Dango la Napoleon ku France, apo boma la Romu lili na ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵali kulondezga malango agha. == Cholowa == Vyaru vinandi vikayowoya kuti vikaŵa mu muwuso wa Ŵaroma pamanyuma pakuti ufumu wa Ŵaroma wa ku Western wareka kuwusa. Ufumu wa Ŵaroma, uwo ukaŵa chiyezgo cha kuwuska ufumu wa Ŵaroma ku vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi, ukakhazikiskika mu 800 apo Papa Leo III wakathya mphumphu Themba la Ŵafrankhi Charlemagne kuŵa themba la Ŵaroma pa Khisimasi. Ufumu uwu ukalutilira kuŵa na mazaza m'paka mu 1806, apo chigaŵa chikuru cha ufumu uwu chikazgoka Confederation of the Rhine. Nangauli vikaŵa nthena, kweni nyumba yake yikaluza zina ili pamanyuma pakuti Napoleon waleka ufumu wake. Pamanyuma pa kuwa kwa Constantinople, Ufumu wa Russia, pakuŵa muwukirano wa Ufumu wa Byzantine, ukajiwonanga kuti ni ufumu wacitatu wa Roma. Fundo izi zikucemeka kuti translatio imperii. Pambuyo pa kuwina kwa Ufumu wa Russia, wolamulidwa ndi Nyumba ya Romanov, izi zinathera mu Russian Revolution ya 1917 pamene mabolchevik oukira anagwetsa ufumu. Pamanyuma pa kuguliska mutu wa ufumu wa ufumu wa ufumu wa kumpoto kwa Romu, Andres Palaiologos, kwa Ferdinand II wa Aragon na Isabella I wa Castile, na mgwirizano wa ufumu wa ufumu wa Spain, ufumu uwu ukazgoka muwuso wa ufumu wa Romu. Apo ŵa Ottoman ŵakamba kuwukira msumba wa Constantinople mu 1453, Mehmed II wakaŵika msumba wake ukuru mu msumba uwu. Wakambiska nkhondo ya Ottoman ya Otranto, iyo yikaŵa ku Southern Italy, na cilato cakuti wambeso kuwunganya ufumu, kweni nyifwa yake yikapangiska kuti nkhondo iyi yimare. Mehmed II wakacemaso ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe ku msumba wake ukuru, kusazgapo Gentile Bellini. Mu vyaka vyapakati pa 500 na 1500 C.E., lizgu lakuti "Roma" likang'anamuranga tchalitchi na papa wa ku Roma. Zina la Chigiriki lakuti Romaioi likalutilira kulembeka mu chiyowoyero cha Chigiriki mu Ufumu wa Roma. Chiharo cha ufumu wa Roma cha kulamulira chilumba cha Italy chikakhwaska mtundu wa Italy na kuwungana kwa Italy mu 1861. Charu cha Roma chikalutilira kuŵa na maghanoghano gha ŵasilikari, chomenechomene Ufumu wa Italy na Nazi Germany. Mu ndyali za United States, Ŵawiskewo ŵa United States ŵakasambizgika mu mitheto ya Classical, ndipo ŵakagwiliskiranga nchito viyelezgero vya Classical pa kuzenga vinthu vya ku America, kuti ŵaleke kuzunura vinthu vya ku Europe nga ni nyumba zacifumu na macalichi. Pakusambizga fundo yawo ya dango lakusazgikana, awo ŵakambiska ŵakawoneseskanga kuti demokilase ya ku Ateni na boma la Romu ni vyakuwonerapo, kweni ŵakawonanga kuti themba la Romu ni munthu wa nkhaza. == Ukaboni == {{Refbegin|30em|indent=yes}} * {{Cite book |last=Abbott |first=Frank Frost |title=A History and Description of Roman Political Institutions |date=1901 |publisher=Elibron Classics |isbn=978-0-543-92749-1 |author-link=Frank Frost Abbott}} * {{Cite journal |last=Adams |first=J. 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H. M. |author-link=A. H. M. Jones |date=1960 |title=The Cloth Industry Under the Roman Empire |journal=Economic History Review |volume=13 |issue=2 |pages=183–192|jstor=2591177 }} * {{Cite book |last=Jones |first=Mark Wilson |title=Principles of Roman Architecture |date=2003 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-10202-4 |author-link=Mark Wilson Jones |orig-date=2000}} * {{Cite journal |last1=Jones |first1=R. F. J. |last2=Bird |first2=D. G. |date=2012 |title=Roman Gold-Mining in North-West Spain, II: Workings on the Rio Duerna |journal=Journal of Roman Studies |volume=62 |pages=59–74 |doi=10.2307/298927 |jstor=298927 |s2cid=162096359}} * {{Cite book |last=Kelly |first=Christopher |title=The Roman Empire: A Very Short Introduction |url=https://archive.org/details/romanempireverys0000kell |date=2007 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-280391-7 |author-link=Christopher Kelly (historian)}} * {{Cite book |last=Kousser |first=Rachel Meredith |title=Hellenistic and Roman Ideal Sculpture: The Allure of the Classical |url=https://archive.org/details/hellenisticroman0000kous |date=2008 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-87782-4 |author-link=Rachel Meredith Kousser}} * {{Cite book |last=Laes |first=Christian |title=Children in the Roman Empire: Outsiders Within |date=2011 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-89746-4}} * {{Cite journal |last=Marshall |first=Anthony J. |date=1976 |title=Library Resources and Creative Writing at Rome |journal=Phoenix |volume=30 |issue=3 |doi=10.2307/1087296 |pages=252–264|jstor=1087296 }} * {{Cite journal |last=Millar |first=Fergus |date=2012 |title=Empire and City, Augustus to Julian: Obligations, Excuses and Status |journal=Journal of Roman Studies |volume=73 |doi=10.2307/300073 |pages=76–96 |jstor=300073 |s2cid=159799017}} * {{Cite book |last=Mommsen |first=Theodore |url=https://quod.lib.umich.edu/g/genpub/abq2762.0001.001/332?p=root;size=100;view=image |title=The provinces of the Roman empire from Caesar to Diocletian |date=2005 |publisher=University of Michigan Library |editor-last=Dickson |editor-first=William P. |translator-last=William P. Dickson |orig-date=1909}} * {{Cite book |last1=Morris |first1=Ian |title=The Dynamics of Ancient Empires: State Power from Assyria to Byzantium |last2=Scheidel |first2=Walter |date=2009 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-970761-4 |author-link=Ian Morris (historian) |author-link2=Walter Scheidel}} * {{Cite book |last=Naerebout |first=Frederick G. |title=Ritual Dynamics and Religious Change in the Roman Empire |date=2007 |work=Proceedings of the Eighth Workshop of the International Network Impact of Empire (5–7 July 2007) |publisher=Brill |chapter=Dance in the Roman Empire and Its Discontents}} * {{Cite book |last=Nicolet |first=Claude |url=https://archive.org/details/spacegeographypo00nico |title=Space, Geography, and Politics in the Early Roman Empire |date=1991 |publisher=University of Michigan Press |isbn=978-0-472-10096-5 |author-link=Claude Nicolet |url-access=registration}} * {{Cite book |title=The Oxford Handbook of Social Relations in the Roman World |url=https://archive.org/details/oxfordhandbookof0000unse_l5x8 |date=2011 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-518800-4 |editor-last=Peachin |editor-first=Michael}} * {{Cite book |last1=Potter |first1=David Stone |title=Life, Death, and Entertainment in the Roman Empire |url=https://archive.org/details/lifedeathenterta0000unse |last2=Mattingly |first2=D. J. |date=1999 |publisher=University of Michigan Press |isbn=978-0-472-08568-2 |author-link=David Stone Potter |author-link2=David Mattingly (archaeologist)}} * {{Cite book |title=A Companion to the Roman Empire |date=2009 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-4051-9918-6 |editor-last=Potter |editor-first=David S. |editor-link=David Stone Potter}} * {{Cite book |last=Rochette |first=Bruno |url=http://orbi.ulg.ac.be/handle/2268/35932 |title=A Companion to the Latin Language |date=2012 |isbn=978-1-4443-4339-7 |pages=549–563 |chapter=Language Policies in the Roman Republic and Empire |doi=10.1002/9781444343397.ch30 |hdl=2268/35932}} * {{Cite book |last=Rawson |first=Beryl |title=The Family in Ancient Rome: New Perspectives |url=https://archive.org/details/familyinancientr0000unse_l4g3 |date=1987 |publisher=Cornell University Press |isbn=978-0-8014-9460-4 |author-link=Beryl Rawson}} * {{Cite book |last=Rawson |first=Beryl |title=Children and Childhood in Roman Italy |date=2003 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-151423-4 |author-link=Beryl Rawson}} * {{Cite book |last=Roberts |first=Michael John |url=https://archive.org/details/jeweledstylepoet00robe |title=The Jeweled Style: Poetry and Poetics in Late Antiquity |date=1989 |publisher=Cornell University Press |isbn=978-0-8014-2265-2 |url-access=registration}} * {{Cite book |last=Rüpke |first=Jörg |title=A Companion to Roman Religion |url=https://archive.org/details/companiontoroman0000unse_i5a2 |date=2007 |publisher=Wiley |isbn=978-0-470-76645-3 |author-link=Jörg Rüpke}} * {{Cite book |last=Stambaugh |first=John E. |title=The Ancient Roman City |url=https://archive.org/details/ancientromancity0000unse |date=1988 |publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press |isbn=978-0-8018-3692-3 |author-link=John E. Stambaugh}} * {{Cite book |last=Sullivan |first=Richard D. |title=Near Eastern Royalty and Rome, 100-30 BC |url=https://archive.org/details/neareasternroyal0000sull |date=1990 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |isbn=978-0-8020-2682-8}} * {{Cite book |last=Treadgold |first=Warren |title=A History of the Byzantine State and Society |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofbyzanti0000trea |date=1997 |publisher=Stanford University Press |isbn=0-8047-2630-2 |author-link=Warren Treadgold}} * {{Cite book |last=Virgil |title=[[Aeneid]] |author-link=Virgil}} * {{Cite journal |last=Vout |first=Caroline |author-link=Caroline Vout |date=2009 |title=The Myth of the Toga: Understanding the History of Roman Dress |journal=Greece and Rome |volume=43 |issue=2 |doi=10.1093/gr/43.2.204 |pages=204–220}} * {{Cite book |last=Winterling |first=Aloys |title=Politics and Society in Imperial Rome |date=2009 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-4051-7969-0}} * {{Cite journal |last=Wiseman |first=T.P. |author-link=T. P. Wiseman |date=1970 |title=The Definition of ''Eques Romanus'' |journal=Historia |volume=19 |issue=1 |pages=67–83}} * {{Cite book |last=Wood |first=Gordon S. |title=The Idea of America: Reflections on the Birth of the United States |url=https://archive.org/details/ideaofamericaref00wood_0 |date=2011 |publisher=Penguin Publishing Group |isbn=978-1-101-51514-3 |author-link=Gordon S. Wood}} {{refend}} 7c27kd6dr9h9k0asq3qp13379jtx6xa 0 23042 119298 118625 2026-08-13T22:07:01Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260813sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 119298 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Landlocked country at the crossroads of Southern, Central, and East Africa}} {{About|the African nation|the 18th-century BC king of Isin|Zambiya|the part of Kaliningrad Oblast|Sambia Peninsula}}{{further|Name of Rhodesia}}<!--{{pp-move|small=yes}}--> {{Nkhani iwemi}} {{Coord|15|S|30|E|type:country_region:ZM|display=title}}{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2022}} {{Infobox country|conventional_long_name=Charu cha Zambia|common_name=Zambia|image_flag=Flag of Zambia.svg|image_coat=Coat of arms of Zambia.svg|image_map=Zambia (orthographic projection).svg|image_map2=|national_motto=<br />"One Zambia, One Nation" <!--speechmarks, as it's a quotation-->|national_anthem="[[Stand and Sing of Zambia, Proud and Free]]"<br /><div style="padding-top:0.4em; text-align:center;">{{center|[[File:Zambian national anthem.oga]]}}</div>|official_languages=English, Nyanja and Icibemba (Bemba)|regional_languages={{collapsible list |titlestyle = background:transparent;text-align:left;font-weight:normal; |title = |liststyle = text-align: left;border-top:1px solid #aaa; | 28.5% [[Bemba language|Bemba]] | 13.8% [[Nyanja language|Nyanja]] | 11.4% [[Tonga language (Zambia and Zimbabwe)|Tonga]] | 10.6% [[Tumbuka language|Tumbuka]] | 5.5% [[Lozi language|Lozi]] | 4.5% [[Chewa language|Chewa]] | 3.0% [[Nsenga language|Nsenga]] | 1.9% [[Lunda language|Lunda]] | 1.9% [[Kaonde language|Kaonde]] | 1.8% [[Lala-Bisa language|Lala]] | 1.8% [[Lamba language|Lamba]] | 1.7% English | 1.5% [[Luvale language|Luvale]] | 1.3% [[Mambwe language|Mambwe]] | 1.2% [[Lenje language|Lenje]] | 1.2% [[Namwanga language|Namwanga]] | 1.0% [[Lala-Bisa language|Bisa]] | 0.9% Ushi | 0.7% [[Ila language|Ila]] | 0.7% [[Mbunda language|Mbunda]] | 0.7% [[Ngoni language|Ngoni]] | 0.7% [[Tumbuka-Senga language|Senga]] | 0.6% [[Lungu language|Lungu]] | 0.5% Toka-Leya | 4.7% Others }}|demonym=Zambian|ethnic_groups={{collapsible list |titlestyle = background:transparent;text-align:left;font-weight:normal; |title = |liststyle = text-align: left;border-top:1px solid #aaa; | 19.0% [[Bemba people|Bemba]] | 13.6% [[Tonga people of Zambia and Zimbabwe|Tonga]] | 7.5% [[Tumbuka people|Tumbuka]] | 6.0% [[Chewa people|Chewa]] | 5.7% [[Lozi people|Lozi]] | 5.3% [[Nsenga people|Nsenga]] | 3.0% [[Ngoni people|Ngoni]] | 3.1% Lala | 3.9% Kaonde | 2.8% Namwanga | 2.6% [[Lunda people|Lunda (Northern)]] | 2.5% [[Mambwe people|Mambwe]] | 2.2% Luvale | 2.4% [[Lamba people|Lamba]] | 1.9% Ushi | 1.6% Bisa | 1.6% Lenje | 1.2% [[Mbunda people|Mbunda]] | 0.9% [[Lunda people|Lunda (Luapula)]] | 0.9% [[Senga people|Senga]] | 0.8% [[Ila people|Ila]] | 0.8% [[Lungu people|Lungu]] | 0.7% [[Tabwa]] | 0.7% Soli | 0.7% [[Kunda people|Kunda]] | 0.6% Ngumbo | 0.5% Chishinga | 0.5% [[Chokwe people|Chokwe]] | 0.5% [[Nkoya people|Nkoya]] | 5.4% Other ethnics | 0.8% Major racial | 0.4% Unclassified }}|ethnic_groups_year=2010<ref name="ZMBCSO2016">[http://www.zamstats.gov.zm/phocadownload/2010_Census/2010%20Census%20of%20Population%20National%20Analytical%20Report.pdf Census of Population and Housing National Analytical Report 2010] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171114001635/http://www.zamstats.gov.zm/phocadownload/2010_Census/2010%20Census%20of%20Population%20National%20Analytical%20Report.pdf |date=14 November 2017 }} Central Statistical Office, Zambia</ref>|religion=[[Christianity]] ([[State religion|official]])|capital=[[Lusaka]]|coordinates={{Coord|15|25|S|28|17|E|type:city_region:ZM}}|largest_city=capital|government_type=[[Unitary state|Unitary]] [[Presidential system|presidential]] [[republic]]|leader_title1=[[President of Zambia|President]]|leader_name1=[[Hakainde Hichilema]]|leader_title2=[[Vice-President of Zambia|Vice President]]|leader_name2=[[Mutale Nalumango]]|leader_title3=[[Speaker of the National Assembly of Zambia|Speaker]]|leader_name3=[[Nelly Mutti]]|leader_title4=[[Chief Justice of Zambia|Chief Justice]]|leader_name4=[[Mumba Malila]]|legislature=[[National Assembly (Zambia)|National Assembly]]|area_km2=752,617|area_sq_mi=290,587 <!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]-->|area_rank=38th <!--should be same as listed on [[List of countries and dependencies by area]]-->|area_footnote=<ref name="area">{{cite web |url=http://unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic/products/dyb/DYB2004/Table03.pdf |title=Population by sex, rate of population increase, surface area and density |author=United Nations Statistics Division |access-date=9 November 2007}}</ref>|percent_water=1|population_estimate=19,610,769<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-12-24 |title=Zambia : Preliminary data shows Population grew from 13.1 million in 2010 to 19.6 million in 2022 |url=https://www.lusakatimes.com/2022/12/24/preliminary-data-shows-population-grew-from-13-1-million-in-2010-to-19-6-million-in-2022/ |access-date=2022-12-27 |language=en-GB}}</ref>|population_estimate_year=2022|population_estimate_rank=63rd|population_density_km2=26.1|population_density_sq_mi=67.6 <!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]-->|GDP_PPP_year=2022|GDP_PPP={{increase}}$76.325&nbsp;billion<ref name=imf2>{{cite web |url=https://www.imf.org/external/datamapper/PPPGDP@WEO/OEMDC/ADVEC/WEOWORLD/ZMB|title=Zambia |publisher=International Monetary Fund }}</ref>|GDP_PPP_rank=102nd|GDP_PPP_per_capita={{increase}}$3,803<ref name=imf2/>|GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank=158th|GDP_nominal={{increase}}$27.02&nbsp;billion<ref name=imf2/>|GDP_nominal_year=2022|GDP_nominal_rank=112nd|GDP_nominal_per_capita={{increase}}$1,348<ref name=imf2/>|GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank=160th|Gini_year=2015|Gini_change=<!--increase/decrease/steady-->|Gini=57.1 <!--number only-->|Gini_ref=<ref name="wb-gini">{{cite web |url=http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI/ |title=Gini Index |publisher=World Bank |access-date=2 September 2019}}</ref>|Gini_rank=|HDI_year=2021<!-- Please use the year to which the data refers, not the publication year-->|HDI_change=decrease <!--increase/decrease/steady-->|HDI=0.565 <!--number only-->|HDI_ref=<ref name="UNHDR">{{cite book|title=Human Development Report 2020: The Next Frontier: Human Development and the Anthropocene|date=15 December 2020|publisher=United Nations Development Programme|isbn=978-92-1-126442-5|pages=343–346|url=http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/hdr2020.pdf|access-date=16 December 2020}}</ref>|HDI_rank=154th|sovereignty_type=[[History of Zambia|Independence]]|sovereignty_note=from the [[United Kingdom]]|established_event1=[[North-Western Rhodesia]]|established_date1=27 June 1890|established_event2=[[Barotziland-North-Western Rhodesia]]|established_date2=28 November 1899|established_event3=[[North-Eastern Rhodesia]]|established_date3=29 January 1900|established_event4=[[Northern Rhodesia|Amalgamation of Northern Rhodesia]]|established_date4=17 August 1911|established_event5=[[Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland]]|established_date5=1 August 1953|established_event6=[[Zambia Independence Act 1964|Republic of Zambia]]|established_date6=24 October 1964|established_event7=[[Constitution of Zambia|Current constitution]]|established_date7=5 January 2016|currency=[[Zambian kwacha]]|currency_code=ZMW|time_zone=[[Central Africa Time|CAT]]|utc_offset=+2|date_format=dd/mm/yyyy|drives_on=left|calling_code=[[+260]]|cctld=[[.zm]]|today=|date_start=|religion_ref=|religion_year=}}'''Zambia''' ''(Zambiya)'', mwadango '''''Republic ya Zambia''''', ntcharu icho chilije [[nyanja]] icho chili pamphambano ya Central, Southern na [[East Africa]],<ref>{{cite journal|last=Henderson|first=Ian|date=1970|title=The Origins of Nationalism in East and Central Africa: The Zambian Case|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/180923|journal=The Journal of African History|volume=11|issue=4|pages=591–603|doi=10.1017/S0021853700010471|jstor=180923|s2cid=154296266|issn=0021-8537}}</ref> nangauli kanandi ŵanthu ŵakuti chili kumwera kwa [[Africa]] ndipo chili pakatikati.<ref>{{cite web |title=Zambia {{!}} Population, Capital, Language, Flag, & Map {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Zambia |access-date=10 March 2022 |website=www.britannica.com}}</ref>Charu ichi chili na vyaru nga ni [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] kumpoto, [[Tanzania]] kumpoto ca kumafumiro gha dazi, [[Malaŵi|Malawi]] kumafumiro gha dazi, [[Mozambique]] kumwera kwa kumafumiro gha dazi, [[Zimbabwe]] na [[Botswana]] kumwera, [[Namibia]] kumwera ca kumanjiliro gha dazi, na [[Angola]] kumanjiliro gha dazi. Msumba ukuru wa Zambia ni [[Lusaka]]. Ŵanthu awo ŵakukhala mu charu ichi ŵakukwana 20.1 miliyoni (2023) ndipo ŵakukhala chomene mu chigaŵa cha Lusaka kumwera na [[Copperbelt Province]] kumpoto. Pakwamba ŵanthu ŵa ku [[Khoisan]] ndiwo ŵakakhalanga mu chigaŵa ichi. Ŵanthu ŵa ku [[Europe]] ŵakati ŵafika mu caru ici mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800, ŵanthu ŵa ku [[Britain]] ŵakamba kukhala mu vigaŵa ivyo vikaŵa na mafuko 73. Mu 1911, vyaru ivi vikasazgikana na kupanga Northern Rhodesia. Mu nyengo yose iyo charu ichi chikaŵa pasi pa muwuso wa Britain, boma la Zambia likalongozgekanga na ŵanthu awo ŵakimikika kufuma ku [[London]]. Pa Okutobala 24, 1964, Zambia yikajiyimira pawekha ndipo nduna yikuru Kenneth Kaunda ndiyo wakaŵa pulezidenti wakwamba. Gulu la Kaunda la United National Independence Party (UNIP) likalutilira kuwusa kwambira mu 1964 m'paka mu 1991. Kaunda wakawovwira comene pa nkhani ya ndyali, ndipo wakakolerananga comene na boma la United States pakusanga nthowa zakumazgira nkhondo izo zikaŵa ku Southern Rhodesia (Zimbabwe), Angola, na Namibia.<ref>Andy DeRoche, ''Kenneth Kaunda, the United States, and Southern Africa'' (London: Bloomsbury, 2016).</ref> Kufuma mu 1972 kufika mu 1991 Zambia yikaŵa chalo cha chipani chimoza na UNIP nga chipani chimoza pera cha ndyali pasi pa fundo yakuti "Zambia Yimoza, Charu Chimoza" icho chapangika na Kaunda. Mu 1991, [[Frederick Chiluba]] wa Social-Democratic Movement for Multi-Party Democracy ndiyo wakamusankhira Kaunda. Kufuma waka pa nyengo iyi, charu cha Zambia chili na vipani vinandi ndipo ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakulutilira kusintha mazaza mwa mtende. Mu Zambia muli vinthu vinandi ivyo vingawovwira ŵanthu kusanga vyakurya, vyakumera, makuni, maji ghawemi, na malo ghakukolerana.<ref>Karlyn Eckman (FAO, 2007).GENDER MAINSTREAMING IN FORESTRY IN AFRICA ZAMBIA.</ref> In 2010, the [[:en:World_Bank|World Bank]] named Zambia one of the world's fastest economically reformed countries.<ref>Ngoma, Jumbe (18 December 2010). [http://www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2010/12/18/world-bank-president-praises-reforms-zambia-underscores-need-continued-improvements-policy-governance "World Bank President Praises Reforms In Zambia, Underscores Need For Continued Improvements In Policy And Governance"]. World Bank.</ref> Wupu wa Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa ([[COMESA]]) uli ku Lusaka. {{TOC limit|3}} == Kazilo ka zina == Chigaŵa cha Zambia chikachemekanga [[Northern Rhodesia]] kufuma mu 1911 m'paka 1964. Mu Okutobala 1964, charu ichi chikati chafwatuka ku boma la Britain, chikachemeka Zambia. Zina lakuti Zambia lili kufuma ku zina la [[Mlonga wa Zambezi]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Everett-Heath|first1=John|title=The Concise Dictionary of World Place Names|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qgJCDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT1589|publisher=Oxford University Press|date=7 December 2017|isbn=9780192556462}}</ref> == Mbili == {{Main|Mbili ya Zambia}}<!--many paragraphs have no citations--> === Mbili ya nyengo ya chiyamwaka === Ivyo ŵanthu ŵakufukura mu [[Dambo la Zambezi]] na ku [[Kalambo Falls]] vikulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵakamba kukhala mu malo ghakupambanapambana. Vinthu vyakale ivyo ŵakagwiliskiranga nchito pa msasa kufupi na maji gha Kalambo, ŵali kusanga kuti ni vyaka vyakujumpha 36,000. Viwangwa vya munthu wa ku [[Broken Hill]] (uyo wakumanyikwaso na zina lakuti [[Kabwe Man]]) ivyo vikusangika pakati pa vyaka 300,000 na 125,000 [[B.C.E.]], vikulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵakwambilira ndiwo ŵakakhalanga mu malo agha.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Malcolm Southwood, Bruce Cairncross & Mike S. Rumsey|date=2019|title=Minerals of the Kabwe ("Broken Hill") Mine, Central Province, Zambia, Rocks & Minerals|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/00357529.2019.1530038|journal=Rocks & Minerals|volume=94:2|pages=114–149|doi=10.1080/00357529.2019.1530038|s2cid=135446729}}</ref> Munthu wa ku Broken Hill wakasangika ku Zambia mu chigaŵa cha Kabwe. === Khoisan na Batwa === [[File:NsaluCave.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:NsaluCave.jpg|left|thumb|Vinthu vyakale (kweni vili kulembeka pa malibwe) mu mphanji ya Nsalu, ku Kasanka National Park kumpoto kwa Zambia]] Ŵanthu ŵa ku Zambia ŵakakhalanga na ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa [[Khoisan]] na [[Batwa]] m'paka cha m'ma 300 C.E., apo ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Bantu ŵakamba kukhala mu malo agha.<ref>{{cite book|last=Holmes|first=Timothy|title=Cultures of the World: Zambia|publisher=Times Books International|year=1998|isbn=978-0-7614-0694-5|location=Tarrytown, New York|pages=19–20}}</ref> Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakuti ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Khoisan ŵakafuma ku [[East Africa]] ndipo ŵakapharazgika kumwera vyaka 150,000 ivyo vyajumpha. Ŵanthu ŵa kwa Twa ŵakagaŵikana mu magulu ghaŵiri: Kafwe Twa ŵakakhalanga kufupi na Kafue Flats na Lukanga Twa awo ŵakakhalanga kufupi na [[Lukanga Swamp]]. Ŵanthu aŵa ndiwo ŵakalemba vinthu vinandi vyakukhwaskana na malukwa agho ghakaŵako kale chomene ku Zambia, nga ni ivyo ŵakulemba pa malukwa gha [[Mwela]], Mumbwa, na Nachikufu. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Khoisan, chomenechomene ŵa mtundu wa Twa, ŵakakhalanga pamoza na ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Bantu awo ŵakaliskanga viŵeto ku Central na Southern Africa. === The Bantu (Abantu) === Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Bantu panji Bantu (ŵanthu awo ŵakung'anamura ŵanthu) ni ŵanthu ŵanandi chomene ndipo ŵakukhala mu vigaŵa vinandi vya kumafumiro gha dazi, kumwera, na pakati pa Africa. Cifukwa cakuti caru ca Zambia cili pa mphambano ya caru ca [[Central Africa]], [[Southern Africa]], na [[Africa Great Lakes]], ŵanthu ŵa mu caru ici ŵakukhala mu vigaŵa vitatu ivi. Vinthu vinandi ivyo vikacitika mu vigaŵa vitatu ivi vikacitika nyengo yimoza, ntheura mbiri ya Zambia, nga ni vyaru vinandi vya mu Africa, yingalongosoreka makora yayi. Mbiri yakwambilira ya ŵanthu ŵa ku Zambia yikusangika mu mabuku agho ŵanthu ŵakuyowoya pamulomo, ŵakufukura vinthu vyakale, na mu mabuku ghakulembeka, ndipo ghanandi mwa mabuku agha ghakalembeka na ŵanthu awo ŵakaŵa ŵa ku Africa yayi.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Taylor |first1=Scott D. |title=Culture and Customs of Zambia |url=http://www.sahistory.org.za/sites/default/files/file%20uploads%20/scott_d._taylor_culture_and_customs_of_zambia_cbook4you.pdf |access-date=25 March 2018 |publisher=Greenwood Press}}</ref> ==== Bantu origins ==== [[File:Batonga_women.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Batonga_women.png|thumb|Ŵalovi ŵa ku Batonga ku Southern Zambia. Mu vyaru vinandi vya mu Africa, ŵanakazi ŵakucita milimo yakuzirwa comene.]] Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Bantu ŵakukhala kumanjiliro gha dazi na pakati pa Africa. Pakati pa vyaka 4,000 na 3,000 ivyo vyajumpha, ŵanthu ŵakamba kusazgikira mu vyaru vinandi. Ici nchimoza mwa vinthu vikuru comene ivyo ŵanthu ŵakacita. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakuti ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Bantu ndiwo ŵakambiska vyakumera mu vyaru vinandi vya mu Africa. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Bantu ŵakendanga mu nthowa ziŵiri: Yimoza yikafumanga kumafumiro gha dazi na kujumpha mu Congo Basin ndipo yinyake yikafumanga kumafumiro gha dazi na kujumpha mu [[Nyanja zikuru za mu Africa]].<ref>{{cite web |last=Bostoen |first=Koen |date=26 April 2018 |title=The Bantu Expansion |url=https://oxfordre.com/africanhistory/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-191 |access-date=27 October 2020 |website=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History |doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.013.191 |isbn=9780190277734}}</ref> ==== First Bantu settlement ==== Ŵanthu ŵakwambilira ŵa mtundu wa Bantu awo ŵakiza ku Zambia ŵakafuma kumafumiro gha dazi na kwiza ku Africa. Ŵakafika mu vyaka vya m'ma 1000 C.E., ndipo pakati pawo pakaŵa ŵanthu ŵa ku Tonga (ŵakuchemekaso kuti Ba-Tonga, "Ba-" kung'anamura "ŵanandi") na ŵa Ba-Ila na Namwanga, awo ŵakakhalanga kumwera kwa Zambia kufupi na Zimbabwe. Ivyo ŵanthu ŵa ku Ba-Tonga ŵakulemba vikulongora kuti ŵakafuma kumafumiro gha dazi kufupi na "nyanja yikuru". Nyengo yikati yajumphapo, ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Ba-Tumbuka nawo ŵakamba kukhala mu vigaŵa vya kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Zambia na Malawi. Ŵanthu ŵakwambilira aŵa ŵakakhalanga mu mizi yikuruyikuru. Ŵakaŵavya mulongozgi ndipo ŵakateŵeteranga lumoza na kovwirana pakunozga vyakurya. Ŵanthu ŵakasamukanga kanandi waka chifukwa chakuti charu chikamba kunangika chifukwa cha kulima vyakurya. Kweniso ŵanthu aŵa ŵakaŵa na viŵeto vikuruvikuru vya ng'ombe.<ref>{{cite web |date=12 January 2019 |title=Ila |url=https://traditionalzambia.home.blog/tribes-of-zambia/early-bantu-settlers/ila/ |access-date=27 October 2020 |website=Zambia's Traditional History}}</ref> [[File:Great-Zimbabwe-ruins-outer-walls-3-1200.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Great-Zimbabwe-ruins-outer-walls-3-1200.jpg|left|thumb|Vinthu ivyo vikaparanyika ku Great Zimbabwe. Ŵalongozgi ŵa Kalanga/Shona ŵa ufumu uwu ndiwo ŵakendeskanga malonda pa Ingombe Ilede.]] Ŵanthu ŵakwambilira ŵa mtundu wa Bantu ku Zambia ŵakaŵa ŵakujitemwa. Ŵamishonale ŵakwambilira ŵa ku Europe awo ŵakakhazikika kumwera kwa Zambia ŵakamanya kuti ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Bantu ŵakaŵa ŵakujiyimira pawekha. Yumoza wa ŵamishonale aŵa wakati: "Para ŵanthu ŵa ku Tonga ŵakukhumba vilwero vya nkhondo, kuvina, na vya mu nyumba, ŵakuluta ku mapiri na kukumba mpaka ŵasange visulo. Wakusongonora visulo ivi na kupanga nkhwantha, vyakulimira, na vinthu vinyake vyakovwira. Wakotcha makuni na kupanga makala gha makuni. Viŵiya ivyo wakugwiliskira ntchito ni vikumba vya nyama, ndipo viŵiya vyake ni dongo, ndipo viŵiya vyake ni visulo. Wakuwumba, kuwotcha, kupanga, na kucita milimo yose iyo wakucita". Ŵanthu ŵakwambilira awo ŵakakhalanga mu chigaŵa ichi ŵakachitanga malonda pa malo ghakuchemeka Ingombe Ilede (kung'anamura ng'ombe yakugona mu Chi-Tonga chifukwa khuni la baobab likuwoneka nga ni ng'ombe) ku Southern Zambia. Pa malo agha, ŵakakumana na ŵamalonda ŵanandi ŵa Kalanga na Shona ŵakufuma ku Great Zimbabwe kweniso ŵa Swahili ŵakufuma ku East Africa. Ingombe Ilede ndiyo yikaŵa malo ghakuzirwa chomene ghakwendeskera malonda gha mafumu gha ku Zimbabwe, ndipo ghanyake ghakaŵa gha ku Swahili nga ni Sofala. Vinthu ivyo ŵakaguliskanga ku Ingombe Ilede vikaŵa vyakuvwara, mphete, golide, na mabangili. Vinthu vinyake ivi vikafuma ku vigaŵa ivyo sono ni kumwera kwa Democratic Republic of Congo na Kilwa Kisiwani, apo vinyake vikafuma ku India, China, na vyaru vinyake vya ku Arabia..<ref>{{Cite web |title=Origins of trade - Zambia Travel Guide |url=http://www.zambia-travel-guide.com/bradt_guide.asp?bradt=1084 |access-date=28 October 2020 |website=www.zambia-travel-guide.com}}</ref> The African traders were later joined by the Portuguese in the 16th century.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Pikirayi|first=Innocent|date=August 2017|title=Ingombe Ilede and the demise of Great Zimbabwe|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0003598X17000953/type/journal_article|journal=Antiquity|volume=91|issue=358|pages=1085–1086|doi=10.15184/aqy.2017.95|s2cid=158120419|issn=0003-598X}}</ref> Kuchepa kwa ufumu wa Great Zimbabwe, chifukwa cha mpikisano wa malonda kuchokera ku maufumu ena a Kalanga/Shona monga Khami ndi Mutapa, kunatanthauzira kutha kwa Ingombe Ilede.. ==== Second Bantu settlement ==== Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Bantu ndiwo ŵakamba kukhala ku Zambia, ndipo ŵanthu aŵa ŵakaghanaghananga kuti ŵakenda nthowa ya kumanjiliro gha dazi ya ŵanthu ŵa mtundu uwu. Ŵanthu aŵa ŵakakhalanga mu charu icho sono chikuchemeka Democratic Republic of the Congo ndipo ndiwo ŵali kufuma ku ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Zambia.<ref>{{cite web |date=8 August 2019 |title=Luba |url=https://traditionalzambia.home.blog/tribes-of-zambia/second-bantu-invasion/luba/ |access-date=7 November 2020 |website=Zambia's Traditional History}}</ref> Nangauli pali ukaboni wakuti ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Bemba panji AbaBemba ŵali na ubwezi wakukhora na Ufumu wa Kongo kwizira mwa Mwene Kongo VIII Mvemba, kweni palije ukaboni. ===== Luba-Lunda states ===== [[File:Mwata.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mwata.jpg|thumb|Chithuzi cha mulongozgi wa Lunda, Mwata Kazembe, wakupokelera Ŵapwitikizi mu luŵaza lwa ufumu mu ma 1800.]] Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Bemba, pamoza na ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yinyake nga ni Lamba, Bisa, Senga, Kaonde, Swaka, Nkoya na Soli, ndiwo ŵakakhalanga mu Ufumu wa Luba ku Upemba mu Democratic Republic of Congo. Chigaŵa icho Ufumu wa Luba ukakhalanga chikaŵa na ŵalimi ŵakwambilira na ŵantchito ŵa visulo kwambira m'ma 300. Nyengo yikati yajumphapo, ŵanthu aŵa ŵakasambira kugwiliskira nchito mikwawu na vyakuponyera visulo, kupanga maboti, kujura migelo mu mathipa, na kupanga madamu gha mamita 2.5. Ntheura ŵakamba kuguliska somba, mkuwa, visulo, na mchere kuti ŵasange vinthu vyakufuma ku vigaŵa vinyake vya mu Africa, nga ni mumphepete mwa nyanja ya Swahili, kweniso ku Portugal. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1400, ufumu wa Luba ukafuma mu ŵanthu aŵa.<ref name="metmuseum.org">{{Cite web |last=Bortolot |first=Alexander Ives |title=Kingdoms of the Savanna: The Luba and Lunda Empires |url=https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/luba/hd_luba.htm |access-date=7 November 2020 |website=[[Metropolitan Museum of Art]]}}</ref> Ufumu wa Luba ukaŵa ufumu ukuru uwo ukaŵa na boma likuru kweniso mafumu ghachoko waka. Chikaŵa na mawupu ghakurughakuru gha malonda agho ghakakolerananga nkhorongo za mu Congo Basin na mapiri gha ku Copperbelt Province, agho sono ghali na vinthu vinandi. Mu ufumu uwu, ŵanthu ŵakazirwiskanga comene maluso, ndipo ŵantchito nawo ŵakazirwiskikanga comene. Mu Ufumu wa Luba mukaŵa mabuku ghanandi. Nkhani yinyake yakukhwaskana na umo ŵanthu ŵa ku Luba ŵakababikira yikulongosora mphambano iyo yilipo pakati pa mitundu yiŵiri ya mafumu gha ku Luba.{{blockquote|Nkongolo Mwamba, fumu yakufipa, na Ilunga Mbidi Kiluwe, karonga wa mtundu wakufipa. Nkongolo Mwamba ni mwanalume wakuloŵera ndiposo wankhaza, ndipo Ilunga Mbidi Kiluwe ni karonga muwemi ndiposo wakuzika. Nkongolo the Red ni munthu wambura nkharo, munthu uyo wakurya pa wumba, wakuloŵera, ndipo wakumanya yayi kujikora, apo Mbidi Kiluwe ni munthu wakujivikilira, wakutemwa nkharo yiwemi; wakurya yayi pa wumba, wakulamulira kayowoyero kake na kacitiro kake, ndipo wakujipatura ku makhaliro ghaheni gha ŵanthu bweka. Nkongolo Mwamba wakwimira nkhaza, apo Mbidi Kiluwe wakulutilira kuŵa munthu wacitemwa ndiposo walusungu.<ref>{{cite web|title=Luba {{!}} people|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Luba-people|access-date=7 November 2020|website=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref>}} [[File:Lunda_houses-1854.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lunda_houses-1854.jpg|left|thumb|A drawing of [[:en:Lunda_people|Lunda]] houses by a Portuguese visitor. The size of the doorways relative to the building emphasizes the scale of the buildings.]] Mu chigaŵa chenechicho cha kumwera kwa Congo ŵanthu ŵa Lunda ŵakazgoka chigaŵa cha ufumu wa Luba ndipo ŵakamba kulondezga mitheto ya ŵanthu ŵa Luba. Mwakuyana na nthano za Lunda, Chibinda Ilunga, mwana wa Ilunga Mbidi Kiluwe, uyo wakaŵa mulwani wa ŵanthu ŵa ku Luba, wakambiska ndondomeko ya boma ya ŵanthu ŵa ku Lunda mu 1600 apo wakatora Lueji. Ŵalongozgi ŵanandi awo ŵakayowoyanga kuti ŵali kufuma ku ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Luba, ŵakaŵa mu ufumu wa Luba. Ndipouli, mafumu gha Lunda ghakaŵa ghakupambana na mafumu ghanyake ndipo ghakalutilira kuthereska ŵanthu ŵa mu chigaŵa ichi.<ref name="metmuseum.org" /> Lunda, nga ni boma la Luba, nalo likaguliskanga vinthu mu nyanja za Atlantic na Indian Ocean. Apo muwusi Mwaant Yaav Naweej wakambiska nthowa zakwendera ku nyanja ya Atlantic ndipo wakambiska kukolerana na ŵamalonda ŵa ku Europe awo ŵakakhumbanga ŵazga na vyakurya vya mu nkhorongo.<ref name="metmuseum.org" /> Vyaru vya Luba-Lunda vikamara chifukwa cha malonda gha ŵazga gha ku Atlantic kumanjiliro gha dazi na ku Indian Ocean kumafumiro gha dazi. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Chokwe, awo ŵakakolerananga chomene na ŵa Luvale ndipo ŵakakhalanga ku Lunda, ŵakasuzgikanga na ŵazga awo ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe ŵakakhumbanga. Kweni ŵakati ŵafumako ku Lunda, iwo ŵakamba kuguliska ŵazga ku vyaru vyose viŵiri. Paumaliro Ŵachokwe ŵakathereskeka na ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yinyake kweniso Ŵapwitikizi. Ivi vikapangiska kuti ufumu wa Luba-Lunda uparanyike ndipo ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakafumako ku Democratic Republic of the Congo kuluta ku vigaŵa vyakupambanapambana vya Zambia. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Zambia ŵali kufuma ku mbumba ya Luba-Lunda na ku vyaru vinyake vya ku Central Africa.<ref>{{cite web |date=8 August 2019 |title=Luba |url=https://traditionalzambia.home.blog/tribes-of-zambia/second-bantu-invasion/luba/ |access-date=30 November 2020 |website=Zambia's Traditional History}}</ref> ===== The Maravi Confederacy ===== Mu ma 1200, pambere boma la Luba-Lunda lindambe, ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Bantu ŵakamba kusama kufuma ku Congo kuya ku nyanja ya Mweru. Ŵanthu aŵa ŵakagomezganga kuti ŵakaŵa ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga ku Upemba, Democratic Republic of Congo. Kuzakafika m'ma 1400, magulu agha ghakacemekanga kuti Maravi, ndipo ŵanthu ŵakumanyikwa comene ŵakaŵa ŵa Chewa (Achewa), awo ŵakamba kusangana na ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Bantu nga mba Tumbuka.<ref name="Team">{{cite web |last=Team |first=Editorial |date=26 December 2018 |title=The Maravi Confederacy |url=https://thinkafrica.net/maravi-confederacy/ |access-date=13 December 2020 |website=Think Africa}}</ref> [[File:Kalonga.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kalonga.jpg|left|thumb|The kalonga (ruler) of the [[:en:Chewa_people|AChewa]] today descends from the kalonga of the Maravi Empire.]] Mu 1480 Ufumu wa Maravi ukakhazikiskika na kalonga (mkulu wa Maravi) wa fuko la Phiri, limoza mwa mafuko ghakurughakuru. Ufumu wa Maravi ukaŵa kufuma ku nyanja ya Indian Ocean na kujumpha mu charu icho sono ni Mozambique m'paka ku Zambia na vigaŵa vinandi vya Malawi. Gulu la ndyali la ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Maravi likaŵa nga ni gulu la ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Luba. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Maravi ŵakendanga na mino gha zovu ndipo ŵakaghaguliskanga ku ŵanthu ŵa ku Swahili. Kweniso ŵakacitanga na kutumizga visulo. Mu 1590 C.E., Ŵapwitikizi ŵakayezgayezga kuti ŵajikorenge malonda gha ku Maravi. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Maravi ku Lundu ŵakakwiya chomene na ivyo ŵakachita. Ŵa WaZimba ŵakathereska matawuni gha Tete, Sena, na matawuni ghanyake gha ku Portugal. Ŵanthu ŵakugomezga kuti Ŵamaravi ŵakiza na mitheto iyo yikazgoka gulu lakubisika la Nyau kufuma ku Upemba. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Nyau ndiwo ŵakulondezga chisopa cha ŵanthu ŵa ku Maravi. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Nyau ŵakutemwa kuvina na masks. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Maravi ŵakamba kusuzgika cifukwa ca mphindano za umo ŵakakhalira mu ufumu, kuwukira kwa Ŵangoni, na kuwukira kwa ŵazga kufuma ku Yao.<ref name="thinkafrica.net">{{cite web |last=Team |first=Editorial |date=26 December 2018 |title=The Maravi Confederacy |url=https://thinkafrica.net/maravi-confederacy/ |access-date=14 December 2020 |website=Think Africa}}</ref> ===== Mutapa Empire and Mfecane ===== [[File:Ngoni_Chiefs.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ngoni_Chiefs.jpg|thumb|Three young [[:en:Ngoni_people|Ngoni]] chiefs. The Ngoni made their way into [[:en:Eastern_Province,_Zambia|Eastern Zambia]] from [[:en:KwaZulu-Natal|KwaZulu]] in South Africa. They eventually assimilated into the local ethnic groups.]] Apo Ufumu wa Zimbabwe ukaŵa pafupi kumara, yumoza wa ŵakaronga ŵa charu ichi, Nyatsimba Mutota, wakafumamo mu ufumu uwu na kupanga ufumu uphya wakuchemeka Mutapa. Mwene Mutapa, kung'anamura "Wakupankhura Vyaru", ndiyo wakapika zina ili pamoza na mafumu ghanyake agho ghakiza pamanyuma pake. Ufumu wa Mutapa ukaŵa pakati pa milonga ya Zambezi na Limpopo, mu charu icho sono chikuchemeka Zambia, Zimbabwe, na Mozambique. Apo Mutapa wakaŵa na mazaza ghakuru, wakaŵa kuti wapoka chigaŵa cha Dande ku Tonga na Tavara. Ufumu wa Mutapa ukaguliskanga vinthu mu nyanja ya Indian Ocean na ŵanthu ŵa ku Swahili. Ŵakatumanga golide na njovu ku vyaru vinyake kuti ŵazakapokere silika na vinthu vinyake vya ku Asia.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mutapa |url=https://www.worldhistory.org/Mutapa/ |access-date=31 December 2020 |website=World History Encyclopedia}}</ref> Nga umo vikaŵira na ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵakakhalanga ku Maravi, Mutapa nayo wakasuzgika na ŵamalonda ŵa ku Portugal. Ubwezi wawo ukafika pachanya apo Ŵapwitikizi ŵakayezga kuti ŵajinthe vinthu mu ufumu wawo mwa kupanga misika na kuzgora ŵanthu kuŵa Ŵakhristu. Ici cikakwiyiska comene Ŵasilamu ŵa ku Swahili awo ŵakakhalanga mu msumba wa msumba uwu, ndipo ici cikapangiska kuti Ŵapwitikizi ŵambe kuwukira ufumu uwu na kuwukira migodi ya golide na misewu ya njovu. Ŵapwitikizi ŵakathera chifukwa cha matenda agho ghakawira mu mlonga wa Zambezi. Mu ma 1600, Mutapa wakamba kunangika cifukwa ca mphindano na nkhondo za mukati. Paumaliro, Ŵapwitikizi ŵakathereska ufumu uwu, ndipo pamasinda ŵakarwa nawo. Kweniso Ŵapwitikizi ŵakaŵa na malo ghakurughakuru ghakuchemeka Prazos. Ŵakaŵasambizganga umo ŵangacitira nkhondo na kuŵapa vilwero. Ŵanalume aŵa ŵakaŵa ŵalwani ŵa njovu ndipo ŵakamanyikwanga na zina lakuti Chikunda. Ŵakati ŵamara kuwusa, Ŵachikunda ŵakaluta ku Zambia.<ref>{{cite web |date=11 January 2019 |title=Chikunda |url=https://traditionalzambia.home.blog/tribes-of-zambia/mozambique/chikunda/ |access-date=12 January 2021 |website=Zambia's Traditional History}}</ref> [[File:Litunga.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Litunga.jpg|left|thumb|Inside the palace of the [[:en:Litunga|Litunga]], ruler of the Lozi. Due to the flooding on the Zambezi, the Litunga has two palaces one of which is on higher ground. The movement of Litunga to higher land is celebrated at the [[:en:Kuomboka|Kuomboka]] Ceremony.]] Julian Cobbing wakayowoya kuti ŵanthu ŵakwambilira ŵa ku Europe awo ŵakaguliskanga ŵazga kweniso awo ŵakayezganga kuti ŵajikorenge vinthu mu vigaŵa vyakupambanapambana vya mu Africa, ndiwo ŵakambiska nkhondo. Ici tingaciwona na mtundu wa nkhondo wa WaZimba wa Ŵamaravi, awo ŵakati ŵathereska Ŵapwitikizi, ŵakalutilira kuŵa ŵankhondo. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Portugal ndiwo ŵakapangiska kuti Ufumu wa Rozvi, uwo ukaŵa wa Mutapa, uŵeko. Mulongozgi wa mafuko gha Rozvi, Changamire Dombo, wakaŵa yumoza wa ŵalongozgi ŵankhongono comene mu South-Central Africa. Mu muwuso wake, ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Rozvi ŵakathereska Ŵapwitikizi na kuŵachimbizga ku malo agho ŵakaguliskiranga vinthu mumphepete mwa mlonga wa Zambezi.<ref>{{cite web |title=Rozwi {{!}} historical state, Africa |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Rozwi-historical-state-Africa |access-date=2 January 2021 |website=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref> Kweni ciyelezgero cakumanyikwa comene pa nkhani iyi nchakuti Ŵazulu ŵakamba kulamulira na Shaka. Ŵanthu ŵa ku England awo ŵakakhalanga ku Cape ŵakamba kuŵasuzga chomene ndipo Ŵazulu ŵakamba kuŵa ŵankhondo. Ŵazulu ŵakalutilira kuthandazgika mwa kupoka ŵanakazi na ŵana ŵa mafuko agho ŵakathereska. Usange ŵanalume ŵa mafuko agha ŵakapona ku nkhondo, ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito nthowa za Ŵazulu kuti ŵawukire mafuko ghanyake. Ivi vikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵafumemo mu vikaya vyawo, nkhondo na kuwukira mu vyaru vya kumwera, pakati na kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Africa. Ŵanguni awo ŵakalongozgekanga na Zwagendaba ŵakambuka mlonga wa Zambezi kulazga kumpoto. Ŵangoni ndiwo ŵakakoma ufumu wa Maravi uwo ukaŵa kuti wanangika kale. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa mtundu wa Nguni ŵakamba kukhala mu vigaŵa ivyo sono ni Zambia, Malawi, Mozambique, na Tanzania. Ku Western Zambia, gulu linyake la ŵanthu ŵa ku South Africa ŵakufuma mu fuko la Sotho-Tswana ŵakuchemeka Kololo, ŵakathereska ŵanthu ŵa mu charu ichi awo ŵakafuma mu vigaŵa vya Luba na Lunda. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Luyana ŵakakhazikiska ufumu wa Barotse pa malo agho mukaŵa maji gha Zambezi ŵakati ŵafika kufuma ku Katanga. Mu nyengo ya Kololo, ŵanthu ŵa ku Luyana ŵakamba kuyowoya chiyowoyero cha Kololo m'paka apo ŵanthu ŵa ku Luyana ŵakagalukira na kuwiskira pasi Ŵakololo. Paumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1800, Ŵambunda ŵanyake ŵakasamukira ku Barotseland, Mongu.<ref>'' The elites of Barotseland, 1878–1969: a political history of Zambia's Western Province'': a. Gerald L. Caplan, C. Hurst & Co Publishers Ltd, 1970, {{ISBN|0900966386}}</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20140411045127/http://www.bantu-languages.com/fr/zonek.html Bantu-Languages.com], citing Maniacky 1997</ref> Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Aluyi na mulongozgi wawo, Litunga Mulambwa, ŵakazirwiskanga comene Mbunda cifukwa ca luso lwawo lwa kurwa nkhondo. Kuumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1800, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Zambia ŵakamba kukhala mu vigaŵa ivyo ŵakukhala sono. === Colonial Period === ==== Europeans ==== [[File:David Livingstone by Thomas Annan.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:David Livingstone by Thomas Annan.jpg|thumb|An 1864 photograph of the Scottish explorer and missionary [[:en:David_Livingstone|David Livingstone]]]] Yumoza wa ŵanthu ŵakwambilira ŵa ku Europe awo ŵakaluta ku malo agha wakaŵa Francisco de Lacerda wa ku Portugal. Lacerda wakalongozga ulendo kufuma ku Mozambique kuya ku Kazembe ku Zambia (uyo wakakhumbanga kuwona na kwambuka kumwera kwa Africa kufuma ku nyanja yimoza m'paka ku yinyake kakwamba), ndipo wakafwa pa ulendo uwu mu 1798. Kufuma pa nyengo iyi, mubwezi wake Francisco Pinto ndiyo wakalongozganga ulendo uwu. Chigaŵa ichi chikaŵa pakati pa Mozambique na Angola. Mu ma 1800, ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakufuma ku Europe nawo ŵakiza. Yumoza wawo wakaŵa David Livingstone, uyo wakakhumbanga kuti ŵanthu ŵaleke kuguliska ŵazga. Wakaŵa yumoza wa ŵanthu ŵakwambilira ku Europe kuwona maji ghakunyang'amira gha mu Mlonga wa Zambezi mu 1855. Wakalongosora kuti: "Ŵangelo ŵakwenera kuti ŵakawonanga vinthu viwemi comene apo ŵakachimbiranga". Ku malo agha, maji agha ghakucemeka "Mosi-o-Tunya" panji "musi wakugolera" mu ciyowoyero ca Lozi panji Kololo. Tawuni ya Livingstone, kufupi na maji gha Falls, yili na zina lake. Nkhani za maulendo ghake izo zikaŵa zakumanyikwa comene zikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Europe, ŵamishonale na ŵamalonda ŵize ku malo agha. British South Africa Company Mu 1888, British South Africa Company (BSA Company), yakulongozgeka na Cecil Rhodes, yikapokera wanangwa wa migodi kufuma ku Litunga wa ŵanthu ŵa ku Lozi, Mulara Mulara wa ku Lozi (Ba-rotse) mu chigaŵa icho pamasinda chikazgoka Barotziland-North-Western Rhodesia.<ref name="livingstone">{{cite web |author=Livingstone Tourism Association |title=Destination:Zambia&nbsp;– History and Culture |url=http://www.livingstonetourism.com/pages/history.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071012153527/http://livingstonetourism.com/pages/history.htm |archive-date=12 October 2007 |access-date=29 October 2007}}</ref> Ku chigaŵa cha kumafumiro gha dazi, mu Disembala 1897 gulu la ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Angoni panji Ngoni (awo ŵakafuma ku Zululand) ŵakagalukira Tsinco, mwana wa Themba Mpezeni, kweni ŵakathereskeka. Cigaŵa ici cikacemekanga Rhodesia wa kumpoto ca kumafumiro gha dazi. Mu 1895, Rhodes wakapempha Frederick Russell Burnham, uyo wakaŵa wakuwona vya charu cha America, kuti wapenje tumaji na nthowa zakwendeskera milonga mu chigaŵa ichi.<ref name="burnham1899">{{cite book|last=Burnham|first=Frederick Russell|author-link=Frederick Russell Burnham|editor-first=Walter H.|editor-last=Wills|title=Bulawayo Up-to-date; Being a General Sketch of Rhodesia|publisher=Simpkin, Marshall, Hamilton, Kent & Co.|year=1899|pages=177–180|chapter=Northern Rhodesia|title-link=s:Northern Rhodesia}}</ref> North-Eastern Rhodesia na Barotziland-North-Western Rhodesia ghakaŵa vyaru vyakupambanapambana m'paka mu 1911, apo vikasazgikana na kupanga Northern Rhodesia, boma la Britain. Mu 1923, kampani ya BSA yikapeleka mazaza gha kumpoto kwa Rhodesia ku boma la Britain pamasinda pakuti boma la Britain likakana kuwezgerapo chikalata cha kampani iyi. ==== British colonisation ==== Mu 1923, charu cha Southern Rhodesia (sono ni Zimbabwe), icho chikaŵa pasi pa boma la Britain, chikaŵa pasi pa boma la Britain. Mu 1924, pamanyuma pa kudumbiskana, boma la Northern Rhodesia likasamira ku British Colonial Office. ===== Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland ===== Mu 1953, boma la Rhodesia na Nyasaland likapangiska kuti Northern Rhodesia, Southern Rhodesia, na Nyasaland (lero ni Malawi) viŵe chigaŵa chimoza. Ivi vikacitika nangauli ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakasuskanga, ndipo ŵakalongosora kuti ŵakususka mu 1960-61. Ku Northern Rhodesia ndiko kukaŵa masuzgo ghanandi agho ghakaŵapo mu vyaka vyaumaliro. Pakwamba, chipani cha African National Congress (ANC) cha Harry Nkumbula ndicho chikalongozganga kampeni iyi, ndipo pamasinda chipani cha United National Independence Party (UNIP) cha Kenneth Kaunda ndicho chikamba. === Independence === [[File:Zambia123f.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Zambia123f.jpg|thumb|[[:en:Kenneth_David_Kaunda|Kenneth Kaunda]], first Republican president, on a state visit to [[:en:Socialist_Republic_of_Romania|Romania]] in 1970]] Pa vigaŵa viŵiri, mu Okutobala na Disembala 1962, pakaŵa mavoti ghanandi gha ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa mu wupu wakulamulira. {{cn|date=February 2023}} Boma ili likamara pa 31 Disembala 1963, ndipo mu Janyuwale 1964, Kaunda wakathereska pa chisankho cha pera cha Prime Minister wa Northern Rhodesia. Kaunda wakaŵa paubwezi wakukhora na kazembe wa vigaŵa, Evelyn Hone. Pakati pajumpha nyengo yichoko waka, ku mpoto kwa charu kukawuka chigaluka chakuchemeka Lumpa Uprising icho chikaŵa na Alice Lenshina. Northern Rhodesia yikazgoka Republic of Zambia pa 24 Okutobala 1964, ndipo Kenneth Kaunda ndiyo wakaŵa purezidenti wakwamba. Apo Zambia wakapokera wanangwa wake, wakaŵa na masuzgo ghanandi. Pa caru cose, pakaŵa ŵanthu ŵacoko waka ŵa ku Zambia awo ŵakasambizgika makora ndipo ŵakaŵa ŵakwenelera kwendeska boma. John Willson ndiyo wakawovwirapo. Mu 1964, ku Zambia kukaŵa ŵanthu ŵakufuma ku vyaru vinyake ŵakujumpha 70,000, ndipo ŵakalutilira kuŵa na nchito yikuru comene.<ref name="Zambia">[http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/october/25/newsid_2658000/2658325.stm 1964: President Kaunda takes power in Zambia]. [[BBC]] 'On This Day'.</ref> === Post-independence === Kaunda wakawovwira ŵasilikari ŵa Patriotic Front kuti ŵanjire mu charu cha Rhodesia, ndipo ichi chikapangiska kuti paŵe masuzgo gha ndyali. Malo ghakuzenga magesi gha Kariba agho ghali pa Mlonga wa Zambezi ghakaŵa na magesi ghakukwana kuti charu chiŵe na magesi nangauli charu cha Rhodesia ndicho chikaŵa na magesi agha. Nkhondo ya ku Rhodesia mu 1965 yikakhwaska vyaru ivyo vikaŵa paubwezi na ŵandyali. Pa 3 Seputembala 1978, ndege ya ŵanthu wose, ndege ya Air Rhodesia Flight 825, yikadumulika kufupi na Kariba na Zimbabwe People's Revolutionary Army (ZIPRA). Ŵanthu 18, kusazgapo ŵana, ŵakapona pa ngozi iyi kweni ŵanandi ŵakakomeka na ŵasilikari ŵa Zimbabwe African People's Union (ZAPU) awo ŵakalongozgekanga na Joshua Nkomo. Rhodesia yikazgora na Operation Gatling, kuwukira maboma gha Nkomo mu Zambia, chomene ku likuru lake la ŵasilikari kufupi na Lusaka. Pa zuŵa lenelili, maofesi ghanyake ghaŵiri mu Zambia ghakaŵawukira na vilwero vya nkhondo vya mu mlengalenga na vya ŵasilikari ŵa ku malo agha.<ref>{{cite web |title=GREEN LEADER. OPERATION GATLING, THE RHODESIAN MILITARY'S RESPONSE TO THE VISCOUNT TRAGEDY |url=http://www.helion.co.uk/new-and-forthcoming-titles/green-leader-operation-gatling-the-rhodesian-military-s-response-to-the-viscount-tragedy.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170125155440/http://www.helion.co.uk/new-and-forthcoming-titles/green-leader-operation-gatling-the-rhodesian-military-s-response-to-the-viscount-tragedy.html |archive-date=25 January 2017 |access-date=22 April 2017}}</ref> Njanji yakuya ku Dar es Salaam ku Tanzania, iyo yikamara kuzengeka mu 1975 na wovwiri wa ku China, yikawovwira kuti Zambia yileke kuthemba njanji iyo yikendanga kumwera kwa South Africa na kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Angola. M'paka apo njanji iyi yikamalira, nthowa yikuru ya ku Zambia yakwendeskera katundu wakunjira na kufuma ku vyaru vinyake yikaŵa mu nthowa ya TanZam Road, iyo yikendanga kufuma ku Zambia kuya ku misumba ya ku Tanzania. Kweniso ŵakanozga nthowa yakufumiskira mafuta ya Tazama kufuma ku Dar es Salaam kuluta ku Ndola ku Zambia. Kuumaliro wa m'ma 1970, Mozambique na Angola vikafwatuka ku Portugal. Boma la ku Rhodesia ilo likaŵa na ŵanthu ŵatuŵa, likapeleka chikalata cha kujithemba mu 1965, ndipo likakolerana na ivyo chikalembeka mu 1979 mu phangano la Lancaster House. Nkhondo ya pawenenawene iyo yikacitika mu vyaru vyose ivyo vikaŵa pasi pa boma la Portugal kweniso nkhondo ya wanangwa ya ku Namibia, yikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵafume mu vyaru ivi. Msewu wa njanji wa Benguela, uwo ukajumphanga kumanjiliro gha dazi kujumpha mu Angola, ukajalika ku Zambia kuumaliro wa ma 1970. Boma la Zambia likapeleka wovwiri ku gulu lakulimbana na apartheid nga ni African National Congress (ANC).<ref>{{cite journal|author=Evans, M.|title=The Front-Line States, South Africa and Southern African Security: Military Prospects and Perspectives|url=http://archive.lib.msu.edu/DMC/African%20Journals/pdfs/Journal%20of%20the%20University%20of%20Zimbabwe/vol12n1/juz012001002.pdf|page=1|journal=Zambezia|year=1984|volume=12}}</ref> ==== Economic troubles ==== Pakati pa ma 1970, mtengo wa mkuwa, uwo ni usambazi ukuru wa ku Zambia, ukakhira comene pa caru cose. Mu Zambia, ndalama izo ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito pakuguliska mkuwa mu malo ghatali zikaŵa zinandi. Zambia wakaluta ku vyaru vinyake na ku vyaru vinyake kukapempha wovwiri, kweni cifukwa cakuti mtengo wa mkuŵa ukakhala waka pacoko, cikaŵa cakusuzga kuti wapeleke ngongoli yake. Kuzakafika pakati pa ma 1990, nangauli ngongoli yikaŵa yakukwana yayi, kweni ngongoli ya Zambia yikaŵa yitali comene pa caru cose.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Zambia (12/08) |url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/outofdate/bgn/zambia/102331.htm |access-date=27 May 2020 |website=U.S. Department of State}}</ref> ==== Democratisation ==== Mu Juni 1990, vivulupi vya ku Kaunda vikakura comene. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakakomeka na boma mu Juni 1990.<ref>{{Cite web |date=20 May 2020 |title=About Zambia |url=http://www.psp-ltd.com/zam_stat_eng.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160509233410/http://psp-ltd.com/zam_stat_eng.htm |archive-date=9 May 2016 |access-date=20 May 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bartlett|first=David M. C.|date=2000|title=Civil Society and Democracy: A Zambian Case Study|url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/2637411|journal=Journal of Southern African Studies|volume=26|issue=3|pages=429–446|doi=10.1080/030570700750019655|jstor=2637411|s2cid=143480603|issn=0305-7070}}</ref> Mu 1990 Kaunda wakapona ku chiyezgo cha kuwukira boma, ndipo mu 1991 wakazomera kuwezgerapo demokilase ya vyaru vinandi, wati wakhazikiska boma la chipani chimoza pasi pa Chona Commission ya 1972. Pa mavoti gha vyaru vinandi, Kaunda wakafumiskika pa udindo wake (wonani pasi apa). Pa Disembala 30, 1991, pa ciphikiro cinyake, Frederick Chiluba, pulezidenti muphya wa caru ici, wakapharazga kuti Zambia ni caru ca Cikristu. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 2000, chuma chikakhazikika, ndipo mu 2006 na 2007, chiŵelengero cha ndalama chikakwera chomene. Vinthu vinandi ivyo vikapangiska kuti charu ichi chikure ni ndalama izo ŵanthu ŵakufuma ku vyaru vinyake ŵakuguliska mu migodi kweniso chifukwa cha kukwera kwa mtengo wa mkuwa pa charu chose. Vyose ivi vikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵa mu Zambia ŵambe kukondwa na wovwiri uwo ŵapeleka. Pa 20 Janyuwale 2015, pamanyuma pa nyifwa ya Michael Sata, Edgar Lungu wakathereska mavoti 807,625. == Vya ndale == {{Main|Politics of Zambia}} [[File:Zambia_National_Assembly_Building.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Zambia_National_Assembly_Building.jpg|thumb|Zambia National Assembly building in [[:en:Lusaka|Lusaka]]]] Ndyali mu Zambia zikuchitika mu ndondomeko ya presidental representative democratic republic, apo President wa Zambia ni mutu wa boma na mutu wa boma mu ndondomeko ya vyaru vinandi. Boma ndilo lili na mazaza ghakulongozga, ndipo boma na nyumba ya malango ndivyo vili na mazaza. Mu Okutobala 1964, charu cha Zambia chikamba kujiyimira paŵekha. Kufuma mu 2011 mpaka 2014, pulezidenti wa Zambia wakaŵa Michael Sata, mpaka apo Sata wakafwira pa 28 Okutobala 2014. Pamanyuma pa nyifwa ya Sata, Vice President Guy Scott, wa ku Zambia uyo wakafuma ku Scotland, ndiyo wakaŵa President wa Zambia. Pa 22 January 2015, ŵakachita chisankho cha pulezidenti. Pa 24 January 2015, wakapharazga kuti Edgar Chagwa Lungu watonda pa chisankho kuti waŵe purezidenti wa 6. Wakawina mavoti 48.33% ndipo wakuluska Hakainde Hichilema uyo wakaŵa pafupi nayo pa 46.67%.<ref>[https://news.yahoo.com/defence-minister-edgar-lungu-wins-zambia-vote-203552285.html Defence Minister Lungu wins Zambia's disputed presidential race]. ''Associated Press'' via ''Yahoo News''. 24 January 2015</ref> Ŵanyake 9 wose ŵakapokera pacoko waka pa 1 peresenti. Mu Ogasiti 2016 pa mavoti gha chalo cha Zambia, pulezidenti Edgar Lungu wakathereskeka mu chigaŵa chakwamba. Chipani chakususka chikaŵa na milandu ya upusikizgi ndipo chipani cha Patriotic Front (PF) chikakana ivyo chipani cha UPND chikayowoya. Mu mavoti gha 2021 agho ghakaŵa na ŵanthu 70%, Hakainde Hichilema wakapokera 59% ya mavoti, apo mulwani wake wapamtima, pulezidenti Edgar Chagwa Lungu, wakapokera 39% ya mavoti. Pa 16 August Edgar Lungu wakazomera mu mazgu gha pa TV, kutuma kalata na kuwonga pulezidenti wakusankhika Hakainde Hichilema. Pa 24 Ogasiti 2021, Hakainde Hichilema wakalapizga kuŵa purezidenti muphya wa Zambia pa chiphikiro icho chikaŵapo na ŵalongozgi ŵanandi ŵa vyaru kusazgapo mulongozgi wa Commonwealth icho chikachitikira ku Heroes Stadium mu msumba wa Lusaka.<ref>{{cite web |date=24 August 2021 |title=HH SWORN-IN AS ZAMBIAN PRESIDENT ~ |url=https://www.znbc.co.zm/news/hh-sworn-in-as-zambian-president/ |access-date=24 February 2022}}</ref> === Ubale na vyaru vinyake === {{Further|Foreign relations of Zambia}} [[File:Vladimir_Putin_and_Edgar_Lungu,_26_july_2018_(2).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Vladimir_Putin_and_Edgar_Lungu,_26_july_2018_(2).jpg|thumb|President [[:en:Edgar_Lungu|Edgar Lungu]] with Russian President [[:en:Vladimir_Putin|Vladimir Putin]], 26 July 2018]] Pamanyuma pa kujithemba mu 1964, vyalo vya ku Zambia vikaŵa vyakukhora chomene pakuwovwira maboma gha ku Southern Africa, nga African National Congress na SWAPO. Pa nyengo ya Nkhondo Yakuzizima, Zambia wakaŵa mu gulu la ŵanthu ŵambura kukolerana. === Military === {{main|Zambian Defence Force}} Wupu wa Zambia Defence Force (ZDF) uli na ŵasilikari ŵa Zambia Army (ZA), Zambia Air Force (ZAF), na Zambia National Service (ZNS). ZDF yili kupangika kuti yikhozge nkhondo. Mu chaka cha 2019, Zambia yikasaina phangano la UN lakukanizga vilwero vya nyukiliya.<ref>{{Cite web |date=7 July 2017 |title=Chapter XXVI: Disarmament&nbsp;– No. 9 Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons |url=https://treaties.un.org/Pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=TREATY&mtdsg_no=XXVI-9&chapter=26&clang=_en |publisher=United Nations Treaty Collection}}</ref> === Administrative divisions === {{Further|Provinces of Zambia}}{{Regions of Zambia Labelled Map}}Boma la Zambia lili kugaŵika vigaŵa 10 mu vigaŵa 116, na vigaŵa 156 na vigaŵa 1,281. ; Provinces # [[:en:Central_Province,_Zambia|Central Province]] # [[:en:Copperbelt_Province|Copperbelt]] # [[:en:Eastern_Province,_Zambia|Eastern Province]] # [[:en:Luapula_Province|Luapula]] # [[:en:Lusaka_Province|Lusaka]] # [[:en:Muchinga_Province,_Zambia|Muchinga]] # [[:en:North-Western_Province,_Zambia|North-Western Province]] # [[:en:Northern_Province,_Zambia|Northern Province]] # [[:en:Southern_Province,_Zambia|Southern Province]] # [[:en:Western_Province,_Zambia|Western Province]] === Human rights === {{See also|Human rights in Zambia|LGBT rights in Zambia}} Boma likujipulika makora para ŵanthu ŵakususka panji kuŵasuska, ndipo likuchitapo kanthu mwaluŵiro pakususka awo ŵakuŵasuska. Malango ghakususkana na ŵanthu ghakovwira kuti ŵanthu ŵaleke kuyowoya mwakufwatuka kweniso kuti ŵaleke kulemba nkhani.<ref>[https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/drl/rls/hrrpt/humanrightsreport/index.htm?year=2012&dlid=204181 "Zambia"], ''Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 2012'', Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor, U.S. Department of State, 22 March 2013.</ref> Ku Zambia, ŵanalume na ŵanakazi ŵekhaŵekha ŵakugonana yayi.<ref>{{cite web |date=17 May 2016 |title=State Sponsored Homophobia 2016: A world survey of sexual orientation laws: criminalisation, protection and recognition |url=http://ilga.org/downloads/02_ILGA_State_Sponsored_Homophobia_2016_ENG_WEB_150516.pdf |website=[[International Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Trans and Intersex Association]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|first=Daniel|last=Avery|title=71 Countries Where Homosexuality is Illegal|url=https://www.newsweek.com/73-countries-where-its-illegal-be-gay-1385974|work=Newsweek|date=4 April 2019}}</ref> Kafukufuku uyo wakacitika mu 2010, wakalongora kuti pa ŵanthu ŵa mu Zambia, 2 pera ndiwo ŵakuwona kuti kugonana ŵanalume panji ŵanakazi ŵekhaŵekha nkhwakuzomerezgeka.<ref>{{cite web |title=Biggest Ever Studies on Attitudes to Religion and Morality in Africa Released |url=http://www.newstimeafrica.com/archives/11763 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140407070152/http://www.newstimeafrica.com/archives/11763 |archive-date=7 April 2014 |publisher=Newstime Africa}}</ref> Mu Disembala 2019, vikayowoyeka kuti kazembe wa United States ku Zambia Daniel Lewis Foote "wakakhuŵara chomene" chifukwa cha kukakika kwa Japhet Chataba na Steven Samba. Foote wakapempha boma la Zambia kuti liwoneso mulandu uwu kweniso malango agho ghakukanizga kugonana kwa ŵanalume panji ŵanakazi pera. Foote wakasuzgika chomene ndipo wakaleka kuwonekera pa wumba chifukwa cha kuthaskika pa social media.<ref>{{cite web |date=24 December 2019 |title=US recalls ambassador to Zambia after gay rights row |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-50901537 |website=BBC News}}</ref> == Makhalilo gha charu == {{Main|Malo gha Zambia|Geology of Zambia}} [[File:Koppen-Geiger_Map_ZMB_present.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Koppen-Geiger_Map_ZMB_present.svg|thumb|Zambia map of Köppen climate classification]] Charu cha Zambia chili kumwera kwa Africa, ndipo chili na mphepo yakotcha. Ili na malo ghakukwana 290,587 sq mi ndipo ni caru ca nambara 38 pa vyaru vikuruvikuru pa caru cose, ndipo ni cicoko comene kuluska Turkey. Charu ichi chili pakati pa latitude 8° na 18°S, na longitude 22° na 34°E. Mu Zambia muli milonga yikuruyikuru yiŵiri: Yachiŵiri ni ya Zambezi na Kafue iyo yili pakati, kumanjiliro gha dazi, na kumwera. Chigaŵa chichoko chomene cha kumpoto cha kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Nyanja ya Rukwa, ku Tanzania. Mu chigaŵa cha Zambezi, muli milonga yinandi iyo yikwenda mu Zambia: Kabompo, Lungwebungu, Kafue, Luangwa, na Zambezi, iyo yikwenda mu charu ichi kumanjiliro gha dazi ndipo yikumalira ku Namibia, Botswana, na Zimbabwe. Mlonga uwu ukufuma ku Zambia, kweni ukuzgokera ku Angola. Mlonga wa Cuando ndiwo uli kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Zambia, ndipo para wajumpha mu mlonga wa Chobe, maji ghanandi ghakunjira yayi mu mlonga wa Zambezi. Mlonga uŵiri ukuru comene wa Zambezi, Kafue na Luangwa, ukwenda mu Zambia. Mlonga wa Zambezi ukukumana na msumba wa Chirundu na Luangwa. Pambere mlonga wa Luangwa undanjire mu maji, ukuŵa mphaka ya Zambia na Mozambique. Kufuma mu tawuni ya Luangwa, Mlonga wa Zambezi ukufuma mu Zambia na kunjira mu Mozambike, ndipo paumaliro ukujumpha mu Mozambique Channel. Mlonga wa Zambezi ukuwa mtunda wa mamita 100 pachanya pa Victoria Falls, uwo uli pa mtunda wa makilomita 1.6. Dambo la Zambezi, ilo likwenda mumphepete mwa mphaka ya kumwera, ndakuzika kweniso ndakupambanapambana. Kufumira kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Nyanja ya Kariba, yikupangika na ma graben ndipo nga ni madambo gha Luangwa, Mweru-Luapula, Mweru-wa-Ntipa na Nyanja ya Tanganyika, ni dambo la chipalamba. Kumpoto kwa Zambia kuli mapiri ghanandi. Ku chigaŵa cha kumanjiliro gha dazi, chigaŵa ichi chikuchemeka Barotse Floodplain, icho chili pa mlonga wa Zambezi, ndipo chikuzura kufuma mu Disembala m'paka Juni. Cigumula ici cikupangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵa mu vigaŵa ivi na vigaŵa vinyake ivyo vili na maji ghanandi mu caru ici ŵaleke kukondwa na umoyo wawo. Victoria Falls Mu chigaŵa cha kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Zambia, chigaŵa icho chili pakati pa Zambezi na Nyanja ya Tanganyika chikukwelera kumpoto, ndipo chikuwuka mwambura kuwoneka kufuma pa mamita 900 kumwera m'paka mamita 1,200 pakati, kufika mamita 1,800 kumpoto kufupi na Mbala. Malo agha ghali kumpoto kwa Zambia ndipo World Wildlife Fund yikuti ni malo ghakurughakuru gha ku Central Zambezian miombo woodlands. Kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Zambia kuli vyakumera vyakupambanapambana. Dambo la Luangwa likupatura chipalamba ichi kufuma kumpoto ca kumafumiro gha dazi kuya kumwera ca kumanjiliro gha dazi. Mapiri na mapiri vikusangika mu vigaŵa vinyake vya chipalamba ichi, chomenechomene kumpoto kwa chipalamba cha Nyika (2,200 m panji 7,218 ft) pa mphaka ya Malawi. Mapiri gha Muchinga, agho ghali pakati pa Zambezi na Congo, ghakukolerana na dambo la Luangwa ndipo ghakuŵa kumpoto kwake. Phiri la Mumpu lili kumanjiliro gha dazi ndipo lili na mamita 1,892 (6,207 ft). Mphaka ya Congo Pedicle yikazingilizgika na phiri ili. Mlonga wa Congo uwo uli kumwera chomene ukufuma ku Zambia ndipo ukufuma kumanjiliro gha dazi na kujumpha mu chigaŵa chakumpoto. Mlonga wa Luapula ukwenda kumwera kufuma apo kumanjiliro gha dazi pambere undazgoke kumpoto m'paka ku Nyanja ya Mweru. Mlonga unyake ukuru uwo ukufuma kumafumiro gha dazi ni Kalungwishi. Mlonga wa Luvua ukufuma mu Nyanja ya Mweru, ndipo ukufuma kumpoto kwa nyanja iyi kuya ku Mlonga wa Lualaba (Upper Congo River). Nyanja ya Tanganyika nayo njimoza mwa nyanja zikuruzikuru za mu Congo. Mlonga wa Kalambo ndiwo ukupeleka maji ku chigaŵa chakumafumiro gha dazi kwa dambo ili. Mlonga uwu uli na maji ghaŵiri ghatali comene mu Africa. === Climate === {{Main|Climate of Zambia}} Charu cha Zambia chili pa mapiri gha ku Central Africa, pakati pa mamita 1,000 na 1,600. Malo agha ghali pachanya pa mtunda wa mamita 1,200. Nyengo ya ku Zambia njakuthukira, ndipo yikusintha para munthu wakwera. Mu charu cha Köppen, chigaŵa chikuru cha charu ichi chili na vyakumera vyamuthondo panji vyamuthondo. Nyengo zikupambana mu vigaŵa viŵiri, nyengo ya vula (kwambira Novembala m'paka Epulero) iyo yikukolerana na chihanya, na nyengo ya chilangalanga (May/June m'paka Okutobala/November), iyo yikukolerana na nyengo ya chiwuvi. Nyengo ya chilangalanga yikupambana mu vigaŵa viŵiri: nyengo yakuzizima yakuzizima (May/June mpaka August), na nyengo yakuzizima yakuzizima (September mpaka October/November). Chifukwa chakuti malo agha ghali pachanya chomene, nyengo ya mu charu ichi njakukondweska chomene.<ref>''Spectrum Guide to Zambia''. Camerapix International Publishing, Nairobi, 1996. {{ISBN|1874041148}}.</ref>Ndipouli, mu vigaŵa vinandi vya charu ichi, mu myezi yinkhondi na yitatu panji kujumpha apa, mu mwezi umoza, matenthedwe ghakujumpha 20 °C. === Biodiversity === {{main|Wildlife of Zambia}} {{multiple image|caption_align=left|header_align=center|align=right|direction=horizontal|total_width=500|image1=Giraffa camelopardalis thornicrofti.jpg|alt1=Rhodesian giraffe|caption1=[[Rhodesian giraffe]] in [[South Luangwa National Park]]|width1=3264|height1=4352|image2=African fish eagle just caught fish.jpg|alt2=African fish eagle|caption2=[[African fish eagle]], the national bird of Zambia|width2=672|height2=673|image3=Barbet-zambian.jpg|alt3=Zambian barbet|caption3=[[Chaplin's barbet|Zambian barbet]], Zambia's only true [[endemic]] bird species|width3=500|height3=375|footer_align=center|footer=}} Mu Zambia muli vyakumera vinandi, nga ni nkhorongo, makuni, na vyakumera vinyake. Ku Zambia kuli mitundu ya vyamoyo pafupifupi 12,505. 63% ya vyamoyo, 33% ya vyakumera, 4% ya bakiteriya na vyamoyo vinyake.{{citation needed|date=August 2020}} Pali vyakumera vyamuthengere pafupifupi 3543, ivyo ni vyakumera vya mu thengere, vyakumera vyamuthengere, na vyakumera vya makuni. Vyaru vya kumpoto na kumpoto ca kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa caru ici ndivyo vili na vyakumera vinandi. Vipambi 53 pa 100 ivyo vili mu charu ichi ni vichoko chomene. Mulimo wa Flora Zambesiaca uwo Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew ndiyo yikulongozga, uli na mazina gha vyakumera vyose vya ku Zambia na vyakumera vinyake vya mu vyaru vinyake ivyo vili pafupi na charu ichi. Mu caru ici muli vyamoyo vyakukora nyama 242, ndipo vinandi vya vyamoyo ivi vili mu makuni na malo ghakuliskako viŵeto. Cingwe ca ku Rhodesia na Kafue lechwe ni vyamoyo vinyake ivyo vikusangika mu Zambia.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ministry of Lands |date=June 2015 |title=Ministry of Lands Natural Resources and Environmental Protection:United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity Fifth National Report |url=https://www.mlnr.gov.zm/?wpfb_dl=77 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200626142324/https://www.mlnr.gov.zm/?wpfb_dl=77 |archive-date=26 June 2020 |website=Zambia - Ministry of Lands and Natural Resources}}</ref> Pali vyakumera vyamuthengere pafupifupi 3543, ivyo ni vyakumera vya mu thengere, vyakumera vyamuthengere, na vyakumera vya makuni. Vyaru vya kumpoto na kumpoto ca kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa caru ici ndivyo vili na vyakumera vinandi. Vipambi 53 pa 100 ivyo vili mu charu ichi ni vichoko chomene. Mulimo wa Flora Zambesiaca uwo Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew ndiyo yikulongozga, uli na mazina gha vyakumera vyose vya ku Zambia na vyakumera vinyake vya mu vyaru vinyake ivyo vili pafupi na charu ichi. Mu caru ici muli vyamoyo vyakukora nyama 242, ndipo vinandi vya vyamoyo ivi vili mu makuni na malo ghakuliskako viŵeto. Cingwe ca ku Rhodesia na Kafue lechwe ni vyamoyo vinyake ivyo vikusangika mu Zambia.<ref name="FLII-Supplementary">{{cite journal|last1=Grantham|first1=H. S.|last2=Duncan|first2=A.|last3=Evans|first3=T. D.|last4=Jones|first4=K. R.|last5=Beyer|first5=H. L.|last6=Schuster|first6=R.|last7=Walston|first7=J.|last8=Ray|first8=J. C.|last9=Robinson|first9=J. G.|last10=Callow|first10=M.|last11=Clements|first11=T.|last12=Costa|first12=H. M.|last13=DeGemmis|first13=A.|last14=Elsen|first14=P. R.|last15=Ervin|first15=J.|last16=Franco|first16=P.|last17=Goldman|first17=E.|last18=Goetz|first18=S.|last19=Hansen|first19=A.|last20=Hofsvang|first20=E.|last21=Jantz|first21=P.|last22=Jupiter|first22=S.|last23=Kang|first23=A.|last24=Langhammer|first24=P.|last25=Laurance|first25=W. F.|last26=Lieberman|first26=S.|last27=Linkie|first27=M.|last28=Malhi|first28=Y.|last29=Maxwell|first29=S.|last30=Mendez|first30=M.|last31=Mittermeier|first31=R.|last32=Murray|first32=N. J.|last33=Possingham|first33=H.|last34=Radachowsky|first34=J.|last35=Saatchi|first35=S.|last36=Samper|first36=C.|last37=Silverman|first37=J.|last38=Shapiro|first38=A.|last39=Strassburg|first39=B.|last40=Stevens|first40=T.|last41=Stokes|first41=E.|last42=Taylor|first42=R.|last43=Tear|first43=T.|last44=Tizard|first44=R.|last45=Venter|first45=O.|last46=Visconti|first46=P.|last47=Wang|first47=S.|last48=Watson|first48=J. E. M.|display-authors=1|title=Anthropogenic modification of forests means only 40% of remaining forests have high ecosystem integrity - Supplementary Material|journal=Nature Communications|volume=11|issue=1|year=2020|page=5978|issn=2041-1723|doi=10.1038/s41467-020-19493-3|pmid=33293507|pmc=7723057|bibcode=2020NatCo..11.5978G|doi-access=free}}</ref> == Ŵanthu == {{Historical census population in Zambia}}{{Main|Demographics of Zambia}} Kuyana na kalembera wa mu 2010, ŵanthu ŵa mu Zambia ŵakaŵa 13,092,666. Ku Zambia kuli mitundu yakupambanapambana, ndipo kuli mitundu yakupambanapambana 73. Mu nyengo iyo boma la Britain likalamuliranga charu ichi kufuma mu 1911 m'paka mu 1963, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakafuma ku Europe na ku India. Nangauli ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Europe ŵakafumako ku Europe, kweni ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Asia ŵakakhalako. [[File:Umutomboko_ceremony.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Umutomboko_ceremony.jpg|thumb|The [[:en:Mwata_Kazembe|Mwata Kazembe]] opens the Mutomboko ceremony.]] Pa kalembera wakwamba uyo wakacitika pa Meyi 7, 1911, pakaŵa ŵanthu 1,497 ŵa ku Europe, 39 ŵa ku Asia, na 820,000 ŵa ku Africa. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa awo ŵakaŵa na mitundu yakuwaro ŵakalembeka yayi mu 1911, 1921, 1931, 1946, 1951 na 1956, pambere charu chindaŵe na wanangwa wakulamulira. Kuzakafika mu 1956, ku Europe kukaŵa ŵanthu 65,277, ku Asia 5,450, ndipo ku Africa kukaŵa ŵanthu ŵafipa pafupifupi 2,100,000. Zambia yikulutilira kuŵa na ŵanthu ŵacoko waka ŵa mitundu yakupambanapambana yakucemeka kuti "ŵakutowa" panji Goffal, gulu ilo likupangika na ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yakufipa ŵa ku Africa na ŵazungu ŵa ku Britain (nyengo zinyake ŵa ku India). Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu unyake ŵandalembekepo pa kalembera wa ŵanthu kufuma apo Zambia yikapokera wanangwa mu 1964 ndipo ŵalije wanangwa wakuyana na ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yinyake (ŵazgani: Goffal). Mu 2010, pa ŵanthu wose awo ŵakalembeka, ŵanthu 99.2% ŵakaŵa ŵa mitundu yinyake ndipo 0.8% ŵakaŵa ŵa mitundu yinyake. {{Graph:Chart|width=350|height=150|xAxisTitle=Year|yAxisTitle=Population|type=line|showSymbols=|yAxisFormat=s|yGrid=|x=1963, 1969, 1980, 1990, 2000, 2010|y=3490540, 4056995, 5661801, 7383097, 9885591, 13092666}} Zambia ni yimoza mwa vyaru ivyo vili na ŵanthu ŵanandi chomene mu vyaru vya kumwera kwa Sahara. Chiŵelengero cha ŵana awo ŵakababikanga chikaŵa 6.2 mu 2007 (6.1 mu 1996, 5.9 mu 2001).<ref>{{cite web |title=Welcome to the Official site of Zambian Statistics |url=http://www.zamstats.gov.zm/surveys/zdhs.php |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141113144454/http://www.zamstats.gov.zm/surveys/zdhs.php |archive-date=13 November 2014 |access-date=11 April 2014 |publisher=Zamstats.gov.zm}}</ref> === Largest towns === {{Further|List of populated places in Zambia}} The onset of industrial copper mining on the Copperbelt in the late 1920s triggered rapid urbanisation. Although urbanisation was overestimated during the colonial period, it was substantial.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Potts|first=Deborah|date=2005|title=Counter-urbanisation on the Zambian Copperbelt? Interpretations and implications|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_urban-studies_2005-04_42_4/page/583|journal=Urban Studies|volume=42|issue=4|pages=583–609|doi=10.1080/00420980500060137|s2cid=154412136}}</ref> Mining townships on the Copperbelt soon dwarfed existing centres of population and continued to grow rapidly following Zambian independence. Economic decline in the Copperbelt from the 1970s to the 1990s has altered patterns of urban development, but the country's population remains concentrated around the railway and roads running south from the Copperbelt through Kapiri Mposhi, Lusaka, Choma and Livingstone.{{Largest cities of Zambia|class=info}} === Ethnic groups === {{bar box|title=Ethnic Groups in Zambia|titlebar=#ddd|left1=Ethnic Groups|right1=percent|float=right|bars={{bar percent|Bemba|darkgreen|19}} {{bar percent|Tonga|purple|13.6}} {{bar percent|Tumbuka|darkblue|8.4}} {{bar percent|Chewa|red|6.4}} {{bar percent|Lozi|black|5.7}} {{bar percent|Nsenga|orange|4.3}} {{bar percent|Ngoni|white|4}} {{bar percent|Lala|maroon|3.1}} {{bar percent|Kaonde|darkgray|2.9}} {{bar percent|Namwanga|gray|2.8}} {{bar percent|Lunda (Northern)|tan|2.6}} {{bar percent|Mambwe|lime|2.5}} {{bar percent|Luvale|Violet|2.2}} {{bar percent|Lamba|darkgreen|2.1}} {{bar percent|Ushi|purple|1.9}} {{bar percent|Bisa|red|1.6}} {{bar percent|Lenje|black|1.6}} {{bar percent|Mbunda|orange|1.2}} {{bar percent|Lunda (Luapula)|darkblue|0.9}}{{bar percent|Senga|white|0.9}} {{bar percent|Ila|maroon|0.8}} {{bar percent|Lungu|darkgray|0.8}} {{bar percent|Tabwa|gray|0.7}} {{bar percent|Soli|tan|0.7}} {{bar percent|Kunda|lime|0.7}} {{bar percent|Ngumbo|Violet|0.6}} {{bar percent|Chishinga|darkgreen|0.5}} {{bar percent|Chokwe|purple|0.5}} {{bar percent|Nkoya|red|0.5}} {{bar percent|Other Zambian|black|5.4}} {{bar percent|Major Racial|orange|0.8}} {{bar percent|Not Stated|darkblue|0.4}}}}Ŵanthu aŵa ŵali na mafuko pafupifupi 73, ndipo ŵanandi mwa iwo ŵakuyowoya chiyowoyero cha Bantu. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Zambia pafupifupi 90 peresenti ŵali mu mitundu 9 yikuru: Nyanja-Chewa, Bemba, Tonga, Tumbuka, Lunda, Luvale, Kaonde, Nkoya na Lozi. Mu vigaŵa vya ku mizi, ŵanthu ŵa mafuko ghanandi ŵakukhala mu vigaŵa vinyake. Magulu ghanandi ngambura kumanyikwa. Kweni ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yose iyi ŵakusangika mu Lusaka na ku Copperbelt. Padera pa chiyowoyero, ŵanthu ŵa mafuko ghanyake ndiwo ŵakumanyikwa chomene mu Zambia.<ref name="epr">{{cite web |author=GROWup – Geographical Research On War, Unified Platform |title=Ethnicity in Zambia |url=https://growup.ethz.ch/atlas/Zambia |access-date=1 November 2018 |publisher=ETH Zurich}}</ref>Kanandi ŵanthu ŵa mafuko agha ŵakukolerana na mbumba zawo panji ŵamazaza. Ŵanthu ŵa mafuko agha ŵakuyowoya viyowoyero vyakupambanapambana.<ref>Posner, Daniel (2005). [https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/institutions-and-ethnic-politics-in-africa/696855CDE1BDD865EA1254D0A3843B82 Institutions and Ethnic Politics in Zambia]. New York: Cambridge University Press.</ref> [[File:Tribal_Linguistic_map_Zambia.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tribal_Linguistic_map_Zambia.jpg|left|thumb|Tribal and linguistic map of Zambia]] Ŵalendo, comenecomene ŵa ku Britain panji ŵa ku South Africa, kweniso ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵazungu ŵa ku Zambia awo ŵali kufuma ku Britain, ŵakukhala comene mu Lusaka na ku Copperbelt kumpoto kwa Zambia, uko ŵakugwira nchito mu migodi, mu vyamalonda na milimo yinyake. Mu 1964, mu Zambia mukaŵa ŵanthu 70,000 ŵa ku Europe, kweni ŵanandi ŵali kufumamo mu caru ici. Mu Zambia muli ŵanthu ŵachoko waka ŵa ku Asia, ndipo ŵanandi mwa ŵanthu aŵa mba ku India na ku China. Gulu ili lili na mazaza chomene pa vyachuma ndipo likulongozga makampani. Ku Zambia kuli ŵanthu pafupifupi 80,000 ŵa ku China. Mu vilimika vyasonosono apa, ŵalimi ŵazungu ŵanandi ŵafumamo mu Zimbabwe cifukwa cakuti boma la Zambia likaŵacema kuti ŵambe kulima mu cigaŵa ca kumwera. Mu Zambia muli ŵanthu ŵachoko waka ŵa mitundu yakupambanapambana. Pa nyengo iyo ŵanthu ŵakakhalanga mu vyaru vinyake, ŵanthu ŵakasankhanga ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yakupambanapambana, ŵafipa na ŵatuŵa mu malo gha ŵanthu wose nga ni masukulu, vipatala, na mu nyumba. Ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yakupambanapambana ŵakusazgikira cifukwa cakuti Zambia yikukura comene. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu unyake ŵakulembeka yayi pa kalembera kweni ŵakuwoneka kuti mbacoko mu Zambia. Kuyana na kafukufuku uyo wakacitika ku United States mu 2009, Komiti ya Ŵakuchimbira na Ŵakufuma mu Vyaru Vinyake, ku Zambia kukaŵa ŵanthu ŵakuchimbira kwawo na awo ŵakakhumbanga malo ghakubisamamo pafupifupi 88,900. Ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakachimbilira mu charu ichi ŵakafuma ku Democratic Republic of Congo (ŵanthu 47,300 ŵakufuma ku DRC awo ŵakakhalanga mu Zambia mu 2007), Angola (27,100; wonani Ŵangoza mu Zambia), Zimbabwe (5,400) na Rwanda (4,900). Ŵanthu ŵa ku Zambia ŵakutemwa kupokelera ŵalendo. Kwambira mu Meyi 2008, chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu ŵa ku Zimbabwe awo ŵakakhalanga ku Zambia chikakwera chomene. Ŵanthu aŵa ŵakaŵa ŵanthu ŵa ku Zimbabwe awo ŵakakhalanga ku South Africa. Ŵanthu pafupifupi 60,000 ŵakuchimbilira ku misasa ya ku Zambia, ndipo ŵanthu 50,000 ŵakukhala mu misasa iyi. Ŵanthu awo ŵakuchimbilira ku Zambia kuti ŵakagwire nchito ŵakwenera kupempha makalata ghakuŵazomerezga, agho ghangaŵa na mtengo wa madola 500 pa caka.<ref name="World Refugee Survey 2009">{{cite news|title=World Refugee Survey 2009|publisher=U.S. Committee for Refugees and Immigrants|url=http://www.refugees.org/resources/refugee-warehousing/archived-world-refugee-surveys/2009-wrs-country-updates/zambia.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131211175633/http://www.refugees.org/resources/refugee-warehousing/archived-world-refugee-surveys/2009-wrs-country-updates/zambia.html|archive-date=11 December 2013}}</ref> === Religion === {{Further|Religion in Zambia}} Zambia ni "mtundu wa Cikristu" mwakuyana na dango la boma la 1996, kweni wakuzomerezga wanangwa wa kusopa. Nangauli ŵanthu ŵacoko comene kuluska pacanya pa pacanya ŵatatu pa ŵanthu 100 awo ŵakukhala mu caru ici ndiwo ŵakulondezga visopa vyawo, kweni Cikristu ca ku Zambia cikupambana comene. Pafupifupi vigaŵa vitatu pa vigaŵa vinayi vya ŵanthu ŵa mu Zambia ŵali mu visopa vya Chiprotesitanti, nga ni Anglicanism, New Apostolic Church, Lutheranism, Jehovah's Witnesses, Seventh-day Adventist Church, na Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. Pafupifupi ciŵelengero cimoza pa viŵiri ni ŵa Katolika. Cikristu cikafika mu Zambia kwizira mu mulimo wa umishonale mu cigaŵa caciŵiri ca vilimika vya m'ma 1800, ndipo visambizgo na magulu ghakupambanapambana ghakulongora umo mulimo wa umishonale ukasinthiranga. Mwaciyelezgero, Cikatolika cikafuma ku Mozambique, uko kukaŵa Ŵapwitikizi, apo Cikatolika cikulongora umo ŵanthu ŵa ku Britain ŵakacitiranga kumwera. Pamanyuma pakuti Zambia wapokera wanangwa wake mu 1964, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakaluta ku tchalitchi linyake kufuma ku vyaru vinyake, chomenechomene ku North America na Germany. Mu vyaka vyakulondezgapo, ŵanthu ŵa ku vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi awo ŵakagomezganga mu Baibolo ndiwo ŵakamba kuchita mulimo wa umishonale. Frederick Chiluba, uyo wakaŵa Mkhristu wa Pentekoste, wakati waŵa pulezidenti mu 1991, mipingo ya Pentekoste yikakura comene mu caru cose.<ref name="pentecostal">{{cite book|author=Steel, Matthew|title=Pentecostalism in Zambia: Power, Authority and the Overcomers|id=MSc Dissertation|publisher=University of Wales|year=2005}}</ref>{{Religious affiliation in Zambia}}Mu Zambia muli visopa vinandi vya Cikhristu ivyo ni vichoko. Mu caru ici ndimo muli ŵanthu ŵanandi comene ŵa cisopa ca Seventh-day Adventist pa caru cose. Tchalitchi la Lutheran of Central Africa lili na ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 11,000 mu caru ici. Ŵakaboni ŵa Yehova awo ŵakhala mu Zambia kwambira mu 1911, ŵalipo ŵakujumpha 190,000. Ndipo pafupifupi 800,000 ŵakiza pa Cikumbusko ca nyifwa ya Khristu mu 2021. Ŵanthu 12 pa 100 ŵaliwose mu Zambia ŵali mu tchalitchi la New Apostolic; ndipo lili na ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 1.2 miliyoni.<ref>{{cite web |title=Membership figures of the global Church as at the end of 2009: New Apostolic Church International (NAC) |url=http://www.nak.org/news/naci-news/article/16710/ |access-date=26 May 2020 |website=www.nak.org}}</ref> Ŵanthu awo ŵali mu chisopa chautesi ŵalipo ŵachoko chomene, nangauli ŵakumanyikwa chomene mu misumba. Ŵalondezgi ŵa cisopa ca Bahá'í ŵalipo ŵakujumpha 160,000, panji 1.5 peresenti ya ŵanthu wose ŵa mu charu. Pa ŵanthu 100 awo ŵakukhala mu Zambia, pafupifupi hafu Mbasilamu, ndipo ŵanyake ŵanandi Mbahindu. Ŵanthu pafupifupi 500 ŵali mu cisopa ca Ahmadiyya, ico ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakuciwona nga ni cisopa ca Cisilamu panji cisopa cautesi.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sbElAQAAIAAJ|title=Some basics of religious education in Zambia|access-date=30 March 2014|year=2007|isbn=9789982073370}}</ref> Paliso Ŵayuda ŵachoko waka awo ŵakakhalanga mu msumba uwu, ndipo ŵanandi ŵakaŵa ŵa mtundu wa Ashkenazi. === Viyowoyelo === TChiŵelengero cha viyowoyero vya ku Zambia nchakumanyikwa yayi, nangauli mabuku ghanandi ghakuyowoya kuti ku Zambia kuli viyowoyero na viyowoyero 73. Ntheura, viyowoyero vya ku Zambia ni 20 panji 30 pera.<ref name="Chanda, Vincent M., and, Mkandawire, Sitwe Benson. 2013 1–173">{{Cite book|last=Chanda, Vincent M., and, Mkandawire, Sitwe Benson.|title=Speak Zambian Languages: Phrase Book in Bemba, Kaonde, Lozi, Luvale, Lunda, Nyanja and Tonga, all in one|publisher=UNZA Press|year=2013|isbn=978-9982-03-073-1|location=Lusaka, Zambia|pages=1–173}}</ref> {{main|Languages of Zambia}}{{Major language groups in Zambia}}Chiyowoyero cha boma mu Zambia ni Chingelezi, ndipo chikuyowoyeka pa nkhani za bizinesi na kusambizga ŵanthu. Chiyowoyero chikuru ku Lusaka ni Nyanja (Chewa), ndipo chiyowoyero chinyake ni Bemba. Mu chigaŵa cha Copperbelt, chiyowoyero cha Bemba ndicho chikuyowoyeka chomene ndipo cha Nyanja ndicho chikuyowoyeka chomene. Ŵanthu ŵakuyowoya viyowoyero vya Bemba na Nyanja mu matawuni. Viyowoyero ivi ni Lozi, Tumbuka, Kaonde, Tonga, Lunda, na Luvale.<ref>{{Cite web |date=26 May 2020 |title=Encyclopædia Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Zambia/People |access-date=26 May 2020}}</ref><ref name="Chanda, Vincent M., and, Mkandawire, Sitwe Benson. 2013 1–173" /><ref>{{Cite book|last=Mkandawire, Sitwe Benson.|title=The State of Affairs of Cultural Literacy in Zambia's Multicultural Education System. In A. L. Jotia and J. Dudu (Ed.), Multicultural Education Discourses: Breaking Barriers of Exclusion in Selected African Contexts|publisher=Zebra publishing (Pty) LTD|year=2015|isbn=978-99945-84-99-4|location=Windhoek, Namibia|pages=190–204}}</ref>{{Dominant regional languages in Zambia}}Ŵanthu ŵa vigaŵa ivi ŵakutemwa kuyowoya viyowoyero vinyake. Ŵanthu awo ŵakukhala mu matawuni nyengo zinyake ŵakupambaniska chiyowoyero cha ku mizi na cha ku mizi. Ntheura ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuyowoya chiyowoyero cha Bemba na Nyanja mu chigaŵa cha Copperbelt. Cingelezi cikugwiliskirika nchito pa nkhani za boma, ndipo ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakucimanya makora pa nyumba zawo. Ivi vyapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵa mu Lusaka na misumba yinyake yikuruŵikulu ŵayowoyenge viyowoyero vya ku Zambia. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ku Zambia ŵakuyowoya viyowoyero vinandi. Ciphwitikizi caŵikikamo mu masukulu cifukwa ca ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Angola awo ŵakuyowoya Ciphwitikizi.<ref>[http://www.afriquejet.com/news/africa-news/zambia-to-introduce-portuguese-into-school-curriculum-2009041825794.html Zambia to introduce Portuguese into school curriculum]. {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121208151924/http://www.afriquejet.com/news/africa-news/zambia-to-introduce-portuguese-into-school-curriculum-2009041825794.html|date=8 December 2012}}</ref> French is commonly studied in private schools, while some secondary schools have it as an optional subject. A German course has been introduced at the [[:en:University_of_Zambia|University of Zambia]] (UNZA). === Education === {{Main|Education in Zambia}} [[File:Pupils_at_St_Monicas_Girls_Secondary_School.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pupils_at_St_Monicas_Girls_Secondary_School.jpg|thumb|Pupils at the St Monica's Girls Secondary School in [[:en:Chipata|Chipata]], [[:en:Eastern_Province,_Zambia|Eastern Province]]]] Dango la Zambia likuti waliyose wakwenera kusambira mwakuyana.<ref>{{cite web |date=1996 |title=Laws of Zambia |url=http://www.parliament.gov.zm/acts/volumes |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160307105357/http://www.parliament.gov.zm/acts/volumes |archive-date=7 March 2016 |access-date=27 January 2016 |website=National Assembly of Zambia |publisher=National Assembly of Zambia}}</ref> Dango la vya masambiro la mu 2011 likovwira kuti ŵanthu ŵasambirenge mwakuyana. Unduna wa vya masambiro ukulaŵilira masambiro ghapacanya kwizira mu ndondomeko ya masambiro. Cakulinga cikuru ca masambiro mu Zambia nchakuti ŵanthu wose awo ŵakusambira ŵasambizgike vinthu vya thupi, vinjeru, umo ŵangakhalira na ŵanyawo, umo ŵangajipulikira, makhaliro ghawo, na vyauzimu. Ndondomeko ya masambiro yili na vigaŵa vitatu: masambiro ghakwambilira na ghakwambilira (magiredi 1 na 7), masambiro ghaciŵiri (magiredi 8 na 12) na masambiro ghapacanya. Pali mapulogiramu ghakovwira ŵanthu ŵalara kumanya kuŵazga na kulemba. Ndalama izo boma likugwiliskira ntchito pa sukulu zikukwera kufuma pa 16.1 peresenti mu 2006 kufika pa 20.2 peresenti mu 2015. === Health === {{Main|Health in Zambia|Healthcare in Zambia}} Ku Zambia kuli nthenda ya HIV/AIDS, ndipo ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakulwara nthenda iyi.<ref>{{cite web |title=Country Comparisons—HIV/AIDS adult prevalence rate |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/hiv-aids-adult-prevalence-rate/country-comparison |access-date=19 June 2021 |work=[[The World Factbook]] |publisher=Central Intelligence Agency |location=Langley, Virginia}}</ref> Ndipouli, mu vyaka 10 ivyo vyajumpha, caru ca Indonesia caŵa na ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵali na HIV/AIDS..<ref>{{cite web |title=Children in Zambia |url=https://www.unicef.org/zambia/children-zambia |access-date=27 May 2020 |publisher=UNICEF}}</ref> Vinthu vinyake vya umoyo navyo vyasintha chomene, nangauli pa caru cose vinthu vili makora yayi. Ŵana awo ŵakababika ŵamoyo mu 2014 ŵakafwanga 398 pa ŵanthu 100,000, kweni mu 2007 ŵakafwanga 591. == Chuma == {{Further|Economy of Zambia}} [[File:Zambia_Product_Exports_(2019).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Zambia_Product_Exports_(2019).svg|right|thumb|A proportional representation of Zambia exports, 2019]] Pasono, caru ca Zambia cikuguliska vinthu vya mu vyaru vinyake vyakukwana $7.5 na $8 biliyoni pa caka. Mu 2018, caru ici cikaguliska vinthu vinyake vyakukwana madola 9.1 biliyoni. Mu 2015, ciŵelengero ca ŵanthu ŵa ku Zambia awo ŵakakhalanga pasi pa ukavu cikakwera comene kufuma pa 60.5% mu 2010. Ŵakavu ku mizi ŵakaŵa 76.6% ndipo mu misumba ŵakaŵa 23.4%. Pa charu chose, ukavu ukafika pa ZMK 214 (US$12.85) pa mwezi.<ref>{{cite web |title=Poverty & Equity Brief: Zambia |url=https://databank.worldbank.org/data/download/poverty/33EF03BB-9722-4AE2-ABC7-AA2972D68AFE/Global_POVEQ_ZMB.pdf |access-date=30 December 2021}}</ref> Kuŵavya nchito na ŵanthu ŵambura nchito mu matawuni ni masuzgo ghakuru. Ŵanandi awo ŵakukhala mu vikaya vya ku Zambia ŵalimi.{{Recent Annual Budget Expenditure in Zambia}}Pa vyaru 128, Zambia yikaŵa pa nambara 117 pa vyaru vyose ivyo vikalembeka pa 2007 Global Competitiveness Index. Kweni mu 2019 Zambia yikakhira pa malo 19 mu Africa na 120 pa charu chose. Ndipouli, mu 2020 Zambia yili pa malo gha nambara 7 pa malo gha Ease of Doing Business mu Africa na 85 pa vyaru 190. Vigaŵa vya umoyo wa ŵanthu vikulutilira kuchepa, comenecomene pa nkhani ya umoyo uwo munthu wakulindilira para wababika (pafupifupi vyaka 40.9) na kufwa kwa ŵanakazi (830 pa ŵanakazi 100,000). Mu ma 1970, mtengo wa mkuwa ukakhira chomene mu charu cha Zambia. Boma la Socialist likawovwira kuti ndalama zileke kunangika cifukwa cakuti likayezgapo kanandi waka kuti likhazikiske mapulogiramu ghakukhozga vinthu gha International Monetary Fund (IMF). Ndondomeko ya kuleka kuguliska vinthu kwizira mu nthowa yikuru yakupelekera vyakurya na njanji yakuya ku nyanja, yikapangiska kuti caru ici ciŵe na masuzgo ghanandi. Pamanyuma pa muwuso wa Kaunda, (kwamba mu 1991) maboma ghakulondezgapo ghakamba kusintha vinthu vinyake. Vyaru ivi vikaŵa vyambura ndalama mpaka kuumaliro wa m'ma 1990. Mu 2007, Zambia yikaŵa na cuma cakukwera comene kwa vilimika vinkhondi na viŵiri. Kukwera kwa ndalama kukakwera kufika pa 8.9%, kufuma pa 30% mu 2000.<ref name="dos2009">{{cite web |title=Background Note: Zambia |url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2359.htm |publisher=Department of State}}</ref> [[File:Zambia_Export_Treemap_(2014).png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Zambia_Export_Treemap_(2014).png|left|thumb|Zambia Export Treemap (2014)]] Boma la Zambia lichali kulimbana na masuzgo gha vyachuma nga ni ukuru wa boma, kweniso kusintha nthowa zakwendeskera vinthu vya umoyo wa ŵanthu. Pa charu pali malango ghanandi ghakwendeskera vinthu vya ndalama, ndipo vimbundi vyazara chomene. Ndondomeko za boma izo zikovwira kuti munthu waŵe na malayisensi zikovwira kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵagwiliskirenge ntchito nthowa zakovwira ŵanthu. Ndalama zose izo Zambia yili nazo ku vyaru vinyake zikajumpha $6 biliyoni apo charu ichi chikapokera wovwiri wa HIPC (Highly Indebted Poor Countries Initiative) mu 2000, kweni chikeneranga kufiska fundo zinyake. Pakwamba, Zambia yikagomezganga kuti yizamumalizga ndondomeko ya HIPC, ndipo yizamugowokereka ngongoli yikuru mu 2003. [[File:GDP_per_capita_(current),_%25_of_world_average,_1960-2012;_Zimbabwe,_South_Africa,_Botswana,_Zambia,_Mozambique.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:GDP_per_capita_(current),_%25_of_world_average,_1960-2012;_Zimbabwe,_South_Africa,_Botswana,_Zambia,_Mozambique.png|thumb|GDP per capita (current), compared to neighbouring countries (world average = 100)]] Mu Janyuwale 2003, boma la Zambia likaphalira wupu wa International Monetary Fund na World Bank kuti likukhumba kwambiraso kudumbiskana vinthu vinyake ivyo likakolerana kuti vichitike. Nangauli ŵakakolerana pa nkhani izi, kweni cifukwa ca ndalama zinandi izo ŵakagwiliskira nchito pa malipiro gha ŵateŵeti ŵa boma, ŵakacedwa kulekeska ngongoli za ŵa HIPC kufuma kuumaliro wa 2003 m'paka kukwambilira kwa 2005. Kuti ŵamalizge ndondomeko ya HIPC mu 2004, boma likanozga bajeti yakukhozga vinthu mu 2004, ndipo likakanizga malipiro gha ŵateŵeti ŵa boma na kusazgirako misonkho. Kukwezga misonkho na kukanizga ŵantchito kusanga malipiro ghakupambanapambana. Ivi vikapangiska kuti mu Febuluwale 2004 pa charu chose paŵe chiwawa.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20090724213759/http://www.eurodad.org/whatsnew/articles.aspx?id=2108 The World Bank and IMF's long shadow in Zambia's copper mines]. eurodad.org. 20 February 2008</ref> Boma la Zambia likuyezgayezga kusintha vinthu vinyake pa nkhani ya ndalama kuti ndalama zichepe. Ntchito iyi yikukhumba kuti ŵanthu ŵa Zambia ŵagwiliskirenge ntchito vinthu vinyake ivyo vili mu charu ichi. Mu Julayi 2018, Pulezidenti wa Turkey Recep Tayyip Erdogan na Pulezidenti wa Zambia Edgar Lungu ŵakasazgapo mapangano 12 mu msumba wa Lusaka pa nkhani zakupambanapambana kufuma pa malonda na ndalama mpaka pa vyaulendo na udumura..<ref>{{Cite web |title=Turkey and Zambia sign agreements to boost bilateral ties |url=https://www.trtworld.com/africa/turkey-and-zambia-sign-agreements-to-boost-bilateral-ties-19216 |access-date=30 July 2018 |website=Turkey and Zambia sign agreements to boost bilateral ties |language=tr-TR}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.aa.com.tr/en/africa/turkey-zambia-sign-12-deals-to-boost-bilateral-ties/1216679|title=Turkey, Zambia sign 12 deals to boost bilateral ties|access-date=30 July 2018}}</ref> === Mining === {{further|Mining in Zambia}} Vyaka vinandi, chuma cha Zambia chikuthemba pa migodi ya mkuwa. Mu 1998, mulimo wa kupanga mkuŵa ukakhira kufika pa matani 228,000 pamanyuma pa vilimika 30 ivyo mulimo uwu ukakhira cifukwa ca kusoŵa ndalama, mitengo ya mkuŵa yikaŵa yakukhora, kweniso cifukwa ca kuleka kumanya usange mulimo uwu ucitikenge mwamahara. Mu 2002, pamanyuma pakuti makampani agha ghaŵikamo ndalama zawo, mkuwa uwo ŵakapanganga ukakwera kufika pa matani 337,000. Vinthu vikwenda makora pa msika wa mkuwa wa pa caru cose, ndipo ivi vyawovwira kuti ndalama zinjire comene. [[File:ZM-Nkana-headgear-Kitwe.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:ZM-Nkana-headgear-Kitwe.jpg|left|thumb|The major Nkana open copper mine, [[:en:Kitwe|Kitwe]]]] Mu 2003, vyakununkhira vyakusangika mu vyaru vinyake vikasazgikira na 25%, ndipo vikaŵa na 38%. Boma la Zambia lili kupeleka malaisensi ku makampani gha vyalo vyakupangira vinthu vyakuthupi gha vyalo vyakupangira vinthu vyakuthupi nga ni nickel, tin, copper, na uranium. Boma la Zambia likugomezga kuti nikele ndiyo yizamunjira mu malo mwa mkuwa. Mu 2009, ku Zambia kukaŵa suzgo la vyachuma.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110919225012/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/africa/article5576766.ece Chinese keep low profile to cash in on the slump in Zambia]. The Times. 24 January 2009.</ref> === Agriculture === {{Further|Economy of Zambia#Agriculture}} Ku Zambia kuli vyakurya vinandi ivyo vikovwira ŵanthu kusanga ntchito kuluska migodi. Ŵalimi ŵachoko waka ŵa ku Zimbabwe ŵakaŵapokelera mu Zambia ŵakati ŵachimbizgika na Robert Mugabe. Ŵakulima vyakurya vyakupambanapambana, nga ni hona, tirigu, na chizi. Maluso agho ŵakasanga, pamoza na kuweleramo mu vya cuma mu nyengo ya pulezidenti Levy Mwanawasa, ghakawovwira kuti vinthu vyambe kwenda makora mu Zambia. Mu 2004, aka kakaŵa kakwamba mu vyaka 26 kuti Zambia yigeŵetere vyakurya vinandi kuluska ivyo yikaguliskanga. Mu Disembala 2019, boma la Zambia likadumura mwakukolerana kuti lizomerezge kumwa munkhwala wa cannabis pa vilato vya munkhwala na vyakutumizga katundu pera.<ref>{{cite web |title=Zambia legalizes cannabis, kind of |url=https://thegrowthop.com/cannabis-news/zambia-legalizes-cannabis-kind-of |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210303193126/https://www.thegrowthop.com/cannabis-news/zambia-legalizes-cannabis-kind-of |archive-date=3 March 2021 |access-date=7 May 2021 |website=thegrowthop}}</ref> === Energy === {{Further|Economy of Zambia#Energy}} {{see also|List of power stations in Zambia}} Mu 2009, Zambia yikapanga magesi ghakukwana 10.3 TWh ndipo yikagwiliskiranga ntchito nkhongono ya dazi na magesi gha maji. Ndipouli, kukwambilira kwa 2015, Zambia yikamba kusoŵa magesi chifukwa cha vula iyo yikalokwa yayi mu 2014/2015, ndipo maji ghakaŵa ghachoko chomene pa chiziŵa cha Kariba. Mu Seputembala 2019, African Green Resources (AGR) yikapharazga kuti yikugwiliskira ntchito ndalama zakukwana madola 150 miliyoni mu famu ya nkhongono ya dazi ya 50 megawatt (MW), pamoza na chigodobu cha ulimi wa milonga na kusazgirako nkhongono ya tirigu ya matani 80,000.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-zambia-agriculture-idUSKCN1VU0ZU|title=Zambia farm input supplier plans to invest $150 million in farming|date=9 September 2019|work=Reuters|access-date=10 September 2019}}</ref> == Mwambo == [[File:Nsima_Relishes.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nsima_Relishes.JPG|thumb|''[[:en:Nshima|Nshima]]'' (top right corner) with three types of [[:en:Relish|relish]]]] Pambere charu cha Zambia chindaŵeko, ŵanthu ŵakakhalanga mu mafuko ghakupambanapambana. Cimoza mwa vinthu ivyo vikacitika mu nyengo iyo ŵanthu ŵakakhalanga mu misumba yikaŵa kukura kwa ŵanthu. Ŵanthu ŵa mafuko ghakupambanapambana ŵakamba kukhala pamoza mu matawuni na misumba, ndipo waliyose wakasambizganga munyake. Kweniso ŵakamba kulondezga mitheto ya charu chose, chomenechomene umo ŵakavwariranga. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Zambia ŵakukhala ku mizi, ndipo ŵanji ŵali kusintha nkharo zawo. Ŵanthu awo ŵakukhala mu vigaŵa vinyake mu Zambia ŵakuchemeka kuti 'ŵanthu ŵa ku Zambia' apo awo ŵakukhala mu vigaŵa vinyake ŵakuchemeka kuti "ŵanthu ŵa ku Zambia" chifukwa ŵanthu ŵa ku Zambia wose ŵakuŵako.<ref name="Mkandawire, Sitwe Benson., Simooya, Steriah Monica., and Monde, Pauline Namakau. 2019 1–206">{{cite book|last=Mkandawire, Sitwe Benson., Simooya, Steriah Monica., and Monde, Pauline Namakau.|title=Zambian Culture: Harnessing Cultural Literacy with a Focus on Myths and Taboos|publisher=UNZA Press|year=2019|isbn=978-9982-03-105-9|location=Lusaka, Zambia|pages=1–206}}</ref>Mu tawuni iyi, ŵanthu ŵakulutilira kusangana na kusintha mitheto iyi kuti ŵafiske ivyo ŵakuvichema kuti "thuto la ku Zambia". [[File:African_Art,_Yombe_sculpture,_Louvre.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:African_Art,_Yombe_sculpture,_Louvre.jpg|left|thumb|A [[:en:Yombe_people|Yombe]] sculpture, 19th century]] Ku Zambia, ŵanthu ŵakuchita viphikiro vyakupambanapambana. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuchita viphikiro na maluso agha pa viphikiro vyapadera, nga ni viphikiro vya kukumbukira ivyo ŵacita, viphikiro vya mazuŵa ghaumaliro, viphikiro vya kuwuskika kwa Yesu, viphikiro vya kuwuskika kwa Yesu, vya kuwombora na kutozgeka, vya kumalizga masambiro, vya kujipeleka, viphikiro vya kugomezgeka kwa Yesu, vya kutora na kutengwa, viphikiro vya nyifwa, vya kubabika, na vinyake.<ref name="Mkandawire, Sitwe Benson., Simooya, Steriah Monica., and Monde, Pauline Namakau. 2019 1–206" /> Nga ni vyaru vinandi vya mu Africa, Zambia nayo wakucita viphikiro na maluso agho ghakuvumbukwa na agho ghakuleka kuvumbukwa. Vinthu ivi ni kalendala, nyengo, masuzgo, kuwukwa, kuphalizgana, na viphikiro vya zuŵa na zuŵa. Vinthu vinyake ivyo ŵanthu ŵakuleka kuvumbura ni ivyo ŵanthu ŵakuchita mwakubisilizga, nga ni awo ŵakwimba Nyau na Nakisha, kweniso awo ŵakupeleka ulongozgi pa nthengwa nga mbanakazi ŵa ku Alangizi. Mu Disembala 2016, boma la Zambia likazomerezga viphikiro vya kalendala 77, ndipo chiŵelengero ichi chizamukwera.<ref name="Mkandawire, Sitwe Benson., Simooya, Steriah Monica., and Monde, Pauline Namakau. 2019 1–206" /> Maungano agha ghakuchitika kamoza pa chaka, ndipo ghakuŵa ku Nc?? wala, Kulonga, Kuoboka, Malaila, Nsengele, Chibwela kumushi, Dantho, Ntongo, Makundu, Lwiindi, Chuungu, na Lyenya. Ivi ni viphikiro vya ku Zambia. Vinyake mwa vyaru ivi ni: Kuomboka na Kathanga (Chigaŵa cha Kumanjiliro gha dazi), Mutomboko (Chigaŵa cha Luapula), Kulamba na Ncwala (Chigaŵa cha Kumafumiro gha dazi), Lwiindi na Shimunenga (Chigaŵa cha Kumwera), Lunda Lubanza (Chimwera cha Kumanjiliro gha dazi), Likumbi Lyamize (Chimwera cha kumanjiliro gha dazi), Mbunda Lukwakwa (Chimwera cha kumanjiliro gha dazi), Chibwela Kumushi (Chigaŵa chapakati), Vinkhakanimba (Chigaŵa cha Muchinga), Ukusefya Pa Ng'wena (Chigaŵa cha Kumpoto). Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakutemwa kupanga vinthu nga ni viŵiya, vyakuŵikamo viŵiya (nga ni viŵiya vya ku Tonga), vyakuŵikamo vinthu, vyakuvwara, mphasa, vyakuŵikamo vinthu vya makuni, vyakuŵikamo vinthu vya mino gha zovu, vyakuŵikamo vinthu vya waya, na vya mkuŵa. Sumu zinandi za ku Zambia zikufuma ku viŵiya (na vyakwimbira vinyake) na kwimba na kuvina. Mu matawuni, ŵanthu ŵakutemwa kwimba sumu za ku vyaru vinyake, chomenechomene za rumba za ku Congo, za ku Africa na America, na za reggae za ku Jamaica. === Media === {{Main|Media in Zambia|Telecommunications in Zambia}} Unduna wa vya makani na mawayilesi ku Zambia ndiwo uli na udindo wa Zambia News Agency, apo paliso maboma ghanandi mu chalo ichi agho ghakusazgapo: ma TV, manyuzipepara, mawayilesi gha FM, na mawebusayiti gha nkhani pa intaneti. === Sports and games === Masewera ndi masewera ndizo zikhalidwe za chikhalidwe cha ku Zambia zomwe zimabweretsa anthu palimodzi kuti aphunzire, kukulitsa luso, kusangalala ndi mphindi zosangalatsa. Maseŵera na maseŵero gha ku Zambia ghakukhala na maseŵero gha mpira, maseŵero gha ku malo ghakupambanapambana, netball, volleyball na maseŵero gha ŵanthu ŵa ku malo agha nga nsolo, chiyenga, waida, kubisa, walyako, na sojo. Agha ni maseŵero gha ŵanthu ŵa ku malo agha agho ghakovwira kuti ŵanthu ŵaŵe paubwezi. Maseŵera ghose agha ghakukolerana na mitheto ya ku Zambia. Pakuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuchitako maseŵero agha, ghakukondweska ŵanthu kweniso ghakusambizga. Vinyake mwa maseŵero agha ni ghakale comene nga umo viliri na ŵanthu ŵa ku Zambia. Ndipouli, Zambia yikamba kuchitako maseŵero ghakumanyikwa pa caru cose, comenecomene pa maseŵero gha ku Summer Olympics mu 1964.<ref name="Mkandawire, Sitwe Benson., Simooya, Steriah Monica., and Monde, Pauline Namakau. 2019 1–206" /> [[File:Inauguration_of_Edgar_Lungu.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Inauguration_of_Edgar_Lungu.jpg|thumb|[[:en:National_Heroes_Stadium|National Heroes Stadium]] in [[:en:Lusaka|Lusaka]]]] Zambia yikapharazga wanangwa wake pa zuŵa la kujara maseŵero gha Olimpiki gha mu 1964, ndipo yikaŵa caru cakwamba kunjira mu maseŵero gha Olimpiki nga ni caru cimoza, na kufumamo nga ni cinyake. Mu chaka cha 2016, Zambia yikawunganaso ka 13 pa maseŵera gha Olympic. Ŵakapokera mendulo ziŵiri. Ŵakapokera mendulo mu nkhonya na mu maseŵero ghakukhozga thupi. Mu 1984, Keith Mwila wakatora mendulo ya mkuŵa pa maseŵera gha muvi. Mu 1996, Samuel Matete wakatora mendulo ya siliva pa mtunda wa mamita 400. Zambia yindaciteko maseŵero agha. Mu Zambia, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakutemwa comene maseŵero gha bola, ndipo timu ya ku Zambia yikuŵa na viwemi vinandi. Pa maseŵero gha ku Seoul mu 1988, timu ya charu ichi yikathereska timu ya ku Italy na mavoti 4 ̊0. Kalusha Bwalya, uyo wakaŵa wakumanyikwa comene pa maseŵero gha ku Zambia, ndipo njumoza wa ŵanthu ŵakumanyikwa comene pa maseŵero gha ku Africa, wakalemba chiphalizgano ici. Ndipouli, mpaka lero, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuyowoya kuti timu yiwemi comene iyo Zambia yikaŵa nayo yikafwa pa Epulero 28, 1993, apo ndege yikawa ku Libreville, Gabon. Nangauli vikaŵa nthena, kweni mu 1996, charu cha Zambia chikaŵa pa nambara 15 pa nambara ya FIFA World Football Team. Mu chaka cha 2012, Zambia yikathereskeka kaŵiri pa mpikisano wa African Cup of Nations. Ŵakathereska Cote d'Ivoire na 8-7 pa penalty shoot-out paumaliro, uwo ukacitikira ku Libreville, mtunda wa makilomita ghacoko waka kufuma apo ndege yikawira vyaka 19 kumasinda. Mu chaka cha 2017, Zambia yikapokelera na kuthereska chiphalizgano cha mpira cha Pan-African U-20 African Cup of Nation ku wosewera ŵa vyaka 20 na pasi. Gulu la mpira la azimayi la Zambia, pakadali pano, lachita bwino kwambiri ngati gulu loyamba lochokera kudziko lomwe lilibe nyanja ku Africa kulowa nawo FIFA Women's World Cup, pomaliza gawo lachitatu mu 2022 Women's Africa Cup of Nations. Kweniso ni nkhonya yakwamba ya pa caru cose ya ŵanthu ŵalara msinkhu. Mu Zambia, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakutemwa maseŵero nga ni rugby, nkhonya, na cricket. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 2000, timu ya rugby ya ku Australia na South Africa yikaŵa na ŵasepuka awo ŵakababikira mu chipatala chimoza cha ku Lusaka. Mpaka mu 2014, Roan Antelope Rugby Club mu Luanshya yikaŵa na Guinness World Record ya malo ghapachanya chomene pa charu chose gha rugby union. Mbiri iyi sono yili na Wednesbury Rugby Club. Mu Zambia, maseŵero gha rugby ndicoko comene, kweni ghakukulirakulira. Pasono ŵakukhala pa malo gha nambara 73 na IRB ndipo ŵali na ŵaseŵera 3,650 na magulu ghatatu. Zambia yikaseŵeranga cricket apo yikaŵa ku Rhodesia. Zambia yikapelekaso shinty international, Eddie Tembo uyo wakababika ku Zambia uyo wakayimilira Scotland mu maseŵera gha Shinty/Hurling ku Ireland mu 2008. Mu 2011, ku Zambia kukaŵa maseŵero gha nambara 10 gha ku Africa. Sitediyamu ya ku Lusaka yikeneranga kuŵa na ŵanthu 70,000, apo ma sitediyamu ghanyake ghaŵiri ghakaŵa na ŵanthu 50,000. Boma likakhwimiska maboma kuti ghaŵikeko mtima pakuzenga malo gha maseŵero agha cifukwa ca kusoŵa ndalama za boma. Nyengo yikati yajumphapo, Zambia yikaleka kuchitiska maseŵero gha ku Africa mu 2011, chifukwa cha kusoŵa ndalama. Mwantheura, caru ca Mozambique cikapokelera ungano uwu. Zambia yikapangaso munthu wakudanga wa ku Africa (Madalitso Muthiya) uyo wakaseŵera mu United States Golf Open, yimoza mwa viphalizgano vikuru vinayi vya gofu. Mu 1989, timu ya basketball ya mu caru ici yikacita makora comene apo yikafikapo pa FIBA Africa Championship ndipo yikamalizga mu magulu 10 gha ku Africa.<ref>[http://archive.fiba.com/pages/eng/fa/event/p/cid//sid/2403/tid/0/_/1989_AfroBasket/index.html 1989 African Championship for Men], ARCHIVE.FIBA.COM. Retrieved 16 December 2015.</ref> === Music and dance === Chikhalidwe cha Zambia chakhala gawo lofunikira pakukula kwawo pambuyo pa ufulu monga kuwukira kwa midzi yachikhalidwe ndi malo osungiramo zinthu zakale. Sumu iyo yikapangiska kuvina ni cigaŵa ca mitheto yawo ndipo yikulongora utozi wa umoyo wa ku Zambia, kwambira na viwoneskero vya matambulara agho ghakuyowoya mpaka ku matambulara gha Kamangu agho ghakugwiliskirika nchito pakumanyiska kwamba kwa ciphikiro ca Malaila. Kuvina kukuwovwira kuti ŵanthu ŵaŵe ŵakukolerana.<ref>{{cite web |date=14 June 2016 |title=The Unrivaled Zambian Culture |url=http://ayibamagazine.com/unrivaled-zambian-culture/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190330174848/http://ayibamagazine.com/unrivaled-zambian-culture/ |archive-date=30 March 2019 |access-date=30 June 2016 |website=Ayiba Magazine}}</ref> ==== Zamrock ==== Zamrock ni sumu iyo yikamba mu vyaka vya m'ma 1970 ndipo yikamba kumanyikwa chomene ku vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi. Zamrock yikulongosoreka kuti yikusazga sumu za ku Zambia na ma riffs ghakuwerezgawerezga ghakuyana na magulu, ŵakwimba nga ni Jimi Hendrix, James Brown, Black Sabbath, Rolling Stones, Deep Purple, na Cream. Magulu ghakuzirwa mu mtundu uwu ni Rikki Ililonga na gulu lake Musi-O-Tunya, WITCH, Chrissy "Zebby" Tembo, na Paul Ngozi na Mbumba yake ya Ngozi.<ref name="azambianband">{{cite web |title=We're a Zambian Band |url=http://theappendix.net/issues/2014/7/were-a-zambian-band |access-date=26 August 2014 |publisher=theappendix.net}}</ref><ref name=":2">[https://web.archive.org/web/20170914035049/http://www.dustedmagazine.com/reviews/5657 WITCH] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170914035049/http://www.dustedmagazine.com/reviews/5657|date=14 September 2017}} on Dusted Magazine (15 April 2010)</ref> == Ŵanthu ŵakumanyikwa == {{main|Mndandanda wa anthu a ku Zambia}} <!---♦♦♦ Chonde musawonjezere mayina a anthu kuno kuwonjezera pa [[Mndandanda wa anthu a ku Zambia]] ♦♦♦---> == Wonaniso == {{portal|Zambia}} * [[:en:Index_of_Zambia-related_articles|Index of Zambia-related articles]] * [[:en:Outline_of_Zambia|Outline of Zambia]] {{-}} == Ukaboni == <references responsive="1"></references> == Wonani vinandi == {{Refbegin}} * DeRoche, Andy, ''Kenneth Kaunda, the United States and Southern Africa'' (London: Bloomsbury, 2016) * {{Cite book|author-link=James Ferguson (Anthropologist)|first=James|last=Ferguson|title=Expectations of Modernity: Myths and Meanings of Urban Life in the Zambian Copperbelt|url=https://archive.org/details/expectationsofmo00ferg|publisher=University of California Press|location=Berkeley|year=1999|isbn=978-0-520-21701-0}} * Gewald, J. B., et al. ''One Zambia, Many Histories: Towards a History of Post-colonial Zambia'' (Brill, 2008) * Ihonvbere, Julius, ''Economic Crisis, Civil Society and Democratisation: The Case of Zambia'' (Africa Research & Publications, 1996) * LaMonica, Christopher, ''Local Government Matters: The Case of Zambia '' (Lambert Academic Publishing, 2010) * Mcintyre, Charles, ''Zambia'', (Bradt Travel Guides, 2008) * Murphy, Alan and Luckham, Nana, ''Zambia and Malawi'', Lonely Planet Multi Country Guide (Lonely Planet Publications, 2010) * Phiri, Bizeck Jube, ''A Political History of Zambia: From the Colonial Period to the 3rd Republic'' (Africa Research & Publications, 2005) * [[Andrew D. Roberts|Roberts, Andrew]], ''A History of Zambia'' (Heinemann, 1976) * Sardanis, Andrew, ''Africa: Another Side of the Coin: Northern Rhodesia's Final Years and Zambia's Nationhood'' (I. B. Tauris, 2003) {{Refend}} == Vigaŵa vya kuwaro == {{Sister project links|Zambia|voy=Zambia}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20050619081520/http://www.statehouse.gov.zm/ Official government website] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050619081520/http://www.statehouse.gov.zm/|date=19 June 2005}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20210126032804/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/zambia/ Zambia]. ''[[:en:The_World_Factbook|The World Factbook]]''. [[:en:Central_Intelligence_Agency|Central Intelligence Agency]]. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20140420184253/http://business-anti-corruption.com/country-profiles/sub-saharan-africa/zambia/business-corruption-in-zambia.aspx Zambia Corruption Profile] from the [[:en:Business-Anti-Corruption_Portal|Business Anti-Corruption Portal]] * {{curlie|Regional/Africa/Zambia}} * [https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14112449 Zambia profile] from [[:en:BBC_News|BBC News]] * {{wikiatlas|Zambia}} * [http://www.ifs.du.edu/ifs/frm_CountryProfile.aspx?Country=ZM Key Development Forecasts for Zambia] from [[:en:International_Futures|International Futures]] * [http://wits.worldbank.org/CountryProfile/Country/ZMB/Year/2011/Summary World Bank Summary Trade Statistics Zambia] * [http://phys.org/news/2013-03-early-human-fossil-africa-debut.html First early human fossil found in Africa makes debut] {{Zambia topics|state=expanded}}{{Navboxes|list={{Countries of Africa|state=expanded}} {{African Union|state=expanded}} {{Southern African Development Community|state=expanded}} {{Commonwealth of Nations|state=expanded}}}}{{Authority control}} 8fe3s3jgtmp0vcq7367fq021bqda1hh 0 24505 119331 109796 2026-08-13T23:07:16Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260813sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 119331 wikitext text/x-wiki Mu [[Malaŵi]], makhoti ghakumanyikwa na zina lakuti Makhoti Ghakuthupi panji Makhoti Ghakunozgekera (Local Courts) ghakaŵako mu vyaka vya m'ma 1900 kuti ghapwelelerenge pa milandu ya ŵanthu na kususka milandu. Kwambira mu 1970, makhoti gha vigaŵa ghakaŵako ndipo ghakapika mazaza pa milandu yose ya ŵanthu ŵa ku Malawi. Makhoti ghakale ghakeneranga kulondezga malango gha mu Africa, nangauli ghakaŵa na malango ghakutemwera, ghakukanizga, na ghakukanizga. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1970 na 1980, makhoti agha ghakaŵa na mbiri yakuti ghakaŵasuzganga awo ŵakasuskanga Banda. Pamanyuma pa kuwezgerapo ndyali za vyaru vinandi, makhoti gha vigaŵa na khoti lakwamba la apilu ghakamara mu 1993. Makhoti ghanandi ghakale ghakazgoka makhoti gha ŵeruzgi, ndipo ghakaŵanga na wanangwa wakulondezga malango gha cikaya. Dango la Malawi la 1994 likati malango gha cikaya ni cigaŵa ca malango ndipo likati makhoti gha cikaya ghaŵe na mazaza ghachoko pa milandu ya wanangwa wa ŵanthu na ya milandu yichoko waka, kweni pakaŵavya malango agho ghakakhazikiska makhoti agha mpaka mu 2011. Mu Febuluwale 2011, Nyumba ya Malamulo ya ku Malawi yikazomerezga dango lakuti makhoti ghakulondezga malango gha ku malo agha ghaŵeso na milandu yinandi ya ŵanthu na milandu yinyake yichoko waka.<ref name="TN01">{{cite news|last=Sonani|first=Bright|title=Govt to create local courts|url=http://www.nationmw.net/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=13065:govt-to-create-local-courts&catid=1:national-news&Itemid=3|accessdate=5 February 2011|newspaper=The Nation|date=20 January 2011|location=Blantyre, Malawi}}</ref> Pa Meyi 2017, malango agha ghakaŵa kuti ghandambe kugwira ntchito chifukwa cha suzgo la ndalama. == Mbiri ya malango gha kakhaliro == Mu nyengo iyo ŵanthu ŵakakhalanga mu vyaru vinyake, malango gha mu Africa ghakaŵa na malango ghakwendera. Dango la cikaya la ku Africa likuyowoya comene za kumazga mphindano kuluska kulanga ŵanthu awo ŵabuda. Mu vyaru vinandi vya mu Africa, malango ghakulondezga maluso gha ŵanthu ghakumanyikwa makora yayi kuti ni vigeŵenga. Ndipouli, milandu yinyake, nga ni kukoma ŵapapi, kucita uleŵi, panji ufwiti, yikaŵa yikuru comene mwakuti yikawonekanga nga ni milandu yakwimikana na ŵanthu.<ref>T O Elias, (1972). The Nature of African Customary Law, Manchester University Press, pp. 110-12, 116 . {{ISBN|978-0-7190-0221-2}}.</ref> Nangauli nyengo zinyake ŵanthu ŵakayowoyanga kuti dango ili likaŵa dango yayi, kweni ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵa ku Africa nga ni Eugene Cotran ŵakulongora kuti likaŵa nadi dango. Cotran wakalongoraso kuti nangauli ŵanthu ŵakuŵa pa maungano ghakupambanapambana, kweni maungano gha ŵanthu awo ŵakuwungana kuti ŵachitenge malango gha cikaya ni makhoti. Ndipouli, mu nyengo ya ukoloni, dango la Cingelezi na ndondomeko za malango vikamba kusangika ndipo vikamba kuŵa vyakukhumbikwa comene kuluska dango la cikaya, ilo likamanyikwanga kuti "dango la cikaya", "dango la cikaya", panji "dango la cikaya". Ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe nawo ŵakakhumbanga kuti malango agha ghaŵe ghakukhora.<ref>E Cotran, (1966). The Place and Future of Customary Law in East Africa in East African Law Today, London, British Institute of International and Comparative Law, pp 72, 82-3.</ref> Kwambira mu 1902, dango la Chingelezi ndilo likaŵa dango lakwamba mu charu cha Nyasaland. Dango la cikaya likazomerezgekanga (kweni likaŵa lakukhumbikwa yayi) mu milandu iyo yikaŵa na ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa, usange dango panji kaluso aka kakususkana yayi na malango gha ku England. Ŵanthu ŵakatenge nkharo iyi njakukwiyiska pa vigaŵa vitatu. Pakuti dango la cikaya likaŵa lakukanizgika mu vigaŵa ivi, ŵalongozgi awo ŵakalondezganga dango ili ŵakaŵa na mazaza ghanandi yayi. Kwambira kuumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1800, boma ili likagaŵika mu vigaŵa, ndipo mu chigaŵa chilichose mukaŵa Mulara wa Ndalama (uyo pamasinda wakachemekanga District Commissioner). Pakwamba, mazaza gha ŵalongozgi ghakaŵa ghacoko comene mwakuti Ŵakusonkha ndiwo ŵakawusanga. Ŵalongozgi awo ŵakakhalanga mu vigaŵa ivi na ŵalongozgi awo ŵakaŵa na mazaza ghachoko, ndiwo ŵakendeskanga vinthu pakati pa boma na ŵanthu. Mu 1933, boma likamba kulamulira ŵanthu mwakudunjika yayi, ndipo ŵalongozgi na makhoti ghawo ghakazgoka maboma gha ŵanthu ŵa ku malo agha. Ndipouli, makhoti agho ghakaŵako mu 1933, ghakaŵa ghakumanyikwa kuti ghakulondezga malango gha cikaya, comenecomene pa nkhani za nthengwa, kuhara, na za wanangwa wa kugwiliskira nchito malo. Makhoti agha ghakaŵa ghapusu na ghamabuchi, ndipo dango la mu 1933 likakanizga ŵanthu awo ŵakweruzgika kuti ŵaleke kwendera malango.<ref>S Roberts, 1963. A Note on Recent Legal Developments in Nyasaland, Journal of African Law, Vol. 7, No. 3, p. 179.</ref> Martin Chanock wakayowoya kuti, cifukwa ca kusintha kwa vinthu pa umoyo wa ŵanthu na vya cuma, ŵanalume ŵalara mu vyaru vinandi vya mu Africa ŵakakhumbanga kuŵika dango lakudunjika pa malango gha cikaya. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe ndiwo ŵakamba kuwona dango lakwendera malango agha kuti ni nthowa yakulangira m'malo mwa kuphalirako ŵanyawo. Kweniso fundo iyi ndiyo yikapangiska nduna yikuru ya ku Malawi, Banda, na nduna ya vya malango Orton Chirwa kususka fundo za mu Chingelezi nga ni fundo yakuti munthu ni murunji yayi. Kuzakafika mu 1969, Aleke Banda, nduna ya vya ndalama, wakasuska mwawanangwa fundo yakuti ŵanthu ŵagwirenge ntchito ya loya na kuvikilira ŵanyawo. Dr. Banda wakayaniska dango lakwamba na cilango, ndipo wakati para palije ukaboni, mbukaboni yayi wakuti munthu ni murunji.<ref>M Chanock (1976) Neo Traditionalism and the Customary Law in Malawi, pp. 80-4. https://web.archive.org/web/20131224101608/http://www.jlp.bham.ac.uk/volumes/16/chanock-art.pdf</ref> == Makhoti ghakumanyikwa == Pambere charu chindambe kujiyimira paŵekha mu 1964, mu 1962, khoti linyake likasintha malango gha khoti la mu 1933. Pamanyuma pa wanangwa, dango ili likasinthika zina kuŵa Dango la Makhoti Ghakale, 1962. Makhoti gha mu vigaŵa agha ghakaŵa ghekha yayi, nga umo vikaŵira na malango gha mu 1933. Dango ili likawovwira kuti mulandu uwu weruzgike mwaurunji, kweniso kuti munthu waŵe na wanangwa wa kuzenga mulandu ku khoti likuru. Dango la mu 1962 likati dango lakwendera maluso likwenera kugwira ntchito pekha usange ndakukolerana na malango ghanyake ghakulembeka. Dango ili likalongosora makora kuti pa milandu ya kuswa malango, makhoti agha ghakeneranga kulondezga malango gha malango agho ghakaŵako kale, m'malo mwa malango gha malango gha malango gha malango gha malango gha ŵanthu. Dango la mu 1963 likapeleka wanangwa wakuti ŵakweruzgika mwakuyana na maghanoghano gha khoti. Kweniso mu 1962, ŵeruzgi ŵa vigaŵa ŵakaleka kuŵa na mazaza ndipo ŵakaloŵeskeka na ŵeruzgi awo ŵakasambizgika malango.<ref>S Roberts, 1963. A Note on Recent Legal Developments in Nyasaland, Journal of African Law, Vol. 7, No. 3, pp. 178-9, 183.</ref><ref>M Nzunda, (1985). Criminal Law in Internal Conflict of Laws in Malaŵi, Journal of African Law, Vol. 29, No. 2, pp. 129-30.</ref> Kufuma mu 1970, Dango la 1969 (Local Courts (Amendment) Act) likasintha ndondomeko ya makhoti. Likakhazikiska makhoti ghatatu gha vigaŵa na khoti lakwamba la apilu ilo likaŵa pachanya pa makhoti gha vigaŵa viŵiri agho ghakakhazikiskika na Dango la mu 1962, ndipo likaŵapa mazaza ghakweruzgira milandu (kusazgapo milandu yose ya kukoma ŵanthu na ya upusikizgi iyo yikakhwaska ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa). Makhoti ghanthena agha ghakaŵa gha vigaŵa viŵiri, makhoti ghakupambanapambana gha ku malo agha, makhoti ghakupambanapambana gha ku malo agha, na makhoti ghakupambanapambana gha ku malo agha. Pa milandu yose iyi, khoti ili likaŵa na mazaza pa milandu ya ŵanthu wose kweniso ya milandu ya vigeŵenga. Nangauli malango gha mulandu agho ghakalembeka mu Dango la ku Malawi, agho ghakafuma mu dango la mu 1930 ghakaŵa ghambura kusintha ndipo ghakaŵa ghakukolerana na Khoti Likuru na makhoti ghakumanyikwa na ŵanthu wose, kweni milandu yikenderanga mwakupambana mu makhoti agha. Makhoti ghakumanyikwa ghakugwiliskira nchito waka vigaŵa vya dango la milandu ivyo mulaŵiliri wa vya urunji wakalangura ndipo ghali na ndondomeko yawo. Iwo ŵakalondezganga yayi malango ghakuyana na agho khoti likulondezga, kweni ŵakalondezganga malango gha mu vigaŵa vyawo. Kanandi ŵakweruzgika pa khoti ilo ŵakasankhanga yayi.<ref>M Nzunda, (1985). Criminal Law in Internal Conflict of Laws in Malaŵi, pp. 138, 140.</ref> TPulezidenti wa Malawi na Chief Traditional Courts Commissioner ŵakaŵa na mazaza ghakulongozga makhoti agha na kughanaghanirapo milandu, ndipo maloya ghakazomerezgekanga yayi kuvikilira ŵanthu awo ŵakakika. Nangauli pakaŵavya wanangwa wakudandawura ku Khoti Likuru, kweni nduna ya vyeruzgo ndiyo yikadandawura ku Khoti Likuru la Vyakudandawura. Ŵakumangalika ŵakaŵa na wanangwa yayi wa kuchema ŵakaboni. Ŵeruzgi ndiwo ŵakasankha (mu nkhani ya Chirwas, ŵakakana), ndipo ŵakapika yayi fundo zakudumura za ivyo ŵakayimbikira mulandu pambere mulandu undayezgeke. Vinthu ivi vikawuskapo fundo zinyake za urunji izo zikaŵa mu Dango la mu 1962, ndipo (mu vigaŵa vinyake) vikawelera ku malango agho ghakaŵa mu Dango la mu 1933.<ref>R Carver, (1990). Where Silence Rules: The Suppression of Dissent in Malawi, Human Rights Watch, p. 32. {{ISBN|978-0-929692-73-9}}.</ref> Kwambira mu Novembala 1971, Dango la Makhoti Ghakutemwera, likazomerezga Nduna ya vya Malango kuti yilongozge kuti makhoti ghanyake gha Chikaya ghategherezge milandu iyo waliyose panji wose awo ŵakususkana nayo mba ku Africa yayi. Dango ili likayowoyangaso kuti mulandu uliwose wa ku khoti la kaluso ungakanikaso yayi pa apilu cifukwa ca suzgo la ndondomeko, ndiposo kuti Chief Traditional Courts Commissioner ndiyo wakweruzgenge nkhani yiliyose yakususkana na dango la "kweruzga mwaurunji" kwambura kughanaghanira vya malango. Nangauli makhoti ghakumanyikwa kuti ghakulondezga malango gha ku Malawi, kweni ghakaŵa na wanangwa wa kuchita nthena mwakuyana na malango gha mu charu ichi. Pa khoti lililose pakaŵa mulongozgi, uyo kanandi wakaŵa mulongozgi, ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵatatu (ŵalongozgi) awo ŵakamanyikwanga kuti ŵeruzgi, na loya yumoza. Ŵalara ŵa makhoti na awo ŵakeruzganga milandu, awo ŵakeneranga kuchindikika na kumanya makora malango gha mu chigaŵa icho khoti ili likenderanga, ŵakimikikanga na Nduna ya vya Malango, Banda. Mubali uyo wakaŵa mulara wa makhoti ghakurughakuru na mulara wa makhoti ghakurughakuru mu vigaŵa ivi, pamanyuma pa kudumbiskana na mulongozgi wa chigaŵa cha Malawi Congress Party, ŵakamuphalira kuti waŵasankhe. Ndondomeko iyi yikawovwiranga kuti awo ŵimikika ŵachitenge vinthu mwakukolerana na fundo za boma. Nangauli ŵanthu ŵakayowoya kuti dango ili likapangika mu 1969 cifukwa ca ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakasuskanga ndondomeko ya vyeruzgo, pamanyuma pakuti boma likutondeka kupeleka cilango pa mulandu wakwamba wa kukoma ŵanthu ŵa ku Chilobwe, kweni ndondomeko iyo yikaŵapo yikaŵa kuti yikususkika kale.<ref name="JAL">{{cite journal|last=Brietzke|first=Paul|title=Murder and Manslaughter in Malawi's Traditional Courts|journal=Journal of African Law|date=Spring 1974|volume=18|issue=1|pages=37–39|jstor=744872|publisher=Cambridge University Press|doi=10.1017/S0021855300012687}}</ref><ref>M Chanock (1976) Neo Traditionalism and the Customary Law in Malawi, p. 84. https://web.archive.org/web/20131224101608/http://www.jlp.bham.ac.uk/volumes/16/chanock-art.pdf</ref> Banda wakagwiliskiranga ntchito makhoti ghanandi kuti wakhazikiske ndondomeko ya malango mu Malawi. Paumaliro, makhoti ghakazgoka nthowa yikuru yakulondezgera malango mu Malawi. Mu makhoti agha, ŵapolisi ŵakaŵa na mazaza ghanandi kuluska mu makhoti ghapachanya.<ref name="jaas">{{cite journal|last=Forster|first=Peter|title=Law and Society under a Democratic Dictatorship: Dr. Banda and Malawi|url=https://archive.org/details/journal-of-asian-and-african-studies_2001_36_3/page/275|journal=Journal of Asian and African Studies|date=August 1, 2001|volume=36|issue=3|pages=275–293|doi=10.1163/156852101753289610|publisher=Brill}}</ref> == Milandu Yikuru ya ku Khoti la Chikaya == Milandu yiŵiri yikuru yikulongora umo makhoti ghakumanyikwa na ŵanthu ghakaŵawovwilira kuti ŵaleke kuyowoya na awo ŵakususka boma la Banda. Panyake suzgo likuru comene ilo likapangiska kuti makhoti gha malango gha mu Malawi ghaleke kwendera malango agha likaŵa mu 1976 apo Albert Muwalo (uyo wakumanyikwaso na zina lakuti Albert Muwalo Nqumayo), Secretary General wa Malawi Congress Party na Focus Gwede, uyo wakaŵa mulara wa ŵapolisi, ŵakeruzgika kuti ŵakayezga kukoma Pulezidenti Banda. Ŵanalume ŵaŵiri aŵa ŵakakolerananga comene na ndyali za boma izo zikaŵa na nkhaza comene mu vyaka vya m'ma 1970, kweni mulandu wawo ukaŵa wakuti ŵakakhumbanga kuwiskira pasi boma ili. Banda wakayowoya kuti para munthu wakukhumba kupoka boma wakwenera kuyowoya waka, kweni pakaŵavya ukaboni wakuti munthu uyu wakachita nadi nthena. Ukaboni wakukwana wakususkana na ŵanalume aŵa ukaŵa wakuti ŵakaŵa na vilwero. Ndipouli, khoti ili likazomerezga makalata ghatatu ghambura maukaboni agho ghakaŵasuskanga ŵanalume aŵa. Kuti wamanye chifukwa cha mulandu uwu, khoti likati Muwalo wakaŵa na vithuzi vya ŵaminisitala awo ŵakachimbira ku Malawi pamanyuma pa suzgo la nduna za boma mu 1964 na mabuku agho khoti likati ghakaŵa ghakubendera boma. Khoti likati para munthu wali waka na vithuzi vya ŵanthu awo ŵakagalukira boma la Malawi, ndikuti ni muwukirano. Pakaŵaso "ukaboni" ucoko comene wakususkana na Gwede, kweni wose ŵaŵiri ŵakakomeka cifukwa ca upusikizgi. Muwalo wakapayikika, kweni Gwede ŵakamulekelera ndipo wakakhala mu jere mpaka mu 1993.<ref>R Carver, (1990). Where Silence Rules: The Suppression of Dissent in Malawi, pp. 33-6.</ref> Nkhani ya Orton Chirwa na muwoli wake, Vera, nayo yikalongora kuti ndondomeko iyi njambura urunji. Paumaliro wa mulandu uwu mu 1983, ŵeruzgi ŵacoko waka awo ŵakaŵa na luso lwa vya malango, ŵakasuska ivyo khoti likadumura, kweni ŵeruzgi ŵanandi awo ŵakaŵa ŵalongozgi ŵa ndyali ŵakakana. Nkhani iyi yikakhwaska Chirwa, uyo wakaŵa loya ndipo wakaŵa nduna ya vya malango mpaka apo boma likakanizgikira mu 1964. Wakacimbira ku Malawi kuya ku Tanzania, uko wakazenga cipani ca ndyali pakati pa ŵanthu ŵa ku Malawi awo ŵakaŵa ku wuzga. Pa nyengo iyo ŵakeruzgikanga, ŵakayowoya kuti ŵakakoleka ku Zambia mu Disembala 1981. Ici, pamoza na mulandu wakuti ŵakanozga vyakuti ŵathereske boma kuwaro kwa Malaŵi, vikeneranga kuti vikang'anamuranga kuti makhoti ghakurughakuru ghakaŵa na mazaza yayi. Mulandu uwu mphanyi ukaŵa kuti uchali ku Khoti Likuru ku Malawi, kweni khoti ili likakhumbanga ukaboni wakuti wali na mulandu. Mulandu wakususkana na boma uwo khoti la Southern Region Traditional Court likadumura mu 1983, ukajintha pa malemba agho ŵakasanga apo ŵakakakika, kweniso ukaboni wa wapolisi wakuti malemba agha ghakalembeka na Orton Chirwa. Mazgu agho Orton Chirwa wakalemba, agho ŵakaghanaghana kuti ghakaŵa ghambura kulembeka, kweniso nkhani iyo wakalemba pa tepi, nayo ghakaŵa ukaboni. Ŵa Chirwa ŵakazomerezgeka yayi kuchema ŵakaboni ŵakufuma ku vyaru vinyake, ndipo wose ŵakeruzgika kuti ŵakomeke. Pa apilu ku National Traditional Court of Appeal, khoti lakwamba likakana kuzomerezga ŵakaboni ŵa kuvikilira, kuzomerezga mazgu ghambura kulembeka na kuzomerezga wapolisi kuŵa kaboni, ndipo ŵeruzgi ŵachoko waka ŵakazomera yayi kuti kupanga malemba ghambura kulembeka na mawoko ghakaŵa nga ni usambazi. Kweniso khoti la apilu likati nangauli makhoti ghakumanyikwa na malango ghakupambana, kweni ghakaŵa na wanangwa wa kweruzga ŵa Chirwa. Kweni Orton Chirwa wakafwira mu jere mu 1992. Vera Chirwa wakafuma mu jere mu 1993 pamanyuma pa kukhala mu jere vyaka vyakujumpha 11, ndipo nyengo zinandi wakaŵanga yekha.<ref>R Carver, (1990). Where Silence Rules: The Suppression of Dissent in Malawi, pp. 37-41.</ref> == Kusintha kwa mu 1994 == Pa nyengo ya kusintha kwa demokilase, mu Okutobala 1993, loya mukuru wa boma wakalekeska ntchito ya makhoti ghatatu gha chigaŵa na khoti lakwamba la apilu. Kulekerathu nchito yawo kwa nyengo yitali kukaŵa nga ni para ŵamara. Pa Meyi 18, 1994, Dango liphya likati lanjira ntchito, likakhazikiska makhoti agho ghakapulikizganga milandu yakukhwaskana na malango gha cikaya. Ŵalongozgi ŵa makhoti ghakurughakuru ŵakimikika kuŵa ŵeruzgi ndipo makhoti ghawo ghakazgoka makhoti gha ŵeruzgi. Makhoti ghanandi ghakale agho ghakazgoka makhoti gha ŵeruzgi ghakaleka kugwira ntchito. Dango la 1994 likazomerezga kuti malango gha kakhaliro ndi chigaŵa chakukhumbikwa mu ndondomeko ya malango ndipo likapeleka malango gha kakhaliro agho ghangaŵa na mazaza ghachoko pa milandu ya wanangwa wa wanangwa wa wanangwa wa wanangwa wa wanangwa wa wanangwa wa wanangwa. Kweni pambere chaka cha 2011 chindafike, pakaŵavya malango agho ghakapanga makhoti agha.<ref>F E Kanyongolo, (2006). Malawi: Justice sector and the Rule of Law, Open Society Initiative for Southern Africa, pp. 43-6. {{ISBN|978-1-920051-32-7}}.</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author2=Fidelis Edge Kanyongolo|title=Courts and the poor in Malawi: Economic marginalization, vulnerability, and the law|journal=International Journal of Constitutional Law|year=2007|volume=5|issue=2|pages=258–293|doi=10.1093/icon/mom002|url=http://icon.oxfordjournals.org/content/5/2/258.short|author=Siri Gloppen|publisher=Oxford University Press|author-link=Siri Gloppen|doi-access=free}}</ref> == Ndondomeko ya Khoti la M'zipatala ya 2011 == Mu 2007, boma la Malawi likakhazikiska komiti kuti yiwoneso usange vingachitika kuti makhoti ghakulondezga malango gha mu charu ghaŵeso. Boma likati lamara kughanaghanirapo fundo izi, likapeleka dango lakuti makhoti gha mu vigaŵa ghaŵikengepo milandu yinyake. Mu 2011, khoti la ku malo likapanga makhoti gha ku malo agho ghakupwelelera chomene milandu ya kusesa kweniso kusesa. Ŵandyali na ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakuvikilira wanangwa wa ŵanthu ŵa ku Malawi ŵakususka dango ili, ndipo ŵakuliwona nga ni ndondomeko ya makhoti gha Kangaroo agho ghangagwiliskirika nchito pa nkhani za ndyali. Ibrahim Matola wa United Democratic Front wakati makhoti ghapelekenge mazaza ghanandi ku ŵalongozgi ŵa vigaŵa ndipo ghangasintha kuŵa "ndondomeko ya nkhaza". Mulongozgi wa chipani chakususka John Tembo wakususka ndondomeko iyi pakuti yikukolerana yayi na demokilase ya vyaru vinandi. Chipani cha Malawi Congress Party nacho chikanena kuti ndondomeko iyi njambura kuzomerezgeka na dango. Mulara wa milandu wa ku Malawi, Anthony Kamanga, wakususka fundo iyi, ndipo wakuti Dango la Malawi likuzomerezga kuti makhoti gha mu vigaŵa vyawo ghagwirenge nchito mwakufupiskako. Nduna ya vya Malango ya ku Malawi, George Chaponda, nayo wakuvikilira dango ili, wakuyowoya kuti milandu yikuru yizamweruzgika yayi na makhoti gha mu charu ichi. Chaponda wakuti mapulani agha ngakutemweka na ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Malawi, ndipo awo ŵakumususka ŵakukolerana yayi na umo charu ichi chikambira.<ref name="NT01">{{cite news|last=Chiumia|first=Thom|title=Chaponda says Malawians were consulted on Local Courts|url=http://www.nyasatimes.com/national/chaponda-says-malawians-were-consulted-on-local-courts.html|accessdate=5 February 2011|newspaper=Nyasa Times|date=4 February 2011}}</ref> Dango ili likaŵa na makhoti gha vigaŵa viŵiri: makhoti gha chigaŵa agho ghakaŵa mu vigaŵa vyose 27 vya Malawi, chomenechomene ku mizi, na makhoti gha chigaŵa gha apilu. Pa mulandu uwu, khoti likuru likulongozgeka na makhoti gha cigaŵa. Khoti lililose la ku malo agha na la District Appeals Local Court liŵenge na mulaŵiliri, uyo wakwenera kuŵa loya yayi, kweni wali na masambiro ghakwenelera, wakuyowoya makora Cingelezi, ndiposo wakumanya makora malango gha cikaya ndiposo ciyowoyero ca mu cigaŵa ico khoti ili likuteŵetera. Kweniso makhoti gha mu vigaŵa ivi ghakuŵa na ŵanthu awo ŵakupeleka ulongozgi pa nkhani ya malango gha cikaya. Uyo wakuwona vya ndalama wakwenera kuŵa na vyaka 50. Makhoti gha ku malo agha ghakaŵavya mazaza pa milandu ya ŵanthu awo ŵakaŵa na malo panji malo ghakukhalapo, kuhara katundu uyo wakeneranga kulongozgeka na ŵabonda, nkhani za ufwiti, panji za udindo wa mulongozgi. Ici cikovwira kuti upusikizgi ulutilire. Ŵanthu ŵakudandawura kuti makhoti gha ku malo agha, agho ghakuchemeka makhoti ghakumanyikwa na ŵanthu wose, ghakulipira ndalama zinandi chomene kuti ghamare mphindano.<ref>MANA Online, (2013). https://web.archive.org/web/20181030073210/http://www.manaonline.gov.mw/index.php/national/general/item/1927-trad-courts</ref> == Umo vinthu viliri kufuma mu 2012 == Nangauli Nyumba ya Malamulo yikapeleka dango ili mu mwezi wa Febuluwale mu 2011, kweni pakususkana chomene, pulezidenti Bingu wa Mutharika wakazomerezga kuti dango ili lipelekeke ku Malawi Law Commission, ilo likaŵa kuti lindamalizge kughanaghanirapo apo pulezidenti wakafwira mu Epulero 2012. Purezidenti watsopano Joyce Banda adatsimikizira kuti kuwunikaku kuyenera kupitilirabe koma chisankho cha Purezidenti mu Meyi 2014 cha Peter Mutharika, mchimwene wake wa Bingu wa Mutharika komanso mawu ochokera ku Law Commission akuti palibe cholakwika chilichonse ndi Lamulo la 2011 chidatsiriza kuwunikaku. Ndipouli, nangauli boma la Malaŵi likuwona kuti ntchakukhumbikwa kupeleka ndondomeko ya urunji ku ŵanthu ŵakavu ŵa ku mizi, kweni lilije ndalama zakukwana zakwendeskera ndondomeko iyi.<ref>J M Ubink, (2016). Access vs. Justice: Customary Courts and Political Abuse-Lessons from Malawi’s Local Courts Act, University of California School of Law Legal Studies Research Paper Series No. 2016-57, pp. 748-9, 780-1.</ref> == Ukaboni == <references group="" responsive="1"></references> jx7caifrlb4isw3we64dtu9jk3avx31 0 25591 119308 118865 2026-08-13T22:19:35Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260813sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 119308 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|History of the African region}} {{Nkhani iwemi}} [[File:African-civilizations-map-pre-colonial.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:African-civilizations-map-pre-colonial.svg|right|thumb|Vyaru vya ku Africa ivyo vikaŵako pambere charu chindambe kulamulira]] [[File:Map-Africa-Regions-Islands.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map-Africa-Regions-Islands.png|thumb|312x312px|Mapu gha ndyali gha mu nyengo yithu ya sono gha mu Africa (Kukusazgapo vyaru vya ku Sub-Saharan Africa na North Africa)]] [[File:Obelisk_Luxor.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Obelisk_Luxor.JPG|right|thumb|Chikhuni cha malibwe mu tempile la Luxor, Egypt. c. 1200 B.C.E.]] [[File:Rytter_fra_Bagirmi.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Rytter_fra_Bagirmi.jpg|thumb|Msilikari wa ku Baguirmi uyo wali na vyakuvwara vyakofya, kwamba m'ma 1900.]] {{Human history}} Mbiri ya [[Africa]] yikamba na kuwoneka kwa ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa hominid, ŵanthu ŵakale na  vyaka pafupifupi 300,000 - 250,000 vyaka vyajumphapo.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Evolution of Modern Humans: Early Modern Homo sapiens |url=https://www2.palomar.edu/anthro/homo2/mod_homo_4.htm |access-date=2020-05-27 |website=www2.palomar.edu}}</ref> Mbiri yakwambilira iyo yikumanyikwa yikalembeka mu [[Eguputo]] wakale, ndipo pamasinda mu Nubia, [[Sahel]], Maghreb, na ku [[Horn of Africa]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://study.com/learn/lesson/early-african-civilizations-history-culture-achievements.html#:~:text=The%20first%20civilization%20in%20Africa,a%20united%20kingdom%20of%20Egypt. |access-date=2023-01-22 |website=study.com}}</ref> Pamanyuma pa kuzgoka kwa [[Sahara]] kuŵa mapopa, mbiri ya kumpoto kwa [[Africa]] yikakhwaskana na Middle East na [[Southern Europe]] apo banthu ŵakamba kufumako ku Cameroon (Central West Africa) mu vigaŵa vinandi vya sub-Saharan pakati pa 1000 BC na 1 AD.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Visit Africa: History of Africa |url=https://visitafrica.site/history-of-africa.html |access-date=2020-05-27 |website=visitafrica.site}}</ref> Mu vyaka vyapakati pa 500 na 1500 C.E., chisopa cha Cisilamu chikamba kusazgikira kufuma ku Arabia m'paka ku Eguputo. Vyaru vinyake ivyo vikaŵako pambere charu chindambe kulamulira mu Africa vikaŵa Ufumu wa Ajuran, Ufumu wa Bachwezi, Ufumu wa D'mt, Ufumu wa Adal, Ufumu wa Alodia, Ufumu wa Dagbon, Ufumu wa Warsangali, Ufumu wa Buganda, Ufumu wa Nri, Chikhalidwe cha Nok, Ufumu wa Mali, Ufumu wa Bono, Ufumu wa Songhai, Ufumu wa Benin, Ufumu wa Oyo, Ufumu wa Lunda (Punu-yaka), Ufumu wa Ashanti, Ufumu wa Ghana, Ufumu wa Mossi, Ufumu wa Mutapa, Ufumu wa Mapungubwe, Ufumu wa Sine, Ufumu wa Sennar, Ufumu wa Saloum, Ufumu wa Baol, Ufumu wa Cayor, Ufumu wa Zimbabwe, Ufumu wa Congo, Ufumu wa Kaabu, Ufumu wa Ife, Ise, Carthage wakale, Numidia, Mauretania, na Ufumu wa Aksumite. Pa nyengo iyo caru ca Africa cikaŵa cakutowa comene, pambere ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe ŵandambe kulamulira caru ici, ŵanthu ŵakaghanaghananga kuti mu Africa mukaŵa vyaru vyakupambanapambana 10,000 na magulu gha ŵanthu ŵakujiwusa ŵekha, awo ŵakayowoyanga viyowoyero na mitheto yakupambanapambana.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Meyerowitz|first=Eva L. R.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F3lyAAAAMAAJ|title=The Early History of the Akan States of Ghana|date=1975|publisher=Red Candle Press|isbn=9780608390352}}</ref><ref>[http://newswatch.nationalgeographic.com/2013/10/31/getting-to-know-africa-50-facts/ Africa Information]</ref> Kwambira kuumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1400, ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe ŵakamba kuguliska ŵazga.<ref name="auto">{{cite web |title=The Portuguese in Africa, 1415–1600 |url=https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/agex/hd_agex.htm |access-date=26 January 2021 |website=www.metmuseum.org}}</ref> Mu vyaru ivi mukaŵa malonda gha ŵanthu ŵatatu. Pakwamba Ŵapwitikizi ŵakaguliskanga ŵazga, ndipo pamasinda ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito nkhaza. Ŵakatumanga ŵazga ŵa ku West, Central, na Southern Africa.<ref>{{Cite web |title=African Slave Trade, 1788 |url=http://www.eyewitnesstohistory.com/slavetrade.htm}}</ref> Pamanyuma, ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe ŵakamba kuzunura charu cha Africa kufuma pa 10% (1870) kufika pa 90% (1914) mu nyengo ya nkhondo ya ku Africa (1881-1914). Ndipouli, pamanyuma pa kulimbana kwa wanangwa mu vigaŵa vinandi vya caru ici, kweniso kupeleŵera kwa caru ca Europe pamanyuma pa Nkhondo Yaciŵiri ya Caru Cose (1939-1945), caru cose cikamba kuzgoka caru ca Africa. Vinthu vinyake nga ni kulemba mbiri ya ŵanthu, kusanda malulimi, kusanda vinthu vyakale, na sayansi ya majini, vikawovwira chomene kuti ŵanthu ŵa mu Africa ŵamanye umo vinthu vikaŵira kale. == Mbili ya chiyamwaka == {{Further|Mbili ya kumwera kwa Africa|Sub-Saharan Africa#Prehistory|Mbili ya Kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Africa|History of Central Africa#Prehistory|History of East Africa#Prehistory|Horn of Africa#Prehistory|History of Southern Africa#Prehistory|African archaeology}} === Mbili yamu nyengo yachiyamwaka ya malibwe === {{Main|Lower Paleolithic|Middle Stone Age|Later Stone Age}} ==== Lower Paleolithic ==== [[File:Bienvenida_al_Museo_de_Lucy.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bienvenida_al_Museo_de_Lucy.jpg|thumb|Reconstruction of "[[:en:Lucy_(Australopithecus)|Lucy]]"]] Ŵanthu ŵakwambilira awo ŵakamanyikwa ŵakaŵa ŵa ku Africa. Kuyana na ivyo ŵasayansi ŵakuyowoya, viwangwa vya ŵanthu ŵakwambilira vikaŵa vyakuyana waka na vya gorila na chimpanzee. Ici cikaŵawovwira comene kuti ŵakhalenge mu nkhorongo kweniso mu malo ghambura makuni, nangauli mu nyengo iyi mu Africa mukaŵa vyakumera vinandi. Ivi vikwenera kuti vikachitika vyaka 10 m'paka 5 miliyoni ivyo vyajumpha, kweni ŵanthu ŵakususkana navyo chifukwa ŵasayansi ŵakuwona kuti ŵanthu ŵakaŵako vyaka 70,000 m'paka 200,000 ivyo vyajumpha. Pafupifupi vyaka 4 miliyoni ivyo vyajumpha, mitundu yinandi ya vikoko vya mu vigaŵa vya kumwera, kumafumiro gha dazi, na ku Central Africa yikamba kuŵako. Ŵanthu aŵa ŵakagwiliskiranga nchito vinthu na kupanga vinthu. Ŵakasanga nyama ndipo ŵakaryanga vyose..{{sfnp|Shillington|2005|p=2}} Pafupifupi vyaka 3.3 miliyoni ivyo vyajumpha, ŵanthu ŵakamba kugwiliskira ntchito visulo vya malibwe pakusanga nyama izo zikakomeka na vinyama vinyake. Pa nyengo ya ulovi, munthu uyu wakwenera kuti wakalimbananga na vinyama vikuruvikuru yayi. H. habilis wakwenera kuti wakibanga mazira mu viŵaya ndipo wakakozganga nyama zichoko waka na kuchepeska nyama zikuruzikuru. Vinthu ivi vikaŵa vya Oldowan.{{sfnp|Shillington|2005|pp=2–3}} Pafupifupi vyaka 1.8 miliyoni ivyo vyajumpha, ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Homo ergaster ŵakalembeka kakwamba mu malibwe mu Africa. Kufuma ku Homo ergaster, Homo erectus wakasintha vyaka 1.5 miliyoni ivyo vyajumpha. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakwambilira ŵa mtundu uwu ŵakaŵa ŵachoko chomene mu wongo ndipo ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito visulo vya malibwe nga ni H. habilis. Nyengo yikati yajumphapo, wongo ukakura chomene, ndipo H. erectus wakapangaso vinthu vinyake vyakuzirwa chomene. Munthu uyu ndiyo wakaŵa wakwamba kufumamo mu Africa, ndipo wakafika mu vyaru vinandi vya ku Africa na Eurasia. Nangauli ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakuti munthu wakwamba uyo wakaŵako kuwaro kwa Africa wakaŵa Homo georgicus, kweni ŵasayansi ŵanandi ŵakuti munthu wakwamba uyo wakaŵako kuwaro kwa Africa ni H. georgicus.{{sfnmp|Shillington|2005|Ehret|2002|1p=3|2p=22}} ==== Middle Paleolithic ==== [[File:Pieza_foliácea_africana.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pieza_foli%C3%A1cea_africana.jpg|right|thumb|Vinthu vya ku Africa ivyo vili na visko viŵiri (mphumphu) ivyo vikulongora kuti vikaŵako mu nyengo ya malibwe]] Vinthu vyakale ivyo vili kulembeka vikulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Homo sapiens (awo ŵakuchemekaso kuti "ŵanthu ŵa mazuŵa ghano" panji "ŵanthu ŵa mazuŵa ghano") ŵakakhalanga mu Africa vyaka 350,000 m'paka 260,000 ivyo vyajumpha. Vinthu vyakale chomene ivyo ŵanthu ŵakumanya kuti ni vinyama vya Homo sapiens ni Jebel Irhoud ivyo vili kufuma ku Morocco (pafupifupi vyaka 315,000 ivyo vyajumpha), Florisbad Skull wa ku South Africa (pafupifupi vyaka 259,000 ivyo vyajumpha), na Omo uyo wali kufuma ku Ethiopia (pafupifupi vyaka 233,000 ivyo vyajumpha). Ŵasayansi ŵakuti ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Homo sapiens ŵakamba kuŵako pakati pa vyaka 350,000 na 260,000 ivyo vyajumpha. Ukaboni wa nkharo zakupambanapambana ukulongora kuti nkharo za ŵanthu zikamba mu nyengo ya malibwe iyo yikaŵa ku Africa. Mu nyengo iyi, ŵanthu ŵakamba kuwona vinthu vyambura kuwoneka makora, umo ŵanthu ŵakukhala makora, kweniso nkharo zinyake izo ŵanthu ŵakuchita mazuŵa ghano. Mwaciyelezgero, mu mphanji ya Blombos, ku South Africa, ŵanthu ŵakumanyikwa comene cifukwa ca malibwe ghakututuŵa agho ghali na vithuzithuzi. Pakugwiliskira ntchito nthowa zinandi zakupimira vyaka, ŵakamanya kuti malo agha ghakaŵako vyaka vyapakati pa 77,000 na 75,000. Mu Diepkloof, South Africa, ŵakasangamo viŵiya ivyo vikaŵa na viwangwa vya tuyuni uto pakalembeka maukaboni agho ghakalembeka vyaka 60,000 ivyo vyajumpha. Vinthu vinyake vyakusongoneska vyakusangika ku Morocco ivyo vingaŵa kuti vili na vyaka 130,000. Kweniso, mu mphanji ya Hearths ku South Africa muli vinthu vinandi ivyo vikulongora kuti vikaŵa vyaka 50,000 ivyo vyajumpha. Zida zapadera zakhala zikupezeka m'malo osiyanasiyana ku Middle Stone Age Africa, kuphatikizapo mafupa ndi mivi ya mivi ku malo a South Africa monga Sibudu Cave (pamodzi ndi singano yoyambirira ya mafupa yomwe inapezekanso ku Sibudu) kuyambira pafupifupi zaka 60,000-70,000 zapitazo, ndi ma harpoon a mafupa ku malo a Katanda ku Central Africa kuyambira pafupifupi zaka 90,000 zapitazo. Pali ukaboni wakuti malibwe gha silcrete ghakapangikanga mwakukhazikika kuti ghaŵe ghakutowa chomene, ndipo ghakamba kupangika vyaka 164,000 ivyo vyajumpha pa malo gha Pinnacle Point ku South Africa. Vinthu vyakwambilira ivyo ŵanthu ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito pakugwiliskira ntchito vilwero vya malibwe (viŵiya ivyo ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Homo sapiens ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito), ni viŵiya vya malibwe ivyo ŵanthu ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito pakugwiliskira ntchito mikondo, ndipo vikasangika mu 2013 ku Gademotta ku Ethiopia.<ref name="SahlePLOS1">{{Cite journal|last1=Sahle|first1=Y.|last2=Hutchings|first2=W. K.|last3=Braun|first3=D. R.|last4=Sealy|first4=J. C.|last5=Morgan|first5=L. E.|last6=Negash|first6=A.|last7=Atnafu|first7=B.|editor1-last=Petraglia|editor1-first=Michael D|title=Earliest Stone-Tipped Projectiles from the Ethiopian Rift Date to >279,000 Years Ago|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0078092|journal=PLOS ONE|volume=8|issue=11|page=e78092|year=2013|pmid=24236011|pmc=3827237|bibcode=2013PLoSO...878092S|doi-access=free}}</ref> [[File:Homo_naledi_facial_reconstruction.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Homo_naledi_facial_reconstruction.jpg|left|thumb|190x190px|Vikuwoneka kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa ŵakamba kukhala pamoza na ŵanthu ŵa mazuŵa ghano vyaka pafupifupi 300,000 ivyo vyajumpha.]] Mu 2008, ku Blombos Cave, South Africa, ŵakasanga malo agho ŵanthu ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito kupenta. Kufufuza uku kukulongora kuti mu viswaswa viŵiri ivi mukaŵa viswaswa vinandi ivyo vikaŵa na viswaswa vinandi. Ukaboni ukulongora kuti ntchito iyi yikaŵa yakusuzga chomene, nga ni kusanga na kusazga vinthu vyakufuma ku malo ghakupambanapambana (kulongora kuti ŵanthu aŵa ŵakamanyanga makora umo ŵangachitira), panji ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito vyakupangira mafuta kuti ŵafumiskemo mafuta mu viwangwa, ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito nthowa yinyake kuti ŵapangire munkhwala uwu, kweniso ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito viŵiya vyakupimira visulo pakusazga na kusunga kuti ŵazakawusange munthazi.<ref name="bbc.com-15257259">{{cite news|last=Amos|first=Jonathan|author-link=Jonathan Amos|title=A Cultural Leap at the Dawn of Humanity – Ancient 'paint factory' unearthed|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-15257259|date=13 October 2011|work=[[BBC News]]|access-date=13 October 2011}}</ref><ref name="Washington Post-2011/10/12/gIQApyHrhL">{{cite news|last=Vastag|first=Brian|author-link=Brian Vastag|title=South African cave yields paint from dawn of humanity|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/national/health-science/african-cave-yields-paint-from-dawn-of-humanity/2011/10/12/gIQApyHrhL_story.html|date=13 October 2011|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|access-date=13 October 2011}}</ref><ref name="Henshilwood et al. 2011">{{cite journal|last1=Henshilwood|first1=Christopher S.|display-authors=etal|year=2011|title=A 100,000-Year-Old Ochre-Processing Workshop at Blombos Cave, South Africa|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_2011-10-14_334_6053/page/219|journal=Science|volume=334|issue=6053|pages=219–222|doi=10.1126/science.1211535|pmid=21998386|bibcode=2011Sci...334..219H|s2cid=40455940}}</ref> Vinthu ivyo ŵanthu ŵakuchita mazuŵa ghano, nga nkhupangira tumabango, viŵiya, na vinthu vinyake vyamalibwe, vikulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito vinthu vyamalibwe vyaka 78,000 m'paka 67,000 ivyo vyajumpha. Ŵanthu ŵakuwona kuti nkharo ya ŵanthu yikusintha chomene chifukwa cha kupenja nyama zinandi. Malo ghanandi ku South Africa ghakulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵakamba kugomezga chomene visomba. Ku Pinnacle Point, ŵanthu ŵakamba kugwiliskira ntchito vinthu vya mu nyanja vyaka 120,000 ivyo vyajumpha. Mwaciyelezgero, para ŵanthu ŵakuthemba chomene visomba ivyo vili na visomba ivi, ŵangaleka kwendera lumoza na ŵanthu ŵanyake. Mphanji ya Blombos na malo gha 440 mu Sudan, ghose ghakulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵakaloŵanga somba. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakuti visomba ivyo vikusangika mu mphanji ya Blombos vikaŵa vyamoyo. Ŵanthu ku North Africa (Nazlet Sabaha, Egypt) ŵakamanyikwanga kuti ŵakagwiranga nchito ya kujimira malibwe, vyaka 100,000 ivyo vyajumpha, kuti ŵapangire visulo vya malibwe.<ref>{{Cite web |author=Yvan Dionne |date=Aug 19, 2014 |title=5 Oldest Mines in the World: A Casual Survey |url=https://www.promine.com/blog/5-oldest-mines-in-the-world-a-casual-survey |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190105054434/https://www.promine.com/blog/5-oldest-mines-in-the-world-a-casual-survey |archive-date=2019-01-05 |access-date=2019-10-31 |work=Promine AutoCAD Tip of the Week}}</ref><ref name="Records2015">{{cite book|title=Guinness World Records 2016|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f896CgAAQBAJ&pg=PA27|date=10 September 2015|publisher=Guinness World Records|isbn=978-1-910561-03-4|page=27}}</ref> [[File:Spreading_homo_sapiens_la.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Spreading_homo_sapiens_la.svg|thumb|290x290px|Vinthu vinyake ivyo vikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵambeso kuŵa na nkharo ziheni ni Homo erectus (yayiwulu), Homo neanderthalensis (ochre), na Homo sapiens (red).]] Mu 2018, pa malo gha Olorgesailie, ku Kenya, pakaŵa ukaboni wakuti ŵanthu ŵakamba kuchita vinthu nga umo ŵakuchitira mazuŵa ghano. Awo ŵakalemba mabuku ghatatu gha mu 2018 ŵakayowoya kuti ukaboni wa nkharo izi ukusangika mu nyengo ya ŵanthu ŵakwambilira awo ŵakaŵako mu Africa (nga ni awo ŵakaŵako ku Jebel Irhoud na Florisbad). Mu 2019, ukaboni unyake wakuti kukaŵa vilwero vyakugwiliskira ntchito futi ku Africa ukasangika ku Adouma, Ethiopia vyaka 80,000-100,000 ivyo vyajumpha.<ref name="Sahle">{{Cite journal|title=Assessment of complex projectiles in the early Late Pleistocene at Aduma, Ethiopia|journal=PLOS ONE|volume=14|issue=5|page=e0216716|year=2018|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0216716|pmid=31071181|pmc=6508696|vauthors=Sahle Y, Brooks AS|bibcode=2019PLoSO..1416716S|doi-access=free}}</ref> ==== Upper Paleolithic ==== Pakati pa vyaka 65,000 na 50,000 ivyo vyajumpha, ŵanthu ŵakamba kukhala mu vyaru vinyake. Kuzakafika mu 10,000 B.C.E., ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Homo sapiens ŵakaŵa kuti ŵafika mu vigaŵa vinandi vya ku Africa na Eurasia. Kusakaza kwawo kukulongosoreka na maukaboni gha chiyowoyero, mitheto na majini. Kusama kwa ku Eurasia, comenecomene kusama kwa ku Western-Eurasia, kukayamba mu nyengo ya Holocene panji kale comene mu nyengo ya Paleolithic, nyengo zinyake pakati pa vilimika 30-15,000 ivyo vyajumpha, kulondezgana na kusama kwa nyengo ya Neolithic na Neolithic kufuma ku Middle East, comenecomene ku Northern Africa, Horn of Africa, na vigaŵa vikuruvikuru vya Sahel zone na East Africa.<ref name="Vicente 8–15">{{Cite journal|last1=Vicente|first1=Mário|last2=Schlebusch|first2=Carina M|date=2020-06-01|title=African population history: an ancient DNA perspective|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0959437X20300599|journal=Current Opinion in Genetics & Development|series=Genetics of Human Origin|language=en|volume=62|pages=8–15|doi=10.1016/j.gde.2020.05.008|pmid=32563853|s2cid=219974966|issn=0959-437X}}</ref> [[File:Pre-Neolithic_and_Neolithic_migration_events_in_Africa_(excluding_Basal-West-Eurasian_geneflow_during_the_Paleolithic).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pre-Neolithic_and_Neolithic_migration_events_in_Africa_(excluding_Basal-West-Eurasian_geneflow_during_the_Paleolithic).jpg|thumb|Vinthu ivyo vikachitika pambere nyengo ya Neolithic na Neolithic yindambe ku Africa.<ref name="Vicente 8–15" />]] Ukaboni wakwambilira wa umo vinthu vya mu mlengalenga vikachitikiranga ni kalendara ya mwezi iyo yikasangika pa chiwangwa cha Ishango icho chili pakati pa 23,000 na 18,000 B.C.E. mu charu icho sono chikuchemeka Democratic Republic of Congo. Ndipouli, ŵanthu ŵakususkana na fundo iyi. Ŵasayansi ŵakuti nkhondo yikaŵako yayi mu nyengo yakale chomene, ndipo yikafuma mu ndyali zakusuzga chomene chifukwa ŵanthu ŵakakhalanga mwakufwasa yayi. Ndipouli, ivyo vikasangika pa malo gha Nataruk mu chigaŵa cha Turkana, ku Kenya, uko kukaŵa viwangwa vya ŵanthu 27 awo ŵakafwa cifukwa ca kuwukilika na gulu linyake vyaka 10,000 ivyo vyajumpha, vikulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵakamba kale comene kulimbana.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Inter-group violence among early Holocene hunter-gatherers of West Turkana, Kenya|journal=Nature|pages=394–398|volume=529|issue=7586|doi=10.1038/nature16477|first1=M. Mirazón|last1=Lahr|first2=F.|last2=Rivera|first3=R.K.|last3=Power|first4=A.|last4=Mounier|first5=B.|last5=Copsey|first6=F.|last6=Crivellaro|first7=J.E.|last7=Edung|first8=J.M. Maillo|last8=Fernandez|first9=C.|last9=Kiarie|bibcode=2016Natur.529..394L|pmid=26791728|year=2016|s2cid=4462435|url=https://www.repository.cam.ac.uk/handle/1810/253726}}</ref> === Emergence of agriculture and desertification of the Sahara === {{Further|Neolithic Revolution#In Africa}} [[File:Journal.pone.0076514.g004.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Journal.pone.0076514.g004.png|thumb|290x290px|Vegetation and water bodies in early [[:en:Holocene|Holocene]] (top), between about 12,000 and 7,000 years ago, and [[:en:Eemian|Eemian]] (bottom)]] Pafupifupi mu 16,000 B.C.E., kufuma ku mapiri gha ku Nyanja Yiswesi m'paka ku mapiri gha kumpoto kwa Ethiopia, ŵanthu ŵakamba kuwunjika mphangwe, vyakumera, na vipasi kuti ŵarye. Kuzakafika mu 13,000 na 11,000 B.C.E., ŵanthu ŵakamba kuwunjika vyakurya vyamuthengere. Ivi vikafika mu vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Asia, uko ŵanthu ŵakamba kulima tirigu na balere. Pakati pa 10,000 na 8000 B.C.E., kumpoto kwa Africa kukaŵa vyakurya vya tirigu na balere kweniso mberere na ng'ombe za ku Southwest Asia. Mu Africa, nyengo yakotcha yikapangiska mapiri gha ku Ethiopia kuŵa nkhorongo. Ŵanthu awo ŵakayowoyanga chiyowoyero cha Omo ŵakamba kukhala ku malo agha cha m'ma 6500-5500 B.C.E. Pafupifupi chaka cha 7000 B.C.E., ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga mu vigaŵa vya mapiri vya ku Ethiopia ŵakamba kuzengera mbunda, ndipo mu 4000 B.C.E., mbunda zikafika mu vyaru vya kumwera kwa Asia. Ŵanthu awo ŵakayowoyanga Cushitic, ŵakaleka kuliska ng'ombe, teff na chiŵegha pakati pa 5500 na 3500 BC. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1000 B.C.E., ŵanthu ŵakamba kupanga viŵiya ku Africa, ndipo viŵiya vyakwambilira chomene vikafuma ku Mali. Nyengo yichoko waka, nthenda iyi yikathandazgika mu vigaŵa vyose vya kumwera kwa Sahara na Sahel. Mu vigaŵa vya mapiri gha Sahara na Sahel ku North West Africa, ŵanthu awo ŵakayowoyanga chiyowoyero cha Nilo-Saharan na ŵanthu ŵa Mandé ŵakamba kuwunjika na kuliska mphoza, mpunga wa ku Africa, na sorghum pakati pa 8000 na 6000 B.C.E. Nyengo yikati yajumphapo, ŵanthu ŵakambaso kuvuna na kupwelelera viŵeto nga ni nkhaka, mphoza, mbuto za castor, na thonje. Ŵanthu ŵakamba kukora viŵeto vya mu thengere na kuviŵika mu viŵaya vyaminga. Mu milonga na nyanja zinandi izo zikaŵako cifukwa ca vula, ŵanthu ŵakaloŵanga comene pa somba. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Mande ndiwo ŵakamba kulima pafupifupi 4000-3000 BC. Mu vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Africa, nkhorongo yikakura chomene kufuma ku Senegal m'paka ku Cameroon. Pakati pa 9000 na 5000 B.C.E., ŵanthu awo ŵakayowoyanga chiyowoyero cha Niger na Congo ŵakamba kulima makuni gha maolive na raphia. Vipambi viŵiri vya mbuto, viŵiya vya maso ghafipa na voandzeia (vipasi vya ku Africa), vikamba kulengeka, pamanyuma pake pakaŵa okra na kola. Pakuti vyakumera vinandi vikakuliranga mu nkhorongo, ŵanthu ŵa ku Niger na Congo ŵakamba kupanga vyakujinthamo malibwe kuti ŵajinyolore. Mu vigaŵa vinandi vya kumwera kwa Africa, mukaŵa ŵanthu ŵakuchemeka pygmy na Khoisan awo ŵakakoperanga na kuvulura. Ŵanthu aŵa ndiwo ŵakalemba vinthu vinyake vyakale chomene. Kwa vyaka vikwi vinandi, chipalamba cha Sahara chikusintha pakati pa mapopa na vyakumera vya mu savanna mu nyengo ya vyaka 41,000 chifukwa cha kusintha ("precession") kwa pasi apo likuzingilira dazi. Para nyengo ya mphepo ya ku North Africa yafika paheni chomene, mu chigaŵa cha Sahara mukuŵa vyakumera vinandi. Para vula ya ku North Africa njakukhora yayi, ndipo yikuchepa chaka chilichose, mbwenu vyakumera vikumara. Sahara ni mapopa kwa vyaka vikwi vinandi, ndipo ghakwenera kuzengekaso mu vyaka 15,000 (17,000 AD).<ref name="Lakes">{{Cite journal|title=Ancient Lakes of the Sahara|journal=American Scientist|volume=94|year=2006|pages=58–65|author1=Kevin White|author2=David J. Mattingly|issue=1|doi=10.1511/2006.57.983}}</ref> Pambere Sahara wandazgoke mapopa, ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga kumwera kwa Eguputo, mu charu icho sono ni Sudan, ŵakakhalanga mu nyengo ya Neolithic ndipo ŵakakhalanga mwakufwasa. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakuti malibwe ghakurughakuru agho ghakasangika ku Nabta Playa ni vinthu vyakwambilira ivyo ŵanthu ŵakagwiliskira ntchito pakusanda vya mu mlengalenga. Vinthu vyakupambanapambana ivyo vikachitika pa nyengo ya Nkhondo Yakwamba ya pa Charu Chose na mu nyengo ya Ufumu wakale wa Eguputo ndivyo vikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵaŵe na maghanoghano ghakupambanapambana.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20180205001131/http://www.comp-archaeology.org/WendorfSAA98.html Late Neolithic megalithic structures at Nabta Playa] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080213184210/http://www.comp-archaeology.org/WendorfSAA98.html|date=2008-02-13}} – Wendorf (1998)</ref> Kufika mu 5000 B.C.E., mu Africa mukaŵa chilangalanga, ndipo nyengo ya mu chigaŵa cha Sahara yikamba kukamuka. Ŵanthu ŵakafumanga mu chigaŵa cha Sahara ndipo ŵakendanga mu vigaŵa vyose, kusazgapo ku Dambo la Nayelo kusi kwa Dambo la Chiŵiri, uko ŵakakhalanga. Nyengo yikafika paheni comene, ndipo ici cikapangiska kuti ku Central na East Africa kuleke kuwa vula zinandi. === Central Africa === {{Main|History of Central Africa#Prehistory}} TVinthu ivyo ŵanthu ŵakufukura vinthu vyakale ŵali kusanga mu Central Africa vyaka 100,000 ivyo vyajumpha. Malo ghakukhala ŵanthu ghakasangika ku Zilum, Chad, pafupifupi makilomita 60 kumwera cha kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Nyanja ya Chad. Ivyo ŵasanga vikulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵakwambilira ŵa ku Sao, Kanem, Bornu, Shilluk, Baguirmi, na Wadai, ŵakalutilira kuŵa na umoyo uwemi chifukwa cha umo vinthu vikasinthira pa nkhani ya ulimi kweniso malonda. Pafupifupi 1,000 B.C.E., ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Bantu ŵakafika ku chigaŵa cha Great Lakes ku Central Africa. Pakati pajumpha vyaka 1,000, ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Bantu ŵakamba kukhala kumwera kwa charu icho sono chikuchemeka Angola.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Coelho|first1=Margarida|last2=Sequeira|first2=Fernando|last3=Luiselli|first3=Donata|last4=Beleza|first4=Sandra|last5=Rocha|first5=Jorge|date=2009-01-01|title=On the edge of Bantu expansions: mtDNA, Y chromosome and lactase persistence genetic variation in southwestern Angola|journal=BMC Evolutionary Biology|volume=9|page=80|doi=10.1186/1471-2148-9-80|issn=1471-2148|pmc=2682489|pmid=19383166}}</ref> === Metallurgy === {{Main|Copper metallurgy in Africa|Iron metallurgy in Africa}} [[File:Bronze_ornamental_staff_head,_9th_century,_Igbo-Ukwu.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bronze_ornamental_staff_head,_9th_century,_Igbo-Ukwu.JPG|thumb|9th-century bronze staff head in form of a coiled snake, [[:en:Archaeology_of_Igbo-Ukwu|Igbo-Ukwu]], Nigeria]] Ukaboni wakuti kale ŵanthu ŵakasungunuranga visulo ∙ lead, copper, and bronze ∙ ukafuma mu vyaka vya m'ma 2000 B.C.E. Ŵaeguputo ŵakasungunuranga mkuŵa mu nyengo ya Ufumu wa Farawo. Nubia ndiyo yikapanganga mkuŵa na golide. Kugwiliskira nchito golide na siliva mu Eguputo kukamba mu nyengo ya ufumu wa ufumu wa Persia. Mu mapiri gha Aïr mu charu icho sono chikuchemeka Niger, ŵanthu ŵakasungunuranga mkuwa kwambura kughanaghanira ivyo vikachitikanga mu dambo la Nayelo pakati pa 3,000 na 2,500 B.C.E. Ŵakagwiliskira ntchito nthowa yakupambanapambana iyo yikaŵa mu chigaŵa ichi, kulongora kuti luso ili likafuma kuwaro yayi. Kuzakafika m'ma 1000 B.C.E., ŵanthu ŵakamba kugwiliskira ntchito visulo ku Northwestern Africa, Egypt, na Nubia. Zangato na Holl ŵakalemba ukaboni wakuti mu Central African Republic na Cameroon mukaŵa visulo ivyo vikasongonoka kufuma mu 3,000 m'paka 2,500 B.C.E. Ŵaasiriya ŵakagwiliskira ntchito vilwero vyachisulo kuti ŵafumiske ŵanthu ŵa ku Nubia mu Eguputo mu 670 B.C.E. Kufuma apo, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakamba kugwiliskira ntchito chisulo mu dambo la Nayelo. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuzomerezga yayi fundo yakuti chisulo chikafika ku vyaru vya ku Sub-Saharan Africa kwizira mu tawuni ya Meroe ku Nubia. Ku Africa kumanjiliro gha dazi, ŵanthu ŵakamba kugwiliskira ntchito visulo kwamba mu 2500 B.C.E. ku Egaro kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Mlonga wa Termit ku Niger. Ku Nigeria, ŵanthu ŵakamba kusungunula visulo mu vyaka vya m'ma 2000 B.C.E. Ku Central Africa kuli ukaboni wakuti ŵanthu ŵakagwiranga ntchito ya chisulo kwamba mu vyaka vya m'ma 2000 B.C.E. Kusungunula zitsulo kunayamba pakati pa Nyanja ya Chad ndi Nyanja za Great African pakati pa 1,000 ndi 600 BC, ndipo ku West Africa pafupi ndi 2,000 BC, kale kwambiri lusoli lisanafike ku Egypt. Pambere chaka cha 500 B.C.E. chindambe, ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Nok mu Jos Plateau ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito kusungunula visulo. Malo gha Gbabiri (mu Central African Republic) ghakasangaso ukaboni wa vyakupangira visulo, kufuma ku ng'anjo yakuchepeskeramo visulo na malo ghakusoperapo ŵanthu; ndipo ghakafuma mu 896-773 BC na 907-796 BC.<ref name="Eggert 2014 53–54">{{Cite book|title=Nok: African Sculpture in Archaeological Context|last=Eggert|first=Manfred|publisher=Africa Magna Verlag Press|year=2014|isbn=9783937248462|editor-last=Breunig|editor-first=P|location=Frankfurt, Germany|pages=53–54|chapter=Early iron in West and Central Africa|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BBn1BQAAQBAJ&q=Nok+Breunig&pg=PA38}}</ref> == Antiquity == Mbiri yakale ya kumpoto kwa Africa yikukolerana na ya ku Middle East. Ivi ndivyo vikachitikanga chomene mu Eguputo na Nubia. Mu chigaŵa cha Horn of Africa, ufumu wa Aksum ukalamuliranga Eritrea, kumpoto kwa Ethiopia, na chigaŵa cha mumphepete mwa nyanja kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Arabia. Ŵaeguputo ŵakamba kukolerana na charu cha Punt mu 2350 B.C.E. Punt wakaŵa munyake wa Eguputo wakale ndipo ŵanthu ŵakugomezga kuti wakaŵa ku Somalia, Djibouti panji Eritrea.<ref>{{cite book|first=Simson|last=Najovits|title=Egypt, trunk of the tree|volume=2|publisher=Algora Publishing|year=2004|page=258}}</ref> Misumba ya Ŵafoinike nga ni Carthage yikaŵako mu nyengo ya Mediterranean Iron Age kweniso mu nyengo yakale. Mu nyengo yira, vyaru vya ku Sub-Saharan Africa vikamba kujilongozga.{{Citation needed|date=March 2016}} === Ancient Egypt === {{Main|History of ancient Egypt}} [[File:Lower_Egypt_Nomes_01.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lower_Egypt_Nomes_01.png|right|thumb|Map of Ancient Egypt and nomes]] Para Sahara wazgoka mapopa, ŵanthu ŵakakhalanga chomene mu Dambo la Nayelo. Vyaru ivyo vikaŵa na ŵanthu ŵanandi chomene vikaŵa mu chigaŵa cha Nile Delta ku Lower Egypt, Upper Egypt, kweniso ku Dongola Reach ku Nubia. Ŵanthu ŵakasazgikiranga comene cifukwa ca kulima vyakurya vya kumwera ca kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Asia, nga ni tirigu na balere, kweniso kuŵeta mberere, mbuzi, na ng'ombe. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakamba kuphalizgana kuti ŵatore malo gha kulima. Ŵakapanga mabungwe gha ŵalara ŵa visopa. Ufumu wakwamba na wankhongono comene ukaŵa wa Ta-Seti, uwo ukazengeka mu 3,500 B.C.E. Fundo yakuti ŵakaronga ndiwo ŵakalongozganga ŵanthu yikazara chomene mu Eguputo.{{sfnp|Ehret|2002|pp=143–146}} [[File:All_Gizah_Pyramids.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:All_Gizah_Pyramids.jpg|left|thumb|The [[:en:Pyramids_of_Giza|pyramids of Giza]], symbols of the civilization of ancient Egypt]] Nyengo yikati yajumphapo, ŵakaronga ŵakamba kukolerana mu vyaru vinandi mu Upper na Lower Egypt, ndipo Narmer (Menes) ndiyo wakapangiska kuti charu cha Egypt chiŵe chimoza mu chaka cha 3100 B.C.E. M'malo mwa kuwoneka nga ni mulongozgi wa cisopo, iyo wakaŵa fumu ya Ciuta. Chisopa chautesi, panji kusopa chiuta yumoza, icho chikachitikanga mu vigaŵa vya ku Upper na Lower Egypt, chikazgoka chisopa chautesi mu Eguputo. Mu nyengo ya mafumu gha Eguputo, maboma ghakaŵa na ŵamazaza, ŵakazembe, ŵakusonkheska msonkho, ŵalongozgi ŵa ŵasilikari, ŵantchito, na ŵantchito. Ŵakapokeleranga misonkho, ŵakanozganga ntchito zakovwira ŵanthu, ŵakazenganga maji, mapiramidi, matempile, na migelo. Mu nyengo ya muwuso wa muwuso wa ŵanayi (2,620-2,480 B.C.E.), malonda gha mtunda utali ghakacitika, na vyakumera vya ku Levant, na vya golide na vikumba vya ŵanthu vya ku Nubia, na vyakununkhira vya ku Punt, kweniso na vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Libya. Mu nyengo ya Ufumu Wakale, Eguputo wakapangiska vinthu vyakupambanapambana, maboma na mitheto, ndipo nyengo zose wakacitanga ivi kwizira mu boma la boma na Faro.{{sfnp|Davidson|1991|pp=30–33}} Mu vyaka vya m'ma 400 B.C.E., Eguputo wakamba kulamulira ŵasilikari na ndyali kumwera na kumanjiliro gha dazi. Kuzakafika mu 2200 B.C.E., ufumu wakale ukaŵa kuti ulije mtende chifukwa cha kulimbana pakati pa ŵalongozgi ŵa mitundu yinyake awo ŵakasuskanga mazaza gha mafaro. Nyengo Yakwamba Yakupambana ya Ndyali yikamba.{{sfnp|Davidson|1991|pp=30–33}} Ufumu wa pakati wa Egypt ukawuka apo Mentuhotep II wa muwuso wa 11 wa Egypt wakambaso kuwungana pakati pa 2041 na 2016 BC kwambira na kuwukira kwake muwuso wa 10 mu 2041 BC.{{sfnp|Grimal|1988|pp=155–156}}{{sfnp|Habachi|1963|pp=16–52}} Ŵanthu ŵakambiraso kuzenga mapiramidi, malonda ghakaŵa kutali chomene, ndipo msumba wa Memphis ukaŵa ku Thebes. Ŵakakhozga ubwezi wawo na vigaŵa vya kumwera kwa Kush, Wawat na Irthet. Kufuma apo, pakaŵa nyengo yaciŵiri, apo Ŵaigupto ŵakamba kuwukira caru cawo na magileta ghakuyegheka na mahaci na vilwero vya mkuŵa. Nyengo yichoko waka, magileta agho ghakotekanga na mahachi ghakafika ku vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Sahara na North Africa. Ŵaiguputo ŵakatondeka kusunga malo ghawo, ndipo ŵakamba kukolerana nawo. Ivi vikapangiska kuti paŵe ufumu uphya wa Eguputo (1,580-1,1080 B.C.E.) uwo ukaŵa na muwuso wa muwuso wa muwuso wa muwuso wa muwuso wa muwuso wa 18. Ŵaeguputo ŵakaŵa na mazaza pa Nubia na Yudeya, kweniso ŵakalamuliranga ŵanthu ŵa ku Libya na ŵa ku Mediterranean.{{sfnp|Davidson|1991|pp=30–33}} Nga umo vikaŵira kale, Ufumu Uphya ukamara apo ŵakaronga ŵa ku Libya ŵakiza kufuma ku vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi. Kwamba na Shoshenq I, Ufumu wa Ufumu wa Mafumu 22 ukaŵako. Wakawusa kwa vilimika vinandi.{{sfnp|Davidson|1991|pp=30–33}} Kumwera, ŵanthu ŵa ku Nubia ŵakambaso kujiyimira paŵekha. Ivyo vikachitika apa vikapangiska kuti Nubia wapoke charu cha Eguputo, icho chikamba na Kashta ndipo chikamara na Piye (Pianhky, 751-730 B.C.) na Shabaka (716-695 B.C.). Ici cikaŵa kwamba kwa muwuso wa ufumu waciŵiri na cinayi wa Egupto. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Nubia ŵakayezga kuwezgerapo mitheto ya ku Eguputo. Ŵakawusa Eguputo kwa vilimika 100. Ŵasilikari ŵa ku Asiriya ŵakanjira mu msumba uwu, ndipo Taharqa wakawona nkhongono zose za vilwero vya ku Asiriya. Farawo wa ku Nubia, Tantamani wakaŵa waumaliro wa muwuso wa ufumu wa 25.{{sfnp|Davidson|1991|pp=30–33}} Apo Ŵaasiriya na Ŵanubia ŵakafumako, ufumu uphya waciŵiri na citatu ukafuma mu Sais. Ukalutilira m'paka mu 525 B.C.E., apo Ŵaperesiya ŵakanjira mu Eguputo. Mwakupambana na Ŵaasiriya, Ŵaperesiya ŵakakhalako. Mu 332 C.E., Alexander Mukuru wakathereska Eguputo. Ici cikaŵa kwamba kwa muwuso wa Ptolemy, uwo ukamara apo Ŵaroma ŵakathereska caru mu 30 B.C.E. Eguputo wa Farawo wakamara.{{sfnp|Davidson|1991|pp=30–33}} === Nubia === {{Main|Nubia#History}} {{See|Kerma Culture|Kingdom of Kush}} [[File:Kushite_empire_700bc.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kushite_empire_700bc.jpg|right|thumb|[[:en:Kingdom_of_Kush|Nubian Empire]] at its greatest extent]] {{disputed|date=January 2020}} Pafupifupi 3,500 B.C.E., ufumu wakwamba uwo ukaŵa ku Nile ukaŵa wa Ta-Seti, uwo ukaŵa kumpoto kwa Nubia. Ta-Seti wakaŵa ufumu wankhongono uwo ukaŵa mu Dambo la Nayelo pa nyengo ya 1 na 2 C.E. Ufumu uwu ukaŵa na mazaza pa ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga kufupi na msumba uwu. Ta-Seti wakaguliskanga vinthu mu vyaru vya Siriya na Palestina kweniso ku Eguputo. Ta-Seti wakatumanga golide, mkuŵa, nthenga za mbunda, makuni gha ebony, na njovu ku Ufumu Wakale. Kuzakafika m'ma 200 B.C.E., tawuni ya Ta-Seti yikamba kunangika. Pamanyuma pakuti Narmer wakakolerana na Eguputo mu 3,100 B.C.E., Farawo Hor-Aha wa mu muwuso wakwamba wakawukira tawuni ya Ta-Seti. Ta-Seti wakukolerana na gulu la ŵanthu awo ŵakumanya vya mipukutu yakale..{{sfnp|Ehret|2002|pp=144–145}}{{dubious|date=January 2020}} [[File:Naqa_Apedamak_temple.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Naqa_Apedamak_temple.jpg|left|thumb|Nubian Temple of [[:en:Apedemak|Apedemak]], Naqa]] Maufumu ghachoko waka ghakaŵa mu chigaŵa cha Nubian cha Nile kwa vyaka vinandi kufuma mu 3,000 B.C.E. Kuumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 2000 C.E., maufumu ghakupatulika ghakakolerana chomene. Ufumu wa Sai ukaŵa kumwera kwa Eguputo, ndipo ufumu wa Kerma ukaŵa ku chigaŵa chachitatu. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1700 B.C.E., Ufumu wa Kerma ukathereska Ufumu wa Sai, ndipo ukaŵa mulwani wa Eguputo. Kerma wakaŵa mu chigaŵa icho chikaŵa kufuma ku chiziŵa chakwamba m'paka apo Mlonga wa Blue Nile, White Nile, na Atbarah ukukumana. Pakati pa 1575 na 1550 B.C.E., mu nyengo ya muwuso wa ufumu wa 17 wa ufumu wa Peresiya, ufumu wa Kerma ukawukira Eguputo. Ufumu wa Kerma ukakolerana na Ŵaigupto awo ŵakambukira ku Eguputo. Nyengo yikati yajumphapo, ufumu wa Eguputo ukaweleraso ku nkhongono mu nyengo ya muwuso wa ufumu wa nambara 18 ndipo ukathereska ufumu wa Kerma panji Kush. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Kush ŵakamba kuzgoka Ŵaeguputo mu nyengo iyi. Kuzakafika mu 1100 B.C.E., Ŵaeguputo ŵakafumako ku Kush. Malo agha ghakaŵaso ghakujiyimira payekha ndipo ghakaŵaso na kakhaliro kawemi. Kush wakazenga cisopa ciphya kuzingilizga Amun ndipo wakapanga Napata kuŵa malo ghake ghauzimu. Mu 730 B.C.E., ufumu wa Kush ukawukira Eguputo, ndipo ukatoranga msumba wa Thebes na kwamba ufumu wa Nubia. Ufumu uwu ukafumanga ku Palestina m'paka apo Mlonga wa Blue Nile, White Nile, na Atbara ukukumana. Mu 664 B.C.E., Ŵaasiriya ŵakachimbizga Ŵakushi mu Eguputo. Pamanyuma, msumba ukuru wa boma ukafumako ku Napata na kuluta ku Meröe, uko kukaŵa ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Nubian. Pakwamba, ŵanthu ŵa ku Mero ŵakaŵa na mikhaliro yakuyana na ya Ŵaeguputo. Nubia yikaŵa malo ghakupangira visulo na salu za thonje. Ŵaeguputo ŵakamba kulemba vilembo vya Meroitic. Ciuta wa nkharamu, Apedemak, wakasazgikako ku ŵachiuta ŵa Ŵaegupto. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakendanga mu Nyanja Yiswesi, ndipo Nubia wakendanga na Greece. Mu msumba uwu muli vinthu vinandi vyakupambanapambana, nga ni vithuzithuzi vya nkhalamu, viyuni vya mu nkhorongo, nkhalamira, na zovu. Paumaliro, apo msumba wa Aksum ukakura, malonda gha Nubia ghakamara ndipo charu ichi chikamba kunangika chifukwa cha kudumulika kwa makuni. Mu 350 C.E., Fumu Ezana ya ku Aksum yikamara kuwusa Meröe.{{sfnp|Shillington|2005|pp=42–45}} === Carthage === {{Main|Ancient Carthage#History}} [[File:Carthaginianempire.PNG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Carthaginianempire.PNG|thumb|Carthaginian Empire]] Vinthu vyakuzirwa nga ni mkuŵa, golide, tini, na sulefure vikaŵa vinandi. Ŵakamba kukhala mu vigaŵa vya mumphepete mwa nyanja ku North Africa, ndipo ŵakamba kuchita malonda na ŵanthu ŵa ku Berber. Mu 814 B.C.E., Ŵafenikiya ŵakufuma ku Ture ŵakakhazikiska msumba wa Carthage. Kufika mu 600 B.C.E., msumba wa Carthage ukaŵa kuti wazgoka msumba wakuzirwa chomene pa nkhani ya malonda mu Meditereniyani. Pakuti Carthage yikaŵa na vinthu vinandi, ufumu wa Berber, wa Numidia, na Mauretania ukakura. Pafupifupi 500 B.C.E., msumba wa Carthage ukawovwira chomene ŵanthu kuti ŵaguliskane vinthu na ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Berber awo ŵakendanga na ŵanthu ŵa ku Sub-Saharan Africa, ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito viŵeto pakuguliska vinthu. Ŵagaramantes ŵa ku Fez ndiwo ŵakaŵa ŵakofya comene. Ŵakasanganga golide, ŵazga, ngale, na mino gha zovu. [[File:Ruines_de_Carthage.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ruines_de_Carthage.jpg|left|thumb|Ruins of Carthage]] Ŵanthu ŵa ku Carthage ŵakaŵa ŵalwani ŵa Ŵagiriki na Ŵaroma. Carthage wakarwa Nkhondo za Punic, nkhondo zitatu na Roma: Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Punic (264 mpaka 241 BC), pa Sicily; Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Punic (218 mpaka 201 BC), umo Hannibal wakawukira Europe; na Nkhondo Yachitatu ya Punic (149 mpaka 146 BC). Carthage wakataya nkhondo ziŵiri zakwambilira, ndipo mu nkhondo yacitatu yikabwangandulika, ndipo yikazgoka cigaŵa ca Romu ca ku Africa. Ŵaegupto ŵakatenge ŵanthu ŵa kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Nile, awo ŵakaŵa ŵasekuru ŵa ŵanthu ŵa ku Berber, ŵakaŵa ŵa ku Libya. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Libya ŵakaŵa ŵalimi nga ni ŵanthu ŵa ku Maur ku Morocco na ŵa ku Numidia ku Algeria. Ŵakaŵaso ŵakwendendeka, ŵakendanga pa mahachi, ndipo ŵakakhalanga mu malo ghakomira na mu mapopa nga umo ŵakachitiranga Ŵagaetuli. Ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga mu mapopa ŵakakolerananga na ŵalimi ŵa ku mizi. Ŵafenikiya ŵakaŵa ŵakwendeska ngalaŵa ŵa ku Meditereniyani awo ŵakendanga pa nyanja nyengo zose na ufumu wa Berber wa Numidia uwo ukawovwiranga Roma. Chigaŵa cha Africa icho chikaŵa pasi pa ufumu wa Roma, ndicho chikapelekanga tirigu, maolive, na mafuta gha maolive ku ufumu wa Roma. Pakati pajumpha vilimika 200, ufumu wa Roma ukamba kulamulira maufumu gha ku Numidia na Mauretania. Mu ma 420 C.E., Ŵavanda ŵakawukira kumpoto kwa Africa ndipo Roma wakataya vigaŵa vyake. Chikhristu chikamba mu vyaka vya m'ma 100 C.E. ku Alexandria mu Africa, ndipo chikafika mu vyaru vya kumpoto cha kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Africa. Kuzakafika mu 313 C.E., pamoza na dango la ku Milan, caru cose ca kumpoto kwa Africa cikaŵa Cikhristu. Ŵaeguputo ŵakatora Chikhristu cha Chiphwitikizi na kwamba mpingo wakuchemeka Coptic Church. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Berber ŵakamba kugomezga cisopa ca Donat. Magulu ghose ghaŵiri ghakakana kuzomera mazaza gha Tchalitchi la Katolika.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Sundkler|first1=Bengt|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y1p61xARWY4C&q=+Egyptians+adopted+Monophysite+Christianity+and+formed+the+independent+Coptic+Church.+Berbers+adopted+Donatist+Christianity.+Both+groups+refused+to+accept+the+authority+of+the+Roman+Catholic+Church&pg=PR14|title=A History of the Church in Africa|last2=Steed|first2=Christopher|date=2000-05-04|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-58342-8}}</ref> ==== Role of the Berbers ==== {{unreferenced section|date=February 2011}} Apo ufumu wa Carthage ukakuranga, ŵanthu ŵa ku Carthage nawo ŵakakhwaskika. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Berber ŵakaŵa kale pa nyengo iyo kulima, kupanga vinthu, malonda, na ndyali vikawovwiranga vyaru vinandi. Vinthu vikamba kwenda makora pakati pa Carthage na ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Berber awo ŵakakhalanga mu vigaŵa vya mukati, kweni chifukwa cha kusazgikira kwa vigaŵa, ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakazgoka ŵazga panji ŵasilikari. Kuzakafika kuuyambiro wa vyaka vya m'ma 400 B.C.E., ŵanthu ŵa ku Berber ŵakaŵa ŵanandi chomene mu ŵasilikari ŵa ku Carthage. Mu Nkhondo ya Ŵasilikari ŵa Nkhondo (241-238 B.C.E.), ŵasilikari ŵa ku Carthage na ŵa ku Africa awo ŵakaŵa ŵabwezi ŵawo ŵakambiska chigaluka. Ŵasilikari ŵa ku Berber nawo ŵakachitako nkhondo iyi chifukwa chakuti ŵakapokera malipiro yayi. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Berber ŵakathereska vigaŵa vinandi vya kumpoto kwa Africa, ndipo ŵakapanga ndalama izo zikaŵa na zina lakuti Libyan. Boma la Carthage likamara chifukwa cha kutondeka kwa Ŵaroma mu Nkhondo za Punic. Mu 146 B.C.E., msumba wa Carthage ukaparanyika. Apo ŵasilikari ŵa ku Carthage ŵakamba kuchepa, ŵalongozgi ŵa ku Berber ŵakamba kuŵa na mazaza pa ŵanthu ŵa ku Carthage. Kuzakafika mu vyaka vya m'ma 100 B.C.E., maufumu ghanandi gha Ŵaberi ghakaŵa kuti ghababika. Vinyake viŵiri vikaŵa ku Numidia, kuseri kwa malo gha mumphepete mwa nyanja agho ghakaŵa pasi pa Cartagena. Kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Numidia kukaŵa Mauretania, uwo ukafika pa mlonga wa Moulouya ku Morocco m'paka ku Nyanja ya Atlantic. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Berber ŵakamba kuŵa na chitemwa chikuru chomene m'paka apo ŵa Almohad na Almoravid ŵakaŵirako. Masinissa wakati wafwa mu 148 B.C.E., maufumu gha Ŵaberi ghakagaŵikana na kuwungana kanandi waka. Mzere wa Masinissa ukakhala m'paka mu 24 C.E., apo chigaŵa cha Ŵaberi icho chikakhalako chikapokelereka na Ufumu wa Roma. === Macrobia and the Barbari City States === {{Main|Macrobia}} {{Further|Maritime history of Somalia}} [[File:Herodotus_world_map-en.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Herodotus_world_map-en.svg|right|thumb|200x200px|Reconstruction of the [[:en:Oikumene|Oikumene]] (inhabited world) as described by Herodotus in the 5th century BC.]] [[File:Qableh1.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Qableh1.JPG|right|thumb|Ruins of [[:en:Qa'ableh|Qa'ableh]], an early center of [[:en:Somali_people|Somali]] civilization]] Macrobia ukaŵa ufumu wakale uwo ukaŵa ku mphanji ya Africa (sono ni Somalia). Likayowoyeka mu vyaka vya m'ma 400 B.C.E. Herodotus wakayowoya kuti Themba la ku Peresiya, Cambyses II, likati lakora Eguputo (525 B.C.E.), likatuma mathenga ku Makroba kuti ghazakamupe vyawanangwa vinandi. Fumu ya Macrobiya, iyo yikasoleka cifukwa ca msinkhu wake, yikamuzgora mwa kumucenjezga kuti waŵike uta wake mu woko lake: Usange Ŵaperesiya ŵangakwaniska kuwukoma, ŵangaŵa na wanangwa wa kuwukira caru cake. Kweni m'paka pa nyengo iyo, ŵakwenera kuwonga ŵaciuta cifukwa cakuti Macrobiya ŵakakana kuwukira ufumu wawo. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Macrobian ŵakaŵa ŵankhongono comene ndipo ŵakamanyikwanga cifukwa ca luso lwawo lwa kuzenga na usambazi wawo wa golide. Pamanyuma pakuti Macrobia wabwangandulika, misumba yinandi yakale nga ni Opone, Essina, Sarapion, Nikon, Malao, Damo na Mosylon kufupi na Cape Guardafui yikafuma mu vyaka vya m'ma 1000 B.C.E. 500 C.E. kuti yikwane na ŵanthu ŵa ku Saba, Parthians na Axumites pa nkhani ya malonda gha Indo-Greco-Roman. Ŵakaŵa na malonda ghakurughakuru mu chigaŵa icho chikachemekanga Barbaria.<ref>Oman in history By Peter Vine Page 324</ref> === Roman North Africa === {{Further|Africa (Roman province)#History|Numidia#History|Libya in the Roman era#History|Romans in Sub-Saharan Africa}} [[File:Roman_Africa.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Roman_Africa.JPG|right|thumb|Northern Africa under Roman rule]] Buku linyake likati: "Chifukwa chakuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakakhalanga mu matawuni ghakurughakuru kweniso malo ghakurughakuru ghakasakazikanga apo Ŵaroma ŵakalamuliranga, ŵanthu ŵa ku Berber ŵakasuzgika chomene. Ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga mwakufwasa ŵakaŵavya wanangwa wakuchita vinthu paŵekha kweniso ŵakaleka kukolerana na charu. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Berber ŵakasuskanga comene Ŵaroma. Themba la Ŵaroma zina lake Trajan likakhozga mphaka kumwera mwa kuzingilizga mapiri gha Aurès na Nemencha na kuzenga vigongwe kufuma ku Vescera (lero ni Biskra) m'paka ku Ad Majores (Henchir Besseriani, kumwera kwa Biskra). Malo agha ghakafika m'paka ku Castellum Dimmidi (lero ni Messaâd, kumwera ca kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Biskra). Ŵaroma ŵakamba kukhazikika mu msumba wa Sitifis (sono ni Sétif) mu vyaka vya m'ma 100 C.E., kweni kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa msumba uwu, Ŵaroma ŵakamba kwenda mu misewu yikuru ya ŵasilikari.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Metz|first1=Helen|title=Algeria : a country study|date=1994|publisher=Federal Research Division, Library of Congress|location=Washington, D.C|page=8|url=https://www.loc.gov/item/94043019/|access-date=3 December 2019}}</ref> [[File:The_Mummy_of_Demetrios,_95-100_C.E.,11.600.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:The_Mummy_of_Demetrios,_95-100_C.E.,11.600.jpg|left|thumb|[[:en:Fayum_mummy_portraits|Fayum mummy portrait]] of Demetrios, a citizen of [[:en:Roman_Egypt|Roman Egypt]], {{circa|100 AD}}, [[:en:Brooklyn_Museum|Brooklyn Museum]]]] Ŵasilikari ŵa Romu ku North Africa ŵakaŵa ŵachoko chomene, ŵakaŵa na ŵasilikari pafupifupi 28,000 mu Numidia na vigaŵa viŵiri vya Mauretanian. Kwambira mu vyaka vya m'ma 100 C.E., ŵasilikari aŵa ŵakakhalanga ku malo agha. Padera pa Carthage, ku North Africa kukaŵaso ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakakhalanga na ŵasilikari ŵankhondo awo ŵakaŵako mu nyengo ya Claudius (uyo wakawusa mu 41-54), Nerva (96-98), na Trajan (98-117). Ku Algeria, ŵanthu aŵa ŵakakhalanga ku Tipasa, Cuicul panji Curculum (lero ni Djemila, kumpoto cha kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Sétif), Thamugadi (lero ni Timgad, kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Sétif), na Sitifis (lero ni Sétif). Mu misumba yinandi vinthu vikendanga makora chifukwa cha ulimi. Ku North Africa, uko kukachemekanga kuti "malo ghakusungiramo vyakurya gha ufumu wa Roma", ŵanthu ŵakendangamo chomene na vyakurya. Vyakurya vinyake vikaŵa vipambi, vikuyu, mpheska, na nyungu. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 100 C.E., mafuta gha maolive ghakaŵa ghakuzirwa chomene kuluska vyakurya vinyake. Ufumu wa Ŵaroma ukamba kuchepa ku North Africa. Ndipouli, pakaŵa ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵakagalukira boma. Mu 238 C.E., ŵeneco ŵa caru ŵakagalukira boma la ufumu. Kufuma mu 253 m'paka mu 288, mu nyengo ya suzgo ya mu vyaka vya m'ma 300 C.E., mu mapiri gha Mauretanian mukaŵa viwawa vya mafuko. Matawuni agha ghakaŵa na masuzgo gha vya cuma, ndipo nchito ya kuzenga yikakhala pacoko kuti yimare. Mu misumba ya ku North Africa uko kukaŵa Ŵaroma, mukaŵa Ŵayuda ŵanandi. Ŵayuda ŵanyake ŵakachimbizgika mu Yudeya na Palestina mu vyaka vya m'ma 100 na 200 C.E. chifukwa cha kugalukira boma la Ŵaroma. Ŵanyake ŵakaluta ku malo agha na ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Punic. Kweniso mafuko ghanyake gha Ŵaberi ghakazgoka Ŵayuda.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Wells|first1=C. M.|last2=Luttwak|first2=Edward N.|date=1978|title=The Grand Strategy of the Roman Empire: From the First Century A.D. to the Third|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-journal-of-philology_winter-1978_99_4/page/527|journal=The American Journal of Philology|volume=99|issue=4|page=527|doi=10.2307/293904|jstor=293904|issn=0002-9475}}</ref> {{multiple image|total_width=365|align=right|image1=Memnon the Ethiopian (detail).jpg|alt1=|caption1=|image2=Antakya Arkeoloji Muzesi 1250320 nevit cr.jpg|alt2=|caption2=|footer='''Left''': Memnon, [[foster child]] of [[Herodes Atticus]]; marble bust (showing [[sub-Saharan]] facial features), ca. 170 AD, from the villa of Herodes Atticus at [[Eva, Arcadia]].<br />'''Right''': an ancient [[Roman mosaic]] from [[Antioch]] depicting a [[sub-Saharan]] African man carrying goods over his shoulder.}} Christianity arrived in the 2nd century and soon gained converts in the towns and among slaves. More than eighty bishops, some from distant frontier regions of Numidia, attended the [[:en:Council_of_Carthage_(256)|Council of Carthage (256)]] in 256. By the end of the 4th century, the settled areas had become [[:en:Christianization|Christianized]], and some Berber tribes had converted ''en masse''.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hrsg.|first=Nelson, Harold D.|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/642916799|title=Morocco : a country study|date=1986|publisher=American Univ|pages=8|oclc=642916799}}</ref> Mu 313 C.E., Ŵakhristu ŵa ku North Africa ŵakamba kugaŵikana. Ŵadonatisti ŵakayowoyanga chomene vya utuŵa wa tchalitchi ndipo ŵakakana kuzomera mazaza gha awo ŵakapeleka malemba apo ŵakakanizgika na Fumu Diocletian (iyo yikawusa mu 284-305). Kweniso ŵakasuskanga ivyo Constantine Mukuru (uyo wakawusa mu 306 m'paka 337) wakachitanga. Nkhondo iyo yikaŵapo pakati pa ŵa Donatist yikamanyikwa kuti yikaŵa pakati pa ŵakususka na ŵakukhozgera boma la Ŵaroma. Augustine, bishopu wa ku Hippo Regius, ndiyo wakadandawura chomene na chisambizgo cha ŵa Donatist. Augustine wakayowoya kuti usange munthu ni muteŵeti wambura kwenelera, ndikuti sakaramenti ndakwenelera yayi cifukwa Yesu Khristu ndiyo wakaŵa muteŵeti wawo nadi. Mu nkhani zake na mabuku ghake, Augustine, uyo wakuwoneka kuti wakulongozga visambizgo vya Cikristu, wakalongosora kuti ŵalongozgi ŵa Cikristu caunenesko ŵali na wenelero wa kugwiliskira nchito nkongono kwimikana na ŵakugaluka. Nangauli nkhani iyi yikamara mu 411 C.E., kweni mu Carthage mukaŵa wupu uwo ukaŵa na mazaza pa nkhani iyi. Chifukwa chakuti malonda ghakamara, Ŵaroma ŵakaleka kulamulira. Mu vigaŵa vya mapiri na mu mapopa mukaŵa maufumu ghakujiyimira, misumba yikaparanyika, ndipo ŵanthu ŵa ku Berber awo ŵakasuzgikanga na Ufumu wa Roma ŵakawelera. Mu nyengo ya Nkhondo ya Ŵananda, Belisarius, mulara wa ŵasilikari ŵa themba la Byzantine Justinian I, uyo wakakhalanga ku Constantinople, wakafika ku North Africa mu 533 C.E. pamoza na ŵanalume 16,000. Ndipouli, apo boma la Byzantine likamba kulamulira chigaŵa ichi, pakajumpha vyaka 12, ndipo apo ufumu wa Roma ukaŵa na mazaza pa chigaŵa ichi, ukaŵa nga ni mfwiri waka. Nangauli ŵakazenga vigongwe vinandi, kweni boma la Byzantium likasuzgika chifukwa cha vimbundi, ukavu, ukavu wa ŵasilikari, na kuleka kupwelelera nkhani za ku Africa. Ntheura, mizi yinandi yikawelera ku boma la Ŵaberi.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Shillington|first=Kevin|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=umyHqvAErOAC&dq=Byzantine+rule+was+compromised+north+africa+Berber+rule&pg=PA195|title=Encyclopedia of African History 3-Volume Set|date=2013-07-04|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-135-45670-2|language=en}}</ref> === Aksum === {{Main|Kingdom of Aksum#History}} {{Further|History of Ethiopia|Ethiopian historiography}} [[File:LocationAksumiteEmpire.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:LocationAksumiteEmpire.png|right|thumb|Aksumite Empire]] [[File:ET_Axum_asv2018-01_img37_Stelae_Park.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:ET_Axum_asv2018-01_img37_Stelae_Park.jpg|right|thumb|[[:en:Aksum_Obelisk|Aksum Obelisk]], symbol of the Aksumite civilization]] The earliest state in [[:en:Eritrea|Eritrea]] and northern [[:en:Ethiopia|Ethiopia]], [[:en:Dʿmt|Dʿmt]], dates from around the 8th and 7th centuries BC. D'mt traded through the [[:en:Red_Sea|Red Sea]] with Egypt and the Mediterranean, providing frankincense. By the 5th and 3rd centuries, D'mt had declined, and several successor states took its place. Later there was greater trade with [[:en:South_Arabia|South Arabia]], mainly with the port of [[:en:Sabaeans|Saba]]. [[:en:Adulis|Adulis]] became an important commercial center in the [[:en:Ethiopian_Highlands|Ethiopian Highlands]]. The interaction of the peoples in the two regions, the southern Arabia [[:en:Sabaeans|Sabaeans]] and the northern Ethiopians, resulted in the [[:en:Ge'ez|Ge'ez]] culture and language and eventual development of the [[:en:Ge'ez_script|Ge'ez script]]. Trade links increased and expanded from the Red Sea to the Mediterranean, with Egypt, Israel, Phoenicia, Greece, and Rome, to the Black Sea, and to Persia, India, and China. Aksum was known throughout those lands. By the 5th century BC, the region was very prosperous, exporting ivory, hippopotamus hides, gold dust, spices, and live elephants. It imported silver, gold, olive oil, and wine. Aksum manufactured glass crystal, brass, and copper for export. A powerful Aksum emerged, unifying parts of eastern Sudan, northern Ethiopia ([[:en:Tigray_Region|Tigre]]), and [[:en:Eritrea|Eritrea]]. Its kings built stone palatial buildings and were buried under megalithic monuments. By 300 AD, Aksum was minting its own coins in silver and gold.{{sfnp|Collins|Burns|2007|pp=66–71}} In 331 AD, King [[:en:Ezana|Ezana]] (320–350 AD) was converted to [[:en:Orthodox_Tewahedo|Miaphysite Christianity]] which believes in one united divine-human nature of Christ, supposedly by [[:en:Frumentius|Frumentius]] and Aedesius, who became stranded on the Red Sea coast. Some scholars believed the process was more complex and gradual than a simple conversion. Around 350, the time Ezana sacked Meroe, the Syrian monastic tradition took root within the Ethiopian church.{{sfnp|Iliffe|2007|p=41}} In the 6th century Aksum was powerful enough to add Saba on the Arabian peninsula to her empire. At the end of the 6th century, the [[:en:Sasanian_Empire|Sasanian Empire]] pushed Aksum out of the peninsula. With the spread of [[:en:Islam|Islam]] through [[:en:Western_Asia|Western Asia]] and Northern Africa, Aksum's trading networks in the Mediterranean faltered. The Red Sea trade diminished as it was diverted to the [[:en:Persian_Gulf|Persian Gulf]] and dominated by [[:en:Arabs|Arabs]], causing Aksum to decline. By 800 AD, the capital was moved south into the interior highlands, and Aksum was much diminished.{{sfnp|Shillington|2005|pp=66–71}} === West Africa === {{Main|History of West Africa#Iron Age}} {{See also|Serer prehistory|Timeline of Serer history}} Mu vigaŵa vya kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Sahel, ŵanthu ŵakakhalanga mu vigaŵa ivi cifukwa ca kulima mphoza na mphoza. Ŵanthu awo ŵakufukura vinthu vyakale ŵakulongora kuti mu vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Africa mukaŵa ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakakhalanga mu matawuni. Ubwezi wa malonda uwo ukaŵako pambere malonda gha pakati pa Sahara na Sahara ghandambe, ukaŵako chifukwa cha umo vyakumera vya kumpoto na kumwera vikupambanirana. Ŵalimi ŵakapokeranga mchere kufuma ku ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga mu mapopa. Ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga mu mapopa ŵakasanganga nyama na vyakurya vinyake ku ŵaliska ŵa viŵeto na ŵalimi ŵa mu malo ghakuliskako viŵeto kweniso ku ŵalovi ŵa mu Mlonga wa Niger. Ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga mu nkhorongo ŵakapelekanga weya na nyama.{{sfnp|Collins|Burns|2007|pp=79–80}} [[File:Nok_sculpture_Louvre_70-1998-11-1.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nok_sculpture_Louvre_70-1998-11-1.jpg|left|thumb|Nok sculpture, terracotta, [[:en:Louvre|Louvre]]]] Dhar Tichitt na Oualata mu Mauritania sono ni malo ghakumanyikwa chomene mu misumba yakwambilira, iyo yikaŵako m'ma 2000 B.C.E. Mu chigaŵa icho kale chikachemekanga Sahara muli malo gha malibwe pafupifupi 500. Ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga mu msumba uwu ŵakaloŵanga somba na kulima mphoza. Augustin Holl wakawona kuti ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Soninke awo ŵakakhalanga ku Mandé ndiwo ŵakazenga malo agha. Pafupifupi 300 B.C.E., chigaŵa ichi chikaŵa chakomira chomene ndipo ŵanthu ŵakamba kuchepa, ndipo panyake ŵakasamukira ku Koumbi Saleh. Ukaboni wa vyakuzengeka na kuyaniska vyakuzengeka vikulongora kuti Dhar Tichitt wakaŵa mu ufumu wa Ghana. Djenné-Djenno (uko sono ni Mali) wakakhalanga ŵanthu pafupifupi 300 B.C.E., ndipo msumba uwu ukaŵa na ŵanthu ŵanandi chomene ŵa mu nyengo ya Iron Age. Vinthu vyamoyo vikazengeka na mathipa agho ghakawomira pa dazi. Kufika mu 250 B.C.E., Djenné-Djenno wakaŵa kuti wazgoka msumba ukuru wa msika. Kumwera, pakati pa Nigeria, cha m'ma 1500 B.C.E., ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Nok ŵakamba kukhala ku Jos Plateau. Ŵanthu ŵakakhalanga pamoza. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Nok ŵakapanganga vithuzithuzi vya ŵanthu, njovu, na vinyama vinyake. Kuzakafika mu 500 B.C.E., ŵakaŵa kuti ŵakusazgapo chisulo. Mu 200 C.E., ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Nok ŵakafwa. Chifukwa cha kuyana kwa kalembedwe ndi ma terracotta a Nok, ziboliboli za mkuwa za ufumu wa Yoruba wa Ife ndi za ufumu wa Bini wa Benin tsopano zikukhulupirira kuti ndizopitilira miyambo ya chikhalidwe choyambirira cha Nok.{{sfnp|Shillington|2005|p=39}} === Bantu expansion === {{Main|Bantu peoples#History|Bantu expansion#Expansion}} [[File:Bantu_Phillipson.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bantu_Phillipson.png|thumb|'''1''' = 3000 – 1500 BC origin'''2''' = c. 1500 BC first migrations {{spaces|4}} '''2.a''' = Eastern Bantu, {{spaces|4}} '''2.b''' = Western Bantu'''3''' = 1000 – 500 BC [[:en:Urewe|Urewe]] nucleus of Eastern Bantu '''4''' – '''7''' = southward advance'''9''' = 500 BC – 0 Congo nucleus '''10''' = 0 – 1000 CE last phase<ref>after Derek Nurse and Gérrard Philipsian: The Bantu Languages. Routledge, London 2003.{{Page needed|date=September 2010}}</ref>]] Ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa ŵakamba kusama chifukwa cha kupanikizgika kwa ŵanthu ŵa ku Bantu. Ŵanthu awo ŵakayowoyanga viyowoyero vya ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Bantu (mu banja la Niger na Congo) ŵakamba kuyowoya viyowoyero ivi mu vyaka vya m'ma 2000 B.C.E. Kufuma ku Cameroon kuya kumafumiro gha dazi kukafika ku chigaŵa cha Great Lakes. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1000 B.C.E., viyowoyero vya ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Bantu vikafika ku vigaŵa vya kumwera na kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Africa. Gulu linyake likaluta kumwera ku chipalamba cha Zambezi mu vyaka vya m'ma 200 B.C.E. Kufuma apo, ŵanthu awo ŵakayowoyanga Chibantu ŵakaluta kumanjiliro gha dazi ku vigaŵa vya ku Angola, ndipo ŵakaluta kumafumiro gha dazi ku Malawi, Zambia, na Zimbabwe mu vyaka vya m'ma 100 C.E. Cinthu caciŵiri ico cikapangiska kuti maji gha mu Nyanja Yikuru ghafuluke cikaŵa ca kumafumiro gha dazi, vyaka 2,000 ivyo vyajumpha, ndipo ghakafika mu nyanja ya Indian Ocean, Kenya, na Tanzania. Paumaliro, gulu la ŵanthu ŵakumafumiro gha dazi likakumana na ŵanthu ŵakumwera kufuma ku Malawi, Zambia, na Zimbabwe. Magulu ghose ghaŵiri ghakalutilira kulazga kumwera, ndipo magulu gha kumafumiro gha dazi ghakalutilira kulazga ku Mozambique na kufika ku Maputo mu vyaka vya m'ma 100 C.E., ndipo ghakafika m'paka ku Durban. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1000 C.E., ŵanthu ŵakamba kwenda mu chigaŵa cha Great Kei River, icho sono ni South Africa. Vipambi ivi vikaŵa vya ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Bantu, ndipo vikakuranga makora yayi mu nyengo ya chiwuvi ku Namibia na ku Western Cape. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Khoisan ŵakakhalanga mu vigaŵa vinyake vya kumwera kwa Africa.{{sfnp|Iliffe|2007|pp=34–35}}{{qn|date=May 2018}} == {{anchor|500 to 1800}}Medieval and Early Modern (6th to 18th centuries) ==<!--Template:Human history links here--> === Central Africa === {{Main|History of Central Africa#Post-classical history}} ==== Sao civilization ==== {{Main|Sao civilisation#Origins and decline}} Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Sao ŵakakhalanga ku Central Africa kwambira m'ma 500 B.C.E. m'paka m'ma 1500 C.E. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Sao ŵakakhalanga mumphepete mwa Mlonga wa Chari kumwera kwa Nyanja ya Chad, mu caru ico pamasinda chikazgoka caru ca Cameroon na Chad. Ŵanthu aŵa ndiwo ŵakaŵa ŵakwambilira kusangika mu charu cha Cameroon. Mazuŵa ghano, ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yakupambanapambana ŵa kumpoto kwa Cameroon na kumwera kwa Chadi, chomenechomene ŵa Sara, ŵakuti ŵali kufuma ku ŵanthu ŵa ku Sao. Vinthu vya ku malo agha vikulongora kuti ŵakaŵa ŵaluso pakupanga mkuŵa, mkuŵa, na chisulo. Vinthu ivi ni vithuzithuzi vya ŵanthu na vinyama, ndalama, viŵiya vyakusungiramo ŵakufwa, viteŵetero vya pa nyumba, majuda, viŵiya vya dongo vyakutowa chomene, na mikondo. Vinthu vikuruvikuru ivyo ŵanthu ŵa ku Sao ŵakabowozga vikusangika kumwera kwa Nyanja ya Chad. ==== Kanem Empire ==== {{Main|Kanem–Bornu Empire#History}} [[File:Borno_in_1810.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Borno_in_1810.svg|thumb|The Kanem and Bornu Empires in 1810]] Ufumu wa Kanem ukaŵa ku Chad. Ufumu uwu ukaŵa wa Kanem kwambira m'ma 900 C.E. m'paka mu 1893. Pa nyengo iyo nkhondo iyi yikaŵa yankhongono chomene, yikaŵa mu charu cha Chad pera yayi, kweniso mu vigaŵa vinyake vya kumwera kwa Libya, kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Niger, kumpoto kwa Nigeria, kumpoto kwa Cameroon, vigaŵa vinyake vya South Sudan, na Central African Republic. Mbiri ya Ufumu wa Roma yikumanyikwa chomene na buku la Royal Chronicle panji Girgam ilo likasangika mu 1851 na Heinrich Barth uyo wakaŵa mulendo wa ku Germany. Kanem wakawuka mu vyaka vya m'ma 700 C.E. mu chigaŵa cha kumpoto na kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Nyanja ya Chad. Ufumu wa Kanem ukamba kunangika, ndipo mu vyaka vya m'ma 14 C.E., ukawombokwa na ŵalwani ŵa Bilala ŵakufuma ku chigaŵa cha Nyanja ya Fitri. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 900 C.E., ŵanthu awo ŵakayowoyanga chiyowoyero cha Kanuri ndiwo ŵakambiska ufumu wa Kanem. Kanem wakababika cifukwa ca malonda gha mu Sahara. Ŵakapelekanga mahachi kufuma ku vyaru vya kumpoto kwa Africa kuti ŵagulire ŵazga. Kuumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1100, Humai (Hummay) ibn Salamna ndiyo wakambiska ufumu wa Asilamu wa Sayfawa. Ufumu wa Sayfawa ukawusa kwa vilimika 771, ndipo ukaŵa umoza mwa mafumu agho ghakatora nyengo yitali comene mu mdauko wa ŵanthu. Kanem wakafika pachanya chomene mu muwuso wa Mai (themba) Dunama Dibalemi ibn Salma (1210-1248). Ŵanyake ŵakuti ufumu uwu ukaŵa na ŵasilikari 40,000, ndipo ukafumanga ku Fezzan kumpoto m'paka ku Sao kumwera. Chisilamu chikakhazikika mu ufumu wa Roma. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakalutanga ku Mecca, ndipo ku Cairo kukaŵa nyumba za ŵalendo izo ŵakasungirangamo ŵanthu ŵakufuma ku Kanem.{{sfnp|Shillington|2005|pp=182–183}}{{sfnp|Collins|Burns|2007|p=90}} ==== Bornu Empire ==== {{Main|Kanem–Bornu Empire#Shift of the Sayfuwa court from Kanem to Bornu}} Ŵanthu ŵa Kanuri awo ŵakalongozgekanga na Sayfuwa ŵakasamukira kumanjiliro gha dazi na kumwera kwa nyanja, uko ŵakakhazikiska ufumu wa Bornu. Kuumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1500 C.E., ufumu wa Bornu ukaŵa kuti wasanuzga na kupoka vigaŵa vinyake vya Kanem ivyo vikaŵa kuti vyatoleka na Bulala. Boma la Bornu likaŵa na chigaŵa cha Damagaram kumanjiliro gha dazi na cha Baguirmi kumwera kwa nyanja ya Chad. Pafupifupi chaka cha 1400, ufumu wa Sayfawa wakasamuskira msumba wake ukuru ku Bornu, msumba uwo ukaŵa kumwera cha kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Nyanja ya Chad. Cifukwa ca kuryamo viŵeto vinandi, malo ghakuliskako viŵeto gha mu Kanemu ghakaŵa ghakomira comene. Mwakusazgirapo, mphindano za ndyali pakati pa mbumba ya Bilala zikaŵa zikuru comene. Pakuti ufumu uwu ukasamukira ku Bornu, ukaŵa na mwaŵi wa kuchita malonda na ŵanthu ŵa mu caru ca Sahara. Kweniso ŵakamba kukolerana na vigaŵa vya Hausa, ndipo ŵakapelekanga mahachi na mchere kufuma ku Bilma. Mai Ali Gazi ibn Dunama (c. 1475 1503) wakathereska Bilala, ndipo wakambaso kuwusa Kanem. Kukwambilira kwa vyaka vya m'ma 1500, muwuso wa Sayfawa ukakhozga mazaza ghake pa ŵanthu ŵa ku Bornu. Mu hafu yaumaliro ya vyaka vya m'ma 1500 C.E., Mai Idris Alooma wakasintha ŵasilikari ŵake. Ŵasilikari ŵa ku Turkey ndiwo ŵakasambizganga ŵasilikari. Ufumu wa Sayfawa ndiwo ukaŵa wakwamba kumwera kwa Sahara kunozga vilwero. Ufumu uwu ukaŵa na mazaza pa vigaŵa vyose vya Sahel kufuma ku Darfur kumafumiro gha dazi m'paka ku Hausaland kumanjiliro gha dazi. Ŵakaŵa paubwezi na Ufumu wa Ottoman kwizira mu Tripoli. Ŵana ŵa Mai ŵakapelekanga vyawanangwa kwa themba la Ottoman. [[File:CentralEastAfrica1750.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:CentralEastAfrica1750.png|thumb|Major states of Middle Africa in 1750]] Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1600 na 1800, tikumanya vinandi yayi vya Bornu. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800, msumba uwu ukazgoka malo ghakusambizgirako chisopa cha Cisilamu. Ndipouli, ŵasilikari ŵa Bornu ŵakaŵa kuti ŵafwa cifukwa ca kuleka kunozga vilwero viphya, ndipo Kamembu nayo wakamba kuchepa. Nkhondo iyi yikamba chifukwa cha chilangalanga na njara, kugaluka kwa ŵanthu ŵa ku chigaŵa cha kumpoto, nkhongono ya Hausa, kweniso ŵasilikari awo ŵakizanga na vilwero. Mu 1841, mai waumaliro wakathereskeka, ndipo ufumu wa Sayfawa ukamara.Mu malo ghake, muwuso wa al-Kanemi ukayamba kuwusa. ==== Ufumu wa Shilluk ==== {{Main|Shilluk Kingdom#History}} Ufumu wa Shilluk ukaŵa ku South Sudan kwambira mu 15th century kufuma ku chigaŵa cha kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Mlonga wa Nile, kufuma ku Lake No kufika ku 12° north latitude. Msumba wa Fashoda ndiwo ukaŵa likuru la ufumu uwu. Ufumu uwu ukazengeka pakati pa vyaka vya m'ma 1500 C.E. na Nyikang, uyo wakaŵa fumu yakwamba. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800, Ufumu wa Shilluk ukamba kunangika chifukwa cha nkhondo izo Ufumu wa Ottoman ukambiska kweniso chifukwa cha ufumu wa Britain na Sudan.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Shilluk |url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/history/asia-and-africa/middle-eastern-history/shilluk |access-date=2020-03-20 |website=Encyclopedia.com}}</ref> ==== Baguirmi Kingdom ==== {{Main|Sultanate of Bagirmi#History}} Ufumu wa Baguirmi ukaŵako mu vyaka vya m'ma 1500 na 17 C.E., kumwera kwa Nyanja ya Chad. Baguirmi wakafuma kumwera kwa kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Ufumu wa Kanem ̇ Bornu. Fumu yakwamba ya ufumu uwu yikaŵa Mbang Birni Besse. Nyengo yikati yajumphapo, ufumu wa Bornu ukathereska caru ici na kucizgora kuŵa cigaŵa cake.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Concise History of Islam|last=Syed|first=Muzaffar Husain|publisher=Vij Books India Pvt Ltd|year=2011|isbn=978-93-82573-47-0|location=New Delhi, India|page=165}}</ref> [[File:La_ville_d'Abéché,_vue_du_poste_Français_(cropped).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:La_ville_d'Ab%C3%A9ch%C3%A9,_vue_du_poste_Fran%C3%A7ais_(cropped).jpg|right|thumb|[[:en:Abéché|Abéché]], capital of Wadai, in 1918 after the French had taken over]] ==== Wadai Empire ==== {{Main|Wadai Empire#Origins}} Ufumu wa Wadai ukaŵa ku Chad na Central African Republic kwambira mu ma 1700. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Tunjur ndiwo ŵakambiska ufumu wa Wadai kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Bornu mu vyaka vya m'ma 1500. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1700, ŵanthu ŵa Maba ŵakagaluka ndipo ŵakambiska ufumu wa Ŵasilamu. Pakwamba, Wadai wakapeleka msonkho ku Bornu na Durfur, kweni mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800, Wadai wakaŵa wakujiyimira yekha ndipo wakawukira ŵazengezgani ŵake. Wose ŵaŵiri ŵakanjira mu ufumu wa Sokoto mu nyengo ya nkhondo ya Fulani ya mu 1805, iyo yikasuzga Bornu.{{sfnp|Udo|1970|p=178}} ==== Luba Empire ==== {{Main|Kingdom of Luba#Origins and foundation}} [[File:Luba_pottery-1908.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Luba_pottery-1908.jpg|right|thumb|Luba pottery]] Pakati pa 1300 na 1400 C.E., Kongolo Mwamba (Nkongolo) wa fuko la Balopwe wakakolerana na ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yakupambanapambana ya Luba, kufupi na Nyanja ya Kisale. Wakayambiska ufumu wa Kongolo, uwo pamasinda Kalala Ilunga wakawuparanya. Kalala wakasazgirako ufumu wake kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Nyanja ya Kisale. Ndondomeko yiphya ya ndyali ya mathemba ghauzimu (balopwe) na wupu wa ŵalongozgi ŵa vigaŵa na ŵalongozgi ŵa vikaya. Mulongozgi uyu ndiyo wakadumbiskananga na mizimu ya ŵasekuru. Vyaru ivyo vikathereskeka vikaŵanga na ŵimiliri mu nyumba ya themba. Muwuso wa mulongozgi wa ŵasilikari ukaŵa wauzimu yayi. Ŵasilikari ŵakaŵa ŵachoko chomene. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Luba ndiwo ŵakendeskanga malonda gha mu vigaŵa ivi na kupokera mithulo. Ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakambiska boma ili ŵakayowoya kuti ŵali kufuma mu fuko la Luba. Gulu la Luba likafika mu vigaŵa vyose vya Central Africa, kumwera kwa Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, Malawi, Zambia, Zimbabwe, na kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Congo. Maufumu ghaŵiri ghakuru agho ghakayowoya kuti ghakafuma ku Luba ghakaŵa gha Lunda na Maravi. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Bemba na Basimba awo ŵakukhala kumpoto kwa Zambia ŵali kufuma ku ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Luba awo ŵakiza ku Zambia mu vyaka vya m'ma 1600.{{sfnp|Shillington|2005|pp=138–139}}{{sfnp|Davidson|1991|pp=159–160}} ==== Lunda Empire ==== {{Main|Kingdom of Lunda#Origin}} {{Further|List of rulers of the Lunda Empire}} [[File:Lunda_houses-1854.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lunda_houses-1854.jpg|right|thumb|Lunda town and dwelling]] Mu ma 1450, munthu munyake wakuchemeka Luba uyo wakaŵa wa mbumba yacifumu, zina lake Ilunga Tshibinda, wakatora fumukazi ya Lunda, zina lake Rweej. Mwana wawo Mulopwe Luseeng ndiyo wakalutilira kuwusa. Mwana wake Naweej wakalutilira kusazgirako ufumu wake ndipo wakumanyikwa kuti ni themba lakwamba la Lunda, ndipo wakaŵa na zina lakuti mwato yamvo (mwaant yaav, mwant yav), fumu ya njoka. Ndyali za ku Luba zikalutilira, ndipo ŵanthu awo ŵakathereskeka ŵakaŵamo. Mwato yamvo wakapelekanga cilool panji kilolo (muteŵeti wa themba) na wakusonkheska msonkho ku boma lililose ilo likathereskeka.{{sfnp|Shillington|2005|p=141}}{{sfnp|Davidson|1991|p=161}} Vyaru vinandi vikayowoya kuti vikafuma ku Lunda. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Imbangala awo ŵakakhalanga mu vigaŵa vya mukati mwa charu cha Angola ŵakatenge mbana ŵa Kinguri, mukuru wa Fumukazi Rweej, uyo wakatinkhanga muwuso wa mulopwe Tshibunda. Kinguri wakaŵa zina la mafumu gha vyaru ivyo vikazengeka na mukuru wa Fumukazi Rweej. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Luena (Lwena) na Lozi (Luyani) ku Zambia nawo ŵakugomezga kuti mbana ŵa Kinguri. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1700, mulongozgi wa Lunda zina lake Mwata Kazembe, wakambiska ufumu wa Lunda kumanjiliro gha dazi mu dambo la Luapula. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Lunda ŵakamba kuthandazgikira kumanjiliro gha dazi, ndipo Ŵakayaka na Ŵapende nawo ŵakayowoya kuti mbana ŵawo. Lunda wakayaniskanga pakati pa Africa na malonda agho ghakacitikanga ku vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi. Ufumu wa Lunda ukamara mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800 apo ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Chokwe awo ŵakaŵa na vilwero, ŵakiza na kuwukira.{{sfnmp|Davidson|1991|Shillington|2005|1p=161|2pp=139, 141}} ==== Kingdom of Kongo ==== {{Main|Kingdom of Kongo#History}} [[File:KingdomKongo1711.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:KingdomKongo1711.png|right|thumb|Kongo in 1711]] Mu vyaka vya m'ma 15 C.E., ŵanthu ŵa ku Bakongo awo ŵakaliskanga viŵeto (ba ndiyo yikaŵa chiŵelengero chikuru) ŵakakolerananga mu Ufumu wa Kongo. Msumba uwu ukaŵa wa M'banza-Kongo. Cifukwa cakuti ŵakaŵa na ndondomeko yiwemi, ŵakathereskanga ŵazengezgani ŵawo na kupokera msonkho. Ŵakaŵa ŵaluso pakupanga visulo, viŵiya, na kuluka salu za raffia. Ŵakawovwiranga ŵanthu kuti ŵaguliskane vinthu pakati pa vigaŵa vyawo. Pamanyuma, ŵanthu ŵakamba kuguliska vyakurya nga ni chimanga na manioc ku malo agha. Vipambi ivi vikawovwira kuti ŵanthu ŵa mu chigaŵa ichi na vigaŵa vinyake vya mu Africa ŵasazgikirenge, ndipo mbuto iyi yikanjira mu malo mwa mphoza. Kuzakafika m'ma 1500, ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa manikongo ŵakaŵa na mazaza kufuma ku nyanja ya Atlantic kumanjiliro gha dazi m'paka ku mlonga wa Kwango kumafumiro gha dazi. Mu cigaŵa cilicose mukaŵa mani-mpembe (kazembe wa cigaŵa) uyo wakapika na manikongo. Mu 1506, Afonso I (1506-1542), uyo wakaŵa Mkhristu, wakamba kuwusa. Apo Afonso wakathereskanga ŵanthu, malonda gha ŵazga ghakalutilira kukura. Mu 1568 m'paka 1569, Ŵagaga ŵakanjira mu charu cha Kongo, ndipo ŵakaparanya ufumu wose. Mu 1574, Manikongo Álvaro I wakawezgekeramo mu ufumu wake na wovwiri wa ŵasilikari ŵa ku Portugal. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1660, Ŵapwitikizi ŵakayezga kuti ŵambe kulamulira charu cha Kongo. Manikongo António I (1661-1665), pamoza na ŵasilikari 5,000 ŵa ku Congo, ŵakaparanyika na ŵasilikari ŵa Afro-Portuguese pa Nkhondo ya Mbwila. Ufumu uwu ukagaŵikana mu vigaŵa vichokovichoko, ndipo ŵanthu awo ŵakakoleka ku nkhondo ŵakaguliskikanga ku wuzga. Boma la Kongo likapoka ŵanthu ku ufumu wa Ndongo. Ndongo yikawusikanga na mtundu wa ngola. Kweniso Ndongo wakaguliskanga ŵazga na Ŵapwitikizi. Ufumu uwu ukaŵapokeleranga makora yayi Ŵapwitikizi nga umo ŵakachitira Ŵakenani. Kuumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1500 C.E., Ŵapwitikizi ŵakayezga kupoka charu cha Ndongo, kweni Ŵambundu ŵakaŵathereska. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Ndongo ŵakasuzgika comene cifukwa ca kuthereskeka kwa ŵazga. Ŵalongozgi aŵa ŵakakhazikiska boma linyake ku Matamba, ilo likaŵa la Fumukazi Nzinga. Ŵapwitikizi ŵakakhalanga mumphepete mwa nyanja kuti ŵaguliskenge vinthu. Mu vyaru vinyake, ŵazga ŵakasuzganga ŵanthu, ndipo boma likamba kurwa nkhondo kuti liŵatore. Mbumba ya Imbangala ndiyo yikaŵa na boma la Kasanje, ilo likaŵa na ŵazga ŵanandi mu vyaka vya m'ma 1600 na 1800..{{sfnmp|Shillington|2005|Davidson|1991|1pp=198–199|2p=158}} === Horn of Africa === {{Main|Horn of Africa#Middle Ages and Early Modern era}} ==== Somalia ==== {{Main|History of Somalia}} [[File:Gondereshe2008.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Gondereshe2008.jpg|right|thumb|The [[:en:Citadel|Citadel]] of [[:en:Gondershe|Gondershe, Somalia]] was an important city in the medieval [[:en:Somali_people|Somali]] [[:en:Ajuran_Sultanate|Ajuran Empire]]]] Cifukwa cakuti cisopo ca Ciislamu cikababika kufupi na nyanja ya Somalia, ŵamalonda ŵa ku Somalia na ŵakwendeska ngalaŵa awo ŵakakhalanga mu caru ca Arabia ŵakamba kulondezga cisopa ici. Mu vyaka vyakwambilira vya Chisilamu, mbumba za Chisilamu zikaluta ku Somalia, ndipo mu vyaka vyakulondezgapo, ŵanthu ŵa Chisilamu ŵa ku Somalia ŵakasintha mitima yawo kuti ŵaŵe Ŵasamariya. Msumba wa Mogadishu ndiwo ukamanyikwanga na zina lakuti Msumba wa Cisilamu ndipo ndiwo ukendeskanga malonda gha golide ku East Africa kwa vyaka vinandi. Nyumba ya Ufumu ya Almnara, Mogadishu. Mu nyengo iyi, mafumu gha ufumu nga ni Ajuran Empire na Mogadishu Sultanate, na ma republics nga ni Barawa, Merca na Hobyo pamoza na vipata vyawo vikakura ndipo vikaguliskanga vinthu ku vyaru vinyake. Vasco da Gama, uyo wakajumpha mu Mogadishu mu vyaka vya m'ma 1500, wakati msumba uwu ukaŵa ukuru chomene ndipo ukaŵa na nyumba zakukwana vigaŵa vinayi panji vinkhondi. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1500, Duarte Barbosa wakalemba kuti ngaraŵa zinandi izo zikafumanga ku ufumu wa Cambaya, uwo sono ni India, zikalutanga ku Mogadishu na salu na vyakununkhira. Barbosa wakayowoyaso za unandi wa nyama, tirigu, balere, mahachi, na vipasi ivyo vikasangikanga mu misika ya mumphepete mwa nyanja. Mogadishu, msumba uwo ukaŵa pakati pa vyakupangira vinthu vya ku Eguputo na Siriya, pamoza na Merca na Barawa, ukaŵa malo ghakwendakwenda gha ŵamalonda ŵa Chiswahili ŵakufuma ku Mombasa na Malindi. Ŵamalonda Ŵachiyuda ŵakufuma ku Strait of Hormuz ŵakizanga na vyakuvwara vyawo vya ku India na vipambi ku Somali kuti ŵaguliske tirigu na nkhuni. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1500, ŵanthu ŵakamba kuguliska malaya, ambergris, na porcelain. Ŵakaŵaguliskanga ku Ufumu wa Ming ku China, uko ŵamalonda ŵa ku Somalia ndiwo ŵakendeskanga malonda pakati pa Asia na Africa. Ŵamalonda ŵa Chihindu ŵakufuma ku Surat na ŵa ku southeast Africa ŵakufuma ku Pate, ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito virwa vya Merca na Barawa ku Somalia (ivyo vikaŵa pasi pa mazaza gha maboma ghaŵiri agha) kuti ŵaguliskenge vinthu kwambura suzgo.<ref>Gujarat and the Trade of East Africa, p. 45.</ref> ==== Ethiopia ==== {{Main|History of Ethiopia}} {{Further|Ethiopian historiography}} Ufumu wa Zagwe ukawusa vigaŵa vinandi vya Ethiopia na Eritrea kufuma mu 1137 m'paka 1270. Zina lakuti dy nasty likufuma ku lizgu la Cushitic lakuti Agaw, ilo likuyowoyeka kumpoto kwa Ethiopia. Kwambira mu 1270 C.E. m'paka vyaka vinandi, ufumu wa Solomoni ndiwo ukalamuliranga ufumu wa Ethiopia.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Solomonic Dynasty |url=https://ethiopianhistory.com/Solomonic_Dynasty/ |access-date=2021-08-28 |website=ethiopianhistory.com}}</ref> [[File:ET_Gondar_asv2018-02_img03_Fasil_Ghebbi.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:ET_Gondar_asv2018-02_img03_Fasil_Ghebbi.jpg|thumb|[[:en:Fasilides_of_Ethiopia|King Fasilides's Castle]]]] Kukwambilira kwa vyaka vya m'ma 1400, Etiyopiya wakayezga kukolerana na maufumu gha ku Europe. Kalata iyo Themba Henry IV la ku England likalembera Fumu ya ku Abyssinia yilipo m'paka sono. Mu 1428, Fumu Yeshaq I yikatuma mathenga ghaŵiri kwa Alfonso V wa ku Aragon. Ubwezi wakwamba na caru cinyake ca ku Europe ukamba mu 1508 na ufumu wa Portugal, uwo ukaŵa pasi pa muwuso wa Lebna Dengel. Ici cikaŵa cinthu cakuzirwa comene, cifukwa apo ufumu ukawukiranga na mulongozgi wa ŵasilikari ŵa Adal, Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi (uyo wakacemekanga "Grañ", panji "wa woko lamazere"), caru ca Portugal cikamovwira fumu ya Ethiopia mwa kutuma vilwero na ŵanalume 400, awo ŵakawovwira mwana wake Gelawdewos kuti wathereske Ahmad na kwambaso kuwusa. Nkhondo iyi yikaŵa yimoza mwa nkhondo zakwambilira izo Ufumu wa Ottoman ukachitanga. Apo Fumu Susenyos yikang'anamukira ku Cikatolika mu 1624, pakacitika viwawa na vivulupi ivyo vikakoma ŵanthu ŵanandi. Ŵamishonale ŵa cisopo ca Jesuit ŵakakhuŵazga cisopa ca Orthodox ca ŵanthu ŵa ku Ethiopia, ndipo pa Juni 25, 1632, mwana wa Susenyos, Emperor Fasilides, wakapharazga kuti cisopa ca boma ni Cikhristu ca Ethiopian Orthodox ndipo wakacimbizga ŵamishonale ŵa cisopo ca Jesuit na ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵa ku Europe.{{sfnp|Beshah|Aregay|1964|p=105}}<ref>{{cite book|last=van Donzel|first=Emeri|chapter=Fasilädäs|editor-first=Siegbert|editor-last=Uhlig|title=[[Encyclopaedia Aethiopica]]|location=Wiesbaden|publisher=Harrassowitz Verlag|year=2005|page=500}}</ref> === North Africa === {{Main|History of North Africa#Arrival of Islam}} ==== Maghreb ==== {{Main|Maghreb#History}} {{Further|Almoravid dynasty|Almohad Caliphate|Saadi dynasty|Alaouite dynasty}} [[File:Great_Mosque_of_Kairouan_Panorama_-_Grande_Mosquée_de_Kairouan_Panorama.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Great_Mosque_of_Kairouan_Panorama_-_Grande_Mosqu%C3%A9e_de_Kairouan_Panorama.jpg|right|thumb|The [[:en:Mosque_of_Uqba|Great Mosque of Kairouan]] (also known as the Mosque of Uqba), first built in 670 by the Umayyad general Uqba Ibn Nafi, is the oldest and most prestigious mosque in the Maghreb and North Africa,<ref>{{cite book|author=Hans Kng|title=Tracing The Way: Spiritual Dimensions of the World Religions|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sm0BfUKwct0C&pg=PA248|year=2006|publisher=A&C Black|isbn=978-0-8264-9423-8|page=248}}</ref> located in the city of [[:en:Kairouan|Kairouan]], [[:en:Tunisia|Tunisia]]]] Yahya ibn Umar na munung'una wake Abu Bakr ibn Umar, ŵana ŵa fumu ya ku Lamtuna, ŵa Almoravid ŵakazenga ufumu uwo ukafumanga ku Sahel m'paka ku Mediterranean. Abdallah ibn Yassin na Yahya ibn Umar ŵakati ŵafwa, Abu Bakr wakagaŵa ufumu pakati pa iyo na Yusuf ibn Tashfin, cifukwa ukaŵa ukuru comene kuti munthu yumoza ndiyo wawusenge. Abu Bakr wakatora kumwera kuti walutilire kurwa nkhondo na Soninke, ndipo Yusuf ibn Tashfin wakatora kumpoto, expMu 711 AD, Umayyad Caliphate wakathereska North Africa yose. Kuzakafika mu 100 C.E., ŵanthu ŵanandi ku North Africa ŵakaŵa Ŵasilamu. Kuzakafika m'ma 900 C.E., umoza uwo ukaŵako cifukwa ca kuwukira kwa Cisilamu ku North Africa na kuthandazgika kwa cisopa ca Cisilamu ukamara. Pakaŵa mphindano yakuti ni njani wakeneranga kunjira mu malo gha nchimi iyi. Pakwamba, ŵa Umayyads ndiwo ŵakalongozganga ufumu wa Caliphate, ndipo msumba wawo ukaŵa ku Damaseko. Nyengo yikati yajumphapo, Ŵababasi ŵakamba kuwusa msumba wa Baghdad. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Berber, ŵakaŵa ŵakujiyimira pawekha ndipo ŵakasuskanga ŵanthu ŵakufuma ku vyaru vinyake kuti ŵaleke kunjilirapo pa vinthu vyawo kweniso kuti Ŵaarabu ndiwo ŵekha ŵaŵe na mazaza pa chisopa cha Orthodox, ntheura ŵakasankha Chisilamu cha Shi'ite na cha Kharijite. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 800 na 900 C.E., maufumu ghanandi gha Kharijite ghakiza na kuwa. Kukwambilira kwa vyaka vya m'ma 1000 C.E., gulu la Ŵasilamu ŵakufuma ku Siriya, awo ŵakatenge ŵali kufuma kwa mwana mwanakazi wa Muhammad, zina lake Fatimah, ŵakambiska ufumu wa Fatimid ku Maghreb. Kuzakafika mu 950, ŵakaŵa kuti ŵathereska caru cose ca Maghreb, ndipo mu 969, Eguputo yose. Mwaluŵiro ŵakafumamo mu Baghdad. Pakukhumba kuti ŵanthu ŵa mu mtundu wa Sanhaja ŵaŵe na chisopa cha Chiisilamu chakutowa, Abdallah ibn Yasin wakambiska gulu la Almoravid ku Mauritania na Western Sahara. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Sanhaja Berber, nga ni Soninke, ŵakasopanga visopa vyawo pamoza na Chislamu. Abdallah ibn Yasin wakasanga ŵanthu ŵakunozgeka kuzgokera ku Chiyuda ku Lamtuna Sanhaja, uko kukaŵa ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Soninke kumwera na ŵa mtundu wa Zenata kumpoto. Mu ma 1040, ŵanthu wose ŵa ku Lamtuna ŵakazgoka ŵa Almoravid. Wakaŵawovwira kuti ŵalute ku Spain. Abu Bakr wakati wafwa mu 1087, ŵanthu ŵakakolerana yayi ndipo nkhondo yikasazgikira kumwera. Ici cikapangiska kuti Soninke wasanuzgikeso. Nyengo yinyake ŵanthu ŵakatenge ŵa Almoravid ndiwo ŵakaparanya Ufumu wa Ghana mu 1076, kweni sono ŵanthu ŵakugomezga yayi fundo iyi.{{sfnp|Shillington|2005|p=90}} Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1000 m'paka mu 1300, Ŵabedouin ŵanandi ŵakafumako ku Arabia. Pafupifupi mu 1050, ŵanthu ŵakukwana 250,000 ŵa ku Eguputo ŵakasamukira ku Maghreb. Awo ŵakalondezganga mumphepete mwa nyanja ŵakamanyikwanga kuti Banu Hilal. Awo ŵakendanga kumwera kwa mapiri gha Atlas ŵakaŵa ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Banu Sulaym. Ivi vikapangiska kuti chiyowoyero cha Chiarabic chikure luŵiro chomene, kweniso kuti chiyowoyero cha Chiberberber chikhalenge makora yayi. Pamanyuma, gulu linyake la ŵanthu ŵa ku Berber ilo likachemekanga kuti Hawwara, likaluta kumwera ku Nubia, kujumpha mu Eguputo. [[File:Almohad1200.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Almohad1200.png|right|thumb|Almohad Empire, c. 1200]] Mu 1140 C.E., Abd al-Mu'min wakapharazga kuti ŵa Almoravid ŵazamukomeka, ndipo wakaŵapa mulandu wa uheni na vimbundi. Wakakolerana na Ŵaberi ŵa kumpoto kuti ŵarwe na Ŵalmoravid, ndipo wakaŵathereska na kupanga ufumu wa Almohad. Mu nyengo iyi, ŵanthu ŵa ku Maghreb ŵakamba kusopa chisopa cha Chisilamu ndipo ŵakamanya kuŵazga na kulemba, kusanda malemba gha algebra, na kugwiliskira ntchito manambara gha zero na decimals. Kuzakafika m'ma 1300, ufumu wa Almohad ukagaŵikana mu vyaru vitatu. Ufumu wa Chikhristu wa Castile, Aragon, na Portugal ndiwo ukaparanya chomene visopa vyautesi. Mu 1415, charu cha Portugal chikapoka msumba wa Ceuta, ndipo mu vyaka vyakulondezgapo, charu cha Spain na Portugal vikapoka misumba yinyake ku North Africa. Mu 1492, ku umaliro wa Nkhondo ya Granada, Spain wakathereska Ŵasilamu ku Granada, ndipo ici cikamara muwuso wa Ŵasilamu uwo ukaŵa kuti waŵa na vilimika mahandiredi ghankhondi na ghatatu kumwera kwa Iberia.{{sfnp|Shillington|2005|pp=88–92}} [[File:Safi_minaret.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Safi_minaret.png|left|thumb|The Almohad minaret in Safi]] {{Citation needed span|text=Portugal and Spain took the ports of [[Tangiers]], [[Algiers]], [[Tripoli, Libya|Tripoli]], and [[Tunis]]. This put them in direct competition with the [[Ottoman Empire]], which re-took the ports using Turkish corsairs ([[Piracy|pirates]] and [[privateer]]s). The Turkish corsairs would use the ports for raiding Christian ships, a major source of booty for the towns. Technically, North Africa was under the control of the Ottoman Empire, but only the coastal towns were fully under [[Istanbul]]'s control. Tripoli benefited from trade with [[Borno State|Borno]]|date=November 2021}}. Ŵasilikari ŵa ku Tripoli ŵakaguliskanga mahachi, vilwero, na vyakuvwara vya nkhondo na mafumu gha ufumu wa Bornu.{{sfnp|Shillington|2005|pp=166–167}} Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1500 C.E., ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Saadi, awo ŵakatenge mbana ŵa mwana mwanakazi wa Muhammad, ŵakathereska charu cha Morocco na kuchikolerana. Ŵakatondeska Ufumu wa Ottoman kufika ku nyanja ya Atlantic ndipo ŵakachimbizga Portugal kufuma ku Morocco. Ahmad al-Mansur ndiyo wakawovwira kuti ufumu uwu uŵe wankhongono chomene. Mu 1591, wakawukira msumba wa Songhay kuti wawuskepo malonda gha golide agho ghakendanga ku vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Africa. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1700, ufumu wa Morocco ukamara kulamulira msumba wa Songhay. Mu 1603, pamanyuma pa nyifwa ya Ahmad, ufumu ukagaŵikana mu vigaŵa viŵiri, Fes na Marrakesh. Nyengo yikati yajumphapo, Muley al-Rashid, uyo wakambiska ufumu wa Alaouite (1672-1727) wakawovwira kuti msumba uwu uŵeso wakukolerana. Mubali wake Ismail ibn Sharif (1672-1727), wakakhwimiska kukolerana kwa caru ici mwa kwiza na ŵazga kufuma ku Sudan kuti ŵakhozge ŵasilikari ŵake.{{sfnp|Shillington|2005|pp=167–168}} ==== Nile Valley ==== {{See|Nile#History}} ===== Egypt ===== {{Main|History of Egypt#Arab and Ottoman Egypt (641–1882)}} {{Further|Lists of rulers of Egypt}} [[File:Fatimid_Caliphate.PNG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Fatimid_Caliphate.PNG|right|thumb|Fatimid Caliphate]] In 642 AD, the [[:en:Rashidun_Caliphate|Rashidun Caliphate]] conquered [[:en:Muslim_conquest_of_Egypt|Byzantine Egypt]]. Mu nyengo ya ufumu wa Fatimid, caru ca Eguputo cikaŵa cakutowa comene. Ŵakakhozga madamu na migelo, ndipo ŵakamba kupanga tirigu, balere, lineni, na thonje. Ŵaeguputo ndiwo ŵakapanganga salu zinandi za salu yiwemi. Malonda ghake ghakasazgikiranga mu nyanja ya Meditereniyani na Nyanja Yiswesi. Ŵaeguputo ŵakapangaso ndalama ya golide yakucemeka dinari ya Fatimid, iyo ŵakagwiliskiranga nchito pa malonda. Ndalama zinandi zikafumanga ku msonkho uwo ŵakaŵanga nawo ŵalimi (fellahin). Ŵasilikari awo ŵakachitako nkhondo ya ku Fatimid mu 969 C.E., ndiwo ŵakaguliskanga misonkho. Ŵakaronga ŵakapelekanga chigaŵa ku ŵalongozgi ndipo ŵakasunganga ivyo vyakhalapo. Nyengo yikati yajumphapo, ŵakazgoka ŵenecho ŵa malo ndipo ŵakakhalanga makora. Kuti ŵasilikari aŵa ŵafike pa msinkhu uwu, ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito ŵasilikari ŵa ku Turkey awo ŵakaŵa ŵazga ŵa Mamluk. Ŵanthu ŵakufwatuka ŵa ku Berber nawo ŵakalembeka. M'ma 1150, ndalama za misonkho izo ŵanthu ŵakasanganga ku minda zikakhira. Ŵasilikari aŵa ŵakagaluka na kunanga vikaya, ŵakalekeska malonda, kweniso ŵakatimbanizga mazaza gha ŵasilikari ŵa Fatimid.{{sfnp|Shillington|2005|p=158}} Mu 1160 C.E., Ŵaeguputo awo ŵakaŵa Ŵafatisimu ŵakaŵa pafupi kuparanyika. Cifukwa ca suzgo ili, mulara wa ŵasilikari ŵa ku Kurdish zina lake Ṣalāḥ ad-Dīn Yūsuf ibn Ayyūb (Saladin), pamoza na ŵasilikari ŵanyake, ŵakamba kuvikilira Ŵasilamu. Saladin wakathereska Ŵakhristu awo ŵakalutanga ku nkhondo ku mphaka za Eguputo ndipo wakapoka Yerusalemu mu 1187. Mu 1171, apo Al-Adid wakafwa, Saladin wakaŵa fumu ya Eguputo. Mu nyengo ya muwuso wake, Ŵaeguputo ŵakawelera ku chisopa cha Sunni, Cairo likazgoka malo ghakuzirwa ghakusambizgirako chisopa cha Chiarabu, ndipo ŵazga ŵa Mamluk ŵakatolekera ku Turkey na kumwera kwa Russia kuti ŵateŵetere usilikari. Ŵasilikari ŵakapelekanga msonkho ku ŵasilikari. Nyengo yikati yajumphapo, ŵasilikari awo ŵakaŵa ŵazga ŵa Mamluk ŵakazgoka ŵanthu ŵankhongono chomene, ndipo ŵakamazga muwuso wa Ayyubid mu 1250 na kwambiska muwuso wa Mamluk. Ŵa Mamluk awo ŵakaŵa na mazaza ŵakamanyikwanga na zina lakuti amirs. Kwa vilimika 250, Mamluk ghakaŵa na mazaza pa Eguputo yose. Eguputo wakambiska nkhondo ya ku Siriya na Palestina, ndipo wakathereska ŵalwani ŵa Ŵaeguputo. Ŵaeguputo ŵakamba kuwona Ŵaamamuleki kuti mbakuvikilira chisopa cha Cisilamu, Medina, na Mecca. Nyengo yikati yajumphapo, gulu la ŵasilikari la iqta likamba kuchepa ndipo likagomezgeka yayi. Ŵa Mamluks ŵakamba kuwona kuti iqta yawo njakulondezgana na umo ŵanthu ŵakukhala mu misumba. Vipambi vikamba kuchepa, ndipo madamu na migelo vikamba kunangika. Maluso gha ŵasilikari ŵa Mamluk ghakapambana na gha futi na futi.{{sfnp|Shillington|2005|pp=159–161}} [[File:Louis-François_Baron_Lejeune_001.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Louis-Fran%C3%A7ois_Baron_Lejeune_001.jpg|thumb|250x250px|In July 1798, French forces under Napoleon annihilated an Egyptian army at the [[:en:Battle_of_the_Pyramids|Battle of the Pyramids]].]] Ufumu wa Ottoman ukati wamba kuwusa, Eguputo wakathereskeka. Mu 1517, pamanyuma pa nkhondo ya Ottoman-Mamluk, Eguputo wakaŵa chigaŵa cha Ufumu wa Ottoman. Boma la Istanbul likawezgerapo ndondomeko ya iqta. Ŵanthu ŵakambiraso kwenda mu Nyanja Yiswesi, kweni chifukwa chakuti Ŵapwitikizi ŵakendanga chomene mu nyanja ya Indian Ocean, ŵakamanyanga yayi uko ŵakendanga. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1600 na 1800, Ŵamamluk ŵakambaso kulamulira. Ŵanthu ŵakumanyikwa na zina lakuti Beys ŵakaŵa Ŵamamuleki. Ŵalongozgi ŵa boma ŵakimiranga waka boma la Istanbul, ndipo ŵakachitanga vinthu mwakujiyimira. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800, ŵasilikari ŵa Pasha ŵakamba kulamulira. Boma likaŵa lambura nkhongono ndipo likaŵa lambura urunji.{{sfnp|Shillington|2005|p=161}} Mu 1798, Napoleon wakawukira Eguputo. Ŵasilikari ŵa ku malo agha ŵakatondeka kulimbana na Ŵafarisi. Kweni mu 1801, ufumu wa Britain na Ufumu wa Ottoman ukawuskapo Ŵafarisi. Ivi ndivyo vikapangiska kuti mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800, ŵa Anglo-Franco ŵambe kulimbana na Ŵaeguputo.{{sfnp|Shillington|2005|p=162}} ===== Sudan ===== {{Main|History of Sudan}} ==== Christian and Islamic Nubia ==== {{Main|Nubia#Christian Nubia|Nubia#Islamic Nubia}} {{Further|List of rulers of Makuria}} [[File:Christian_Nubia.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Christian_Nubia.png|right|thumb|Christian Nubia and the Nile [[:en:Cataract|cataracts]]]] Ezana wa ku Aksum wakati wapoka msumba wa Meroe, ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga ku Ballana ŵakasamira ku Nubia kufuma kumwera ca kumanjiliro gha dazi ndipo ŵakambiska maufumu ghatatu: Makuria, Nobatia, na Alodia. Ŵakawusa vyaka 200. Malo agha ghakaŵa pachanya pa malo ghachitatu, mumphepete mwa Dongola Reach. Nobadia wakaŵa kumpoto na msumba wake wa Farasi, ndipo Alodia wakaŵa kumwera na msumba wake wa Soba. Nyengo yikati yajumphapo, Makuria wakawukira Nobadia. Ŵanthu ŵa mu chigaŵa ichi ŵakazgoka Ŵakhristu mu 500 m'paka 600 C.E. Pakwamba tchalitchi likamba kulemba mu Chicoptic, kufuma apo mu Chigiriki, ndipo paumaliro mu Chi-Nubian chakale, chiyowoyero cha ku Nilo-Sahara. Tchalitchi ili likakolerananga na Tchalitchi la Coptic la ku Eguputo. Mu 641, ufumu wa Rashidun ukathereska Eguputo. Ici cikapangiska kuti Ŵakhristu ŵa ku Nubia na Aksum ŵaleke kwendera visopa vyautesi. Mu 651-652, Ŵaarabu ŵakufuma ku Eguputo ŵakanjira mu Nubia. Ŵasilikari ŵa ku Nubia ŵakathereska ŵalwani. Pakajumpha nyengo yitali kufuma apo pakalembeka phangano la Baqt (panji Bakt), ilo likazomerezga Chikhristu ku Nubia na kwendeska malonda. Phangano ili ndilo likawovwira kuti Ŵakhristu ŵa ku Nubia na Ŵaeguputo ŵalutilire kukolerana kwa vyaka pafupifupi 600. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1200 C.E., caru ca Nubia cikamba kunangika. Tchalitchi na ŵanthu ŵakuchindikika ŵakachepeskanga mazaza gha ufumu. Ŵabedouin ŵa ku Arabia ŵakamba kunjira mu Nubia, ndipo ŵakambiska masuzgo ghanyake. Ŵanthu ŵakugomezgeka awo ŵakasopanga visambizgo vya Chisilamu ŵakafika mu Nubia. Kuzakafika mu 1366, caru ca Nubia cikaŵa kuti cagaŵikana mu vigaŵa vicoko comene apo cikapokelereka na Ŵamamuleki. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1400, ŵanthu ŵa ku Arabia ŵakamba kwiza ku Nubia. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Arabia awo ŵakakhalanga ku malo agha ŵakamba kusambira chiyowoyero cha ku Arabia. Kuzakafika m'ma 1500 C.E., Makuria na Nobadia vikaŵa kuti vyazgoka vya Chisilamu. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1500, Abdallah Jamma wakalongozga gulu la Ŵaarabu ilo likaparanya msumba wa Soba, uwo ukaŵa msumba ukuru wa Alodia. Pamanyuma, Alodia wakaŵa pasi pa ufumu wa Funj. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1500, ŵaliska ŵa viŵeto ŵa ku Funj ŵakaluta kumpoto ku Alodia na kukhalamo. Pakati pa 1504 na 1505, ufumu uwu ukathandazgika, ndipo ukafika pachanya chomene. 1644 – 1680). Kuumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1500, ŵanthu ŵa ku Funj ŵakazgoka Ŵasilamu. Ŵakatumizga ufumu wawo kumanjiliro gha dazi ku Kordofan. Ŵakafika kumafumiro gha dazi, kweni Etiyopiya wakaŵakanizga. Ŵakaŵa na mazaza pa Nubia m'paka ku Cataract Yachitatu. Vinthu vikendanga makora chifukwa cha ŵalwani awo ŵakakoleka na ŵamalonda awo ŵakendanga mu Sennar. Mu nyengo ya Badi IV (1724-1762), ŵasilikari ŵakagalukira fumu, ndipo yikaŵa nga ni munthu uyo wakuwoneseska. Mu 1821, Funj ŵakathereskeka na Muhammad Ali (1805-1849), Pasha wa ku Egypt.{{sfnp|Page|2001|p=88}}{{sfnp|Lye|2002|p=189}} === Southern Africa === {{Main|History of Southern Africa#Post-classical history}} Ŵanthu awo ŵakayowoyanga chiyowoyero cha Bantu ŵakakhalanga kumwera kwa Mlonga wa Limpopo m'ma 400 C.E. Ŵakaŵa ŵalimi na ŵaliska ŵa viŵeto awo ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito visulo. Ŵakamba kusamira kumwera, ndipo ŵakugomezga kuti visulo vyakwambilira vya ku KwaZulu-Natal vikaŵako cha m'ma 1050.{{Ambiguous|date=March 2020}} Gulu la kumwera chomene likaŵa ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Xhosa, awo chiyowoyero chawo chikukolerana na chiyowoyero cha ŵanthu ŵakwambilira ŵa mtundu wa Khoi-San.<ref>{{Cite web |title=500–1800 – AFRICA |url=https://sites.google.com/site/africasfacts/history/500-1800 |access-date=2019-01-18 |website=sites.google.com}}</ref> ==== Great Zimbabwe and Mapungubwe ==== {{Main|Great Zimbabwe#Description|Kingdom of Mapungubwe#Origin}} {{Further|List of rulers of Mutapa}} [[File:Tower,_Great_Zimbabwe1.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tower,_Great_Zimbabwe1.jpg|right|thumb|Towers of [[:en:Great_Zimbabwe|Great Zimbabwe]].]] Ufumu wa Mapungubwe ukaŵa wa ku Southern Africa, ndipo msumba wake ukaŵa ku Mapungubwe. Boma ili likaŵako mu vyaka vya m'ma 1200 C.E. Chuma chake chikafuma ku malonda gha njovu kufuma ku Limpopo Valley, mkuwa kufuma ku mapiri gha kumpoto kwa Transvaal, na golide kufuma ku Zimbabwe Plateau pakati pa milonga ya Limpopo na Zambezi, pamoza na ŵamalonda ŵa Swahili ku Chibuene. Pakati pa vyaka vya m'ma 1200 C.E., msumba wa Mapungubwe ukakhala waka. Mapungubwe wakati wagumuka, Great Zimbabwe yikakwera pa Zimbabwe Plateau. Zina lakuti Zimbabwe likung'anamura nyumba yakuzengeka na malibwe. Great Zimbabwe ndiyo yikaŵa msumba wakwamba ku Southern Africa ndipo yikaŵa likuru la ufumu uwo ukakhozga maboma ghachoko gha Shona. Nyumba za malibwe zikafuma ku Mapungubwe. Ŵanthu ŵakamba kuzengera mu msumba wa Great Zimbabwe, uwo ukaŵa nga ni linga la Great Enclosure. Kweniso ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito malibwe ghakupangira nyumba kuti ŵazenge nyumba zichoko. Charu cha Zimbabwe chikakura chomene chifukwa cha malonda agho chikachitanga na ŵanthu ŵa ku Swahili. Kuwuka kwa Great Zimbabwe kukukolerana na kuwuka kwa Kilwa. Mu charu cha Zimbabwe, golide likasangikanga chomene. Ŵanthu ŵa mu nyumba yake ŵakakhalanga makora, ŵakavwaranga salu za ku India, ŵakavwaranga vinthu vya mkuŵa na golide, ndipo ŵakaryanga vyakurya vyakufuma ku Peresiya na China. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1420 na 1430, caru ca Zimbabwe cikamba kunangika. Mu 1450, msumba uwu ukalekeka. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakuti cifukwa ca kuchepa kwa vinthu ivi nchakuti msumba wa Ingombe Ilede ndiwo ukakura comene. Ivi vikapangiska kuti nkhani ya Ŵashona yambe kujintha. Nyatsimba Mutota, fumu ya kumpoto kwa Shona ya Karanga, yikaŵa pa nkhondo. Iyo na mwana wake Mutope ŵakathereska chigaŵa cha Zimbabwe Plateau, ndipo ŵakenda kujumpha mu Mozambiki m'paka kumafumiro gha dazi kwa charu ichi. Ŵakacemanga ufumu wawo kuti Wilayatu 'l Mu'anamutapah panji mwanamutapa (Fumu ya Vyaru Vyakupokeka), panji Ufumu wa Mutapa. Monomotapa ndiyo yikaŵa vimbundi vya ku Portugal. Ŵakazenga nyumba za malibwe yayi; Ŵashona ŵa kumpoto ŵakaŵa na mitheto ya kuzenga na malibwe yayi. Matope wakati wafwa mu 1480, ufumu uwu ukagaŵikana mu vigaŵa viŵiri: Torwa kumwera na Mutapa kumpoto. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Shona, Changa na Togwa, ŵakakwesananga na mbumba ya mwanamutapa. Changa wakathereska chigaŵa cha kumwera, ndipo wakazenga ufumu wa Butua uwo ukaŵa na msumba ukuru ku Khami. Ufumu wa Mutapa ukalutilira kumpoto pasi pa muwuso wa mwenemutapa. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1500 C.E., Ŵapwitikizi ŵakakhazikiska misika mu Mlonga wa Zambezi kuti ŵambe kulamulira Mutapa. Ŵakaŵa ŵakukondwa. Mu 1628, nkhondo yikuru yikaŵawovwira kuti ŵaŵike mwanamutapa munyake zina lake Mavura, uyo wakalemba mapangano agho ghakaŵapa wanangwa wakupeleka vinthu ku Ŵapwitikizi. Ŵapwitikizi ŵakamazga muwuso wa mwanamutapa na kunanga malonda. Kuzakafika mu 1667, Mutapa wakaŵa kuti wanangika. Ŵalongozgi ŵakakanizganga ŵanthu kugura golide chifukwa cha kopa kuti Ŵapwitikizi ŵibenge, ndipo ŵanthu ŵakamba kuchepa. Ufumu wa Butua ukalamuliranga na changamire, zina ilo likwiza cifukwa ca uyo wakambiska, Changa. Pamanyuma pake ukazgoka Ufumu wa Rozwi. Ŵapwitikizi ŵakayezgayezga kuti ŵafike ku malo agha, kweni Changamire Dombo wakaŵachimbizga mu 1693. Caka ca m'ma 1600 cikaŵa ca mtende na cimwemwe. Ufumu wa Rozwi ukaparanyika mu ma 1830 chifukwa cha kuwukira kwa Nguni kufuma ku Natal.{{sfnp|Davidson|1991|pp=252–254}} ==== Namibia ==== {{Main|History of Namibia}} [[File:Realnam.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Realnam.JPG|thumb|Herero and Nama territories]] Kuzakafika mu 1500 C.E., vyaru vinandi vya kumwera kwa Africa vikaŵa kuti vyamba kulamulira. Ku mpoto ca kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Namibia, ŵanthu ŵa fuko la Ovambo ŵakalimanga, ndipo ŵa fuko la Herero ŵakaliskanga viŵeto. Apo viŵeto vikasazgikiranga, ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Herero ŵakasamira kumwera ku Namibia kuti ŵakasange malo ghakuliskako viŵeto. Gulu linyake la ŵanthu ŵakuchemeka Ovambanderu, ŵakamba kukhala ku Ghanzi, kumpoto cha kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa charu cha Botswana. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Nama, awo ŵakayowoyanga chiyowoyero cha Khoi, ŵakaliskanga mberere ndipo ŵakaluta kumpoto ndipo ŵakakumana na ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Herero. Boma la Lozi likathereska ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Mbukushu, Subiya, na Yei, ndipo ŵakaluta ku Botei, Okavango, na Chobe, kumpoto kwa charu cha Botswana.{{sfnp|Shillington|2005|p=218}} ==== South Africa and Botswana ==== {{Main|Early history of South Africa|History of South Africa|History of Botswana}} ===== Sotho–Tswana ===== [[File:Realzulu.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Realzulu.JPG|thumb|South African ethnic groups]] Kukula kwa maiko gha Sotho na Tswana agho ghakaŵa kumwera kwa Mlonga wa Limpopo, kukamba mu 1000 C.E. Nkhongono za mulongozgi zikathembanga pa viŵeto na kukolerana na ŵasekuru ŵake. Ici tingaciwona mu mizi iyo yili pa Toutswemogala Hill, kumpoto kwa mapiri na kumwera kwa Mlonga wa Vaal. Kumpoto cha kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Mlonga wa Vaal kukaŵa vyaru vyakwambilira vya Tswana ivyo vikaŵa na ŵanthu ŵanandi chomene. Para pawuka mphindano, ŵanthu ŵakambanga kupanga maboma ghawo.{{sfnp|Shillington|2005|pp=153–155}} ===== Nguni peoples ===== Kumwera cha kumafumiro gha dazi kwa mapiri gha Drakensberg kukakhalanga ŵanthu awo ŵakayowoyanga chiyowoyero cha Nguni. Iwo nawo ŵakachitanga mulimo wa kuzenga maufumu, ndipo maufumu ghaphya ghakawukanga chifukwa cha mphindano, kupambana maghanoghano, na suzgo la ŵanthu. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800, nkhondo, kuzenga boma, na kusama vikamanyikwa kuti Mfecane (Nguni) panji Difaqane (Sotho). Cinthu cikuru ico cikapangiska kuti vinthu viŵe nthena nchakuti Ufumu wa Ŵazulu ukakhazikika. Ŵanthu aŵa ŵakagwiranga nchito ya kusona visulo, kulima mpunga, na kuliska viŵeto.{{sfnp|Shillington|2005|pp=153–155}} ===== Khoisan and Boers ===== [[File:SouthAfrica1885.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:SouthAfrica1885.jpg|thumb|Political map of Southern Africa in 1885]] Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Khoisan ŵakakhalanga kumwera ca kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa chigaŵa cha Cape, uko kuli vula zinandi. Ŵanthu ŵakwambilira awo ŵakakhalanga mu chigaŵa ichi ŵakaŵa ŵa mtundu wa Bantu, nga mba Sotho na Nguni, kweni chigaŵa ichi chikamara apo kukaŵa vula. Viyowoyero vinyake vya ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Bantu vili na lizgu la chiyowoyero cha Khoisan. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Khoisan ŵakaguliskanga ng'ombe, mberere, na nyama. Ŵazengezgani ŵawo awo ŵakayowoyanga Chibantu ŵakaguliskanga mkuŵa, chisulo, na hona.{{sfnp|Shillington|2005|pp=153–155}} Kuzakafika m'ma 1500 C.E., kampani ya Dutch East India Company yikakhazikiska malo ghakusungira maji ku Table Bay kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Khoikhoi ŵagulire maji na nyama. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Khoikhoi ŵakapokeranga mkuŵa, chisulo, hona, na mphete. Kuti ŵamanye mtengo wa nyama na viŵeto, kweniso kuti ŵagwirenge makora ntchito, Ŵachidachi ŵakakhazikika ku Table Bay mu 1652. Ŵakalimanga vipasi na vipasi ndipo ŵakazenga chipatala cha ŵasilikari ŵalwari. Kuti ŵasazgireko vyakurya, Ŵachidachi ŵakaghanaghana vya kusazgirako minda mu Table Bay mwa kukhozga ŵanthu ŵakuchemeka kuti mba burgher boers (ŵalimi) pa malo agho pakwamba ŵakagwiranga nchito ŵazga ŵa ku West Africa. Malo agha ŵakaghafumiskapo ku malo ghakuliskako viŵeto gha Khoikhoi, ndipo agha ndigho ghakacitiska nkhondo yakwamba ya Khoikhoi na ŵa Dutch mu 1659. Pakaŵavya uyo wakathereska, kweni Ŵachidachi ŵakamba kupoka chigaŵa chose cha Cape. Mu nkhondo zinandi izo ŵakachitiranga Khoikhoi, ŵa Boer ŵakatora malo ghose gha Khoikhoi na kutora viŵeto vyawo vyose. Nkhondo yachiŵiri ya Khoikoi na Dutch (1673-1677) yikaŵa nkhondo ya viŵeto. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa mtundu wa Khoikhoi ŵakafwa na matenda gha ku Europe. Kuzakafika m'ma 1800, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakakhalanga ku Cape, ndipo ŵazga ŵakizanga kufuma ku Madagascar, Mozambique, na Indonesia. Kweniso malo agha ghakamba kusazgikira kumpoto, kweni ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Khoikhoi ŵakamba kulimbana na ŵasilikari, ndipo nkhondo ya ŵasilikari yikapangiska kuti malo agha ghaleke kusazgikira mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800. Ŵaburu awo ŵakamba kuliska viŵeto ŵakachemekanga kuti trekboers. Ŵana ŵacekuru awo ŵakakoleka pa nyengo ya kuwukira ndipo ŵapapi ŵawo ŵakakomeka ndiwo ŵakagwiranga nchito mu vikaya vya Trekboer.{{sfnp|Shillington|2005|pp=213–214}} === Southeast Africa === {{Main|Southeast Africa#History}} ==== Prehistory ==== Kuyana na fundo yakuti ŵanthu ŵa mazuŵa ghano ŵali kufuma ku Africa, ŵanthu wose ŵali kufuma ku South-East Africa panji ku Horn of Africa. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1000 C.E., ŵanthu ŵakuyowoya viyowoyero vya Nilotic na Bantu ŵakanjira mu chigaŵa ichi.. ==== Swahili coast ==== {{Main|Swahili coast#History}} [[File:Swahili_door_Zanzibar.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Swahili_door_Zanzibar.jpg|left|thumb|A traditional Zanzibari-style [[:en:Swahili_people|Swahili]] coast door in [[:en:Zanzibar|Zanzibar]].]] Pamanyuma pa kusama kwa Bantu, mu vigaŵa vya mumphepete mwa nyanja ku South East Africa, ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Bantu ŵakamba kukolerana na Ŵasilamu ŵa ku Arabia na Ŵaperesiya, ndipo ŵakamba kuzgoka misumba ya ku Arabia, Peresiya na Swahili. Chikhalidwe cha Chiswahili chomwe chinachokera ku kusinthana uku chikuwonetsa zikhalidwe zambiri zachiarabu ndi Chisilamu zomwe sizikuwoneka mu chikhalidwe cha Bantu, monga momwe zimakhalira ndi anthu ambiri a Afro-Arab a Bantu Swahili. Chiyowoyero cha Bantu cha Swahili chili na mazgu ghanandi gha mu Chiarabu agho ghakusangika mu vigaŵa vya mumphepete mwa nyanja vya Tanzania (makamaka Zanzibar) na Kenya. Ŵanthu ŵakwambilira awo ŵakakhalanga mu vigaŵa vya kumwera kwa Kenya na Tanzania awo ŵakakumana na ŵanthu ŵa ku Arabia na Peresiya ŵakamanyikwa kuti ŵakaŵa ŵanthu ŵa ku Rhapta, Azania, na Menouthias. Vinthu ivi vikulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Bantu ndiwo ŵakamba kukhala mu vyaru vinyake. Kale, ŵanthu aŵa ŵakakhalanga kumpoto kwa Kenya na kumwera kwa Mlonga wa Ruvuma ku Mozambique. Ŵanalume ŵa ku Arabia ŵakacemanga mphepete mwa nyanja ya Swahili kuti ni caru ca zanji (ŵachibulumutira). Template:Sfnp Nangauli kale ŵanthu ŵakagomezganga kuti ŵanthu aŵa mbana ŵa Ŵaperesiya, kweni sono ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakusanda mdauko, ŵavisopa, na ŵasayansi ŵakuwona kuti ŵanthu aŵa ŵakaŵa Ŵabantu awo ŵakenderananga na ŵamalonda Ŵachisilamu, kwambira m'ma 700 C.E. m'paka m'ma 800 C.E.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Spear|first=Thomas|year=2000|title=Early Swahili History Reconsidered|journal=The International Journal of African Historical Studies|volume=33|issue=2|pages=257–290|jstor=220649|doi=10.2307/220649}}</ref> [[File:Slaves_ruvuma.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slaves_ruvuma.jpg|right|thumb|Arab slave traders and their captives along the [[:en:Ruvuma_River|Ruvuma River]] in [[:en:Mozambique|Mozambique]] along the Swahili coast.]] Maufumu gha ku Swahili agho ghakaŵako mu nyengo yakale ghakaŵa na vipata vya malonda pa virwa, ivyo ŵanthu ŵakulemba mbiri Ŵachigiriki ŵakavizunura kuti "vigaŵa vikuruvikuru". Ŵanthu ŵa ku China awo ŵakendanga pa sitima za pa maji nga ni Mombasa, Zanzibar, na Kilwa, ŵakamanyikwanga na ŵanthu ŵa ku China awo ŵakendanga pa sitima za pa maji nga ni Zheng He kweniso ŵanthu ŵa ku Middle Ages awo ŵakamanyanga vya Chisilamu nga ni Abu Abdullah ibn Battuta. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Swahili ŵakaguliskanga chomene zovu, ŵazga, na golide. Ŵakachitanga malonda na ŵanthu ŵa ku Arabia, India, Peresiya, na China. Ŵapwitikizi ŵakiza mu 1498. Pakukhumba kuti ŵazakaŵe na ndalama zinandi kweniso kuti ŵazakaŵe Ŵakhristu, Ŵapwitikizi ŵakamba kuwukira msumba wa Kilwa mu 1505. Cifukwa cakuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Swahili ŵakasuskanga, Ŵapwitikizi ŵakatondeka kucita malonda. Kuumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1600, Ŵapwitikizi ŵakamba kuchepeskako mazaza ghawo pa chigaŵa cha Swahili. Na wovwiri wa Ŵaarabu ŵa ku Oman, mu 1729 Ŵapwitikizi ŵakafumapo. Nyengo yikati yajumphapo, chigaŵa ichi chikazgoka chigaŵa cha ufumu wa Oman. Vinthu vikamba kwenda makora, kweni vikaŵa nga ni kale yayi.{{sfnp|Page|2001|pp=263–264}} ==== Urewe ==== {{Main|Urewe#Chronology}} Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Urewe ŵakakhalanga mu chigaŵa cha Nyanja ya Victoria mu Africa. Vinthu vyakwambilira ivyo ŵanthu aŵa ŵakalemba vili mu chigaŵa cha Kagera ku Tanzania, ndipo vikafika m'paka ku chigaŵa cha Kivu ku Democratic Republic of Congo, Nyanza na Western ku Kenya, kweniso kumpoto kwa Uganda, Rwanda na Burundi. Malo agho ghakasangika mu nyengo ya Urewe ghakafuma mu nyengo ya Iron Age, kufuma mu vyaka vya m'ma 500 B.C.E. m'paka mu vyaka vya m'ma 500 C.E. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Urewe ŵakamba kukhala ku Cameroon. Kafukufuku wakukhwaskana na ŵanthu ŵakwambilira ŵa mu nyengo ya Iron Age ku sub-Saharan Africa, wakuchitika pamoza na kafukufuku wakukhwaskana na chiyowoyero cha ku Africa. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Urewe ndiwo ŵakayowoyanga viyowoyero vya ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Bantu. Pakudanga waka kuwona, ŵanthu ŵa ku Urewe ŵakuwoneka nga mbanthu awo ŵakakhalanga mu nyengo yakale. Kuyana na umo tikumanyira vinthu mazuŵa ghano, palije ico cikuwoneka kuti chasintha kwa vyaka pafupifupi 2,000. Ndipouli, vinthu vinyake vya ku malo agha vikupambana. Urewe ni zina la malo gha ku Kenya agho ghakamanyikwa comene mu 1948 cifukwa ca ivyo Mary Leakey wakasanga. Wakalongosora za nyengo yakwambilira ya vyaka vya Iron Age mu chigaŵa cha Great Lakes ku Central East Africa kuzingilizga Nyanja ya Victoria. ==== Madagascar and Merina ==== {{Main|History of Madagascar|Merina people#History}} [[File:The_Queen's_Ordinary_Style_of_Appearing_in_Public_(edit).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:The_Queen's_Ordinary_Style_of_Appearing_in_Public_(edit).jpg|thumb|Queen [[:en:Ranavalona_I|Ranavalona I]]]] Ŵanthu awo ŵakayowoyanga chiyowoyero cha Austronesian ŵakamba kukhala ku Madagascar pambere vyaka vya m'ma 500 C.E. vindafike. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Austronesia ndiwo ŵakamba kulima banane na mpunga. Mu ma 1000 C.E., ŵanthu ŵa ku Arabia na ku India ŵakamba kwenda kumpoto kwa charu cha Madagascar kuti ŵaguliske vinthu vya mu nyanja ya Indian Ocean. Kuzakafika m'ma 1400, ŵamalonda ndiwo ŵakambiska Chisilamu pa chirwa ichi. Mu nyengo ya ku mafumiro gha dazi kwa Africa, charu cha Madagascar chikaŵa nga ni dowoko la ŵanthu awo ŵakendanga mu misumba yinyake ya ku Swahili nga ni Sofala, Kilwa, Mombasa, na Zanzibar. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1500, maufumu ghanandi ghakaŵako: Ufumu wa Sakalava (wa m'ma 1600) ku nyanja ya kumanjiliro gha dazi, Ufumu wa Tsitambala (wa m'ma 1700) ku nyanja ya kumafumiro gha dazi, na Merina (wa m'ma 15) ku chigaŵa chapakati cha mapiri. Kuzakafika m'ma 1800, Merina wakaŵa na mazaza pa cirwa cose ici. Mu 1500, Ŵapwitikizi ndiwo ŵakaŵa ŵanthu ŵakwamba ŵa ku Europe kufika pa cirwa ici. Ŵanandi ŵakafuma ku Britain ndipo pamanyuma ŵakafuma ku France. Kuumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1600, ŵankhungu ŵakendanga chomene mu charu cha Madagascar. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800, Radama I (1810-1828) wakachema ŵamishonale kuti ŵize ku Yerusalemu. Fumukazi Ranavalona I "Wakusuzga" (1828-1861) yikakanizga Ŵakhristu mu ufumu wake, ndipo Ŵakhristu pafupifupi 150,000 ŵakafwa. Mu muwuso wa Radama II (1861-1863), charu cha Madagascar chikaŵa pasi pa mazaza gha Ŵafarisi. Mu 1895, mu Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya ku France na Hova, Ŵafarisi ŵakanjira mu charu cha Madagascar, ndipo ŵakamba kulamulira chigaŵa cha Antsiranana (Diego Suarez).{{sfnp|Lye|2002|pp=242–243}} ==== Lake Plateau states and empires ==== {{Main|History of Buganda|Karagwe District#History}} Between the 14th and 15th centuries, large Southeast African kingdoms and states emerged, such as the [[:en:Buganda|Buganda]]<ref name="Roland Oliver 1800. pp. 24–25">Roland Oliver, et al. "Africa South of the Equator", in Africa Since 1800. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005, pp. 24–25.</ref> and [[:en:Karagwe|Karagwe]]<ref name="Roland Oliver 1800. pp. 24–25" /> Kingdoms of [[:en:Uganda|Uganda]] and [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]].<ref>{{cite web |date=20 May 2015 |title=Africa Timeline |url=https://www.sahistory.org.za/article/africa-timeline |website=South African History Online}}</ref> ===== Empire of Kitara ===== {{Main|Empire of Kitara#Founding|Bunyoro#History}} By 1000 AD, numerous states had arisen on the [[:en:East_African_Plateau|Lake Plateau]] among the [[:en:Great_Lakes_(Africa)|Great Lakes]] of East Africa. Cattle herding, cereal growing, and banana cultivation were the economic mainstays of these states. The [[:en:Ntusi|Ntusi]] and [[:en:Bigo_bya_Mugenyi|Bigo]] earthworks are representative of one of the first states, the [[:en:Bunyoro_kingdom|Bunyoro kingdom]], which oral tradition stipulates was part of the [[:en:Empire_of_Kitara|Empire of Kitara]] that dominated the whole Lakes region. A [[:en:Luo_peoples|Luo]] ethnic elite, from the Babito clan, ruled over the [[:en:Bantu_languages|Bantu-speaking]] [[:en:Nyoro_people|Nyoro people]]. The society was essentially Nyoro in its culture, based on the evidence from pottery, settlement patterns, and economic specialization.{{sfnp|Collins|Burns|2007|pp=122–123}} The Babito clan claim legitimacy by being descended from the [[:en:Bachwezi|Bachwezi]] clan, who were said to have ruled the [[:en:Empire_of_Kitara|Empire of Kitara]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2 May 2021 |title=Empire of Kitara: One of the oldest African Empires that existed since 900 AD to date |url=https://theafricanhistory.com/1812 |website=Theafricanhistory.com}}</ref> ===== Buganda ===== {{Main|History of Buganda}} {{Further|Kabaka of Buganda}} Ufumu wa Buganda ukapangika na Kato Kimera mu vyaka vya m'ma 1400 C.E. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Kato Kintu ŵakwenera kuti ŵakasamukira kumpoto cha kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Nyanja ya Victoria mu 1000 B.C.E. Boma la Buganda likalamuliranga na kabaka uyo wakaŵa na bataka. Nyengo yikati yajumphapo, Kabakas ŵakamba kuchepeska mazaza gha Bataka, ndipo Buganda yikazgoka ufumu wakulamulira. Kuzakafika m'ma 1500 C.E., charu cha Buganda chikamba kusazgikira chomene, kweni pakaŵa munthu munyake uyo wakakhumbanga kuti chiŵe na mazaza pa charu ichi. Kuzakafika mu ma 1870, charu cha Buganda chikaŵa na ŵanthu ŵanandi. Kabaka wakawusanga na Lukiko wake. Boma la Buganda likaŵa na ngalaŵa zakukwana 100 ndipo ngalaŵa yiliyose yikaŵa na ŵanthu 30. Boma la Buganda ndilo likaŵa lakuzirwa chomene mu chigaŵa ichi. Kweni kukwambilira kwa vyaka vya m'ma 1900, charu cha Buganda chikaŵa pasi pa boma la Britain.{{sfnp|Lye|2002|pp=121–122}} ===== Rwanda ===== {{Main|Kingdom of Rwanda#Pre-colonization}} Kumwera kwa Bunyoro, kufupi na Nyanja ya Kivu, ku mphepete kwa mphepete kwa nyanja, kukaŵa ufumu wa Rwanda. Ŵaliska ŵa viŵeto ŵa mtundu wa Tutsi (BaTutsi) ndiwo ŵakaŵa ŵankhongono chomene, ndipo themba lawo likachemekanga mwami. Ŵahutu ŵakaŵa ŵalimi. Wose ŵakayowoyanga chiyowoyero chimoza, kweni ŵanthu ŵakakanizgikanga kutengwa na kuchezga. Mwakuyana na ivyo ŵanthu ŵakuyowoya, Ufumu wa Rwanda ukaŵako mu nyengo ya Mwami Ruganzu II (Ruganzu Ndori) (c. 1600 1624), ndipo likuru lake likaŵa kufupi na Kigali. Vikatora vyaka 200 kuti Ufumu wa Mwami Kigeli IV (Kigeri Rwabugiri) uŵepo. Chikaŵa chakusuzga chomene kuwusa Ŵahutu kuluska Ŵatutsi. Mulongozgi waumaliro wa Ŵatutsi wakajipeleka kwa Mwami Mutara II (Mutara Rwogera) (1802-1853) mu 1852, kweni chigaŵa chaumaliro cha Ŵahutu chikathereskeka mu ma 1920 na Mwami Yuhi V (Yuli Musinga) (1896-1931).{{sfnp|Collins|Burns|2007|pp=123–124}} ===== Burundi ===== {{Main|Kingdom of Burundi#History}} {{Further|List of Kings of Burundi}} South of the Kingdom of Rwanda was the [[:en:Burundian_monarchy|Kingdom of Burundi]]. It was founded by the Tutsi chief [[:en:Ntare_I_Kivimira_Savuyimba_Semunganzashamba_Rushatsi_Cambarantama|Ntare Rushatsi]] ({{circa|1657}} – 1705). Like Rwanda, Burundi was built on cattle raised by Tutsi pastoralists, crops from Hutu farmers, conquest, and political innovations. Under Mwami [[:en:Ntare_IV_Rutaganzwa_Rugamba|Ntare Rugaamba]] ({{circa|1795}} – 1852), Burundi pursued an aggressive expansionist policy, one based more on diplomacy than force.{{sfnp|Collins|Burns|2007|p=124}} ==== Maravi ==== {{Main|Maravi}} [[File:Maravi_Kingdom_map_c._1650s.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Maravi_Kingdom_map_c._1650s.svg|right|thumb|Maravi Kingdom]] The [[:en:Maravi|Maravi]] claimed descent from Karonga (''kalonga''), who took that title as king. The Maravi connected Central Africa to the east coastal trade, with [[:en:Swahili_people|Swahili]] Kilwa. By the 17th century, the Maravi Empire encompassed all the area between [[:en:Lake_Malawi|Lake Malawi]] and the mouth of the [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. The ''karonga'' was Mzura, who did much to extend the empire. Mzura made a pact with the Portuguese to establish a 4,000-man army to attack the [[:en:Shona_people|Shona]] in return for aid in defeating his rival Lundi, a chief of the Zimba. In 1623, he turned on the Portuguese and assisted the Shona. In 1640, he welcomed back the Portuguese for trade. The Maravi Empire did not long survive the death of Mzura. By the 18th century, it had broken into its previous polities.{{sfnp|Davidson|1991|pp=164–165}} === West Africa === {{Main|History of West Africa#Iron Age}} ==== Sahelian empires and states ==== {{Main|Sahelian kingdoms#History of Sahel kingdoms}} ===== Ghana ===== {{Main|Ghana Empire#Origin}} {{See also|Serer history}} [[File:The_Ghana_Empire.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:The_Ghana_Empire.svg|thumb|The Ghana Empire]] Ufumu wa Ghana ukwenera kuti ukaŵako mu vyaka vya m'ma 700 C.E., ndipo ukazengeka na Dinge Cisse. Ghana wakazunulika kakwamba na Al-Farazi, uyo wakaŵa Muarabu. Mu Ghana, ŵanthu ŵakakhalanga mu matawuni na ku mizi. Ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga mu matawuni agha ŵakaŵa Ŵasilamu awo ŵakaŵa ŵalongozgi ŵa ufumu uwu, kweniso themba la Ghana ilo likachitanga chisopa chaunenesko. Kukaŵa matawuni ghaŵiri, limoza uko kukaŵa ŵalongozgi ŵa chisopa cha Cisilamu na Ŵaarabu. Ŵanthu ŵa ku mizi ŵakakhalanga mu vikaya, ndipo ŵakakolerananga na maboma ghanyake agho ghakalayizga kuti ghaŵenge ghakugomezgeka ku Ghana. Ŵanthu ŵakamuwonanga kuti ni Ciuta, ndipo ŵanthu wose ŵakamuwonanga kuti wali makora. Ghana wakazgoka Muislamu cha m'ma 1050, wakati wapoka Aoudaghost. Ufumu wa Ghana ukaŵa na ndalama zinandi chifukwa cha kukhomeska msonkho pa malonda agho ghakaŵa pakati pa Tiaret na Sijilmasa. Ghana ndiyo wakawoneseskanga malo gha golide gha ku Bambouk, kumwera kwa Koumbi Saleh. Ŵakatoranga mchere na golide ivyo vikendanga mu caru cawo. Ufumu ukacitangako yayi kupanga vinthu. Kuzakafika m'ma 1100, caru ca Ghana cikamba kunangika. Nyengo yinyake ŵanthu ŵakaghanaghananga kuti chifukwa chake chikaŵa chakuti Ŵaberi ŵakathereska msumba wa Koumbi Saleh mu 1076. Ici nchakuzomerezgeka yayi. Pali vifukwa vinandi ivyo ŵanthu ŵakughanaghanira. Cifukwa cimoza nchakuti malonda gha golide ghakasamukira kumafumiro gha dazi ku Mlonga wa Niger na ku nthowa ya Taghaza, ndipo ici cikapangiska kuti Ghana uleke kwenda makora. Cifukwa cinyake ico ŵakuzunura nchakuti ndyali zikuŵa zambura kukhazikika cifukwa ca mphindano pakati pa maboma ghakupambanapambana. Ufumu uwu ukamara mu 1230, apo Takrur, kumpoto kwa Senegal, ndiyo wakapoka msumba ukuru.{{sfnp|Davidson|1991|pp=173–174}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Story of Africa&#124; BBC World Service |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/africa/features/storyofafrica/4chapter1.shtml |website=www.bbc.co.uk}}</ref> ===== Mali ===== {{Main|Mali Empire#Pre-imperial Mali}} {{Further|Keita dynasty}} [[File:MALI_empire_map.PNG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MALI_empire_map.PNG|thumb|Mali Empire at its greatest extent]] Ufumu wa Mali ukamba mu 13th century AD, apo mulongozgi wa Mande (Mandingo), Sundiata (Lord Lion) wa fuko la Keita, wakatonda Soumaoro Kanté, fumu ya Sosso panji Soninke wakumwera, pa Nkhondo ya Kirina mu c. 1235. Sundiata wakalutilira kuwusa kufuma ku nkhorongo na ku Dambo la Niger, kumafumiro gha dazi kukafika ku Niger Bend, kumpoto kukafika ku Sahara, na kumanjiliro gha dazi kukafika ku Atlantic Ocean. Sundiata wakaŵa na zina lakuti mansa. Wakazenga msumba ukuru wa ufumu wake ku Niani. Nangauli malonda gha mchere na golide ghakalutilira kuŵa ghakuzirwa ku Ufumu wa Mali, kweni vyakurya na viŵeto navyo vikaŵa vyakuzirwa. Kulima mpheska, mpunga, na mpunga kukaŵa kwakuzirwa comene. Ku mphaka za kumpoto kwa Sahel, viŵeto vya ng'ombe, mberere, mbuzi, na ngamila vikaŵa vyakuzirwa comene. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Mande ŵakakhalanga mu mizi na malo. Mu mizi iyi mukaŵa ŵanthu ŵakuchemeka kafu, ndipo ŵakalamuliranga na famu. Famu iyi yikapeleka chawanangwa ku fumu. Gulu la ŵasilikari ŵakwenda pa mahachi na ŵasilikari ŵakwenda pasi ŵakalongozgekanga na themba. Usange mphakukhumbikwa, ŵasilikari ŵankhongono ŵangasangika mu vigaŵa vya mumphepete mwa nyanja. Munthu wakang'anamukiranga ku Cisilamu pachokopachoko. Nkhongono ya mansa yikathembanga pa kukolerana na vigomezgo vya ŵanthu ŵa mu nyengo yakale kweniso pa nkhongono zauzimu. Pakwamba, Sundiata wakakananga chisopa cha Ciisilamu. Nyengo yikati yajumphapo, ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Mansa ŵakaŵa Ŵasilamu awo ŵakasopanga chomene Chiuta, kweni ŵakalondezganga mitheto na viphikiro ivyo vikaŵa vyakuzirwa chomene ku ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Mande. Chisilamu chikazgoka chisopa cha ku nyumba ya themba mu muwuso wa mwana wa Sundiata, Uli I (1225-1270). Mansa Uli wakaluta ku Mecca, ndipo ŵanthu ŵakamumanya. Pa nyumba yacifumu iyi, pakaŵa Ŵasilamu awo ŵakaŵa ŵalembi na ŵalembi. Munthu munyake wa chisopa cha Cisilamu, zina lake Ibn Battuta, wakalemba vinthu vyakukhwaskana na ufumu uwu. Mali yikafika pa msinkhu wa nkhongono zake mu vyaka vya m'ma 1400, apo Mansa Musa (1312-1337) wakacita ulendo wake wakucemeka Hajj ku Mecca na ŵazga 500. Ulendo wa haji wa Mansa Musa ukapangiska kuti golide lileke kukhumbikwa mu Eguputo kwa vyaka 10. Wakakondweska comene ŵanthu ŵa mu caru ca Cisilamu na ŵa ku Europe. Wakacemera ŵasambizgi na ŵakuzenga nga ni Ishal al-Tuedjin (al-Sahili) kuti ŵalutilire kunjizga Mali mu caru ca Cisilamu. Ufumu wa Mali ukakura chomene pa nkhani ya kusambira na kulemba. Mu 1285, muzga wakufwatuka zina lake Sakura, wakawukira ufumu. Munthu uyu wakachimbizga ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Tuareg mu msumba wa Timbuktu na kuwuzgora msumba wa masambiro na malonda. Kuguliska mabuku kukakura comene, ndipo kukopera mabuku kukazgoka nchito yakuzirwa ndiposo yakovwira comene. Timbuktu na Djenné vikazgoka malo ghakuzirwa ghakusambilira visambizgo vya Chisilamu.{{sfnp|Davidson|1971|pp=84–85}} Pamanyuma pa muwuso wa Mansa Suleyman (1341-1360) charu cha Mali chikamba kunjira mu suzgo. Ŵasilikari ŵa Mossi ŵakawukira mphaka ya kumwera. Ŵa Tuareg ŵakasuzganga ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga kumpoto kwa charu ichi kuti ŵapoke Timbuktu. Ŵafulani (Fulbe) ŵakathereska mazaza gha Mali kumanjiliro gha dazi mwa kukhazikiska boma lakujiyimira palekha la Futa Toro, ilo likapokelera ufumu wa Takrur. Ubali wa Serer na Wolof ukamara. Mu 1545 m'paka 1546, Ufumu wa Songhai ukatora Niani. Pamanyuma pa 1599, ufumu uwu ukaleka kusanga golide ku Bambouk ndipo ukagaŵikana.{{sfnp|Collins|Burns|2007|pp=83–87}} ===== Songhai ===== {{Main|Songhai Empire#History}} {{Further|Askiya dynasty|Sonni dynasty}} [[File:SONGHAI_empire_map.PNG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:SONGHAI_empire_map.PNG|right|thumb|The Songhai Empire, c. 1500]] Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Songhai ŵali kufuma ku ŵalovi awo ŵakakhalanga mu Mlonga wa Niger. Ŵakazenga msumba wawo ukuru ku Kukiya mu vyaka vya m'ma 900 C.E. na ku Gao mu vyaka vya m'ma 1200 C.E. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Songhai ŵakuyowoya chiyowoyero cha ku Nilo na Sahara. Sonni Ali, uyo wakaŵa wa fuko la Songhai, wakamba kuwukira msumba wa Timbuktu mu 1468. Wakafika kumpoto, mu mapopa, wakambiska ufumu wa Mossi kumwera kwa Niger, na kufika ku Djenne. Ŵasilikari ŵake ŵakaŵa na ŵapamahachi na maboti. Sonni Ali wakaŵa Musulumani wakugomezgeka yayi, ndipo ŵanthu ŵa ku Berber-Arab ŵakamulongosoleranga viheni, comenecomene cifukwa ca kuwukira Ŵasilamu ŵa ku Timbuktu pamanyuma pakuti waŵavikilira na kuŵaponoska ku Ŵatuareg. Pamanyuma pa nyifwa yake mu 1492, muhaliri wake wakatoleka na muzukuru wake Askia Mohammad I, mwana wa Kassey, mudumbu wa Sonni Ali. Muhammad Ture (1493-1528) ndiyo wakambiska ufumu wa Askiya. Wakakhozga vinthu ivyo Sonni Ali wakathereska. Chisilamu chikagwiliskirika nchito kuti wasazgireko mazaza ghake mwa kuphalira ŵanthu ŵa ku Mossi kuti ŵacite nkhondo, kwambaso malonda mu caru ca Sahara, kweniso kuti Khalifa wa ku Cairo uyo wakaŵa "mu mfwiri" wa Ŵababasi, wamuphalire kuti waŵe Khalifa wa ku Sudan. Wakakhazikiska msumba wa Timbuktu kuŵa malo ghakusambizgirako chisopa cha Cisilamu. Muhammad Ture wakalutilira kusanuzga ufumu wake mwa kusunkhunya ŵa Tuareg kumpoto, kuwukira Aïr kumafumiro gha dazi, na kuwukira tawuni ya Taghaza iyo yikaŵa na mchere. Wakaŵagwiliskira nchito mu malonda gha Songhay. Wakalutilira kusora ŵateŵeti ŵakugomezgeka na mbumba zawo kuti ŵaŵe ŵalaŵiliri na kuŵapa maudindo mu vigaŵa ivyo wakapoka. Ŵakaŵa na udindo wa kuzenga magulu gha nkhondo. Pakuti Songhay yikaŵa malo ghakukhala ŵanthu ŵanandi, yikaŵa yakukhora chomene nanga ni apo pakaŵa mphindano. Leo Africanus wakalongosora makora ufumu wa Askiya Muhammad. Askiya Muhammad wakathereskeka na mwana wake mu 1528. Pamanyuma pa kulimbana kukuru, mwana waumaliro wa Muhammad Ture, Askiya Daoud (1529-1582) wakatora ufumu. Mu 1591, Morocco wakawukira ufumu wa Songhai mwakulongozgeka na Ahmad al-Mansur wa fuko la Saadi kuti wapoke malo gha golide gha ku Sahel. Pa Nkhondo ya ku Tondibi, ŵasilikari ŵa Songhai ŵakathereskeka. Ŵaroma ŵakathereska msumba wa Djenne, Gao, na Timbuktu, kweni ŵakatondeka kupoka chigaŵa chose. Askiya Nuhu na ŵasilikari ŵa Songhay ŵakakumanaso ku Dendi mu mphepete mwa chigaŵa cha Songhai, uko gulu la ŵasilikari likapoka katundu wa ŵanthu ŵa ku Morocco. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1700, charu cha Songhai chikagaŵikana mu vyaru vinandi. Morocco wakawona kuti mulimo wake ukaŵa wambura phindu. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe ndiwo ŵakaguliskanga golide. Ntheura malonda ghanandi agho ghakacitikanga mu caru ca Sahara ghakafika ku Bornu. Vinthu vyakudura ivyo ŵakagura na golide vikeneranga kutumizgika ku mapiri gha mu Sahara. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Morocco awo ŵakakhalako ŵakatorana na ŵanthu ŵa mu caru ici ndipo ŵakacemekanga Arma panji Ruma. Ŵakajiŵika mu Timbuktu nga ni gulu la ŵasilikari ilo likaŵa na vigaŵa vyakupambanapambana. Pakati pa vivulupi ivi, magulu ghanyake ghakamba kujikhwimiska, kusazgapo Ŵafulani ŵa ku Futa Tooro awo ŵakiza kufuma kumanjiliro gha dazi. Ufumu wa Bambara, umoza mwa maufumu agho ghakafumako ku Songhai, ukaparanya Gao. Mu 1737, ŵa Tuareg ŵakakoma ŵanthu ŵa ku Arma.{{sfnp|Collins|Burns|2007|pp=88–89}}{{sfnp|Shillington|2005|pp=100–102, 179–181}} ===== Sokoto Caliphate ===== {{Main|Sokoto Caliphate#History}} [[File:Scramble-for-Africa-1880-1913-v2.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Scramble-for-Africa-1880-1913-v2.png|thumb|Comparison of Africa in the years 1880 and 1913]] Ŵafulani ŵakaŵa ŵanthu ŵakusamukira kunyake. Ŵakafuma ku Mauritania na kwamba kukhala ku Futa Tooro, Futa Djallon, na ku vyaru vinyake vya kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Africa. Kuzakafika mu vyaka vya m'ma 14 C.E., ŵakaŵa kuti ŵamba kusopa Ciislam. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1500 C.E., ŵakafika ku Macina, kumwera kwa Mali. Mu ma 1670, ŵakaŵaphalira kuti ŵachitenge jihad ku ŵanthu awo ŵakaŵa Ŵasilamu yayi. Nkhondo izi zikawovwira kuti paŵe vyaru vinandi nga ni Futa Toro, Futa Djallon, Macina, Oualia, na Bundu. Boma lakuzirwa comene pa maboma agha likaŵa la Sokoto Caliphate panji Ufumu wa Fulani. Mu tawuni ya Gobir, Usman dan Fodio (1754-1817) wakasuska ŵalongozgi ŵa Hausa kuti ŵakulondezga chisopa chautesi cha Chisilamu kweniso kuti mbambura kwenelera. Mu 1804, wakambiska Nkhondo ya Fulani, iyo yikaŵa nkhondo ya chigaluka pakati pa ŵanthu awo ŵakakwenyelera chifukwa cha misonkho yikuru kweniso ŵakakondwa yayi na ŵalongozgi ŵawo. Ku Northern Nigeria kukaŵa nkhondo ya Jihad, ndipo ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Fulani na Hausa ŵakakolerana nayo chomene. [Pakukhumbika ukaboni apa] Usman wakapanga ufumu uwo ukaŵa na vigaŵa vinyake vya kumpoto kwa Nigeria, Benin, na Cameroon, ndipo msumba wake ukuru ukaŵa Sokoto. Wakaleka nchito yake ya kusambizga na kulemba ndipo wakapeleka ufumu kwa mwana wake Muhammed Bello. Ufumu wa Sokoto ukakhala m'paka mu 1903, apo ŵa ku Britain ŵakapoka kumpoto kwa Nigeria.{{sfnp|Lye|2002|p=188}} ==== Forest empires and states ==== ===== Akan kingdoms and emergence of Asante Empire ===== {{Further|Akan people#Origin and ethnogenesis|Bono state#Origin|Ashanti Empire#History|List of rulers of Asante}} [[File:Kent_wove.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kent_wove.jpg|right|thumb|[[:en:Ashanti_people|Ashanti]] [[:en:Kente_cloth|Kente cloth]] patterns]] Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Akan ŵakuyowoya chiyowoyero cha Kwa. Ŵanthu awo ŵakayowoyanga viyowoyero vya Kwa ŵakagomezgeka kuti ŵakafuma ku East/Central Africa, pambere ŵandafike ku Sahel. Kuzakafika m'ma 1200 C.E., Ufumu wa Akan wa Bonoman (Bono State) ukaŵako. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1200 C.E., apo migodi ya golide mu Mali yikamba kumara, boma la Bonoman na maufumu ghanyake gha Akan ghakamba kutchuka chomene pa nkhani ya malonda gha golide. Ufumu wa Bonoman na maufumu ghanyake gha Ŵaakan nga ni Denkyira, Akyem, na Akwamu ndiwo ghakaŵa pakwamba, ndipo pamanyuma pake ufumu wa Ashanti ukababika. Nyengo na umo Ashante wakafikira ku malo agha vikususkana. Icho tikumanya nchakuti mu ma 1700, ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Akan ŵakamanyikwa kuti ŵakakhalanga mu cigaŵa ca Kwaaman. Malo agha ghakaŵa kumpoto kwa Nyanja ya Bosomtwe. Ndalama izo boma likasanganga zikafumanga ku malonda gha golide na kola, kweniso kuzenga makuni kuti ŵabase yamsungwi. Ŵakazenga matawuni pakati pa milonga ya Pra na Ofin. Ŵakapangana kuti ŵajivikilire na kupeleka msonkho ku charu cha Denkyira. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1500 C.E., ŵanthu ŵa ku Ashante ŵakamba kusintha chomene, kusazgapo ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga mu charu ichi chifukwa cha kulima vyakumera vya mu charu chiphya nga ni manicure na chimanga. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1600 C.E., Osei Kofi Tutu I (c. 1695 1717), na wovwiri wa Okomfo Anokye, ŵakakolerana na mtundu wa Ashante. Osei Tutu wakalutilira kusazgirako chigaŵa chake. Wakazenga gulu la ŵasilikari la Ashante ilo likajintha pa boma la Akwamu, wakambiska gulu liphya na kuzgora gulu la ŵasilikari kuti liŵe la nkhondo. Mu 1701, ŵanthu ŵa ku Ashante ŵakathereska charu cha Denkyira, ndipo ŵakamba kuchita malonda na ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe, chomenechomene ŵa ku Dutch. Opoku Ware I (1720-1745) wakalutilira kusazgirako ufumu wake na kusazgirako vyaru vinyake vya kumwera kwa Akan. Wakazgokera kumpoto na kusazgako Techiman, Banda, Gyaaman, na Gonja, vyaru ivyo vili mumphepete mwa Black Volta. Pakati pa 1744 na 1745, Asantehene Opoku wakawukira chigaŵa chakumpoto cha Dagomba, ndipo wakawusa nthowa zakuzirwa zakwendamo mu charu cha Niger. Kusi Obodom (1750-1764) ndiyo wakatora malo gha Opoku. Wakakhozga vyaru ivyo wakaŵa kuti wapoka. Osei Kwadwo (1777-1803) wakapangiska vyakuti ufumu wake wendenge makora na kulutilira kukura. Osei Kwame Panyin (1777-1803), Osei Tutu Kwame (1804-1807), na Osei Bonsu (1807-1824) ŵakalutilira kukhozga na kusazgirako vigaŵa vyawo. Ufumu wa Ashante ukaŵa na chigaŵa chose icho sono chikuchemeka Ghana na vigaŵa vinandi vya Ivory Coast.{{sfnp|Collins|Burns|2007|p=140}} Ashantehene wakapokera udindo wake kufuma kwa anyina. Ku Kumasi, msumba ukuru wa charu ichi, wakaŵanga na gulu la ŵanthu awo ŵakamanyanga chomene malonda, ndyali, na usilikari. Ŵanalume ŵakufuma ku Arabia, Sudan, na Europe ndiwo ŵakagwiranga nchito mu boma, ndipo wose ŵakimikikanga na Ashantehene. Mu msumba ukuru na mu matawuni ghanyake, ŵapolisi ŵapadera ŵakagwiranga nchito nga mbalinda ŵa Ashantehene, nga ni awo ŵakamanyanga vinthu, ndiposo kuti ŵamazge kugaluka. Mu ufumu wose uwu mukaŵa misewu iyo yikendanga kufupi na nyanja m'paka pakati pa Niger. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800, Ufumu wa Ashante ukaŵa wankhongono chomene. Mu 1900, ŵasilikari ŵa Britain ŵakawukira msumba uwu..{{sfnp|Davidson|1991|p=242}} ===== Dahomey ===== {{Main|History of the Kingdom of Dahomey}} {{Further|Aja people#History}} [[File:Dahomey_amazon2.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Dahomey_amazon2.jpg|right|thumb|[[:en:Dahomey_Amazons|Dahomey Amazons]], an all-women fighting unit]] Ufumu wa Dahomey ukaŵako mu vyaka vya m'ma 1700, apo ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Aja ŵa mu ufumu wa Allada ŵakasamira kumpoto na kukhala na ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Fon. Pakati pajumpha vilimika vicoko waka, ŵakamba kuwusa. Ntheura ŵakambiska ufumu wa Dahomey, uwo ukaŵa na msumba ukuru ku Agbome. Fumu Houegbadja (c. 1645 ‡ 1685) yikapangiska Dahomey kuŵa ufumu wankhongono. Wakayowoya kuti malo ghose nga themba ndipo ghakeneranga kupelekeka msonkho. Ŵakaŵaso na mazaza gha kuwusa nga ni ŵana ŵakwamba. Pakaŵa "kusopa ufumu". Chaka chilichose, ŵazga ŵakeneranga kupelekeka sembe kuti ŵachindike ŵasekuru ŵa themba. Mu ma 1720, boma la Dahomey likapoka vigaŵa vya Whydah na Allada, ivyo vikawovwira kuti Dahomey wasange ŵanthu awo ŵakaguliskanga ŵazga. Themba Agadja (1708-1740) likayezga kumazga malonda gha ŵazga mwa kusunga ŵazga pa malo agho ŵakagwiranga nchito ya kupanga mafuta gha makuni gha maolive, kweni vyandulo ivyo ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe ŵakasanganga na ŵazga kweniso umo Dahomey wakagomezgekeranga ku vilwero vikaŵa vikuru comene. Mu 1730, mu nyengo ya Themba Agaja, Ufumu wa Oyo ukathereska Dahomey, ndipo Dahomey wakeneranga kupeleka msonkho. Ŵazga ŵakaŵapelekanga msonkho mu viŵiya vya viŵeto. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800, mafuta gha makuni gha maolive ghakaŵa ghakukhumbikwa chomene pa malonda.{{sfnp|Shillington|2005|pp=191–192}} France yikathereska Dahomey mu nyengo ya Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya ku France na Dahomey (1892-1894) ndipo yikakhazikiska boma la vyaru vinyake. Ŵanandi mwa ŵasilikari awo ŵakarwa nkhondo na Dahomey ŵakaŵa ŵa ku Africa. ===== Yoruba ===== {{Main|History of the Yoruba people}} {{Further|List of rulers of the Yoruba state of Oyo}} [[File:WestAfrica1625.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:WestAfrica1625.png|right|thumb|Oyo Empire and surrounding states, c. 1625]] Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Yoruba ŵakajiwonanga kuti mbanthu ŵa mu ufumu umoza, mwakupambana na umo vinthu viliri mazuŵa ghano. Zina ili likufuma ku lizgu la Chihausa ilo likung'anamura Ufumu wa Oyo. Boma lakwamba la Ŵayoruba likaŵa la Ile-Ife, ilo likayowoyeka kuti likazengeka cha m'ma 1000 C.E. na munthu munyake wauzimu, zina lake Oduduwa. Ŵana ŵa Oduduwa ndiwo ŵakambiska misumba yakupambanapambana ya Ŵayoruba, ndipo ŵana ŵake ŵasungwana ndiwo ŵakaŵa ŵamama ŵa ma obas, panji mafumu gha Ŵayoruba. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800, misumba ya Yoruba yikaŵa na wupu wakulongozga. Nyengo yikati yajumphapo, misumba iyi yikamba kuŵa na mazaza, ndipo ma obas ghawo ghakamba kuŵa na mazaza pa vyauzimu. Ŵanthu ŵa mu misumba iyi ŵakamba kupindana chomene.{{sfnp|Collins|Burns|2007|pp=131–132}} Ufumu wa Oyo ukayamba kulamulira mu ma 1500. Mu 1550, ufumu wa Nupe ukathereska boma la Oyo, ilo likaŵa na ŵasilikari ŵa pa mahachi. Themba la Oyo likatolekera ku caru cinyake. Wakati wawerako ku nkhondo, Alafin Orompoto (c. 1560-1580) wakazenga ŵasilikari awo ŵakaŵa na vilwero vikuruvikuru. Ici cikaŵapangiska kuti ŵaleke kutonda nkhondo mu vipalamba vya kumpoto na mu nkhorongo. Kuumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1500 C.E., Oyo wakasazgirako chigaŵa cha kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Niger ku mapiri gha Togo, Yoruba ku Ketu, Dahomey, na Fon. Wupu wakulongozga ndiwo ukaŵa na mazaza pa ufumu. Chigaŵa chilichose icho ŵakapanga chikaŵa na mulongozgi. Mbumba zinyake zikateŵeteranga nga ni mafumu. Oyo wakaŵa ufumu wa ku mpoto kwa Yoruba, ndipo wakendeskanga malonda pakati pa kumpoto na kumwera kwa charu ichi. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Yoruba ŵakapanganga vyakuvwara, vyakupangira visulo, na vyakupangira viŵiya, ndipo ŵakaguliskanga mchere, vikumba, na mahachi kufuma ku Sudan kuti ŵalutilire kuŵa na ŵasilikari. Oyo wakalutilira kuŵa wankhongono kwa vilimika 200.{{sfnp|Davidson|1991|pp=173–174}}{{sfnp|Collins|Burns|2007|p=134}} Mu 1888, charu ichi chikaŵa pasi pa boma la Britain, ndipo pamanyuma chikagaŵikana. Boma la Oyo likamara kuwusa mu 1896.<ref>Stride, G.T. & C. Ifeka (1971). ''Peoples and Empires of West Africa: West Africa in History 1000–1800''. Edinburgh: Nelson. {{ISBN|0-17-511448-X}}.</ref> ===== Benin ===== {{Main|Kingdom of Benin#History}} {{Further|Oba of Benin}} [[File:Benin_bronze_Louvre_A97-14-1.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Benin_bronze_Louvre_A97-14-1.jpg|right|thumb|"Benin Bronze" (brass)]] Ŵanthu awo ŵakayowoyanga chiyowoyero cha Kwa Niger na Congo awo ŵakakhalanga ku Edo ŵakakhazikiska ufumu wa Benin m'ma 1500. Kufuma waka pakwamba, boma ili likalutilira kusazgikira ndyali. Mu nyengo ya Themba Ewuare (c. 1450 - 1480 C.E.), boma likaŵa lakunozgekera kuwukira. Wakakhozga mazaza gha boma na kwamba nkhondo ya vilimika 30 na ŵazengezgani ŵake. Wakati wafwa, ufumu wa Benin ukafika ku Dahomey kumanjiliro gha dazi, ku Niger Delta kumafumiro gha dazi, mumphepete mwa nyanja ya kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Africa, na ku misumba ya Ŵayoruba kumpoto. Muzukuru wa Ewuare, Oba Esigie (1504-1550), wakathereska mazaza gha uzama (bungwe la boma) na kusazgirako malonda na ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe, chomenechomene Ŵapwitikizi awo ŵakapanga mkuwa kuti uŵawovwire pa nyumba ya themba. Ŵanalume aŵa ŵakalongozgekanga na Uzama, uyo wakaŵa mulongozgi wa mbumba zakukhora kweniso mulongozgi wa tawuni. Pamanyuma pake, mazaza ghake ghakacepa cifukwa ca kuŵika ŵamazaza. Ŵanakazi ŵakaŵa na mazaza. Fumukazi iyo yikababa oba, yikaŵa na mazaza ghanandi. Buku la Alan Ryder lakuti Benin and the Europeans likulongora kuti caru ca Benin cikaguliskanga comene ŵazga yayi. Kuuyambiro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1800, msumba uwu ukaparanyika cifukwa ca nkhondo za ufumu na za mukati. Ndipouli, likambaso kuŵa na nkhongono mu nyengo ya Themba Oba Eresoyen na Themba Oba Akengbuda. Mu ma 1500 C.E., ŵanthu ŵa ku Benin ŵakatumizganga vyakurya nga ni phura, njovu, gemu, na salu ku ŵanthu ŵa ku Portugal na Dutch. Mu 1897, ŵasilikari ŵa Britain ŵakapoka msumba uwu.{{sfnp|Shillington|2005|pp=188–189}} ===== Niger Delta and Igbo ===== {{Further|Igbo people#History|Kingdom of Bonny#Early history|Kalabari Kingdom#History|Kingdom of Warri#History|Kingdom of Nri#History|List of rulers of Nri}}{{Igbo land labelled map}}Chigaŵa cha Niger Delta chikaŵa na misumba yinandi iyo yikaŵa na maboma ghanandi. Malo agha ghakavikilirikanga na maji na vyakumera vinandi. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1700, ŵanthu ŵakamba kwenda mu chigaŵa ichi. Vyaru ivyo vikaŵa mu chigaŵa ichi vikaŵa nga ni vya ŵanthu ŵa ku Swahili ku East Africa. Ŵanyake, nga ni Bonny, Kalabari, na Warri, ŵakaŵa na mafumu. Vinyake, nga ni Brass, vikaŵa vyaru ivyo vikaŵa na maparamendi ghachoko, ndipo ku Cross River na Old Calabar, ŵamalonda ŵa Ekpe ndiwo ŵakalamuliranga. Wupu uwu ndiwo ukendeskanga malonda ndipo ukapanganga malango gha ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga nawo. Nyumba zinyake nga ni izo ŵakazenganga ku Bonny, zikamanyikwanga chomene ku America na ku Europe. ŴaIgbo ŵakakhalanga kumafumiro gha dazi kwa dambo la Nile (kweni pamoza na ŴaAnioma kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Mlonga wa Niger). Ufumu wa Nri ukaŵako mu vyaka vya m'ma 900 C.E., ndipo Eze Nri ndiyo wakaŵa mulongozgi wake. Chikaŵa chigaŵa cha ndyali icho chikaŵa na vikaya, ndipo chikaya chilichose chikaŵa na chigaŵa na zina lake. Mu mizi mukaŵanga mazaza gha ŵanalume, ndipo nyengo zinyake ŵanakazi ndiwo ŵakalongozganga. Mu malaro gha ku Igbo-Ukwu (800 C.E.) mukaŵa vinthu vya mkuŵa ivyo vikapangika ku malo agha kweniso magalasi ghakufuma ku Eguputo na India.{{sfnp|Martin|O'Meara|1995|p=95}}{{sfnp|Collins|Burns|2007|p=137}} == 19th century == {{Further|History of West Africa#Slave trade|History of Central Africa#Slave trade|History of East Africa#Slave trade|History of Southern Africa#Slave trade|History of North Africa#European colonial period|History of West Africa#Colonial period|History of Central Africa#Colonial period|History of East Africa#Colonial period|History of Southern Africa#Colonial period}} === Southern Africa === {{Main|Southern Africa#History}} Kuzakafika m'ma 1850, ŵamishonale na ŵamalonda ŵa ku Britain na Germany ŵakanjira mu Namibia. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Herero na Nama ŵakakwesananga pa nkhani ya futi na vilwero. Ŵajeremani ŵakaŵa ŵakukhora comene kuluska ŵa ku Britain mu cigaŵa ici. Kuzakafika mu 1884, Ŵachijeremani ŵakayowoya kuti chigaŵa cha mumphepete mwa nyanja kufuma ku Mlonga wa Orange m'paka ku Mlonga wa Kunene, ntchigaŵa cha Ŵachijeremani. Ŵakachitanga vinthu mwaukali kuti ŵasazgireko malo gha ŵazungu. Ŵakacita nthena cifukwa ca mphindano pakati pa Ŵanaama na Ŵaherero.{{sfnp|Shillington|2005|pp=218, 327–329, 340–342}} TŴaherero ŵakakolerana na Ŵachijeremani, ŵakaghanaghananga kuti ŵangaŵawukira. Ŵachijeremani ŵakakhazikiska msasa mu msumba ukuru wa Herero ndipo ŵakamba kupeleka malo gha Ŵaherero ku ŵanthu ŵatuŵa, kusazgapo malo ghawemi chomene ghakuliskako viŵeto mu chigaŵa chapakati. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Herero na Ovambanderu ŵakagaluka, kweni ŵakathereskeka. Mu vyaka vya pakati pa 1896 na 1897, nthenda ya nthenda ya ng'ombe yikasuzga chomene ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Herero na Nama. Ŵachijeremani ŵakalutilira na ndondomeko yawo ya kuzgora Namibia kuŵa malo ghakukhalamo ŵazungu mwa kupoka malo na viŵeto vyawo, kweniso ŵakayezga kutolera ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Herero ku South Africa.{{sfnp|Shillington|2005|pp=218, 327}} Mu 1904, Ŵaherero ŵakambaso kugaluka. Lothar von Trotha, mulara wa ŵasilikari ŵa Germany, wakambiska nkhondo ya Waterberg, iyo yikachimbizga ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Herero kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa mapopa gha Kalahari. Paumaliro wa 1905, pakaŵa ŵanthu 16,000 pera ŵa mtundu wa Herero. Mu 1907, gulu la Nama likathereskeka. Viŵeto vyose vya Nama na Herero na malo vikaŵa vya ŵanthu ŵachoko chomene, ndipo Nama na Herero awo ŵakakhalapo ŵakaŵa pasi pa ŵanthu aŵa. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Ovambo ndiwo ŵakeneranga kugwira nchito.{{sfnp|Shillington|2005|pp=218, 327}} === Nguniland === {{Main|Nguni people#History}} [[File:Dance_of_Landeens.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Dance_of_Landeens.jpg|thumb|Zulu warriors]] Mu nyengo ya Mfecane, panji kuti "kuswa", kukaŵa vivulupi vinandi kumwera kwa Africa. Ufumu wa Nguni wa kumpoto wa Mthethwa, Ndwandwe, na Swaziland ndiwo ukambiska nkhondo iyi chifukwa cha kusoŵa kwa vyakurya na njara. Dingiswayo wa ku Mthethwa wakati wafwa, Shaka wa ku Zulu ndiyo wakatora ufumu. Wakakhazikiska ufumu wa Zulu, ndipo wakawusa Ŵandwandwe na kusunkhunya Ŵaswazi kumpoto. Ŵandu ŵa ku Ndwandwe ni ŵa ku Swazi ŵajinjile m'cilambo capasi, mwantheura ŵa Mfecane ŵakamba kuthandazgika. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1820, Shaka wakasazgirako ufumu wake mu vigaŵa vyose vya ku Drakensberg. Wakasinthiska ŵalongozgi ŵa vyaru ivyo ŵakathereskeka na kuŵika induna. Wakaŵa na ŵasilikari ŵakugomezgeka, ŵakugomezgeka, na ŵamahara, awo ŵakamanyikwanga yayi mu chigaŵa ichi. Mu 1828, Shaka wakakomeka na munung'una wake Dingane, uyo wakaŵavya mahara gha nkhondo na maluso gha kulongozga nga ni Shaka. Mu 1838, ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Voortrekkers ŵakayezga kupoka caru ca Ŵazulu. Mu myezi yakwambilira ŵakathereskeka, kweni awo ŵakapona ŵakawungana pa Mlonga wa Ncome na kuthereska Ŵazulu. Ndipouli, Ŵavoretker ŵakaŵavya cikanga kuti ŵakhale mu caru ca Ŵazulu. Dingane wakakomeka mu 1840 pa nyengo ya nkhondo. Mubali wake Mpande ndiyo wakatora ufumu na kukhozga vigaŵa vya Ŵazulu kumpoto. Mu 1879, Britain yikawukira ufumu wa Zulu kuti yikawuse caru cose ca South Africa. Ufumu wa Zulu ukathereska nkhondo ya Isandlwana, kweni ukathereskeka ku Ulundi. Limoza mwa vyaru vikuru ivyo vikafuma mu Mfecane likaŵa Ufumu wa Ŵasotho uwo ukazengeka ku Thaba Bosiu na Moshoeshoe I pakati pa 1821 na 1822. Wakaŵa wupu wa maboma ghakupambanapambana uwo ukazomera mazaza gha Moshoeshoe. Mu ma 1830, ufumu uwu ukacemanga ŵamishonale kuti ŵize na vilwero na mahachi ku Cape. Nyengo yikati yajumphapo, boma la Orange Free State likalutilira kunanga ufumu uwu, kweni likamalizga yayi kuwuthereska. Mu 1868, Moshoeshoe wakapempha kuti Ufumu wa Sotho uŵikike mu mawoko gha Britain kuti waponoske awo ŵakakhalako. Malo agha ghakazgoka malo ghakulongozgeka na Britain gha Basutoland.{{sfnp|Shillington|2005|pp=261–262, 271}} === Sotho-Tswana === {{Main|Sotho people#History|Tswana people#History}} Ŵanthu awo ŵakayowoyanga Chitswana ŵakamba kuwusa chigaŵa ichi (kwambira ku Mlonga wa Vaal m'paka ku Botswana). Malo ghakurughakuru agha ghakakhalanga makora m'paka mu 1300 C.E. Ŵanthu wose aŵa ŵakendanga mu nthowa za malonda izo zikendanga kufuma ku Limpopo River m'paka ku Indian Ocean. Mabuku ghakwambilira ghakulongosora vya charu cha Botswana ghakalembeka mu 1824. Ivyo vikalembeka apa vikulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Bangwaketse ndiwo ŵakaŵa ŵankhongono comene mu cigaŵa ici. Mu muwuso wa Makaba II, ŵanthu ŵa ku Bangwaketse ŵakasunganga viŵeto vinandi mu malo gha mu mapopa agho ghakaŵa ghakuvikilirika. Pa nyengo iyi, mafumu ghanyake gha mu chigaŵa ichi ghakaŵa na ŵanthu 10,000 ndipo ghakaŵa na vinthu vinandi. Mu nyengo ya Mfecane, mu 1823-1843, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku South Africa ŵakanjira mu charu ichi. Nangauli Ŵangwaketse ŵakathereska ŵasilikari ŵa Bakololo mu 1826, kweni nyengo yikati yajumphapo, ŵasilikari wose ŵa ku Botswana ŵakaŵawukira, ŵakaŵatimbanizga, na kuŵasuzga. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Bakololo na Amandebele ŵakaŵawukiranga kanandi waka, ndipo ŵakatora ng'ombe zinandi, ŵanakazi, na ŵana kufuma ku ŵanthu ŵa ku Batswana. Kweni pamanyuma pa 1843, apo Ŵamandebele ŵakasamukira kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Zimbabwe, suzgo ili likamara. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1840 na 1850, ŵamalonda awo ŵakaguliskanga vinthu ku Cape Colony ŵakamba kwenda na ŵanthu ŵa ku Batswana. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Bakwena, Bangwaketse, Bangwato, na Batawana ŵakagwilira lumoza ntchito yakuguliska njovu, ndipo ndalama izo ŵakaguliskanga ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito pakuguliska mahachi na futi. Mu 1880, vinthu vikasintha chomene, ndipo Ŵabatswana ŵakamba kulamulira ŵanthu ŵa ku Bushmen, Bakalanga, Bakgalagadi, Batswapong, na mitundu yinyake. Pamanyuma pa ulendo uwu, ŵanthu ŵa ku Cape Colony ŵakamba kukhala ku mphaka za Botswana mu chigaŵa cha Transvaal. Mu 1852 gulu la mafumu gha ku Tswana ilo likaŵa na Sechele I, likathereska Ŵafrika, ndipo pamanyuma pa vyaka 8, ŵakafika pa phangano la mtende ku Potchefstroom mu 1860. Kufuma waka pa nyengo iyi, ŵakazomerezga kuti paŵe mphaka pakati pa South Africa na Botswana, ndipo ŵanthu ŵa ku Afrika na ŵa ku Batswana ŵakaguliskana vinthu na kugwira ntchito pamoza mwamtende. Mu ma 1820, ŵanthu ŵakuchimbira kwawo awo ŵakafuma ku charu cha Zulu awo ŵakalongozgekanga na Shaka, ŵakakumana na ŵanthu ŵa Basotho awo ŵakakhalanga ku mapiri. Mu 1823, ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Kololo ŵakasamira kumpoto, kujumpha mu chipalamba cha Okavango na kujumpha mu mlonga wa Zambezi. Mu 1845, Ŵakololo ŵakapoka caru ca Barotseland. Pa nyengo yeneyira, Ŵaburu ŵakamba kunjira mu caru ca Basotho. Nkhondo za Napoleon zikati zamara, charu cha Cape Colony chikapelekeka ku Britain.<ref name="Ross 2009">{{cite book|last=Ross|first=R.|year=2009|title=A Concise History of South Africa|location=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press}}.</ref><ref name="Thompson 2001">{{cite book|last=Thompson|first=L.|year=2001|title=A History of South Africa|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofsouthaf00thom_0|url-access=registration|publisher=Yale University Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=9780300087765}}.</ref> Pa nyengo iyi, Moshoeshoe I wakayamba kuwusa maufumu gha Basotho gha kumwera kwa Highveld. Ŵanthu ŵakamulumba comene cifukwa ca luso lake na maluso ghake. Ulongozgi wake ukawovwira kuti mtundu wake upone ku ngozi na viyezgo ivyo vikaŵapo mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800. Mu 1822, Moshoeshoe wakimika msumba wake ukuru ku Butha-Buthe, phiri ilo likaŵa mu mapiri gha kumpoto kwa Drakensberg. Pamanyuma, likuru lake likasamukira ku Thaba Bosiu. Kuti waŵawovwire, Moshoeshoe wakaciskanga ŵamishonale ŵa ku France kuti ŵacite uteŵeti wa umishonale mu ufumu wake. Ŵamishonale awo ŵakatumika na Paris Evangelical Missionary Society ŵakapeleka ulongozgi ku Themba pa nkhani za vyaru vinyake na kovwira kuti liŵe na vilwero vyamazuŵa ghano. Padera pa kuŵa ŵalaŵiliri ŵa boma, ŵamishonale (ŵanandi ŵakaŵa Casalis na Arbousset) ŵakawovwira chomene pakulongosora kalembero ka Chisotho na kusindikizga mabuku gha Chisotho pakati pa 1837 na 1855. Baibolo lakwamba mu Chisotho likafuma mu 1878. Mu 1868, wakati wataya vigaŵa vya kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Boers mu nyengo ya Nkhondo za Basotho; Moshoeshoe wakapempha Fumukazi Victoria kuti yipharazge kuti Lesotho (iyo yikachemekanga Basutoland) yikaŵa boma la Britain ndipo boma la Britain likaŵa ku Maseru, uko kukaŵa msumba ukuru wa Lesotho. Ŵalongozgi ŵa vigaŵa ivi ndiwo ŵakaŵa na mazaza pa vinthu vya mukati, apo Britain ndiyo wakalamuliranga vyakuthupi na kuvikilira charu. Mu 1869, ŵa ku Britain ŵakanozga vyakuti ŵamanye mphaka za Basutoland. Nangauli mafuko ghanandi ghakaŵa na vigaŵa mukati mwa Basutoland, kweni ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakayowoyanga Chisotho ŵakakhalanga mu vigaŵa ivyo vikapelekeka ku Orange Free State. === Voortrekkers === [[File:Charles_Bell_-_Zoeloe-aanval_op_'n_Boerelaer_-_1838.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Charles_Bell_-_Zoeloe-aanval_op_'n_Boerelaer_-_1838.jpg|thumb|Depiction of a [[:en:Weenen_massacre|Zulu attack]] on a [[:en:Boer|Boer]] camp in February 1838]] Mu ma 1830, ŵanthu ŵa ku Boer ŵakamba ulendo wawo wa kupanjilira kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Mlonga Ukuru wa Somba mu Zuurveld. Ŵanthu aŵa ŵakaŵachemanga kuti "Ŵa Voortrekkers". Kuzakafika m'ma 1800, vigaŵa vinandi vya Khoikhoi vikaŵa pasi pa mazaza gha Ŵaburu. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Khoikhoi ŵakataya wanangwa wawo pa nkhani za ndyali na za cuma, ndipo ŵakazgoka ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Boer. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Boer ŵakayowoyanga ciyowoyero ca ciAfrikaans, ico cikafuma ku ciyowoyero ca ku Dutch. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵa mtundu wa Khoikhoi ŵakagwiranga nchito nga ni ŵasilikari ŵa boma pa kuwukira ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Khoikhoi na ŵa Xhosa. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Khoi, ŵazga, na ŵa ku Europe awo ŵakachemekanga kuti Cape Coloured, nawo ŵakaŵako. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Khoikhoi awo ŵakakhalanga kutali na mphaka ŵakaŵa Kora, Oorlams, na Griqua. Mu 1795, ŵa ku Britain ŵakapoka malo agha ku ŵa ku Dutch. Mu ma 1830, ŵanthu ŵa ku Boer ŵakamba kusama, kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Mlonga Ukuru wa Somba na kunjira mu Zuurveld. Ŵanthu aŵa ŵakaŵachemanga kuti "Ŵa Voortrekkers". Ŵakazenga vyaru vya Transvaal na Orange Free State, comenecomene mu vigaŵa ivyo vikaŵa na ŵanthu ŵachoko comene. Mwakupambana na Khoisan, ŵanthu ŵa mu vyaru vya Bantu ŵakathereskeka yayi na Ŵafrika chifukwa cha unandi wa ŵanthu. Kweniso ŵakamba kujipangira vilwero ivyo ŵakaguliskanga ku Cape. Mu vigaŵa vinyake, nga umo vikaŵira pa Nkhondo za Xhosa na Boer, ŵanthu ŵa ku Boer ŵakafumiskikanga mu vyaru vya Xhosa. Pakakhumbikwanga ŵasilikari ŵa ufumu kuti ŵathereske ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Bantu. Mu 1901, caru ca Boer cikathereskeka na Britain mu Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Boer. Kuwina uku kukakoma maboma ghanandi gha Transvaal na Orange Free State, chomenechomene mu vigaŵa ivyo vikaŵa na ŵanthu ŵachoko chomene. Mwakupambana na Khoisan, ŵanthu ŵa mu vyaru vya Bantu ŵakathereskeka yayi na Ŵafrika chifukwa cha unandi wa ŵanthu. Kweniso ŵakamba kujipangira vilwero ivyo ŵakaguliskanga ku Cape. Mu vigaŵa vinyake, nga umo vikaŵira pa Nkhondo za Xhosa na Boer, ŵanthu ŵa ku Boer ŵakafumiskikanga mu vyaru vya Xhosa. Pakakhumbikwanga ŵasilikari ŵa ufumu kuti ŵathereske ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Bantu. Mu 1901, caru ca Boer cikathereskeka na Britain mu Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Boer. Kweni ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Afrika ŵakakomeka cifukwa ca kutondeka.{{sfnp|Davidson|1991|pp=274–275}}{{sfnp|Shillington|2005|pp=268–271}} === European trade, exploration and conquest === {{Further|European exploration of Africa|African slave trade|Scramble for Africa}} [[File:Maxim_machine_gun_Megapixie.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Maxim_machine_gun_Megapixie.jpg|right|thumb|1895 .303 tripod mounted Maxim machine gun]] Pakati pa 1878 na 1898, vyaru vya ku Europe vikagaŵikana na kupoka vigaŵa vinandi vya Africa. Kwa vilimika 400, vyaru vya ku Europe vikagwiranga waka nchito mu malo gha malonda agho ghakaŵa mumphepete mwa Africa. Ŵanandi awo ŵakaŵako pa nyengo iyi ŵakathereskeka ndipo ŵakawelera ku nyanja. Vinthu vinyake ivyo vikapangika pa nyengo iyi vikawovwira kuti suzgo ili lileke kuŵapo. Yimoza mwa nthowa izi yikaŵa ya kupanga futi izo zikang'anamulikanga, izo zikanyanyekanga luŵiro kuluska futi. Ŵanthu ŵakamba kugwiliskira nchito comene futi. Mu 1885, Hiram S. Maxim wakapangiska futi yakuchemeka Maxim, iyo ni ciyerezgero ca futi ya mazuŵa ghano. Vyaru vya ku Europe vikasunga vilwero ivi pakati pawo pakukana kuguliska vilwero ivi ku ŵalongozgi ŵa ku Africa. Matenda gha ku Africa ghakatora umoyo wa ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Europe ndipo ghakatimbanizga ŵanthu kuti ŵaleke kukhazikika mu vyaru ivi. Matenda nga ni yellow fever, nthenda ya kugona, nthenda ya yaws, na vyoni ghakacitiska kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe ŵaleke kuzgoŵera kuluta ku Africa. Ulwari wakukoma comene ukaŵa maleriya, uwo ukazara comene mu vyaru vya mu Africa. Mu 1854, ŵanthu ŵakasanga quinine na vinthu vinyake ivyo vikovwira kuti ŵanthu ŵa mu Africa ŵambe kuwusa charu. Ŵakaŵa na vifukwa vyakupulikikwa vya kuwukira caru ca Africa. Vinthu ivi vikaŵa vyakukhumbikwa pa mafakitale gha ku Europe. Ku Europe, kukwambilira kwa vyaka vya m'ma 1800, vinthu vikasintha chomene. Ŵakaŵa na mtima wa kutemwana na ŵanthu ŵa mu caru cawo. Para ŵanthu ŵa mu Africa ŵatoranga vyaru vinyake ŵakalongoranga ŵalwani ŵawo kuti mtundu wawo ngankhongono. Vinthu ivi ndivyo vikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵambe kulimbana na ŵasilikari ŵa ku Africa.{{sfnp|Collins|Burns|2007|p=265}} [[File:David_Livingstone_attacked_by_a_lion_in_Africa._Lithograph._Wellcome_V0018847.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:David_Livingstone_attacked_by_a_lion_in_Africa._Lithograph._Wellcome_V0018847.jpg|right|thumb|[[:en:David_Livingstone|David Livingstone]], early European explorer of the interior of Africa, is attacked by a [[:en:Lion|lion]].]] [[File:A_journey_to_Ashango-Land,_and_further_penetration_into_equatorial_Africa_(1874)_(14594947249).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:A_journey_to_Ashango-Land,_and_further_penetration_into_equatorial_Africa_(1874)_(14594947249).jpg|thumb|French explorer [[:en:Paul_Du_Chaillu|Paul Du Chaillu]] confirmed the existence of [[:en:Pygmy_peoples|Pygmy peoples]] of central Africa]] Ŵanthu ŵakamba kumanya vinandi vya mu Africa. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Europe ŵakamba kusanda charu ichi. Munda wa Mungo ukambukanga Mlonga wa Niger. James Bruce wakenda mu Ethiopia ndipo wakasanga uko kukafuma mlonga wa Blue Nile. Richard Francis Burton wakaŵa munthu wakwamba wa ku Europe kufika pa Nyanja ya Tanganyika. Samuel White Baker wakasanda Mlonga wa Nayelo. John Hanning Speke wakasanga maji gha mu Mlonga wa Nayelo pa Nyanja ya Victoria. Ŵalendo ŵanyake ŵa ku Europe ŵakaŵa Heinrich Barth, Henry Morton Stanley (uyo wakalemba mazgu ghakuti "Dark Continent" (Dark Continent) pakuyowoya za Africa mu buku linyake la mu 1878), Silva Porto, Alexandre de Serpa Pinto, Rene Caille, Friedrich Gerhard Rohlfs, Gustav Nachtigal, George Schweinfurth, na Joseph Thomson. Munthu wakumanyikwa comene uyo wakaluta ku Africa ni David Livingstone. Ŵalendo ŵa ku Europe ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito ŵalongozgi na ŵateŵeti ŵa ku Africa, ndipo ŵakendanga mitunda yitali. Ŵamishonale awo ŵakayezga kupharazga Cikhristu ŵakasazgirako kumanya vinthu vya ku Africa. Pakati pa 1884 na 1885, vyaru vya ku Europe vikakumana pa ungano wa ku Berlin ku West Africa kuti viphalirane umo vyaru vya mu Africa vigaŵikenge. Ŵakakolerana kuti ŵeneco ŵa ku Europe ŵamanyenge kuti ŵali na mazaza pa vigaŵa vinyake vya mu Africa pekha para ŵa ku Europe ŵacita nchito yawo. Mu nyengo ya 1890 na 1891, pakaŵa mapangano ghanandi agho ghakaŵa na mphaka ya vyaru. Vyaru vyose vya ku Africa kumwera kwa Sahara vikaŵa vya ŵamazaza ŵa ku Europe, kupaturako Ethiopia (Abyssinia) na Liberia. Maufumu gha ku Europe ghakakhazikiska maboma ghakupambanapambana mu Africa. Mu vigaŵa vinyake, nga ni vigaŵa vinyake vya ku Britain ku West Africa, ufumu wa Britain ukaŵa na mazaza ghachoko waka ndipo ukaŵa na chilato chakuti ŵanthu ŵasange ndalama, ŵachitenge vinthu mwamahara, panji kuŵa na pulani ya nyengo yitali. Mu vigaŵa vinyake, ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe ŵakachiskikanga kuti ŵakhalenge mu vyaru vinyake. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakiza mu vigaŵa vichoko waka. Mu vyaru ivyo vikaŵa na ŵanthu ŵa ku Britain, mukaŵa vyaru vya East Africa (ivyo sono ni Kenya), Northern na Southern Rhodesia (Zambia na Zimbabwe), na South Africa, uko kukaŵa kale ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Europe awo ŵakakhalanga mu vyaru ivi. France wakakhumbanga kuti charu cha Algeria chiŵe na ŵanthu ŵanandi ndipo paumaliro chiŵe chigaŵa cha France. Pakuti charu cha Algeria chikaŵa pafupi na Nyanja ya Meditereniyani, ŵanthu ŵakakhumbanga kupanga mapulani ghanthena agha. Mu vigaŵa vinandi, maboma ghakaŵa na ŵanthu yayi panji vinthu vyakukhumbikwa kuti ghalamulire malo agha. Gulu linyake likagwiliskiranga ntchito fundo iyi kuti liŵe na mazaza mu vyaru vyawo. Cinthu cimoza ico Terence Ranger wakacema kuti "kupangiska maluso". Kuti ŵanthu ŵa mu vigaŵa ivi ŵamanye kuti ŵali na mazaza pa ŵanthu ŵa mu vigaŵa vyawo, ŵakachitanga viphikiro panji kuchita vinthu vinyake ivyo vikulongora kuti ŵali na mazaza. Cifukwa ca ici, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakasuzgika cifukwa ca ndondomeko yiphya. Pamanyuma pa Nkhondo ya ku Africa, maboma ghanandi ghakaŵikapo mtima kuti ghaleke kugwiliskira ntchito ŵazga. Paumaliro wa nyengo ya ukoloni, ŵakamba kuchita makora chomene, nangauli mu Africa mukaŵa wuzga.<ref>Lovejoy, Paul E. 2012</ref> === France versus Britain: the Fashoda crisis of 1898 === {{Further|French colonial empire}} [[File:Fashoda_Incident_map_-_en.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Fashoda_Incident_map_-_en.svg|right|thumb|Central and east Africa, 1898, during the [[:en:Fashoda_Incident|Fashoda Incident]]]] Pakuŵa cigaŵa ca Nkhondo ya ku Africa, caru ca France cikaŵa na cilato cakuti cikhazikiske mphepo ya kumanjiliro gha dazi na kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Africa, mwakupambana na mphepo ya kumpoto na kumwera kwa Britain. Mu Africa, mphindano pakati pa Britain na France zikafika paheni comene. Mu vigaŵa vinandi nkhondo yikaŵa yakuti yingacitika, kweni yikacitika yayi. Cakucitika cikuru comene cikaŵa ca Fashoda Incident ca 1898. Ŵasilikari ŵa ku France ŵakayezga kupoka chigaŵa ku Southern Sudan, ndipo ŵasilikari ŵa Britain ŵankhongono comene ŵakiza kuti ŵaŵawukire. Ŵasilikari ŵa ku France ŵakaŵaphalira kuti ŵafumemo mu msumba uwu. Pa nyengo iyi, boma la France ndilo likaŵa na mazaza pa caru ca Morocco, kweni likathereskeka.<ref>D.W. Brogan, ''France under the Republic: The Development of Modern France (1870–1930)'' (1940) pp. 321–326</ref><ref>William L. Langer, ''The diplomacy of imperialism: 1890–1902'' (1951) pp. 537–580</ref>{{clear}} === European colonial territories === [[File:The_National_Archives_UK_-_CO_1069-8-36.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:The_National_Archives_UK_-_CO_1069-8-36.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Aerial view of one of the Dhulbahante garad & Darawiish king [[:en:Las_Anod#Diiriye_Guure|Diiriye Guure]]'s [[:en:Dhulbahante_Garesa|Dhulbahante Garesa]]'s (forts) in [[:en:Taleh|Taleh]], [[:en:Somalia|Somalia]], the capital of his [[:en:Dervish_State|Dervish State]]. [[:en:Dhulbahante_garesa|Dhulbahante garesas]] were the first places to be airstriked in African history]] [[File:Colonial_Africa_1913_map.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Colonial_Africa_1913_map.svg|right|thumb|Areas controlled by European colonial powers on the African continent in 1914; modern-day borders are shown]] '''Belgium''' * [[:en:Congo_Free_State|Congo Free State]] and [[:en:Belgian_Congo|Belgian Congo]] (today's [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|Democratic Republic of the Congo]]) * [[:en:Ruanda-Urundi|Ruanda-Urundi]] (comprising modern [[:en:Rwanda|Rwanda]] and [[:en:Burundi|Burundi]], between 1916 and 1960) '''France''' {{div col|colwidth=23em}} * [[French West Africa]]: ** [[Mauritania]] ** [[Senegal]] ** [[French Sudan]] (now [[Mali]]) ** [[French Guinea]] (now [[Guinea]]) ** [[Ivory Coast]] ** [[Colony of Niger|Niger]] ** [[French Upper Volta]] (now [[Burkina Faso]]) ** [[French Dahomey]] (now [[Benin]]) * [[French Algeria]] (now [[Algeria]]) * [[French occupation of Tunisia|Tunisia]] * [[French Morocco]] * [[French Somaliland]] (now [[Djibouti]]) * [[Madagascar]] * [[Comoros]] * [[French Equatorial Africa]]: ** [[Gabon]] ** [[Middle Congo]] (now the [[Republic of the Congo]]) ** [[Oubangi-Chari]] (now the [[Central African Republic]]) ** [[Colonial Chad|Chad]] {{div col end}} '''Germany''' * [[:en:German_Kamerun|German Kamerun]] (now [[:en:Cameroon|Cameroon]] and part of [[:en:Nigeria|Nigeria]]) * [[:en:German_East_Africa|German East Africa]] (now [[:en:Rwanda|Rwanda]], [[:en:Burundi|Burundi]] and most of [[:en:Tanzania|Tanzania]]) * [[:en:German_South_West_Africa|German South West Africa]] (now [[:en:Namibia|Namibia]]) * [[:en:German_Togoland|German Togoland]] (now [[:en:Togo|Togo]] and eastern part of [[:en:Ghana|Ghana]]) [[File:Cartolina_Giovanni_Pastorelli.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cartolina_Giovanni_Pastorelli.jpg|thumb|[[:en:Italian_invasion_of_Libya|Italian invasion of Libya]] in 1911: propaganda postcard made by Italian Army]] '''Italy''' * [[:en:Italian_North_Africa|Italian North Africa]] (now [[:en:Libya|Libya]]) * [[:en:Eritrea|Eritrea]] * [[:en:Italian_Somaliland|Italian Somaliland]] (now part of [[:en:Somalia|Somalia]]) '''Portugal''' {{div col|colwidth=27em}} * [[Portuguese West Africa]] (now [[Angola]]) ** Mainland [[Angola]] ** [[Portuguese Congo]] (now [[Cabinda Province]] of [[Angola]]) * [[Portuguese East Africa]] (now [[Mozambique]]) * [[Portuguese Guinea]] (now [[Guinea-Bissau]]) * [[Cape Verde Islands]] * [[São Tomé e Príncipe]] ** [[São Tomé Island]] ** [[Príncipe Island]] ** [[Fort of São João Baptista de Ajudá]] (now [[Ouidah]], in [[Benin]]) {{div col end}} '''Spain''' [[File:Riffian_rebels_during_the_Rif_War_1922.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Riffian_rebels_during_the_Rif_War_1922.jpg|thumb|[[:en:Rif_Republic|Riffian rebels]] during the [[:en:Rif_War|Rif War]] in [[:en:Spanish_protectorate_in_Morocco|Spanish Morocco]], 1922]] {{div col|colwidth=27em}} * [[Spanish Sahara]] (now [[Western Sahara]]) ** [[Río de Oro]] ** [[Saguia el-Hamra]] * [[Spanish Morocco]] ** [[Tarfaya Strip]] ** [[Ifni]] * [[Spanish Guinea]] (now [[Equatorial Guinea]]) ** [[Bioko|Fernando Po]] ** [[Río Muni]] ** [[Annobón]] {{div col end}} '''United Kingdom''' [[File:Resa_del_bacino_del_Brandewater.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Resa_del_bacino_del_Brandewater.jpg|thumb|The result of the [[:en:Boer_Wars|Boer Wars]] was the annexation of the [[:en:Boer_Republics|Boer Republics]] to the British Empire in 1902]] {{div col|colwidth=27em}} * [[Egypt]] * [[Anglo-Egyptian Sudan]] (now [[Sudan]]) * [[British Somaliland]] (now part of [[Somalia]]) * [[British East Africa]]: ** [[Kenya]] ** [[Uganda Protectorate]] (now [[Uganda]]) ** [[Tanganyika Territory|Tanganyika]] (1919–1961, now part of [[Tanzania]]) * [[Zanzibar]] (now part of [[Tanzania]]) * [[Bechuanaland]] (now [[Botswana]]) * [[Southern Rhodesia]] (now [[Zimbabwe]]) * [[Northern Rhodesia]] (now [[Zambia]]) * [[Union of South Africa|British South Africa]] (now [[South Africa]]) ** [[Transvaal Colony|Transvaal]] (now part of [[South Africa]]) ** [[British Cape Colony|Cape Colony]] (now part of South Africa) ** [[Colony of Natal]] (now part of South Africa) ** [[Orange Free State]] (now part of South Africa) * [[The Gambia]] * [[Sierra Leone]] * [[Colonial Nigeria|Nigeria]] * [[Cameroons]] (now parts of [[Cameroon]] and [[Nigeria]]) * [[British Gold Coast]] (now [[Ghana]]) * [[Nyasaland]] (now [[Malawi]]) * [[Basutoland]] (now [[Lesotho]]) * [[Swaziland]] {{div col end}} '''Independent states''' * [[:en:Liberia|Liberia]], founded by the [[:en:American_Colonization_Society|American Colonization Society]] of the United States in 1821; declared independence in 1847 * [[:en:Ethiopian_Empire|Ethiopian Empire]] (Abyssinia) had its borders re-drawn with [[:en:Italian_Eritrea|Italian Eritrea]] and [[:en:French_Somaliland|French Somaliland]] (modern [[:en:Djibouti|Djibouti]]), briefly occupied by Italy from 1936 to 1941 during the [[:en:Abyssinia_Crisis|Abyssinia Crisis]]; * [[:en:Sudan|Sudan]], independent under [[:en:Muhammad_Ahmad|Mahdi]] rule between 1885 and 1899. It was then under British rule from 1899 to 1956.{{sfnp|Martin|O'Meara|1995|pp=135–138}} == 20th century == Mu ma 1880, ŵamazaza ŵa ku Europe ŵakagaŵikana pafupifupi charu chose cha Africa. Ŵakawusa m'paka Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Caru Cose yikati yamara apo mtima wa kutemwa caru ukakura comene. Mu ma 1950 na 1960, vyaru ivyo vikaŵa pasi pa maboma agha vikazgoka vyaru vyakujiyimira. Nangauli nyengo iyi yikaŵa yamtende, kweni pakaŵaso nkhondo zinandi zakukhora na zakuthiska ndopa, nga ni izo zikacitika ku Algeria, Kenya, na kunyake. Mu vyaru vinandi vya mu Africa, ŵanthu ŵakamba kutemwa vyaru vyawo cifukwa ca maluso agho ŵanthu ŵa mu vyaru ivi ŵakasambira ku ŵasilikari ŵa Britain, France, na ŵasilikari ŵanyake. Ivi vikapangiska kuti paŵe mawupu agho ghakaŵa pasi pa mazaza gha ŵakoloni yayi. Magulu gha ŵanthu ŵakutemwa caru ghakamba kulimbana na vyaru ivyo vikaŵa pasi pa muwuso wa ŵasilikari ndipo pamasinda ŵakavileka. Ŵalongozgi ŵa vyaru vinyake ŵakamba kuwusa apo boma la ku Europe likafumako. Ŵanandi ŵakalutilira kuwusa kwa vyaka vinandi. Vinthu ivi ni ndyali, masukulu, visopa, na mawupu ghanyake. Mu virimika vyasonosono apa, vyaru vinandi vya mu Africa vyathereskeka cifukwa ca mtima wa kutemwera caru, ndipo ici cikapangiska kuti boma lileke kuŵa na mazaza.<ref>Gabriel Almond and James S. Coleman, ''The Politics of the Developing Areas'' (1971)</ref><ref>Festus Ugboaja Ohaegbulam, ''Nationalism in colonial and post-colonial Africa'' (University Press of America, 1977).</ref><ref>Thomas Hodgkin, ''Nationalism in Colonial Africa'' (1956)</ref> [[File:1916-Africa-political-map.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:1916-Africa-political-map.jpg|right|thumb|1916 political map of Africa]] === World War I === [[File:Der_Durchbruch_der_Schutztruppe_Deutsch-Ostafrika_über_den_Rowuma_MItte_November_1917._Darstellung_von_Carl_Arriens.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Der_Durchbruch_der_Schutztruppe_Deutsch-Ostafrika_%C3%BCber_den_Rowuma_MItte_November_1917._Darstellung_von_Carl_Arriens.jpg|thumb|The [[:en:Battle_of_Ngomano|Battle of Ngomano]] in November 1917]] Pakuti chigaŵa chikuru cha charu ichi chikaŵa pasi pa maboma gha ku Europe, Nkhondo za Caru Cose zikaŵa vyakuzirwa comene mu mdauko wa Africa. Mu Africa mukaŵa nkhondo zinandi ndipo nkhondo zose ziŵiri zikacitikanga. Kweni chakuzirwa chomene ntchakuti mu vigaŵa vinandi, ŵasilikari ŵa ku Africa ŵakakhalanga mu vyaru ivyo vikaŵa pasi pawo. Mu Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Caru Cose, ku Africa kukacitika nkhondo zinandi, kusazgapo nkhondo ya ku Togo, nkhondo ya ku Kamerun, nkhondo ya ku South West Africa, na nkhondo ya ku East Africa. Pa nkhondo yiliyose iyi, ŵasilikari ŵa vyaru vinyake, comenecomene ŵa ku Britain, kweniso ŵa ku France, Belgium, South Africa, na Portugal, ŵakayezga kufumiska Ŵajamani mu vyaru ivyo ŵakaŵa. Mu vyaru vyose ivi, ŵasilikari ŵa Germany ŵakaŵa ŵacoko comene, ndipo cifukwa cakuti ŵa Germany ŵakathereska vyaru vyose ivyo vikaŵa pasi pawo. Ŵasilikari ŵa Germany ku East Africa ŵakaleka kujipeleka mu nkhondo yose iyi, nangauli ŵakathereska vigaŵa vinyake mu 1917. Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Caru Cose yikati yamara, caru ca France, Belgium, na Britain vikamba kulamulira vyaru ivyo vikaŵa pasi pa Germany. Vinthu vyakuthupi na vya ndyali mu Africa mu 1929 Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Caru Cose yikati yamara, maboma agho ghakalamuliranga caru ca Africa ghakalutilira kukhozga mazaza ghawo pa vyaru vyawo. Mu vigaŵa vinyake, comenecomene kumwera na kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Africa, ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakakhalanga mu vyaru vinyake ŵakakhozga kuti boma liŵawovwire, ndipo ŵakaŵachema kuti "ŵanthu ŵa mu nyumba zawo". Mu vyaru vinandi, ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga mu vyaru ivi ŵakaŵasuzganga chomene ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa, ndipo ŵakaŵawonanga kuti mbanthu awo ŵangapoka mazaza gha ndyali. Nkhondo iyi yikakhwaska chomene chuma cha mu Africa, icho chikagwiranga ntchito pa malonda gha ku vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi. Apo unandi wa vyakurya ukakuranga m'ma 1930, chuma cha mu Africa nacho chikakwera. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1930, caru ca Africa cikaŵa cimoza mwa vyaru ivyo Ŵafasisi ŵakambiska. Italy wakayezga kuti wapoke Ethiopia mu vyaka vya m'ma 1890, kweni ŵakamukana mu Nkhondo Yakwamba ya ku Italy na Ethiopia. Ethiopia yikaŵa pakati pa vyaru viŵiri ivyo vikaŵa pasi pa Italy, ivyo ni Somaliland na Eritrea. Mu Meyi 1936, ŵasilikari ŵa Italy ŵakanjira mu Addis Ababa, msumba ukuru wa charu ichi. Ethiopia na vyaru vinyake ivyo ŵakakhalanga vikasazgika pamoza na Italy mu East Africa. === World War II: Political === [[File:Map_of_Africa_in_1939.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_Africa_in_1939.svg|right|thumb|Areas controlled by European powers in 1939. British (red) and Belgian (marroon) colonies fought with the Allies. Italian (light green) with the Axis. French colonies (dark blue) fought alongside the Allies until the Fall of France in June 1940. Vichy was in control until the Free French prevailed in late 1942. Portuguese (dark green) and Spanish (yellow) colonies remained neutral.]] Africa yikaŵa caru cikuru comene ico cikaŵa pa malo ghakwenelera nkhondo. Ku North Africa ndiko kukacitika nkhondo yikuru ya Britain na America kwimikana na Italy na Germany. Malo agha ghakaŵa ghakutowa chomene ndipo ghakaŵa na nthowa zikuruzikuru zakwendamo. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakendanga pa nyanja kuzingilira charu cha South Africa, nangauli ŵakeneranga kwenda mazuŵa ghanyake 40 kuti ŵajumphe mu Suez. Kanandi katundu uyo Lend Lease wakizanga nayo ku Russia wakendanga mu nthowa iyi. Mu vyaru vinyake, misewu iyo yikaŵa kutali na misewu ya njanji yikawovwira kuti ŵasilikari ŵa Britain ŵachitenge makora nkhondo. Boma la South Africa likaŵa na mazaza pa charu chose ndipo likajilamuliranga lekha. Ŵasilikari ŵa Britain ŵakathereskanga ŵanthu ŵa ku Italy. Charu cha Belgian Congo, na vyaru vinyake viŵiri ivyo vikaŵa pasi pa Belgium, vikaŵa vyaru vikuru ivyo vikaguliskanga vyakurya. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Britain ŵakaŵa ŵanandi chomene ndipo ŵakaŵa na chuma. Ŵakaŵa na mazaza pa vigaŵa vya Africa ivyo vikaŵa na ŵanthu ŵanandi chomene. Ŵalaraŵalara ŵa boma ŵakayezgayezga chomene kunozga vinthu vya mu Africa, kukhozgera ulimi, kusazga vyaru vya mu Africa na vya mu caru cose, na kusanga ŵasilikari ŵakujumpha hafu ya miliyoni.{{sfnp|Jackson|2006|pp=171–239}}<ref>David Killingray and Richard Rathbone, edfs. ''Africa and the Second World War'' (1986).</ref> Pambere nkhondo iyi yindambe, caru ca Britain cikaŵa na mapulani ghacoko comene ghakwendeskera vyaru vya ku Africa, kweni cikakhazikiska mwaluŵiro maofesi gha ŵalongozgi. Gulu la ŵasilikari la ku West Africa likakhazikiska gulu la ŵasilikari 200,000. Mu Seputembala 1941, boma la East Africa Command likapangika kuti liwovwire ŵasilikari ŵa Middle East. Wakapeleka ŵanalume ŵanandi comene, ŵakujumpha 320,000, comenecomene ŵa ku Kenya, Tanganyika, na Uganda. Boma la South Africa ndilo likaŵa na mazaza pa boma ili. Wupu wa Royal Navy ukakhazikiska ofesi ya South Atlantic Command ku Sierra Leone, iyo yikaŵa malo ghakuru ghakusonkhanira magaleta. Gulu la ŵasilikari ŵa nkhondo la Royal Air Force (RAF) ilo likalamuliranga vyaru vya mumphepete mwa nyanja (Coastal Command) likagwiranga ntchito yikuru ya kupenja sitima za pasi pa nyanja (submarine hunting) mu vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Africa, apo gulu linyake likagwiranga ntchito ya kupenja sitima za pasi pa nyanja (submarine hunting) mu nyanja ya Indian Ocean. Ntchito yikuru ya ŵasilikari ŵa ku Western Desert Air Force yikaŵa yakuyegha ndege kufuma ku North America na Britain. Kweniso ŵasilikari ŵachoko ŵakaŵanga na mawoko ghaŵiri. Pambere chaka cha 1939 chindafike, ŵasilikari ŵakaŵa ŵachoko chomene mu Britain, ndipo ŵanandi ŵakaŵa ŵazungu. Nkhondo yikati yamba waka, ŵasilikari ŵa ku Africa ŵakambiska magulu gha nkhondo. Kanandi awo ŵakasangikanga ŵakaŵa ŵakujipeleka ndipo ŵakateŵeteranga lumoza na ŵalongozgi ŵa mafuko. Pa nyengo ya nkhondo, ŵasilikari ŵakapokeranga ndalama zinandi chomene kuluska izo ŵanthu ŵa mu charu ichi ŵakapokeranga. Ŵasilikari ŵanandi ŵakaŵa mu magulu ghakuzenga agho ghakachemekanga kuti ŵapayiniya, ndipo ŵakaŵa 82,000. Ŵasilikari ŵa nkhondo na ŵasilikari ŵa nkhondo nawo ŵakacitanga vinthu vinyake. Ŵabali na ŵadumbu 80,000 ŵakateŵetera ku Middle East. Ŵakaŵikapo mtima comene kuti ŵaleke kususka mazaza gha ŵazungu, comenecomene pambere nkhondo yindambe. Nangauli vikaŵa nthena, kweni ŵasilikari aŵa ŵakasambizgika na kulondezga fundo za ku Europe, ŵakaphalirika vinthu vinandi vyautesi, kweniso ŵakasambira umo ŵangacitira vinthu mwamahara na umo ŵanganozgera vinthu. Ŵanthu ŵa ku malo agha ŵakakwiyapo pachoko, kweni pakaŵavya suzgo. Kweni mu 1939, Jan Smuts, uyo wakaŵa Mufurikaner, uyo wakaŵa wakutemwa chomene Ufumu wa Britain, ndiyo wakanjira mu malo gha nduna yikuru ya Afrika. Boma lake likakolerana comene na boma la London ndipo likaŵawovwira ŵanthu 340,000 awo ŵakajipeleka (190,000 ŵakaŵa ŵazungu, panji pafupifupi cigaŵa cimoza pa vigaŵa vitatu vya ŵanalume ŵazungu awo ŵakaŵa ŵakwenelera).{{sfnp|Jackson|2006|pp=240–245}} ==== French Africa ==== Kukwambilira kwa 1857, ŵa ku France ŵakakhazikiska magulu gha ŵasilikari ŵafipa mu vyaru vya kumwera kwa Sahara. Ŵakacitako nkhondo mu caru cose ico cikalamuliranga, kusazgapo ŵasilikari 171,000 mu Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Caru Cose na 160,000 mu Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Caru Cose. Ŵanthu pafupifupi 90,000 ŵakakoleka wuzga ku Germany. Ŵakaŵawovwira comene pa nkhondo iyo yikacitika ku France. Ŵalaraŵalara ŵa boma ku West Africa ŵakaphalira boma la Vichy kuti ŵathembenge boma la Vichy, nga umo ŵakacitira ŵasilikari ŵa boma la French Gabon. Mu Novembala 1940, Gabon wakathereskeka na ŵa Free France, kweni vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Africa vikaŵa pasi pa Vichy m'paka mu Novembala 1942. Ŵasilikari ŵa Vichy ŵakayezga kuti ŵaleke kuwukira ŵasilikari ŵa ŵasilikari ŵa ku North Africa mu Novembala 1942. Mwamabuci Admiral François Darlan wa ku Vichy wakasintha gulu ndipo nkhondo yikamara. Ŵalwani ŵakamupa Darlan mazaza pa ŵasilikari ŵa ku France ŵa ku North Africa kuti waŵawovwire. Vichy sono yikaŵa kuti yindacitikepo mu Africa. Mu Disembala, Darlan wakakomeka, ndipo magulu ghaŵiri gha Free French, agho ghakalongozgekanga na Charles de Gaulle na Henri Giraud, ghakamba kulimbana kuti ghaŵe na mazaza. Paumaliro De Gaulle wakathereska.<ref>Arthur Layton Funk, ''Charles de Gaulle: the crucial years, 1943–1944'' (1959).</ref> === World War II: Military === Pakuti ku Germany kukaŵavya vyaru vinyake ivyo vikaŵa pasi pa Africa, Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Caru Cose yikatora malo gha ku Africa. Pa Juni 25, charu cha France chikati chawa, maboma gha Vichy ghakamba kulamulira vyaru vinandi ivyo vikaŵa kumpoto na kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Africa. Pamasinda pakuti caru ca France cawa, caru ca Africa ndico cikaŵa cimoza pera ico ŵakalwerapo nkhondo mpaka apo ŵa ku Italy ŵakanjilira mu Greece mu Okutobala. Mu nyengo ya nkhondo ya ku Western Desert, ŵasilikari ŵa Italy ŵakakhumbanga kuti ŵanjire mu Eguputo. Pa nyengo yeneyiyo, ŵasilikari ŵa ku Italy ŵakathereska malo ghanyake gha ku Britain agho ghakaŵa ku Somaliland na ku Kenya. Apo Italy yikayezgayezga kuti yipoke Eguputo na Sudan, ŵakasoŵa nthowa yakwendeskera vyakurya ku Italy. Mu 1941, ŵasilikari ŵa Britain na South Africa ŵakathereska charu cha Italy ku East Africa. Ku North Africa, Mwaluŵiro ŵa Italy ŵakapempha wovwiri ku ŵa German awo ŵakatuma ŵasilikari ŵanandi pasi pa muwuso wa Jenerale Rommel. Na wovwiri wa ŵa German, ŵasilikari ŵa Axis ŵakambaso kuwusa, kweni ŵakatondeka kuthereska ŵasilikari ŵa Britain pa El Alamein. Kuumaliro wa 1942, ŵasilikari ŵa ŵasilikari ŵa vyaru vinyake, comenecomene ŵa ku America na ku Canada, ŵakanjira mu vyaru vya ku France ivyo vikaŵa ku North Africa. Nkhondo yaciŵiri yikasuska ŵasilikari ŵa Britain ku Egypt awo ŵakamba kusunkhunyika kumanjiliro gha dazi kuti ŵakumane na ŵasilikari ŵa Torch. Mu May 1942, ŵasilikari ŵa Britain ŵakanjira mu charu cha Madagascar, icho chikaŵa pasi pa France. Ŵasilikari ŵa ku France awo ŵakaŵa ku Madagascar ŵakajipeleka mu Novembala 1942. === Post-war Africa: decolonization === {{Further|Historical African place names|Decolonisation of Africa|Neocolonialism}} [[File:Africa_independence_dates.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Africa_independence_dates.svg|right|thumb|Dates of independence of African countries]] Mu 1951, charu cha Libya ndicho chikamba kusuzga ŵanthu kuti ŵafumemo mu vyaru vyawo. Vyaru vinandi vikamulondezga mu vyaka vya m'ma 1950 na 1960, ndipo mu 1960 vikaŵa na chaka cha Africa, apo vyaru 17 vya mu Africa vikapharazga kuti vyafwatuka. Vyaru vinandi ivyo vikakhalako vikapokera wanangwa mu m'ma 1960, nangauli ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵakakhalanga mu vyaru vinyake (mwakudumura Portugal) ŵakakhumbanga yayi kuleka mazaza ghawo, ntheura nkhondo zikamara. Vyaru vyaumaliro vya mu Africa ivyo vikajiyimira pavyekha ni Guinea-Bissau (1974), Mozambique (1975) na Angola (1975) kufuma ku Portugal; Djibouti kufuma ku France mu 1977; Zimbabwe kufuma ku United Kingdom mu 1980; na Namibia kufuma ku South Africa mu 1990. Mu 1993, charu cha Eritrea chikapatuka ku Ethiopia.<ref>Henry S. Wilson, ''African decolonization'' (E. Arnold, 1994).</ref> ==== East Africa ==== {{Main|History of East Africa#Post-colonial period}} Nkhondo ya Mau Mau yikacitika mu Kenya kufuma mu 1952 mpaka mu 1956 kweni yikakomeka na ŵasilikari ŵa ku Britain na ŵa ku malo agha. Boma likapeleka dango lakuti paŵe vyenjezgo mpaka mu 1960. Mu 1963, charu cha Kenya chikamba kujiwusa chekha, ndipo Jomo Kenyatta ndiyo wakaŵa pulezidenti wakwamba. Kukwambilira kwa m'ma 1960, kukaŵa nkhondo yikuru pakati pa Ŵahutu na Ŵakututsi mu Rwanda na Burundi. Mu 1994, ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 800,000 ŵakakomeka ku Rwanda.<ref>Christopher C. Taylor, ''Sacrifice as terror: the Rwandan genocide of 1994'' (Berg Publishers, 1999).</ref> ==== North Africa ==== {{Main|History of North Africa#Post-colonial period}} Mu ma 1930, ŵanthu ŵa ku Morocco ŵakamba kutemwana chomene. Mu 1953, themba la Morocco, Mohammed V, likapempha kuti charu ichi chijiyimire paŵekha. Pa Malichi 2, 1956, charu cha Morocco chikamba kujiyimira paŵekha. Mohammed V wakaŵa fumu ya Morocco. Mu 1954, charu cha Algeria chikapangika na gulu la National Liberation Front (FLN). Ivi vikapangiska kuti paŵe Nkhondo ya ku Algeria, iyo yikatora nyengo yitali m'paka mu 1962, apo charu cha Algeria chikapokera wanangwa. Muhammad Ahmed Ben Bella wakasankhika kuŵa purezidenti wa Algeria. Ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 1 miliyoni ŵa ku France, comenecomene ŵa mtundu wa Pied-Noirs, ŵakafumamo mu caru ici, ndipo ici cikapangiska kuti ndalama zileke kwenda makora. Mu 1934, chipani cha "Neo Destour" (Bungwe Liphya) chikapangika na Habib Bourguiba uyo wakakhumbanga kuti charu cha Tunisia chiŵe na wanangwa. Mu 1955, charu cha Tunisia chikamba kujiyimira paŵekha. Muwusi wawo wakathereskeka ndipo Habib Bourguiba wakasankhika kuŵa pulezidenti wa Tunisia. Mu 1954, Gamal Abdel Nasser wakawuskapo muwuso wa ufumu wa Eguputo mu 1952 ndipo wakamba kuwusa. Muammar Gaddafi ndiyo wakalongozga boma la Libya mu 1969 ilo likathereska Idris wa ku Libya. Gaddafi wakalutilira kuwusa mpaka apo wakafwira mu nkhondo ya ku Libya mu 2011. Eguputo wakarwa nkhondo zinandi na Israyeli ndipo wakakolerana na vyaru vinyake vya Ŵaarabu. Cakwamba cikaŵa Nkhondo ya Ŵaarabu na Ŵaisrayeli ya mu 1948, pamanyuma pakuti boma la Israyeli lasangika. Mu 1967, Eguputo wakambaso nkhondo ya mazuŵa 6 ndipo Israyeli wakataya chigaŵa cha Sinai. Ŵakaweleraso ku nkhondo ya Yom Kippur mu 1973. Mu 1979, pulezidenti wa ku Eguputo Anwar Sadat na nduna yikuru ya ku Israyeli Menachem Begin ŵakasazga mapangano gha Camp David Accords, agho ghakawezgera chigaŵa cha Sinai ku Eguputo. Mapangano agha ghacali kugwira nchito lero. Mu 1981, Sadat wakakomeka na ŵanthu ŵa mu gulu la Islamic Jihad la ku Eguputo ilo likawusikanga na Khalid Islambouli. Awo ŵakamukoma ŵakaŵa ŵa chisopa ca Ciislam awo ŵakakhumbanga kukoma Sadat cifukwa ca kulemba mapangano agha..<ref>Joseph Finklestone, ''Anwar Sadat: visionary who dared'' (Routledge, 2013).</ref> [[File:South_Africa_Border_War_Map.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:South_Africa_Border_War_Map.png|thumb|South African-occupied [[:en:South_West_Africa|South West Africa]] (1915–1990) and maximum extent of [[:en:South_African_Border_War|South African]] and [[:en:UNITA|UNITA]] operations in Angola and Zambia during the [[:en:Angolan_Civil_War|Angolan Civil War]]]] ==== Southern Africa ==== {{Main|History of Southern Africa#Post-colonial period}} Mu 1948, boma la South Africa likamba kulamulira ŵanthu ŵa mtundu unyake. Ivi vikaŵa vyakukolerana na ndondomeko iyo yikaŵapo kale; kweni pakaŵa mphambano pakati pa ndondomeko ya "kusintha kwapadera" (Apartheid). Apo ndyali izo zikaŵapo kale zikaŵa zakupambanapambana pakuyezgayezga kugwiliskira nchito ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa mu Africa, Apartheid yikaŵa visambizgo vya ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yakupambanapambana, ndipo yikapangiska kuti paŵe kugaŵikana pakati pa ŵanthu. Mu 1994, apartheid yikamara, ndipo Nelson Mandela wa African National Congress wakasankhika kuŵa purezidenti pamanyuma pa mavoti gha ku South Africa mu 1994, mavoti ghakwamba gha caru ici agho ghakaŵa gha ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yakupambana.<ref>Rita Barnard, ed. ''The Cambridge Companion to Nelson Mandela'' (Cambridge UP, 2014).</ref> ==== Central Africa ==== {{Main|History of Central Africa#Post-colonial period}} [[File:Flag_of_the_Federal_Republic_of_Southern_Cameroons.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_Federal_Republic_of_Southern_Cameroons.svg|thumb|[[:en:Ambazonian|Ambazonian]] nationalism gained steam in 1982]] Malo gha pakati pa Africa ghakaŵa pakati pa Kilwa na mlomo wa mlonga wa Zambesi. Chifukwa chakuti malo agha ghali kutali chomene na nyanja, ŵanthu ŵakumanya vya mdauko wa ku Africa ŵakughanaghanirapo viŵi yayi vya malo agha. Kweniso yikaŵa na umoza mwa vyaru vyakupambanapambana ivyo vikaŵa na ŵasilikari ŵa ku Europe, kusazgapo Germany ku Cameroon, Britain ku Northern Cameroons, Belgium ku Congo, na France ku CAF. Cifukwa ca malo ghake, pakati pa vyaru vyakucemeka kuti Central Africa pali vyaru ivyo vikwenda mu malo gha vyaru vyakututuka. Kwambira mu 1982, suzgo likuru comene mu Central Africa ndakuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Ambazonia ŵakukhumba kujipatura. Nkhondo ya pakati pa Cameroon na Ambazonia yikakura comene mu 1992 apo Fon Gorji-Dinka wakazenga mulandu wa pa caru cose kwimikana na Cameroon, wakati caru ici cikukhala mu malo gha Ambazonia kwambura kuzomerezgeka. Pakati pajumpha vilimika 15, suzgo ili likakura comene apo boma la Abmazonia likamba kujilongora kuti ni Federal Republic of Ambazonia.<ref>Hennebel, Ludovic. "Chronique des Décisions du Comité des Droits de L'Homme des Nations Unies (2007/2010)(United Nations Human Rights Committee's Case-Law Review (2007/2010))." Law Review (2010): 545.</ref> ==== West Africa ==== {{Main|History of West Africa#Post-colonial period}} Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya pa Charu Chose yikati yamara, mu vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Africa mukawuka vyaru vinyake, chomenechomene mu Ghana. Mu 1957, charu cha Ghana ndicho chikaŵa chakwamba kujiyimira paŵekha kufuma ku vyaru vinyake. Kwambira apo vyaru vinandi vya kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Africa vikapokera wanangwa wawo, vikatimbanizgika na vimbundi na vinthu vyambura kwenda makora. Vyaru vinandi vikutondeka kukura nangauli vili na vinthu vinandi vyakuthupi.<ref>David Apter, ''Ghana in transition'' (Princeton University Press, 2015).</ref><ref>David Owusu-Ansah, ''Historical dictionary of Ghana'' (Rowman & Littlefield, 2014)</ref><!--See also [[2014 Ebola virus epidemic in Sierra Leone]], [[2014 Ebola virus epidemic in Guinea]], and [[2014 Ebola virus epidemic in Liberia]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/vhf/ebola/history/2014-2016-outbreak/index.html|title=2014–2016 Ebola Outbreak in West Africa {{!}} History {{!}} Ebola (Ebola Virus Disease) {{!}} CDC|date=2019-03-29|website=www.cdc.gov|access-date=2019-06-01}}</ref>--> == Mbiri ya Kuzenga kwa ku Africa == {{Main|Architecture of Africa}} == History of science and technology in Africa == {{Main|History of science and technology in Africa}} == Economic history of Africa == {{Main|Economic history of Africa}} == Military history of Africa == {{Main|Military history of Africa}} == Genetic history of Africa == {{Main|Genetic history of Africa}} == Historiography == {{Main|African historiography}} === Historiography of British Africa === Kafukufuku wakwamba wakulongosora mdauko mu Cingelezi wakacitika mu ma 1890, ndipo wakalondezga nthowa zinayi. 1) Kanandi nkhani ya chigaŵa yikalembeka na msilikari panji wantchito wa boma uyo wakawonanga chomene ivyo wakawona. 2) "Apologia" yikaŵa nkhani izo zikalongosoranga umo boma la Britain likenderanga. 3) Awo ŵakakhumbanga kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵamanye unenesko ŵakakhumbanga kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵamanye unenesko. 4) Compendia yikapangika kuti yikolerane na masambiro gha ku yunivesite. Pafupifupi mu 1900, ŵanthu ŵakamba kusambira vya bizinesi, ndipo kanandi ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito mabuku gha boma na mabuku ghanyake. Mu ma 1930, ŵanthu ŵakamba kugwiliskira ntchito nthowa iyi kuti ŵalongosore umo vinthu vyasinthira mu vyaka 50 ivyo vyajumpha. Mu 1935, William L. Langer wakafumiska buku lakuti The Diplomacy of Imperialism: 1890~1902, ilo lichali kuzunulika comene. Mu 1939, pulofesa wa ku Oxford, Reginald Coupland wakalemba buku linyake lakucemeka The Exploitation of East Africa, 1856-1890: The Slave Trade and the Scramble. Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya pa Charu Chose yikapangiska kuti ŵasayansi ŵanandi ŵaghanaghanirenge chomene vya nkhondo. Mu ma 1950, ŵana ŵa sukulu ŵanandi ŵa ku Africa ŵakasambiranga ku yunivesite za ku Britain, ndipo ŵakakhumbanga masambiro ghaphya, ndipo nawo ŵakamba kughapeleka. Yunivesite ya Oxford yikazgoka likuru la masambiro gha vya mu Africa, kweniso ku Cambridge University na London School of Economics. Ŵalongozgi ŵa boma la Britain na ŵantchito awo ŵakagwiranga ntchito mu vyaru vinyake ŵakamba kutemwa chomene vinthu vya ŵanthu ŵa ku malo agha, chomenechomene vya kusankhana mitundu. Ivyo Ronald Robinson na John Andrew Gallagher ŵakachita vikovwira chomene pa nkhani ya malonda mu Africa. Mu 1985, buku la The Oxford History of South Africa (2 vols.) likalembeka, ndipo likayezga kupangiska mabuku agho ghakaŵapo. Mu 2013, ŵakafumiska buku la Oxford Handbook of Modern African History. === Historiographic and Conceptual Problems === Kumwera kwa Sahara ku Africa. Pakuti golide ndilo likawovwira kuti Ŵasaidi ŵanjire mu Ufumu wa Songhai, ichi chikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵa mu Ufumu uwu ŵambe kuwona ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Black nga mbanthu ŵa ku Africa. Chifukwa cha kusintha kwa kachitiro ka ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa ŵa khungu lakuda, ŵanthu ŵa ku Maghrebi ŵa khungu lakuda ŵakaŵakoleka mwankhongono mu gulu la ŵasilikari ŵa Ismail Ibn Sharif nga ni Black Guard, chifukwa ŵakayowoyanga kuti ŵakafuma ku ŵanthu awo ŵakaŵa ŵazga. Suzgo likuru ilo Mohamed (2010/2012) wakalongosora pa nkhani ya masambiro gha ku Africa ni chisopa, chisopa cha ku Orientalis, na ufumu wa ku Africa. Ŵasayansi ŵa ku Africa na ku America nawo ŵali na udindo wakukhozga fundo iyi. Pakulondezga fundo izo Leo Africanus na Hegel ŵakayowoya za Africa, ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe ŵakagaŵa Africa kuŵa vigaŵa viŵiri. Charu cha Sub-Saharan Africa, nga ni malo ghakusankhana mitundu, ni chigaŵa cha "Africa proper", "Africa noire", panji "Black Africa". Ŵanthu ŵa mu vyaru vinyake vya mu Africa ŵakuwonekaso kuti mbanthu ŵa mtundu umoza na ŵa mu vyaru vya ku Sub-Saharan Africa. Kumpoto kwa Africa kuli chigaŵa cha "Afurika wa ku Europe" icho chili kutali na vyaru vya ku Sub-Saharan Africa, ndipo chili pafupi na Middle East, Asia, na Islamic world. Chifukwa cha kusankhana mitundu na kupatukana kwa vyaru vya mu Africa, ŵanthu ŵa ku North Africa awo ŵakukhala ku Maghreb kwa nyengo yitali, nga ni ŵanthu ŵa ku Haratin, awo ŵakukhala kumwera kwa Sahara yayi, ŵali kutali chomene na ŵanthu ŵa ku North Africa. Nangauli zina lakuti "Haratin" likamba kumanyikwa makora yayi, kweni likwenera kuti likafuma mu nyengo ya m'ma 1700 C.E. ndipo ŵanthu ŵa ku Maghreb awo ŵakaŵa na khungu lakufipirwa ndiwo ŵakalizunuranga. Pambere ŵanthu ŵandambe kugwiliskira ntchito lizgu lakuti Haratin kuti ŵamanyiske ŵanthu, ndipo ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito lizgu lakuti bidan panji bayd (mutuŵa), sumr/asmar, suud/aswad, panji Sudan/sudani (mufipa/swesi) nga ni lizgu la Chiarabu ilo ŵanthu ŵa ku Maghreb ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito kuti ŵamanyiske ŵanthu ŵa khungu lakufipa. "Haratin" ni lizgu ilo ŵanthu ŵa ku Maghreb ŵakuliwona kuti likukhuŵazga. Mwachiyelezgero, ŵanthu ŵa ku chigaŵa cha kumwera kwa Morocco ŵakuliwona kuti ndakukhuŵazga. Nangauli ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakususka kuti Haratin ni mtundu wa ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yakupambanapambana, kweni ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe awo ŵakakhumbanga kuti charu cha Africa chiŵe na ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yakupambanapambana ŵakugwiliskira ntchito lizgu lakuti Haratin. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Maghreb awo ŵakaŵa na khungu lakufipirwa ŵakakolerananga na ŵanthu ŵa ku Saadi. Ŵakusanda mdauko ŵa Shurafa ŵa mu nyengo yasono ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito vyakucitika ivi mu nkhani zakukhwaskana na kufwatulika kwa ŵazga ŵa "Hartani" (mazgu ghambura kupulikikwa, agho ghakukhumbikwira kulongosoreka makora, ndipo mbukaboni wakuti mbukaboni wakuti vinthu vikacitika nadi. Nkhani izo ŵanthu ŵa ku Shurafa ŵakalemba, zikati zamara, zikaŵa nga ni nkhani za ku America (nga ni za malonda gha ŵazga gha ku Sahara, ŵazga ŵa ku Sub-Saharan West Africa, ŵanthu ŵakufwatuka ŵa ku Maghreb awo ŵakaŵa na khungu lakufipirwa) izo ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe ŵakuchita mazuŵa ghano. M'malo mwa kupangika na kafukufuku wa pa malo, kuyana kwa ivyo vikuchitika mazuŵa ghano mu charu cha Europe, uko kukupatura ŵanthu ŵa ku North Africa awo ŵali na khungu lakufipa, na ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa awo ŵali na khungu lakufipa mu charu chose cha Chisilamu. Chifukwa chake, mbiri yodalirika, mosiyana ndi mbiri yakale yofananira, yakuda yakuda yakuda yakuda yakuda yakuda yakuda yakuda yakuda yakuda yakuda yakuda yakuda yakuda yakuda yakuda yakuda yakuda yakuda yakuda yakuda yakuda yakuda yakuda yakuda yakuda yakuda yakuda yakuda yakuda yakuda yakuda yakuda yakuda yakuda yakuda yakuda yakuda yakuda yakuda yakuda yakuda yakuda. Chigaŵa chinyake cha malemba ghakusambizga kuti munthu wakuŵa na thupi lakufipirwa para wababa muteŵeti. Chiphunzitso cha ku Europe cha ku Africa chikugwiliskira ntchito fundo iyi pakuzenga nthano za ŵanthu ŵa ku North Africa awo ŵakaŵa na khungu lakufipa (mwachiyelezgero, ŵazga ŵakufuma ku Africa kumwera kwa Sahara). Ŵanthu ŵa ku North Africa awo ŵakukhala mu vyaru vya Chisilamu ŵakuŵa na khungu lakufipirwa, ndipo nkhani zinyake izo zikulembeka zikuyowoya za malonda gha ŵazga agho ghakachitikanga mu charu cha Sahara. Ŵanthu ŵa ku North Africa awo ŵakukhala mu vyaru vya ku North Africa awo ŵali na khungu lakufipa chomene (nga ni ŵanthu ŵa ku Maghreb awo ŵali na khungu lakufipa chomene kweniso awo ŵali na khungu lakufipa chomene), ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa awo ŵakukhala mu vyaru vya Chisilamu awo ŵali na khungu lakufipa chomene, na awo ŵakuguliska ŵazga mu charu cha Sahara, wose ŵakaŵa ŵazga.<ref name="Mohamed">{{cite journal|last=Mohamed|first=Mohamed Hassan|title=Africanists and Africans of the Maghrib: casualties of Analogy|url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13629387.2010.486573|journal=The Journal of North African Studies|year=2010|volume=15|issue=3|pages=349–374|doi=10.1080/13629387.2010.486573|s2cid=145782335}}</ref> Kuguliska ŵazga mu charu cha Trans-Saharan, ni nthowa iyo ŵanthu ŵakugwiliskira ntchito pakulemba nkhani izo zikulongosora umo ŵanthu ŵa ku North Africa ŵakambira. Ŵanthu ŵakuyaniska magaleta na ngalaŵa za ŵazga, ndipo ŵakuyowoya kuti unandi wa ŵazga ŵa ku Africa awo ŵakatolekera ku caru ca Sahara ukuyana waka na unandi wa ŵazga ŵa ku Africa awo ŵakatolekera ku nyanja ya Atlantic. Ivyo ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakuyowoya vikususkana na ivyo ŵanthu ŵa ku North Africa ŵakuyowoya. Mu nyengo yakale, ku Eguputo kukaŵaso minda. Cinthu cinyake ico ŵanthu ŵakuyowoya pa nkhani iyi nchakuti ŵanthu ŵa ku vyaru vya kumafumiro gha dazi ŵakughanaghana kuti Ŵamoabu, ŵanakazi ŵankhondi, na ŵanalume ŵantchito ndiwo ŵakugonana comene. Ŵanakazi awo ŵakugonana na ŵanakazi ŵa ku Maghreb awo ŵali nga mbana ŵa ŵanthu ŵa ku Maghreb awo ŵakukhala mu vyaru vinyake ndiwo ŵakugwiliskirika ntchito. Ŵalinda aŵa ŵakalindanga nyumba izi. Nkhani iyi yikukolerana na fundo yakuti ŵanthu ŵakwambilira ŵa ku Maghreb ŵakaŵa Ŵaberi, awo ŵakazgoka ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yinyake chifukwa cha kupambaniskana mitundu na ŵanakazi ŵa mitundu yinyake. Nkhani ya chisopa iyo yikulongosora masuzgo agho Ŵakhristu ŵa ku Europe ŵakakumana nagho chifukwa cha malonda gha ŵazga gha ku Barbary, yikukolerana na nkhani ya ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa awo ŵakaŵa ŵazga. Nangauli nkhani za chisopa izo zikalembeka mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800, zikulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yakupambana ŵakukolerana yayi na ivyo ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe ŵakuyowoya. Nkhani za chisopa izo ŵanthu ŵa mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800 ŵakayowoyanga za ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa na ŵa ku Africa (nga ni nkhani zakukhwaskana na chisopa) zikukhalilira waka chete, kweni zikulutilira kusungika. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe awo ŵakakhumbanga kuti ŵanthu ŵaleke kugonana na ŵanalume panji ŵanakazi, ŵakaghanaghananga kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Mowabu awo ŵakaŵa na nkharo iyi ŵakafuma mu Baibolo. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe awo ŵakakhumbanga kuti vinthu vileke kunangika mu nyengo ya Ŵakhristu ŵakwambilira, ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito fundo za mu Baibolo. Cingaŵa kuti cilato ca mabuku agha cikaŵa cakuti ŵanthu ŵamanye kuti Baibolo ndakuluska Koran, kweniso kuti ŵamanye maghanoghano gha awo ŵakaŵazganga mabuku agha. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe awo ŵakakhumbanga kuti vinthu vileke kunangika mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800 ŵakamba kuyowoya vya chisopa chawo chifukwa cha ivyo ŵakalemba. Kuyowoya za ŵanakazi awo ŵakutemwa kugonana chomene na ŵanalume panji ŵanakazi awo ŵakutemwa kugonana chomene na ŵanalume panji ŵanakazi ŵambura kutemwana na ŵanakazi awo ŵakuchemeka kuti Ŵamoabu, nkhwakuyana waka na umo ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe ŵakachitiranga mu nyengo ya Ŵakhristu ŵakwambilira. Chifukwa cha kusowa kwa chitukuko mu kafukufuku wa m'munda wokhudzana ndi ukapolo m'magulu a Chisilamu, izi zapangitsa kuti mtundu wamakono wa ku Ulaya wa ku Africa uzidalira malingaliro osadalirika a malonda a akapolo a Trans-Saharan. Ndipouli, cifukwa ca kupeleŵera kwa vinthu, ŵanthu ŵakulutilira kugwiliskira nchito fundo za ku Europe izo zikovwira kuti ŵanthu ŵaŵe ŵakukondwa. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Maghreb, chomenechomene ŵa ku Morocco, ŵakukwiya chomene na umo ŵasayansi ŵakuŵalongolera lusungu. M'malo mwa kulutilira kugomezga pa ivyo ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe ŵakuchita mazuŵa ghano, Mohamed (2012) wakuchiska kuti ŵasinthe na kunozga ivyo ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa ŵakuchita sono (nga nkhusanda uko kukafuma ulendo wa ŵanthu ŵa ku Sahara; kughanaghaniraso ivyo vikupangiska kuti malonda gha ŵazga gha mu Sahara ghaŵe ghakupambana na malonda gha ŵazga gha mu Atlantic; kughanaghanirapo ivyo ŵanthu ŵa ku Maghreb awo ŵakukhala mu vigaŵa ivi ŵakuchita).<ref name="Mohamed II">{{cite journal|last=Mohamed|first=Mohamed Hassan|title=Africanists and Africans of the Maghrib II: casualties of secularity|url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13629387.2011.635450|journal=The Journal of North African Studies|year=2012|volume=17|issue=3|pages=409–431|doi=10.1080/13629387.2011.635450|s2cid=144763718}}</ref> === Conceptual Problems === Merolla (2017) wakalongosora kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe ndiwo ŵakasambira vya vyaru vya ku Sub-Saharan Africa na North Africa, ndipo ivyo ŵakasambira vikulongora kuti vyaru vya ku North Africa vikukolerana na vyaru vya Middle East na vyaru vya ku Arab. Ndondomeko ya kupatukana kwa Africa mu vigaŵa viŵiri ndiposo umo ŵanthu ŵakughanaghanira vya umo vinthu viliri mu vigaŵa vya ku Sub-Saharan Africa yikulutilira m'paka sono. Ndipouli, cifukwa cakuti suzgo ili likulutilira kumanyikwa, ŵanthu ŵakamba kudumbiskana za umo ŵanthu ŵa mu vyaru vya ku Africa ŵaliri ŵakupambana. Charu cha Sahara chili nga ni malo agho ŵanthu ŵa mu Africa ŵakukhala. Awo ŵakulemba mabuku ŵakufuma mu vyaru vyakupambanapambana (nga ni Algeria, Cameroon, Sudan) mu Africa ŵakususka fundo yakuti Sahara ni chigoti cha vigaŵa, ndipo ŵakususka fundo izo zikulongora kuti Africa yikukolerana. Mu vigaŵa vinandi, mazgu ghakuti "Africa" ghakung'anamura "Africa ya ku Black Africa", "Africa South of the Sahara", na "Africa Sub-Saharan". Kumpoto kwa Africa kuli "mafumiro gha dazi" ndipo kuli kupatukana na vyaru vya ku Sub-Saharan Africa. Nangauli umo vinthu vikaŵira vikamba kuwoneka mu nyengo yitali, kweni umo vinthu vikaŵira (nga ni umo vikaŵira, umo vikaŵira) vikalongora kuti ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yakupambana pa nkhani ya kusankhana mitundu. Pa nkhani ya mabuku gha mu Africa na mu viyowoyero vya ku Berber, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakumanya yayi umo mabuku agha ghakalembekera. Para ŵanthu ŵakuyowoya Chingelezi na Chifurenchi ŵakuwona kuti charu cha Africa chili kutali chomene na charu cha Africa, ŵakughanaghana kuti charu cha Africa chili kutali chomene na charu chawo. Apo ŵanthu ŵakuyowoya Chingelezi ŵakulondezga chomene fundo yakuti charu cha Africa chipatukane, ŵanthu ŵakuyowoya Chifurenchi ŵakuchita vinthu mwakupambanapambana. Pakuti ŵanthu ŵa ku North Africa ndiwo ŵakamba kusambira vya chiyowoyero ichi, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakukana kuti chiyowoyero cha Chiarabu chikaŵa cha ku Africa. Pa kafukufuku uyo wakachitika mu vyaru ivyo vikuyowoya Chifurenchi, ŵanthu ŵakukana panji kuchepeska ivyo vikuchitika pakati pa vyaru vya kumpoto kwa Africa na vyaru vya kumwera kwa Sahara, apo ŵanthu ŵa ku Middle East na kumpoto kwa Africa ŵakukana panji kuchepeska ivyo vikuchitika pakati pa vyaru ivi. Mu vyaru vya ŵanthu ŵakuyowoya Chifurenchi, vyaru vya ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yakupambanapambana, nga ni Black Africa (Afirika ŵa ku Sub-Saharan) na White Africa (Afirika ŵa ku North, nga ni Berbers na Ŵaarabu), navyo vili kukura. Nangauli ŵanthu ŵa ku Berber ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito mazina gha ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yakupambanapambana mu Africa (nga ni North Africa, Sub-Saharan Africa) kuti ŵakanizge mazina gha ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yakupambanapambana, kweni ŵanthu ŵa ku Berber ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito mazina gha ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yakupambanapambana ya ku North Africa kuti ŵakanizge mazina gha ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yakupambanapambana ya ku Arabia na Islamu. Nangauli masambiro gha chi Berber ghakukhumba chomene kukhozga ubwezi pakati pa ŵanthu ŵa ku Berber na kumpoto kwa Africa na Ŵaarabu na Middle East, Merolla (2017) wakalongora kuti milimo ya kukhozga ubwezi pakati pa ŵanthu ŵa ku Berber na kumpoto kwa Africa na ŵanthu ŵa ku Sub-Saharan Africa na Sub-Saharan Africa yayamba sonosono apa.<ref name="Merolla">{{cite web |last1=Merolla |first1=Daniela |title=Beyond 'two Africas' in African and Berber literary studies |url=https://scholarlypublications.universiteitleiden.nl/access/item%3A2722003/view |website=Scholarly Publications Leiden University |publisher=African Studies Centre Leiden}}</ref> == Wonaniso == {{Portal|Africa|History}} * [[:en:Economic_history_of_Africa|Economic history of Africa]] * [[:en:African_historiography|African historiography]] * [[:en:Category:Historians_of_Africa|Historians of Africa]] * [[:en:List_of_history_journals#Africa|List of history journals#Africa]] * [[:en:List_of_kingdoms_in_pre-colonial_Africa|List of kingdoms in pre-colonial Africa]] * [[:en:List_of_sovereign_states_and_dependent_territories_in_Africa|List of sovereign states and dependent territories in Africa]] * [[:en:Outline_of_Africa#History_of_Africa|Outline of Africa#History of Africa]] * [[:en:Africa-Europe_relations|Africa-Europe relations]] * [[:en:Africa-United_States_relations|Africa-United States relations]] * [[:en:Africa–China_relations|Africa–China relations]] * [[:en:Soviet_Union-Africa_relations|Soviet Union-Africa relations]] == Ukaboni == <references group="" responsive="1"></references> == Mabuku == * {{cite book|last1=Akyeampong|first1=Emmanuel|last2=Bates|first2=Robert H.|last3=Nunn|first3=Nathan|last4=Robinson|first4=James|title=Africa's Development in Historical Perspective|date=11 August 2014|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-04115-8|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Kv4OBAAAQBAJ|language=en}} * {{cite book|last1=Appiah|last2=Gates|date=2010}}{{full citation needed|date=April 2020}} * {{cite book|last1=Beshah|first1=Girma|last2=Aregay|first2=Merid Wolde|year=1964|title=The Question of the Union of the Churches in Luso-Ethiopian Relations (1500–1632)|location=Lisbon|publisher=Junta de Investigações do Ultramar and Centro de Estudos Históricos Ultramarinos}} * {{cite book|last1=Collins|first1=Robert O.|last2=Burns|first2=James M.|year=2007|title=A History of Sub-Saharan Africa|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofsubsaha0000coll|location=NY|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-68708-9}} * {{cite book|last=Davidson|first=Basil|date=1971|title=Great Ages of Man: African Kingdoms|location=New York|publisher=[[Time Life|Time Life Books]]|lccn=66-25647}} * {{cite book|author-link=Basil Davidson|last=Davidson|first=Basil|date=1991|title=Africa In History, Themes and Outlines|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_5544534016007|edition=Revised and expanded|location=New York|publisher=Simon & Schuster|isbn=0-684-82667-4}} * {{cite book|author-link=Christopher Ehret|last=Ehret|first=Christopher|year=2002|title=The Civilizations of Africa|url=https://archive.org/details/civilizationsofa0000ehre|location=Charlottesville, Virginia|publisher=University of Virginia|isbn=0-8139-2085-X}} * {{cite book|last=Falola|first=Toyin|title=A History of Nigeria|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XygZjbNRap0C&pg=PA27|access-date=2013-05-06|date=2008-04-24|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-139-47203-6}} * {{cite book|last1=Grimal|first1=Nicolas|title=A History of Ancient Egypt|year=1988|publisher=Librairie Arthéme Fayard}} * {{cite journal|last1=Habachi|first1=Labib|year=1963|title=King Nebhepetre Menthuhotep: his monuments, place in history, deification and unusual representations in form of gods|journal=Annales du Service des Antiquités de l'Égypte|volume=19|pages=16–52}} * {{cite book|last1=Iliffe|first1=John|year=2007|title=Africans: The History of a Continent|url=https://archive.org/details/africanshistoryo0000ilif_e7r2|edition=2nd|location=NY|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-68297-8}} * {{cite book|last1=Jackson|first1=Ashley|title=The British Empire and the Second World War|date=9 March 2006|publisher=A&C Black|isbn=978-0-8264-4049-5|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cghbp0WbhxAC|language=en}} * {{Cite book|editor-last=Lye|editor-first=Keith|date=2002|title=Encyclopedia of African Nations and Civilization|url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofaf0000unse_u8g7|location=New York|publisher=Diagram Group|isbn=0-8160-4568-2|series=Facts on File library of world history}} * {{cite journal|last1=Manning|first1=Patrick|year=2014|title=The African Diaspora: Slavery, Modernity, and Globalization|url=https://www.questia.com/library/journal/1P3-3335703931/the-african-diaspora-slavery-modernity-and-globalization|journal=The International Journal of African Historical Studies|volume=47|issue=1|page=147}} * {{cite book|last=Manning|first=Patrick|year=2009|title=The African Diaspora: A History Through Culture|url=https://archive.org/details/africandiasporah0000mann|location=New York|publisher=Columbia University Press}} Looks at the slave trade, the adaptation of Africans to new conditions, their struggle for freedom and equality, and the establishment of a "black" diaspora and its local influence around the world; covers 1430 to 2001. * {{cite book|last1=Martin|first1=Phyllis M.|last2=O'Meara|first2=Patrick|title=Africa|url=https://archive.org/details/africa00mart|date=1995|publisher=Indiana University Press|location=Bloomington|isbn=0-253-20984-6|edition=3rd}} * {{cite book|last1=Nicholson|first1=Paul T.|first2=Ian|last2=Shaw|year=2000|title=Ancient Egyptian Materials and Technology|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-45257-1}} * {{cite book|last=Page|first=Willie F.|date=2001|title=Encyclopedia of African History and Culture: From Conquest to Colonization (1500–1850)|url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofaf0000page_r6w4|location=New York|publisher=Learning Source Books|isbn=0-8160-4472-4}} * {{cite book|last=Shillington|first=Kevin|author-link=Kevin Shillington|year=2005|title=History of Africa|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofafrica0002shil|edition=Revised 2nd|location=New York City|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=0-333-59957-8}} * {{cite book|last1=Diamond|first1=Jared M.|title=Guns, Germs, and Steel: The Fates of Human Societies|date=1997|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|isbn=978-0-393-03891-0|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kLKTa_OeoNIC|language=en}} * {{Cite book|title=The Encyclopedia of World History: Ancient, Medieval, and Modern, Chronologically Arranged|editor=[[Peter Stearns|Stearns, Peter]]|publisher=Houghton Mifflin|location=Boston|oclc=644651969|year=2001|title-link=Encyclopedia of World History}} * {{cite book|last1=Udo|date=1970}}{{full citation needed|date=April 2020}} * {{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Africa|volume=1|pages=320–358}} == Further reading == * Byfield, Judith A. et al. eds. ''Africa and World War II'' (Cambridge UP, 2015). * [[:en:John_Desmond_Clark|Clark, J. Desmond]] (1970). ''The Prehistory of Africa''. Thames and Hudson * [[:en:Basil_Davidson|Davidson, Basil]] (1964). ''The African Past''. Penguin, Harmondsworth * Devermont, Judd. "World Is Coming to Sub-Saharan Africa. Where Is the United States?" (Center for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS), 2018) [http://dehai.org/dehai/assets/dehai/2020/277087-The%20World%20Is%20Coming%20to%20Sub-Saharan%20Africa.%20Where%20Is%20the%20United%20States.pdf online]. * Duignan, P., and L. H. Gann. ''The United States and Africa: A History'' (Cambridge University Press, 1984) * Fage, J.D. and Roland Oliver, eds. ''[[:en:The_Cambridge_History_of_Africa|The Cambridge History of Africa]]'' (8 vol 1975–1986) * Falola, Toyin. ''Africa'', Volumes 1–5. * FitzSimons, William. "Sizing Up the 'Small Wars' of African Empire: An Assessment of the Context and Legacies of Nineteenth-Century Colonial Warfare". ''Journal of African Military History'' 2#1 (2018): 63–78. {{doi|10.1163/24680966-0020100}} * {{Cite book|last=French|first=Howard|year=2021|title=Born in Blackness: Africa, Africans, and the Making of the Modern World, 1471 to the Second World War|url=https://archive.org/details/borninblacknessa0000howa|location=New York|publisher=Liveright Publishing Company|isbn=9781631495823|oclc=1268921040}} * [[:en:Bill_Freund_(historian)|Freund, Bill]] (1998). ''The Making of Contemporary Africa'', Lynne Rienner, Boulder (including a substantial "Annotated Bibliography" pp.&nbsp;269–316). * Herbertson, A. J. and O. J. R. Howarth. eds. ''The Oxford Survey Of The British Empire'' (6 vol 1914) [[iarchive:in.ernet.dli.2015.172714/page/n1/mode/2up|on Africa]]; 550pp; comprehensive coverage of South Africa and British colonies * July, Robert (1998). ''A History of the African People'', (Waveland Press, 1998). * Killingray, David, and Richard Rathbone, eds. ''Africa and the Second World War'' (Springer, 1986). * Lamphear, John, ed. ''African Military History'' (Routledge, 2007). * [[:en:Théophile_Obenga|Obenga, Théophile]] (1980). ''Pour une Nouvelle Histoire'' [[:en:Présence_Africaine|Présence Africaine]], Paris * Reader, John (1997). ''Africa: A Biography of the Continent''. Hamish Hamilton. {{ISBN|0-241-13047-6}} * Roberts, Stephen H. ''History of French Colonial Policy (1870–1925)'' (2 vols., 1929) [[iarchive:in.ernet.dli.2015.84402|vol 1 online]] also [[iarchive:in.ernet.dli.2015.89866|vol 2 online]]; comprehensive scholarly history * Shillington, Kevin (1989). ''History of Africa'', New York: St. Martin's. * Thornton, John K. ''Warfare in Atlantic Africa, 1500–1800'' (Routledge, 1999). * [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] (1980–1994). ''[[:en:General_History_of_Africa|General History of Africa]]'' {{free access}}. 8 volumes. * Worden, Nigel (1995). ''The Making of Modern South Africa'', Oxford UK, Cambridge US: Blackwell. === Atlases === * Ajayi, A.J.F. and Michael Crowder. ''Historical Atlas of Africa'' (1985); 300 color maps. * Fage, J.D. ''Atlas of African History'' (1978) * Freeman-Grenville, G.S.P. ''The New Atlas of African History'' (1991). * Kwamena-Poh, Michael, et al. ''African history in Maps'' (Longman, 1982). * McEvedy, Colin. ''The Penguin Atlas of African History'' (2nd ed. 1996). [https://www.amazon.com/dp/0140513213/ excerpt] === Historiography === * Boyd, Kelly, ed. ''Encyclopedia of Historians and Historical Writers'' (Rutledge, 1999) 1:4–14. * {{citation|url=http://www.manning.pitt.edu/pdf/2013.Manning.JAH.pdf|doi=10.1017/S0021853713000753|title=African and World Historiography|journal=The Journal of African History|volume=54|issue=3|pages=319–330|year=2013|last1=Manning|first1=Patrick|s2cid=33615987}} * {{cite journal|last1=Manning|first1=Patrick|year=2016|title=Locating Africans on the World Stage: A Problem in World History|journal=Journal of World History|volume=27|issue=3|pages=605–637}} * [[:en:John_Edward_Philips|Philips, John Edward, ed.]] ''Writing African History'' (2005) == Vigaŵa vya kuwaro == * "[https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/race-evolution-and-the-science-of-human-origins/ Race, Evolution and the Science of Human Origins]" by Allison Hopper, ''[[:en:Scientific_American|Scientific American]]'' (5 July 2021). * [https://web.archive.org/web/20100815022804/http://www.worldtimelines.org.uk/world/africa Worldtimelines.org.uk – Africa] [[:en:The_British_Museum|The British Museum]]. 2005 * [http://historyscoper.com/africahistoryscope.html The Historyscoper]. * [http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/africa/features/storyofafrica/index.shtml The Story of Africa] BBC World Service. * [https://www.pbs.org/wonders/fr_wn.htm Wonders of the African World], [[:en:PBS|PBS]]. * [http://www.wsu.edu:8080/~dee/CIVAFRCA/ABOUT.HTM#Purpose Civilization of Africa by Richard Hooker], [[:en:Washington_State_University|Washington State University]]. * [http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hi/te_index.asp?i=Africa African Art] Metropolitan Museum of Art. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20190519102901/http://www.africankingdoms.com/ African Kingdoms, by Khaleel Muhammad]. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20120401181050/http://web.up.ac.za/default.asp?ipkCategoryID=12651%2F Mapungubwe Museum] at the [[:en:University_of_Pretoria|University of Pretoria]] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20211018021941/https://www.omarviktor.com/project-diaspora Project Diaspora]. * [http://www.kushcom.co.uk/history-of-africa/programme-information/ Kush Communications | Media Production Company London]. {{History of Africa}}{{Africa topics}}{{History by continent}} e8vs6xxfctq0srpkutr5gtcxvdtx1fm 0 25640 119318 118855 2026-08-13T22:46:32Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Add 9 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260813sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 119318 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|Historical development of Kenya}} {{EngvarB|date=March 2014}} {{Use dmy dates|date=May 2020}} {{History of Kenya}} {{Culture of Kenya}} Chigaŵa chinyake cha kumafumiro gha dazi kwa [[Africa]], icho sono chikuchemeka [[Kenya]], ŵanthu ŵakakhalanga mwenemumo kwamba mu nyengo ya Lower Paleolithic. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Bantu ŵakafika mu chigaŵa ichi mu vyaka vya m'ma 1000 C.E., kufuma ku chigaŵa cha kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Africa. Ku Kenya kuli mitundu yinandi ya ŵanthu, ndipo charu ichi chili pa mphambano ya mitundu ya Bantu, Nilo-Sahara, na Afro-Asia. Ŵanthu ŵa ku [[Europe]] na Ŵaarabu awo ŵakakhalanga ku Mombasa ŵakamba kuŵako mu nyengo ya kuuyambiro wa nyengo yithu, kweni ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe ŵakamba kusanda malo agha mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800. Ufumu wa Britain ukakhazikiska East Africa Protectorate mu 1895, kufuma mu 1920 yikamanyikwa kuti Kenya Colony.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=McCormack|first=Robert|date=April 1984|title=The Giriama and Colonial Resistance in Kenya. 1800–1920. by Cynthia BrantleyThe Giriama and Colonial Resistance in Kenya. 1800–1920. by Cynthia Brantley. Berkeley, University of California Press, 1981. xiii. 196 pp. $30.00|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_canadian-journal-of-history_1984-04_19_1/page/147|journal=Canadian Journal of History|volume=19|issue=1|pages=147–148|doi=10.3138/cjh.19.1.147|issn=0008-4107}}</ref> Mu 1963, charu cha Kenya chikamba kujiyimira paŵekha. Charu ichi chikalongozgekanga na wupu wa Kenya African National Union (KANU), uwo ukalongozgekanga na Jomo Kenyatta kufuma mu 1963 m'paka 1978. Kufuma apo, Daniel arap Moi ndiyo wakalongozga mpaka mu 2002. Moi wakayezga kusintha chalo cha Kenya icho chikaŵa na chipani chimoza mu ma 1980, kweni Nkhondo Yakuzizima yikati yamara, vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi vikaleka kuzomerezga nkhaza na kutambuzga ŵanthu. Mubali Moi wakasuzgika chomene na Smith Hempstone, uyo wakaŵa kazembe wa ku United States, kuti waŵeso na vipani vinandi. Moi wakathereska pa mavoti gha mu 1992 na 1997, agho ghakaŵa na vifukwa vya ndyali. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1990, ukaboni ukulongora kuti Moi wakachitanga vinthu viheni na vimbundi nga ni nkhani ya Goldenberg. Wakazomerezgeka yayi kwimilira pa mavoti gha mu 2002, agho Mwai Kibaki ndiyo wakathereska. Vinthu vyambura urunji ivyo vikacitika pa nyengo ya visankho vya mu 2007 vikapangiska kuti mu Kenya muŵeko masuzgo gha mu 2007 na 2008. Kibaki wakasankhika na Uhuru Kenyatta mu mavoti gha 2013. Pakaŵa milandu yakuti mpikisano wake Raila Odinga ndiyo wakathereska, kweni khoti likuru chomene la Supreme Court likati lawona ukaboni wakukwana, likasanga kuti pakaŵavya viheni ivyo vikacitika pa nyengo ya mavoti gha 2013 kufuma ku IEBC na Jubilee Party ya Uhuru Kenyatta. Uhuru wakasankhikaso mu 2017. Kweni ŵanthu ŵakakwesananga pa nkhani ya kupambana kwake. Khoti likuru likati Uhuru watonda pamanyuma pakuti Raila Odinga wakususka ivyo vikachitika kwizira mu petition iyo khoti likuru likapeleka. Raila Odinga pamasinda wakawukiraso mavoti agho khoti likalangura kuti ghachitikenge, ndipo ivi vikapangiska kuti Uhuru Kenyatta waleke kususkika na 98% ya mavoti. == Nyengo ya Paleolithic == {{See also|Early Stone Age|Middle Stone Age|3=Later Stone Age}}Mu 1929, ukaboni wakwamba wakulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵakaŵako kale chomene ku Kenya ukawoneka apo Louis Leakey wakabowozga minwe ya Acheulian iyo yikaŵa na vyaka pafupifupi 1 miliyoni. Pamanyuma, vinyama vinandi vyakwambilira vikasangika mu Kenya. Cinthu cikuru comene ico ŵakasanga ni Orrorin tugenensis, ca vyaka 6 miliyoni, ico ŵakakoperapo pa Tugen Hills. Ni visomba vya ŵanthu vyakukhora comene pa caru cose. Mu 1995, Meave Leakey wakathya mtundu uphya wa Australopithecus anamensis, pamanyuma pakuti ŵasanga visomba vinandi kufupi na Nyanja ya Turkana mu 1965, 1987 na 1994. Lili na vyaka pafupifupi 4.1 miliyoni.:35 Mu 2011, ku Lomekwi, kufupi na Nyanja ya Turkana, ŵakasanga vinthu vyaka 3.2 miliyoni ivyo ŵanthu ŵakalembapo kale chomene. Yimoza mwa viwangwa vya ŵanthu vyakumanyikwa comene na vyakumalirapo ivyo vikavumbukwa ni Homo erectus uyo wakaŵa na vyaka 1.6 miliyoni, ndipo wakucemeka Nariokotome Boy. Kamoya Kimeu ndiyo wakasanga chiwangwa ici mu 1984 apo Richard Leakey ndiyo wakalongozganga. Vinthu vyakale chomene ivyo vikusangika pa charu chapasi vikufuma ku West Turkana, ndipo vikulongora kuti vikaŵa vyaka pafupifupi 1.76 miliyoni ivyo vikaŵako mu 2011. Charu cha East Africa, kusazgapo charu cha Kenya, ndicho chikaŵa chakwamba kuti ŵanthu ŵa mazuŵa ghano ŵakhalenge. Mu 2018, pa malo gha Olorgesailie, ku Kenya, pakaŵa ukaboni wakuti ŵanthu ŵakamba kuchita vinthu nga umo ŵakuchitira mazuŵa ghano. Ŵanthu awo ŵakalemba mabuku ghatatu mu 2018 ŵakayowoya kuti ukaboni wa nkharo izi ukusangika mu nyengo ya ŵanthu ŵakwambilira awo ŵakaŵako mu Africa (nga ni awo ŵakaŵako ku Jebel Irhoud na Florisbad). Mu 2021 pakaŵa ukaboni unyake wakuti ŵanthu ŵakachitanga nthena. Mu mphanji ya Panga ya Saidi ŵakasanga dindi la mwana wa vyaka vitatu ilo lili na vyaka 78,000. Ŵasayansi ŵakuti mutu wa mwana uyu ukaŵa nga waŵikika pa pilo. Thupi ili likaŵa mu nthumbo. Michael Petraglia, pulofesa wa vya kusanduka kwa ŵanthu na mbiri yakale pa Max Planck Institute, wakati, "Ni malo ghakale comene ghakusungako ŵanthu mu Africa. Vikutovwira kumanya umo tikuwonera vinthu, umo tikucitira vinthu na ŵanyithu, ndiposo umo tikucitira vinthu.”<ref>{{Cite news|last=Gill|first=Victoria|date=5 May 2021|title=Ancient child grave was Africa's earliest funeral|language=en-GB|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-56986457|access-date=5 May 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Sample|first=Ian|date=5 May 2021|title=Archaeologists uncover oldest human burial in Africa|url=http://www.theguardian.com/science/2021/may/05/archaeologists-uncover-oldest-human-burial-in-africa|url-status=live|access-date=5 May 2021|website=The Guardian|language=en}}</ref> == Nyengo ya Neolithic == {{See also|Pastoral Neolithic|Savanna Pastoral Neolithic|3=Elmenteitan}} Ŵanthu ŵakwambilira awo ŵakakhalanga mu charu icho sono chikuchemeka Kenya ŵakaŵa ŵalovi na ŵakuwunjika vyakurya. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Kansyore awo ŵakakhalanga pakati pa vyaka vya m'ma 500 B.C.E. na 1500 B.C.E., ndiwo ŵakaŵa ŵakwamba kupanga vinthu vya ku East Africa. Chikaya ichi chikaŵa ku Gogo Falls mu chigaŵa cha Migori kufupi na Nyanja ya Victoria. Vinthu ivyo ŵanthu ŵakulemba mu miyala ku Kenya vili kulembeka pakati pa 2000 B.C.E. na 1000 C.E. Cizgoŵi ici cikakura comene pa cirwa ca Mfangano, mapiri gha Chelelemuk, Namoratunga na Lewa Downs. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakuti vinthu ivi vikalembeka na ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Twa, awo kale ŵakakhalanga ku East Africa. Ŵanthu aŵa ŵakakhalanga mu vyaru vinandi ivyo vikalimanga vyakurya ndipo ŵakamba kusamira ku Kenya kwambira mu vyaka vya m'ma 1000 B.C.E. Pali ukaboni wakuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakasamukira ku Kenya kufuma ku chigaŵa cha kumpoto kwa charu ichi m'ma 1000 B.C.E. Ŵakaŵa ŵaliska ŵa viŵeto, nga ni ng'ombe, mberere, mbuzi, na mbunda. Malo ghanyake agho ghakusangika mu nyengo iyi ni Namoratunga, agho ghali kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Nyanja ya Turkana. Malo ghanyake agho ghakaŵa na majalawe ghakuru chomene nga ni Lothagam North Pillar Site, ndigho ghakaŵa ghakwamba na ghakuru chomene ku East Africa. Pa dindi ili pali vitanda pafupifupi 580. Kufika mu 1000 B.C.E. panji kumasinda wuwo, viŵeto vikafika ku Kenya na kumpoto kwa Tanzania. Ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga mu chigaŵa cha Ol Doinyo Eburru pafupi na Nyanja ya Nakuru kwa vyaka vinandi, ŵakamba kuliska viŵeto. Mazuŵa ghano, ŵanthu awo ŵakayowoyanga Cushitic ŵakukhala kumpoto kwa Tanzania kufupi na Nyanja ya Eyasi. Kuyana na umo ŵanthu ŵakayowoyeranga mu viyowoyero vinyake, ŵanthu aŵa ŵakamanyikwanga kuti ŵakaŵa ŵa ku Highland Savanna. Kwamba mu 700 B.C.E., ŵanthu ŵa ku South Nilotic awo ŵakayowoyanga chiyowoyero ichi ŵakasamira kumwera ku vigaŵa vya kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa charu cha Kenya. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Southern Nilotes ŵakiza ku Kenya pambere chisulo chindafike ku East Africa. Ŵanthu awo ŵakayowoyanga chiyowoyero ichi ŵakaŵako kale chomene, nga umo ŵanthu ŵakuyowoyera mazina gha malo, mazgu agho ŵakagwiliskira ntchito na maluso agho ŵanthu ŵakayowoyanga.<ref name="books.google.co.ke">{{Cite book|title=From Hunters to Farmers: The Causes and Consequences of Food Production in Africa|vauthors=Ambrose SH|publisher=University of California Press|year=1984|veditors=Clark JD, Brandt SA|pages=234|chapter=The Introduction of Pastoral Adaptations to the Highlands of East Africa|isbn=9780520045743|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dftPHu1o2s8C&pg=PA234}}</ref> == Nyengo ya Chitsulo == {{See also|Bantu expansion|Nilotic expansion|Iron metallurgy in Africa}} Ukaboni ukulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku West Africa ŵakamba kupanga visulo mu 3000-2500 B.C.E. Ŵasekuru ŵa ŵanthu ŵakuyowoya Chibantu ŵakafumako ku vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Africa kuti ŵakhalenge mu vyaru vinandi vya kumafumiro gha dazi, pakati na kumwera kwa Africa. Ŵakaŵa na luso lwa kupanga visulo na maluso gha ulimi apo ŵakasamukiranga ku vyaru vinyake. Ŵanthu ŵakugomezga kuti ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Bantu ŵakafika ku Kenya cha m'ma 1000 B.C.E. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Urewe ndiwo ŵakacitanga kupanga visulo vyakale comene mu Africa. Kufuma mu 550 B.C.E. m'paka 650 B.C.E., ŵanthu aŵa ŵakakhalanga mu chigaŵa cha Great Lakes, kusazgapo Kenya. Ku Kenya kuli malo nga ni Urewe, Yala na Uyoma kumpoto kwa Nyanza. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 100 B.C.E., ŵanthu awo ŵakayowoyanga Chibantu mu chigaŵa cha Great Lakes, ŵakamba kupanga visulo ivyo vikaŵawovwiranga kupanga visulo vya karboni. Pamanyuma, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakasamukira ku vyaru vinyake ku Tanzania. Ivyo ŵanthu ŵakufukura vinthu vyakale ŵasanga vikulongora kuti mu 100 B.C.E. m'paka 300 C.E., ŵanthu ŵakuyowoya Chibantu ŵakakhalanga mu vigaŵa vya mumphepete mwa nyanja vya Misasa ku Tanzania, Kwale ku Kenya, na Ras Hafun ku Somalia. Kweniso ŵanthu aŵa ŵakakolerananga na ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga mumphepete mwa nyanja. Pakati pa 300 AD-1000 AD, kwizira mu nthowa ya malonda ya ku Indian Ocean, ŵanthu aŵa ŵakakolerana na ŵamalonda ŵa ku Arabia na India, ndipo ichi chikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Swahili ŵakure. Ŵakusanda mdauko ŵakuti mu vyaka vya m'ma 1400, ŵanthu ŵa ku Southern Luo ŵakamba kusamira ku Western Kenya. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Luo ŵali kufuma ku ŵanthu awo ŵakasamukira ku vyaru vinyake vya Nile (makamaka Acholi na Padhola) awo ŵakafuma ku South Sudan na kuluta ku Uganda na kunjira ku Kenya. Apo ŵakasamukiranga ku Kenya na Tanzania, ŵakasangananga na ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yakupambanapambana. Malo ghakuzingilizgika na viliŵa gha Thimlich Ohinga, ndigho ghakaŵa ghakuru comene pa malo 138 agho ghakazengeka kuzingilizga chigaŵa cha Nyanza. Ivyo ŵanthu ŵakulemba na awo ŵakusanda malulimi ŵakuyowoya vikulongora kuti malo agha ghakaŵako vyaka pafupifupi 550. Para ŵasayansi na ŵanthu ŵakuwona malo agha ŵakugwiliskira ntchito vinthu vya mdauko, viyowoyero, na majini, ŵakulongora kuti ŵanthu awo ŵakazenga, kusunga, na kukhala mu malo agha ŵakaŵa na mitundu yakupambanapambana..<ref>Thimlich Ohinga Archeological Site. Nomination Dossier for Inscription on the World Heritage list. National Museums of Kenya. Available from: http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1450/documents/ pages 17–42</ref> == Chikhalidwe cha Chiswahili ndi malonda == {{See also|Swahili people|Shirazi people|Swahili culture|Islam in Kenya|History of Mombasa}} Ŵanthu ŵa ciSwahili ŵakukhala mu vigaŵa vya mumphepete mwa nyanja ya Indian Ocean ku South East Africa. Charu ichi chili na virwa vinandi, misumba na matawuni nga ni Sofala, Kilwa, Zanzibar, Comoros, Mombasa, Gede, Malindi, Pate Island na Lamu. Mu nyengo ya Ŵagiriki na Ŵaroma, chigaŵa ichi chikachemekanga Azania. Buku la Periplus of the Erythraean Sea ni mupukutu wa Ŵagiriki na Ŵaroma uwo ukalembeka m'ma 100 C.E. Likulongosora za mumphepete mwa nyanja ya East Africa (Azania) na nthowa iyo ŵanthu ŵakendangamo mu nyanja ya Indian Ocean. Ku East Africa kukaŵa ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga mu chigaŵa ichi kufuma mu 3000 B.C.E. Vinthu ivyo vikulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵa mu charu ichi ŵakagwiranga ntchito ya kuzenga viŵiya na kulima vikusangika mumphepete mwa nyanja na pa virwa vinyake. Vinthu ivyo ŵanthu ŵakaguliskanga ku vyaru vinyake nga ni viŵiya vya ku Greece na Roma, viŵiya vya ku Siriya, viŵiya vya ku Persia vya ku Sassania, na malibwe gha ku Tanzania, ivyo vikamba mu 600 B.C.E. vikusangika mu chigaŵa cha Mlonga wa Rufiji. Mu 1000 B.C.E., ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Bantu ŵakasamukira ku chigaŵa cha Great Lakes. Ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵakayowoyanga Chibantu ŵakalutilira kusama na kuluta kumwera cha kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Africa. Ŵanthu aŵa ŵakakolerananga na ŵanthu ŵa ku malo agha awo ŵakakumana nawo mumphepete mwa nyanja. Ŵanthu ŵakwambilira awo ŵakakhalanga ku Swahili Coast ŵakusangika ku Kwale, Kenya, Misasa, Tanzania, na Ras Hafun, Somalia. Ku Kenya kukaŵa ŵanthu awo ŵakagwiranga ntchito ya kuzenga visulo, kweniso ŵanthu ŵa ku East Bantu awo ŵakakhalanga ku mizi, awo ŵakaliskanga somba na kuvwara visulo. Pakati pa 300 C.E. na 1000 C.E., ŵanthu ŵa ku Azanian na Zanj awo ŵakakhalanga mumphepete mwa nyanja ya Swahili ŵakalutilira kukura. Pakati pa 500 na 800 C.E., ŵakamba kwenda pa nyanja na kwamba kusama. Mu vyaka vyakulondezgapo, ŵanthu ŵakamba kuguliska vinthu nga ni golide, mino gha zovu, na ŵazga mu vyaru vya mu Africa. Ŵanthu aŵa ndiwo ŵakaŵa ŵakwamba kuŵa mu misumba iyo yikaŵa pasi pa Ufumu wa Roma. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 100 C.E., ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakakhalanga mu misumba ya Mombasa, Malindi, na Zanzibar ŵakamba kuchita malonda na Ŵaarabu. Ivi vikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Swahili ŵalutilire kuŵa na ndalama zinandi, Chisilamu chikamba kwiza, ŵanthu ŵa ku Arabia ŵakamba kuyowoya chiyowoyero ichi, ndipo ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakamba kusambira chiyowoyero ichi. Chisopa cha Cisilamu chikamba kusazgikira mu Africa pakati pa 614 AD na 900 AD. Kwambira apo ŵalondezgi ŵa ntchimi Muhammad ŵakafikanga ku Ethiopia, chisopa cha Chisilamu chikafika mu vyaru vya kumafumiro gha dazi, kumpoto na kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Africa. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Swahili awo ŵakakhalanga mu misumba iyi ŵakamba kuchita malonda. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakumanya mdauko ŵakagomezganga kuti ŵamalonda ŵa ku Arabia na Peresiya ndiwo ŵakambiska misumba iyi, kweni ŵasayansi ŵakumanya kuti misumba iyi yikaŵa ya ŵanthu ŵa ku malo agha. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Azanian na Zanj ŵakasangananga chomene na ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yinyake. Fundo iyi yikuwoneka mu ciyowoyero, cikaya, na luso lwa maluso ivyo vikucitika mumphepete mwa nyanja. Mwaciyerezgero, pakati pa 630 AD - 890 AD, maukaboni ghakulongora kuti visulo vyakukolera vikapangikanga ku Galu, kumwera kwa Mombasa. Ŵasayansi awo ŵakasanda vinthu vyachisulo, ŵakasanga kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Swahili ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito nthowa zakupambanapambana. Mu vyaka vya pakati pa 1000 na 1500 C.E., ŵanthu ŵakamba kukhala mu misumba iyo yikaŵa na ŵanthu ŵanandi. Malibwe ghakale chomene agho ghakasangika pa malo ghakusungako vinthu gha ku Gedi ghakalembeka mu nyengo iyi. Kweniso malemba ghakale chomene gha Chiswahili agho ghalipo sono, ghakalembeka mu nyengo iyi. Vikalembeka na vilembo vyakale vya Ciswahili (vilembo vya Ciswahili na Cirabishi) vyakuyana na vilembo vya Cirabishi. Ili ni lemba ilo likasangika pa malibwe ghakale chomene.<ref name=Zhukov>A. Zhukov. Old Swahili-Arabic Script and the Development of Swahili Literary Language. Sudanic Africa Vol. 15, LANGUAGE IN AFRICA (2004), pp. 1–15 (15 pages) Available from: https://www.jstor.org/stable/25653410</ref> Munthu munyake wa ku Morocco, zina lake Ibn Battuta, wakaluta ku Mombasa mu 1331. Wakulongosora kuti Mombasa ni cirwa cikuru ico cili na makuni gha banane, mandimu na mandimu. Ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga mu msumba uwu ŵakaŵa Ŵasilamu ŵa chisopa cha Sunni, ndipo wakaŵazunura kuti "mbanthu ŵakusopa, ŵakugomezgeka, na ŵarunji". Wakayowoya kuti masisiteri ghawo ghakaŵa gha makuni ndipo ghakazengeka mwaluso. Munthu munyake uyo wakendanga mu charu cha China zina lake Zheng He, wakaluta ku Malindi mu 1418. Ngalaŵa zake zinyake zikwenera kuti zikamira kufupi na cirwa ca Lamu. Kafukufuku uyo wakacitika sonosono apa wakalongora kuti ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵakakhalanga ku malo agha ŵakaŵa ŵa ku China. ChiSwahili, chiyowoyero cha Bantu icho chili na mazgu ghanandi gha mu Chiarabu, chikaŵa na ŵanthu ŵanandi. Ŵanthu ŵa mu vigaŵa ivi ŵakasopanga Chiswahili. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakususka umo ŵanthu ŵa ku Arabia na Peresiya ŵakagwilira ntchito na kusamira ku charu chinyake. Mu nyengo ya ku Middle Ages,<blockquote> Ku mphepete mwa nyanja ya Swahili ku East Africa [kusazgapo Zanzibar] kukaŵa malo ghakutowa na ghakutowa, agho ghakaŵa na misumba yinandi ya ŵamalonda. Vinthu vikendanga makora mu misumba iyi chifukwa chakuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa ndiwo ŵakendanga pakati pa ŵamalonda ŵa ku India, Persia, Arabia, Indonesia, Malaysia, Africa, na China. Ŵanthu wose aŵa ndiwo ŵakasambizganga Ciswahili. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Swahili ŵakamba kulemba viyowoyero vyawo. Ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵakakhalanga mu vyaru ivi ŵakaŵa ŵamalonda ŵasambazi awo chifukwa cha usambazi wawo, ŵakamba kuŵa na mazaza pa misumba ya mumphepete mwa nyanja.<ref> {{Cite web|url=http://www.endingstereotypes.org/african_history.html|title=The Swahili, African History|date=2007|website=Ending Stereotypes for America|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927040805/http://www.endingstereotypes.org/african_history.html|archive-date=27 September 2007|url-status=dead|access-date=12 March 2019}} </ref> </blockquote> == Vinthu vya ku Portugal na Oman == {{See also|Vasco da Gama|Portuguese Empire|Omani Empire|Said bin Sultan}} Kuumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1400, ŵanthu ŵakufuma ku Portugal ŵakiza ku Africa. Ŵapwitikizi ŵakakhumbanga yayi kukhazikiska malo ghakukhala ŵanthu, kweni ŵakakhumbanga kukhazikiska misasa ya ŵasilikari ŵa mu nyanja kuti ŵachitire ufumu wa ku India. Pakati pajumpha vyaka vinandi, Ŵaarabu ŵa ku Oman ŵakathereska Ŵapwitikizi ku Kenya. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Portugal ndiwo ŵakaŵa ŵanthu ŵakwamba ku Europe kusanda charu icho sono chikuchemeka Kenya. Vasco da Gama wakaluta ku Mombasa mu Epulero 1498. Ulendo wa Da Gama ukafika ku India (Meyi 1498), ndipo ukayambiska malonda gha ku Portugal na kumwera kwa Asia. (Kasi Republic of Venice yikamba kuwusa pawuli? Ŵakapanga ndalama zinandi pa malonda gha pakati pa Europe na Asia. Ŵasilikari ŵa Ottoman ŵakati ŵapoka msumba wa Constantinople mu 1453, ŵakakanizga ŵanthu ŵa ku Turkey kwenda pa misewu ya ku Europe na India. (Portugal yikagomezganga kuti nthowa ya pa nyanja iyo da Gama wakambiska yizamumazga masuzgo gha ndyali, gha ŵamazaza, na gha msonkho.) Ŵapwitikizi ŵakamba kulamulira ku East Africa, ndipo ŵakakhalanga ku Mombasa. Ŵapwitikizi ŵakamba kukhala mu vyaru vya kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Africa mu 1505, apo ŵasilikari ŵa ku nyanja awo ŵakalongozgekanga na Dom Francisco de Almeida ŵakathereska chilumba cha Kilwa, icho chili kumwera kwa Tanzania. Chifukwa chakuti Ŵapwitikizi ŵakakhalanga ku East Africa, ŵakendanga mu nyanja ya Indian Ocean na kujandizga nthowa za pa nyanja izo zikakolerananga Europe na Asia. Ngalaŵa za ŵasilikari ŵa ku Portugal zikasuzganga malonda gha ŵalwani ŵa ku Portugal mu vigaŵa vya kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Nyanja ya Indian, ndipo Ŵapwitikizi ŵakakhumbanga kuti ŵagulirenge msonkho ukuru pa vinthu ivyo ŵakendeskanga, chifukwa chakuti ŵakakhalanga ku malo ghakutowa chomene. Kuzenga Fort Jesus ku Mombasa mu 1593 kukawovwira kuti Ŵapwitikizi ŵalutilire kulamulira chigaŵa ichi. Ŵaarabu ŵa ku Oman ndiwo ŵakasuzganga chomene Ŵapwitikizi ku East Africa. Mu 1698, ŵasilikari ŵa Oman ŵakapoka msumba wa Fort Jesus, kweni mu 1728 ŵakaluza msumba uwu. Kweni mu 1730 ŵanthu ŵa ku Oman ŵakachimbizga Ŵapwitikizi awo ŵakakhalapo ku Kenya na Tanzania. Pa nyengo iyi, Ufumu wa Portugal ukaŵa kuti waleka kale kukopeka na malonda gha vyakununkhira. (Madera agho ghakaŵa pasi pa muwuso wa Ŵapwitikizi, na malo ghanyake ghakukhala ŵanthu ghakaŵa kumwera kwa Mozambique m'paka mu 1975.) Mu nyengo ya Seyyid Said (uyo wakawusa mu 1807 m'paka mu 1856), uyo wakaŵa fumu ya Oman ndipo wakasamuskira msumba wake ukuru ku Zanzibar mu 1824, [Pakukhumbika ukaboni apa] Ŵaarabu ŵakambiska masitima ghakurughakuru ghakwendamo mu Africa. Ku vigaŵa vyamumpoto kukaŵa viŵeto vinandi yayi. Kumwera, ŵaliska ŵa viŵeto na ŵalimi ŵakaguliskana vinthu na kuphalizgana malo chifukwa misewu ya mitunda yitali yikaŵakumananga na nyanja ya Kenyan kumafumiro gha dazi na maufumu gha Uganda kumanjiliro gha dazi.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/africato1875mode00hall/page/n15|title=Africa to 1875: A Modern History|last=Hallett|first=Robin|publisher=University of Michigan|year=1970|isbn=9780472071609|location=Ann Arbor|oclc=601840204|name-list-style=vanc}}</ref>{{Rp|227}} == Mbiri ya m'ma 1800 == {{See also|Indian Ocean slave trade}} {{further|Muscat and Oman}} Ŵanthu ŵa ku Oman awo ŵakakhalanga mu vyaru vya ku Kenyan na Tanzania ŵakamba kulamulira misumba iyi. Nga umo vikaŵira na ŵanthu awo ŵakaŵako kumanyuma, Ŵaarabu ŵa ku Oman ŵakathereskanga vigaŵa vya mumphepete mwa nyanja pera. Ndipouli, Seyyid Said wakambiska vyaru vinyake, ndipo mu 1839 wakambiska malonda gha ŵazga na kusamuskira msumba ukuru wa Oman ku Zanzibar. Kuguliska ŵazga kukayamba kuchepa comene kuumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1700, apo mu Zanzibar mukaŵa msika ukuru wa ŵazga. Apo Sultan Seyyid Said wakasamuskira msumba wake ku Zanzibar, minda yikuru ya clove na spice yikalutilira kukura. Ŵazga aŵa ŵakafumanga ku vigaŵa vya kumanyuma. Ŵazga ŵakendanga mu vigaŵa vya mukati mwa Kenya m'paka ku mapiri gha Phiri la Kenya, Nyanja ya Victoria na Nyanja ya Baringo. Boma la Ŵaarabu likalutilira kulamulira virwa vikuruvikuru vyose mumphepete mwa nyanja ya kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Africa m'paka apo ŵanthu ŵa ku Britain awo ŵakakhumbanga kuti ŵalutilire kugwiliskira ntchito'malibwe gha ku India' na kupanga malonda pakati pa ŵanthu ŵakamba kuŵika mphindano pa boma la Oman. Kuumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1800, ŵasilikari ŵa Britain ŵakamazga chomene malonda gha ŵazga. Ŵaarabu ŵa ku Oman ŵakakhumbanga yayi kulimbana na ŵasilikari ŵa ku Royal Navy awo ŵakakhumbanga kukanizga ŵazga. Nga ni umo phangano la Moresby likalongolera, apo Oman wakakhumbanga mazaza pa maji ghake, Seyyid Said wakawona kuti palije cifukwa cakuti wanjilirengepo pa malonda gha ŵazga, cifukwa awo ŵakaguranga ŵazga ŵakaŵa ŵa ku Europe. Nga ni umo Farquhar wakayowoyera mu kalata yake, malonda gha ŵazga gha ku Europe agho ghakacitikanga ku Western Indian Ocean ghakamara pekha para Sayidi wanjilirapo. Pakuti boma la Oman likalutilira kuŵapo mu Zanzibar na Pemba m'paka mu 1964, boma la Oman likalutilira yayi kuŵapo mu Kenya cifukwa cakuti ŵa German na British ŵakakora malo ghakuru gha ku Kenani na kupanga ubwezi na ŵalongozgi ŵa mu charu ichi mu ma 1880. Ndipouli, chiharo cha Ŵaarabu ŵa ku Oman mu vyaru vya kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Africa, pasono chikuwoneka kwizira mu ŵana ŵawo ŵanandi awo ŵakusangika mumphepete mwa nyanja. Msumba wakwamba wa Cikhristu ukazengeka pa Ogasiti 25, 1846, na Dr. Johann Ludwig Krapf, wa ku Germany, uyo wakawovwirika na Church Missionary Society of England.:561 Wakakhazikiska msasa pakati pa Mijikenda ku Rabai mumphepete mwa nyanja. Pamanyuma, wakang'anamura Baibolo mu Chiswahili. Ŵazga ŵanandi awo ŵakathaskika na ŵasilikari ŵa ku Britain ŵakakhalanga kuno. Vinthu vikamba kwenda makora chomene pakati pa 1875 na 1884. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakuti ku Kenyan kukaŵa ŵazga 47,000, awo ŵakakwimira 44 peresenti ya ŵanthu ŵa mu charu ichi. Mu 1874, msumba wa Frere Town ukaŵa ku Mombasa. Malo agha ghakaŵa gha ŵazga awo ŵakathaskika na ŵasilikari ŵa ku Britain. Nangauli boma la Britain likakhumbanga kuti ŵaleke kuguliska ŵazga ku East Africa, kweni ŵakalutilira kuguliska ŵazga m'paka mu vyaka vya m'ma 1900. Kuzakafika mu 1850, ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe ŵakamba kupanga mapu gha vyaru vya mukati.:229 Mu hafu yakwamba ya vyaka vya m'ma 1800, vinthu vitatu vikawovwira kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe ŵambe kutemwa vyaru vya ku East Africa.:560 Chakwamba, kukaŵa chirwa cha Zanzibar, icho chili kufupi na nyanja ya kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Africa.:560 Zanzibar yikaŵa malo ghakusangirako ŵanthu awo ŵakendeskanga malonda na kupenjerezga vyaru vya ku Africa.:560 Kuzakafika mu 1840, kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Zanzibar ŵavikilire vyakusanguluska vyawo, ku Britain, France, Germany, na ku America, ŵakajura maofesi gha ŵasilikari. Mu 1859, matani gha ngaraŵa za ku vyaru vinyake izo zikafikanga ku Zanzibar ghakaŵa matani 19,000.:561 Mu 1879, matani gha ngaraŵa izi ghakaŵa matani 89,000. Cinthu caciŵiri ico cikapangiska kuti ŵa ku Europe ŵambe kutemwa comene vyakurya vya ku Africa, nchakuti ŵakakhumbanga comene vyakurya vya ku Africa, nga ni njovu na cinkhara. Cacitatu, caru ca Britain cikamba kukhumba comene kumazga malonda gha ŵazga mu vyaru vya kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Africa.<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|560–61}} Pamanyuma pa vyaka ivi, ŵasilikari ŵa ku Britain ŵakamba kulimbana na ŵa ku Germany. == Ufumu wa Britain (1895-1963) == ===East Africa Protectorate=== {{main|East Africa Protectorate}} {{See also|Imperial British East Africa Company|Uganda Railway|Nandi Resistance|Mekatilili Wa Menza}} Mu 1895, boma la Britain likamba kulamulira chigaŵa ichi ndipo likati chili kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Nyanja ya Naivasha. Mu 1902, mphaka iyi yikasazgikira ku Uganda, ndipo mu 1920, chigaŵa ichi chikazgoka koloni la ufumu. Mu 1895, boma la Britain likamba kulamulira chigaŵa ichi. Mu ma 1920, ŵanthu ŵa ku India ŵakasuska kuti malo agha ghapelekeke ku ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe, chomenechomene ku ŵasilikari ŵa ku Britain. Ŵazungu ŵakalimanga chomene khofi ndipo ŵakagwiranga ntchito za ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Kikuyu. Ŵanthu ŵa ku India na ŵa ku Europe ŵakamba kwambana. Malo agha ghakaŵa ghakutowa chomene ndipo nyengo zose ŵanthu ŵakusamukiranga ku malo agha na kutimbana. Ku South Africa kukaŵavya vinthu vyakututuŵa ivyo vikakopa ŵanthu ŵanandi. Mu 1885, ufumu wa Germany ukakhazikiska boma la ku Zanzibar, ndipo mu 1888, kampani ya British East Africa Company (BEAC) ya Sir William Mackinnon yikamba kugwira ntchito mu charu ichi. Nkhondo iyi yikamara mu 1890, apo boma la Germany likapeleka malo ghake ku Britain. Nyengo zinyake ŵanthu ŵakakanizganga awo ŵakalondezganga boma ili: Waiyaki Wa Hinga, mulongozgi wa Kikuyu uyo wakalamuliranga Dagoretti, wakawotcha linga la Lugard mu 1890. Pakati pajumpha vilimika viŵiri, Wayaki wakakoleka na Ŵacigiriki na kukomeka.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|title=Historical Dictionary of Kenya|vauthors=Maxon RM, Ofcansky TP|publisher=Scarecrow Press|year=2000|isbn=9780810836167|edition=2nd|location=Lanham, Md.|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/historicaldictio0000maxo}}</ref> Pamanyuma pa masuzgo ghakuru gha ndalama gha British East Africa Company, boma la Britain pa Julayi 1, 1895, likakhazikiska boma la ku East Africa Protectorate. [[File:Britisheastafrica 1.png|thumb|420px|mapu yamu 1911 ]] Cinthu cinyake ico cikawovwira kuti caru ca Kenya ciŵe cakutowa ni njanji iyo yikambira ku Mombasa kuya ku Kisumu, pa Nyanja ya Victoria. Iyi yikaŵa njanji yakwamba ya ku Uganda. Boma la Britain likaghanaghana vya kuzenga njanji iyo yikakolerananga Mombasa na charu cha Uganda. Mu 1903, ŵakazenga njanji yikuru ya Uganda (iyo yikaŵa njanji iyo yikalongozgera ku Uganda) iyo yikaŵa ntchito yikuru chomene. Pakuŵa kazembe wa Kenya, Sir Percy Girouard wakawovwira chomene pakwambiska ndondomeko ya kusazgirako misewu ya njanji iyo yikalongozgera ku kuzenga misewu ya Nairobi-Thika na Konza-Magadi. Ŵantchito pafupifupi 32,000 ŵakafuma ku Britain ku India kuti ŵakagwire nchito iyi. Ŵanandi ŵakakhalako, nga ni ŵamalonda ŵanandi ŵa ku India na ŵamalonda ŵacokoŵacoko awo ŵakawona mwaŵi wa kujura vigaŵa vya mukati mwa Kenya. Pakuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa ŵakazgoŵera kulima kuti ŵasange vyakukhumbikwa pa umoyo m'malo mwa kulima vyakurya vyakununkhira, boma likaghanaghana kuti likhozge ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe kuti ŵakhalenge mu vigaŵa vya mapiri. Njanji iyi yikawovwira kuti ŵanthu ŵa mu vyaru vya mukati ŵa Europe, ŵalimi, ŵamishonale, na ŵalaŵiliri ŵa boma, ŵamanye umo ŵangachitira na wuzga, ufwiti, matenda, na njara. Ŵafrika ŵakawonanga kuti ufwiti uli na nkhongono comene pa umoyo wawo ndipo kanandi ŵakacitanga nkhaza na ŵanthu awo ŵakaghanaghananga kuti mbafwiti. Kuti ivi vileke kucitika, boma la Britain likapeleka malango ghakukanizga mauloŵevu kwambira mu 1909. Malango agha ghakapeleka wanangwa ku ŵanthu ŵa mu cigaŵa ici kuti ŵaleke kucita nkhaza. Apo njanji iyi yikazengekanga, ŵasilikari ŵa ku Africa ŵakaleka kulimbana na ŵasilikari ŵa Britain. Ndipouli, ŵanthu ŵakamba kudandawura cifukwa ca ndondomeko ya ku Europe. Kazembe Percy Girouard wakukolerana na ivyo vikachitika pa phangano laciŵiri la Maasai ilo likacitika mu 1911, ilo likaŵapangiska kuti ŵafumemo mu malo gha Laikipia na kuluta ku Ngong. Kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe (ŵanandi ŵakaŵa ŵa ku Britain na ŵazungu ŵakufuma ku South Africa) ŵafike ku malo agha, Ŵamaasai ŵakakhala mu mapiri gha kumwera kwa Loieta mu 1913. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Kikuyu ŵakakhumbanga malo ghanyake agho ghakaŵa gha ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe, ndipo ŵakalutilira kuwona kuti ŵakapokako yayi chiharo chawo. Mu nyengo yakwambilira ya muwuso wa maboma, boma likathembanga ŵanthu awo ŵakadumbiskananga, kanandi ŵakaŵa ŵalongozgi. Apo boma likamba kulamulira ndipo ŵanthu ŵakakhumbanga kuti vinthu viŵe makora, ŵanalume ŵawukirano awo ŵakaŵa kuti ŵafuma waka ku sukulu ŵakamba kwendera lumoza na ŵalongozgi ŵalara mu mipingo ya ku malo agha. Pakuzenga njanji iyi, Ŵabritishi ŵakasangana na ŵanthu ŵakususka comene, comenecomene Koitalel Arap Samoei, uyo wakaŵa mulongozgi wa Nandi. Kwa vilimika 10, wakalimbana na awo ŵakazenganga njanji. Mu 1907, ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga ku malo agha ŵakapika mwaŵi wa kuyowoyapo pa nkhani za boma kwizira mu wupu wakuwona vya malango, uwo ukaŵa wupu wa ku Europe. Kweni pakuti mazaza ghanandi ghakaŵa mu mawoko gha Kazembe, ŵakukhazikika mu charu ichi ŵakamba kucitiska kuti Kenya waŵe malo gha ufumu. Ŵakafiska cilato ici mu 1920, na kuzgora wupu uwu kuŵa wakwimira comene ŵa ku Europe awo ŵakakhalanga mu caru ici. Kweni Ŵafrika ŵakaŵavya mwaŵi wa kunjira ndyali mpaka mu 1944, apo ŵaŵiri ŵakwamba ŵa mu wupu uwu ŵakazomerezgeka..<ref name="R. Mugo Gatheru 2005">{{Cite book|title=Kenya: From Colonization to Independence, 1888–1970|url=https://archive.org/details/kenyafromcoloniz0000gath|vauthors=Gatheru RM|publisher=McFarland & Co.|year=2005|isbn=9780786421992|location=Jefferson, N.C.}}</ref> ==== Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Caru Cose ==== {{main|East African campaign (World War I)}} Mu Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Caru Cose (1914-1918), caru ca Kenya cikazgoka cigaŵa ca ŵasilikari ŵa Britain cifukwa cakuti ŵakayezgayezga kuti ŵathereske caru ca Germany. Nkhondo yikati yamba mu Ogasiti 1914, maboma gha British East Africa na German East Africa ghakakolerana kuti ghaleke kurwa nkhondo. Ndipouli, Lt. Col. Paul von Lettow-Vorbeck wakatora mazaza pa ŵasilikari ŵa Germany, ŵakakhumbanga kuti ŵathereske ŵasilikari ŵanandi ŵa Britain. Von Lettow wakaŵa kutali comene na caru ca Germany, ndipo wakacitanga nkhondo ya nkhondo ya ŵasilikari. Paumaliro wakajipeleka ku Zambia mazuŵa 11 pamanyuma pakuti ŵasaina phangano la kuleka nkhondo mu 1918. Kuti ŵalondezge von Lettow, Ŵacigiriki ŵakatuma ŵasilikari ŵa Indian Army kufuma ku India, ndipo ŵakakhumbikwiranga ŵanthu ŵanandi kuti ŵayeghe katundu. Gulu la ŵasilikari la Carrier Corps likapangika ndipo paumaliro likawovwira ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa ŵakujumpha 400,000, ndipo likaŵawovwira kuti ŵaŵe na maghanoghano gha ndyali.<ref name="R. Mugo Gatheru 2005"/> === Charu cha Kenya === {{main|Kenya Colony}} {{See also|White Highlands|Harry Thuku|Kikuyu Central Association|Mumboism|Luo Union (Welfare Organisation)|}} Ku Nyanza kumwera, kukaŵa gulu la ŵanthu awo ŵakasuskanga muwuso wa Britain. Ŵalara ŵa boma ŵakamba kuliwona kuti ni chisopa chautesi. Kufuma waka pa nyengo iyi, gulu ili likucemeka kuti Anti-Colonial Movement. Mu 1913, Onyango Dunde wa ku Kavirondo wakati wakatumika na Ciuta njoka wa mu Nyanja ya Victoria, Mumbo kuti wapharazge visambizgo vyake. Boma ili likawona kuti gulu ili likususka mazaza ghawo cifukwa ca cisambizgo ca Mumbo. Mumbo wakalayizga kuti wazamucimbizga ŵakoloni na awo ŵakaŵawovwiranga. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa ŵakaŵavya nkhongono zakuchitira nkhondo na Ŵabritishi. Ntheura, gulu ili likakhumbanga kuti ŵanthu ŵagomezge kuti ufumu wa ŵasilikari umalirenge. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Luo na wa Kisii ŵakamba kusopa vikozgo. Ŵalaraŵalara ŵa boma ŵakakanizga gulu ili mwa kuwufumiska mu charu chawo na kuŵakaka mu jele mu vyaka vya m'ma 1920 na 1930. Mu 1954, boma likakanizga vyakusanguluska ivi. Vinthu vyakwamba ivyo vikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵa mu Africa ŵambeso kwendera ndyali mu charu cha Kenya vikaŵa vyakususka fundo za ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga mu vyaru ivi. Pambere nkhondo yindambe, ŵanthu ŵa mu vyaru vya ku Africa ŵakamanyanga vinandi yayi. Kweni nkhondo yikati yamara, masuzgo agho ghakaŵapo chifukwa cha misonkho yiphya, malipiro ghakukhizgika, kweniso ŵanthu ŵaphya awo ŵakakhumbanga kuti ŵakhale mu vyaru vya ku Africa, ghakachitiska kuti ŵanthu ŵambeso kusama. Ivyo ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa ŵakasambira mu nkhondo iyi, pamoza na kukhazikiskika kwa charu cha Kenya icho chikaŵa na ŵanthu ŵazungu, vikawovwira kuti paŵe ndyali. Ishmael Ithongo wakacema ungano wakwamba wa ŵanthu ŵanandi mu Meyi 1921 kuti wakane kucepeskeka kwa malipiro gha ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa. Harry Thuku wakambiska bungwe la Young Kikuyu Association (YKA) ndipo wakambiska buku lakucemeka Tangazo ilo likasuskanga boma na mautumiki. Gulu la YKA likawovwira ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa mtundu wa Kikuyu kuti ŵatemwenge charu chawo. YKA yikapeleka malo ku Kikuyu Association (KA) iyo yikaŵa wupu wa fuko uwo ukamanyikwanga na Harry Thuku kuŵa mulembi wake. Kwizira mu KA, Thuku wakavikilira wanangwa wa ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa. Pakughanaghana kuti nchambura mahara kuti gulu la ŵanthu ŵa mafuko ghaŵo liŵe la fuko limoza, Thuku wakasintha zina la wupu wake kuŵa East African Association ndipo wakakhumbanga kuti ŵanthu ŵa mafuko ghanandi ŵaŵepo. Boma likamupa mulandu Thuku kuti wakuwukira boma, ndipo likamukora na kumujalira mu jele mpaka mu 1930. Ku Kavirondo (pambuyo pake chigawo cha Nyanza), kunyanyala ku sukulu ya umishonale, komwe kunakonzedwa ndi Daudi Basudde, kunadzutsa nkhawa chifukwa cha kuwonongeka kwa umwini wa nthaka ku Africa chifukwa chosintha kuchokera ku East African Protectorate kupita ku Kenya Colony. Maungano ghanandi agho ghakachemekanga kuti "Piny Owacho" (Lizgu la Ŵanthu) ghakafika pa msinkhu ukuru mu Disembala 1921, ndipo ghakachiska ŵanthu kuti ŵaŵe na mabuku ghakulongosora katundu wawo, kuwuskamo ndondomeko ya kipande, na kuŵa na misonkho yiwemi. Muteŵeti Mukuru W. E. Owen, uyo wakaŵa mishonale wa Anglican ndipo wakavikiliranga ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa, ndiyo wakawovwira kuti vinthu viŵe makora ku ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa. James Beauttah nayo wakaŵa na maghanoghano ghakuyana waka ndipo wakambiska mgwirizano pakati pa Ŵakuyu na Ŵaluo. Pakati pa ma 1920, Wupu wa Kikuyu Central Association (KCA) ukapangika. Gulu ili likalongozgekanga na Joseph Kengethe na Jesse Kariuki. Johnstone Kenyatta wakaŵa mulembi na mulembi wa magazini ya Mugwithania (The unifier). KCA yikakhumbanga kuti Kikuyu wose ŵaŵe mu boma limoza, kweni pakaŵa mphindano chifukwa cha mitheto, kugaŵa malo, na kukanizga ŵanakazi kukotoleka. Ŵakalimbikiraso kuti Harry Thuku wafwatulike. Thuku wakati wafwatulika, wakasankhika kuŵa pulezidenti wa KCA. Boma likakanizga KCA Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya pa Charu Chose yikati yamba apo Jesse Kariuki wakayaniska kusamuska ŵanthu ŵa Kikuyus awo ŵakakhalanga kufupi na malo gha ŵazungu na ndyali za Nazi za kusamuska ŵanthu. Mu nyengo iyo kukaŵa nkhondo, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakachitanga ndyali, ndipo ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Luo ku Kenya ndiwo ŵakachitanga chomene ndyali. Kuumaliro wa m'ma 1930, boma likamba kunjilirapo pa ŵanthu ŵa mu Africa kwizira mu malonda, kulongozga masambiro, na kusintha malo. Ŵalongozgi ŵavisopa ŵakaŵavya ntchito, ndipo ŵanalume ŵachoko ŵakazgoka ŵanthu ŵakumanya kuyowoyeskana. Boma la Kenya likati lachichizga ŵanthu ŵanandi kuti ŵasinthe vinthu mu m'ma 1930 m'paka mu 1950, vikawovwira kuti magulu gha ndyali ghaŵe na ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakakolerananga nawo. Kukwambilira kwa vyaka vya m'ma 1900, ŵanthu ŵa ku Britain na ŵa ku Europe ŵakamba kukhala mu chigaŵa cha mapiri. Kuzakafika m'ma 1930, ŵanthu 15,000 awo ŵakakhalanga mu chigaŵa ichi ŵakaŵa na mazaza pa ndyali.<ref name="R. Mugo Gatheru 2005"/> ==== Kuyimilira ==== {{See also|Happy Valley set}} Nkhondo iyi yikati yamara, ŵanthu ŵa ku Britain ŵakamba kukhala mu Kenya. Usange ŵakaŵa na ndalama zakukwana mapaundi 1,000, ŵakasanganga malo ghambura kulipira ghakukwana maekala 1,000 (4 km2). Ŵakazenga minda ya khofi, iyo yikakhumbikwiranga makina ghakudura, ŵantchito ŵakukhazikika, na vilimika vinayi kuti ŵambe kulima. Nangauli ŵasilikari aŵa ŵakaleka kuŵa na wanangwa wa kwendera malango gha boma na kukhomeska misonkho ku Britain, kweni ŵakatondeka. Cifukwa ca kusankhana mitundu mu ndyali ya ŵanthu awo ŵakusamira ku vyaru vinyake, ŵazungu ŵakalutilira kuŵa ŵacoko. Ŵanandi ŵakafumako ku caru ici ŵakati ŵaŵa na wanangwa. Nkhongono zikalutilira kuŵa mu mawoko gha kazembe; ndipo mu 1906, pakaŵaso wupu wakulongozga na wakwimika malango. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe awo ŵakakhalanga ku malo agha ŵakazomerezgeka kusankha ŵimiliri mu wupu wakulongozga mu 1920, apo malo agha ghakakhazikiskikanga. Ŵazungu 30,000 awo ŵakakhalanga ku malo agha, ŵakakhumbanga kuti paŵe boma ilo lingaŵawovwira. Iwo ŵakasuskanga ivyo ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku India ŵakakhumbanga. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe awo ŵakakhalanga ku malo agha ŵakaŵavya malo ghakukhalako, kweni ŵakakhalanga waka mu Nyumba ya Malango ya Ŵaindiya na Ŵaarabu. Boma likimika munthu munyake wa ku Europe kuti waŵe mwimiliri wa ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa. Mu "Devonshire declaration" ya 1923, ofesi ya Colonial Office yikati vilato vya ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa (awo ŵalipo 95 peresenti ya ŵanthu) vikwenera kuŵa pakwamba. Charles Mowat, wakulemba mdauko, wakalongosora masuzgo agha: :[The Colonial Office in London ruled that] native interests should come first; but this proved difficult to apply [in Kenya] ... where some 10,000 white settlers, many of them ex-officers of the war, insisted that their interests came before those of the three million natives and 23,000 Indians in the colony, and demanded 'responsible government', provided that they alone bore the responsibility. After three years of bitter dispute, provoked not by the natives but by the Indians, vigorously backed by the Government of India, the Colonial Office gave judgment: the interest of the natives was 'paramount', and responsible government out of the question, but no drastic change was contemplated – thus in effect preserving the ascendancy of the settlers.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Britain between the wars, 1918–1940|vauthors=Mowat CL|publisher=Methuen & Co|year=1968|isbn=9780416295108|location=London|pages=[https://archive.org/details/britainbetweenwa00mowa/page/109 109–10]|oclc=10833602|url=https://archive.org/details/britainbetweenwa00mowa/page/109}}</ref> ====Second World War==== {{main|Kenya in World War II}} In the [[Second World War]] (1939–45) Kenya became an important British military base for successful campaigns against Italy in the [[Italian Somaliland]] and [[Ethiopia]]. The war brought money and an opportunity for military service for 98,000 men, called "askaris". The war stimulated African nationalism. After the war, African ex-servicemen sought to maintain the socioeconomic gains they had accrued through service in the [[King's African Rifles]] (KAR). Looking for middle class employment and social privileges, they challenged existing relationships within the colonial state. For the most part, veterans did not participate in national politics, believing that their aspirations could best be achieved within the confines of colonial society. The social and economic connotations of KAR service, combined with the massive wartime expansion of Kenyan defence forces, created a new class of modernised Africans with distinctive characteristics and interests. These socioeconomic perceptions proved powerful after the war.<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Brands H|date=2005|title=Wartime Recruiting Practices, Martial Identity and Post-World War II Demobilization in Colonial Kenya|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-african-history_2005_46_1/page/103|journal=[[The Journal of African History|J. Afr. Hist.]]|volume=46|issue=1|pages=103–125|jstor=4100831|doi=10.1017/S0021853704000428|s2cid=144908965}}</ref><ref>{{Cite thesis|last=Meshack O|title='For your tomorrow, we gave our today': A history of Kenya African soldiers in the Second World War|date=2004|degree=Doctor of Philosophy|publisher=Rice University|hdl=1911/18678}}</ref> ====Rural trends==== British officials sought to modernise Kikuyu farming in the Murang'a District 1920–1945. Relying on concepts of trusteeship and scientific management, they imposed a number of changes in crop production and agrarian techniques, claiming to promote conservation and "betterment" of farming in the colonial tribal reserves. While criticised as backward by British officials and white settlers, African farming proved resilient and Kikuyu farmers engaged in widespread resistance to the colonial state's agrarian reforms.<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Mackenzie AF|date=2000|title=Contested Ground: Colonial Narratives and the Kenyan Environment, 1920–1945|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-southern-african-studies_2000-12_26_4/page/697|journal=[[Journal of Southern African Studies|J. South. Afr. Stud.]]|volume=26|issue=4|pages=697–718|doi=10.1080/713683602| jstor=2637567| s2cid=145084039}}</ref> Modernisation was accelerated by the Second World War. Among the [[Luo people|Luo]] the larger agricultural production unit was the patriarch's extended family, mainly divided into a special assignment team led by the patriarch, and the teams of his wives, who, together with their children, worked their own lots on a regular basis. This stage of development was no longer strictly traditional, but still largely self-sufficient with little contact with the broader market. Pressures of overpopulation and the prospects of cash crops, already in evidence by 1945, made this subsistence economic system increasingly obsolete and accelerated a movement to commercial agriculture and emigration to cities. The Limitation of Action Act in 1968 sought to modernise traditional land ownership and use; the act has produced unintended consequences, with new conflicts raised over land ownership and social status.<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Odenyo AO| date=1973| title=Conquest, Clientage, and Land Law among the Luo of Kenya|journal=[[Law & Society Review|Law Soc. Rev.]] |volume=7|issue=4|pages=767–778|doi=10.2307/3052969|jstor=3052969}}</ref> As Kenya modernized after the war, the role of the British religious missions changed their roles, despite the efforts of the leadership of the [[Church Missionary Society]] to maintain the traditional religious focus. However the social and educational needs were increasingly obvious, and the threat of the Mau Mau uprisings pushed the missions to emphasize medical, humanitarian and especially educational programs. Fundraising efforts in Britain increasingly stressed the non-religious components. Furthermore, the imminent transfer of control to the local population became a high priority.<ref>John Stuart, "Overseas Mission, Voluntary Service and Aid to Africa: Max Warren, the Church Missionary Society and Kenya, 1945–63." ''Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History'' 36.3 (2008): 527–543.</ref><ref>David Anderson, ''Histories of the Hanged: Britain's Dirty War in Kenya and the End of the Empire'' (2005) pp. 35–41.</ref> ====Kenya African Union==== {{main|Kenya African Union}} As a reaction to their exclusion from political representation, the [[Kikuyu people]], the most subject to pressure by the settlers, founded in 1921 Kenya's first African political protest movement, the [[Young Kikuyu Association]], led by [[Harry Thuku]]. After the Young Kikuyu Association was banned by the government, it was replaced by the [[Kikuyu Central Association]] in 1924. In 1944 Thuku founded and was the first chairman of the multi-tribal Kenya African Study Union (KASU), which in 1946 became the Kenya African Union (KAU). It was an [[African nationalist]] organization that demanded access to white-owned land. KAU acted as a constituency association for the first black member of Kenya's legislative council, [[Eliud Mathu]], who had been nominated in 1944 by the governor after consulting élite African opinion. The KAU remained dominated by the Kikuyu ethnic group. However, the leadership of KAU was multitribal. [[Wycliff Awori]] was the first vice president followed by [[Tom Mbotela]]. In 1947 [[Jomo Kenyatta]], former president of the moderate Kikuyu Central Association, became president of the more aggressive KAU to demand a greater political voice for Africans. In an effort to gain nationwide support of KAU, Jomo Kenyatta visited [[Kisumu]] in 1952. His effort to build up support for KAU in Nyanza inspired [[Oginga Odinga]], the ''Ker'' (chief) of the Luo Union (an organisation that represented members of the Luo community in East Africa) to join KAU and delve into politics.<ref name="Kyle">The Politics of The Independence of Kenya by Kyle Keith. Palgrave MacMillan 1999</ref> In response to the rising pressures, the British Colonial Office broadened the membership of the Legislative Council and increased its role. By 1952 a multiracial pattern of quotas allowed for 14 European, 1 Arab, and 6 Asian elected members, together with an additional 6 Africans and 1 Arab member chosen by the governor. The council of ministers became the principal instrument of government in 1954. ====Mau-Mau Uprising==== {{main|Mau Mau Uprising}} {{See also|Dedan Kimathi|Forty Group}} A key watershed came from 1952 to 1956, during the [[Mau Mau Uprising]], an armed local movement directed principally against the colonial government and the European settlers.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Clough, Marshall S.|title=Mau Mau memoirs : history, memory, and politics|url=https://archive.org/details/maumaumemoirshis0000clou|date=1998|publisher=Lynne Rienner|isbn=1-55587-537-8|oclc=605625460}}</ref> It was the largest and most successful such movement in British Africa. Members of the [[Forty Group|forty group]], [[World War II]](WW2) veterans, including [[Stanley Mathenge]], [[Bildad Kaggia]] and [[Fred Kubai]] became core leaders in the rebellion. Their experiences during the WW2 awakened their political consciousness, giving them determination and confidence to change the system. Key leaders of KAU known as the [[Kapenguria Six|Kapenguria six]] were arrested on the 21st of October. They include [[Jomo Kenyatta]], [[Paul Ngei]], [[Kungu Karumba]], [[Bildad Kaggia]], [[Fred Kubai]] and [[Achieng Oneko]]. Kenyatta denied he was a leader of the Mau Mau but was convicted at trial and was sent to prison in 1953, gaining his freedom in 1961. An intense propaganda campaign by the colonial government effectively discouraged other Kenyan communities, settlers and the international community from sympathising with the movement by emphasising on real and perceived acts of barbarism perpetrated by the Mau Mau. Although a much smaller number of Europeans died compared to Africans during the uprising, each individual European loss of life was publicised in disturbing detail, emphasising elements of betrayal and bestiality.<ref name=Kyle/> As a result, the protest was supported almost exclusively by the Kikuyu, despite issues of land rights and anti-European, anti-Western appeals designed to attract other groups. The Mau Mau movement was also a bitter internal struggle among the Kikuyu. [[Harry Thuku]] said in 1952, "To-day we, the Kikuyu, stand ashamed and looked upon as hopeless people in the eyes of other races and before the Government. Why? Because of the crimes perpetrated by Mau Mau and because the Kikuyu have made themselves Mau Mau." That said, other Kenyans directly or indirectly supported the movement. Notably, [[Pio Gama Pinto]], a Kenyan of Goan descent, facilitated the provision of firearms to forest fighters. He was arrested in 1954 and detained until 1959.<ref name=Kyle/> Another notable example was the pioneering lawyer [[Argwings Kodhek]], the first East African to obtain a law degree. He became known as the Mau Mau lawyer as he would successfully defend Africans accused of Mau Mau crimes pro bono.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://globaleastafrica.org/global-lives/argwings-kodhek-1923-69|title = Argwings Kodhek (1923-69) &#124; Another World? East Africa and the Global 1960s}}</ref> 12,000 militants were killed during the suppression of the rebellion, and the British colonial authorities also implemented policies involving the incarceration of over 150,000 suspected Mau Mau members and sympathizers (mostly from the Kikuyu people) into [[Internment|concentration camps]].<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Blacker J|date=2007|title=The demography of Mau Mau: Fertility and mortality in Kenya in the 1950s: A demographer's viewpoint|journal=[[African Affairs|Afr. Aff.]]|volume=106|issue=425|pages=751|doi=10.1093/afraf/adm066|postscript=. According to John Blacker, demographers have refuted the often repeated allegation that 300,000 Kikuyu died in the uprising. The number was exaggerated by a factor of 10.|doi-access=free}}</ref> In these camps, the colonial authorities also used various forms of [[torture]] to attempt information from the detainees.<ref>{{cite news| url = https://www.bloomberg.com/opinion/articles/2019-02-16/churchill-was-more-villain-than-hero-in-britain-s-colonies| title = Churchill Was More Villain Than Hero in Britain's Colonies - Bloomberg| website = [[Bloomberg News]]| date = 16 February 2019}}</ref> In 2011, after decades of waiting, thousands of secret documents from the British Foreign Office were declassified. They show that the Mau Mau rebels were systematically tortured and subjected to the most brutal practices, men were castrated and sand introduced into their anus, women were raped after introducing boiling water into their vaginas. The Foreign Office archives also reveal that this was not the initiative of soldiers or colonial administrators but a policy orchestrated from London.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/new-documents-show-how-britain-sanctioned-mau-mau-torture-rcjwwhjhwb2 | title=New documents show how Britain sanctioned Mau Mau torture }}</ref> The Mau Mau uprising set in play a series of events that expedited the road to Kenya's Independence. A Royal Commission on Land and Population condemned the reservation of land on a racial basis. To support its military campaign of counter-insurgency the colonial government embarked on agrarian reforms that stripped white settlers of many of their former protections; for example, Africans were for the first time allowed to grow coffee, the major cash crop. Thuku was one of the first Kikuyu to win a coffee licence, and in 1959 he became the first African board member of the Kenya Planters Coffee Union. The East African Salaries Commission put forth a recommendation – 'equal pay for equal work' – that was immediately accepted. Racist policies in public places and hotels were eased. [[John David Drummond, 17th Earl of Perth]] and [[Under-Secretary of State for the Colonies|Minister of State for Colonial affairs]] stated: "The effort required to suppress Mau Mau destroyed any settlers illusions that they could go it alone; the British Government was not prepared for the shedding of [more] blood in order to preserve colonial rule."<ref>{{Cite book|title=Human Rights in the Shadow of Colonial Violence: The Wars of Independence in Kenya and Algeria|url=https://archive.org/details/humanrightsinsha0000klos|last=Klose|first=Fabian|publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press|year=2013|isbn=9780812244953|translator-last=Geyer|translator-first=Dona|jstor=j.ctt3fhw4p|name-list-style=vanc|chapter=The Wars of Independence in Kenya and Algeria}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Cooper F|date=2014|title=Fabian Klose. Human Rights in the Shadow of Colonial Violence: The Wars of Independence in Kenya and Algeria.|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-historical-review_2014-04_119_2/page/650|journal=[[The American Historical Review|Am. Hist. Rev.]]|volume=119|issue=2|pages=650–651|doi=10.1093/ahr/119.2.650}}</ref><ref name=Kyle/> ====Trade Unionism and the struggle for independence==== {{See also|Makhan Singh (Kenyan trade unionist)|Fred Kubai|Bildad Kaggia|Tom Mboya}} The pioneers of the trade union movement were [[Makhan Singh (Kenyan trade unionist)|Makhan Singh]], [[Fred Kubai]] and [[Bildad Kaggia]]. In 1935, [[Makhan Singh (Kenyan trade unionist)|Makhan Singh]] started the [[Labour trade union of Kenya]]. In the 1940s, Fred Kubai started the [[Transport and Allied Workers Union]] and Bildad Kaggia founded the [[Clerks and Commercial Workers Union]]. In 1949, Makhan Singh and Fred Kubai started the [[East Africa Trade Union Congress]]. They organised strikes including the railway workers strike in 1939 and the protest against granting of a Royal Charter to Nairobi in 1950. These pioneering trade union leaders were imprisoned during the crackdown on Mau Mau.<ref name=cotu/><ref name=Kyle/> Following this crackdown, all national African political activity was banned. This ban was in place even when the first African members of the legislative council (MLCs) were elected. To manage and control African political activity, the colonial government permitted district parties starting in 1955. This effectively prevented African unity by encouraging ethnic affiliation. Trade unions led by younger Africans filled the vacuum created by the crackdown as the only organisations that could mobilise the masses when political parties were banned.<ref name=cotu>History of COTU. https://web.archive.org/web/20230326180400/https://cotu-kenya.org/history-of-cotuk/</ref><ref name=Kyle/> The [[Kenya Federation of Registered Trade Unions (KFRTU)]] was started by [[Aggrey Minya]] in 1952 but was largely ineffective.<ref name=cotu/> [[Tom Mboya]] was one of the young leaders who stepped into the limelight. His intelligence, discipline, oratory and organisational skills set him apart. After the colonial government declared a state of emergency on account of Mau Mau, at age 22, Mboya became the Director of Information of KAU. After KAU was banned, Mboya used the KFRTU to represent African political issues as its Secretary General at 26 years of age. The KFRTU was backed by the [[Western Bloc|western leaning]] [[International Confederation of Free Trade Unions|International Confederation of Free Trade Unions (ICFTU)]]. Tom Mboya then started the [[Kenya Federation of Labour|Kenya Federation of Labour (KFL)]] in place of KFRTU, which quickly became the most active political body in Kenya, representing all the trade unions. Mboya's successes in trade unionism earned him respect and admiration. Mboya established international connections, particularly with labour leaders in the [[United States of America]] through the ICFTU. He used these connections and his international renown to counter moves by the colonial government.<ref name=cotu/><ref name=Kyle/> Several trade union leaders who were actively involved in the independence struggle through KFL would go on to join active politics becoming members of parliament and cabinet ministers. These include [[Arthur Ochwada|Arthur Aggrey Ochwada]], [[Dennis Akumu]], [[Clement Lubembe]] and [[Ochola Ogaye Mak'Anyengo]].<ref name=cotu/><ref>https://cotu-kenya.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/WEBSITE-Labour-Day-Speech-2018.pdf {{Bare URL PDF|date=January 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.president.go.ke/2017/05/01/speech-by-his-excellency-hon-uhuru-kenyatta-c-g-h-president-of-the-republic-of-kenya-and-commander-in-chief-of-the-defence-forces-during-the-2017-labour-day-celebrations-at-uhuru-park-grounds-nai/| url-status = dead| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170504114639/http://www.president.go.ke/2017/05/01/speech-by-his-excellency-hon-uhuru-kenyatta-c-g-h-president-of-the-republic-of-kenya-and-commander-in-chief-of-the-defence-forces-during-the-2017-labour-day-celebrations-at-uhuru-park-grounds-nai| archive-date = 4 May 2017| title = SPEECH BY HIS EXCELLENCY HON. UHURU KENYATTA, C.G.H., PRESIDENT OF THE REPUBLIC OF KENYA AND COMMANDER IN CHIEF OF THE DEFENCE FORCES DURING THE 2017 LABOUR DAY CELEBRATIONS AT UHURU PARK GROUNDS, NAIROBI – Presidency}}</ref> The trade union movement would later become a major battlefront in the proxy [[cold war]] that would engulf Kenyan politics in the 1960s.<ref>Kwame Nkurumah's Theory and Practice of Labour and Their Manifestation in the Kenyan Trade Unionism to 1966. by Peter Mwangi Kagwanja. Available from: https://web.archive.org/web/20230424071342/https://ir-library.ku.ac.ke/handle/123456789/4904</ref> ====Constitutional Debates and the Path to Independence==== {{See also|Jaramogi Oginga Odinga|Nairobi People's Convention Party|Lancaster House Conferences (Kenya)|The Kennedy Airlift}} After the suppression of the Mau Mau rising, the British provided for the election of the six African members to the Legislative Council (MLC) under a weighted franchise based on education. Mboya successfully stood for office in the first election for African MLCs in 1957, beating the previously nominated incumbent, [[Argwings Kodhek]]. [[Daniel Arap Moi]] was the only previously nominated African MLC who kept his seat. [[Oginga Odinga]] was also elected and shortly afterwards nominated as the first chairman of the African elected members. Mboya's party, the [[Nairobi People's Convention Party|Nairobi People's Convention Party (NPCP)]], was inspired by [[Kwame Nkrumah|Kwame Nkurumah's]] [[People's Convention Party]]. It became the most organised and effective political party in the country. The NPCP was used to effectively mobilise the masses in Nairobi in the struggle for greater African representation on the council. The new colonial constitution of 1958 increased African representation, but African nationalists began to demand a democratic franchise on the principle of "one man, one vote." However, Europeans and Asians, because of their minority position, feared the effects of universal suffrage. In June 1958, [[Oginga Odinga]] called for the release of Jomo Kenyatta. This call built momentum and was taken up by the NPCP. Agitation for African suffrage and self-rule picked up in pace. One major hindrance to self-rule was the lack of African human capital. Poor education, economic development and a lack of African technocrats were a real problem. This inspired Tom Mboya to begin a programme conceptualised by a close confidante [[Blasio Vincent Ndale Esau Oriedo|Dr. Blasio Vincent Oriedo]], funded by Americans, of sending talented youth to the United States for higher education. There was no university in Kenya at the time, but colonial officials opposed the programme anyway. The next year Senator [[John F. Kennedy]] helped fund the programme, hence its popular name – [[The Kennedy Airlift]].<ref>''Airlift to America. How Barack Obama Sr., John F. Kennedy, Tom Mboya, and 800 East African Students Changed Their World and Ours'', by Tom Shachtman</ref> This scholarship program trained some 70% of the top leaders of the new nation, including the first African woman to win the Nobel Peace Prize, environmentalist [[Wangari Maathai]] and [[Barack Obama]]'s father, [[Barack Obama Sr.]]<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/03/29/AR2008032902031.html?hpid=topnews|title=Obama Overstates Kennedys' Role in Helping His Father|last=Dobbs M|date=2008|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]}}</ref> At a conference held in 1960 in London, agreement was reached between the African members and the British settlers of the [[New Kenya Group]], led by [[Michael Blundell]]. However many whites rejected the New Kenya Group and condemned the London agreement, because it moved away from racial quotas and toward independence. Following the agreement a new African party, the [[Kenya African National Union|Kenya African National Union (KANU)]], with the slogan "Uhuru," or "Freedom," was formed under the leadership of Kikuyu leader [[James Gichuru|James S. Gichuru]] and labour leader [[Tom Mboya]]. KANU was formed in May 1960 when the [[Kenya African Union|Kenya African Union (KAU)]] merged with the [[Kenya Independence Movement|Kenya Independence Movement (KIM)]] and [[Nairobi People's Convention Party|Nairobi People's Convention Party (NPCP)]].<ref>The Politics of The Independence of Kenya by Kyle Keith. Palgrave MacMillan 1999 p 93-111</ref> Mboya was a major figure from 1951 until his death in 1969. He was praised as nonethnic or antitribal, and attacked as an instrument of Western capitalism. Mboya as General Secretary of the Kenya Federation of Labour and a leader in the Kenya African National Union before and after independence skilfully managed the tribal factor in Kenyan economic and political life to succeed as a Luo in a predominantly Kikuyu movement.<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Goldsworthy D|date=1982|title=Ethnicity and Leadership in Africa: The 'Untypical' Case of Tom Mboya|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-modern-african-studies_1982-03_20_1/page/107|journal=[[Journal of Modern African Studies|J. Mod. Afr. Stud.]]|volume=20|issue=1|pages=107–126|jstor=160378|doi=10.1017/S0022278X00000082|s2cid=154841201 }}</ref> A split in KANU produced the breakaway rival party, the [[Kenya African Democratic Union|Kenya African Democratic Union (KADU)]], led by [[Ronald Ngala]] and [[Masinde Muliro]]. In the [[Kenyan legislative election, 1961|elections of February 1961]], KANU won 19 of the 33 African seats while KADU won 11 (twenty seats were reserved by quota for Europeans, Asians and Arabs). Kenyatta was finally released in August and became president of KANU in October. ==Independence== {{See also|Kenya Independence Movement|Kenya African National Union|Kenya African Democratic Union}} Mu 1962, boma la KANU-KADU likapangika, pamoza na Kenyatta na Ngala. Mu 1962, boma likakhazikiska wupu wakulongozga uwo uli na ŵanthu 117. Charu chikagaŵika mu vigaŵa 7, cilicose cikaŵa na wupu wake. Ndondomeko ya kuŵika mipando ya ŵanthu ŵambura kufumako ku Africa yikamara, ndipo mu Meyi 1963 ŵakacita mavoti. KADU yikamba kuwusa mipingo ya ku Rift Valley, Coast na Western. KANU yikasanga mazaza ghanandi mu Nyumba ya Malango na mu Nyumba za Malango, kweniso mu vigaŵa vya Central, Eastern na Nyanza.<ref>No assembly could be formed in the Northeast Region, because separatist Somalis had boycotted the elections, and its House and Senate seats also remained vacant.</ref> Pa nyengo iyi, charu cha Kenya chikaŵa na boma lakujiwusa na Jomo Kenyatta uyo wakaŵa pulezidenti wakwamba. Ŵa Britain na KANU ŵakakolerana kuti mu Okutobala 1963 ŵasinthe dango ilo likakhozga boma lapakati.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last=Mutua |first=Makau |date=2001 |title=Justice under Siege: The Rule of Law and Judicial Subservience in Kenya |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4489325 |journal=Human Rights Quarterly |volume=23 |issue=1 |pages=96–118 |doi=10.1353/hrq.2001.0010 |jstor=4489325 |s2cid=144841688 |issn=0275-0392}}</ref> Charu cha Kenya chikamba kujiyimira paŵekha pa Disembala 12, 1963<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://archive.nytimes.com/www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/big/1212.html#article|title=Joyful Kenya Gets Independence From Britain|last=Conley R|work=[[The New York Times]]}}</ref> ndipo likapharazgika kuŵa republic pa 12 December 1964 na Jomo Kenyatta nga mutu wa boma. Mu 1964, boma likasintha malango gha boma na kwambiska maboma ghanyake. Yimoza mwa maofesi gha boma ni Central Bank of Kenya iyo yikapangika mu 1966. Boma la Britain likaguliska ŵanthu ŵatuŵa awo ŵakakhalanga mu Kenya ndipo ŵanandi ŵakafumamo. Ŵanthu ŵa ku India ndiwo ŵakendeskanga malonda mu misumba na matawuni ghanandi, kweni ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa ŵakaŵagomezganga yayi. Cifukwa ca ici, ŵanthu 120,000 pa ŵanthu 176,000 ŵa ku India ŵakasunga pasipoti yawo yakale ya ku Britain m'malo mwa kuŵa ŵenekaya ŵa Kenya.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The politics of the independence of Kenya|url=https://archive.org/details/politicsofindepe0000kyle_r0d0|vauthors=Keith K|publisher=Macmillan|year=1999|isbn=9780333720080}}</ref> ===Kenyatta tenure (1963–1978)=== {{See also|Presidency of Jomo Kenyatta|Shifta War|Pio Gama Pinto|Kenya People's Union|Kisumu massacre}} [[File:Kenya.ogv|thumb|1973 newsreel about Kenyatta's rule]] Once in power Kenyatta swerved from radical nationalism to conservative bourgeois politics. The plantations formerly owned by white settlers were broken up and given to farmers, with the Kikuyu the favoured recipients, along with their allies the Embu and the Meru. By 1978 most of the country's wealth and power was in the hands of the organisation which grouped these three tribes: the Kikuyu-Embu-Meru Association (GEMA), together comprising 30% of the population. At the same time the Kikuyu, with Kenyatta's support, spread beyond their traditional territorial homelands and repossessed lands "stolen by the whites" – even when these had previously belonged to other groups. The other groups, a 70% majority, were outraged, setting up long-term ethnic animosities.<ref name="opendemocracy.net">{{cite web|url=https://www.opendemocracy.net/en/kenya_roots_of_crisis/|title=Kenya: roots of crisis|last=Prunier G|date=2008|website=[[openDemocracy]]|access-date=10 March 2019}}</ref> The minority party, the [[Kenya African Democratic Union]] (KADU), representing a coalition of small tribes that had feared dominance by larger ones, dissolved itself voluntarily in 1964 and former members joined KANU. KANU was the only party 1964–66 when a faction broke away as the [[Kenya People's Union]] (KPU). It was led by [[Jaramogi Oginga Odinga]], a former vice-president and [[Luo (Kenya)|Luo]] elder. KPU advocated a more "scientific" route to socialism—criticising the slow progress in land redistribution and employment opportunities—as well as a realignment of foreign policy in favour of the [[Soviet Union]]. On 25 February 1965, [[Pio Gama Pinto]], a Kenyan of [[Goan]] descent and freedom fighter who was detained during the colonial period was assassinated in what is recognised as Kenya's first political assassination. He was also [[Oginga Odinga|Oginga Odinga's]] chief tactician and link to the eastern bloc.<ref>Report of the Truth, Justice and Reconciliation Commission 2013. Excerpts available from: https://web.archive.org/web/20211020091213/http://www.goanvoice.org.uk/gvuk_files/Pio_Gama_Pinto_TRJC_2013.pdf</ref> His death dealt a severe blow to the Oginga Odinga's organisational efforts.<ref>Freedom and suffering. Chapter in: Kenya: Between Hope and Despair, 1963 – 2011 by Daniel Branch. Yale University Press. Nov 2011</ref> The government used a variety of political and economic measures to harass the KPU and its prospective and actual members. KPU branches were unable to register, KPU meetings were prevented and civil servants and politicians suffered severe economic and political consequences for joining the KPU. A security Act was passed in Parliament in July 1966 and granted the government powers to carry out detention without trial, which was used against KPU members.<ref>K. Conboy. Detention without trial in Kenya. GEORGIA JOURNAL OF INTERNATIONAL AND COMPARATIVE LAW Volume:8 Issue:2 Dated:(SPRING 1978) Pages:441-461M</ref> In a series of dawn raids in August 1966, several KPU party members were arrested and detained without trial. They included [[Ochola Ogaye Mak'Anyengo|Ochola Mak'Anyengo]] (the secretary general of the Kenya Petroleum Oil Workers Union), Oluande Koduol (Oginga Odinga's private secretary) and Peter Ooko (the general secretary of the East African Common Services Civil Servants Union).<ref>“Five Opposition Leaders Seized by Kenya Police” Pasadena Independent (Pasadena, California) Fri Aug 5 1966. Page 1 Available from: https://www.newspapers.com/clip/15272844/5-opposition-leaders-seized</ref> In June 1969, Tom Mboya, a Luo member of the government considered a potential successor to Kenyatta, was assassinated. Hostility between Kikuyu and Luo was heightened, and after riots broke out in Luo country the KPU was banned. The specific riots that led to the banning of the KPU resulted in the incident referred to as the [[Kisumu massacre]].<ref>"Dark Saturday in 1969 when Jomo's visit to Kisumu turned bloody." Daily Nation. Wed October 24, 2018. Available from: https://www.nation.co.ke/kenya/news/dark-saturday-in-1969-when-jomo-s-visit-to-kisumu-turned-bloody-101870</ref> Kenya thereby became a one-party state under KANU.<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Mueller SD|date=1984|title=Government and Opposition in Kenya, 1966-9|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-modern-african-studies_1984-09_22_3/page/399|journal=[[The Journal of Modern African Studies|J. Mod. Afr. Stud.]]|volume=22|issue=3|pages=399–427|jstor=160453|doi=10.1017/S0022278X00055105|hdl=2144/39906|s2cid=154614480 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Ignoring his suppression of the opposition and continued factionalism within KANU the imposition of one-party rule allowed Mzee ("Old Man") Kenyatta, who had led the country since independence, to claim he had achieved "political stability." Underlying social tensions were evident, however. Kenya's very rapid population growth and considerable rural to urban migration were in large part responsible for high unemployment and disorder in the cities. There also was much resentment by blacks at the privileged economic position held by Asians and Europeans in the country. At Kenyatta's death (22 August 1978), Vice-president [[Daniel arap Moi]] became interim President. On 14 October, Moi formally became president after he was elected head of KANU and designated its sole nominee. In June 1982, the National Assembly amended the constitution, making Kenya officially a one-party state. On 1 August members of the [[Kenyan Air Force]] launched [[1982 Kenyan coup d'état attempt|an attempted coup]], which was quickly suppressed by Loyalist forces led by the Army, the [[General Service Unit]] (GSU) – paramilitary wing of the police – and later the regular police, but not without civilian casualties.<ref name=":1" /> ====Foreign policies==== Independent Kenya, although officially non-aligned, adopted a pro-Western stance.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Britain, Kenya and the Cold War: Imperial Defence, Colonial Security and Decolonisation|url=https://archive.org/details/britainkenyacold0000perc|vauthors=Percox DA|publisher=I.B. Tauris|year=2004|isbn=9781850434603|location=London}}</ref> Kenya worked unsuccessfully for East African union; the proposal to unite Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda did not win approval. However, the three nations did form a loose East African Community (EAC) in 1967, that maintained the customs union and some common services that they had shared under British rule. The EAC collapsed in 1977 and was officially dissolved in 1984. Kenya's relations with Somalia deteriorated over the problem of Somalis in the North Eastern Province who tried to secede and were supported by Somalia. In 1968, however, Kenya and Somalia agreed to restore normal relations, and the Somali rebellion effectively ended.<ref name=":1" /> ===Moi regime (1978–2002)=== {{See also|Presidency of Daniel Moi|1982 Kenyan coup d'état attempt|Wagalla massacre}} Kenyatta wakafwa mu chaka cha 1978 ndipo wakimikika na Daniel Arap Moi (wakababika mu 1924, wakafwa mu 2020) uyo wakawusa nga ni President 1978-2002. Moi, wa fuko la Kalenjin, wakalutilira kuŵa na mazaza ndipo wakawusa mwauryarya. Kuzakafika mu 1986, Moi wakaŵa kuti waŵika mazaza ghake ghose ndiposo vyandulo vinandi mu mawoko gha Kalenjin na ŵabwezi ŵake ŵachoko waka.<ref name=":1" /> Pa 1 Ogasiti, 1982, ŵasilikari ŵa pasi ŵa mu ndege, ŵakulongozgeka na Senior Private Grade-I Hezekiah Ochuka ndipo ŵakakhozgeka na ŵana ŵa sukulu ŵa ku yunivesite, ŵakayezga kupoka boma kuti ŵathereske Moi. Nkhondo iyi yikamara mwaluŵiro na ŵasilikari awo ŵakalongozgekanga na mulara wa ŵasilikari, Mahamoud Mohamed.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3MctAQAAIAAJ|title=Society|publisher=Nyamora Communications Limited|year=1992|pages=12}}</ref> Pamanyuma pa kuwukira boma, ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakavu ŵa ku Kenya ku Nairobi ŵakawukira na kwiba mashopu gha ŵanthu ŵa ku Asia. Robert Ouko, uyo wakaŵa mulara wa Luo mu nduna ya Moi, wakasankhika kuti wavumbure upusikizgi wa pa vigaŵa vyakuzirwa, kweni wakakomeka myezi yicoko waka pamanyuma pake. Mubali wa Moi uyo wakaŵa pafupi nayo chomene ndiyo wakakhwaskika na kukoma Ouko. Boma la Germany likamuchema kazembe wake kuti walongore kuti likususkana na "nkhaza" za boma ndipo ŵanthu ŵakupeleka ndalama ku vyaru vinyake ŵakachichizga Moi kuti wazomerezge vyaru vinyake kuti viŵepo.<ref name=":1" /> Pamanyuma pa kukoma ŵanthu ku Garissa mu 1980, ŵasilikari ŵa Kenya ŵakacita kukoma ŵanthu ku Wagalla mu 1984 kwimikana na ŵantu ŵanandi mu cigaŵa ca North Eastern. Mu 2011, khoti likadumura kuti pachitike kafukufuku wakukhwaskana na vinthu ivi.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-12463001|title=Wagalla massacre: Raila Odinga orders Kenya probe|date=11 February 2011|newspaper=[[BBC News]]|access-date=14 November 2013}}</ref> ==== Ndondomeko ya vyaru vinandi ==== [[File:Daniel arap Moi 1979c.jpg|thumb|right|President [[Daniel arap Moi]] in 1979]] Mu Disembala 1991, pamanyuma pa kukakamizgika na ŵanthu ŵa mu caru na ŵa ku vyaru vinyake, nyumba ya malango yikalekeska dango lakuti pali cipani cimoza. Mu 1992, pakaŵa maungano gha vyaru vinandi.<ref name=":2" /> Chipani cha Forum for the Restoration of Democracy (FORD) chikawoneka nga ni chipani chakususkana na KANU, ndipo ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa KANU ŵakasintha chipani. Kweni gulu la FORD, ilo likalongozgekanga na Oginga Odinga (1911-1994), wa ku Luo, na Kenneth Matiba, wa ku Kikuyu, likagaŵikana mu magulu ghaŵiri. Mu mavoti ghakwamba mu chaka cha 1992, Moi wakatora mavoti 37%, Matiba wakatora 26%, Mwai Kibaki (wa Democratic Party) 19%, ndipo Odinga 18%. Mu Nyumba ya Malamulo, KANU yikapokera vithuzi 97 pa vithuzi 188. Mu 1993, boma la Moi likazomera kusintha vinthu pa nkhani ya vyachuma, nga umo Banki ya Caru Cose na International Monetary Fund vikayowoyera.<ref name=":1" /> Pakutondeska ŵapharazgi kuti ŵaleke kupharazga pambere maungano gha 1992 ghandambe, kweniso pamanyuma pake, Moi wakalutilira kuyowoya kuti vyaru vinandi vikovwira kuti paŵe mphindano pakati pa mafuko. Boma lake likagwiliskiranga nchito uheni uwo ukaŵapo pakati pa ŵanthu. Mu muwuso wa Moi, ŵanthu awo ŵakalongozganga ŵasilikari ŵakakhalanga mu vigaŵa vinandi, ndipo waliyose wakaŵanga na ŵamazaza awo ŵakalongozganga ŵasilikari. Maboma gha mu vigaŵa ghakaŵavya mazaza, ndipo ŵalongozgi ŵa vigaŵa ŵakalondezganga waka boma, ilo likalongozgekanga na pulezidenti. Mu 1990-91, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakamba kususka ivyo boma likakhumbanga. Boma ili likathembanga Kalenjin ndipo likakhuŵilizga Ŵamaasai kuti ŵawukire Ŵakuyu. Ŵandyali ŵa boma ŵakasuskanga Ŵakikuyu kuti mbapusikizgi, ŵakaŵakanizganga kulembeska mavoti na kuŵachenjezga kuti ŵaŵapokenge katundu wawo. Mu 1993 na pamanyuma pake, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Kikuyu ŵakachimbizgika mu vikaya vyawo, ndipo kanandi ŵasilikari, ŵapolisi, na ŵalinda ŵa viŵeto ŵakaŵapo. Ivi vikapangiska kuti paŵe nkhondo ndipo ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakakomeka.<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Klopp JM|date=2001|title='Ethnic Clashes' and Winning Elections: The Case of Kenya's Electoral Despotism|journal=[[Canadian Journal of African Studies|Can. J. Afr. Stud.]]|volume=35|issue=3|pages=473–517|doi=10.2307/486297|jstor=486297}}</ref> Mu Novembala 1997, apo boma likalutilira kufiska malango gha vyaru vinyake, vikaŵa makora kuti vipani viŵiri viŵepo. Pulezidenti Moi wakathereskeka pa chisankho cha mu Disembala 1997, ndipo chipani chake cha KANU chikasungapo chiŵelengero chikuru mu nyumba za malango. Moi wakawusa mwa kupangiska ŵanthu kuti ŵatemwenge mitundu yinyake, kukanizga boma, na kusuzga awo ŵakususka boma. Wakagwiliskira nchito kukakika na kutambuzgika, kwiba ndarama za boma na kupoka caru na katundu munyake. Moi wakawovwiranga ŵasilikari awo ŵakasuzganga ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Luo, Luhya na Kikuyu, ndipo wakakana kuti ndiyo wakapangiska vivulupi ivi.<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Roessler PG|date=2005|title=Donor-Induced Democratization and the Privatization of State Violence in Kenya and Rwanda|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_comparative-politics_2005-01_37_2/page/207|journal=Comparative Politics|volume=37|issue=2|pages=207–227|doi=10.2307/20072883|jstor=20072883}}</ref> Kwamba mu 1998, Moi wakambiska ndondomeko ya umo wangalondezgera mazaza gha pulezidenti kuti iyo na chipani chake ŵasange chandulo. Pakukumana na suzgo la kukolerana na mitundu yinandi, Moi wakasintha ivyo wakakhumbanga kuchita pa viphikiro vya mu 2002 kufuma pa mtundu kuya pa mphindano za pakati pa miwiro. Ndondomeko iyi yikatimbanizga, ndipo yikapangiska kuti chipani chake chitimbanizgike, ndipo mwanalume wa Kenyatta, uyo wakaŵa wakunjilirapo, wakatondeka pa mavoti gha mu Disembala 2002.<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Steeves J|date=2006|title=Presidential succession in Kenya: The transition from Moi to Kibaki|journal=[[Commonwealth & Comparative Politics|Commonw. Comp. Politics]]|volume=44|issue=2|pages=211–233|doi=10.1080/14662040600831651|s2cid=154320354}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Kagwanja PM|date=2006|title='Power to Uhuru': Youth Identity and Generational Politics in Kenya's 2002 Elections|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_african-affairs_2006-01_105_418/page/51|journal=[[African Affairs|Afr. Aff.]]|volume=105|issue=418|pages=51–75|doi=10.1093/afraf/adi067}}</ref> ===Recent history (2002 to present)=== {{further|Politics of Kenya}} ====2002 elections==== [[File:Mwai Kibaki & wife at White House, October 2003.jpg|thumb|right|[[Mwai Kibaki]] and (the late) Mrs. [[Lucy Kibaki]] with US President [[George W. Bush]] and Mrs. [[Laura Bush]] at the [[White House]] during a state visit in 2003.]] Constitutionally barred from running in the December 2002 presidential elections, Moi unsuccessfully promoted [[Uhuru Kenyatta]], the son of Kenya's first President, as his successor. A rainbow coalition of opposition parties routed the ruling KANU party, and its leader, Moi's former vice-president [[Mwai Kibaki]], was elected president by a large majority. On 27 December 2002, by 62% the voters overwhelmingly elected members of the National Rainbow Coalition (NaRC) to parliament and NaRC candidate Mwai Kibaki (b. 1931) to the presidency. Voters rejected the Kenya African National Union's (KANU) presidential candidate, Uhuru Kenyatta, the handpicked candidate of outgoing president Moi. International and local observers reported the 2002 elections to be generally more fair and less violent than those of both 1992 and 1997. His strong showing allowed Kibaki to choose a cabinet, to seek international support and to balance power within the NaRC. ====Economic trends==== Kenya witnessed a spectacular economic recovery, helped by a favourable international environment. The annual rate of growth improved from −1.6% in 2002 to 2.6% by 2004, 3.4% in 2005, and 5.5% in 2007. However, social inequalities also increased; the economic benefits went disproportionately to the already well-off (especially to the Kikuyu); corruption reached new depths, matching some of the excesses of the Moi years. Social conditions deteriorated for ordinary Kenyans, who faced a growing wave of routine crime in urban areas; pitched battles between ethnic groups fighting for land; and a feud between the police and the Mungiki sect, which left over 120 people dead in May–November 2007 alone.<ref name="opendemocracy.net"/> ====2007 elections and ethnic violence==== {{further|2007–2008 Kenyan crisis}} [[File:Raila and the media.jpg|thumb|right|[[Orange Democratic Movement]] leader Prime Minister [[Omolo Odinga]] speaking with the Kenyan media.]] Once regarded as the world's "most optimistic," Kibaki's regime quickly lost much of its power because it became too closely linked with the discredited Moi forces. The continuity between Kibaki and Moi set the stage for the self-destruction of Kibaki's National Rainbow Coalition, which was dominated by Kikuyus. The western Luo and Kalenjin groups, demanding greater autonomy, backed Raila Amolo Odinga (1945– ) and his Orange Democratic Movement (ODM).<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Murunga GR, Nasong'o SW|date=2006|title=Bent on self-destruction: The Kibaki regime in Kenya|journal=[[Journal of Contemporary African Studies|J. Contemp. Afr. Stud.]]|volume=24|issue=1|pages=1–28|doi=10.1080/02589000500513713|s2cid=154675141}}</ref> In the December 2007 elections, Odinga, the candidate of the ODM, attacked the failures of the Kibaki regime. The ODM charged the Kikuyu with having grabbed everything and all the other tribes having lost; that Kibaki had betrayed his promises for change; that crime and violence were out of control, and that economic growth was not bringing any benefits to the ordinary citizen. In the December 2007 elections the ODM won majority seats in Parliament, but the presidential elections votes were marred by claims of rigging by both sides. It may never be clear who won the elections, but it was roughly 50:50 before the rigging started.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2020-05-28|title=National-level Data on the 2007–2008 Postelection Violence|journal=Political Violence in Kenya|pages=317–318|doi=10.1017/9781108764063.013|isbn=9781108764063|s2cid=238119891}}</ref> "[[Majimbo]]ism" was a philosophy that emerged in the 1950s, meaning federalism or regionalism in Swahili, and it was intended to protect local rights, especially regarding land ownership. Today "majimboism" is code for certain areas of the country to be reserved for specific ethnic groups, fuelling the kind of ethnic cleansing that has swept the country since the election. Majimboism has always had a strong following in the Rift Valley, the epicenter of the recent violence, where many locals have long believed that their land was stolen by outsiders. The December 2007 election was in part a referendum on majimboism. It pitted today's majimboists, represented by Odinga, who campaigned for regionalism, against Kibaki, who stood for the status quo of a highly centralised government that has delivered considerable economic growth but has repeatedly displayed the problems of too much power concentrated in too few hands – corruption, aloofness, favouritism and its flip side, marginalisation. In the town of Londiani in the [[Rift valley|Rift Valley]], Kikuyu traders settled decades ago. In February 2008, hundreds of Kalenjin raiders poured down from the nearby scruffy hills and burned a Kikuyu school. Three hundred thousand members of the Kikuyu community were displaced from Rift Valley province.<ref name="alertnet">{{Cite news|url=http://alertnet.org/db/crisisprofiles/KE_VIO.htm?v=in_detail|title=Kenya violence: Election turmoil|date=2008|work=[[Reuters AlertNet]]|access-date=10 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100620021022/http://alertnet.org/db/crisisprofiles/KE_VIO.htm?v=in_detail|archive-date=20 June 2010|url-status=dead}}</ref> Kikuyus quickly took revenge, organising into gangs armed with iron bars and table legs and hunting down Luos and Kalenjins in Kikuyu-dominated areas like [[Nakuru County|Nakuru]]. "We are achieving our own perverse version of majimboism," wrote one of Kenya's leading columnists, Macharia Gaitho.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/02/15/world/africa/15kenya.html|title=Signs in Kenya of a Land Redrawn by Ethnicity|last=Gettleman J|date=2008|work=[[The New York Times]]}}</ref> The [[Luo (Kenya and Tanzania)|Luo]] population of the southwest had enjoyed an advantageous position during the late colonial and early independence periods of the 1950s, 1960s and early 1970s, particularly in terms of the prominence of its modern elite compared to those of other groups. However the Luo lost prominence due to the success of Kikuyu and related groups (Embu and Meru) in gaining and exercising political power during the [[Jomo Kenyatta]] era (1963–1978). While measurements of poverty and health by the early 2000s showed the Luo disadvantaged relative to other Kenyans, the growing presence of non-Luo in the professions reflected a dilution of Luo professionals due to the arrival of others rather than an absolute decline in the Luo numbers.<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Morrison LB|date=2007|title=The nature of decline: distinguishing myth from reality in the case of the Luo of Kenya|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-modern-african-studies_2007-03_45_1/page/117|journal=[[Journal of Modern African Studies|J. Mod. Afr. Stud.]]|volume=45|issue=1|pages=117–142|doi=10.1017/S0022278X06002308|jstor=4486722|s2cid=55019548}}</ref> ====Demographic trends==== {{further|Demographics of Kenya}} [[File:Kenya-demography.png|thumb|right|Kenya demography (1961–2003)]] Between 1980 and 2000 total fecundity in Kenya fell by about 40%, from some eight births per woman to around five. During the same period, fertility in Uganda declined by less than 10%. The difference was due primarily to greater contraceptive use in Kenya, though in Uganda there was also a reduction in pathological sterility. The [[Demography|Demographic]] and Health Surveys carried out every five years show that women in Kenya wanted fewer children than those in Uganda and that in Uganda there was also a greater unmet need for contraception. These differences may be attributed, in part at least, to the divergent paths of economic development followed by the two countries since independence and to the Kenya government's active promotion of family planning, which the [[Uganda]] government did not promote until 1995.<ref>{{Cite journal|display-authors=3|vauthors=Blacker J, Opiyo C, Jasseh M, Sloggett A, Ssekamatte-Ssebuliba J|date=2005|title=Fertility in Kenya and Uganda: A Comparative Study of Trends and Determinants|journal=Population Studies|volume=59|issue=3|pages=355–373|doi=10.1080/00324720500281672|pmid=16249155|jstor=30040477|s2cid=6415353}}</ref> ==== Presidency of Uhuru Kenyatta (2013-2022) ==== The 3rd President of Kenya [[Mwai Kibaki]] ruled since 2002 until 2013. After his tenure Kenya held its first general [[2013 Kenyan general election|elections]] after the new constitution had been passed in 2010.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Constitution of Kenya|url=http://kenyalaw.org:8181/exist/kenyalex/actview.xql?actid=Const2010|url-status=live|website=Kenya Law}}</ref> [[Uhuru Kenyatta]] (son of the first president Jomo Kenyatta) won in a disputed election result, leading to a petition by the opposition leader, [[Raila Odinga]]. The supreme court upheld the election results and President Kenyatta began his term with [[William Ruto]] as the deputy president. Despite the outcome of this ruling, the Supreme Court and the head of the Supreme Court were seen as powerful institutions that could carry out their role of checking the powers of the president.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2013-03-30|title=Uhuru Kenyatta's election victory is upheld by Kenya's supreme court|url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/mar/31/kenya-court-upholds-kenyatta-victory|access-date=2021-05-30|website=The Guardian|language=en}}</ref> In 2017, Uhuru Kenyatta won a second term in office in another disputed [[2017 Kenyan presidential election|election]]. Following the defeat, Raila Odinga again petitioned the results in the Supreme Court, accusing the electoral commission of mismanagement of the elections and Uhuru Kenyatta and his party of rigging. The Supreme Court overturned the election results in what became a landmark ruling in Africa and one of the very few in the world in which the results of a presidential elections were annulled.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2017-10-25|title=Kenya election rerun to go ahead after court fails to rule on delay|url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/oct/25/kenya-presidential-election-rerun-to-go-ahead-supreme-court|access-date=2021-05-30|website=The Guardian|language=en}}</ref> This ruling solidified the position of the Supreme Court as an independent body.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2017-09-01|title=Kenya court decision demonstrates respect for rule of law|url=https://www.idlo.int/kenya-court-decision-demonstrates-respect-rule-of-law|access-date=2021-05-30|website=IDLO - International Development Law Organization|language=en}}</ref> Consequently, Kenya had a second round of elections for the presidential position, in which Uhuru emerged the winner after Raila refused to participate, citing irregularities.<ref>{{Cite news|date=2020-01-07|title=Kenya profile - Timeline|language=en-GB|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-13682176|access-date=2021-05-30}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|date=2018-01-31|title=Kenya country profile|language=en-GB|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-13681341|access-date=2021-05-30}}</ref> The historical [[2018 Kenya handshake|handshake]] in March 2018 between president Uhuru Kenyatta and his long-time opponent Raila Odinga meant reconciliation followed by economic growth and increased stability.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.ft.com/content/59339450-d555-11e9-8d46-8def889b4137 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210/https://www.ft.com/content/59339450-d555-11e9-8d46-8def889b4137 |archive-date=10 December 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|title=Become an FT subscriber to read &#124; Financial Times|newspaper=Financial Times|date=November 2019|last1=Wilson|first1=Tom}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://kenyaconnection.org/the-handshake-that-shaped-a-nation/|title=The Handshake that Shaped a Nation|date=31 May 2018}}</ref> ==== Presidency of William Ruto (2022-) ==== In August 2022, Deputy President William Ruto narrowly won the [[2022 Kenyan general election|presidential election.]] He took 50.5% of the vote. His main rival, Raila Odinga, got 48.8% of the vote.<ref>{{cite news |title=Kenya election result: William Ruto wins presidential poll |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-62554210 |work=BBC News |date=15 August 2022}}</ref> On 13 September 2022, William Ruto was sworn in as Kenya's fifth president.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Obulutsa |first1=George |last2=Mersie |first2=Ayenat |title=William Ruto sworn in as Kenya's fifth president |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/william-ruto-be-sworn-kenyas-president-2022-09-13/ |work=Reuters |date=13 September 2022 |language=en}}</ref> ==See also== *[[Timeline of Kenya]] * Leaders: **[[Colonial Heads of Kenya]] **[[Heads of Government of Kenya]] (12 December 1963 to 12 December 1964) **[[Heads of State of Kenya]] (12 December 1964 to today) *[[Politics of Kenya]] * History of cities in Kenya: ** Mombasa [[Mombasa#History|history]] and [[Timeline of Mombasa|timeline]] ** Nairobi [[History of Nairobi|history]] and [[Timeline of Nairobi|timeline]] *[[History of Africa]] *[[History of Uganda]] *[[History of Tanzania]] *[[List of human evolution fossils]] ==References== {{reflist}} ==Bibliography== *{{Cite book|title=Kenya|url=https://archive.org/details/kenya0000bars|last=Barsby|first=Jane|publisher=Kuperard|year=2007|isbn=9781857333497|series=Culture Smart!: a quick guide to customs and etiquette|location=London|name-list-style=vanc}} *{{Cite book|title=The Culture of Politics in Modern Kenya|last=Haugerud|first=Angelique|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1995|isbn=9780521595902|edition=1st|series=African Studies|volume=84|location=Cambridge|pages=266|name-list-style=vanc}} *{{Cite book|title=Kenya Today: Breaking the Yoke of Colonialism in Africa|url=https://archive.org/details/kenyatodaybreaki0000mwau|last=Mwaura|first=Ndirangu|publisher=Algora Publishing|year=2005|isbn=9780875863214|pages=238|name-list-style=vanc}} *{{Cite book|title=Kenya|url=https://archive.org/details/kenya0000tomp|last1=Parkinson|first1=Tom|last2=Phillips|first2=Matt|publisher=Lonely Planet|year=2006|isbn=9781740597432|edition=6th|name-list-style=vanc}} *{{Cite book|title=The Rough Guide to Kenya|url=https://archive.org/details/roughguidetokeny0000tril|last1=Trillo|first1=Richard|last2=Jacobs|first2=Daniel|last3=Luckham|first3=Nana|publisher=Rough Guides|year=2006|isbn=9781843536512|edition=8th|location=London|name-list-style=vanc}} * Ogot, Bethwell A., ''History of the Southern Luo: Volume I, Migration and Settlement, 1500–1900'', (Series: ''Peoples of East Africa''), [[East African Publishing House]], Nairobi, 1967 ===History=== *{{Cite book|title=Histories of the Hanged: The Dirty War in Kenya and the End of Empire|last=Anderson|first=David|publisher=W. W. Norton|year=2005|isbn=9780393059861|edition=1st|location=New York|name-list-style=vanc|url=https://archive.org/details/historiesofhange00davi}} *{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=b6xeK3r4ybkC|title=Unhappy Valley: Conflict in Kenya and Africa|last1=Berman|first1=Bruce|last2=Lonsdale|first2=John|publisher=Ohio University Press|year=1992|isbn=9780852550991|volume=2|location=USA|name-list-style=vanc}} *{{Cite book|title=Kenya. Between Hope and Despair, 1963–2011|url=https://archive.org/details/kenyabetweenhope00dani|last=Branch|first=Daniel|publisher=Yale University Press|year=2011|isbn=9780300148763|location=New Haven, Connecticut|name-list-style=vanc}} *{{Cite book|title=Making ethnic ways: communities and their transformations in Taita, Kenya, 1800-1950|last=Bravman|first=Bill|publisher=James Currey|year=1998|isbn=0852556837|location=Oxford|name-list-style=vanc}} *{{Cite book|title=Labour and Poverty in Kenya, 1900–1980|last1=Collier|first1=Paul|last2=Lal|first2=Deepak|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1986|isbn=9780198285052|location=New York|name-list-style=vanc|url=https://archive.org/details/labourpovertyink0000coll}} *{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/stream/eastafricaprotec00eliouoft/#page/n8/mode/2up|title=The East Africa Protectorate|last=Eliot|first=Charles|publisher=E. Arnold|year=1905|ol=13518463M|name-list-style=vanc}} *{{Cite book|title=Imperial Reckoning: The Untold Story of Britain's Gulag in Kenya|url=https://archive.org/details/britainsgulag0000caro|last=Elkins|first=Caroline|publisher=Holt Paperbacks|year=2005|isbn=9781844135486|edition=1st|location=New York|name-list-style=vanc}} *{{Cite book|title=Kenya: From Colonization to Independence, 1888-1970|url=https://archive.org/details/kenyafromcoloniz0000gath|last=Gatheru|first=Mugo R.|publisher=McFarland & Co.|year=2005|isbn=9780786421992|location=USA|name-list-style=vanc|author-link=Mugo Gatheru}} *{{Cite book|title=The First Human: The Race to Discover Our Earliest Ancestors|url=https://archive.org/details/firsthumanraceto0000anng|last=Gibbons|first=Ann|publisher=Anchor Books|year=2007|isbn=9781400076963|location=New York|name-list-style=vanc}} *{{Cite book|title=Western Educated Elites in Kenya, 1900–1963: The African American Factor|last=Harper|first=James C.|publisher=Routledge|year=2006|isbn=9780415977302|editor-last=Asante|editor-first=Molefi|series=African Studies|name-list-style=vanc}} *{{Cite book|title=African Womanhood In Colonial Kenya: 1900-1950|url=https://archive.org/details/africanwomanhood0000kano|last=Kanogo|first=Tabitha|publisher=Ohio University Press|year=2005|isbn=9780821415689|edition=1st|series=Eastern African Studies|name-list-style=vanc}} *{{Cite journal|vauthors=Kanyinga K|date=2009|title=The legacy of the white highlands: Land rights, ethnicity and the post-2007 election violence in Kenya|journal=[[Journal of Contemporary African Studies|J. Contemp. Afr. Stud.]]|volume=27|issue=3|pages=325–344|doi=10.1080/02589000903154834|s2cid=154527979}} *{{Cite book|title="They called us Bloody Foreigners." Jewish Refugees in Kenya, 1933 until the 1950s|last=Kasper-Holtkotte|first=Cilli|publisher=Hentrich & Hentrich|year=2019|isbn=978-3-95565-361-3|location=Berlin/Leipzig, Germany|name-list-style=vanc}} *{{Cite book|title=Class and Economic Change in Kenya: The Making of an African Petite-Bourgeoisie|last=Kitching|first=Gavin N.|publisher=Yale University Press|year=1980|isbn=9780300023855|name-list-style=vanc|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/classeconomiccha0002kitc}} *{{Cite book|title=The Politics of the Independence of Kenya|url=https://archive.org/details/politicsofindepe0000kyle_r0d0|last=Kyle|first=Keith|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|year=1999|isbn=9780333760987|location=UK|doi=10.1057/9780230377707|name-list-style=vanc}} *{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W5Ge4gqxLuIC|title=Empire State-Building: War and Welfare in Kenya, 1925–52|last=Lewis|first=Joanna|publisher=James Currey|year=2000|isbn=9780852557853|location=Oxford|name-list-style=vanc}} *{{Cite journal|vauthors=Lonsdale J, Berman B|date=1979|title=Coping with the Contradictions: The Development of the Colonial State in Kenya, 1895-1914|journal=[[The Journal of African History|J. Afr. Hist.]]|publisher=Cambridge University Press|volume=20|issue=4|pages=487–505|doi=10.1017/S0021853700017503|jstor=181774|doi-access=free}} *{{Cite book|title=Land, Ecology and Resistance in Kenya, 1880–1952|vauthors=Mackenzie F|publisher=Edinburgh University Press|year=1998|isbn=9780748610211}} *{{Cite book|title=Mau Mau and Kenya: An Analysis of a Peasant Revolt|url=https://archive.org/details/maumaukenyaanaly0000malo|last=Maloba|first=Wunyabari O.|publisher=Indiana University Press|year=1993|isbn=9780253336644|edition=1st|series=Blacks in the Diaspora|location=Bloomington|name-list-style=vanc}} *{{Cite book|title=Historical Dictionary of Kenya|vauthors=Maxon RM, Ofcansky TP|publisher=Scarecrow Press|year=2000|isbn=9780810836167|edition=2nd|location=Lanham, Md.|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/historicaldictio0000maxo}} *{{Cite book|url=https://www.questia.com/library/120091691/going-their-separate-ways-agrarian-transformation|title=Going Their Separate Ways: Agrarian Transformation in Kenya, 1930–1950|last=Maxon|first=Robert M.|publisher=Fairleigh Dickinson University Press|year=2003|isbn=9780838638934|location=Madison, NJ|name-list-style=vanc}} *{{Cite book|title=Kenya: The Quest for Prosperity|vauthors=Miller NN, Yeager R|publisher=Westview Press|year=1994|isbn=9780813382012|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/kenyaquestforpro00mill}} *{{Cite book|title=British rule in Kenya, 1895-1912|vauthors=Mungeam GH|publisher=Clarendon Press|year=1966|location=Oxford|oclc=418768}} *{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZgRV1g62M34C|title=Health, State, and Society in Kenya|last=Ndege|first=George Oduor|publisher=University of Rochester Press|year=2001|isbn=9781580460996|series=Rochester studies in African history and the diaspora|jstor=10.7722/j.ctt1bh2msr|name-list-style=vanc|chapter=Faces of Contact and Change}} *{{Cite book|title=Economic History of Kenya|url=https://archive.org/details/economichistoryo00ochi|publisher=East African Educational Publishers Ltd.|year=1992|isbn=9789966469632|veditors=Ochieng' WR, Maxon RM|location=Nairobi, Kenya|oclc=655670874}} *{{Cite book|title=Themes in Kenyan History|url=https://archive.org/details/themesinkenyanhi0000unse|publisher=Ohio University Press|year=1991|isbn=9780821409770|veditors=Ochieng' WR}} *{{Cite book|title=A Modern History of Kenya: In Honour of Professor B. A. Ogot|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_0237510820|publisher=Evans Brothers|year=1989|isbn=9780237510824|veditors=Ochieng' WR|location=Nairobi, Kenya}} *{{Cite book|title=Mau Mau and Nationhood: Arms, Authority, and Narration|url=https://archive.org/details/maumaunationhood0000unse|publisher=Ohio University Press|year=2003|isbn=9780821414835|veditors=Odhiambo A, Lonsdale J|location=Athens, USA}} *{{Cite journal|vauthors=Odhiambo A|date=2006|title=Ethnic Cleansing and Civil Society in Kenya 1969–1992|journal=[[Journal of Contemporary African Studies|J. Contemp. Afr. Stud.]]|volume=22|issue=1|pages=29–42|doi=10.1080/0258900042000179599|s2cid=153973377}} *{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/decolonizationin0000unse|title=Decolonization & Independence in Kenya, 1940-93|publisher=James Currey|year=1995|isbn=9780852557051|veditors=Ogot BA, Ochieng WR|location=London|url-access=registration}} *{{Cite book|title=Historical dictionary of Kenya|vauthors=Ogot BA|publisher=Scarecrow Press|year=1981|isbn=9780810814196|series=African historical dictionaries|volume=29|location=Metuchen, N.J.|oclc=7596161}} *{{Cite book|title=Britain, Kenya and the Cold War: Imperial Defence, Colonial Security and Decolonisation|last=Percox|first=David A.|publisher=I.B. Tauris|year=2004|isbn=9781850434603|series=International Library of African Studies|volume=13|location=London|name-list-style=vanc}} *{{Cite book|title=The International Politics of East Africa|url=https://archive.org/details/internationalpol0000pink|last=Pinkney|first=Robert|publisher=Manchester University Press|year=2001|isbn=9780719056161|location=UK|name-list-style=vanc}} Compares Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania. *{{Cite book|title=Peaceful Resistance: Advancing Human Rights and Democratic Freedoms|url=https://archive.org/details/peacefulresistan0000pres|last=Press|first=Robert M.|publisher=Ashgate Publishing Ltd.|year=2006|isbn=9780754647133|location=Aldershot, UK|name-list-style=vanc}} *{{Cite book|title=Church, State and Society in Kenya: From Mediation to Opposition, 1963–1993|last=Sabar|first=Galia|publisher=Taylor & Francis Ltd.|year=2002|isbn=9780714650777|location=London|name-list-style=vanc|author-link=Galia Sabar}} *{{Cite book|title=Christianity and the Kikuyu: Religious Divisions and Social Conflict|url=https://archive.org/details/christianitykiku0000sand|last=Sandgren|first=David P.|publisher=Peter Lang Publishing Inc.|year=2000|isbn=9780820448671|edition=2nd|location=USA|name-list-style=vanc}} *{{Cite book|title=Kenya, the Kikuyu and Mau Mau|last=Smith|first=David Lovatt|publisher=Mawenzi Books|year=2005|isbn=9780954471323|location=Herstmonceux, UK|name-list-style=vanc}} *{{Cite book|title=Black Poachers, White Hunters: A Social History of Hunting in Colonial Kenya|url=https://archive.org/details/blackpoacherswhi0000stei|last=Steinhart|first=Edward I.|publisher=James Currey|year=2006|isbn=9780852559611|location=Oxford, UK|name-list-style=vanc}} *{{Cite book|title=Capitalism and Nationalism at the End of Empire: State and Business in Decolonizing Egypt, Nigeria, and Kenya, 1945-1963|url=https://archive.org/details/capitalismnation0000tign|last=Tignor|first=Robert L.|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=1998|isbn=9780691015842|location=New Jersey, USA|name-list-style=vanc}} *{{Cite journal|vauthors=Wamagatta EN|date=2009|title=British Administration and the Chiefs' Tyranny in Early Colonial Kenya: A Case Study of the First Generation of Chiefs from Kiambu District, 1895–1920|journal=[[Journal of Asian and African Studies|J. Asian Afr. Stud.]]|volume=44|issue=4|pages=371–388|doi=10.1177/0021909609105090|s2cid=146279215}} Argues that the chiefs' tyranny in early colonial Kenya had its roots in the British administrative style since the Government needed strong-handed local leaders to enforce its unpopular laws and regulations. *{{Cite book|url=https://trove.nla.gov.au/version/12951008|title=The agricultural history of Kenya to 1939|last=van Zwanenberg|first=Roger|publisher=East African Publishing House|year=1972|series=Historical Association of Kenya|volume=1|location=Nairobi|name-list-style=vanc}} *{{Cite book|title=Economics of Colonialism: Britain and Kenya, 1870–1930|url=https://archive.org/details/economicsofcolon0000wolf|last=Wolff|first=Richard D.|publisher=Yale University Press|year=1974|isbn=9780300016390|location=USA|name-list-style=vanc}} ==Primary sources== *{{Cite book|url=http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/26402/|title=From Mau Mau to Harambee: Memoirs and Memoranda of Colonial Kenya|volume=17|last=Askwith|first=Tom|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1995|isbn=9780902993303|editor-last=Lewis|editor-first=Joanna|location=Cambridge, UK|name-list-style=vanc|url-access=registration}} *{{Cite book|url=https://derekrpeterson.com/books/the-life-of-charles-muhoro-kareri/|title=The Life of Charles Muhoro Kareri|last=Kareri|first=Charles Muhuro|publisher=University of Wisconsin-Madison|year=2003|editor-last=Peterson|editor-first=Derek R.|series=Wisconsin African Studies Program|translator-last=Muriithi|translator-first=Joseph Kariuki|name-list-style=vanc}} *{{Cite book|title=Unbowed: A Memoir|last=Maathai|first=Wangari Muta|publisher=Knopf|year=2006|isbn=9780307263483|name-list-style=vanc|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/unbowedmemoir0000maat}} {{Years in Kenya}} {{Kenya topics}} {{History of Africa}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Kenya, History of}} [[Category:History of Kenya| ]] [[Category:Articles containing video clips]] epdzbnu3yt8yu7edtv4fqwoff7tkyq7 0 25815 119265 110173 2026-08-13T13:04:42Z Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi 11606 /* growthexperiments-addlink-summary-summary:3|0|0 */ 119265 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox settlement <!--See the Table at Infobox Settlement for all fields and descriptions of usage--> <!-- Basic info ---------------->| official_name = Kitwe | other_name = | native_name = <!-- for cities whose native name is not in English --> | nickname = | settlement_type = City | motto = Lets Build Us A City | image_skyline = Kitwe cityscape2 - Flickr.jpg | imagesize = 250px | image_caption = View towards the City of Kitwe, Zambia | image_flag = Kitwe_Flags.gif | flag_size = | image_seal = | seal_size = | image_shield = | shield_size = | image_blank_emblem = | blank_emblem_type = | blank_emblem_size = | image_map = | mapsize = | map_caption = | image_map1 = | mapsize1 = | map_caption1 = | image_dot_map = | dot_mapsize = | dot_map_caption = | dot_x = | dot_y = | pushpin_map = Zambia<!-- the name of a location map as per http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Location_map --> | pushpin_label_position = bottom | pushpin_map_caption = Location in Zambia <!-- Location ------------------>| subdivision_type = Country | subdivision_name = {{flagdeco|ZAM}} [[Zambia]] | subdivision_type1 = [[Provinces of Zambia|Province]] | subdivision_name1 = [[Copperbelt Province|Copperbelt]] | subdivision_type2 = [[Districts of Zambia#Copperbelt Province|District]] | subdivision_name2 = [[Kitwe District|Kitwe]] | subdivision_type3 = | subdivision_name3 = | subdivision_type4 = | subdivision_name4 = <!-- Politics -----------------> | government_footnotes = | government_type = Mayor-Council | leader_title = Mayor | leader_name = Christopher Kang'ombe | leader_title1 = <!-- for places with, say, both a mayor and a city manager --> | leader_name1 = | leader_title2 = | leader_name2 = | leader_title3 = | leader_name3 = | leader_title4 = | leader_name4 = | established_title = <!-- Settled --> | established_date = | established_title2 = <!-- Incorporated (town) --> | established_date2 = | established_title3 = <!-- Incorporated (city) --> | established_date3 = <!-- Area ---------------------> | area_magnitude = | unit_pref = Imperial <!--Enter: Imperial, if Imperial (metric) is desired--> | area_footnotes = | area_total_km2 = <!-- ALL fields dealing with a measurements are subject to automatic unit conversion--> | area_land_km2 = <!--See table @ Template:Infobox Settlement for details on automatic unit conversion--> | area_water_km2 = | area_total_sq_mi = | area_land_sq_mi = | area_water_sq_mi = | area_water_percent = | area_urban_km2 = | area_urban_sq_mi = | area_metro_km2 = | area_metro_sq_mi = | area_blank1_title = | area_blank1_km2 = | area_blank1_sq_mi = <!-- Population -----------------------> | population_as_of = 2010 census | population_footnotes = | population_demonym = Kitwean | population_note = | population_total = 517,543 | population_density_km2 = | population_density_sq_mi = | population_metro = | population_density_metro_km2 = | population_density_metro_sq_mi = | population_urban = | population_density_urban_km2 = | population_density_urban_sq_mi = | population_blank1_title = Ethnicities | population_blank1 = | population_blank2_title = Religions | population_blank2 = | population_density_blank1_km2 = | population_density_blank1_sq_mi = <!-- General information ---------------> | timezone = [[Central Africa Time|CAT]] | utc_offset = +2 | timezone_DST = | utc_offset_DST = | coordinates = {{coord|12|49|S|28|12|E|region:ZM|display=inline}} | elevation_footnotes = <!--for references: use <ref> </ref> tags--> | elevation_m = | elevation_ft = <!-- Area/postal codes & others --------> | postal_code_type = <!-- enter ZIP code, Postcode, Post code, Postal code... --> | postal_code = | area_code = 0212 | blank_name_sec1 = [[Human Development Index|HDI]] (2019) | blank_info_sec1 = 0.658<ref name="GlobalDataLab">{{Cite web|url=https://hdi.globaldatalab.org/areadata/shdi/|title=Sub-national HDI – Area Database – Global Data Lab|website=hdi.globaldatalab.org|access-date=2018-09-13}}</ref><br/>{{color|#FFD215|Medium}} | blank_name = [[Köppen climate classification|Climate]] | blank_info = [[Humid subtropical climate|Cwa]] | blank1_name = | blank1_info = | website = [http://www.kcc.gov.zm/ Kitwe City Council] | footnotes = }} '''Kitwe''' ni msumba ukuru comene wacitatu mu [[Zambia]] (panyuma pa Lusaka na Ndola) ndiposo msumba ukuru comene waciŵiri mu Zambia (panyuma pa Lusaka). Mu charu ichi muli ŵanthu 517 543 (2010 census provisional). Ku mpoto na kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa msumba uwu kuli migodi yinandi.<ref name="Google">[http://earth.google.com Google Earth] accessed 2007.</ref> Kitwe yili mu chigaŵa cha Copperbelt ndipo yili na matawuni na malo gha ku mizi nga ni Parklands, Riverside, Buchi, Chimwemwe, Kwacha, Nkana East, Nkana West, Garneton, Ndeke, Miseshi, Wusakile, Mindolo, Chachacha na Race Course. Nyengo zinyake msumba uwu ukuchemeka Kitwe-Nkana. Nkana wakafuma ku zina la Mulara Nkana wa ŵanthu ŵakuyowoya chiLamba mu chigaŵa cha Copperbelt. Malo ghake ghakukwana matawuni gha Kitwe, Mufulira, Kalulushi-Chibuluma na Chambishi. Kitwe yili na masukulu gha boma na ghapadera agho ghakuphatikizapo Lechwe School, Mpelembe Secondary School, Kitwe Boys Secondary School, Parklands Secondary School, Mukuba Secondary School, Nkana Trust School na Helen Kaunda Secondary School. Kweniso ku Zambia kuli yunivesite ya Copperbelt University, iyo ni yunivesite yaciŵiri pa yunivesite zose mu Zambia.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Copperbelt University |url=https://www.cbu.ac.zm/ |access-date=2022-07-19 |website=www.cbu.ac.zm |language=en}}</ref> == Mbili == Zina lakuti Kitwe likufuma ku lizgu Lachilumba lakuti Ichitwe (mutu ukuru), cifukwa pambere ŵanthu ŵandambe kupanga vinthu mu vyaru ivi, Ŵalumba ŵakasanga mutu wa njovu yakufwa. Msumba wa Kitwe uli mu cigaŵa ca Mulara Nkana. Mu chigaŵa ichi mukaŵavya migodi apo migodi yikambanga mu m'ma 1930. Kitwe yikapangika mu 1936 kumpoto kwa Zambia apo njanji yikazengekanga na kampani ya Cecil Rhodes. Pakwamba, likapangika kuti liŵe chigaŵa chakusazgako ku malo ghakusangirapo mkuwa ku Nkana. Nkana ndiyo yikaŵa msumba ukuru chomene mu chigaŵa ichi chifukwa cha migodi ya mkuwa iyo yikaŵa pafupi, ndipo Kitwe wakamba kukura chomene mu vyaka ivi. Mu 1937, nthowa yikuru ya Railways ya ku Rhodesia yikafika mu tawuni iyi, ndipo yikendanga m'paka ku Bulawayo, mu charu icho sono chikuchemeka [[Zimbabwe]]. Mzere uwu ukafika ku DR Congo, ndipo kufuma kura ukakhwaskana na Benguela Railway ku Atlantic port ya Lobito ku Angola, uko kukaŵa vyakurya vinyake vya mkuwa ivyo Zambia yikaguliskanga kweni sono kulije. Chifukwa cha kukwera kwa mitengo ya mkuwa mu ma 1950, Kitwe yikakura kufuma ku tawuni yichoko chomene kuya ku msumba ukuru waciŵiri mu Zambia, ndipo yikaŵa msumba mu 1966. Kufuma apo, malo agha ghakazgoka malo gha vyamalonda, ndipo pamasinda ghakazgoka gha ulimi. Chifukwa chakuti msumba uwu uli pakati pa chigaŵa cha Copperbelt, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakutemwa kuwuzenga. == Migodi == {{Main|Mining in Zambia}} Mu Kitwe ndimo muli migodi yinandi, kusazgapo migodi ya mkuwa ya Mopani. Ku Kitwe kuli mkuŵa, cobalt, na smaragd. Mu tawuni iyi ndimo muli Nkana Cobalt Plant, umoza mwa migodi yikuru comene mu Africa. Malo agha ghali pa mtunda wa 1 km kumwera ca kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Kitwe. Mina ya Nkana ndiyo njakunyang'amira comene mu Zambia. Lili na migodi yiŵiri pasi pa mamita 1,300 na migodi yitatu yakujulika. Pa malo agha, ŵakugwiliskira ntchito mabomba gha cobalt kuti ŵapange visulo vya cobalt. Ku Nkana, mkuwa na cobalt vikupangika kufuma ku malo ghankhondi: migodi yinayi ya pasi, Mindola North Shaft, Mindola Sub Vertical Shaft, Central Shaft, South Ore Body (SOB) Shaft na migodi yakujulika iyo yili mu Nkana Oxide Cap. Pano pali mazina gha makampani gha migodi mu Kitwe (kufika mu 2019), * Mopani Copper Mines Nkana Cobalt Plant * Konkola Copper Mines Copper Refining Plant * EC Mining * Grizzly Mining * Kagem Mining Ltd * African Mining Consultants * Sandvik Mining * AAC Mining Executors Ltd Such a concentration of mining companies makes Kitwe the mining hub of Zambia == Ma Kampani == Ku Kitwe kuli makampani ghanandi agho ghakupanga vinthu vinandi. Msumba uwu ukupangiska vinthu vinandi nga ni vyakurya, visulo, vinthu vya magesi na vyamagesi, vinthu vya makemikali, maofesi gha munthavi na vinyake vinandi. Makampani ghanyake agho ghakumanyikwa ni SCAW Limited, Piggot Maskew Limited, na Monarch. == Kuyowoya == === Njanji === Kitwe wali ku mphelerekezgo ya Zambia Railways ya ŵanthu kufuma ku Livingstone, Lusaka na Ndola, kweni katundu wakuluta ku matawuni gha migodi kumpoto-kumanjiliro gha dazi. === Misewu === Msewu ukuru wa Copperbelt (T3 Highway) ukufuma kumwera kwa kumafumiro gha dazi kuya kumpoto-kumanjiliro gha dazi mu msumba uwu, m'paka ku Ndola (mwakuyana na msewu unyake) kumwera kwa kumafumiro gha dazi, na Chingola (mwakuyana na msewu unyake) na Chililabombwe kumpoto-kumanjiliro gha dazi. Msewu wa laterite (M7 Road) ukufika kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Kalulushi na Kasempa.<ref name="ITM">Terracarta/International Travel Maps, Vancouver Canada: "Zambia, 2nd edition", 2000</ref> === Malo gha Ndege === Malo gha ndege gha Southdowns ghali pa mtunda wa makilomita 12 kumwera ca kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa tawuni iyi kweni ghakupokelera maulendo ghanandi yayi. Mu 2005, ndege iyi yikajalika kuti yinozgeke, ndipo yikajulika mu 2008. Ndege ya Ndola yili pa mtunda wa makilomita 50 kumwera cha kumafumiro gha dazi ndipo yikwenda maulendo gha ndege kufuma ku Lusaka, Solwezi, Addis Ababa, Nairobi, na [[Johannesburg]].<ref name="Google" /> == Masambilo == === Sukulu === A student and teacher exchange programme was introduced in 1999 with teacher exchange visits by [[:en:Kingsmead_School,_Wiveliscombe|Kingsmead Community School]] in [[:en:Wiveliscombe|Wiveliscombe]], England with two Kitwe schools – Helen Kaunda High School and Mukuba High School. This started a series of partnerships between Zambian schools such as Chamboli, Mukuba, Ndeke Secondary, Ndeke Basic, Kitwe Boys, Kitwe Basic, Wesely Nyerenda, Fatima, Nkana High, etc. and UK schools, and there are now over 30 such school partnerships. Students from Kingsmead paid a visit to the Kitwe schools in 2005.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20051112165259/http://www.times.co.zm/news/viewnews.cgi?category=8&id=1123874431 "Zambia/UK student partnerships fostering multi-cultural relations"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051112165259/http://www.times.co.zm/news/viewnews.cgi?category=8&id=1123874431|date=12 November 2005}}, Gethsemane Mwizabi, [[Times of Zambia]], 2005</ref> Kitwe has a number of private schools, six being: '''Kitwe International School''' is a privately owned international school with a campus in Nkana West at plot 10, 9th Avenue, off Boma Street. It offers quality tuition in sciences and arts. It also offers tuition for degree programs especially to students studying by distance. It offers consultancy services in project proposals and dissertation writeup. The school became operational on 1 June 2012: '''Lechwe School''' ni sukulu yikuru comene mu msumba uwu. Ili ni sukulu ya caru cose, ndipo likusambizga ŵana ŵa sukulu, ŵana ŵa sukulu ŵakwambilira, ŵana ŵa sukulu ŵa sekondare, na ŵana ŵa sukulu ŵa masambiro ghapachanya. Sukulu ya Lechwe yili na visopa vinandi, ntheura palije visambizgo vinandi vya cisopa, kweni pali masambiro ghanandi gha masambiro gha ku sekondare. Sukulu iyi yikumanyikwa na ndondomeko yiweme ya kulanga ŵana na milimo yinandi yakufumapo pa sukulu nga ni chess, table tennis, volleyball, basketball, tennis, squash, rugby, hockey, football, cricket, athletics, swimming, softball, netball, handball, baseball, rounders, a Duke of Edinburgh program, and martial arts. Sukulu ya Lechwe yikumanyikwa chifukwa cha maluso gha ŵana ŵake: wakuseŵera Ellen Hight wakayimira Zambia pa maseŵera gha ku Summer Olympic mu 2000, ŵakuseŵera Andre na Ursula Kuenzli ŵakayimira Zambia pa maseŵera gha Commonwealth mu England mu Julayi 2002, Jacob Mulenga wakaseŵera pa timu ya mpira wa ku Zambia, ndipo wakuseŵera Jade Howard wakayimira Zambia pa FINA World Championship. Eppa Tembo, uyo wakuchita maseŵero gha chesi, wakayimira charu cha Zambia pa maseŵero gha pa charu chose mu 2008. '''Mpelembe Secondary School''' Sukulu iyi njimoza mwa masukulu ghakurughakuru mu msumba uwu. Likupeleka masambiro gha ku Zambia na masambiro gha ku Cambridge. Pa sukulu 10 zakwamba chomene mu Zambia, Mpelembe yili na masukulu ghanandi chomene agho ghakupokelera ŵana ŵa sukulu ŵa kilasi la 8 na 10. Caka cilicose, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakujipeleka ndipo ŵakulembeka ŵakujumpha 150. Mpelembe wali na mapulogiramu gha viyezgelero vya Cambridge Local Examination Syndicate. Ŵasambiri awo ŵakufiska masambiro agha ŵakuluta ku yunivesite za ku United Kingdom, United States, Canada, South Africa, na vyaru vinyake vyakutukuka. Ŵasambiri ŵa ku Mpelembe ŵakutemwa chomene masukulu agha: University of Manchester, Birmingham, UMIST, Imperial College, Leeds University. Sukulu ya Migodi ya ku Camborne ndiyo yikovwira ŵana ŵa sukulu awo ŵakusambira vya migodi. Pa sukulu iyi pakaŵa ŵana ŵa sukulu awo ŵakasambiranga makora chomene. Ŵasambiri aŵa ŵali na wupu wakuchemeka MESA [Mpelembe Ex-Students Association] uwo ukupeleka wovwiri ku ŵana ŵa sukulu awo ŵakukhumba kusambira mu kilasi la 10 na 12. Ŵana ŵa sukulu ŵa ku Mpelembe ŵali palipose pa caru cose ndipo ŵakuteŵetera mabungwe ghakupambanapambana, kwambira ku maboma mpaka ku Google. '''Nkana Trust School''' ni sukulu iyo yikupeleka masambiro gha ku sukulu, ya pulayimale, na ya sekondare. Likupeleka masambiro gha ku Zambia. Sukulu ya Nkana Trust School yikumanyikwa kuti njimoza mwa masukulu gha maseŵero na masambiro ghapachanya chomene mu msumba uwu na mu charu chose. Ŵana ŵa sukulu za Nkana Trust ŵakuŵa na vilato viwemi chomene pa viyezgelero vyaumaliro vya kilasi la nambara 7 kweniso vya kilasi la nambara 10 na 12. Nkana trust, panji kuti Kitana trust, yikupangiska kuti paŵe ŵanthu ŵakumanyikwa nga ni themba la Zambia la vyakusekeska na mulongozgi wa mafilimu, Bob Nkosha. '''Elim Primary School''' ni sukulu yichoko iyo yikupeleka masambiro gha ku sukulu na masambiro gha ku pulayimale (pre-school and primary school) ku Zambia (makamaka Macmillan na Longman), ndipo yikupeleka masambiro gha kuskamba na maseŵero gha maseŵero ghankhongono kanayi pa sabata. Nangauli sukulu iyi njakutowa, kweni yikupeleka mafumbo ghanandi gha mu kilasi la nambara 7. [[File:St_John_Convent_School_Kitwe.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:St_John_Convent_School_Kitwe.jpg|thumb|350x350px|St John's Convent Catholic School in Kitwe.]] '''St. Johns Convent School''' Sukulu iyi njimoza mwa masukulu ghakurughakuru gha Katolika mu chigaŵa ichi, sukulu iyi yikupeleka masambiro gha kusukulu, masambiro gha ku pulayimale na masambiro gha ku sekondare kuyana na masukulu gha ku Zambia. Sukulu iyi yikambiska na kwendeska na ŵadumbu ŵa Yohane Mubatizi (Ŵabatizini). '''Sukulu ya Kawama Pentecostal Holiness Schoo'''l (yakuti yinganangika yayi na sukulu ya Kawama School mu Kamitondo) pasono yikuzengeka na sukulu ya Cranleigh School mwakukolerana na bungwe la UK, Beyond Ourselves. Sukulu iyi yili ku Kitwe, mu cigaŵa ca Kawama. Mu Ogasiti 2011, ŵana ŵa sukulu 17 ŵa ku Cranleigh School ŵakagwiliskira ntchito masabata ghaŵiri kuti ŵajare nyumba ya vipinda vinayi. Ulendo unyake wa ku sukulu ya Cranleigh ukunozgekera mu Okutobala 2011 na cilato cakuti nyumba ya sukulu iyi yimare kuzengeka na kujurira sukulu yiphya ku ŵana ŵa sukulu 210 (awo pasono ŵakusambira mu nyumba ya mpingo wa cipinda cimoza) mu Janyuwale 2012. Ntchito ya kuzenga iyi yikagwiliskirika nchito na ndalama izo zikawuskika pa ungano wa Sponsored Walk uwo ukacitika mu cihanya ca 2010, ndipo uwu ndiwo ukaŵa wambiro wa ubwezi wa nyengo yitali pakati pa Cranleigh na Kawama School. Sukulu ya Cranleigh sono yikugwira nchito ya kupanga pulogiramu ya kovwira ŵana ku Kawama iyo yizamupeleka malipiro ku ŵantchito (kuti ŵafiske masambiro ghawo) pamoza na cakurya ca mise ndiposo yunifomu ya sukulu kwa mwana waliyose. Ndondomeko ya vyakurya iyo yikupeleka chakurya njakuzirwa comene cifukwa yikovwira ŵanakazi ŵa mu cigaŵa ici kuti ŵagwirenge nchito mu khichini, kweniso yikovwira kuti ŵana ŵaryenge cakurya cimoza zuŵa lililose. Mu cigaŵa ico ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵali na HIV na AIDS, ndipo ŵana ŵanandi ŵakumwa munkhwala wakukoma majeremusi, ntchakuzirwa comene kuti ŵaryenge makora. Sukulu ya Cranleigh sono yikukhumba kovwira ŵana wose awo ŵakusambira pa sukulu ya Kawama. Ŵakucita nthena kwizira mu kuŵeyelera ŵapapi, ndiposo mu makampeni agho ghakucitika mu nyumba yiliyose ya ŵana. Ku Kitwe kuli sukulu ya migodi, Konkola Trust School, iyo yikusambizga ŵanthu ŵakugwilira nchito mu migodi ya mkuwa; ndiposo gulu la ŵanthu awo ŵakwenda pa ndege ilo likusambizga ŵanthu awo ŵakwenda pa ndege pafupi na malo ghakuwonelerapo. Gulu ili lili pa malo agho pakaŵa chiŵanja cha ndege cha Kitwe. === Universities, Colleges and Institutes === Kitwe has three universities: '''[[:en:Copperbelt_University|CBU (Copperbelt University)]]''' is a public university that was initially the Zambia Institute of Technology (ZIT), then part of [[:en:University_of_Zambia|UNZA (University of Zambia)]] (oddly, as University of Zambia, Ndola campus, "UNZANDO"). It was separated and established as an independent institution in 1987. It is one of the biggest universities in the country as it has 5,000 students and 600 members of staff. The university is organised under a lifelong education directorate and ten schools namely:<ref>{{Cite web |title=Programmes |url=http://www.cbu.edu.zm/index.php/programs# |access-date=2016-06-03 |website=www.cbu.edu.zm}}</ref> * School of [[:en:Built_environment|Built Environment]] * School of Business * School of Engineering * Dag Hammarskjöld Institute of Peace and Conflict Studies * School of Mathematics and [[:en:Natural_science|Natural Sciences]] * School of Medicine * School of Communication, Information, and Technology * School of [[:en:Natural_resource|Natural Resources]] * [[:en:Distance_education|Distance Education]] * [[:en:Graduate_school|Graduate Studies]] '''[[:en:Copperstone_University|Copperstone University]]''' a privately owned university, located in the adjacent [[:en:Luanshya_District|Luanshya District]] on the [[:en:T3_road_(Zambia)|Ndola-Kitwe Dual Carriageway]]. '''[[:en:Zambia_Catholic_University|Zambia Catholic University]]''' a private university owned and run by the Zambia Episcopal Conference is located in [[:en:Kalulushi_District|Kalulushi]], 15.2&nbsp;km (15 minutes drive) from the city of Kitwe. '''[[:en:Mukuba_University|Mukuba University]]''' formerly known as Copperbelt Secondary Teachers' College (cosetco), has had the important specialized function of training teachers of Science, Mathematics and Home Economics for the nation's secondary schools, a task it has performed since it was first opened by the Ministry of Education in 1974. The city is also home to many colleges and institutes. KCE (Kitwe College of Education) opened in 1935 – formerly called KTTC (Kitwe Teachers' Training College) – The largest Primary teachers' College in Zambia. Currently, It offers certificates in Primary and Pre-school teachers' education. From 2011 it will start offering diploma courses in primary teachers Education. '''ZIBSIP (Zambia Institute of Business Studies and Industrial Practice)'''-an institute that provides Business courses. '''Kitwe Community Development Staff Training College--- A government institution, officially opened in September 1966, that provides training in Community Development''' === Mindolo Ecumenical Foundation === The Mindolo Ecumenical Foundation, founded in 1958, in Mindolo Township, Kitwe. Mindolo is an interdenominational center that serves as a place of worship, study, consultation and reconciliation. The campus includes: * [[:en:DMI_St._Eugene_University|DMI-St. Eugene University]], Kitwe centre.*[https://web.archive.org/web/20160716171935/http://www.dmisteugene.org/] * Africa Literature Center * [[:en:YWCA|Young Women's Christian Association]] * United Church of Zambia Theological College * [https://web.archive.org/web/20230428071651/http://teezambia.org/ Theological Education by Extension in Zambia (TEEZ)] * St. John's Anglican Seminary * A peace training programme called "The Dag Hammarskjöld 'Messengers of Peace' Training Programme" * It used to host the "Africa Literature Centre (ALC)" a journalism school co-sponsored by churches that drew its students across African countries and the Americas. It was established in 1958, under the name All Africa Christian Literature Centre, as a pan-African institution specializing in the training of African journalists, writers and artists. Currently widely known as Africa Literature Centre for Art and Journalism Training and as Pan-African School for Journalism and Art, but closed in 1998 due to financial difficulties. The Dag Hammarskjöld 'Messengers of Peace' Training Programme is run by the Foundation. The objectives of this bi-annual two-week training programme are: * To spread information and knowledge of conflict resolution at different levels of society in Africa and the world; * To promote a culture of peaceful conflict resolution among people. In addition to this two-week training programme, the Mindolo Ecumenical Foundation (MEF), which executes the programme, offers a three-month Peace Certificate covering conflict analysis, conflict resolution, human rights, training of trainers, mediation skills, restorative justice and non-violent strategies. A nine-month Peace Certificate in conflict resolution, peace-building, computer training and democracy is also offered. == Health care == Kitwe has a good health care system. Dentist surgeries include: * Sinozam hospital * Wusakile Mine Hospital * Tejani's Surgery * Esthetix Optical clinics include: * Kitwe central hospital (State Hospital) Other health facilities and Hospitals include: * Wusakile Mine Hospital * Hillview Medical Centre * Company Clinic * Progress Hospital * Kitwe Central Hospital * Sinozam Hospital * Lubambe Medical Centre * Kitwe Polyclinic * Ndeke Village Hospital == Demographics == === Population === Kuyana na boma la Kitwe City Council, ku Kitwe kukaŵa ŵanthu 24 peresenti mu chigaŵa cha Copperbelt mu 2019. Wupu wa United Nations World Population Prospects ukati chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu ŵa ku Kitwe mu 2021 chikaŵa 710,000 apo wupu wa Zambia Statistics Agency ukati chiŵelengero ichi chikaŵa 738,320. Mu tawuni iyi muli ŵanthu ŵakujumpha hafu ya ŵanthu wose ŵa mu chigaŵa cha Copperbelt. === Religion === [[File:Churches_in_Kitwe.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Churches_in_Kitwe.jpg|thumb|350x350px|St Margaret's church of [[:en:United_Church_in_Zambia|United Church in Zambia]] (right) and Catholic parish of Sacred Heart run by [[:en:Order_of_Friars_Minor_Conventual|Conventual Franciscans]] (left), on the corner of Obote Avenue and Independence Avenue.]] Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Kitwe, pafupifupi 98.5%, Mbakhristu kweni paliso magulu ghanyake nga Mbasilamu na Ŵahindu. Paliso Ŵasikh, Ŵajaini, na Ŵayuda. {| class="wikitable" !Religion !Population !Percentage |- |Christians |538,995 |98.5% |- |Muslims |7,400 |1.4% |- |Other |600 |0.6% |} === Nationality === Mu msumba uwu ndimo muli ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku [[Europe]] kuluska mu msumba unyake uliwose wa ku Zambia. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Kitwe ŵalipo 2% ŵa ku Europe, 1% ŵa ku Asia, hafu ya ŵanthu ŵa ku Arabia, na 1.5% ŵa ku Africa. Apo ntchito ya migodi yikambanga mu chigaŵa cha Copperbelt, chigaŵa cha Luapula, chigaŵa cha kumpoto, chigaŵa cha kumafumiro gha dazi, na chigaŵa cha kumanjiliro gha dazi vikaŵa na ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakagwiranga ntchito mu migodi chifukwa ŵanthu ŵa ku Lambas ŵakakhumbanga yayi kugwira ntchito iyi. Ŵanyake ŵakafuma ku vyaru vinyake nga ni ŵa ku Tanzania na Malawi. Mazuŵa ghano, mu tawuni ya Kitwe muli ŵanthu ŵa mafuko ghose gha ku Zambia na ŵamitundu yinyake. Kuyana na boma la Kitwe City Council, ku Kitwe kuli ŵanthu 24 peresenti mu chigaŵa cha Copperbelt. == Vinthu Vyakumanyikwa vya Kitwe == * Obote Ave [[:en:Market_(place)|Market]]: arts and crafts stalls, including copper craft items.<ref name="Spectrum">Camerapix: "Spectrum Guide to Zambia." Camerapix International Publishing, Nairobi, 1996.</ref> * [https://web.archive.org/web/20130723075524/http://www.cbu.edu.zm/ Copperbelt University] * Mindolo Ecumenical Foundation Campus * Kitwe Central Hospital * [[:en:Nkana_FC|Nkana FC]] * Nkana Golf Club * [[:en:Power_Dynamos_FC|Power Dynamos FC]] * [[:en:Kitwe_United_Football_Club|Kitwe United Football Club]] * [[:en:Arthur_Davies_Stadium|Arthur Davies Stadium]] * [[:en:Chisokone_Market|Chisokone Market]] * [[:en:Nkana|Nkana Mine]] * [[:en:Ek_Park|Ek Park]], a [[:en:Cricket|cricket]] ground which in 1962 played host to two [[:en:First-class_cricket|first-class]] matches, which are to date the only first-class matches to have been played anywhere in Zambia.<ref>{{cite web |title=Ground profile: Ek Park, Kitwe |url=https://cricketarchive.com/Archive/Grounds/92/1811.html |access-date=8 October 2011 |publisher=CricketArchive}}</ref> * Eureka Tech Solutions Limited – The one-stop technical services company, a key player in the economy and image of the Kitwe town. Also known for services and aid to orphanages, widows, churches and support of underprivileged people/communities and organizations. == Around Kitwe == === Sightseeing === The [[:en:Landscape|landscape]] around Kitwe is an attractive mix of gently undulating woodland, [[:en:Dambos|dambos]], farmland and rivers such as the [[:en:Kafue_River|Kafue River]] flowing along Kitwe's eastern and southern edges. * Mindolo Dam 7&nbsp;km west of the city centre towards [[:en:Kalulushi|Kalulushi]] has a boating club, motorcross racing track, canoeing, table tennis, a dam, a good field for picnicking, [[:en:Swimming_pool|swimming pool]] and bar.<ref name="Spectrum" /> * Mwekwera Falls 9&nbsp;km south east just off the Kitwe-Ndola freeway, with a small lake and fish farms. The falls are small but scenic with an attractive pool below.<ref name="Spectrum" /> * Chembe Bird Sanctuary 20&nbsp;km west on the Kasempa Road has a small lake surrounded by woodland and is excellent for birdwatching, fishing, camping and picnics. The shady lake shore has campsites with a communal amenities block, firewood, and water. Boats are available for hire and fishing is permitted. It is run by the [https://web.archive.org/web/20070209202456/http://www.wcsz.org.zm/ Wildlife and Environmental Conservation Society of Zambia].<ref name="Spectrum" /> * Kumasamba Lodge, a lodge that has a swimming pool and facilities such as fishing, picnicking and boating. There are a variety of animals that can be seen including crocodiles, pythons, cobras and monitor lizards. There is a big forest where people can move around seeing some other animals such as lions etc. === Recent development === Kitwe wali na malo ghakusungirako vinthu ghatatu: Copper Hill (pa msewu wa Kitwe-Chingola), Mukuba Mall (mu Parklands pa malo ghakale gha Kitwe zoo) na ECL Business Park (Freedom Park). Mukuba Mall yikajulika mu Epulero 2015 na pulezidenti Edgar Chagwa Lungu. Malo ghanyake ghakuzengera mu msumba uwu. Malo agha ghakeneranga kujura mu 2014, ndipo ntchito ya kuzenga yikamba na kumara kanandi waka. Mu Meyi 2016, ntchito zidayambiranso ndipo mu Disembala 2018, malo ogulitsira adatsegulidwa mwalamulo ndipo adatchulidwanso (kutengera Purezidenti Edgar Chagwa Lungu).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Zambia : Edgar Chagwa Lungu Business Park Commissioned |url=https://www.lusakatimes.com/2018/12/29/edgar-chagwa-lungu-business-park-commissioned/ |access-date=2020-02-11 |website=LusakaTimes.com}}</ref> == Ma banki == Kitwe is [[:en:Commerce|commercially]] rich as almost all banks in Zambia have at least one branch in Kitwe. The following banks are in Kitwe. * [[:en:Access_Bank_Zambia|Access Bank]] * [[:en:Ecobank|Eco Bank]] * [[:en:Investrust_Bank|Investrust Bank]] * [[:en:Bank_of_China|Bank of China]] * [[:en:Cavmont_Bank|Cavmont Capital Bank]] * [[:en:Zambia_National_Commercial_Bank|Zanaco]] * [[:en:Atlas_Mara_Bank_Zambia_Limited|Atlas Mara Bank]] * [[:en:First_National_Bank_(South_Africa)|First National Bank]] * National Saving and Credit Bank * [[:en:Indo-Zambia_Bank_Limited|Indo-Zambia Bank]] * [[:en:Intermarket_Bank|InterMarket Bank]] * [[:en:Stanbic_Bank|Stanbic Bank]] * [[:en:Standard_Chartered|Standard-Chartered Bank]] * [[:en:Absa_Group_Limited|Absa Group Limited]] * Corporative Bank * [[:en:First_Alliance_Bank_Zambia_Limited|First Alliance Bank]] * African Commercial Bank * [[:en:United_Bank_for_Africa_Zambia_Limited|UBA Zambia]] [[File:Shopping_Street_Kitwe.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shopping_Street_Kitwe.jpg|thumb|350x350px|Shopping area in the city centre. Independence Avenue – between Obote Avenue and Matuka Avenue.]] Kitwe is home to local and international stores and restaurants, including: * [[:en:Shoprite_(South_Africa)|Shoprite]] * [[:en:Pick_n_Pay_Stores|Pick 'n' Pay]] * [[:en:Game_(South_Africa_brand)|Game]] * Hungry Lion * [[:en:Spur_Steak_Ranches|Spur Steak Ranches]] * [[:en:Nando's|Nando's]] * [[:en:Wimpy_(restaurant)|Wimpy]] * Keg and Coppersmith [[:en:List_of_shopping_centres_in_Zambia|Mukuba Mall]] is the largest shopping centre (mall). == Market == Kitwe has a variety of markets. The two major ones are:{{Citation needed|date=May 2020}} * Chisokone Market, located near Matuka Avenue, one of the largest and oldest in the city. * Obote Market, located behind Chisokone Market, has art and craft stalls including copper craft items. * Nakadoli Makert, located in Chimwemwe suburb along the Chingola road. * Chamboli Market == Known personalities == * [[:en:Denise_Scott_Brown|Denise Scott Brown]], American architect, planner, writer, educator. * [[:en:Jane_Ohlmeyer|Jane Ohlmeyer]], Irish historian. * [[:en:Richie_Boucher|Richie Boucher]], former [[:en:Chief_executive_officer|Chief Executive]] of the [[:en:Bank_of_Ireland|Bank of Ireland]]. Born and raised in Kitwe to [[:en:Irish_people|Irish]] parents, his father being from [[:en:Dublin|Dublin]] and his mother being from [[:en:County_Cavan|County Cavan]]. * [[:en:Rainford_Kalaba|Rainford Kalaba]], footballer. * [[:en:Blaaze|Blaaze]], Hip-hop rap singer, he is from M9 Lubambe Centre a.k.a. LUBZ. * [[:en:Frederick_Chiluba|Frederick Chiluba]], 2nd President. * [[:en:Jacob_Mulenga|Jacob Mulenga]], footballer. * [[:en:Kennedy_Mweene|Kennedy Mweene]], [[:en:Goalkeeper_(association_football)|goalkeeper]] of the Zambian football team. * [[:en:Zeddy_Saileti|Zeddy Saileti]], ex-footballer and football coach. * [[:en:Edgar_Chagwa_Lungu|Edgar Chagwa Lungu]], 6th [[:en:President_of_Zambia|President of Zambia]]. * [[:en:Ronald_Kampamba|Ronald Kampamba]] [[:en:Nkana_Football_Club|Nkana Football Club]] [[:en:Striker_(association_football)|Striker]]. * [[:en:His_Worship|His Worship]] [[:en:Christopher_P_Kang'ombe|Christopher P Kang'ombe]] Current Kitwe [[:en:Mayor|Mayor]]. == Twin towns – sister cities == Kitwe's has five [[:en:Twin_towns_and_sister_cities|twin towns and sister cities]]: * {{flagicon|ROU}} – [[:en:Baia_Mare|Baia Mare]], [[:en:Romania|Romania]] * {{flagicon|SRB}} – [[:en:Bor,_Serbia|Bor, Serbia]] * {{flagicon|UK}} – [[:en:Sheffield|Sheffield]], [[:en:South_Yorkshire|South Yorkshire]], England, United Kingdom * {{flagicon|USA}} – [[:en:Detroit,_Michigan|Detroit, Michigan]], United States * {{flagicon|BRA}} – [[:en:Ponta_Grossa|Ponta Grossa]], [[:en:Paraná_(state)|Paraná]], [[:en:Brasil|Brasil]] == See also == * [[:en:Railway_stations_in_Zambia|Railway stations in Zambia]] == Ukaboni == <references responsive="0"></references> == Kuwalo == {{Commons category|Kitwe}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20070928043522/http://www.greatnorthroad.org/maps/nkana_kitwe/ Historical, vector-based map of Nkana-Kitwe, 1961] * https://www.britannica.com/place/Kitwe * https://www.zambiatourism.com/towns/copperbelt/kitwe/ * https://www.zambia-info.org/country/town/1325/kitwe * https://www.tripadvisor.com/Tourism-g789429-Kitwe_Copperbelt_Province-Vacations.html {{Coord|12|49|00|S|28|12|00|E|region:ZM_type:city|display=title}} {{Use dmy dates|date=September 2019}}{{Authority control}}{{Largest cities of Zambia}} 5srljobcog9wyvtn2i5tib9isigf6dh 0 26002 119285 72706 2026-08-13T21:50:15Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260813sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 119285 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Species of primate (fossil)}}{{Nkhani iwemi}} {{Speciesbox|fossil_range=[[Middle Pleistocene]] {{fossilrange|1.2|0.3}}|image=Rhodesian Man.jpg|image_caption=Kabwe skull (1922 photograph)|display_parents=2|genus=Homo|species=rhodesiensis|extinct=yes|authority=[[Arthur Smith Woodward|Woodward]], 1921}} '''Homo rhodesiensis''' ni zina ilo Arthur Smith Woodward (1921) wakalemba kuti Kabwe 1 (the "Kabwe skull" or "Broken Hill skull", also "Rhodesian Man"), ni fosili ya mu Middle Stone Age iyo yikasangika ku Broken Hill mine ku Kabwe, Northern Rhodesia (sono ni [[Zambia]]).<ref>{{cite web |title=GBIF 787018738 Fossil of ''Homo rhodesiensis'' Woodward, 1921 |url=https://www.gbif.org/occurrence/787018738 |access-date=December 9, 2015 |publisher=GBIF org}}</ref>Mu 2020, ŵakawona kuti chiwangwa ichi chili na vyaka vyapakati pa 324,000 na 274,000. Paliso vinyama vinyake vyakale vyakuyana waka..<ref name="Grün2020">{{Cite journal|doi=10.1038/s41586-020-2165-4|issn=1476-4687|volume=580|issue=7803|pages=372–375|last1=Grün|first1=Rainer|last2=Pike|first2=Alistair|last3=McDermott|first3=Frank|last4=Eggins|first4=Stephen|last5=Mortimer|first5=Graham|last6=Aubert|first6=Maxime|last7=Kinsley|first7=Lesley|last8=Joannes-Boyau|first8=Renaud|last9=Rumsey|first9=Michael|last10=Denys|first10=Christiane|last11=Brink|first11=James|last12=Clark|first12=Tara|last13=Stringer|first13=Chris|title=Dating the skull from Broken Hill, Zambia, and its position in human evolution|journal=Nature|date=2020-04-01|pmid=32296179|bibcode=2020Natur.580..372G|s2cid=214736650|url=https://eprints.soton.ac.uk/439146/1/Grun_Broken_Hill_submission.pdf}}</ref> ''Homo rhodesiensis'' s.s. appears to have diverged earlier than ''H. heidelbergensis'' s.s. (Mauer)''. H. rhodesiensis'' s.l. is now mostly considered a synonym of ''[[:en:Homo_heidelbergensis|H. heidelbergensis]]'' s.l''<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Ni|first1=Xijun|last2=Ji|first2=Qiang|last3=Wu|first3=Wensheng|last4=Shao|first4=Qingfeng|last5=Ji|first5=Yannan|last6=Zhang|first6=Chi|last7=Liang|first7=Lei|last8=Ge|first8=Junyi|last9=Guo|first9=Zhen|last10=Li|first10=Jinhua|last11=Li|first11=Qiang|date=2021-08-28|title=Massive cranium from Harbin in northeastern China establishes a new Middle Pleistocene human lineage|journal=The Innovation|language=English|volume=2|issue=3|doi=10.1016/j.xinn.2021.100130|issn=2666-6758|pmc=8454562|pmid=34557770|last13=Stringer|first13=Chris|last12=Grün|first12=Rainer|page=100130|bibcode=2021Innov...200130N}}</ref>'', or perhaps then slightly larger. Other designations such as ''Homo sapiens arcaicus''<ref name="Birx2010">{{cite book|author=H. James Birx|title=21st Century Anthropology: A Reference Handbook|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fsF1AwAAQBAJ&pg=PT48|date=10 June 2010|publisher=SAGE Publications|isbn=978-1-4522-6630-5|page=48}}</ref> and ''Homo sapiens rhodesiensis''<ref name="Wood2011">{{cite book|author=Bernard Wood|title=Wiley-Blackwell Encyclopedia of Human Evolution, 2 Volume Set|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=440TmWXToLAC&pg=PT761|date=31 March 2011|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-4443-4247-5|pages=761–762}}</ref> have also been proposed. == Vinthu vyakusangika == {{main|Homo heidelbergensis#Africa}} [[File:Broken_Hill_Skull_(Replica01).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Broken_Hill_Skull_(Replica01).jpg|thumb|Chithuzi cha chigaza cha mutu wa Kabwe]] [[File:Rhodesian_Men.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Rhodesian_Men.jpg|thumb|250x250px|Kulemba kwa Amédée Forestier (1922)]] Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1900, ku East Africa (Bodo, Ndutu, Eyasi, Ileret) na North Africa (Salé, Rabat, Dar-es-Soltane, Djbel Irhoud, Sidi Aberrahaman, Tighenif) ŵakasanga viswaswa vinandi ivyo vikuyana waka.<ref>{{cite web |title=The evolution and development of cranial form in ''Homo'' |url=http://www.pnas.org/content/99/3/1134.full.pdf |access-date=December 9, 2015 |publisher=Department of Anthropology, Harvard University}}</ref><!--redundant with [[Homo heidelbergensis]] Both ''[[Homo sapiens]]'' and [[Neanderthals]] are derived from ''H. heidelbergensis'', or possibly from a transitional stage between ''H. antecessor'' and ''H. heidelbergensis'' near the beginning of the Middle Pleistocene.<ref>Matthias Meyer, Juan-Luis Arsuaga, Cesare de Filippo, Sarah Nagel, Ayinuer Aximu-Petri, Birgit Nickel, Ignacio Martínez, Ana Gracia, José María Bermúdez de Castro, Eudald Carbonell, Bence Viola, Janet Kelso, Kay Prüfer & Svante Pääbo, "Nuclear DNA sequences from the Middle Pleistocene Sima de los Huesos hominins", ''Nature'' 531, pages 504–507 (24 March 2016), doi:10.1038/nature17405. Ewen Callaway, [https://www.nature.com/news/oldest-ancient-human-dna-details-dawn-of-neanderthals-1.19557 "Oldest ancient-human DNA details dawn of Neanderthals" Sequence of 430,000-year-old DNA pushes back divergence of humans and Neanderthals"], ''Nature News'', 14 March 2016.</ref>--> * [[Kabwe 1]], uyo wakuchemekaso kuti chiwangwa cha Broken Hill, panji "Munthu wa ku Rhodesia", wakimikika na Arthur Smith Woodward mu 1921 nga ni mtundu wa Homo rhodesiensis. Ŵasayansi ŵanandi mazuŵa ghano ŵakuleka kuzunura "rhodesiensis" na kumupa Homo heidelbergensis.<ref name="Hublin">Hublin, J.-J. (2013), "The Middle Pleistocene Record. On the Origin of Neandertals, Modern Humans and Others" in: R. David Begun (ed.), ''A Companion to Paleoanthropology'', John Wiley, pp. 517-537 ([https://books.google.com/books?id=oIoT1RcFeCwC&pg=PT375 p. 523]).</ref> Chiŵaro ichi chikasangika mu mgodi wa Broken Hill mu chigaŵa cha Mutwe Wa Nsofu ku Northern Rhodesia (sono ni Kabwe, Zambia) pa Juni 17, 1921 na ŵanthu ŵaŵiri awo ŵakagwiranga ntchito mu migodi. Padera pa chiwangwa, ŵakasangaso chiwangwa cha munthu munyake, chiwangwa, chiwangwa cha msana, na viwangwa viŵiri vya chigha. * Chisko cha munthu wa ku Bodo: Chinthu ichi chikaŵako vyaka 600,000 ivyo vyajumpha, ndipo ŵanthu awo ŵakalongozgekanga na Jon Kalb ŵakachisanga mu 1976. Nangauli chiwangwa ichi chikayananga chomene na cha Kabwe, kweni Woodward wakaleka kugwiliskira ntchito mazina agha ndipo awo ŵakaghasanga ŵakaghanaghana kuti ni cha H. heidelbergensis. Vinthu ivi vikulongora kuti pakaŵa kusintha pakati pa Homo ergaster na Homo sapiens.<ref>{{cite web |date=April 7, 2015 |title=Meet Bodo and Herto There is some discussion around the species assigned to Bodo |url=http://nutcrackerman.com/2015/04/07/meet-bodo-and-herto/ |access-date=December 9, 2015 |publisher=Nutcracker Man}}</ref> * Chisko cha ndutu, "munthu wa ku nyanja ya Ndutu" kumpoto kwa Tanzania, vyaka vyapakati pa 600,000 na 500,000 panji 400,000. Mu 1976 R. J. Wakayama Clarke wakalilemba kuti Homo erectus ndipo ŵanthu ŵakughanaghana kuti ndimo liliri, nangauli likuyana na Homo sapiens. Phillip Rightmire wakawona kuti ntchakwenelera kupima kuti H. sapiens ntchisomba cha ku Africa. Kuyana na umo mutu uliri, ni mamita 1,100. Nkhongono ya chiŵaro ichi na umo vikuwonekera, vikovwira kuti chiŵaro ichi chiwonekenge nga ntcha munthu. Ndipo mu buku linyake ilo likalembeka mu 1989, Clarke wakati: "Ŵanthu awo ŵakukhala mu nyengo yakale ŵakuchemeka Homo sapiens cifukwa ca umo wongo wawo uliri". Kweni Stinger (1986) wakayowoya kuti munthu uyo wali na chiwangwa ichi wakuŵa na chiwangwa chakukhoma. Mu 2016, Chris Stringer wakalemba kuti chiwangwa ichi chikaŵa cha Homo heidelbergensis/Homo rhodesiensis (chimanyikwiro icho chikuŵa pakati pa Homo erectus na Homo sapiens) m'malo mwa kwamba kwa H. sapiens, kweni wakuwona kuti chikaŵa na "viwangwa vyakuyana waka na vya Homo sapiens" kuluska viwangwa vinyake vya Homo rhodesiensis. Chiŵaro cha mutu wa Saldanha icho chikasangika mu 1953 ku South Africa, ndipo chikuŵa kuti chili na vyaka pafupifupi 500,000, chikasintha katatu kufuma mu 1955 m'paka mu 1996.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=440TmWXToLAC&q=Homo+rhodesiensis&pg=PT1354|title=Wiley-Blackwell Encyclopedia of Human Evolution, 2 Volume Set|date=31 March 2011|isbn=9781444342475|access-date=December 9, 2015|last1=Wood|first1=Bernard}}</ref> == Bodo cranium == Chisko cha Bodo ni viswaswa vya mtundu unyake wa ŵanthu. Mu 1976 ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵakalongozgekanga na Jon Kalb ndiwo ŵakamusanga. Gulu la Rift Valley Research Mission likachita kafukufuku munyake uyo wakawovwira kuti ŵasange vinthu vya ku Acheulean na viswaswa vya vinyama. Alemayhew Asfaw na Charles Smart ndiwo ŵakamba kusanga visko vyapasi. Pakati pajumpha masabata ghaŵiri, Paul Whitehead na Craig Wood ŵakasanga chigaŵa chakunena cha chisko. Vigaŵa vya chiwangwa ivi vikasangika mu mlonga wa Awash ku Ethiopia. Vinthu ivi vikasangika pa malo ghakuru chomene gha mchenga, ndipo viŵiya vichoko waka ndivyo vikasangika pafupi na chitanda. Chiwangwa ichi chili na vyaka 600,000.<ref name="Bodo">{{cite web |title=Bodo |url=http://humanorigins.si.edu/evidence/human-fossils/fossils/bodo |access-date=15 October 2012 |publisher=Humanorigins.si.edu}}</ref> === Observation === Chiŵiya ichi chili na chiŵiya chikuru chomene icho chikuyana na msinkhu wake, ndipo chikuŵa pafupifupi 1250 cc (pakati pa ~1,200~1,325 cc). Chisko chili na chisko, chiwangwa chikuru cha kumaso, vigaŵa vinyake vya pakati pa chiwangwa, na msana wakunthazi kwa chiwangwa. Utali, usani, na msinkhu wake ni masentimita 21, 15,87 na 19.05. Ŵasayansi ŵakuti ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Bodo ŵakakomanga nyama chifukwa ŵakasanga nkhwantha za ku Acheulean na viwangwa vya nyama. Vinthu ivyo vikadumulika pa mutu wa Bodo vikulongora kuti thupi la munthu likafumiskikanga mwaluŵiro para wafwa. Vinthu ivyo vikulongora kuti thupi la munthu likaŵa na vigaŵa vyakupambanapambana pa chiwangwa, vikulongora kuti munthu wakafumiskanga thupi lake mwadala. Vimanyikwiro vya kudumulika uku vikaŵa pakati pa chiŵegha, ndipo ŵasayansi ŵakaghanaghananga kuti cifukwa ca kudumulira thupi likaŵa kuwuskamo chiŵegha.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Pickering|first1=Travis Rayne|last2=White|first2=Tim D.|last3=Toth|first3=Nicholas|date=2000|title=Brief communication: Cutmarks on a Plio-Pleistocene hominid from Sterkfontein, South Africa|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-journal-of-physical-anthropology_2000-04_111_4/page/579|journal=American Journal of Physical Anthropology|volume=111|issue=4|pages=579–584|doi=10.1002/(sici)1096-8644(200004)111:4<579::aid-ajpa12>3.0.co;2-y|pmid=10727975|issn=1096-8644}}</ref> === Morphology === Mphepete mwa chiwangwa cha Bodo nchitali comene ndipo pali viwangwa vikuruvikuru. Chiŵaro cha thupi la munthu icho chikuŵa pa malo ghakupambanapambana na thupi la munthu chikuwoneka makora chomene. Glabella njakuzingilizgika ndipo yikuwoneka makora. Nga ni Homo erectus, wongo wake ngwapacanya ndipo ukuwoneka nga ngwambura ntchito. Viwangwa ivi navyo ni vyakukhoma nga ni viwangwa vya Homo erectus. Chifukwa cha msana wake ukuru, wali na chiŵaro chikuru chomene icho chikulongora kuti wali na viŵaro vinandi. Utali wa chiŵegha uwu ungamanya yayi chifukwa chigaŵa ichi nchambura kukwana. Nangauli chiŵaro ichi chikusoŵapo, kweni tingamanya vinandi vyakukhwaskana na chamoyo ichi para tingagwiliskira ntchito viŵaro ivyo vikasangika mu 1981. Makuni gha mu mutu ghakutandazgika mwakuyana na umo munthu waliri sono. Chiŵaro cha chiŵaro ichi chili na chiŵaro chapachanya chomene icho chili mu viwangwa vya ŵanthu mazuŵa ghano..<ref name=":02">{{Cite journal|last=Rightmire|first=Philip G.|date=July 1996|title=The human cranium from Bodo, Ethiopia: evidence for speciation in the Middle Pleistocene?|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1006/jhev.1996.0046|journal=Journal of Human Evolution|volume=31|issue=1|pages=21–39|doi=10.1006/jhev.1996.0046|issn=0047-2484}}</ref> === Evolutionary significance === Chiŵiya ichi chili na kawonekero kachilendo, ndipo pali kukwesana pa nkhani ya kaŵirikaŵiri. Chiŵaro ichi chikulongora kuti munthu wali na chisko chakuyana na cha ŵanthu ŵa mazuŵa ghano. Bodo na visomba vinyake vya ŵanthu vya mu nyengo ya Pleistocene vikuwoneka kuti vikukolerana na ŵanthu ŵa mazuŵa ghano. Chifukwa chakuti ŵanthu ŵa mazuŵa ghano ŵakuyana waka na ŵanthu ŵa ku Homo erectus, ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakuti chisko cha Bodo, kweniso ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵa ku Homo heidelbergensis, ŵakaŵa mu gulu la ŵanthu awo ŵakasintha kufuma ku ŵanthu ŵa ku Homo erectus mu nyengo ya Middle Pleistocene. Nangauli ŵanthu aŵa ŵakuyana, kweni pali mafumbo ghanandi ghakukhwaskana na uko kukafuma ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Homo heidelbergensis. Ŵanthu ŵakughanaghana kuti visko vya ŵanthu ivyo vikusangika mu viswaswa nga ni viwangwa vya Bodo ndivyo vikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵa mazuŵa ghano ŵambe kuŵa na thupi lakuyana na ŵanthu ŵa mu nyengo yakale.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rightmire|first=G. Philip|date=January 2012|title=The evolution of cranial form in mid-Pleistocene Homo|journal=South African Journal of Science|volume=108|issue=3–4|pages=68–77|issn=0038-2353|doi=10.4102/sajs.v108i3/4.719|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Conroy|first1=Glenn C.|last2=Weber|first2=Gerhard W.|last3=Seidler|first3=Horst|last4=Recheis|first4=Wolfgang|last5=Nedden|first5=Dieter Zur|last6=Mariam|first6=Jara Haile|date=2000|title=Endocranial capacity of the Bodo cranium determined from three-dimensional computed tomography|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-journal-of-physical-anthropology_2000-09_113_1/page/111|journal=American Journal of Physical Anthropology|volume=113|issue=1|pages=111–118|doi=10.1002/1096-8644(200009)113:1<111::aid-ajpa10>3.0.co;2-x|pmid=10954624|issn=1096-8644}}</ref> === Similarities between Bodo cranium and Kabwe cranium === Vinthu vinyake ivyo vikukolerana na visko vya Bodo na Kabwe ni ivi: Vinthu vyose viŵiri ivi vili na mathupi ghakuyana waka na gha ŵanthu ŵa mazuŵa ghano. Viwangwa vyose viŵiri vili na chiwangwa chikuru chomene. Vinthu viŵiri ivi vikulongora kuti pali kukolerana pakati pa ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Homo erectus na Homo sapiens. Vinthu ivi vikukolerana na ivyo vikusangika mu vinyama vinyake vya mtundu wa Homo heidelbergensis. Viyuni vya mtundu wa Bodo na Kabwe vikuwoneka kuti ni vyakale comene cifukwa vili na mikhaliro yakuyana na ya ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Homo erectus. Kweni vyose viŵiri vikupambana chomene na Homo erectus pa nkhani ya umo thupi liliri, nga ni umo viwangwa vyawo viliri, umo viwangwa vyawo viliri, umo chisko chawo chiliri, kweniso umo mphuno na mathupi ghawo ghaliri. Nangauli pali vinthu vinandi ivyo vikuyana, kweni pali vinthu vinyake ivyo vikupambana pakati pa viŵeto ivi, kusazgapo chiŵaro chose cha mutu wa Bodo, comenecomene viŵaro vya kumanyuma, ivyo ni vyakukhoma comene yayi pakuyaniska na viŵeto vya Kabwe.<ref name=":02" /> == "''Homo bodoensis''" == Mu 2021, Mirjana Roksandic na ŵanyake ŵa ku Canada ŵakasachizga kuti mtundu wa H. heidelbergensis na "H. rhodesiensis" uleke kusangika, chifukwa zina lakuti rhodesiensis likuchindika Cecil Rhodes, munthu wa ku England, uyo wakakhumbanga kuti ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yinyake ŵaleke kuŵa na wanangwa wa kusankha. Ŵakalemba kuti H. heidelbergensis yose ya ku Europe ni H. neanderthalensis, ndipo H. rhodesiensis ŵakayipangiska kuŵa mtundu uphya uwo ŵakawuchema kuti "H. bodoensis". "H. bodoensis" wakwimira ŵanthu awo ŵaliko sono, kweni wakusazgapo yayi ŵanthu ŵa mazuŵa ghano na ŵanthu ŵa ku Neanderthal. Iwo ŵakaghanaghananga kuti ŵanthu ŵa mu nyengo ya Pleistocene ŵakamba kusama chifukwa cha kusama kwa ŵanthu ŵa mu nyengo iyi. Stringer na ŵanyake ŵakakana ivyo ŵakayowoya chifukwa ŵakatondeka kulongosora umo fundo zawo zikovwilira..<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Delson|first1=E.|last2=Stringer|first2=C.|year=2022|title=The naming of ''Homo bodoensis'' by Roksandic and colleagues does not resolve issues surrounding Middle Pleistocene human evolution|journal=Evolutionary Anthropology|volume=17|issue=1|doi=10.1002/evan.21950|pmc=|pmid=}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|first1=E.|last1=Sarmiento|first2=M.|last2=Pickford|year=2022|title=Muddying the muddle in the middle even more|journal=Evolutionary Anthropology|volume=31|issue=5|pages=237–239|doi=10.1002/evan.21952|pmid=35758530|s2cid=250071605}}</ref> == Wonaniso == * ''[[:en:Homo_heidelbergensis|Homo heidelbergensis]]'' * [[:en:List_of_fossil_sites|List of fossil sites]] * [[:en:List_of_hominina_fossils|List of hominina fossils]] {{clear}} == Ukaboni == <references group="" responsive="0"></references> == Mabuku == * {{cite journal|author=Woodward, Arthur Smith|year=1921|title=A New Cave Man from Rhodesia, South Africa|journal=Nature|volume=108|pages=371–372|doi=10.1038/108371a0|issue=2716|bibcode=1921Natur.108..371W|doi-access=free}} * {{cite journal|author=Singer Robert R. and J. Wymer|year=1968|title=Archaeological Investigation at the Saldanha Skull Site in South Africa|journal=The South African Archaeological Bulletin|volume=23|issue=3|pages=63–73|doi=10.2307/3888485|publisher=The South African Archaeological Bulletin, Vol. 23, No. 91|jstor=3888485}} * {{cite journal|author=Murrill, Rupert I.|year=1975|title=A comparison of the Rhodesian and Petralona upper jaws in relation to other Pleistocene hominids|journal=Zeitschrift für Morphologie und Anthropologie|volume=66|issue=2|pages=176–187|doi=10.1127/zma/66/1975/176|pmid=806185|s2cid=3097781}}. * {{cite book|author=Murrill, Rupert Ivan|year=1981|title=Petralona Man. A Descriptive and Comparative Study, with New Information on Rhodesian Man|location=Springfield, Illinois|editor=Ed. Charles C. Thomas|isbn=0-398-04550-X|publisher=Thomas}} * {{cite journal|author=Rightmire, G. Philip|year=2005|title=The Lake Ndutu cranium and early ''Homo sapiens'' in Africa|journal=American Journal of Physical Anthropology|volume=61|issue=2|pages=245–254|doi=10.1002/ajpa.1330610214|pmid=6410925}}. * {{cite journal|author=Asfaw, Berhane|author-link=Berhane Asfaw|year=2005|title=A new hominid parietal from Bodo, middle Awash Valley, Ethiopia|journal=American Journal of Physical Anthropology|volume=61|issue=3|pages=367–371|doi=10.1002/ajpa.1330610311|pmid=6412559}}. == Vigaŵa vya kuwaro == * {{commons category-inline|Homo rhodesiensis|''Homo rhodesiensis''}} * {{Wikispecies-inline|Homo rhodesiensis|''Homo rhodesiensis''}} * {{cite web |title=Kabwe 1 |url=http://humanorigins.si.edu/evidence/human-fossils/fossils/kabwe-1 |access-date=2 November 2010 |publisher=The Smithsonian Institution's Human Origin Program}} * [http://humanorigins.si.edu/evidence/human-evolution-timeline-interactive Human Timeline (Interactive)] – [[:en:Smithsonian_Institution|Smithsonian]], [[:en:National_Museum_of_Natural_History|National Museum of Natural History]] (August 2016). {{Homo heidelbergensis|state=collapsed}}{{Taxonbar|from=Q131464}} 25ujnh9lc9egcifudpt2tq4up9x4lyv 0 26499 119297 118835 2026-08-13T22:06:38Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260813sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 119297 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Classical Greek Athenian philosopher (c. 470 – 399 BC)}} {{About|the classical Greek philosopher|other uses of Socrates|Socrates (disambiguation)|the Attic orator|Isocrates}} {{pp-move-indef}} {{good article}} {{Use dmy dates|date=March 2020}} {{Infobox philosopher|region=[[Western philosophy]]|era=[[Ancient Greek philosophy]]|image=Socrate du Louvre.jpg|alt=A marble head of Socrates|caption=A marble head of Socrates in the [[Louvre]] (copy of bronze head by [[Lysippus]])|name=Socrates|birth_date={{circa|470&nbsp;BC}}|birth_place=[[Deme]] [[Alopece]], [[Classical Athens|Athens]]|death_date=399 BC (aged approximately 71) <!--PLEASE SEE TALK PAGE BEFORE CHANGING DATE-->|death_place=Athens|death_cause=Execution by [[Forced suicide]] by [[suicide by poisoning|poisoning]]|spouse=[[Xanthippe]], [[Myrto]]|school_tradition=[[Classical Greek philosophy]]|notable_students={{hlist|[[Plato]]|[[Xenophon]]|[[Antisthenes]]|[[Aristippus]]|[[Alcibiades]]|[[Critias]]}}|main_interests=[[Epistemology]], [[ethics]], [[teleology]]|influences=[[Prodicus]], [[Anaxagoras]], [[Archelaus (philosopher)|Archelaus]], [[Diotima of Mantinea|Diotima]], [[Damon of Athens|Damon]], [[Parmenides]]|influenced=Virtually all subsequent [[Western philosophy]], especially his followers, e.g., [[Plato]], [[Xenophon]], [[Antisthenes]], [[Aristippus]], [[Euclid of Megara]], [[Phaedo of Elis]]|notable_ideas={{plainlist}} * [[Gadfly (philosophy and social science)|Social gadfly]] * [[Socratic dialogue]] * [[Moral intellectualism#Ancient moral intellectualism|Socratic intellectualism]] * [[Irony#Socratic irony|Socratic irony]] * [[Socratic method]] * [[I know that I know nothing|Socratic paradox]] * [[Socratic questioning]] * "[[The unexamined life is not worth living]]" {{endplainlist}}|children=[[Lamprocles]], [[Menexenus]], Sophroniscus|family=[[Sophroniscus]] (father), [[Phaenarete]] (mother), Patrocles (half-brother)}} '''Socrates''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|s|ɒ|k|r|ə|t|iː|z}};{{sfn|Jones|2006}} {{Lang-grc-gre|[[:wikt:Σωκράτης|Σωκράτης]]}}; {{circa|470}}–<!--PLEASE SEE TALK BEFORE CHANGING FOLLOWING DATE-->399&nbsp;BC) wakaŵa wavinjeru wa ku [[Greece]] wa ku Ateni uyo wakucemeka wakwamba wa vinjeru vya ku Western ndipo wakaŵa yumoza wa vinjeru vyakwambilira vya makhaliro.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Rattini |first=Kristin Baird |date=2019-03-11 |title=Who was Socrates? |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/culture/article/socrates |access-date=2022-03-06 |website=[[National Geographic]] |language=en}}</ref> Socrates wakaŵa munthu wambura kupulikikwa, wakalembapo yayi mabuku ndipo ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakumumanya chifukwa cha ivyo wakalemba pamanyuma pakuti wafwa. Nkhani izi zikalembeka nga ni nkhani za kudumbiskana, ndipo Socrates na awo ŵakadumbiskananga nawo ŵakadumbiskana nkhani mu nthowa ya mafumbo na mazgoro. Nkhani za Socrates izo zikususkana zikupangiska kuti visambizgo vyake vileke kuwoneka makora. Socrates wakaŵa munthu wakuzirwa comene mu Ateni. Mu 399 B.C.E., ŵakamupa mulandu wa kuleka kusopa Ciuta na kunanga ŵawukirano. Ŵakati ŵamuzenga mulandu kwa zuŵa limoza, ŵakamuphalira kuti wakomeke. Zuŵa laumaliro la umoyo wake mu jele, wakakana wovwiri uwo ŵanthu ŵakamupa. Ivyo Plato wakalemba ni vinyake mwa mabuku agho ghakulongosora vya Socrates. Iwo ŵakulongora umo Socrates wakawoneranga vinjeru vya ŵanthu, kusazgapo vinjeru vya ŵanthu na nkharo. Socrates wa ku Platoni wakapeleka zina lake ku fundo ya nthowa ya Socrates, kweniso ku fundo ya Socratic irony. Nthowa ya Socrate ya kufumba, panji elenchus, yikupangika na mafumbo ghafupi na mazgoro, agho ghakulongosoreka mu malemba gha Platon apo Socrates na awo ŵakayowoyanga nayo ŵakuwona fundo zakupambanapambana za nkhani panji ng'anamuro lake. Socrates wakumanyikwa cifukwa ca kuyowoya kuti walije mahara; wakatemwanga kuyowoya kuti ico wakamanya nchakuti walije mahara. Socrates wakawovwira chomene ŵanthu ŵavinjeru mu nyengo yakale ndipo wachali kovwira ŵanthu mazuŵa ghano. Ŵasayansi ŵa ku Middle Ages na ŵa chisopa cha Ciisilamu ndiwo ŵakasambiranga vya iyo, ndipo wakawovwira comene pa nyengo ya kuwuka kwa ŵanthu ku Italy. Ŵanthu ŵakalutilira kumutemwa, nga umo vikaŵira na Søren Kierkegaard na Friedrich Nietzsche. Ivyo ŵanthu ŵakuchita pakulongosora vya Socrates mu luso, mabuku, na visambizgo vya ŵanthu ŵanandi, vyapangiska kuti waŵe munthu wakumanyikwa chomene mu visambizgo vya ŵanthu ŵa ku Western. {{TOC limit|4}} == Uko kukafuma Baibolo na Suzgo ya Socrates == {{Socrates}} Socrates wakalembapo yayi ivyo wakasambizganga. Vinthu vyose ivyo tikumanya vyakukhwaskana na Socrates vikufuma ku ŵanthu ŵanyake. Ŵanyake mwa ŵanthu aŵa ni Plato, munthu wavinjeru, na Xenophon, uyo wakaŵa msambiri wake. Nkhani izo zikuyowoyeka mu mabuku ghakale agha zikususkana, ndipo zikupangiska kuti ŵasayansi ŵaleke kumanya makora maghanoghano gha Socrates. Mu mabuku gha Plato, Xenophon, na ŵanyake awo ŵakugwiliskira ntchito munthu uyo Socrates wakaŵa, ŵakulemba nkhani izo zikulongosora umoyo na maghanoghano gha Socrates. Lizgu lakuti Socratic dialogues (logos sokratikos) likafuma kwa Aristotle. Nangauli tikumanya yayi nyengo yeneco apo vikalembekera, kweni vinyake vikwenera kuti vikalembeka Socrates wati wafwa. Nga ni umo Aristotle wakayowoyera pakwamba, nkhani izo zikuyowoya vya Socrates ni zakukwesana.{{sfn|Dorion|2011|pp=7–9}} === Plato na Xenophon === Xenophon wakaŵa munthu wakugomezgeka, ndipo wakaŵa wavinjeru yayi. Iyo wakatondeka kulongosora makora fundo za Socrates. Wakamutemwanga comene Socrates cifukwa ca mahara ghake, kutemwa caru cake, na cikanga ico wakaŵa naco pa nkhondo. Wakalongosora vya Socrates mu mabuku ghanayi: Memorabilia, Oeconomicus, Symposium, na Apology of Socrates. Wakayowoyaso nkhani ya Socrates mu buku lake la Anabasis. Mu buku la Oeconomicus muli nkhani iyo yikulongosora nkhani zaulimi. Nga ni buku la Plato lakuti Apology, buku la Xenophon lakuti Apologia likulongosora ivyo vikachitikira Socrates. K. Wakayama C. Kuŵa wakukondwa. Guthrie, Xenophon wakayowoya kuti Socrates wakaŵa "munthu wakujikuzga ndiposo wakujithemba". Nkhani iyi yikulongosora umo Socrates wakadumbirananga na ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakumanyikwa ŵa ku Ateni pa nyengo iyo ŵakadumbiskananga. Mu buku lake la Memorabilia, wakuvikilira Socrates ku ŵanthu awo ŵakumupa mulandu wa kunanga ŵawukirano na kwimikana na ŵachiuta. Ivyo Plato wakayowoya vya Socrates ni vyakupulikikwa yayi. Plato wakaŵa msambiri wa Socrates ndipo wakakhala vyaka vinandi kuluska Socrates. Ŵanthu ŵakususkana chomene na umo Plato wakalongosolera mikhaliro ya Socrates. Ŵasayansi ŵanandi mazuŵa ghano ŵakukolerana nayo yayi fundo yakuti iyo wakalongosoranga waka maghanoghano gha Socrates. Cinthu cimoza ico cikupangiska ŵanthu kukayika nchakuti munthu uyo Socrates wakuyowoya wakukolerana yayi. Fundo yimoza iyo yikulongosora kuti vinthu vikupambana ni iyi: Pakwamba, Plato wakayezga kulongosora makora mbiri ya Socrates, kweni pamasinda mu mabuku ghake wakakondwa kuŵikamo maghanoghano ghake mu mazgu gha Socrates. Pa fundo iyi, pali mphambano pakati pa Socrates uyo wakuzunulika mu mabuku ghakwambilira gha Plato na Socrates uyo wakuzunulika mu mabuku ghaumaliro gha Plato. Nkhani za Xenophon na Plato zikupambana pa nkhani ya Socrates. Buku la Socrates la Xenophon ndakuzizika comene kuluska la Plato. Socrates wa Xenophon nayo walije vinjeru vya Plato vya Socrates, nthowa ya Socrates panji elenchus, ndipo wakughanaghana kuti enkrateia (kujikora) nkhwakuzirwa chomene, kweni ndimo viliri yayi na Socrates wa Plato. Kanandi waka, mabuku gha Sokratiko ghangatovwira yayi kuti tisange munthu wakuchemeka Socrates, nanga ni para nkhani zake zikukolerana.{{sfn|Waterfield|2013|pp=10-13}} === Aristophanes na mabuku ghanyake === Awo ŵakalembanga nkhani zakukondweska za ku Ateni, nga ni Aristophanes, nawo ŵakayowoyapo vya Socrates. Vyakusekeska vyakuzirwa comene vya Aristophanes vyakukhwaskana na Socrates ni The Clouds, umo Socrates wali nga ni munthu wakuzirwa comene. Mu seŵero ili, Aristophanes wakulongora Socrates nga ni munthu wambura kugomezga Chiuta. Socrates in Clouds wakutemwa chomene vinjeru vya chilengiwa, ivyo vikukolerana na ivyo Plato wakayowoya mu buku lake lakuti Phaedo. Cakuwonekerathu nchakuti apo wakaŵa na vilimika 45, Socrates wakaŵa kuti wakopa kale Ŵaateni pakuŵa wavinjeru. Tikumanya makora yayi usange ntchito ya Aristophanes njakovwira pakulongosora vya Socrates. Ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵakalemba vya Socrates ŵakaŵa Aeschines wa ku Sphettus, Antisthenes, Aristippus, Bryson, Cebes, Crito, Euclid wa ku Megara, Phaedo, na Aristotle. Aristotle wakaŵako mu nyengo ya Socrates yayi, kweni wakasambira kwa Plato vyaka 20. Aristotle wakuwona kuti Socrates wali nga ni Xenophon na Plato, awo ŵakaŵa paubwezi na Socrates. Aristotle wakamanyanga makora nkhani zakupambanapambana za Socrates. Iyo wakumanya vinandi yayi vyakukhwaskana na Socrates. Iyo wakulemba vinandi yayi vyakukhwaskana na Socrates, ndipo para walemba, wakuŵika mtima comene pa nkhani za Plato. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakukayikira kuti wakalemba vya vinjeru vya ŵanthu. Ndipouli, ivyo wakayowoya ni vyakuzirwa comene kuti tipulikiske Socrates.{{sfn|Waterfield|2013|p=11}} === Suzgo la Socrates === {{Main articles|Socratic problem}} Mu buku la mutu wakuti "The Worth of Socrates as a Philosopher" (1818), Friedrich Schleiermacher wakasuska ivyo Xenophon wakayowoya. Schleiermacher wakasuska Xenophon cifukwa ca kulongora makora yayi nkhani ya Socrates. Schleiermacher wakati Xenophon wakaŵa msilikari, ntheura wakaŵa wakwenelera yayi kuyowoya maghanoghano gha Socrates. Kweniso, Xenophon wakaŵa na sankho pakuyowoya vya mubwezi wake na msambizgi wake wakale: wakagomezganga kuti Socrates wakachitirika vinthu mwambura urunji na Athene, ndipo wakayezga kulongora maghanoghano ghake m'malo mwa kuyowoya mwambura kutemwera. Schleiermacher wakati, ici cikapangiska kuti Xenophon walongore kuti Socrates wakaŵa wavinjeru yayi. Kuuyambiro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1900, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakakana ivyo Xenophon wakayowoya. Mufilosofi Karl Joel, uyo wakalongosora umo Aristotle wakalongosolera mazgu ghakuti logos sokratikos, wakati nkhani za Socrates ni zautesi. Pakati pa vyaka vya m'ma 1900, ŵanthu ŵavinjeru nga ni Olof Gigon na Eugène Dupréel, awo ŵakagomezganga fundo za Joel, ŵakayowoya kuti para ŵakusambira vya Socrates ŵakwenera kuŵika mtima pa umo wakuwonera vinthu kweniso vigomezgo vyake m'malo mwa kughanaghanira vya Socrates. Nyengo yikati yajumphapo, Gregory Vlastos, uyo wakasambira vinjeru vya ŵanthu, wakayowoya kuti ivyo Plato wakayowoya vikukolerana chomene na ivyo ŵanyake ŵakuyowoya pa nkhani ya Socrates. Vlastos wakapulikira yayi ivyo Xenophon wakayowoya, kweni wakazomerezganga ivyo Plato wakayowoya. Sonosono apa, Charles H. Kahn wakukhozga maghanoghano gha ŵanthu pa nkhani ya Socrates, ndipo wakulongora kuti buku la Plato lakuti Apology ndilo lili na ng'anamuro linyake.{{sfn|Dorion|2011|pp=17–18}} == Umoyo wake == [[File:Battle_of_Potidaea_Socrates_saving_Alcibiades_(detail).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Battle_of_Potidaea_Socrates_saving_Alcibiades_(detail).jpg|thumb|Nkhondo ya ku Potidaea (432 B.C.E.): Ŵaateni na Ŵakorinte (vinthu vinyake). Socrates (pakati) wakuponoska Alcibiades. Kuyana na Plato, Socrates wakacitako Nkhondo ya ku Potidaea, Nkhondo ya ku Delium na Nkhondo ya ku Amphipolis (422 B.C.E.).{{sfn|Guthrie|1972|p=2}}]] Socrates wakababika mu 470 panji 469 B.C.E. ku Sophroniscus na Phaenarete, awo ŵakagwiranga ntchito ya kuzenga malibwe na kuzengera, mu msumba wa Alopece ku Ateni. Ntheura wakaŵa mwenekaya wa ku Ateni.{{sfn|Kahn|1998|p=75}} Wakakhalanga kufupi na ŵabali ŵa awiske, ndipo nga umo vikaŵira nyengo zose, wakapokeranga chiharo cha awiske. Wakasambira malango na mitheto ya ku Ateni. Wakasambira kuŵazga na kulemba, ndipo nga umo vikaŵira na ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵasambazi ŵa ku Ateni, nayo wakasambirako masambiro ghanyake nga ni maseŵero ghakukhozga thupi, sumu, na sumu. Wakatorana kaŵiri (pakaŵa kuti palije uyo wakamanya uyo wakaŵa wakwamba): wakatorana na Xanthippe apo Socrates wakaŵa na vyaka vya m'ma 50, ndipo munyake wakatorana na mwana wa Aristides, uyo wakaŵa wa ku Ateni. Wakaŵa na ŵana ŵanalume ŵatatu na Xanthippe. Socrates wakacitako usilikari pa nyengo ya Nkhondo ya ku Peloponnesus, ndipo wakaluta ku nkhondo zitatu. Cinthu cinyake ico cikulongora kuti Socrates wakazirwiskanga dango nchakuti Leon wa ku Salaminia wakakakika. Nga ni umo Plato wakayowoyera mu buku lake la Apology, Socrates na ŵanyake ŵanayi ŵakacemeka ku Tholos ndipo ŵakaphalirika na ŵimiliri ŵa Ŵachigaluka 30 (awo ŵakamba kuwusa mu 404 B.C.E.) kuti ŵakake Leon kuti ŵakomeke. Socrates ndiyo wakaleka kucitako maseŵero agha, ndipo wakasankha kuti ŵakaronga ŵamukwiyiske na kumulanga m'malo mwa kucita ivyo iyo wakawonanga kuti ni ubudi. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Ateni, comenecomene ŵawukirano, ŵakamba kumutemwa comene Socrates. Wakaŵa wakuwoneka makora yayi, wakaŵa na mphuno yambura kujima, maso ghakurughakuru, na nthumbo yikuru. Ŵabwezi ŵake ŵakamuyowoyeranga msinjiro. Socrates wakazirwiskanga yayi vyakusanguluska vyakuthupi, kusazgapo kawonekero kake ndiposo vyakukhumbikwa vyake.{{sfn|Kahn|1998|p=75}} Wakasuzgikanga na utozi, wakagezanga viŵi yayi, wakendanga waka malundi, ndipo wakaŵa na malaya ghamoza pera. Wakaryanga, kumwa, na kucita uzaghali mwakwenelera, nangauli wakaleka yayi. Nangauli Socrates wakakopeka na ŵawukirano, nga ni umo vikaŵira mu Greece wakale, kweni wakakananga kutemwa ŵawukirano cifukwa, nga ni umo Plato wakayowoyera, wakakhumbanga kuŵasambizga. Socrates wakakhumba yayi kugonana na ŵasambiri ŵake, nga umo vikaŵira na ŵanalume ŵalara msinkhu na ŵana mu Ateni. Mu ndyali, wakathera yayi pa mphindano ya pakati pa ŵandyali na ŵamazaza ŵa ku Ateni. Nkharo ya Socrates iyo yili kulembeka mu buku la Apology, Crito, Phaedo, na Symposium yikukolerana na mabuku ghanyake agho ghakulongosora umo Plato wakawoneranga Socrates.{{sfn|Kahn|1998|p=75}} Socrates wakafwira ku Ateni mu 399 B.C.E. pamanyuma pa kweruzgika cifukwa ca kuleka kopa Ciuta na uheni wa ŵawukirano uwo ukamara zuŵa limoza pera. Zuŵa laumaliro la umoyo wake mu jere, wakaŵa pamoza na ŵabwezi ŵake na ŵalondezgi ŵake awo ŵakamuphalira kuti wafumemo mu jele, kweni wakakana. Wakafwa mulenji wakulondezgapo, mwakuyana na cilango ico wakapika, wati wamwa poyizoni wa hemlock. Wakafumapo yayi ku Ateni, padera pa nkhondo izo wakacitako.{{sfn|Kahn|1998|p=75}} == Kuyezgeka kwa Socrates == {{Main|Trial of Socrates}} {{see also|The unexamined life is not worth living}} In 399 BC, Socrates went on trial for corrupting the minds of the youth of Athens, and for impiety.{{sfn|May|2000|p=30}} Socrates defended himself unsuccessfully. He was found guilty by a majority vote cast by a jury of Mu 399 B.C.E., Socrates wakeruzgika cifukwa ca kunanga maghanoghano gha ŵawukirano ŵa ku Ateni ndiposo cifukwa ca kuleka kopa Ciuta. Socrates wakajivikilira yayi. Wakapimika na mulandu na wupu wa ŵeruzgi uwo ukaŵa na ŵanalume ŵanandi ŵa ku Ateni, ndipo kuyana na kaluso, wakapeleka cilango cakuti boma limupenge cakurya na pakugona kwawanangwa cifukwa ca milimo iyo wakacitiranga msumba. M'malo mwake, wakaphalira munthu yura kuti wamulipire mina yimoza ya siliva. Khoti likakana ndipo likadumura kuti wakomeke. Ŵakaŵapa milandu iyi: (1) kunanga ŵawukirano; (2) kusopa ŵachiuta ŵatesi; na (3) kuleka kusopa cisopa ca boma. Apo Socrates wakeruzgikanga, vinthu vikaŵa makora yayi. Mu 404 B.C.E., Ŵaateni ŵakathereskeka na Ŵaciparata pa nkhondo ya pa nyanja ya Aegospotami. Ŵakasintha boma la demokilase na boma liphya la ŵanthu ŵankhongono, lakucemeka Ŵaciteta Ŵanayi. Cifukwa ca nkhaza izo ŵakacitanga, ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵa ku Ateni ŵakanozga vyakuti ŵathereske ŵasilikari aŵa, ndipo ŵakacita nthena kwa nyengo yicoko waka. Ndipouli, apo Ŵaspartan ŵakafumaso, ŵanthu ŵa demokilase ŵakagwiliskira nchito mwaŵi uwu kukoma ŵamazaza na kuwusa Ateni. Munthu munyake uyo wakalemba sumu zina lake Meletus ndiyo wakamba kumupa mulandu Socrates. Ŵanyake awo ŵakamupa mulandu ŵakaŵa Anytus na Lycon. Pakati pajumpha mwezi umoza panji viŵiri, kuumaliro wa chihanya panji kukwambilira kwa chihanya, khoti likamba kweruzga mulandu uwu. Pali vifukwa vikuru viŵiri ivyo ŵanthu ŵakasuskiranga Ŵakaboni. Cakwamba, Socrates wakakana cisambizgo ca cisopa ca Ŵagiriki cakuti ŵachiuta nawo ŵakucita viheni nga umo ŵanthu ŵakucitira. Caciŵiri, wakawonekanga nga wakugomezga kuti kuli daimonion, lizgu la mukati ilo, nga ni umo awo ŵakamususkanga ŵakayowoyera, likafuma kwa Ciuta. Buku la Plato lakuti Apology likwamba na mazgu gha Socrates, uyo wakuzgora mautesi agho ŵanthu ŵakamuyowoyera. Chakwamba, Socrates wakujivikilira ku ŵanthu awo ŵakuti ni munthu wambura kugomezga Chiuta uyo wakuyowoya vya chilengiwa, nga umo buku la Aristophanes la The Clouds likulongolera. Pakulimbana na ivyo ŵanthu ŵakuti Socrates wakunanga ŵawukirano, Socrates wakazgora kuti wandapangepo munthu munyake mwadala, cifukwa para wangunanga munthu munyake wangaŵa na ngozi yakuti nayo wanangikeso. Pa mulandu wachiŵiri, Socrates wakapempha kuti ŵalongosore makora. Meletus wakawerezgapo kuti Socrates ni wambura kugomezga Ciuta. Socrates wakalongosora mphambano iyo yilipo pakati pa kuleka kugomezga Ciuta na kusopa ŵaciuta ŵatesi. Kufuma apo, wakayowoya kuti iyo ni "cawanangwa ca Ciuta" ku ŵanthu ŵa ku Ateni, cifukwa milimo yake yikovwira ŵanthu ŵa ku Ateni. Pamanyuma pake, wakayowoya kuti nangauli palije munthu uyo wangasanga vinjeru, kweni kupenja vinjeru ni cinthu ciwemi comene ico munthu wangacita.{{sfn|May|2000|pp=45–46}} [[File:David_-_The_Death_of_Socrates.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:David_-_The_Death_of_Socrates.jpg|thumb|The Death of Socrates, yakulembeka na Jacques-Louis David (1787). Pa usiku waumaliro mu jere, Socrates wakakumana na ŵabwezi ŵake. Wakadumbiskana nawo ndipo wakalemba mabuku gha Plato gha Crito na Phaedo.{{sfn|Guthrie|1972|pp=65–66}}]] Socrates wakapika mwaŵi wakuti wapeleke cilango cinyake kwa iyomwene wati wasangika na mulandu. Mphanyi wakapempha kuti wafumeko ku Ateni na kukakhala ku caru cinyake, kweni wakacita nthena yayi. M'malo mwake, Plato wakayowoya kuti wakapempha kuti ŵamulipire ndalama na kumupa chakurya zuŵa lililose. Kweni Xenophon wakayowoya kuti Socrates wakapeleka ulongozgi yayi. Ŵeruzgi ŵakakolerana kuti wakomeke cifukwa ŵakamucicizga kuti wamwe nkhombo ya munkhwala wa poyizoni. Pakuzgora, Socrates wakacenjezga ŵeruzgi na ŵanthu ŵa ku Ateni kuti ŵasambiri ŵake ŵanandi ŵazamuŵasuska, pekha para ŵaŵa ŵanthu ŵawemi. Socrates wakakhala mu jere zuŵa laumaliro cifukwa ca viphikiro vya cisopa ca ku Ateni. Ŵabwezi ŵake ŵakaluta kukamuwona ndipo ŵakamupa mwaŵi wakuti wacimbire, kweni wakakana. Ŵasayansi ŵakususkana pa nkhani ya ico cikapangiska ŵanthu ŵa ku Ateni kususka Socrates. Pali fundo ziŵiri. Cakwamba, Socrates wakeruzgika cifukwa ca cisopa; caciŵiri, wakeruzgika cifukwa ca ndyali. Fundo yinyake iyo yikusangika sonosono apa njakuti chisopa na ndyali vikaŵa pamoza. Fundo yakuti ŵanthu ŵakatambuzgikanga cifukwa ca cisopa yikukhozgeka cifukwa cakuti ivyo Plato na Xenophon ŵakalemba vikulongosora comene mulandu uwu. Mu nkhani izi, Socrates wakulongosoreka kuti wakayezgapo yayi kususka fundo yakuti wakagomezganga yayi ŵaciuta ŵa ku Ateni. Fundo iyi yikususkana na fundo yakuti ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakagomezganga yayi kuti Chiuta waliko kweniso ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵakagomezganga kuti kulije Chiuta, ŵakeruzgika yayi. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakuti Socrates ndiyo wakasuzgikanga chifukwa cha ndyali. Mbunenesko kuti Socrates wakakhozgera yayi demokilase mu nyengo ya muwuso wa Ŵaciteta 30 ndipo ŵasambiri ŵake ŵanandi ŵakasuskanga demokilase. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakususka fundo yakuti nkhaza izi zikaŵa za ndyali chifukwa chakuti mu 403 B.C.E., ŵanthu ŵa ku Ateni ŵakaŵagowokera. Ndipouli, nga umo nkhani iyo yikayowoyekera apo Socrates wakeruzgikanga na mabuku ghanyake yikulongolera, awo ŵakamupa mulandu ŵakwenera kuti ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito vinthu ivyo vikachitika pambere chaka cha 403 C.E. chindafike.{{sfn|Ralkowski|2013|pp=303–304}} == Zeru zakuganiza == === Nthowa ya Socrates === {{Main|Socratic method}} [[File:The_Debate_Of_Socrates_And_Aspasia_(2).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:The_Debate_Of_Socrates_And_Aspasia_(2).jpg|thumb|Nkhani ya Socrates na Aspasia ya Nicolas-André Monsiau. Socrates wakadumbiskananga na ŵanthu ŵacoko waka yayi, kweni na ŵalendo kweniso ŵanthu ŵa vigaŵa vyose.{{sfn|Ahbel-Rappe|2011|p=53}}]] Cinthu cakuzirwa comene ca Socrates wa Plato ni nthowa ya Socrates, panji nthowa ya kususka (elenchus). Buku ili likumanyikwa chomene mu mabuku ghakwambilira gha Plato nga ni Apology, Crito, Gorgias, Republic I, na ghanyake. Mu chiyowoyero ichi, mazgu ghakuti elenchus ghakung'anamulika kuti: Socrates wakudumbiskana nkhani na munthu munyake uyo wakumanya makora nkhani iyi, ndipo kanandi wakuŵa pamoza na ŵanyamata ŵanyake. Socrates wakwamba kudumbiskana na munthu uyo wakuyowoya nayo. Apo wakufumba mafumbo ghanandi, mazgoro ghake ghakususkana na gha munthu wakwamba. Fundo njakuti munthu uyu wakamanyanga yayi ng'anamuro la mazgu agha. Uyo wakuyowoya nayo wangayowoyapo vinyake. Fundo yiphya iyi ndiyo yikupangiska kuti Socrates wafumbenge mafumbo. Pa mafumbo na mazgoro agha, Socrates na uyo wakuyowoya nayo ŵakukhumba kumanya unenesko. Kanandi ŵakulutilira kulongora kuti ŵakumanya yayi. Pakuti ŵanthu awo ŵakudumbiskana nawo ŵakutemwa kuyowoyapo maghanoghano ghawo pa nkhani yinyake, fundo iyi yikupangiska ŵanthu kukayikira maghanoghano ghawo. Socrates nayo wakayezga maghanoghano ghake kwizira mu nthowa ya Socrates. Ntheura Socrates wakusambizga cisambizgo ca vinjeru vya ŵanthu yayi. M'malo mwake, wakuzomerezga kuti nayo wakumanya yayi apo wakupenja unenesko pamoza na ŵasambiri ŵake ndiposo awo wakuŵapharazgira. Ŵasayansi ŵakukayikira usange nthowa ya Socrates yikaŵa yiwemi kweniso usange yikaŵa nadi. Mu 1982, Gregory Vlastos, nkhwantha ya vinjeru vyakale, wakayowoya kuti nthowa ya Socrates yingaŵawovwira yayi kumanya unenesko panji utesi wa fundo. Kweni Vlastos wakati, ni nthowa ya kulongolera kuti ivyo munthu wakugomezga vikupambana. Ŵanthu ŵakughanaghana vigaŵa viŵiri vyakukhwaskana na fundo iyi, kuyana na umo ŵanthu ŵakuwonera kuti Socrates wakakhumbanga kulongora kuti ivyo wakayowoya vikaŵa vyautesi. Kuyana na fundo yakwamba, iyo yikumanyikwa na zina lakuti constructionist approach, Socrates wakayezgapo kuti wasuske fundo yinyake na nthowa iyi. Ŵanthu awo ŵakughanaghana kuti vinthu vikwenda makora yayi ŵakuti Socrates wakukhumba waka kulongora kuti fundo iyo wakayowoya njambura kukolerana na ivyo wakayowoya pakwamba.{{sfn|Ambury|2020|loc=The Elenchus: Socrates the Refuter|ps=: Benson (2011) names in a note scholars that are of constructivist and non-constructivism approach: "Among those "constructivists" willing to do so are Brickhouse and Smith 1994, ch. 6.1; Burnet 1924, pp. 136–137; McPherran 1985; Rabinowitz 1958; Reeve 1989, ch. 1.10; Taylor 1982; and Vlastos 1991, ch. 6. Those who do not think a Socratic account of piety is implied by the text ("anticonstructivists") include Allen 1970, pp. 6–9, 67; and Grote 1865, pp. 437–57. Beckman 1979, ch. 2.1; Calef 1995; and Versényi 1982" p=118}} === Kuŵa na maghanoghano gha Socrates === Socrates wakamba kudumbiskana na ŵanthu kuti ŵamanye ng'anamuro lake. Kanandi, Socrates wakwamba kudumbiskana na munthu uyo wakumanya vinandi pa nkhani yinyake mwa kupenja ng'anamuro lake. Kuti wayowoye ng'anamuro lake, Socrates wakwamba kuwunganya viyelezgero vyakupulikikwa makora vya nkharo yiwemi, ndipo pamanyuma wakudumbiskana ivyo ŵanthu aŵa ŵakuyana. Kuyana na Guthrie, Socrates wakakhalanga mu nyengo iyo ŵanthu awo ŵakasambizganga vya vinjeru ŵakasuskanga ng'anamuro la mikhaliro yakupambanapambana yiwemi. Ŵasayansi ŵanyake ŵakuti Socrates wakakolerana nayo yayi fundo yakuti munthu wakwenera kulongosora vinthu mwakuyana na fundo yake. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakuti fundo iyi yikamba na Plato m'malo mwa Socrates. Munthu munyake wavinjeru zina lake Peter Geach, wakati Socrates wakazomerezga fundo yakuti munthu wakwenera kulongosora vinthu. Kuyana na Geach, munthu wangamanya fundo nangauli wangamanya yayi umo yikuyowoyekera.{{sfn|Benson|2013|p=145}} === Kuleka kumanya vinthu nga ni Socrates === [[File:Delfi_Apollons_tempel.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Delfi_Apollons_tempel.jpg|thumb|Malo agho pakaŵa tempile la Apollo ku Delphi, uko kukaŵa msumba wa Pythia. Mazgu gha ku Delphi ghakuti, "Mujisange wekha" ghakaŵa ghakuzirwa kwa Socrates, nga umo vikuwonekera mu nkhani zinandi za Plato.{{sfn|Ahbel-Rappe|2011|p=144}}]] Socrates wa Plato kanandi wakuyowoya kuti wakumanya yayi umo wakujipulikira, comenecomene para wakuyowoya za fundo za makhaliro nga ni arete (kuŵa muwemi, cikanga) cifukwa wakumanya yayi umo vinthu viliri. Mwaciyerezgero, apo wakeruzgikanga, apo umoyo wake ukaŵa pangozi, Socrates wakati: "Nkhaghanaghananga kuti Evenus ni munthu wakukondwa, usange nadi wali na luso ili (technē), ndipo wakusambizga pa malipiro ghacoko. Nadi, ningajikuzga usange ningamanya (epistamai) vinthu ivi, kweni nkhumanya yayi (epistamai) vinthu ivi". Mu nkhani zinyake za Plato, Socrates wakujiwona kuti wali na vinjeru, ndipo wangawoneka kuti wali na maghanoghano ghakupambana na gha munthu uyo wakumanya yayi. Pali mauchimi ghakupambanapambana agho ghakulongosora umo vinthu vikaŵira mu nyengo ya Socrates. Chifukwa chimoza ntchakuti Socrates wakuyowoya mwakukhozga panji mwakujiyuyura kuti wasambizge makora ŵanthu. Fundo yinyake njakuti Socrates wakalongosora makora yayi ng'anamuro la "kumanya". Kwa iyo, kumanya vinthu kungang'anamura kupulikiska fundo za makhaliro ghawemi, ndipo Socrates wakukana kuti munthu waŵe na mahara. Mulimose umo vingaŵira, wose ŵakukolerana kuti Socrates wakazomerezga kuti kumanya kuti munthu wakumanya vinandi yayi ni nthowa yakwamba yakuŵira wavinjeru. Socrates wakumanyikwa kuti wakakana kumanya vinthu, ndipo wakayowoya kuti: "Nkhumanya kuti nkhumanya kalikose yayi". Kanandi ŵanthu ŵakuyowoya kuti Socrates ndiyo wakalemba fundo iyi mu buku la Plato lakuti Apology. Kweni mu mazgu ghanyake, wakuyowoya kuti wali na mahara. Mwaciyelezgero, mu buku la Plato lakuti Apology, Socrates wakati: "... kweni kucita uheni na kuleka kupulikira uyo wali pacanya pa ine, Ciuta panji munthu, ici nkhucimanya kuti nchiheni ndiposo nchambura kuzirwa"... (Phepiskani, 29b6 ¥7). Mu nkhani yake na Callicles, wakati: "... Nkhumanya makora kuti usange mukukolerana nane pa vinthu ivyo nkhugomezga, mbunenesko nadi". Ŵanthu ŵakususkana usange Socrates wakaghanaghananga kuti walije mahara panji wakajiwonanga kuti wakumanya yayi. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakughanaghana kuti wakajiyuyura waka. Kuyana na ivyo Norman Gulley wakayowoya, Socrates wakacitanga nthena kuti ŵanthu ŵayowoye nayo. Kweni Terence Irwin wakati mazgu gha Socrates ghakwenera kughapulikikwa nadi. Gregory Vlastos wakati pali ukaboni wakukwana wakususka vyose viŵiri. Kuyana na maghanoghano ghake, kwa Socrates, "kumanya" kuli na ng'anamuro ziŵiri: Kumanya-C na Kumanya-E (C kukung'anamura "kuŵa na chigomezgo", ndipo E kukung'anamura elenchus, ndiko kuti, nthowa ya Socrates). C-Knowledge ni cinthu cambura kususkika apo E-Knowledge ni cinthu ico cafuma mu fundo ya Socrates. Ntheura, Socrates wakuyowoya unenesko para wakuti wakumanya-C kanthu kanyake, ndipo wakuyowoyaso unenesko para wakuti wakumanya-E, nga ni para munthu wakuleka kupulikira ŵamazaza ŵake. Ŵasambiri wose ŵakukolerana nayo yayi fundo iyi. James H. Lesher wakati Socrates wakayowoya kuti lizgu limoza likuŵa na ng'anamuro limoza (nga ni mu buku la Hippias Major, Meno, na Laches). Lesher wakalongosora kuti nangauli Socrates wakayowoya kuti wakamanyanga yayi umo mikhaliro yiwemi yiliri, kweni wakaghanaghananga kuti nyengo zinyake ŵanthu ŵangamanya fundo zinyake za makhaliro ghawemi.{{sfn|McPartland|2013|pp=123–124}} === Kuyowoya vyakusekeska === Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakughanaghana kuti Socrates wakaŵa munthu wakukhozga soni ŵanthu, ndipo ŵanandi ŵakughanaghana nthena chifukwa cha umo Plato na Aristotle ŵakulongosolera vya Socrates. Mazgu gha Socrates ghakukwiyiska chomene mwakuti kanandi munthu uyo wakuŵazga wakujifumba usange Socrates wakuneneska. Buku la Plato lakuti Euthyphro lili na mazgu ghakukwiyiska gha Socrates. Nkhani iyi yikwamba apo Socrates wakukumana na Euthyphro, mwanalume uyo wakapa mulandu adada ŵake kuti ŵakoma munthu. Apo Socrates wakapulikanga nkhani iyi kakwamba, wakati: "Nkhuwona kuti ni munthu waliyose yayi uyo wangachita makora [kuzenga mulandu wiske wa munthu] kweni munthu uyo wali na vinjeru vinandi". Apo Euthyphro wakajikuzga cifukwa ca umo wakapulikiskiranga vya Ciuta, Socrates wakazgora kuti "cakuzirwa comene kuti niŵe musambiri winu". Kanandi ŵanthu ŵakuwona kuti Socrates wakuyowoya mwamunthondwe para wakulumba ŵanthu. Ŵanthu ŵakusambira ŵakukolerana yayi pa nkhani ya ivyo Socrates wakachitanga. Kuyana na umo ŵanthu ŵakughanaghanira kufuma mu nyengo ya Ŵagiriki, mazgu gha Socrates ghakaŵa gha kusekeska ŵanthu. Fundo yinyake njakuti Socrates wakabisa uthenga wake wa vinjeru vya ŵanthu na mazgu ghakukwiyiska. Gregory Vlastos wakawona kuti Socrates wali na nkhani zinonono chomene. Kuyana na maghanoghano gha Vlastos, mazgu gha Socrates ghali na ng'anamuro limoza. Cakuwonerapo cimoza nchakuti wakukana kuti wakumanya. Vlastos wakughanaghana kuti Socrates wakuyowoya mwakukwenyerezga apo wakuti walije mahara (uko "mahara" ghakung'anamura kumanya tunthu tuchokotuchoko); apo, mwakuyana na fundo yinyake ya "mahara", Socrates wakuyowoya mwambura kubisa para wakuti walije mahara pa nkhani za makhaliro. Ŵasambiri ŵanyake ŵakukolerana nayo yayi fundo iyi.{{sfn|Vasiliou|2013|pp=28–29}} === Cisambizgo ca Socrates ca eudaimonism na kucenjera === Ku Socrates, kukhumba kuŵa na maghanoghano gha ŵanthu, ndiko kukupangiska munthu kuchita vinthu vinyake. Kuyana na maghanoghano gha Socrates, nkharo yiwemi na umanyi vikukolerana na eudaimonia, kweni ŵanthu ŵakuyowoya vinandi yayi pa nkhani iyi. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakuti Socrates wakaghanaghananga kuti nkharo yiwemi na mzimu wakufwatuka vikuyana waka. Kuyana na fundo yinyake, nkharo yiwemi yikovwira kuti munthu waŵe na mtima wakufwatuka. Fundo yinyake iyo yikususkana ni yakuti, kuyana na Socrates, ŵanthu ŵakukhumba vinthu viwemi panji ivyo ŵakuwona kuti ni viwemi. Munthu uyo wakughanaghana kuti vinthu vikwenda makora wakuyowoya za umo Socrates wakawoneranga umanyi. Iyo wakagomezganga kuti nkharo yiwemi yose yikuthemba pa kumanya vinthu (pantheura Socrates wakucemeka munthu wa vinjeru). Kweniso wakagomezganga kuti ŵanthu ŵakulongozgeka na nkhongono zakupulikiska vinthu kuti ŵamanye ivyo ŵakukhumba, uku ŵakuchepeska mulimo wa makhumbiro ghawo. Mu buku la Plato lakuti Protagoras (345 c4 e6), Socrates wakayowoya kuti "palije uyo wakubudiska mwakujipeleka". Mu vinjeru vya Socrates, mahara ndigho ghakaŵa pakwamba kuti munthu waŵe na umoyo uwemi. Nkhani za Plato izo zikukhozgera fundo ya Socrates yakuti vinthu vikwenda makora ni Gorgias (467c8e, apo Socrates wakulongosora ivyo munthu wankhongono wakuchita ivyo vikumovwira yayi) na Meno (77d8b, apo Socrates wakulongosolera Meno kuti palije uyo wakukhumba vinthu viheni. Ŵasambiri ŵakazizwa na fundo ya Socrates yakuti akrasia (kucita vinthu cifukwa ca makhumbiro ghaheni, mwakupambana na ivyo munthu wakumanya panji ivyo wakugomezga) nchambura macitiko. Ŵanandi ŵakugomezga kuti Socrates wakazomerezga yayi makhumbiro ghambura kwenelera, nangauli ŵanyake ŵakuti Socrates wakazomerezga kuti pali vilato vyambura kwenelera, kweni wakakana kuti ni vyakuzirwa comene pakusankha vyakucita.{{sfn|Brickhouse|Smith|2013|pp=190–191}} === Chisopo === [[File:Euthyphro_Stephanus_1578_p_2.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Euthyphro_Stephanus_1578_p_2.jpg|thumb|Buku la Euthyphro ilo likafuma mu 1578 ilo likalembeka na Henri Estienne. Mabaibolo agho Estienne wakang'anamura ghakaŵa ghanandi ndipo ghakasindikizgikaso kwa vyaka vyakujumpha 200. Ivyo Socrates wakayowoya na Euthyphro vichali kovwira ŵanthu pa nkhani ya cisopa.{{sfn|McPherran|2011|p=117}}]] Cifukwa cakuti Socrates wakakananga visambizgo vya cisopa, wakasuska maghanoghano gha ŵanthu ŵa mu nyengo yake, ndipo ivyo wakayowoya vikasintha visambizgo vya cisopa mu vilimika vinandi ivyo vikalondezganga. Mu Greece wakale, cisopa cikaŵa cakupambana, ndipo ŵanthu ŵakakondweleranga viphikiro vinandi vya ŵachiuta, nga ni City Dionysia, panji viphikiro vya pa nyumba. Chisopa chikasazgikana na umoyo wa zuŵa na zuŵa wa ŵanthu awo ŵakacitanga milimo yawo ya cisopa. Kwamba kale ŵanthu ŵakususkana pa nkhani ya usange Socrates wakaŵa munthu wakusopa panji 'wakususka Ciuta.' Socrates wakudumbiskana vya Ciuta na mzimu mu mabuku gha Alcibiades, Euthyphro, na Apology. Mu buku la Alcibiades, Socrates wakayaniska umoyo wa munthu na Ciuta, ndipo wakati: "Para munthu wakuwona ici, wakujipulika nga ni Ciuta". Nyengo zose para wakuyowoya vya cisopa wakuŵa na maghanoghano ghakwenelera. Mu buku la Euthyphro, Socrates wakayowoya fundo iyo yikamovwira kuti waleke kuchita nga umo ŵanthu ŵakachitiranga nyengo yira. M'malo mwake, iyo wakukhumba kuti visambizgo vya ŵanthu na kupenja umanyi viŵe nthowa yikuru yakusopera ŵaciuta. Cifukwa cakuti wakakananga kusopa kwaunenesko uko ŵanthu ŵakacitanga kale, ndipo wakakuyaniska na kujighanaghanira ŵekha, ŵanthu ŵa ku Ateni ŵakeneranga kujisanda kuti ŵamanye umo ŵakusopera. Socrates wakayowoya kuti ŵachiuta ŵakaŵa ŵavinjeru ndiposo ŵarunji. Pa nkhani ya Euthyphro, pali suzgo linyake. Socrates wakafumba munthu uyo wakayowoyanga nayo za kukolerana pakati pa kusopa Ciuta mwakujipeleka na khumbo la ciuta wankhongono. Mu mazgu ghanyake, kasi kusopa kwaunenesko kukulondezga uwemi panji Ciuta? Fundo za Socrates zikupambana na za Ŵagiriki awo ŵakagomezganga fundo yakuti munthu wapelekenge jiso pa jiso. Socrates wakaghanaghananga kuti uwemi ukufuma ku ŵachiuta yayi, ndipo ŵachiuta ŵakwenera kuŵa ŵakugomezgeka. Socrates wakalongosora kuti wakagomezganga kuti kuli ŵachiuta mu buku la Plato lakuti Apology. Socrates wa ku Plato wakamanya kuti kuli ŵachiuta. Mu buku la Apology, munthu wangayowoya kuti Socrates ni munthu wambura kupulikiska Chiuta chifukwa cha ivyo wakayowoya vyakukhwaskana na ivyo vingachitika para munthu wafwa. Kweniso wakagomezganga kuti kuli ŵachiuta awo ŵakumuphalira vinthu vyamunthazi. Vimanyikwiro ivi vikamovwira yayi kuti waŵe na maghanoghano ghakwenelera pa nkhani ya nkharo. Mu buku la Xenophon lakuti Memorabilia, Socrates wakalemba fundo iyo yikukolerana na fundo yakuti vinthu vikachita kulengeka mwakuyana na umo ŵanthu ŵakuwonera vinthu. Iyo wakuti pakuti vinthu vinandi mu mlengalenga vili na "vimanyikwiro vyakuti Chiuta wali kuvipangiska" (nga ni maso), ipo wakwenera kuti wali kulenga vinthu vyose. Kufuma apo, wakughanaghana kuti Mlengi wakwenera kuti wakumanya vyose ndiposo ngwankhongonozose, kweniso kuti wakalenga vinthu vyose kuti ŵanthu ŵasange chandulo. Nyengo zinyake Socrates wakuyowoya za ciuta yumoza pera, kweni nyengo zinyake wakuyowoya za "ŵachiuta" ŵanandi. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakuti fundo iyi yikung'anamura kuti iyo wakagomezganga kuti kuli chiuta munyake uyo wali na mazaza pa ŵachiuta ŵanyake, panji kuti ŵachiuta ŵakupambanapambana mbanthu awo ŵakuwoneka. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakukayika usange ivyo Socrates wakagomezganga vikukolerana na ivyo wakayowoya. Mark McPherran, pulofesa wa vinjeru vya ŵanthu, wakati Socrates wakang'anamuranga chimanyikwiro chilichose icho Chiuta wakupeleka kwizira mu fundo za ŵanthu. Pulofesa wa vinjeru vyakale A. A. Wakutemweka wane. Long wakalongosora kuti ntchiheni kughanaghana kuti Socrates wakagomezganga kuti vinthu vya chisopa na vinjeru vikupambana.{{sfn|Long|2009|p=64}} === Socratic daimonion === [[File:Alcibades_being_taught_by_Socrates,_François-André_Vincent.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Alcibades_being_taught_by_Socrates,_Fran%C3%A7ois-Andr%C3%A9_Vincent.jpg|thumb|''Alcibiades Receiving Instruction from Socrates'', a 1776 painting by [[:en:François-André_Vincent|François-André Vincent]], depicting Socrates's daimon{{sfn|Lapatin|2009|p=146}}]] Mu malemba ghanandi (nga ni Euthyphro 3b5; Apology 31c·d; Memorabilia 1.1.2) Socrates wakuti wakupulika chimanyikwiro cha viŵanda, lizgu la mukati ilo likupulikikwa kanandi para wakukhumba kuchita ubudi. Socrates wakalongosora mwakudumura za chiŵanda ichi pa nyengo iyo wakeruzgikanga. Cifukwa ca ici nchakuti kanandi mukunipulika nkhuyowoyapo pa malo ghakupambanapambana, comenecomene fundo yakuti nkhusangana na vinthu vyauzimu na viŵanda, nga ni umo Meletus wakalembera mu mulandu wake. Nkhamba kupulika mazgu ghanyake apo nkhaŵa mwana. Para vyaŵa nthena, vikunovwira kuti nileke kuchita ivyo nkhakhumbanga, kweni vikunovwira yayi. Ici ndico cikanipangiska kuti nileke kucita ndyali, ndipo nkhuwona kuti nchakwenelera nadi". Ŵasayansi ŵa mazuŵa ghano ŵakughanaghana kuti Daimōnion wa Socrates wakaŵa munthu wavinjeru, wakughanaghana makora, wakughanaghana makora, wakulota, panji wakawona vinthu vyamunthazi.{{sfn|Long|2009|pp=65–66, 70}} === Nkharo yiwemi na umanyi === Fundo ya Socrates yikulongora kuti mikhaliro yose yiwemi njimoza, cifukwa njimoza mwa mikhaliro iyi. Kuyana na Socrates, cifukwa ico munthu wakuŵira wambura kwenelera nchakuti wakusoŵa mahara. Pakuti umanyi ukuŵa pamoza, mikhaliro yiwemi nayo yikuŵa pamoza. Mazgu ghanyake ghakumanyikwa comene ghakuti "palije uyo wakubudiska mwakujipeleka" nagho ghakafuma ku fundo iyi. Mu buku la Protagoras, Socrates wakalongosora umo mikhaliro yiwemi yikukolerana pakuyowoya vya chikanga. Aristotle wakati: "... Socrates mulara wakaghanaghananga kuti cilato ca umoyo nkhumanya uwemi, ndipo wakapenjerezganga ng'anamuro la urunji, cikanga, na cigaŵa cilicose ca uwemi, ndipo ici cikaŵa cavinjeru, cifukwa wakaghanaghananga kuti uwemi wose ni sayansi, ndipo para munthu wamanya urunji, waŵenge wakunyoloka"...{{sfn|Long|2009|pp=65–66, 70}} === Chitemwa === [[File:Socrates_and_Alcibiades,_Christoffer_Wilhelm_Eckersberg.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Socrates_and_Alcibiades,_Christoffer_Wilhelm_Eckersberg.jpg|thumb|Socrates na Alcibiades, na Christoffer Wilhelm Eckersberg, 1813-1816]] Mabuku ghanyake ghakulongora kuti Socrates wakatemwananga na Alcibiades na ŵanyamata ŵanyake. Ghanyake ghakulongora kuti Socrates wakaŵa paubwezi na ŵanyamata kuti waŵawovwire kuŵa makora. Mu buku la Gorgias, Socrates wakati wakatemwanga chomene Alcibiades na vinjeru vya ŵanthu, ndipo wakachitanga vibwezi na Protagoras, Meno (76 c) na Phaedrus (227 c). Ndipouli, umo vinthu vikaŵira pakati pa iyo na Alcibiades vikumanyikwa makora yayi.{{sfn|Long|2009|pp=65–66, 70}}Fundo iyo Socrates wakayowoya pa nkhani ya chitemwa yili kufuma mu buku la Lysis, apo Socrates wakudumbiskana vya chitemwa pa sukulu ya maseŵero ghakukomana pamoza na Lysis na ŵabwezi ŵake. Ŵakwamba kudumbiskana vya citemwa ca ŵapapi na umo cikulongolera wanangwa na mphaka izo ŵapapi ŵakuŵikira ŵana ŵawo. Socrates wakati usange Lysis ngwambura nchito, palije uyo wamutemwenge, nanga ŵangaŵa ŵapapi ŵake. Nangauli ŵasayansi ŵanandi ŵakugomezga kuti nkhani iyi yikwenera kuti yikaŵa yakukondweska, kweni ŵanyake ŵakuti Lysis yikulongora kuti Socrates wakaŵa na maghanoghano ghaheni pa nkhani ya chitemwa. Ŵasambiri ŵanyake ŵakususka fundo iyi, ŵakuti cisambizgo ca Socrates cikulongora kuti munthu wakwenera kutemwa muwoli panji mfumu wake kwambura kujighanaghanira yekha. Mu buku lake lakuti Symposium, Socrates wakayowoya kuti ŵana ŵakughanaghana kuti ŵapapi ŵawo ŵakufwa yayi, ndipo ici cikovwira kuti ŵaŵe ŵakukolerana. Ŵasayansi ŵakuti Socrates wakati citemwa nchakuzirwa.{{sfn|Long|2009|pp=65–66, 70}} Nchakukondweska kuti Socrates, uyo wakuti wakumanya waka kuti wakumanya yayi, wakucita cinthu cinyake (mu Symposium ya Plato), apo wakuti wayowoyenge unenesko wakukhwaskana na Citemwa, ico wakasambira kwa'mwanakazi wavinjeru.' Armand D'Angour uyo wakumanya vya kale wakayowoya kuti apo wakaŵa muwukirano, Socrates wakaŵa pafupi na Aspasia, ndipo Diotima, uyo Socrates wakamutora kuti ndiyo wakumanya vya chitemwa mu buku lake la Symposium, wakuthemba pa iyo.{{sfn|Long|2009|pp=65–66, 70}} === Socratic philosophy of politics === Nangauli Socrates wakachitanga ndyali na kusambizga ŵanthu, kweni nchakusuzga kumanya ivyo wakasambizganga. Mu buku la Plato lakuti Gorgias, wakaphalira Callicles kuti: "Nkhugomezga kuti ndine yumoza wa ŵanthu ŵachoko waka ŵa ku Ateni, kuti nileke kuyowoya kuti ndine pera, kweni ndine pera pakati pa ŵanthu ŵa mu nyengo yithu, uyo wakuchita ndyali. Ici nchifukwa cakuti nkhani izo nkhuyowoya pa nyengo yiliyose zikuŵa zakukhorweska yayi kweni zakovwira". Ivyo wakayowoya vikulongora kuti wakatinkhanga maungano gha demokilase na ndondomeko zinyake nga nkhuvota, pakuti Socrates wakawonanga kuti ŵandyali na ŵanthu awo ŵakuyowoya makora ŵakuchita vinthu mwakutalulira kuti ŵapusike ŵanthu. Wakaŵikapo mtima yayi kuti waŵe na udindo panji kupeleka malango. M'malo mwake, wakakhumbanga kovwira msumba uwu kuti ukure makora mwa "kovwira" ŵanthu ŵake. Pakuŵa mwenekaya wa caru ici, wakapulikiranga dango. Wakalondezganga malango gha ŵasilikari na kurwa nkhondo mu vyaru vinyake. Ndipouli, mu nkhani zake, wakuzunurapo viŵi yayi vya ndyali za nyengo iyo, nga ni ivyo vikachitika pa ulendo wa ku Sicily. Socrates wakamalira nyengo yake pa kudumbiskana na ŵanthu, kusazgapo ŵanthu ŵamazaza ŵa ku Ateni, kusanda vigomezgo vyawo na kufumiska fundo zakususkana. Socrates wakagomezganga kuti wakuŵacitira uwemi cifukwa kwa iyo, ndyali ni nthowa ya kucitira vinthu mu msumba kwizira mu vinjeru vya ŵanthu m'malo mwa kusankha ŵanthu. Ŵanthu ŵakususkana umo Socrates wakaŵira mu nyengo ya ndyali ya ku Ateni, iyo yikaŵa pakati pa ŵamazaza na ŵanthu ŵakutemwa demokilase. Nangauli palije ukaboni wakukhorweska, kweni ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakugomezga kuti Socrates wakatemwanga chomene demokilase. Wakakana kupulikira dango ilo boma la ŵasilikari ŵa mitundu 30 likamupa. Kweni pali ukaboni unyake wakuti Socrates wakatemwanga chomene ŵamazaza: Ŵabwezi ŵake ŵanandi ŵakakolerananga na ŵamazaza, wakayuyuranga maghanoghano gha ŵanthu ŵanandi ndipo wakasuskanga ndondomeko ya demokilase. Fundo yinyake yikulongora kuti Socrates wakatemwanga chisopa cha demokilase, icho chikukhumba kuti ŵanthu ŵachitenge vinthu mwakukwana. Fundo yinyake njakuti Socrates wakazomerezganga maghanoghano agho ghakaŵa ghakuyana na gha ŵanthu awo ŵakutemwa vinthu vyawo, agho ghakaŵa gha ndyali. Fundo iyi yikukolerana na fundo ya mu buku la Crito na Apology, apo Socrates wakuyowoya za ubwezi uwo ulipo pakati pa msumba na ŵanthu. Kuyana na fundo ya Socrates, ŵanthu ŵakujiyimira paŵekha ndipo ŵakufwatuka kufumamo mu msumba usange ŵakukhumba, kweni para ŵakukhala mu msumba ŵakuzomera malango na mazaza agho msumba ukuŵa nagho. Kweni ŵanyake ŵakuti Socrates ndiyo wakaŵa wakwamba kususka boma. Fundo iyi yikulongora kuti Socrates wakakananga vinthu vyambura urunji, kweniso wakakana kupulikira dango la ŵasilikari 30 lakuti ŵakake Leon. Nga ni umo wakuyowoyera mu Critias, "Munthu wakwenera yayi kucita vinthu vyambura urunji, nanga wangawezgera uheni uwo wacitikira". Pa fundo yikuru, ulongozgi wa Socrates ngwakuti ŵanthu ŵalondezgenge malango gha boma, pekha para ŵaghanaghanirapo comene na kughawona kuti ngaheni.{{sfn|Long|2009|pp=65–66, 70}} == Chihalo == === Nyengo ya Ŵagiriki === {{multiple image|align=right|image1=SocratesCarnelianGemImprintRome1stBCE1stCE.jpg|width1=165|image2=Socrates Efes Museum.JPG|width2=200|footer=Chimanyikwilo cha libwe la mtengo wapatali wa ku Carnilia, ku Roma, cha m'ma 100 B.C.E. cha m'ma 100 C.E. (kumazere); Chithunzi cha pakhoma pa nyumba ya Socrates, cha m'ma 1000 C.E., Museum of Ephesus (kumanja)}} Socrates wakawovwira chomene ŵanthu ŵavinjeru wati wafwa. Padera pa Ŵaepikureya na Ŵapironi, visambizgo vyose vya filosofi ivyo vikaŵako pamanyuma pa Socrates vikafuma kwa iyo. Ŵanthu ŵakalutilira kumutemwa chomene Socrates m'paka mu 300 C.E. Masukulu ghakupambanapambana ghakazgoranga mafumbo ghakuzirwa nga ni chilato cha umoyo panji umo vinthu viliri, pakuti Socrates wakaŵazgora yayi. Ŵanthu ŵakamuwonanga kuti wakasintha vinjeru vya ŵanthu kufuma pa kusambira vya chilengiwa, nga umo vikaŵira na ŵanthu awo ŵakasambizganga vinjeru vya ŵanthu pambere Socrates wandize pa charu chapasi. Ŵasambiri ŵa Socrates ŵakaŵa Euclid wa ku Megara, Aristippus, na Antisthenes. Vikuŵa vyakusuzga kusanga visambizgo vyose vya ŵasambiri ŵa Socrates. Antisthenes wakatinkhanga comene vinthu vyakuthupi. Kuyana na umo wakawoneranga, nkharo yiwemi ndiyo yikaŵa yakuzirwa comene. Diogenes na ŵanthu ŵakususka ŵakalutilira na maghanoghano agha. Mwakupambana na ŵanthu aŵa, Aristippus wakaciskanga ŵanthu kuti ŵaŵe ŵasambazi ndipo ŵakakhalanga makora. Wakati wafumako ku Ateni na kuwelera ku msumba wake wa Sirene, wakambiska sukulu ya cisambizgo ca Cirenaic iyo yikajintha pa vyakusanguluska, na kukhozgera umoyo wambura kusuzga na vyakusanguluska vya thupi. Sukulu iyi yikapelekeka kwa muzukuru wake. Mu buku la Xenophon, Aristippus wakayowoya kuti wakukhumba yayi kuwusa panji kuwusika na ŵanthu ŵanyake. Mwakusazgirapo, Aristippus wakasuskanga fundo yakuti munthu wangamanya makora yayi umo wakujipulikira. Fundo iyi yikukolerana na fundo ya Socrates yakukhwaskana na kuleka kumanya vinthu. Euclid wakaŵako mu nyengo ya Socrates. Socrates wakati wapika mulandu na kufwa, wakafumako ku Ateni na kuluta ku Megara, uko wakazenga sukulu yakucemeka Megarians. Fundo yake yikajintha pa fundo ya Parmenides iyo yikayowoyeka pambere Socrates wandababike. Euclid wakalutilira na maghanoghano gha Socrates, ndipo wakawonanga chomene mikhaliro yiwemi. Ŵastoyiki ŵakagomezganga comene Socrates. Ŵakagwiliskira ntchito nthowa ya Socrates kuti ŵaleke kupambana maghanoghano. Visambizgo vyawo vya makhaliro vikaŵa vyakukhwaskana na umo munthu wangakhalira makora mwa vinjeru na nkharo yiwemi. Ŵastoyiki ŵakagomezganga kuti nkharo yiwemi njakuzirwa comene kuti munthu waŵe wakukondwa, kweniso ŵakasambizganga kuti kuŵa na nkharo yiwemi nkhwakuzirwa comene. Pa nyengo yeneyiyo pera, fundo za Plato zikayowoyanga kuti Socrates ndiyo wakambiska fundo za mu Baibolo. Arcesilaus, uyo wakaŵa mulara wa sukulu iyi pakati pajumpha vilimika 80 kufuma apo Plato wakayipangira, wakasintha visambizgo vya sukulu iyi ndipo sono ŵanthu ŵakumanya kuti ni vyautesi. Ŵanthu awo ŵakagomezganga kuti vinthu ni viwemi yayi ŵakakwesananga na Ŵasitoiki pa nkhani ya uyo wakeneranga kulondezga fundo za Socrates. Apo Ŵasitoiki ŵakasuskanga fundo za mu Baibolo, Arcesilaus wakathembanga fundo za Socrates. Ŵasitoiki ŵakamuzgora Arcesilaus kuti Socrates wakamanya yayi vinthu vinyake (pakuti iwo ŵakakanizganga kuyowoya vyanthena). Nangauli Aristotle wakawonanga kuti Socrates ni munthu wakuzirwa, kweni iyo wakaŵa munthu wakuzirwa yayi. Munthu munyake uyo wakasambiranga na Aristotle, zina lake Aristoxenus, wakalemba buku ilo likulongosora makora ivyo Socrates wakachitanga. Ŵaepikuro ŵakasuskanga Socrates. Ŵakamususka cifukwa ca kugomezga mizimu yiheni ndiposo cifukwa cakuti wakagomezganga viŵanda. Kweniso ŵakasuskanga Socrates cifukwa ca mikhaliro yake na maubudi ghake, ndipo ŵakadodoliskanga comene pa ivyo wakacitanga. Ŵanthu awo ŵakalondezganga fundo za Pyrrhon ŵakasuskanga Socrates, ŵakamunenanga kuti wakutemwa kuyowoya vya nkharo, wakujiyuyura, kweniso wakuseka ŵanthu.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Diogenes Laertius, ''Lives of the Eminent Philosophers'' Book II, Chapter 5, Section 19 |url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0258%3Abook%3D2%3Achapter%3D5 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220124155322/https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0258:book%3D2:chapter%3D5 |archive-date=24 January 2022 |access-date=24 January 2022}}</ref> === Charu cha nyengo ya pakati === [[File:Sughrat.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sughrat.jpg|right|thumb|Chithuzithuzi cha Socrates mu mupukutu wa Al-Mubashshir ibn Fatik]] Fundo za Socrates zikafika ku Middle East pamoza na za Aristotle na Stoiki. Ŵasambiri ŵakwambilira ŵa Chisilamu nga ni Al-Kindi, Jabir ibn Hayyan, na Muʿtazila ŵakang'anamura mabuku gha Plato ghakulongosora vya Socrates na mabuku ghanyake gha Chigiriki. Ŵasambiri ŵa Cisilamu ŵakamuchindikanga comene Socrates cifukwa ca kulondezga fundo zake zaurunji na umoyo wake. Ivyo Socrates wakasambizganga vikasintha kuti vikolerane na chisopa cha Cisilamu. Ivyo wakacita vikulutilira pa caru cose ico cikuyowoya Ciarabu. Mu nyengo za pakati, fundo zichoko waka za Socrates zikapona mu Chikhristu chose; kweni, mabuku ghakulongosora za Socrates agho ghakalembeka na ŵanthu ŵakusambira vya Chikhristu nga ni Lactantius, Eusebius na Augustine ghakasungikira mu Ufumu wa Byzantium, uko Socrates wakasambizgikanga na Ŵakhristu. Ŵakati ŵathereska msumba wa Constantinople, mabuku ghanandi agha ŵakaghawezgera ku Ŵakhristu ŵa ku Romu, ndipo ŵakaghalemba mu Cilatini. Mu nyengo ya Renaissance, visambizgo vya Socrates vikaŵa vyakukayikira chomene. Mu nyengo yakwambilira ya Renaissance ku Italy, ŵanthu ŵakalongosora vinthu viŵiri vyakukhwaskana na Socrates. Ku cigaŵa cimoza, ŵanthu ŵakamba kutemwa comene ŵalembi ŵa Baibolo. Leonardo Bruni wakang'anamura mabuku ghanandi gha Plato ghakuyowoya vya Socrates, ndipo msambiri wake Giannozzo Manetti wakalemba buku la Life of Socrates. Wose ŵakayowoya kuti Socrates wakaŵa munthu wakujiyuyura kweniso wakutemwa ndyali. Bruni na Manetti ŵakakhumbanga kuvikilira chisopa chautesi nga ni nthowa yambura kwananga ya umoyo. Pakucita nthena, ŵakeneranga kujara vigaŵa vinyake vya nkhani zake, comenecomene izo zikawonekanga nga zikukhozgera kugonana kwa ŵanalume panji ŵanakazi pera panji kuti zikulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵakutemwa kugonana na ŵana (nga umo vikaŵira na Alcibiades), panji izo zikayowoyanga kuti Socrates wakaŵa ciuta. Kweni ŵanthu ŵa ku Italy awo ŵakasambizganga vya Plato ŵakamuwonanga mwakupambana Socrates. Ficino wakakondwa comene na umo Socrates wakasambizgiranga mwambura kughanaghana makora. Ficino wakajambura Socrates nga ni munthu mutuŵa, ndipo wakayaniska na umoyo wa Yesu Khristu. Kwa Ficino na ŵalondezgi ŵake, Socrates wakazomerezga kuti vinjeru vyose vikufuma kwa Ciuta.{{sfn|Hankins|2009|pp=346–348}} === Mazuŵa ghano === [[File:Reyer_Jacobsz._van_Blommendael,_Socrate,_ses_deux_épouses_et_Alcibiade,_1675._Huile_sur_toile,_210_x_198_cm._Strasbourg,_Musée_des_Beaux-Art.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Reyer_Jacobsz._van_Blommendael,_Socrate,_ses_deux_%C3%A9pouses_et_Alcibiade,_1675._Huile_sur_toile,_210_x_198_cm._Strasbourg,_Mus%C3%A9e_des_Beaux-Art.jpg|thumb|Socrates pamoza na ŵawoli ŵake (ŵakaŵa ŵakutorana kamoza panji kaŵiri) na ŵana ŵa sukulu, ŵakuwoneka pa vithuzithuzi vinandi. Pa cithuzithuzi ici pali Socrates, Ŵanakazi ŵake ŵaŵiri, na Alcibiades, cithuzithuzi ca Reyer van Blommendael, munthu wa ku Netherlands. Kanandi, muwoli wake Xanthippe, wali yekha panji pamoza na Myrto (mwanakazi munyake wa Socrates) ŵakumuwoneska kuti wakutaya maji pa Socrates.{{sfn|Lapatin|2009|pp=133-139}}]] Mu nyengo ya ku France, vinthu ivyo vikaŵa mu umoyo wa Socrates ndivyo vikamupangiska kuti waŵe na nkharo yiwemi. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito Socrates kuti ŵalongosore nkhani izo zikaŵa zakusuzga mu nyengo yawo, nga ni Theophile de Viau, uyo wakalongosora kuti Socrates wakaŵa Mkhristu ndipo ŵakamuyowoyera kuti ni wambura Chiuta. Michel de Montaigne wakalemba vinandi vyakukhwaskana na Socrates, ndipo wakayaniska Socrates na ŵanthu awo ŵakutemwa chomene chisopa. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800, ŵanthu ŵa ku Germany ŵakamba kutemwa chomene Socrates, chomenechomene chifukwa cha ntchito ya Hegel. Kuyana na Hegel, Socrates wakalongora kuti ŵanthu ŵali na wanangwa wa kusankha ŵekha vyakuchita. Nangauli Hegel wakulumba Socrates cifukwa ca ivyo wakacita, kweni wakususka yayi ivyo khoti la ku Ateni likayowoya cifukwa cakuti Socrates wakakhumbanga kuti ŵanthu ŵajilamulirenge ŵekha. Kweniso, Hegel wakuwona kuti Socrates wakugwiliskira ntchito vinjeru nga ni umo Protagoras wakalongosoleranga fundo za ŵanthu (nga umo mazgu ghakuti "munthu ndiyo wakuyegha vinthu vyose" ghakulongosolera), kweni wakasintha: ni vinjeru vithu ivyo vingatovwira kuti tiŵe na maghanoghano ghakwenelera. Kweniso Hegel wakawonanga kuti Socrates ndiyo wakaŵa wakwamba kwa ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵakagomezganga yayi kuti kuli Chiuta. Søren Kierkegaard wakawonanga kuti Socrates ndiyo wakaŵa msambizgi wake, ndipo wakalemba buku lake lakuti The Concept of Irony with Continual Reference to Socrates. Mu buku ili, wakayowoya kuti Socrates wakaŵa wavinjeru yayi, kweni wakaŵa munthu wakususka waka. Wakayowoyaso umo Socrates wakachitira kuti waleke kulemba: kwa Kierkegaard, kuleka kulemba kukaŵa chimanyikwiro cha kujiyuyura. Kuyana na Kierkegaard, Socrates wakalembapo yayi, kweni ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵakakhalanga nayo nyengo yimoza ŵakamupulikiska yayi. Kuyana na maghanoghano gha Kierkegaard, buku la Plato lakuti Apology ndilo likaŵa pafupi na Socrates. Mu ivyo wakalemba, wakakumanaso na Socrates kanandi waka. Mu milimo yake yakunthazi, Kierkegaard wakasanga fundo za mu fundo za Socrates. Socrates wakaŵa waka munthu wakusambira yayi kwa Kierkegaard, kweniso wakaŵa munthu uyo wakalongoranga. Iyo wakalemba kuti: "Ivyo nkhuyowoya vikukolerana waka na ivyo wakachita Socrates. Ntchito yane ni iyo Socrates wakachita, ya kuwona umo Mkhristu wakuwonekera". Kierkegaard wakakana kuti ni Mkhristu, nga umo Socrates nayo wakakanira kuti walije mahara. Friedrich Nietzsche wakakwiya comene na ivyo Socrates wakacita kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi ŵasambire. Mu buku lake lakwamba, lakuti The Birth of Tragedy (1872), Nietzsche wakati Socrates ndiyo wakachitiska kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Greece ŵaleke kwenda makora mu vyaka vya m'ma 400 B.C.E. Kwa Nietzsche, Socrates wakasintha vinjeru vya ŵanthu kufuma ku ivyo vikaŵa pambere Socrates wandababike kuya ku vinjeru vya ŵanthu. Iyo wakalemba kuti: "Nkhughanaghana kuti [Ŵasambiri ŵa Socrates] ndiwo ŵakambiska kusintha kwa Ŵagiriki: kweni Socrates yayi"; "Apo Empedocles na Democritus ŵakaŵako, Ŵagiriki ŵakaŵa pa nthowa yiwemi yakuwonera umo umoyo wa munthu uliri, umo uliri wambura kupulikikwa, ndiposo umo ukuŵira wakusuzgika; kweni cifukwa ca Socrates, ŵakafiska yayi cilato ici". Nietzsche wakayowoya kuti vinthu vikaŵa makora yayi pa nyengo yira. Mu buku linyake, lakuti The Twilight of the Idols (1887), Nietzsche wakalutilira kulimbana na Socrates. Wakulemba kuti: "Nkhayezga kuti nipulikiske umo suzgo la Socrates likambira. Wakakondwanga comene na cisambizgo ici cakuti munthu wakuyana na munyake yayi. Kwamba m'ma 1800 m'paka m'ma 1900, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakamanyanga kuti Nietzsche wakakhumbanga yayi kuti Socrates waŵe na maghanoghano ghakwimikana na vinjeru vya ŵanthu. Pakati pa vyaka vya m'ma 1900, Walter Kaufmann wakalemba nkhani yakulongora kuti Nietzsche wakatemwanga chomene Socrates. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakugomezga kuti Nietzsche wakatinkhanga Socrates. [[File:Socrates_en_Biblioteca_Nacional.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Socrates_en_Biblioteca_Nacional.JPG|thumb|Cikozgo ca Socrates kuwaro kwa National Library of Uruguay, Montevideo]] Ŵafilosofe ŵa pa caru cose, Hannah Arendt, Leo Strauss na Karl Popper, ŵakati ŵawona vinthu vyakofya ivyo vikacitika pa Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Caru Cose, ŵakati ŵawona kuti maboma ghakutemwera vinthu vyaŵene ghakamba kuwusa, ŵakawona kuti Socrates ni munthu uyo wali na njuŵi yiwemi. Arendt, mu buku lake lakuti Eichmann in Jerusalem (1963), wakayowoya kuti Socrates wakajifumbanga mafumbo nyengo zose na kujisanda kuti waleke kuchita viheni. Strauss wakuwona kuti maghanoghano gha Socrates ghakuyana waka na gha Plato. Iyo wakuwona kuti munthu munyake wakuchemeka Socrates mu buku la Plato lakuti The Republic wakulongosora chifukwa icho boma likuchitira vinthu mwakukolerana yayi na umoyo wa ŵanthu. Popper wakayowoya kuti Socrates wakususka fundo za Plato. Kwa Popper, munthu uyo wakulondezga fundo za Socrates, pamoza na demokilase ya ku Ateni, vikung'anamura fundo ya Popper yakuti "mbumba yakujulika" nga umo yili kulembekera mu buku lake lakuti Open Society and Its Enemies (1945).{{sfn|Ahbel-Rappe|2011|pp=140-142}} == Wonaniso == {{Portal|Philosophy}} * [[:en:Bibliography_of_Socrates|Bibliography of Socrates]] * ''[[:en:De_genio_Socratis|De genio Socratis]]'' * [[:en:List_of_cultural_depictions_of_Socrates|List of cultural depictions of Socrates]] * [[:en:List_of_speakers_in_Plato's_dialogues|List of speakers in Plato's dialogues]] * [[:en:Definist_fallacy|Socratic fallacy]] * [[:en:Codex_Vaticanus_Graecus_64|Socratic Letters]] == Vyakulemba == <references group="" responsive="1"></references> == Ukaboni == {{refbegin|30em}} * {{cite book|last1=Ahbel-Rappe|first1=Sara|last2=Kamtekar|first2=Rachana|title=A Companion to Socrates|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wGjTooom3rcC|year=2009|publisher=Wiley|isbn=978-1-4051-5458-1}} * {{cite book|last=Ahbel-Rappe|first=Sara|title=Socrates: A Guide for the Perplexed|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GKewlVwJ9rgC|year=2011|publisher=A&C Black|isbn=978-0-8264-3325-1}} * {{cite book|last=Alon|first=Ilai|editor-last1=Ahbel-Rappe|editor-first1=Sara|editor-last2=Kamtekar|editor-first2=Rachana|title=A Companion to Socrates|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wGjTooom3rcC|year=2009|publisher=Wiley|isbn=978-1-4051-5458-1|chapter=Socrates in Arabic Philosophy|pages=313–326|doi=10.1002/9780470996218.ch20}} * {{cite web |last=Ambury |first=James M. |year=2020 |title=Socrates |url=https://iep.utm.edu/socrates/ |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=[[Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]}} * {{cite book|last=Ausland|first=Hayden W.|editor=Kyriakos N. Demetriou|title=Brill's Companion to the Reception of Socrates|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CTGbDwAAQBAJ|date=15 May 2019|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-90-04-39675-3|chapter=Socrates in the Early Nineteenth Century, Become Young and Beautiful|pages=685–718}} * {{cite book|last=Benson|first=Hugh H.|editor=Donald R. Morrison|title=The Cambridge Companion to Socrates|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_KBex4rtlXMC|year=2011|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-83342-4|chapter=Socratic Method|pages=179–200|doi=10.1017/CCOL9780521833424.008}} * {{cite book|last=Benson|first=Hugh H.|editor=Nicholas D. Smith|others=John Bussanich|title=The Bloomsbury Companion to Socrates|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A9ZLAQAAQBAJ|date=3 January 2013|publisher=A&C Black|isbn=978-1-4411-1284-2|pages=136–155|chapter=The priority of definition}} * {{cite book|last=Bett|first=Richard|editor=Donald R. Morrison|title=The Cambridge Companion to Socrates|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_KBex4rtlXMC|year=2011|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-83342-4|chapter=Socratic Ignorance|pages=215–236|doi=10.1017/CCOL9780521833424.010}} * {{cite book|last=Bowman|first=Brady|editor=Kyriakos N. Demetriou|title=Brill's Companion to the Reception of Socrates|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CTGbDwAAQBAJ|date=15 May 2019|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-90-04-39675-3|chapter=Hegel on Socrates and the Historical Advent of Moral Self-Consciousness|pages=749–792|doi=10.1163/9789004396753_030|s2cid=181666253}} * {{cite book|last1=Brickhouse|first=Thomas C.|last2=Smith|first2=Nicholas D.|editor=Nicholas D. Smith|others=John Bussanich|title=The Bloomsbury Companion to Socrates|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A9ZLAQAAQBAJ|date=3 January 2013|publisher=A&C Black|isbn=978-1-4411-1284-2|pages=185–209|chapter=Socratic Moral Psychology}} * {{cite book|last=Campos-Daroca|first=F. Javier|editor-last1=Moore|editor-first1=Christopher|title=Brill's Companion to the Reception of Socrates|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CTGbDwAAQBAJ|date=15 May 2019|publisher=[[Brill Publishers]]|isbn=978-90-04-39675-3|chapter=Epicurus and the Epicureans on Socrates and the Socratics|pages=237–265|doi=10.1163/9789004396753_010|s2cid=182098719}} * {{cite book|last=D'Angour|first=Armand|author-link=Armand_D'Angour|title=Socrates in Love|url=https://www.bloomsbury.com/in/socrates-in-love-9781408883914/|year=2019|publisher=Bloomsbury|isbn=978-14-08-88391-4}} * {{cite book|last=Döring|first=Klaus|editor=Donald R. Morrison|title=The Cambridge Companion to Socrates|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_KBex4rtlXMC|year=2011|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-83342-4|chapter=The Students of Socrates|pages=24–47|doi=10.1017/CCOL9780521833424.002}} * {{cite book|last=Dorion|first=Louis André|editor=Donald R. Morrison|title=The Cambridge Companion to Socrates|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_KBex4rtlXMC|year=2011|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-83342-4|chapter=The Rise and Fall of the Socratic Problem|pages=1–23|doi=10.1017/CCOL9780521833424.001|hdl=10795/1977}} * {{cite book|last=Guthrie|first=W. K. C.|author-link=W. K. C. Guthrie|title=A History of Greek Philosophy: Volume 3, The Fifth Century Enlightenment, Part 2, Socrates|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofgreekph0003unse|url-access=registration|date=1972|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-09667-6|doi=10.1017/CBO9780511518454}} * {{cite book|last=Griswold|first=Charles L.|editor=Donald R. Morrison|title=The Cambridge Companion to Socrates|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_KBex4rtlXMC|year=2011|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-83342-4|chapter=Socrates' Political Philosophy|pages=333–352|doi=10.1017/CCOL9780521833424.014}} * {{cite book|last=Hankins|first=James|editor-last1=Ahbel-Rappe|editor-first1=Sara|editor-last2=Kamtekar|editor-first2=Rachana|title=A Companion to Socrates|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wGjTooom3rcC|year=2009|publisher=Wiley|isbn=978-1-4051-5458-1|chapter=Socrates in the Italian Renaissance|pages=337–352|doi=10.1002/9780470996218.ch21}} * {{cite book|last=Johnson|first=Curtis|editor=Nicholas D. Smith|others=John Bussanich|title=The Bloomsbury Companion to Socrates|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A9ZLAQAAQBAJ|date=3 January 2013|publisher=A&C Black|isbn=978-1-4411-1284-2|pages=233–256|chapter=Socrates' political philosophy}} * {{cite book|last=Jones|first=Daniel|author-link=Daniel Jones (phonetician)|title=English Pronouncing Dictionary|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jGSXwqTCwpkC|date=8 June 2006|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-68086-8}} * {{cite book|last=Kahn|first=Charles H.|author-link=Charles H. Kahn|title=Plato and the Socratic Dialogue: The Philosophical Use of a Literary Form|url=https://archive.org/details/platosocraticdia0000kahn|url-access=registration|date=4 June 1998|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-64830-1|doi=10.1017/CBO9780511585579}} * {{cite book|last=Konstan|first=David|editor=Donald R. Morrison|title=The Cambridge Companion to Socrates|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_KBex4rtlXMC|year=2011|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-83342-4|chapter=Socrates in Aristophanes' Clouds|pages=75–90|doi=10.1017/CCOL9780521833424.004}} * {{cite book|last=Lane|first=Melissa|editor=Donald R. Morrison|title=The Cambridge Companion to Socrates|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_KBex4rtlXMC|year=2011|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-83342-4|chapter=Reconsidering Socratic Irony|pages=237–259|doi=10.1017/CCOL9780521833424.011}} * {{cite book|last=Lapatin|first=Keneth|editor=Sara Ahbel-Rappe|others=Rachana Kamtekar|title=A Companion to Socrates|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wGjTooom3rcC|year=2009|publisher=Wiley|isbn=978-1-4051-5458-1|chapter=Picturing Socrates|pages=110–155}} * {{cite journal|last=Lesher|first=J. H. (James H.)|title=Socrates' Disavowal of Knowledge|journal=Journal of the History of Philosophy|publisher=Project Muse|volume=25|issue=2|year=1987|issn=1538-4586|doi=10.1353/hph.1987.0033|pages=275–288|s2cid=171007876|url=https://philpapers.org/rec/LESSDO-4}} * {{cite book|last=Long|first=A.A.|editor=Sara Ahbel-Rappe|others=Rachana Kamtekar|title=A Companion to Socrates|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wGjTooom3rcC|year=2009|publisher=Wiley|isbn=978-1-4051-5458-1|chapter=How Does Socrates' Divine Sign Communicate with Him?|pages=63–74|doi=10.1002/9780470996218.ch5}} * {{cite book|last=Long|first=A.A.|editor=Donald R. Morrison|title=The Cambridge Companion to Socrates|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_KBex4rtlXMC|year=2011|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-83342-4|chapter=Socrates in Later Greek Philosophy|pages=355–379|doi=10.1017/CCOL9780521833424.015}} * {{cite book|last=Loughlin|first=Felicity P.|editor=Kyriakos N. Demetriou|title=Brill's Companion to the Reception of Socrates|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CTGbDwAAQBAJ|date=15 May 2019|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-90-04-39675-3|chapter=Socrates and Religious Debate in the Scottish Enlightenment|pages=658–683|doi=10.1163/9789004396753_027|s2cid=182644665}} * {{cite book|last=May|first=Hope|title=On Socrates|url=https://archive.org/details/onsocrates00mayh|url-access=registration|year=2000|publisher=Wadsworth/Thomson Learning|isbn=978-0-534-57604-2}} * {{cite book|last1=McPherran|first=Mark L.|editor=Donald R. Morrison|title=The Cambridge Companion to Socrates|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_KBex4rtlXMC|year=2011|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-83342-4|chapter=Socratic religion|pages=111–127|doi=10.1017/CCOL9780521833424.006}} * {{cite book|last1=McPherran|first=Mark L.|editor=Nicholas D. Smith|others=John Bussanich|title=The Bloomsbury Companion to Socrates|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A9ZLAQAAQBAJ|date=3 January 2013|publisher=A&C Black|isbn=978-1-4411-1284-2|pages=257–277|chapter=Socratic theology and piety}} * {{cite book|last=McPartland|first=Keith|editor=Nicholas D. Smith|others=John Bussanich|title=The Bloomsbury Companion to Socrates|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A9ZLAQAAQBAJ|date=3 January 2013|publisher=A&C Black|isbn=978-1-4411-1284-2|chapter=Socratic Ignorance and Types of Knowledge|pages=94–135}} * {{cite book|last=McLean|first=Daniel R.|editor-last1=Ahbel-Rappe|editor-first1=Sara|editor-last2=Kamtekar|editor-first2=Rachana|title=A Companion to Socrates|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wGjTooom3rcC|year=2009|publisher=Wiley|isbn=978-1-4051-5458-1|chapter=The Private Life of Socrates in Early Modern France|pages=353–367|doi=10.1002/9780470996218.ch22}} * {{cite book|last=Muench|first=Paul|editor=Sara Ahbel-Rappe|others=Rachana Kamtekar|title=A Companion to Socrates|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wGjTooom3rcC|year=2009|publisher=Wiley|isbn=978-1-4051-5458-1|chapter=Kierkegaard's Socratic Point of View|pages=389–405|doi=10.1002/9780470996218.ch24}} * {{cite web |last=Nails |first=Debra |year=2020 |editor=[[Edward N. Zalta]] |title=Socrates |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/socrates/ |publisher=[[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]}} * {{Cite book|last1=Ober|first1=Josiah|editor=Donald R. Morrison|chapter=Socrates and Democratic Athens|title=The Cambridge Companion to Socrates|pages=138–178|date=2010|isbn=978-0-521-83342-4|publisher=Cambridge University Press|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_KBex4rtlXMC&pg=PA138|doi=10.1017/CCOL9780521833424.007}} * {{cite book|last=Obdrzalek|first=Suzanne|editor=Nicholas D. Smith|others=John Bussanich|title=The Bloomsbury Companion to Socrates|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A9ZLAQAAQBAJ|date=3 January 2013|publisher=A&C Black|isbn=978-1-4411-1284-2|pages=210–232|chapter=Socrates on Love}} * {{cite book|last=Porter|first=James I.|editor=Sara Ahbel-Rappe|others=Rachana Kamtekar|title=A Companion to Socrates|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wGjTooom3rcC|year=2009|publisher=Wiley|isbn=978-1-4051-5458-1|chapter=Nietzsche and 'The Problem of Socrates'|pages=406–425|doi=10.1002/9780470996218.ch25}} * {{cite book|last=Ralkowski|first=Mark|editor=Nicholas D. Smith|others=John Bussanich|title=The Bloomsbury Companion to Socrates|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A9ZLAQAAQBAJ|date=3 January 2013|publisher=A&C Black|isbn=978-1-4411-1284-2|pages=301–327|chapter=The politics of impiety why was Socrates prosecuted by the Athenian democracy ?}} * {{cite book|last=Raymond|first=Christopher C.|editor=Kyriakos N. Demetriou|title=Brill's Companion to the Reception of Socrates|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CTGbDwAAQBAJ|date=15 May 2019|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-90-04-39675-3|chapter=Nietzsche's Revaluation of Socrates|pages=837–683|doi=10.1163/9789004396753_033|s2cid=182444038}} * {{cite book|last=Reshotko|first=Naomi|editor=Nicholas D. Smith|others=John Bussanich|title=The Bloomsbury Companion to Socrates|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A9ZLAQAAQBAJ|date=3 January 2013|publisher=A&C Black|isbn=978-1-4411-1284-2|pages=156–184|chapter=Socratic eudaimonism}} * {{cite book|last=Rowe|first=Christopher|editor=Sara Ahbel-Rappe|others=Rachana Kamtekar|title=A Companion to Socrates|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wGjTooom3rcC|year=2006|publisher=Wiley|isbn=978-1-4051-5458-1|chapter=Socrates in Plato’s Dialogues|pages=159–170|doi=10.1002/9780470996218.ch10}} * {{cite book|last=Rudebusch|first=George|editor=Sara Ahbel-Rappe|others=Rachana Kamtekar|title=A Companion to Socrates|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wGjTooom3rcC|year=2009|publisher=Wiley|isbn=978-1-4051-5458-1|chapter=Socratic Love|pages=186–199|doi=10.1002/9780470996218.ch11}} * {{cite book|last=Segvic|first=Heda|editor=Sara Ahbel-Rappe|others=Rachana Kamtekar|title=A Companion to Socrates|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wGjTooom3rcC|year=2006|publisher=Wiley|isbn=978-1-4051-5458-1|chapter=No One Errs Willingly: The Meaning of Socratic Intellectualism|pages=171–185|doi=10.1002/9780470996218.ch10}} * {{cite book|last1=Schur|first1=David|last2=Yamato|first2=Lori|editor=Kyriakos N. Demetriou|title=Brill's Companion to the Reception of Socrates|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CTGbDwAAQBAJ|date=15 May 2019|publisher=Brill Publishers|isbn=978-90-04-39675-3|chapter=Kierkegaard's Socratic Way of Writing|pages=820–836|doi=10.1163/9789004396753_032|s2cid=181535294}} * {{cite book|last=Trizio|first=Michele|editor-last1=Moore|editor-first1=Christopher|title=Brill's Companion to the Reception of Socrates|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CTGbDwAAQBAJ|date=15 May 2019|publisher=Brill Publishers|isbn=978-90-04-39675-3|chapter=Socrates in Byzantium|pages=592–618|doi=10.1163/9789004396753_024|s2cid=182037431}} * {{cite book|last=Vasiliou|first=Iakovos|editor=Nicholas D. Smith|others=John Bussanich|title=The Bloomsbury Companion to Socrates|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A9ZLAQAAQBAJ|date=3 January 2013|publisher=A&C Black|isbn=978-1-4411-1284-2|pages=20–33|chapter=Socratic irony}} * {{cite journal|last=Vlastos|first=Gregory|authorlink=Gregory Vlastos|title=Socrates' Disavowal of Knowledge|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_philosophical-quarterly_1985-01_35_138/page/1|journal=The Philosophical Quarterly|publisher=Oxford University Press (OUP)|volume=35|issue=138|year=1985|pages=1–31|issn=0031-8094|doi=10.2307/2219545|jstor=2219545}} * {{cite book|last=Vlastos|first=Gregory|author-link=Gregory Vlastos|title=Socrates, Ironist and Moral Philosopher|url=https://archive.org/details/socratesironistm00vlas_0|url-access=registration|year=1991|publisher=[[Cornell University Press]]|isbn=978-0-8014-9787-2}} * {{cite book|last=Waterfield|first=Robin|editor=Nicholas D. Smith|others=John Bussanich|title=The Bloomsbury Companion to Socrates|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A9ZLAQAAQBAJ|date=3 January 2013|publisher=A&C Black|isbn=978-1-4411-1284-2|pages=1–19|chapter=Quest for the historical Socrates}} * {{cite book|last=Wolfsdorf|first=David|editor=Nicholas D. Smith|others=John Bussanich|title=The Bloomsbury Companion to Socrates|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A9ZLAQAAQBAJ|date=3 January 2013|publisher=A&C Black|isbn=978-1-4411-1284-2|pages=34–67|chapter=Quest for the historical Socrates}} * {{cite book|last=White|first=Nicholas|editor=Sara Ahbel-Rappe|others=Rachana Kamtekar|title=A Companion to Socrates|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wGjTooom3rcC|year=2009|publisher=Wiley|isbn=978-1-4051-5458-1|chapter=Socrates in Hegel and Others|pages=368–387|doi=10.1002/9780470996218.ch23}} {{refend}} == Vinandi == {{Library resources box|by=yes|onlinebooks=yes|others=yes|about=yes|label=Socrates|viaf=|lccn=|lcheading=|wikititle=}} * {{cite book|last=Brun|first=Jean|title=Socrate|publisher=Presses universitaires de France|date=1978|pages=39–40|isbn=978-2-13-035620-2|edition=sixth|ref=none|language=fr}}<!--French--> * {{cite book|last=Benson|first=Hugh|title=Essays on the philosophy of Socrates|publisher=Oxford University Press|publication-place=New York|year=1992|isbn=978-0-19-506757-6|oclc=23179683|ref=none}} * {{cite book|last=Rudebusch|first=George|title=Socrates|url=https://archive.org/details/socrates0000rude|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|publication-place=Chichester, U.K. Malden, MA|year=2009|isbn=978-1-4051-5085-9|oclc=476311710|ref=none}} * {{cite book|last=Taylor|first=C. C. W.|title=Socrates|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nfwDAQAAIAAJ&pg=PP10|year=1998|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-287601-0|ref=none}} * {{cite book|last=Taylor|first=C. C. W.|title=Socrates: A Very Short Introduction|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RgulDwAAQBAJ|year=2019|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-883598-1|ref=none}} * {{cite book|last=Vlastos|first=Gregory|author-link=Gregory Vlastos|title=Socratic Studies|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bCfaayaHBXEC|year=1994|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-44735-5|ref=none}} == Vigaŵa vya kuwaro == {{Sister project links|d=Q913|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|s=Portal:Socrates|wikt=no|mw=no|m=no|species=no}} * {{InPho|thinker|3919}} * [https://www.gutenberg.org/catalog/world/authrec?fk_authors=93 The Dialogues of Plato] at [[:en:Project_Gutenberg|Project Gutenberg]] {{Socrates navbox}}{{Navboxes|title=Related articles|list={{Greek schools of philosophy}} {{Ethics}} {{Ancient Greece topics|people}}}}{{Authority control}} tbx30g8gxsmrp4utd2c0gqohq43i8uu 0 26515 119324 118853 2026-08-13T22:53:12Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260813sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 119324 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|Chinese philosopher and politician (551–479 BCE)}}{{Nkhani iwemi}} {{Other uses}} {{pp-vandalism|small=yes}} {{Infobox philosopher|name=Confucius|native_name={{nobold|孔子}}|region=[[Chinese philosophy]]|era=[[Hundred Schools of Thought]]<br />([[Ancient philosophy]])|image=Confucius Tang Dynasty.jpg|caption=Imaginary portrait by [[Wu Daozi]] (685–758), [[Tang dynasty]]|birth_name=Kǒng Qiū|birth_date={{circa|551 BCE}}|birth_place=Zou, [[Lu (state)|State of Lu]]<br />(modern-day {{ill|南辛镇|zh|lt=Nanxin}}, [[Qufu]], [[Shandong]], [[China]])|death_date={{circa|479 BCE}} (aged 71–72)|death_place=[[Si River]], [[Lu (state)|State of Lu]]|death_cause=|resting_place=[[Cemetery of Confucius]], [[Lu (state)|State of Lu]]|resting_place_coordinates=|spouse=[[Lady Qiguan]]|partner=|children=[[Kong Li]] (son) <br /> Kong Jiao (daughter)|family=[[Shuliang He]] (father) <br /> [[Yan Zhengzai]] (mother)|school_tradition=[[Confucianism]]|notable_students=[[Yan Hui]], [[Zengzi]]<br />[[Disciples of Confucius]]|main_interests=[[Moral philosophy|Ethics]], [[education]], [[music]],<ref name="auto">{{Cite web|last=Kirkendall|first=Jensen Armstrong|title=The Well-Ordered Heart: Confucius on Harmony, Music, and Ritual|url=https://s3.wp.wsu.edu/uploads/sites/998/2018/11/JensenKirkendall-TheWellOrderedHeart.pdf|date=2017-12-14|access-date=2021-04-13|archive-date=2021-04-13|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210413045728/https://s3.wp.wsu.edu/uploads/sites/998/2018/11/JensenKirkendall-TheWellOrderedHeart.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> [[poetry]],<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Cai|first=Zong-qi|title=In Quest of Harmony: Plato and Confucius on Poetry|journal=Philosophy East and West|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1399898|date=July 1999|volume=49|issue=3|pages=317–345|doi=10.2307/1399898|jstor=1399898|access-date=2021-04-13|archive-date=2021-06-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210601212134/https://www.jstor.org/stable/1399898|url-status=live}}</ref> [[political philosophy]], [[Social philosophy]]|influences={{flatlist| * Cultural values of the [[Xia dynasty|Xia]], [[Shang dynasty|Shang]] and [[Western Zhou dynasty|Western Zhou dynasties]]{{sfn|Fung|2008|p=163}} * ''[[I Ching]]'' * ''[[Book of Rites]]'' * ''[[Classic of Poetry]]'' }}|influenced={{longitem|Virtually all subsequent [[Chinese philosophy]], particularly [[Mencius]], [[Xun Kuang]], [[Zhu Xi]], [[Wang Yangming|Wang Shouren]], the [[Neotaoism|Neotaoists]], as well as [[Han Yu]] and the [[Neoconfucianism|Neoconfucians]]. Also influenced multiple [[Western philosophy|Western thinkers]] including [[Niels Bohr]],<ref>{{Cite web|last=Allinson|first=Robert E.|title=Complementarity as a Model for Eastwest Integrative Philosophy |url=https://philarchive.org/archive/ROBCAA-5v1|date=December 1998}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Christianity and Confucianism: Culture, Faith and Politics|date=2020|publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xKYFEAAAQBAJ&q=niels+bohr+confucius+schiller+only+wholeness+leads+to+clarity&pg=PA382|location=[[London, United Kingdom]]|page=382|isbn=9780567657688|access-date=2021-05-03|archive-date=2021-08-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210809162059/https://books.google.com/books?id=xKYFEAAAQBAJ&q=niels+bohr+confucius+schiller+only+wholeness+leads+to+clarity&pg=PA382|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Holton|first=Gerald|title=Niels Bohr and the Integrity of Science: Integrity in science involves not merely the avoidance of dishonorable behavior but also some principles of action that are exemplified in the life and work of Niels Bohr|journal=American Scientist|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/27854096|date=June 1986|volume=74|issue=3|pages=237–243|jstor=27854096|access-date=2021-04-12|archive-date=2021-08-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210809161834/https://www.jstor.org/stable/27854096|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Benjamin Franklin]],<ref>{{Cite web|last=Wang|first=Dave|title=Benjamin Franklin and China|url=http://www.benfranklin300.org/_etc_pdf/franklinchina.pdf|access-date=2021-04-11|archive-date=2021-04-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210411003104/http://www.benfranklin300.org/_etc_pdf/franklinchina.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Hornung|first=Alfred|title=Confucius and Benjamin Franklin: Chinese Ideas in the Foundation of the United States|url=https://owllife.kennesaw.edu/event/2893541|date=November 2018|access-date=2021-04-11|archive-date=2021-04-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210411003104/https://owllife.kennesaw.edu/event/2893541|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Confucius and Benjamin Franklin|url=https://larouchepub.com/eiw/public/2017/eirv44n17-20170428/33-34_4417.pdf|date=2017-04-28|access-date=2021-04-11|archive-date=2021-07-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210725073702/https://larouchepub.com/eiw/public/2017/eirv44n17-20170428/33-34_4417.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Allen Ginsberg]],<ref>{{Cite web|title=Ginsberg and China|url=https://allenginsberg.org/2017/09/s-s-9/|date=9 September 2017|access-date=12 April 2021|archive-date=12 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210412010951/https://allenginsberg.org/2017/09/s-s-9/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Jackson|first=Brian|title=Modernist Looking: Surreal Impressions in the Poetry of Allen Ginsberg|journal=Texas Studies in Literature and Language|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/40928069|date=September 2010|volume=52|issue=3|pages=298–323|doi=10.1353/tsl.2010.0003|jstor=40928069|s2cid=162063608|access-date=2021-04-12|archive-date=2021-08-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210809161613/https://www.jstor.org/stable/40928069|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Chan|first=Tsz Shan|title=Visions of Enlightenment: Aspects of Buddhism in Jack Kerouac, Allen Ginsberg and Gary Snyder|url=https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/48550408.pdf|date=January 2011|access-date=2021-04-12|archive-date=2021-04-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210412010948/https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/48550408.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Thomas Jefferson]],<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Burstein|first=Andrew|title=Review: Jefferson in Confucian Relief|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/25096753|date=October 2007|jstor=25096753|journal=[[William and Mary Quarterly]]|access-date=2021-04-12|archive-date=2021-08-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210809161930/https://www.jstor.org/stable/25096753|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Confucius influenced America's founding fathers: scholar|url=http://www.china.org.cn/arts/2017-09/26/content_41649958.htm|date=2017-09-26|access-date=2021-04-12|archive-date=2021-08-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210809161834/http://www.china.org.cn/arts/2017-09/26/content_41649958.htm|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Thompson|first=Kirill|title=Traditional Chinese Concepts and 17th–18th Century Enlightenment Ideals: Reflections on the IHS Conference on Freedom, Equality, Democracy, and the Rise of Market Economy, October 2015|url=http://homepage.ntu.edu.tw/~ntuihs/10publications02_3806kirill.htm|date=October 2015|access-date=2021-01-01|archive-date=2021-04-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210412010950/http://homepage.ntu.edu.tw/~ntuihs/10publications02_3806kirill.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz]], [[Robert Cummings Neville]], [[Alexander Pope]],<ref>{{Cite web|last=Warburton|first=William|title=The works of Alexander Pope ... With notes by Dr. Warburton, and ilustrations on steel by eminent artists. From designs by Weigall, Heath, & others.|url=https://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=moa&cc=moa&view=text&rgn=main&idno=ABJ8179.0001.001|date=1779|access-date=2021-04-11|archive-date=2022-01-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220121173839/https://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=moa&cc=moa&view=text&rgn=main&idno=ABJ8179.0001.001|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Feng|first=Dong|title=The Great Harmony: An Essay on Man and Confucianism|url=https://nccur.lib.nccu.edu.tw/bitstream/140.119/86514/1/2(1)p53-97.pdf|date=December 2008|access-date=2021-04-11|archive-date=2021-04-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210411181331/https://nccur.lib.nccu.edu.tw/bitstream/140.119/86514/1/2(1)p53-97.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Ezra Pound]], [[François Quesnay]], [[Friedrich Schiller]],<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Danton|first=George|title=Schiller and Confucius|journal=The German Quarterly|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/400763|date=November 1943|volume=16|issue=4|pages=173–182|doi=10.2307/400763|jstor=400763|access-date=2021-04-12|archive-date=2021-08-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210809161803/https://www.jstor.org/stable/400763|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Schiller|first=Friedrich|title=Proverbs of Confucius|journal=The Open Court|url=https://opensiuc.lib.siu.edu/ocj/vol1905/iss5/9/|date=2010-11-18|volume=1905|issue=5|access-date=2021-04-12|archive-date=2021-04-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210412010950/https://opensiuc.lib.siu.edu/ocj/vol1905/iss5/9/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Von Schiller|first=Johann Christian Friedrich|title=Proverbs of Confucius|url=https://www.poetrynook.com/poem/proverbs-confucius-1access=date-2021-03-02}}{{Dead link|date=May 2021 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> [[Voltaire]],<ref>{{Cite web|title=China, the Confucian Ideal, and the European Age of Enlightenment|url=https://moodle2.units.it/pluginfile.php/198219/mod_resource/content/1/Davis_China%2C%20the%20Confucian%20Ideal%2C%20and%20the%20European%20Age%20of%20Enlightenment_JHI_1983.pdf|date=December 1983|access-date=2021-04-10|archive-date=2021-04-10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210410160144/https://moodle2.units.it/pluginfile.php/198219/mod_resource/content/1/Davis_China,%20the%20Confucian%20Ideal,%20and%20the%20European%20Age%20of%20Enlightenment_JHI_1983.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rowbotham|first=Arnold H.|title=Voltaire, Sinophile|journal=PMLA|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/457929|date=December 1932|volume=47|issue=4|pages=1050–1065|doi=10.2307/457929|jstor=457929|s2cid=251028175 |access-date=2021-04-10|archive-date=2021-05-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210503044603/https://www.jstor.org/stable/457929|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bailey|first=Paul|title=Voltaire and Confucius: French attitudes towards China in the early twentieth century|journal=History of European Ideas|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/019165999290168C|date=2002-07-19|volume=14|issue=6|pages=817–837|doi=10.1016/0191-6599(92)90168-C|access-date=2021-04-10|archive-date=2021-04-10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210410160142/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/019165999290168C|url-status=live}}</ref> and [[Christian Wolff (philosopher)|Christian Wolff]]}}|notable_ideas=[[Confucianism]], [[Silver Rule]]}} {{Infobox Chinese||pic=Kongzi (Chinese characters).svg|piccap="Confucius (''Kǒngzǐ'')" in [[seal script]] (top) and [[kaishu|regular]] (bottom) Chinese characters|picupright=0.425|c={{linktext|孔子}}|l="Master Kǒng"|p=Kǒngzǐ|bpmf=ㄎㄨㄥˇ&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;ㄗˇ|w=Kʻung³-tzŭ³|mi={{IPAc-cmn|k|ong|2|.|zi|3}}|gr=Koongtzyy|myr=Kǔngd|j=Hung2zi2|y=Húngjí|ci={{IPAc-yue|h|ung|2|.|z|i|2}}|wuu=Khon-tzy|poj=Khóng-chú|tl=Khóng-tsú|mc=khúwng tsí|oc-b92=*{{IPA|khongʔ tsɨʔ}}|oc-bs=*{{IPA|[k]ʰˤoŋʔ tsəʔ}}|altname=Kong Qiu|c2={{linktext|孔|丘}}|p2=Kǒng Qiū|bpmf2=ㄎㄨㄥˇ&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;ㄑㄧㄡ|w2=Kʻung³ Chʻiu¹|mi2={{IPAc-cmn|k|ong|3|-|q|you|1}}|gr2=Koong Chiou|myr2=Kǔng Chyōu|j2=Hung2 Jau1|ci2={{IPAc-yue|h|ung|2|-|j|au|1}}|y2=Húng Yāu|h2=Kung³ Hiu¹|poj2=Khóng Khiu|tl2=Khóng Khiu|wuu2=Khon Chieu|mc2=K^húwng K^hjuw|oc-bs2=*{{IPA|[k]ʰˤoŋʔ [k]ʷʰə}}|showflag=p|hanja=|hangul=|rr=|mr=|koreanipa={{IPA-ko|ko(ː)ŋ.dʑa|}}|kanji=|hiragana=|romaji=|vie=|hn=孔子}} '''Confucius''' ({{IPAc-en|k|ən|ˈ|f|j|uː|ʃ|ə|s}} {{respell|kən|FEW|shəs}}; {{lang-zh|s={{linktext|孔|夫|子}}|p=Kǒng Fūzǐ}}, "'''Master Kǒng'''"; or commonly {{lang-zh|s={{linktext|孔|子}}|p=Kǒngzǐ|labels=no}}; {{circa|551}} – {{circa|479 BCE}}) wakaŵa wavinjeru na wandale wa ku [[China]] wa nyengo ya [[Chigumula]] na Chigumula uyo kanandi wakuwoneka nga ni munthu wakuzirwa chomene pa ŵanthu ŵavinjeru ŵa ku China. Visambizgo vya Confucius na vinjeru vyake ndivyo vikovwira kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku East Asia ŵakhalenge makora.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Life and Significance of Confucius |url=http://www.sjsu.edu/faculty/watkins/confucius.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191227143137/http://www.sjsu.edu/faculty/watkins/confucius.htm |archive-date=2019-12-27 |access-date=2017-09-27 |website=www.sjsu.edu}}</ref> Confucius wakajiwonanga kuti ni munthu uyo wakachitanga vinthu ivyo vikaŵa mu nyengo yakale, kweni wakati ŵanthu ŵakavileka. Visambizgo vyake vya vinjeru vya ŵanthu, ivyo vikumanyikwa kuti Confucianism, vikayowoyanga chomene za nkharo yiwemi ya munthu na ya boma, umo ŵanthu ŵakwenera kucitira vinthu, urunji, lusungu, na kugomezgeka. Ŵalondezgi ŵake ŵakasuskananga na masukulu ghanyake ghanandi mu nyengo ya Masukulu Ghakukwana 100 gha Maghanoghano. Ufumu wa Qin ukati wabwangandulika, ndipo ufumu wa Han ukati watonda boma la Chu, fundo za Confucius zikazomerezgeka na boma liphya. Mu nyengo ya muwuso wa ŵa Tang na Song, chisopa cha Confucian chikamba kuwoneka ku vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi. Chisopa cha Confucius chikaŵa chigaŵa cha ŵanthu ŵa ku China. Kanandi ŵanthu ŵakuti Confucius ndiyo wakalemba panji kung'anamura mabuku ghanandi gha ku China, kusazgapo mabuku gha Classics ghankhondi. Vinyake ivyo wakasambizganga vikaŵa vyakale chomene.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Philosophers of the Warring States |url=https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/world-history/ancient-medieval/zhou-qin-han-china/a/the-philosophers-of-the-warring-states |access-date=2023-04-30 |website=[[Khan Academy]] |language=en}}</ref> Mu buku la Analects mukalembeka mazgu ghakukhwaskana na visambizgo vyake, kweni ghakalembeka pati pajumpha vyaka vinandi kufuma apo wakafwira. Fundo za Confucius zikuyana na za ŵanthu ŵa ku China. Cifukwa ca kutemwa comene Ciuta, wakaciska kuti mbumba yiŵe yakugomezgeka, ŵana ŵawo ŵacindikenge ŵapapi ŵawo, ndipo ŵawoli ŵawo ŵacindikenge ŵacekuru. Iyo wakazomera fundo yakuti: "Lekani kuchitira ŵanyinu ivyo mungatemwa yayi kuti ŵamuchitirani". == Zina == {{anchor|Etymology|Name|Titles}} Zina lakuti "Confucius" lili kufuma ku lizgu la Chilatini lakuti Kǒng Fūzǐ (孔夫子, "Master Kong"), ndipo likaŵako m'ma 1500. Zina la mbumba ya Confucius likaŵa Kong ({{Old Chinese|kʰˤoŋʔ|孔|suppress_reconstruction_link=yes|show_lang=no}}) Zina lake lakwamba likaŵa Qiu({{Old Chinese|[k]ʷʰə|丘|suppress_reconstruction_link=yes|show_lang=no}}). Zina lake lakuti Zhongni, ilo likwenera kuti ndilo ŵanthu wose ŵakamumanyanga, likaŵa lakuti Zhongni ({{Old Chinese|N-‍truŋ-‍s nr[əj]|仲尼|suppress_reconstruction_link=yes|show_lang=no}}), "Zhòng" wakulongora kuti wakaŵa mwana wachiŵiri mu mbumba yake.{{sfn|Nivison|1999|p=752}}{{sfn|Wilkinson|2015|p=133}} {{anchor|Biography|History}} == Umoyo == === Umoyo wakwamba === [[File:Chinese_plain_5c._BC-en.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Chinese_plain_5c._BC-en.svg|left|thumb|300x300px|Lu wakuwoneka kumpoto ca kumafumiro gha dazi kwa China.]] Ŵanthu ŵakugomezga kuti Confucius wakababika pa Seputembala 28, 551 B.C.E., mu msumba wa Zou. Chigaŵa ichi chikaŵa pasi pa mazaza gha mathemba gha ku Zhou, kweni chikaŵa pasi pa mazaza gha ŵalongozgi ŵa ku Lu, awo ŵakalamuliranga kufuma ku msumba wa Qufu. Dada wake Kong He (panji Shuliang He) wakaŵa mulara wa ŵasilikari ŵa ku Lu. Mbumba yake yikamba kufuma ku fuko la Song m'paka ku fuko la Shang ilo likaŵako pambere fuko la Zhou lindaŵeko. Nkhani za umoyo wa Confucius zikulongora kuti sekuru wa Kong He wakasamuska mbumba yake kufuma ku Song kuya ku Lu. Ŵasambiri wose ŵa mazuŵa ghano ŵakugomezga yayi kuti Confucius wakafuma mu mbumba ya Song. Kong wakafwa apo Confucius wakaŵa na vilimika vitatu, ndipo Confucius wakalereka na anyina Yan Zhengzai (顏徵在) mu ukavu. Pamasinda, anyina ŵakafwa apo ŵakaŵa na vilimika 40. Apo wakaŵa na vyaka 19, wakatora mwanakazi munyake zina lake Qiguan, ndipo pakati pajumpha chaka, ŵakaŵa na mwana wawo wakwamba, Kong Li. Qiguan na Confucius ŵakaŵa na ŵana ŵasungwana ŵaŵiri, yumoza wakafwa apo wakaŵa mwana ndipo munyake zina lake wakaŵa Kong Jiao. Confucius wakasambira mu masukulu gha ŵanthu bweka, uko wakasambiranga maluso 6. Confucius wakababikira mu gulu la ŵanthu ŵakuchemeka shi (士). Ŵakayowoya kuti wakagwiranga nchito zinandi za boma apo wakaŵa na vyaka vya m'ma 20, kweniso wakaŵa wakulemba mabuku na kupwelelera mberere na mahachi. Para anyina ŵafwa, Confucius (wa vilimika 23) wakayowoyeka kuti wakalira kwa vilimika vitatu, nga ni umo ŵakacitiranga kale.<ref name="buryl">{{cite book|last1=Burgan|first1=Michael|title=Confucius: Chinese Philosopher and Teacher|date=2008|publisher=Capstone|page=23|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vM8GCpBncjEC&pg=PT12|access-date=August 12, 2015|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170416230252/https://books.google.com/books?id=vM8GCpBncjEC&pg=PT12|archive-date=April 16, 2017|isbn=978-0-7565-3832-3}}</ref> === Ndale === Mu nyengo ya Confucius, ufumu wa Lu ukalongozgekanga na mbumba ya mafumu. Mu nyumba ya kazembe mukaŵa mbumba zitatu za ŵanthu ŵakuchindikika. Mbumba ya Ji yikaŵa na udindo wa "Nduna ya Ŵanthu", iyo yikaŵaso "Nduna Yikuru". Mbumba ya Meng yikaŵa na udindo wa "Nduna ya Ntchito". Mu cihanya ca {{BCE|505}}, Muwukirano munyake, zina lake Yang Hu, wakawukira mbumba ya Ji na kupoka mazaza. Ndipouli, mu cihanya ca {{BCE|501}}, Mbumba zitatu izi zikaŵa kuti zafumiska Yang Hu mu Lu. Pa nyengo iyi, Confucius wakaŵa kuti wamanyikwa comene cifukwa ca visambizgo vyake, ndipo mbumba zikamanya kuzirwa kwa nkharo yiwemi na urunji, mwakuti zileke kugomezgeka ku boma. Ntheura, mu caka ici, Confucius wakasankhika kuŵa kazembe wa msumba. Pamanyuma, wakazgoka nduna yakuwona vya vigeŵenga. Confucius wakakhumbanga kuwezgera mazaza gha boma kwa fumu mwa kuwuskapo vigongwe vya msumba ivyo vikaŵa vya mbumba zitatu. Mu nthowa iyi, wangakhazikiska boma lakuŵa na mazaza. Ndipouli, Confucius wakagomezganga waka pa ndyali cifukwa wakaŵa na mazaza yayi pa nkhani ya nkhondo. Mu {{BCE|500}}, Hou Fan, kazembe wa Hou, wakagalukira fumu yake ya mbumba ya Shu. Nangauli mbumba za Meng na Shu zikatondeka kuzingilizga Hou, kweni munthu munyake wakugomezgeka wakawukira ŵanthu ŵa Hou na kuchichizga Hou Fan kuti wachimbilire ku chigaŵa cha Qi. Vinthu vikwenera kuti vikamwendera makora Confucius cifukwa ici cikapangiska kuti Confucius na ŵasambiri ŵake ŵakhorweske ŵanthu ŵacindami kuti ŵaparanyenge mizi yawo. Paumaliro, pamanyuma pa cilimika cimoza na hafu, Confucius na ŵasambiri ŵake ŵakakhorweska mbumba ya Shu kuti yiparanye viliŵa vya Hou, mbumba ya Ji kuti yiparanye viliŵa vya Bi, ndipo mbumba ya Meng kuti yiparanye viliŵa vya Cheng. Cakwamba, mbumba ya Shu yikalongozga ŵasilikari kuluta ku msumba wawo wa Hou na kubwangandura viliŵa vyake. mu {{BCE|498}}.{{sfn|Dubs|1946|p=277}} {{multiple image|align=right|image1=Confucius, fresco from a Western Han tomb of Dongping County, Shandong province, China.jpg|width1=200|alt1=|caption1=|image2=Confucius and Laozi, fresco from a Western Han tomb of Dongping County, Shandong province, China.jpg|width2=220|alt2=|caption2=|footer=Fresco ya kumadzulo kwa Han (BCE 202) yojambula Confucius (ndi Laozi), kuchokera ku manda a Dongping County, chigawo cha Shandong, China}} SPamanyuma pake, Gongshan Furao (uyo wakumanyikwaso na zina lakuti Gongshan Buniu), uyo wakaŵa wa mbumba ya Ji, wakawukira na kuwusa ŵasilikari ŵa ku Bi. Nyengo yeneyiyo wakawukira msumba wa Lu. Kumanyuma uku, Gongshan wakaluta kwa Confucius kuti waŵe nayo lumoza, ndipo Confucius wakawona kuti ni mwaŵi wakwendeskera fundo zake, kweni paumaliro wakaleka. Confucius wakazomerezga yayi kuti ŵanthu ŵachitenge viwawa, nangauli mbumba ya Ji yikaŵa na mazaza pa boma la Lu kwa vyaka vinandi. Creel (1949) wakayowoya kuti, mwakupambana na muwukirano Yang Hu, Gongshan wakwenera kuti wakakhumbanga kuparanya mbumba zitatu zakuthupi na kuwezgerapo mazaza gha fumu. Ndipouli, Dubs (1946) wakayowoya kuti Viscount Ji Huan ndiyo wakachiska Gongshan kuti waparanyenge linga la Bi. Mulimose umo vinthu vikaŵira, Gongshan wakawonekanga kuti ni munthu wakunyoloka uyo wakalutilira kuvikilira boma la Lu, nangauli wakacimbira. Pa nyengo ya kugaluka kwa Gongshan, Zhong You wakasunga kazembe na ma Viscount ghatatu pamoza pa nyumba ya ufumu. Zhong You wakaŵa yumoza wa ŵasambiri ŵa Confucius ndipo Confucius wakanozga vyakuti waŵe kazembe wa mbumba ya Ji. Confucius wakati wapulika za ciwukirano ici, wakapempha Viscount Ji Huan kuti wazomerezge kuti kazembe na nyumba yake yacifumu ŵafumemo mu nyumba yake. Pamanyuma, ŵalongozgi ŵa mbumba zitatu na fumu ŵakawelera ku nyumba ya fumu ya ku Ji na kukwelera ku Wuzi Terrace. Confucius wakaphalira ŵasilikari ŵaŵiri kuti ŵadangilire kuwukira ŵakugaluka. Pa ŵasilikari ŵaŵiri aŵa, yumoza wakaŵa muteŵeti wa mbumba ya Ji, kweni ŵakatondeka kukana ulongozgi uwu apo ŵakaŵapo na Duke, Viscounts, na khoti. Ŵasilikari aŵa ŵakaŵalondezga na kuŵathereska pa nkhondo ya ku Gu. Nyengo yeneyiyo, mbumba ya Ji yikaparanya viliŵa vya msumba wa Bi. Ŵasilikari aŵa ŵakawelera nyuma ŵakati ŵamanya kuti ŵagalukirenge boma na fumu yawo. Kwizira mu ivyo Confucius wakacita, ŵalara ŵa boma la Bi ŵakagalukira fumu yawo, ntheura vikapangiska Viscount Ji Huan kuti waparanye viliŵa vya Bi (pakuti mphanyi vikaŵa na ŵakugaluka aŵa) panji kuzomera kuti ndiyo wakacitiska suzgo ili. Dubs (1949) wakayowoya kuti cakucitika ici cikavumbura umo Confucius wakawoneranga vinthu, maluso ghake gha ndyali, ndiposo umo wakawoneranga mikhaliro ya ŵanthu. Apo nyengo yikakwana yakuti ŵabwangandure viliŵa vya msumba wa Meng, kazembe wakakhumbanga yayi kuti viliŵa vya msumba wake vibwanganduke. Zuozhuan wakukumbuka kuti kazembe wakaphalira ŵanthu kuti ŵaleke kubwangandura viliŵa vya msumba uwu, cifukwa wakati ichi chingapangiska kuti Cheng waŵe wambura kuvikilirika na boma la Qi. Nangauli Viscount Meng Yi wakalayizga kuti waleke kunjilirapo pa nkhondo, kweni wakaleka kufiska ivyo wakalayizga. Pamanyuma, Duke Ding wakalongozgana na ŵasilikari ŵake kukaka msumba wa Cheng, kweni wakatondeka. Ntheura, Confucius wakatondeka kufiska ivyo wakakhumbanga, kusazgapo kuwezgerapo muwuso wa fumu. Wakaŵa na ŵalwani ŵankhongono mu boma, comenecomene Viscount Ji Huan, cifukwa ca ivyo wakacita. Kuyana na buku la Zuozhuan na Shiji, Confucius wakafumako ku caru cake mu {{BCE|497}} after his support for the failed attempt of dismantling the fortified city walls of the powerful Ji, Meng, and Shu families.{{sfn|Riegel|1986|p=13}} He left the state of Lu without resigning, remaining in self-exile and unable to return as long as Viscount Ji Huan was alive.<ref name="dubs46-281">{{Harvnb|Dubs|1946|loc=281}}.</ref> === Kuchimbizgika mu uzga === [[File:Journey_of_Confucius.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Journey_of_Confucius.png|left|thumb|300x300px|Mapu agho ghakulongora ulendo wa Confucius pakati pa 497 BCE na 484 BCE]] Shiji wakayowoya kuti boma la Qi ilo likaŵa pafupi nalo likafipanga mtima kuti Lu waŵenge wankhongono chomene apo Confucius wakaŵa mu boma la Lu. Kuyana na nkhani iyi, Qi wakakhumbanga kutimbanizga ndondomeko ya Lu mwa kutuma mahachi 100 na ŵasungwana 80 ŵakutowa kuti ŵakambe kuvina. Duke wakacitanga waka vyakusanguluska ndipo wakagwira nchito yayi kwa mazuŵa ghatatu. Confucius wakakhuŵara comene ndipo wakakhumbanga kuleka Lu na kupenja mwaŵi uwemi, kweni para wangafumapo mwaluŵiro mbwenu nkharo yiheni ya fumu yingavumbukwa. Ntheura Confucius wakalindilira kuti kazembe uyu wapange ubudi ucoko. Pakati pajumpha nyengo yicoko waka, kazembe uyu wakaleka kutuma kwa Confucius cigaŵa ca nyama iyo wakeneranga kupeleka sembe mwakuyana na kaluso, ndipo Confucius wakagwiliskira nchito mwaŵi uwu kuti waleke nchito yake na caru ca Lu. Confucius wakati wafumapo, wakamba ulendo utali kuzingilira vyaru vya kumpoto na kumafumiro gha dazi kwa China. Ku makhoti gha mu vyaru ivi, wakalongosoranga vigomezgo vyake vya ndyali kweni wakaviwona yayi kuti vikufiskika.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ancient China: Confucius Biography |url=https://www.ducksters.com/history/china/confucius.php |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220602174710/https://www.ducksters.com/history/china/confucius.php |archive-date=2022-06-02 |access-date=2022-06-17 |website=www.ducksters.com}}</ref> === Kuwelerani ku nyumba === [[File:Confuciustombqufu.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Confuciustombqufu.jpg|thumb|Dindi la Confucius mu dindi la Kong Lin, Qufu, chigaŵa cha Shandong]] Buku la Zuozhuan likuti Confucius wakawelera kukwake ku Lu apo wakaŵa na vyaka 68, wati wachemeka na Ji Kangzi, nduna yikuru ya ku Lu. Buku la Analects likulongosora kuti mu vyaka vyake vyaumaliro wakasambizganga ŵasambiri 72 panji 77 na kuŵasambizga vinjeru vyakale. [Pakukhumbika ukaboni apa] Apo wakaweranga, Confucius wakawovwiranga ŵalara ŵa boma ku Lu, kusazgapo Ji Kangzi, pa nkhani za muwuso na kuswa malango. Wakaŵa na citima comene cifukwa ca nyifwa ya mwana wake na ŵasambiri ŵake, ndipo wakafwa na nthenda iyi apo wakaŵa na vilimika 71 panji 72. Confucius wakasungika mu dindi la Kong Lin ilo lili mu chigaŵa cha Qufu mu chigaŵa cha Shandong. Manda ghakwambilira agho ghakazengeka pa Mlonga wa Sishui, ghakaŵa ghakuyana na nkhwantha. Kweniso kunthazi kwa cikumbusko pali malo gha njerwa agho ŵanthu ŵakupelekerapo vyakununkhira na vipasi. == Filosofi == {{Confucianism}} {{Main|Confucianism}} Nangauli ŵanthu ŵa ku China ŵakulondezga cisopa ca Confucianism, kweni ŵanandi ŵakuti cisambizgo ici nchambura kuzomerezgeka na ŵantu. Ndipouli, awo ŵakukhozgera cisambizgo ici ŵakuti nangauli cisambizgo ca Confucian cikuyowoya vya caru, kweni cikujintha pa cisambizgo ca cisopa.<ref>{{cite magazine|last=Berger|first=Peter|url=http://www.the-american-interest.com/2012/02/15/is-confucianism-a-religion/|title=Is Confucianism a Religion?|magazine=The American Interest|date=February 15, 2012|access-date=August 13, 2015|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150817062142/http://www.the-american-interest.com/2012/02/15/is-confucianism-a-religion/|archive-date=August 17, 2015}}</ref> Chisopa cha Confucian chikudumbiskana vya umoyo wa munthazi na ivyo vikuchitika kuchanya, kweni chikuyowoyapo yayi vya vinthu vyauzimu ivyo ŵanthu ŵakuviwona kuti ni vyakuzirwa chomene pa nkhani ya chisopa. Mu buku lake la Analects, Confucius wakujiyowoya kuti ni "munthu uyo wakapharazga kwambura kupanga cinthu". Iyo wakuŵika mtima comene pa nkhani ya kusambira, ndipo cilembo ca ku China ico cikung'anamura kusambira (學) ndico cikujura nkhani iyi. M'malo mwa kughanaghana vya kuzenga fundo za mu Baibolo, iyo wakakhumbanga kuti ŵasambiri ŵake ŵamanye makora mabuku ghakale chomene mwakuti ŵamanye umo ŵangalongosolera masuzgo agho ŵanthu ŵakukumana nagho mazuŵa ghano. === Makhaliro === {{Main|Confucian ethics}} [[File:Rongo_Analects_02.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Rongo_Analects_02.jpg|left|thumb|Buku la Analects]] Cimoza mwa visambizgo vikuru comene vya Confucius cingaŵa cakuti ciyelezgero ca munthu yumoza nchakuzirwa comene kuluska malango ghakudunjika. Visambizgo vyake vya makhaliro vikayowoyanga comene za kujisambizga, kuyezga ŵanthu awo ŵakaŵa na makhaliro ghawemi, ndiposo kumanya umo munthu wangacitira vinthu m'malo mwa kumanya malango. Ntheura, fundo za Confucius zingawoneka nga ni za nkharo yiwemi. Visambizgo vyake vikuthemba pa fundo zakupulikikwa yayi, ndipo fundo zaurunji na nthowa zake zikuyowoyeka mwakudunjika yayi. Kuti tipulikiske ivyo wakasambizganga, tikwenera kusanda nkhani yose. Cakuwonerapo ciwemi nchakuti: {{blockquote|{{lang|zh|廄焚。子退朝，曰：傷人乎？不問馬。| size = 110% }} Apo viŵaya vikawotcheka, Confucius wakati wawerako ku nyumba yacifumu, wakati: "Kasi walipo uyo wapwetekeka?" Wakafumbapo yayi za mahachi.|''Analects'' X.11 (tr. [[Arthur Waley|Waley]]), 10–13 (tr. [[James Legge|Legge]]), or X-17 (tr. [[D.C. Lau|Lau]])}} Para Confucius wakuleka kufumba za mahachi, wakulongora kuti munthu wavinjeru wakuzirwiska chomene ŵanthu kuluska katundu. Yimoza mwa visambizgo vyake yikaŵa fundo yinyake ya mu Baibolo iyo yikumanyikwa na zina lakuti Golden Rule. {{blockquote|{{lang|zh|子貢問曰：有一言而可以終身行之者乎？子曰：其恕乎！己所不欲、勿施於人。| size = 110% }} Zi Gong [musambiri] wakafumba kuti: "Kasi pali lizgu limoza ilo lingalongozga munthu mu umoyo wake wose?" Fumu yikazgora kuti: "Wuli pakuyowoya za 'kuwezgera'? Lekani kuphalira ŵanyinu vinthu ivyo imwe mungatemwa yayi".|''Analects'' XV.24, tr. David Hinton}} Kanandi ŵanthu awo ŵakulondezga fundo za Confucius ŵakuzirwiska yayi vinthu viwemi ivyo munthu wakuchita. Kucita vinthu viwemi na ŵanji kukwamba na kughanaghana vinthu viwemi na vyaunenesko. Munthu uyo wali na nkharo yiwemi kwambura kumanya vinthu, wangasuzgika, ndipo kucita nkharo yiwemi kwambura mtima wose ni urunji waunenesko yayi. Kuŵa na umanyi ndiposo mtima wakufikapo nkhwakuzirwa cifukwa ca munthu; munthu muwemi wakutemwa kusambira cifukwa ca kusambira ndiposo urunji cifukwa ca urunji. Fundo ya Confucius yakukhwaskana na nkharo, nga umo yiliri mu nkhani ya lǐ (禮), yikukolerana na fundo zitatu zakuzirwa za umoyo: (a) viphikiro vyakukhwaskana na kupeleka sembe ku ŵasekuru na ŵachiuta ŵamitundu yakupambanapambana, (b) vinthu vya ndyali na vya ndyali, na (c) nkharo ya zuŵa na zuŵa. Ŵanyake ŵakagomezganga kuti liyi likafuma kuchanya, kweni Confucius wakadidimizga kuti liyi likapangika na ŵanthu ŵavinjeru. Ivyo wakayowoya pa nkhani ya lǐ vikulongora kuti lizgu ili likung'anamura vinthu vyose ivyo munthu wakuchita kuti waŵe na umoyo uwemi. Mu nyengo yakwambilira ya Chikonfyushasi, lǐ wakachitanga vinthu vyakwenelera pa nyengo yakwenelera; wakayezganga kusungilira fundo izo zilipo kuti vinthu viŵe makora, na kuziphwanya kuti vinthu viŵe makora. Para munthu wakusambira mu Baibolo, wakuŵa na mikhaliro yiwemi iyo yikovwira kuti waŵe na nkharo yiwemi. Mu cisopa ca Confucian, lizgu lakuti li likuyana comene na lizgu lakuti yì (義), ilo likujintha pa fundo yakuti munthu wakuŵa wakuyana na munyake. Yì lingang'anamulika kuti urunji, nangauli lingang'anamura ico nchakwenelera kucita mu nyengo yinyake. Lizgu ili likupambana na ivyo munthu wakucita cifukwa ca kujighanaghanira yekha. Nangauli munthu wangaŵa muheni yayi usange wakulondezga vyakukhumba vyake pera, kweni wangaŵa muwemi ndiposo murunji usange wakulondezga nthowa iyo yikovwira ŵanthu ŵanandi. Ntheura chilato cha yì nkhucita ico nchiwemi cifukwa ca cifukwa ciwemi. Nga umo kachitiro ka vinthu kuyana na lǐ kakwenera kukolerana na khumbo la kulondezga yì, ntheura yì wakukolerana na fundo yikuru ya rén (仁). Rén wali na mikhaliro yinkhondi yakuzirwa: kucita vinthu mwamahara, kuŵa na mtima wakupa, kuŵa wakugomezgeka, kulimbikira, na lusungu. Lizgu lakuti Rén likung'anamura kuti munthu wakucita makora milimo yake ku ŵanji, ndipo kanandi likung'anamulika kuti "lusungu", "mtima wacitemwa", panji "mtima wacitemwa". Fundo za Confucius zikukolerana na lusungu na kupulikiska ŵanji, m'malo mwa kulondezga malango gha Ciuta. Kuti munthu waŵe na maghanoghano ghakwenelera pa nkhani ya "rén" mwakuti wachitengepo kanthu mwamahara, chikaŵa chiwemi chomene kuluska kuŵa na nkharo ya "yi". Confucius wakati nkharo yiwemi njakwenelera. Mwachiyelezgero, munthu uyo ngwakupa wakupeleka mwakuyana na ndalama izo wakukhumbikwira, kweni wakupeleka zinandi yayi panji zichoko.<ref name="Bonevac09-40">{{Harvnb|Bonevac|Phillips|2009|loc=40}}.</ref> === Vya ndale === Fundo za Confucius za ndyali zikujintha pa fundo zaurunji. Wakayowoya kuti boma liwemi ni ilo likulongozga kwizira mu "maluso" (lǐ) na nkharo yiwemi ya ŵanthu. Wakalongosora kuti ici nchimoza mwa vinthu vyakuzirwa comene: "Usange ŵanthu ŵakulongozgeka na malango, ndipo ŵakukhumba kuti ŵalangike mwakuyana waka, ŵayezgenge kuti ŵaleke kulangika, kweni ŵakucita soni yayi. Usange ŵakulongozgeka na nkharo yiwemi, ndiposo usange ŵakukhumba kuti vinthu viŵayenderenge umo ŵakukhumbira, ŵazamukhozgeka soni yayi, kweniso ŵazamuŵa ŵarunji". (Ŵerengani 2.3, tr. M'malo mwake, ŵakasuzgikanga. "Mtima wa soni" uwu ni mulimo uwo munthu wakuchita, apo cilango cikulondezgapo yayi para wacita cinthu ciheni, kweni para wacita mwakuyana na dango. [Pakukhumbika ukaboni apa] Confucius wakalaŵiska ku mazuŵa ghakwambilira, ndipo wakaciska Ŵachinayi, comenecomene awo ŵakaŵa na mazaza gha ndyali, kuti ŵacitenge nga ni umo ŵakacitiranga kale. Mu nyengo iyo kukaŵa kugaŵikana, vivulupi, na nkhondo pakati pa ŵamazaza, iyo wakakhumbanga kuwezgerapo Ufumu wa Kuchanya (天命) uwo ukakolerananga "charu" (天下, "chose icho chili kusi ku kuchanya") na kupeleka mtende na usambazi ku ŵanthu. Chifukwa chakuti kawonero kake ka vinthu viwemi na vyakukondweska ŵanthu kakaŵa ka kuwuskako ŵanthu ŵa mu nyengo yakale, kanandi Confucius wakuwoneka kuti wakutemwa chomene vinthu vyachikale, kweni para tingawona mwakupwelelera ivyo wakuyowoya, tingamanya kuti wakagwiliskiranga ntchito malango na maluso gha mu nyengo yakale kuti waŵike maghanoghano ghake pa ndyali. Ŵazamuŵa ŵalongozgi awo ŵakujipeleka ku ŵanthu ŵawo, ŵakuyezgayezga kuti vinthu viŵayenderenge makora, ndipo ŵazamupharazga mikhaliro yiwemi m'malo mwa kuŵika malango na malango ghakwenelera. Nangauli Confucius wakakhozgera fundo yakuti fumu yiwemi ndiyo yilongozgenge boma, kweni fundo zake zikaŵa na fundo zinandi zakukanizgira ŵamazaza mazaza ghawo. Wakayowoya kuti unenesko ukwenera kulongosoreka mu kayowoyero, ndipo kugomezgeka nkhwakuzirwa comene. Nanga ni para munthu wakuyowoya, nyengo zose wakwenera kuyowoya unenesko. Confucius wakagomezganga kuti usange muwusi wakukhumba kulongozga makora, ntheura ntchakukhumbikwa yayi kuŵika malango. Pakuyowoya za ubwezi uwo ukaŵanga pakati pa fumu na ŵanthu ŵake (panji pakati pa dada na mwana wake), wakalongora kuti nchakuzirwa comene kucindika ŵamazaza. Ici cikang'anamuranga kuti awo ŵali pasi ŵakwenera kuphalira awo ŵakuŵalongozga usange ŵakuwona kuti ŵakucita cinthu ciheni. Confucius wakagomezganga kuti munthu wakwenera kulongora ciyelezgero ciwemi. Usange munthu wakulongozga makora, ntchakukhumbikwa yayi kumukanizga panji kumulanga.<ref>{{cite web |last=Violatti |first=Cristian |date=August 31, 2013 |title=Confucianism |url=http://www.worldhistory.org/Confucianism/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150818150049/http://www.worldhistory.org/Confucianism/ |archive-date=August 18, 2015 |access-date=August 17, 2015 |publisher=World History Encyclopedia}}</ref> === Sumu na ndakatulo === {{Main|Ritual and music system}} [[File:Kǒngzǐ Shīlùn Manuscript from Shanghai Museum 1.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kǒngzǐ Shīlùn Manuscript from Shanghai Museum 1.jpg|left|thumb|Shijing, panji Buku la Sumu]] Confucius wakaciska comene sumu kuti ziŵe zakovwira pakusopa. Nkhwantha yinyake zina lake Li Zehou, yikati cisopa ca Confucian cikujintha pa maluso. Ŵanthu ŵakugomezga kuti maluso agha ndigho ghakovwira munthu waliyose kuti waŵe na umoyo uwemi. Cifukwa ca fundo iyi, Confucius wakagomezganga kuti "nyimbo zikukolerana pakati pa kucanya na caru capasi; maluso ni ndondomeko ya kucanya na caru capasi". Mwantheura, kwimba sumu mu maluso kukupangiska kuti vinthu viŵe makora. Buku la Shijing na la Classic of Music ndilo likawovwira chomene ŵanthu kuti ŵamanye sumu za Confucius. Buku la Shijing ndimoza mwa mabuku ghakale chomene gha Chikonfyushasi. Ŵanthu ŵakuti Confucius ndiyo wakalemba mabuku agha. Mu buku lake la Analects, Confucius wakalongosora kuzirwa kwa luso pa umo ŵanthu ŵangakulira:<ref name="Confucius, The Analects - 17">{{Cite web |date=1901-12-13 |title=Confucius, The Analects - 17 |url=https://china.usc.edu/confucius-analects-17 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210413045737/https://china.usc.edu/confucius-analects-17 |archive-date=2021-04-13 |access-date=2021-04-13}}</ref> {{poemquote|The Master said, "My children, why do you not study the Book of Poetry? "The Odes serve to stimulate the mind. "They may be used for purposes of self-contemplation. "They teach the art of sociability. "They show how to regulate feelings of resentment. "From them you learn the more immediate duty of serving one's father, and the remoter one of serving one's prince. "From them we become largely acquainted with the names of birds, beasts, and plants."<ref name="Confucius, The Analects - 17"/>}} == Chiharo == {{More citations needed section|date=August 2018}} [[File:Louvre_Conseil_Etat_Confucius.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Louvre_Conseil_Etat_Confucius.jpg|thumb|Confucius pamoza na Mozesi na Muhammad pakati pa ŵalembi ŵa malango ŵakumanyikwa comene, na Jean-Baptiste Mauzaisse (1827), Louvre Palace]] Pamanyuma ŵasambiri na ŵalondezgi ŵake ŵanandi ŵakazgora visambizgo vya Confucius kuŵa malango na vyakucita. Ŵasambiri ŵa Confucius na muzukuru wake yumoza pera, Zisi, ŵakalutilira kusambira vinjeru vya ŵanthu. Ivi vikawovwira kuti visambizgo vya Confucius vifike na ku ŵasambiri awo ŵakazgoka ŵantchito mu nyumba zacifumu ku China. Ŵalondezgi ŵaŵiri ŵa Confucius awo ŵakamanyikwa comene ŵakayowoya fundo zakupambana comene. Mu vyaka vinandi pamanyuma pa nyifwa yake, Mencius (孟子) na Xunzi (??子) wose ŵakalemba visambizgo vyakuzirwa ivyo vikulongosora fundo izo Confucius wakasambizga. Mencius ({{BCE|4th century}}) Wakalongosora uwemi uwo uli mu ŵanthu nga ni umo ŵanthu ŵakughanaghanira pa nkhani ya nkharo ({{BCE|3rd century}}) Buku la Confucius likavumbura fundo zaunenesko na zakukhumbikwa pa umoyo wa ŵanthu. Nyengo yikati yajumphapo, mabuku ghawo pamoza na mabuku ghanyake ghakaŵa nga ni Analects.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-05-20 |title=Confucianism |url=https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/confucianism |access-date=2023-04-30 |website= |publisher=[[National Geographic Society]] |language=en}}</ref> Kusintha uku mu kaghanaghaniro ka Confucius kukaŵa kwakuyana waka na kusanduka kwa Legalism, uko kukawonanga kuti kusopa kwa mwana ni kupenja vyakukhumba vya iyomwene, ndipo kukaŵa kwakovwira yayi kuti muwusi wapange boma lakwenelera. Kuyana yayi pakati pa visambizgo viŵiri ivi kukakura comene mu {{BCE|223}} apo boma la Qin likapoka caru cose ca China. Li Si, nduna yikuru ya muwuso wa Qin, wakapangiska Qin Shi Huang kuti waleke kughanaghana kuti ŵanthu ŵa Confucius ŵapelekenge malo ghakuyana waka na gha muwuso wa Zhou. Ŵalongozgi ŵa Confucius ŵakati ŵafika pa fundo yawo, Li Si wakakoma ŵasambizgi ŵanandi ŵa Confucius na kotcha mabuku ghawo. Mu nyengo ya muwuso wa Han na Tang, fundo za Confucius zikamba kumanyikwa chomene. Mu muwuso wa Wudi, mabuku gha Confucius ghakazgoka visambizgo vya ufumu ndipo ghakaŵa ghakwenelera kuŵazgika pa viyezgelero vya uteŵeti wa boma. {{BCE|140}} ndipo ivi vikalutilira mpaka kuumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1800. Apo chisopa cha Mohism chikapulikikwanga yayi mu nyengo ya muwuso wa Han, ŵanthu awo ŵakasuskanga chisopa ichi ŵakaŵa ŵa Legalism, awo Confucian wakati ŵali kuchigwiliskira ntchito, visambizgo vya Laozi, awo ŵakaŵikapo mtima pa vinthu vyauzimu. Ŵanthu ŵakagomezganga chomene fundo za Confucius kweniso ŵamazaza awo ŵakasambizgika na Confucius mu muwuso wa Ming na Yuan, nangauli Kublai Khan wakakananga kuŵapa mazaza gha vigaŵa. Mu nyengo ya muwuso wa Song, nkhwantha yinyake zina lake Zhu Xi ({{CE|1130–1200}}) wakasazgirapo fundo za cisopa ca Dao na ca Chibuda mu cisopa ca Confucian. Mu umoyo wake wose, ŵanthu ŵakamupulikiskanga yayi Zhu Xi, kweni pamanyuma pakuti wafwa, maghanoghano ghake ghakazgoka maghanoghano gha ŵanthu ŵa visopa vinyake pa nkhani ya ng'anamuro la mabuku gha Confucius. Ŵanthu awo ŵakusanda mdauko mazuŵa ghano ŵakuti Zhu Xi wali kulenga chinthu chinyake chakupambana na ichi. Chikhulupiriro cha Neo-Confucian chikalutilira mu China, Japan, Korea, na Vietnam m'paka mu ma 1800. [[File:LifeAndWorksOfConfucius1687.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:LifeAndWorksOfConfucius1687.jpg|thumb|Buku la Confucius, Philosopher of the Chinese, likalembeka na ŵamishonale ŵa Yesuit ku Paris mu 1687]] Ŵamishonale ŵa Yesuit ndiwo ŵakang'anamura mabuku gha Confucius mu viyowoyero vya ku Europe. Munthu wakwamba uyo wakang'anamura Baibolo ili wakaŵa Michele Ruggieri, uyo wakawelera ku Italy mu 1588 ndipo wakalutilira kung'anamura apo wakakhalanga ku Salerno. Matteo Ricci wakamba kulemba ivyo Confucius wakaghanaghananga, ndipo gulu la ŵa Jesuit - Prospero Intorcetta, Philippe Couplet, na ŵanyake ŵaŵiri - ŵakafumiska mabuku ghakung'anamura mabuku gha Confucius mu 1687. François Noël, wakati watondeka kukhorweska Clement XI kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku China ŵakusopa ŵasekuru ŵawo na Confucius yayi, wakamalizga kulemba buku la Confucius ku Prague mu 1711, ndipo wakalemba mabuku ghanyake na kung'anamura mabuku gha Mencius. Ŵanthu ŵakughanaghana kuti mabuku agha ghakaŵa ghakuzirwa chomene ku ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe, chomenechomene ku ŵanthu awo ŵakagomezganga kuti Chiuta waliko kweniso ku ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵakakhumbanga kuti ŵanthu ŵaŵasambizgenge vinthu vyaunenesko. Mu nyengo yithu yino, visambizgo vya Confucianism, nga ni New Confucianism, vichalipo, kweni mu nyengo ya Cultural Revolution, visambizgo vya Confucianism kanandi vikasuzgikanga na ŵanthu ŵakumanyikwa mu chipani cha Communist Party cha China. Ivi vikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵavinjeru na ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵambe kususka chisopa cha Confucian m'ma 1900. Ŵasambiri ŵa mu vyaru vinyake vya ku Asia ŵakusambira mabuku gha Confucius, chomenechomene ŵa ku China nga ni Korea, Japan, na Vietnam. Vigaŵa vinandi vya caru ici vicali kucita ciphikiro ici caka cilicose. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Tibet ŵakutemwa kusopa Confucius, uyo ni themba lituŵa kweniso wakumanya vya masalamusi, kuwukwa, na vya nyenyezi. Ŵanthu ŵa chisopa cha Chibuda ŵakumuwona kuti wakusambira kuwukwa kwa Buddha Manjushri (ndipo vinjeru ivi vikaluta ku Tibet kwizira mwa Mfumukazi Wencheng), apo ŵanthu ŵa chisopa cha Bon ŵakumuwona kuti ni Tonpa Shenrab Miwoche, uyo wakambiska chisopa ichi. Ŵa Ahmadiyya ŵakugomezga kuti Confucius wakaŵa nchimi ya Ciuta, nga umo vikaŵira na Lao-Tzu na ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakuzirwa ŵa ku China. Mu nyengo yithu yino, cinthu cinyake cakucemeka Asteroid 7853, "Confucius", cikacemeka na zina la munthu munyake wa ku China.<ref>[https://minorplanetcenter.net/db_search/show_object?object_id=7853IAU IAU Minor Planet Center] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220121173846/https://minorplanetcenter.net/db_search|date=2022-01-21}}. ''International Astronomical Union Minor Planet Center''. Accessed 12 September 2018.</ref> === Walondezgi === {{main|Disciples of Confucius}} [[File:The_Classic_of_Filial_Piety_(開宗明義章_畫).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:The_Classic_of_Filial_Piety_(%E9%96%8B%E5%AE%97%E6%98%8E%E7%BE%A9%E7%AB%A0_%E7%95%AB).jpg|thumb|Zengzi (kumalyero) wakujikama panthazi pa Confucius (pakati), nga ni umo viliri pa cithuzithuzi ca mu buku la Chiyelezgero Cakuyowoya za Kujipeleka kwa Ŵana, la muwuso wa Song]] Confucius wakamba kusambizga ŵanthu apo wakaŵa na vilimika 30, ndipo wakasambizga ŵasambiri ŵakujumpha 3,000, ndipo 70 ŵakaŵa ŵankhongono comene. Ŵasambiri ŵake na gulu la ŵanthu awo ŵakalondezganga chisambizgo cha Confucius ndiwo ŵakaŵa ŵankhongono chomene mu nyengo ya Nkhondo za ku Europe na America. Munthu munyake wakulemba mdauko zina lake Sima Qian, wakalemba vya ŵasambiri ŵa Confucius. Sima Qian wakalemba mazina gha ŵasambiri 77 mu buku lake, apo Kongzi Jiayu wakalemba mazina 76. Mabuku ghaŵiri agha ghakuzunura mazina gha ŵasambiri 96. Mabuku gha Analects ghakuzunura mabuku 22 ndipo Mencius wakulemba 24. Confucius wakatoranga ndalama yayi, ndipo wakapemphanga waka kuti waliyose uyo wakukhumba kuŵa msambiri wake wamupenge nyama yakomira. Zigong, msambiri wake, wakati msambizgi wake wakacitiranga ŵasambiri ŵake vinthu nga umo ŵadokotala ŵakucitira na ŵalwari. Ŵanandi ŵakafumanga ku Lu, uko kukaŵa kwawo kwa Confucius, ndipo pakaŵa ŵasambiri 43, kweni wakazomera ŵasambiri kufuma mu vyaru vyose vya ku China. Confucius wakawonanga kuti ivyo ŵasambiri ŵake ŵakasambiranga ni vyakuzirwa yayi, ndipo wakazomerezganga ŵanthu ŵakuchindikika, ŵanthu bweka, na ŵakugaluka nga ni Yan Zhuoju na Gongye Chang. Ŵasambiri ŵake awo ŵakaŵa ŵasambazi ŵakeneranga kupeleka ndalama zakukwana na usambazi wawo. Msambiri uyo Confucius wakatemwanga comene wakaŵa Yan Hui, uyo wakwenera kuti wakaŵa yumoza wa ŵanthu ŵakavu comene. Mwakupambana na Yan Hui, Sima Niu wakafuma ku mbumba ya fuko la Song. Mu visambizgo vya Confucius, ŵasambiri ŵakamanya makora fundo na nthowa za boma. Kanandi wakadumbiskananga na ŵasambiri ŵake, ndipo wakazirwiskanga chomene nkhani za mdauko, sumu, na maluso. Confucius wakasambizganga kuti tikwenera kugomezgeka ku fundo za mu Baibolo m'malo mwa kugomezgeka ku vinjeru vithu. Nangauli Confucius wakaŵasuska cifukwa ca nkharo zawo, kweni ŵanthu ŵakumanyikwa ŵakakondwa comene na fundo yakuti ŵaŵe na ŵamazaza ŵakugomezgeka awo ŵakasambizgika makhaliro ghawemi. Nakuti msambiri wake zina lake Zilu wakafwa apo wakavikiliranga fumu yake ku Wey. Yang Hu, uyo wakaŵa pasi pa fuko la Ji, ndiyo wakawusa boma la Lu kwambira mu 505 m'paka mu 502. Cifukwa ca ici, ŵasambiri ŵakwamba ŵa Confucius ŵakimikika mu mauteŵeti gha boma. Ŵasambiri ŵanyake ŵa Confucius ŵakamba kuŵa na maudindo ghapacanya, ndipo ŵanyake Confucius ndiyo wakaŵapa. Apo Confucius wakaŵa na vilimika 50, mbumba ya Ji yikaŵa kuti yakhozga mazaza ghawo mu caru ca Lu. Nangauli mbumba ya Ji yikacitanga vinthu ivyo Confucius wakakolerana navyo yayi, kweni ŵasambiri ŵa Confucius ŵakasanganga nchito zinandi. Confucius wakalutilira kukumbuska ŵasambiri ŵake kuti ŵalutilire kugomezgeka ku fundo zawo ndipo wakakananga awo ŵakachitanga nthena yayi..{{sfn|Creel|1949|pp=32–33}} === Visual portraits === [[File:孔子聖蹟圖.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:%E5%AD%94%E5%AD%90%E8%81%96%E8%B9%9F%E5%9C%96.png|thumb|Chithunzi cha Qiu Ying (1494-1552), Ming dynasty]] Palije vithuzithuzi vya Confucius ivyo vilipo mazuŵa ghano, ndipo vikulongora waka umo wakawonekeranga mu nyengo ya muwuso wa Han. Kanandi ŵanthu ŵakujambura vithuzithuzi ivyo vikulongora umo wakakumaniranga na Laozi. Kufuma waka pa nyengo iyi, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakulongora kuti Confucius wakaŵa munthu muwemi chomene. Mu mutu wakuti "Vinthu Vyakuwaro" muli mazgu ghakwambilira gha Confucius ({{zh|labels=no|c=外物|p=Wàiwù}}) mu buku la Zhuangzi ({{zh|labels=no|c=莊子|p=Zhuāngzǐ}}), Wakamalizga kuzingilira mu 3 C.E., pati pajumpha nyengo yitali kufuma apo Confucius wakafwira. Cithuzithuzi cakale comene ca Confucius cavumbukwa mu dindi la fumu ya Han, Marquis of Haihun (kufwa {{BCE|59}}). Chithuzithuzi ichi ŵakachijambura pa khuni ilo likaŵa pa gilasi la mkuŵa. Mu nyengo yakale, ŵanthu ŵakachitanga kuŵika vithuzithuzi mu tempile la Confucius. Kweni mu nyengo ya muwuso wa Hongwu Emperor (Taizu) wa muwuso wa Ming, ŵakawona kuti chithuzithuzi cha Confucius chikwenera kuŵa mu tempile la ku tawuni yake ya Qufu mu Shandong. Mu visopa vinyake, Confucius wakuzunulika pa libwe. Mu 2006, China Confucius Foundation yikapempha kuti paŵe chithuzithuzi cha Confucius chakuyana na cha Wu Daozi. Cikhuni ca ku South Wall mu khoti la Supreme Court of the United States cikulongora Confucius nga ni msambizgi wa mtende, kusambira, na nkharo yiwemi.<ref>{{cite web |title=US Supreme Court Courtroom Friezes |url=https://www.supremecourt.gov/about/northandsouthwalls.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190713031226/https://www.supremecourt.gov/about/northandsouthwalls.pdf |archive-date=13 July 2019 |access-date=19 February 2019}}</ref> === Vinthu vyautesi === Pali mafilimu ghaŵiri agho ghakulongosora vya umoyo wa Confucius: la Confucius la mu 1940 ilo Tang Huaiqiu ndiyo wakalilemba, na la Confucius la mu 2010 ilo Chow Yun-fat ndiyo wakalilemba.<ref>{{IMDb title|tt1397498|Confucius}}</ref> === Malo ghakukumbukirako === [[File:First_Entrance_Gate_of_the_Temple_of_Confucius,_Ching-hai.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:First_Entrance_Gate_of_the_Temple_of_Confucius,_Ching-hai.jpg|thumb|Chipata chakwamba cha tempile la Confucius ku Zhenhai]] [[File:20130918-嘉定孔庙-2.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:20130918-%E5%98%89%E5%AE%9A%E5%AD%94%E5%BA%99-2.jpg|thumb|Tempile la Confucius ku Jiading, sono ni tawuni ya ku Shanghai. Sono mu tempile la Confucius ku Jiading muli nyumba yakusungiramo vinthu vyakale iyo yikulongosora ivyo vikachitikanga pa maungano gha ufumu.]] Pakati pajumpha nyengo yicoko waka kufuma apo Confucius wakafwira, msumba wa Qufu, uwo ukaŵa kukwake, ukazgoka malo ghakusoperako na kukumbuka ŵanthu. Mu buku la Han Dynasty Records of the Grand Historian muli nkhani izo zikulongora kuti msumba uwu ukaŵa kale malo ghakusoperapo ŵasembe. Ni malo agho ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuluta kukawona visopa. Mu visopa vya Cinic, muli visopa vinandi ivyo vili na vikozgo vya Buddha, Laozi, na Confucius. Paliso matempile ghanandi agho ghakazunulika kwa iyo. Awo ŵakulondezga chisopa cha Confucian ŵakutemwa kuchita viphikiro vya kukumbukira Confucius chaka chilichose. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1900, kaluso aka kakamara kwa vyaka vinandi mu charu cha China, uko chipani cha Communist na boma vikazomerezganga kuti ivyo Confucius na Confucianism ŵakagomezganga vikukolerana na ivyo ŵanthu ŵakugomezga. Ntheura, viphikiro vyose ivi vikakanizgika. Mu ma 1990, ŵakaŵaso na ciphikiro ici. Pakuti pasono ŵanthu ŵakuwona kuti ntchakuzirwa kusopa mbiri na mitheto ya ku China, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuŵapo nanga ŵangaŵa ŵa chipani cha Communist. Ku Taiwan, uko chipani cha Nationalist Party (Kuomintang) chikakhozgeranga chomene vigomezgo vya Confucius pa nkhani ya makhaliro na nkharo, boma likukhozgera kaluso ka kukumbukira Confucius (祭孔). Nangauli ni holide ya caru cara, kweni yikuwoneka pa kalendara yiliyose, nga ni umo viliri na Zuŵa la Ŵadada panji Khisimasi ku vyaru vya ku Western. Ku South Korea, pa zuŵa la kubabika kwa Confucius na pa zuŵa la nyifwa yake, ŵakuchita viphikiro vikuruvikuru vya Seokjeon Daeje.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Dunbar |first1=Jon |title=Sungkyunkwan Confucian Ceremony |url=http://www.raskb.com/content/confirmed-pls-pay-upon-registration-sungkyunkwan-confucian-ceremony |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150418040456/http://www.raskb.com/content/confirmed-pls-pay-upon-registration-sungkyunkwan-confucian-ceremony |archive-date=18 April 2015 |website=RASKB |publisher=Royal Asiatic Society Korea Branch |accessdate=8 April 2015}}</ref> === Ŵana === {{See also|Family tree of Confucius in the main line of descent}} Ŵana ŵa Confucius ŵakamanyikwanga kanandi waka na kucindikwa na maboma ghacifumu. Ŵakapika udindo wa marquis maulendo 35 kufuma apo ŵakacitira Gaozu mu muwuso wa Han, ndipo ŵakakwezgeka kuŵa duke maulendo 42 kufuma mu muwuso wa Tang mpaka mu muwuso wa Qing. Themba Xuanzong la ku Tang ndilo likaŵa lakwamba kumupa zina lakuti "Duke Wenxuan" Kong Suizhi wa muwiro wa 35. Mu 1055, Themba Renzong la ku Song likapeleka zina lakuti "Duke Yansheng" kwa Kong Zongyuan wa muwiro wa 46. Mu nyengo ya muwuso wa muwuso wa Southern Song, Duke Yansheng Kong Duanyou wakachimbilira kumwera pamoza na Emperor Song ku Quzhou ku Zhejiang, apo muwuso wa Jin (1115-1234) uwo ukakhazikiskika mwasonosono kumpoto ukimika Kong Duanyou mubali wake Kong Duancao uyo wakakhala ku Qufu kuŵa Duke Yansheng. Kufuma pa nyengo iyi m'paka mu muwuso wa Yuan, kukaŵa mafumu ghaŵiri gha Yansheng, limoza kumpoto ku Qufu ndipo linyake kumwera ku Quzhou. Themba Kublai Khan la muwuso wa Yuan likamuchema kuti wawelere ku Qufu. Mbumba ya kumwera yikaleka kuŵa na zina ili chifukwa chakuti Kong Zhu wakakana, ntheura mbumba ya kumpoto yikalutilira kuŵa na zina lakuti Duke Yansheng. Munthavi wa kumwera ukakhala mu msumba wa Quzhou, uko ŵakukhala m'paka lero. Ŵana ŵa Confucius mu Quzhou pera ŵalipo 30,000. Muwuso wa Hanlin Academy wa Wujing boshi 五經博士 ukapelekeka ku munthavi wa kumwera ku Quzhou na Fumu ya Ming apo munthavi wa kumpoto ku Qufu ukaŵa na zina lakuti Duke Yansheng. Mulongozgi wa cigaŵa ca kumwera ni 孔祥 Kong Xiangkai. Mu 1351, mu nyengo ya muwuso wa Fumu Toghon Temür wa muwuso wa Yuan, mwana waciŵiri wa muwuso wa Kong Huan (孔??) Kong Shao (孔昭) wakasama kufuma ku China kuya ku Korea mu muwuso wa Goryeo, ndipo wakapokelereka makora na Mfumukazi Noguk (muwoli wa Themba Gongmin uyo wakababika ku Mongolia). Wakati waŵa mwenekaya wa charu cha Korea, wakasintha zina lake kufuma pa "昭" kuŵa "紹" ({{Korean|공여|孔帤}}), 1329–1397), ntheura wakambiska mbumba ya Changwon Gong ({{Korean|창원 공씨|昌原 孔氏}}), malo agho ŵakakhalanga ghakaŵa ku Changwon, South Gyeongsang Province. Kufuma apo, mbumba iyi yikamba kuŵa na maudindo ghapachanya mu muwuso wa Joseon.<ref>{{cite web |date=2014-05-19 |title=Descendants of Confucius in South Korea Seek Roots in Quzhou |url=http://www.qz.gov.cn/English/Recent/201405/t20140519_278510.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20150204113943/http://www.qz.gov.cn/English/Recent/201405/t20140519_278510.htm |archive-date=2015-02-04 |access-date=February 4, 2015 |website=Quzhou.China}}</ref> Mu 1794, mu nyengo ya Themba Jeongjo, mbumba iyi yikasintha zina kuŵa Gokbu Gong ({{Korean|곡부 공씨|曲阜 孔氏}}) Ku Qufu uko kukababikira Confucius ({{ko-hhrm|곡부|曲阜|Gokbu}}).<ref>{{Cite book|title=Doosan Encyclopedia 공 孔|publisher=[[Doosan Encyclopedia]]|url=http://terms.naver.com/entry.nhn?docId=1062982&cid=200000000&categoryId=200000185&mobile|access-date=2017-10-20|archive-date=2022-01-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220121173837/https://terms.naver.com/entry.naver?docId=1062982&mobile=&cid=40942&categoryId=31639|url-status=live}}</ref> Ŵana ŵake ŵakumanyikwa ni Gong Yoo (zina lake leneko Gong Ji-cheol (공지철)) na Gong Hyo-jin (공효진); na ŵanthu nga ni Gongchan (zina lake leneko Gong Chan-sik (공찬식)), Minzy (zina lake leneko Gong Min-ji (공민지)), kweniso ŵadadavyara, awo ŵakwimba ŵanthu. {{ill|Gong Ok-jin|ko|공옥진}} (공옥진). Nangauli mu China mukaŵa kusintha kwa muwuso, kweni zina lakuti Duke Yansheng likapelekeka ku miwiro yakulondezgapo ya mphapu yake m'paka apo likamara kulembekera mu 1935. Munthu waumaliro uyo wakaŵa na zina ili, Kung Te-cheng wa mu muwiro wa 77, ndiyo wakasankhika kuŵa Mulara wa Kupeleka Sembe kwa Confucius. Kung Te-cheng wakafwa mu Okutobala 2008, ndipo mwana wake, Kung Wei-yi, uyo wakaŵa wa nambara 78, wakafwa mu 1989. Muzukuru wa Kung Te-cheng, Kung Tsui-chang, uyo wakaŵa wa mu mzere wa 79, wakababika mu 1975. Mudumbu wa Te-cheng, Kong Demao, wakukhala ku China ndipo wali kulemba buku lakulongosora ivyo vikamucitikira apo wakakuranga mu nyumba ya mbumba yake ku Qufu. Mudumbu munyake, Kong Deqi, wakafwa wacali mwana mucoko. Ŵana ŵanandi ŵa Confucius ŵachali kukhala mu msumba wa Qufu. H. wakaŵa wa mphapu ya Confucius. H. Kung, wakaŵa Mulara wa Boma la China. Yumoza wa ŵana ŵake, {{ill|Kong Lingjie|zh|孔令傑}}(孔令傑), wakatora Debra Paget uyo wakababa Gregory Kung (孔德基). Mbumba ya Confucius, ya Kong, ndiyo yili na ŵanthu ŵanandi comene pa caru capasi. Mbumba iyi yili mu muwiro wake wa nambara 83, ndipo yili kufuma kwa Confucius. Wupu wakuwona vya miwiro ya ŵanthu (Confucius Genealogy Compilation Committee, CGCC) ukati Confucius wali na ŵana mamiliyoni ghaŵiri, ndipo ŵanthu pafupifupi mamiliyoni ghatatu. Pa ŵanthu aŵa, masauzandi ghanandi ghakukhala kuwaro kwa China. Mu vilimika vya m'ma 1400, munthu munyake wa fuko la Kong wakaluta ku Korea, uko mazuŵa ghano kuli ŵanthu ŵakukwana 34,000 awo mbana ŵa Confucius. Yumoza wa ŵanthu aŵa wakachimbira ku Qufu mu nyengo ya Nkhondo Yakukhora ya ku China mu 1940, ndipo paumaliro wakakhazikika ku Taiwan. Paliso minthavi yinyake ya mbumba ya Kong iyo yikang'anamukira ku Cisilamu pamanyuma pa kutengwa ku ŵanakazi ŵa Cisilamu, mu Dachuan mu cigaŵa ca Gansu mu ma 1800, ndiposo mu 1715 mu Xuanwei mu cigaŵa ca Yunnan. Ŵanandi mwa Ŵasilamu awo ŵali kufuma kwa Confucius ŵali kufuma ku nthengwa ya Ma Jiaga (馬甲??), mwanakazi Musulumani, na Kong Yanrong (孔??), muwiro wa 59 wa Confucius mu chaka cha 1480, ndipo ŵakusangika pakati pa ŵanthu ŵa Hui na Dongxiang. Mu mdauko uphya uwu muli Ŵasilamu. Kong Dejun (孔德軍) ni nkhwantha ya Chisilamu yakufuma ku chigaŵa cha Qinghai. Cifukwa cakuti ŵanthu ŵakutemwa comene mbumba ya Confucius, ku China kukaŵa pulogiramu ya kuyezga DNA ya ŵanthu awo ŵakamanyikwanga kuti ŵali mu mbumba za Confucius. Ivi vingawovwira kuti ŵasayansi ŵamanye kuti ŵana ŵanalume ŵa Confucius ŵali na chikhomozomu chakuchemeka Y. Usange mphapu ya munthu yikufuma ku dada kuya ku mwana, kufuma mu nyengo ya Confucius, ŵanalume wose mu mbumba iyi ŵaŵenge na chikhomozomu chakuyana waka na cha munthu uyo ŵali kufuma kwa iyo. Chilato cha kuyezgelera majini chikaŵa chakuti kovwire ŵanthu awo ŵali ku chigaŵa chinyake mu charu cha China awo ŵali kutaya mbiri yawo kuti ŵalongore kuti mbanthu ŵa mu mbumba yawo. Ndipouli, mu 2009, maofesi ghanandi ghakazomera yayi kuyezga DNA. Bryan Sykes, pulofesa wa sayansi ya majini pa Yunivesite ya Oxford, wakapulikiska fundo iyi. Ni fumbo la sayansi pera yayi". Pakwamba, ŵanthu ŵakakhumbanga kuti ŵasazgireko ŵanthu ŵaphya mu mbumba ya Confucius. Ŵabali awo ŵakachimbilira ku Taiwan ŵakakhwaskika yayi na DNA. Mu 2013, ŵanthu ŵa mu mbumba yinyake ŵakachita kafukufuku wa DNA ndipo ŵakasanga kuti wose ŵakaŵa na chikhomozomu chakuyana na cha Y. Buku la Confucius genealogy la nambara 5 na laumaliro likasindikizgika na CGCC. Chikavumbukwa pa ungano uwo ukacitikira ku Qufu pa Seputembala 24, 2009. Pa nyengo iyi, ŵanakazi nawo ŵalipo..<ref>{{Harvnb|China Daily|2007|loc=[http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2007-02/02/content_800011.htm online]}}.</ref> == Ukaboni == <references group="lower-alpha" responsive="1"></references> === Maghu ghakulembeka === <references group="" responsive="0"></references> === Mabuku ghanyake === {{refbegin|30em}} * {{cite web |last=Ahmad |first=Mirza Tahir |year=n.d. |title=Confucianism |url=http://www.alislam.org/library/books/revelation/part_2_section_3.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121003035638/http://www.alislam.org/library/books/revelation/part_2_section_3.html |archive-date=3 October 2012 |access-date=7 November 2010 |publisher=Ahmadiyya Muslim Community}} * {{cite book|last1=Bonevac|first1=Daniel|last2=Phillips|first2=Stephen|title=Introduction to world philosophy|url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontowo0000bone|year=2009|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=New York|isbn=978-0-19-515231-9}} * {{cite book|last=Chin|first=Ann-ping|title=The Authentic Confucius: A Life of Thought and Politics|year=2007|publisher=Scribner|location=New York|isbn=978-0-7432-4618-7|url=https://archive.org/details/authenticconfuci00chin}} * {{cite web |date=21 August 2007 |title=Confucius Descendants Say DNA Testing Plan Lacks Wisdom |url=http://eng.bandao.cn/newsdetail.asp?id=4644 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110707013208/http://eng.bandao.cn/newsdetail.asp?id=4644 |archive-date=7 July 2011 |publisher=Bandao |ref={{harvid|Bandao|2007}}}} * {{cite news|url=http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2007-02/02/content_800011.htm|title=Confucius Family Tree to Record Female Kin|newspaper=China Daily|date=2 February 2007|ref={{harvid|China Daily|2007}}|access-date=30 May 2009|archive-date=2 June 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130602095336/http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2007-02/02/content_800011.htm|url-status=live}} * {{cite news|url=http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2009-09/24/content_8733256.htm|title=Confucius' Family Tree Recorded Biggest|newspaper=China Daily|date=24 September 2009|ref={{harvid|China Daily|2009}}|access-date=24 September 2009|archive-date=24 October 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121024075013/http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2009-09/24/content_8733256.htm|url-status=live}} * {{cite book|last=Creel|first=H. 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* {{cite encyclopedia|last=Hutton|first=Eric L.|date=11 June 2019|orig-date=26 May 2016|encyclopedia=[[Oxford Bibliographies Online|Oxford Bibliographies]]: Philosophy|title=Confucius|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|location=Oxford|doi=10.1093/OBO/9780195396577-0290|url=https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780195396577/obo-9780195396577-0290.xml|url-access=subscription|access-date=8 March 2022|archive-date=8 March 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220308003431/https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780195396577/obo-9780195396577-0290.xml|url-status=live}}{{subscription}} * {{cite book|last1=Jansen|first1=Thomas|last2=Klein|first2=Thoralf|last3=Meyer|first3=Christian|year=2014|title=Globalization and the Making of Religious Modernity in China: Transnational Religions, Local Agents, and the Study of Religion, 1800–Present|publisher=Brill|isbn=978-90-04-27151-7|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GNlXAwAAQBAJ|access-date=2016-04-21|archive-date=2021-10-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211025215513/https://books.google.com/books?id=GNlXAwAAQBAJ|url-status=live}} * {{cite book|last1=Kong|first1=Demao|last2=Ke|first2=Lan|last3=Roberts|first3=Rosemary|title=The house of Confucius|year=1988|publisher=Hodder & Stoughton|location=London|isbn=978-0-340-41279-4|edition=Translated}} * {{citation|last=Legge|first=James|author-link=James Legge|contribution=[[:s:Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/Confucius|Confucius]]|title=Encyclopaedia Britannica, ''9th ed., Vol. VI''|date=1887|pages=258–265|title-link=:s:Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/Volume VI}}. * {{cite web |date=18 June 2006 |title=DNA test to clear up Confucius confusion |url=http://ye2.mofcom.gov.cn/aarticle/chinanews/200606/20060602462372.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110707040804/http://ye2.mofcom.gov.cn/aarticle/chinanews/200606/20060602462372.html |archive-date=7 July 2011 |access-date=31 May 2009 |publisher=Ministry of Commerce of the People's Republic of China |ref={{harvid|Ministry of Commerce of the PRC|2006}}}} * {{cite book|last=Nivison|first=David Shepherd|author-link=David Shepherd Nivison|chapter=The Classical Philosophical Writings – Confucius|editor-first1=Michael|editor-last1=Loewe|editor-link1=Michael Loewe|editor-first2=Edward|editor-last2=Shaughnessy|editor-link2=Edward Shaughnessy|title=The Cambridge History of Ancient China|url=https://archive.org/details/cambridgehistory00loew|url-access=limited|location=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1999|pages=[https://archive.org/details/cambridgehistory00loew/page/n782 752]–759|isbn=978-0-521-47030-8}} * {{cite book|last1=Nylan|first1=Michael|first2=Thomas A.|last2=Wilson|year=2010|title=Lives of Confucius: Civilization's Greatest Sage through the Ages|isbn=978-0-385-51069-1|url=https://archive.org/details/livesofconfucius00nyla}} * {{cite book|last=Parker|first=John|title=Windows into China: The Jesuits and their books, 1580–1730|year=1977|publisher=Trustees of the Public Library of the City of Boston|location=Boston|isbn=978-0-89073-050-8|url=https://archive.org/details/windowsintochina00park_0}} * {{cite book|last=Phan|first=Peter C.|title=Catholicism and interreligious dialogue|url=https://archive.org/details/catholicisminter0000unse|year=2012|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=New York|isbn=978-0-19-982787-9|chapter=Catholicism and Confucianism: An intercultural and interreligious dialogue}} * {{cite book|last=Rainey|first=Lee Dian|title=Confucius & Confucianism: The essentials|year=2010|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|location=Oxford|isbn=978-1-4051-8841-8}} * {{cite encyclopedia|last=Richey|first=Jeffrey L.|date=28 August 2018|encyclopedia=[[Oxford Bibliographies Online|Oxford Bibliographies]]: Chinese Studies|title=Confucius|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|location=Oxford|doi=10.1093/OBO/9780199920082-0163|url=https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780199920082/obo-9780199920082-0163.xml|url-access=subscription|access-date=8 March 2022|archive-date=8 March 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220308003435/https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780199920082/obo-9780199920082-0163.xml|url-status=live}}{{subscription}} * {{cite journal|last=Riegel|first=Jeffrey K.|title=Poetry and the legend of Confucius's exile|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-the-american-oriental-society_january-march-1986_106_1/page/13|journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society|year=1986|volume=106|issue=1|pages=13–22|jstor=602359|doi=10.2307/602359}} * {{cite journal|last=Riegel|first=Jeffrey|title=Confucius|url=http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2012/entries/confucius/|website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|year=2012|publisher=Stanford University|access-date=2012-03-25|archive-date=2013-12-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131202061214/http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2012/entries/confucius/|url-status=live}} * {{cite web |last=Qiu |first=Jane |author-link=Jane Qiu |date=13 August 2008 |title=Inheriting Confucius |url=http://seedmagazine.com/content/article/inheriting_confucius/ |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090722140229/http://seedmagazine.com/content/article/inheriting_confucius/ |archive-date=22 July 2009 |access-date=31 May 2009 |publisher=Seed Magazine}} * {{cite book|last=Shen|first=Vincent|title=Dao Companion to Classical Confucian Philosophy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cgDFBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA86|year=2013|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-90-481-2936-2|access-date=2018-12-04|archive-date=2019-10-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191011233113/https://books.google.com/books?id=cgDFBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA86|url-status=live}} * {{cite book|first=Endymion|last=Wilkinson|author-link=Endymion Wilkinson|title=Chinese History: A New Manual|edition=4th|year=2015|location=Cambridge, Mass.|publisher=Harvard University Asia Center|isbn=978-0-674-08846-7}} * {{cite web |last=Yan |first=Liang |date=16 February 2008 |title=Updated Confucius family tree has two million members |url=http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2008-02/16/content_7616027.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121022002217/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2008-02/16/content_7616027.htm |archive-date=22 October 2012 |access-date=30 May 2009 |publisher=Xinhua}} * {{cite book|last=Yao|first=Xinzhong|title=Confucianism and Christianity: A Comparative Study of Jen and Agape|publisher=Sussex Academic Press|location=Brighton|year=1997|isbn=978-1-898723-76-9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BN47m0BHtLkC|access-date=2015-11-07|archive-date=2020-10-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201021150349/https://books.google.com/books?id=BN47m0BHtLkC|url-status=live}} * {{cite book|last=Yao|first=Xinzhong|title=An Introduction to Confucianism|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|year=2000|isbn=978-0-521-64430-3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tAE2OJ9bPG0C|access-date=2015-11-07|archive-date=2020-07-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200729120529/https://books.google.com/books?id=tAE2OJ9bPG0C|url-status=live}} * {{cite news|last=Zhou|first=Jing|title=New Confucius Genealogy out next year|url=http://www.china.org.cn/china/features/content_16696029.htm|date=31 October 2008|publisher=China Internet Information Center|access-date=1 November 2008|archive-date=3 November 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081103060844/http://www.china.org.cn/china/features/content_16696029.htm|url-status=live}} {{refend}} == Mabuku == ''See {{harvnb|Richey|2018}} and {{harvnb|Hutton|2019}} for extensive bibliographies'' {{refbegin}} * [[Jonathan Clements|Clements, Jonathan]] (2008). ''Confucius: A Biography''. Stroud, Gloucestershire, England: Sutton Publishing. {{ISBN|978-0-7509-4775-6}}. * Confucius (1997). ''Lun yu'', (in English ''The Analects of Confucius''). Translation and notes by Simon Leys. New York: W.W. Norton. {{ISBN|0-393-04019-4}}. * Confucius (2003). ''Confucius: Analects – With Selections from Traditional Commentaries''. Translated by E. Slingerland. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing. (Original work published c. {{BCE|551–479}}) {{ISBN|0-87220-635-1}}. * [[Herrlee Glessner Creel|Creel, Herrlee Glessner]] (1949). ''Confucius and the Chinese Way''. New York: Harper. * {{cite book|last=Creel|first=Herrlee Glessner|author-link=Herrlee Glessner Creel|title=Chinese Thought from Confucius to Mao Tse-tung|url=https://archive.org/details/chinesethoughtfr00cree|url-access=registration|year=1953|publisher=University of Chicago Press|location=Chicago}} * Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2005). "Confucianism: An Overview". In Encyclopedia'' of Religion'' (Vol. C, pp.&nbsp;1890–1905). Detroit: MacMillan Reference * {{cite book|last=Dawson|first=Raymond|title=Confucius|url=https://archive.org/details/confucius0000daws|year=1982|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|isbn=978-0-19-287536-5}} * {{cite book|last=Fingarette|first=Hebert|title=Confucius : the secular as sacred|year=1998|publisher=Waveland Press|location=Long Grove, Ill.|isbn=978-1-57766-010-1|url=https://archive.org/details/confuciussecular00fing}} * {{cite book|last=Kaizuka|first=Shigeki|title=Confucius. His life and thought|year=1956|publisher=G. Allen and Unwin|location=London}} * {{cite book|last=Ssu-ma Ch'ien|title=Records of the Historian|url=https://archive.org/details/recordsofhistori0000szum_i5a5|year=1974|publisher=Commercial Press|location=Hong Kong|others=Yang Hsien-yi and Gladys Yang, trans}} * Sterckx, Roel. ''Chinese Thought. From Confucius to Cook Ding.'' London: Penguin, 2019. * Van Norden, B.W., ed. (2001). ''Confucius and the Analects: New Essays''. New York: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-513396-X}}. {{Refend}} == Vigaŵa vya kuwaro == {{Sister project links|v=no|n=no|s=Author:Confucius|b=Saylor.org's Ancient Civilizations of the World/Confucius and Confucianism|c=Category:Confucius}} * {{cite SEP|url-id=confucius|title=Confucius|last=Csikszentmihalyi|first=Mark}} * {{cite IEP|url-id=confuciu|title=Confucius}} * {{In Our Time|Confucius|p00547k8|Confucius}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20130124210603/http://confucius.org/ Multilingual web site on Confucius and the Analects] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20171020011747/http://faculty.vassar.edu/brvannor/Mypapers/DaoofKongzi.pdf The Dao of Kongzi], introduction to the thought of Confucius. * {{Gutenberg author|id=1180}} * {{Internet Archive author}} * {{Librivox author|id=3104}} * [http://digital.library.upenn.edu/webbin/gutbook/lookup?num=4094 Confucian Analects] (Project Gutenberg release of James Legge's Translation) * [http://www.wfu.edu/~moran/zhexuejialu/Analects_PEM.html Core philosophical passages] in the ''Analects of Confucius''. {{Navboxes|title=Links to related articles|list1={{Chinese philosophy}} {{philosophy of language}} {{Ethics}} {{Social and political philosophy}} {{Qin list}} {{Religious Confucianism}}}}{{Portal bar|China|Biography|Philosophy}}{{Authority control}} c2go9nbq85mjna43ifb1hvql4g0rkww 0 26563 119309 118840 2026-08-13T22:21:22Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Add 5 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260813sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 119309 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Ancient Greek philosopher and polymath (384–322 BC)}} {{other uses}} {{pp-protected|small=yes}} {{good article}} {{Use dmy dates|date=March 2022}} {{Infobox philosopher | name=Aristotle | image=Aristotle Altemps Inv8575.jpg | caption=Roman copy (in marble) of a [[Ancient Greek sculpture|Greek bronze]] bust of Aristotle by [[Lysippos]] ({{circa|330 BC}}), with modern alabaster mantle. | birth_date=384 BC | birth_place=[[Stagira (ancient city)|Stagira]], [[Chalcidian League]] | death_date={{nowrap|322 BC (aged 61–62)}} | death_place=[[Chalcis]], [[Euboea]], [[Macedonia (ancient kingdom)#Empire|Macedonian Empire]] | education=[[Platonic Academy]] | era=[[Ancient Greek philosophy]] | region=[[Western philosophy]] | school_tradition={{Flatlist}} * [[Peripatetic school]] {{Endflatlist}} | notable_students = [[Alexander the Great]], [[Theophrastus]], [[Aristoxenus]] | main_interests={{Flatlist}} * [[Logic]] * [[Physis|Natural Philosophy]] * [[Metaphysics]] * [[Ethics]] * [[Politics]] * [[Rhetoric]] * [[Aesthetics|Poetics]] {{Endflatlist}} | notable_ideas=[[Aristotelianism]] {{collapsible list | title = Theoretical philosophy | [[Aristotelian logic]], [[syllogism]] | [[Four causes]] | [[Genus–differentia definition|Genus and differentia]] | [[Hylomorphism]], [[substance theory|substance]], [[essence]], [[accident (philosophy)|accident]] | [[Hypokeimenon]] | [[Potentiality and actuality]] | [[Aristotle's theory of universals|Theory of universals]] | [[Unmoved mover]] }} {{collapsible list | title = Natural philosophy | [[Aristotelian biology]] | [[Aristotelian physics]] | [[Common sense]] | [[Eternity of the world]] | [[Five wits]] | ''[[Horror vacui (physics)|Horror vacui]]'' | [[Classical elements#Aristotle|Theory of elements]], [[Aether (classical element)|aether]] | [[Rational animal]] }} {{collapsible list | title = Practical philosophy | [[Aristotelian ethics]] | [[Catharsis]] | [[Deliberative rhetoric|Deliberative]], [[epideictic]] and [[forensic rhetoric|forensic]] [[rhetoric]] | [[Enthymeme]] and [[Paradeigma]] | [[Family as a model for the state]] | [[Golden mean (philosophy)|Golden mean]] | [[Kyklos#Aristotle|Kyklos]] | [[Magnanimity]] | [[Mimesis]] | [[Natural slavery]] | [[Intellectual virtue]]s: [[sophia (wisdom)|sophia]], [[episteme]], [[nous]], [[phronesis]], [[techne]] | [[Three appeals]]: [[ethos]], [[logos]], [[pathos]] | [[Aristotle's views on women|Views on women]] }} | influences={{Flatlist}} * [[Plato]] * [[Socrates]] * [[Heraclitus]] * [[Parmenides]] * [[Empedocles]] * [[Phaleas of Chalcedon|Phaleas]] * [[Hippodamus of Miletus|Hippodamus]] * [[Hippias]] {{Endflatlist}} | influenced={{longitem| [[Averroism]], [[Avicennism]], [[Neo-Aristotelianism (literature)|Literary Neo-Aristotelianism]], [[Maimonideanism]], [[Objectivism]], [[Peripatetics]], [[Scholasticism]] ([[Llullism]], [[Neo-scholasticism|Neo]], [[Scotism]], [[Second scholasticism|Second]], [[Thomism]], etc.), additionally [[Middle Platonism]] and [[Neoplatonism]]. See: [[List of writers influenced by Aristotle]], [[Commentaries on Aristotle]], [[Pseudo-Aristotle]] }} |notable_works= {{Flatlist}} *''[[Organon]]'' *[[Physics (Aristotle)|''Physics'']] *[[Metaphysics (Aristotle)|''Metaphysics'']] *''[[Nicomachean Ethics]]'' *[[Politics (Aristotle)|''Politics'']] *[[Rhetoric (Aristotle)|''Rhetoric'']] *[[Poetics (Aristotle)|''Poetics'']] {{Endflatlist}} }} '''Aristotle''' (/ˈærɪstɒtəl/; Greek, 384-322 B.C.) wakaŵa munthu wavinjeru wa ku [[Greece]]. Mu mabuku ghake muli nkhani zinandi, nga ni za sayansi, za umoyo, za vinyama, za vinthu vyakuthupi, za kaghanaghaniro, za makhaliro, za kawonekero, za sumu, za maseŵero, za sumu, za kuyowoya, za maghanoghano, za malulimi, za vyachuma, ndyali, vya nyengo, vya charu, na vya boma. Pakuŵa uyo wakambiska sukulu ya Peripatetic ya vinjeru vya ŵanthu ku Lyceum ku Athens, wakambiska cisambizgo ca Aristotle ico cikapangiska kuti sayansi yasinthe. Tikumanya vinandi yayi vya Aristotle. Wakababikira mu msumba wa Stagira kumpoto kwa Greece. Wiske wake, Nicomachus, wakafwa apo Aristotle wakaŵa mwana mucoko, ndipo wakalereka na munthu munyake. Apo wakaŵa na vyaka 17 panji 18, wakanjira sukulu ya Plato ku Athens ndipo wakakhala kwenekura m'paka apo wakaŵa na vyaka 37. 347 B.C.E.). Pakati pajumpha nyengo yichoko waka kufuma apo Plato wakafwira, Aristotle wakafumako ku Ateni ndipo pa pempho la Philip II wa ku Makedoniya, wakasambizga mwana wake Alexander Mukuru kwamba mu 343 B.C.E. Wakambiska layibulare ku Lyceum iyo yikamovwira kupanga mabuku ghanandi agho wakalemba pa mipukutu ya papyrus. Nangauli Aristotle wakalemba mabuku ghanandi kuti ghalembeke, kweni vigaŵa vitatu pera ndivyo vichalipo. Aristotle wakalongosora makora visambizgo vyakupambanapambana ivyo vikaŵako pambere iyo wandaŵeko. Cikaŵa cifukwa ca visambizgo vyake kuti caru ca ku virwa vya kumanjiliro gha dazi cikapokera lizgu lake la vinjeru, kweniso masuzgo na nthowa zake zakufufuzira. Lekani vinjeru vyake vikakhwaska chomene ŵanthu ŵa mu vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi. Ivyo Aristotle wakayowoya vikakhwaska chomene ŵanthu ŵa vyaka vyapakati pa 500 na 1500 C.E. Sayansi ya vyaumoyo yikathandazgika kufuma mu nyengo ya kuumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1800 m'paka mu nyengo ya Renaissance, ndipo yikasintha yayi m'paka apo vinthu vikasinthira. Ŵanthu ŵakagomezga yayi ivyo Aristotle wakalemba pa nkhani ya viŵeto, nga ni ivyo wakalemba pa chiŵaro cha chibenene icho chikubaba ŵana. Wakakhwaskaso visambizgo vya Chiyuda na Chisilamu mu nyengo ya ku Middle Ages, kweniso visambizgo vya Chikhristu, chomenechomene vya chisopa cha Katolika. Ŵanthu ŵa chisopa cha Cisilamu ŵakamuchindikanga chomene Aristotle ndipo ŵakamuchemanga kuti "Msambizgi Wakwamba". Mu mabuku ghake ndimo mukaŵa fundo zakwambilira izo zikulongosora vya vinjeru vya ŵanthu. Aristotle wakalutilira kovwira ŵanthu mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800. Kweniso fundo zake za makhaliro, nangauli zikaŵa zakovwira comene, zikamba kukhumbikwa comene mu nyengo yasono. == Umoyo == Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakumanya vinandi yayi vyakukhwaskana na umoyo wa Aristotle. Ivyo ŵanthu ŵakalembanga kale vikulongora waka ivyo vikachitika, ndipo ŵanthu ŵakulemba mdauko ŵakukolerana pa fundo zichoko waka.{{efn-ua | See {{harvnb|Shields|2012|pp=3–16}}; {{harvnb|Düring|1957}} covers ancient biographies of Aristotle.}} Aristotle wakababika mu 384 B.C.E. ku Stagira, Chalcidice, mtunda wa makilomita 55 kumafumiro gha dazi kwa msumba wa Tesalonika. Wiske wake, Nicomachus, wakaŵa dokotala wa Themba Amyntas la ku Makedoniya. Apo wakaŵa muwukirano, Aristotle wakasambira vya umoyo na munkhwala kufuma kwa awiske. Ŵapapi ŵa Aristotle wose ŵakafwa apo wakaŵa na vilimika pafupifupi 13, ndipo Proxenus wa ku Atarneus ndiyo wakaŵa mulinda wake. Nangauli pasono palije vinandi vyakukhwaskana na umoyo wa Aristotle apo wakaŵa mwana, kweni wakwenera kuti wakakhalako kanyengo kanyake mu nyumba ya ufumu wa Makedoniya, uko wakamba kucezga na ŵanthu ŵa ufumu wa Makedoniya.{{sfn|Anagnostopoulos|2013|page=4}} [[File:20160518 092 mieza nympheum.jpg|thumb|left|Sukulu ya Aristotle ku Mieza, Macedonia, Greece]] Apo wakaŵa na vyaka 17 panji 18, Aristotle wakasamira ku Ateni kuti wakalutilire kusambira pa sukulu ya Plato. Wakwenera kuti wakakumanapo na vinthu vyamabuchi ivyo vikachitika ku Eleusinian Mysteries. Aristotle wakakhala mu Ateni vyaka pafupifupi 20 pambere wandafumeko mu 348/47 B.C.E. Nkhani yakukhwaskana na kufuma kwake yikulongora kuti wakakhuŵara na ivyo vikachitikanga ku sukulu iyi apo muwuso wake ukaluta kwa Speusippus, mwana wa mubali wa Plato. Pamanyuma pake Aristotle wakaluta na Xenocrates ku nyumba ya mubwezi wake Hermias wa ku Atarneus ku Asia Minor. Pamanyuma pa nyifwa ya Hermias, Aristotle wakaluta na msambiri wake Theophrastus ku cirwa ca Lesbos, uko ŵakasambira vyakumera na vyamoyo vya pa cirwa ici. Apo wakaŵa ku Lesbos, Aristotle wakatora Pythias, mwana wa Hermias panji muzukuru wake. Wakababa mwana msungwana, uyo ŵakamuthya zina lakuti Pythias. Mu 343 B.C.E., Philip II wa ku Makedoniya wakachema Aristotle kuti waŵe msambizgi wa mwana wake Alexander. Aristotle ndiyo wakaŵa mulara wa sukulu ya ku Makedoniya. Apo Aristotle wakaŵa ku nyumba yacifumu ku Makedoniya, wakasambizga Alekizanda kweniso mathemba ghanyake ghaŵiri: Ptolemy na Cassander. Aristotle wakaciska Alexander kuti watore vyaru vya kumafumiro gha dazi, ndipo Aristotle nayo wakatemwanga ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yinyake. Mu ciyelezgero cimoza cakumanyikwa comene, wakaphalira Alexander kuti waŵe "mulongozgi wa Ŵagiriki na muwusi wa ŵanthu ŵankhaza, kuti wapwelelerenge Ŵagiriki nga ni ŵabwezi na ŵabali ŵake, ndipo waŵapwelelerenge nga ni nyama panji vyakumera". Kuzakafika mu 335 B.C.E., Aristotle wakawelera ku Ateni, ndipo wakazenga sukulu yake yakuchemeka Lyceum. Aristotle wakasambizganga sukulu iyi vyaka 12. Apo wakaŵa ku Ateni, muwoli wake Pythias wakafwa ndipo Aristotle wakatorana na Herpyllis wa ku Stagira. Usange buku la Suda, ilo ni buku ilo likalembeka mu nyengo ya ŵapositole, likuneneska, ndikuti wakwenera kuti wakaŵaso na erômenos, Palaephatus wa ku Abydus. Chithuzithuzi cha Aristote; buku la Ufumu wa Roma (cha m'ma 100 panji 200 C.E.) la chikozgo cha Lysippos Nyengo iyi yikaŵa pakati pa 335 na 323 B.C.E. apo Aristotle wakalemba mabuku ghake ghanandi. Iyo wakalemba nkhani zinandi izo zilipo m'paka sono. Mu mabuku agha muli mabuku ghanandi agho ghakalembeka na ŵanthu ŵanandi. Mabuku ghake ghakuzirwa comene ni Physics, Metaphysics, Nicomachean Ethics, Politics, On the Soul and Poetics. Aristotle wakasambira chomene vya sayansi ndipo wakawovwira chomene ŵanthu pa nkhani ya "kulondezga fundo za mu Baibolo, masamu, sayansi, vyamoyo, vyakumera, makhaliro, ndyali, ulimi, munkhwala, kuvina, na vyakusanguluska". Kuumaliro wa umoyo wake, Alexander na Aristotle ŵakamba kutemwana cifukwa ca ubwezi uwo wakaŵa nawo na Ŵaperesiya. Ŵanthu ŵanandi mu nyengo yakale ŵakagomezganga kuti Aristotle ndiyo wakacitiska kuti Alekizanda wafwe. Kweni ukaboni wa fundo iyi ngwakuti wakacita ivi pakati pajumpha vilimika vinkhondi na cimoza. Pamanyuma pa nyifwa ya Alexander, ŵanthu ŵa ku Ateni ŵakamba kutinkha Ŵaroma. Mu 322 B.C.E., Demophilus na Eurymedon the Hierophant ŵakayowoya kuti Aristotle wakaŵa wambura kopa Chiuta, ndipo ŵakamuchiska kuti wachimbilire ku nyumba ya anyina ku Chalcis, ku Euboea. Wakafwira ku Chalcis, Euboea, mu chaka chenechicho, ndipo wakasankha Antipater kuti waŵe mulara wake.{{sfn|Haase|1992|p=3862}} == Fundo za kuganiza == === Vyamaganizo === {{Main|Term logic}} {{further | Non-Aristotelian logic}} Aristotle ndiyo wakalemba buku la Prior Analytics, ndipo ndiyo wakamba kusambira chomene vya vinjeru vya ŵanthu. Kant wakayowoya mu buku lake lakuti Critique of Pure Reason kuti Aristotle ndiyo wakawovwira kuti fundo za Aristotle zifiskike. ==== ''Organon'' ==== {{Main|Organon}} {| class="wikitable floatright" |+ One of Aristotle's [[Syllogism#Types|types of syllogism]]{{efn-ua|This [[Syllogism#Types|type of syllogism]], with all three terms in 'a', is known by the traditional (medieval) [[mnemonic]] [[Baralipton|Barbara]].{{sfn|Lagerlund|2016}}}} ! In words !! In<br /> terms{{efn-ua|M is the Middle (here, Men), S is the Subject (Greeks), P is the Predicate (mortal).{{sfn|Lagerlund|2016}}}} !! In equations{{efn-ua|The first equation can be read as 'It is not true that there exists an x such that x is a man and that x is not mortal.'{{sfn|Predicate Logic}}}} |- |&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;All men are mortal.<br /><br />&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;All Greeks are men.<br /><br />[[Therefore sign|∴]] All Greeks are mortal.||M a P<br /><br />S a M<br /><br />S a P||[[File:Modus Barbara Equations.svg|180px]] |} Ivyo mazuŵa ghano vikuchemeka kuti Aristotle's logic na mitundu yake ya syllogism (nthowa zakugwiliskira ntchito fundo zaunenesko), Aristotle ndiyo wakavichema kuti "analytics". Mazgu ghakuti "logica" wakaghaŵika kuti ghangang'anamuraso kuyowoya. Vinthu vinandi ivyo Aristotle wakalemba vikwenera kuti vikaŵako yayi, chifukwa vikalembeka na ŵasambiri kweniso ŵasambizgi. Ivyo Aristotle wakalemba vikalembeka mu mabuku 6 ghakuchemeka Organon, ndipo Andronicus wa ku Rhodes panji ŵanyake awo ŵakamulondezganga ŵakalemba mabuku agha mu 40 B.C.{{sfn| Pickover | 2009 | page=52}}Mabuku agha ni agha: # ''[[Categories (Aristotle)|Categories]]'' # ''[[On Interpretation]]'' # ''[[Prior Analytics]]'' # ''[[Posterior Analytics]]'' # ''[[Topics (Aristotle)|Topics]]'' # ''[[On Sophistical Refutations]]'' [[File:Sanzio 01 Plato Aristotle.jpg| thumb | upright | Plato (kumazere) na Aristotle pa cithuzithuzi ico Raphael wakajambura mu 1509 pa The School of Athens. Aristotle wakuyowoya fundo za mu buku lake la Nicomachean Ethics, ndipo wakuyowoya na charu chapasi, kulongora umo wakuwonera vinthu, apo Plato wakuyowoya na kuchanya, kulongora fundo yake ya Theory of Forms, ndipo wakuyowoya na buku lake la Timaeus.{{sfn| School of Athens}}{{sfn|Stewart|2019}}]] Ntchakumanyikwa yayi umo mabuku agha ghakalembekera, kweni fundo izo zili mu mabuku agha zikafuma mu ivyo Aristotle wakalemba. Likufuma ku fundo zakwamba, kusanda mazgu ghapusu mu vigaŵa, kusanda fundo na vinthu vinyake ivyo vikukolerana mu buku la On Interpretation, na kusanda mitundu yakusuzga chomene, nga ni syllogisms (mu Analytics) na dialectics (mu Topics and Sophistical Refutations). Mabuku ghatatu ghakwambilira agha ndigho ghakovwira chomene pa nkhani ya vinjeru vya ŵanthu. Buku la The Rhetoric likusangikamo yayi, kweni likuyowoya kuti likuthemba pa Nkhani.{{sfn| Smith | 2017}} === Vinthu vyakuthupi === {{Main|Metaphysics (Aristotle)}} Lizgu lakuti "metaphysics" likwenera kuti likapangika na mulembi munyake wa m'ma 100 C.E. uyo wakawunjika mabuku gha Aristotle mu buku la Metaphysics. Aristotle wakalimanya kuti "filosofi yakwamba", ndipo wakalipatura ku masamu na sayansi ya cilengiwa (physics) nga ni filosofi ya kughanaghanirapo (theoretikē) iyo ni "ciuta" ndipo yikusanda vya Ciuta. Mu buku lake la Metaphysics (1026a16) wakalemba kuti: {{blockquote |Usange palije vinthu vinyake vyakujiyimira vyekha padera pa vinthu vyakujiyimira vyekha, mbwenu kusanda cilengiwa ndiyo ni nthowa yakwamba ya kumanya vinthu. Kweni usange pali cinthu cinyake cakujiyimira ca, ndipo nchakuzirwa comene, ndipo nchakuzirwa comene. Ndipo nchinthu ca mtundu uwu ca vinjeru vya ŵanthu kuti ŵasambire umo vinthu viliri, ndiposo ivyo vikuŵako cifukwa ca umo vinthu viliri.}} ==== Chinthu ==== {{see | Hylomorphism }} Mu buku lake la Metaphysics (Buku VII), Aristotle wakalongosora fundo ya substance (ousia) na essence (to ti ên einai, "icho chikaŵa kuti chiŵeko") ndipo wakati chinthu chinyake ntchakusazgikana na vinthu vinyake. Mu buku la nambara 8, wakuyowoya kuti vinthu ivyo vili mu thupi ni vyakuthupi. Mwaciyerezgero, vinthu vya nyumba ni njerwa, malibwe, mathabwa, na vinyake, panji cilicose ico cikupangiska nyumba iyo yilipo, apo kawonekero ka vinthu ni nyumba yeneco, panji kuti 'kuvwara mathupi na vinthu vinyake' panji cilicose ico cikulongora kuti cinthu ni nyumba. Fomula ilo likuyowoya za vigaŵa ivi likuyowoya za vinthu, ndipo fomu iyo yikuyowoya za upusikizgi yikuyowoya za umo vinthu viliri.{{sfn| Metaphysics | p=VIII 1043a 10–30}}{{sfn| Cohen | 2000}} ===== Kuwona vinthu mwakwenelera ===== {{Main|Aristotle's theory of universals}} [[File:Platonic and Aristotelian Forms.svg| thumb | upright=1.5 | Vinthu ivyo Plato wakalemba vikaŵa vya palipose, nga umo vikuŵira na apulo. Kwa Aristotle, vinthu na kawonekero ni vinthu vya munthu (hylomorphism).]] Nga ni msambizgi wake Plato, Aristotle nayo wakasambizganga vinjeru vya ŵanthu. Fundo ya Aristotle yikulongora kuti vinthu vya pa charu chose (katholou) vili mu vinthu vyapadera (kath' hekaston), vinthu ivyo vili mu charu, apo Plato wakati vinthu vya pa charu chose ni vinthu ivyo vikuyana waka. Kwa Aristotle, "kawonekero" kakaŵa waka ka vinthu ivyo vikuchitika, kweni "kaŵa ka vinthu" mu chinthu chinyake. Plato wakati vinthu vyose vili na kawonekero kake, ndipo kawonekero kake nkhanthu kanyake panji kukolerana na vinthu vinyake. Mwaciyerezgero, para munthu wakulaŵiska pa cipambi, wakuwona cipambi, ndipo wangasanda kawonekero kake. Pa mphambano iyi, pali apulo limoza na mtundu unyake. Kweniso munthu wangaŵika apulo pafupi na buku, mwakuti buku na apulo viŵe pafupi. Plato wakayowoya kuti pali mitundu yinyake ya vinthu ivyo vikuchitika pa charu chose. Mwaciyelezgero, cingaŵa kuti palije ciwemi ico cilipo, kweni "ciwemi" ni cigaŵa ca vinthu vyose. Aristotle wakakolerana yayi na Plato pa fundo iyi, wakati vinthu vyose ivyo vikuchitika pa charu chapasi vikuchitika mu nyengo yinyake, ndipo palije vinthu ivyo vikuchitika pa charu chapasi ivyo vikukolerana yayi na vinthu ivyo vikaŵako kale. Kweniso Aristotle wakakolerana yayi na Plato pa nkhani ya malo agho kuli vinthu vyose. Apo Plato wakayowoyanga za umo vinthu viliri kupaturako ku vinthu ivyo vilimo, Aristotle wakati vinthu vyose ivyo vilipo vikukolerana na ivyo vilipo. Ntheura, kuyana na Aristotle, kawonekero ka maapulo kali mu maapulo ghose, m'malo mwa kawonekero ka vinthu vinyake.{{sfn| Cohen | 2000}}{{sfn| Lloyd | 1968 | pages=43–47}} ===== Umo vinthu vingaŵira nadi ===== Pakuyowoya za umo vinthu vikusinthira (kinesis) na vifukwa vyake, nga umo wakulongosolera mu buku lake lakuti Physics and On Generation and Corruption (319b ̇320a), wakupambaniska pakati pa ivyo vikwiza (genesis, kung'anamulikaso kuti'mphapu') na: * Kukura na kuchepa, ndiko kuti, kusintha kwa unandi. * Kusintha kwa malo, ndipo * Kusintha, ndiko kuti, kusintha kwa mikhaliro. [[File:Flute-player dolphin Alcesti Group MAN.jpg| thumb | Aristotle wakayowoya kuti munthu wangasambira kuvina para wangakwaniska.]] Kuŵako ni kusintha uko chinthu icho chasintha chikusintha. Mu kusintha uku, wakambiska fundo ya nkhongono (dynamis) na unenesko (entelecheia) mu vinthu na kawonekero. Para tikuyowoya za nkhongono, tikung'anamura kuti chinthu chinyake chingachita panji kuchitapo kanthu usange vinthu vili makora ndipo palije icho chikutondeska. Mwaciyelezgero, mbuto ya cinthu ico cili mu dongo yikuŵa cinthu ico cikukura, ndipo para palije ico cikukanizga, cikuŵa cinthu ico cikukura. Vinthu ivyo vingaŵako vingaŵa kuti 'vikuchita' (poiein) panji 'vingachitikaso' (paschein), ndipo vingaŵa kuti vili kubabika panji kusambira. Mwaciyelezgero, maso ghali na nkhongono ya kuwona (kucita vinthu mwakuyana na umo munthu wakughanaghanira), kweni munthu wangamanya kuseŵera seŵero para wasambira (kucita maseŵero). Cakucitika nchakuti umaliro wa nkhongono ukufiskika. Cifukwa cakuti umaliro (telos) ndiwo nkharo ya kusintha kose, ndipo nkhongono zilipo cifukwa ca umaliro, ntheura unenesko ndiwo umaliro. Para tikughanaghanira za ciyelezgero cakwambilira, tingayowoya kuti cinthu ico cikucitika para cinyama cacita cinthu cimoza ico cinyama cikucita.{{sfn| Cohen | 2000}} {{blockquote |Pakuti ico cinthu ciliri cifukwa caco, nchakwamba cake, ndipo ico cikuŵa cifukwa ca cilato; ndipo ico cilipo cifukwa ca cilato, ndipo cifukwa ca cilato ici ndipo nkhongono zikuŵa. Pakuti vinyama vikuwona yayi kuti viwone, kweni vikuwona kuti viwone.}} Kuyowoya mwakudumura, vinthu ivyo ŵakugwiliskira nchito kupanga nyumba vingaŵa kuti ni nyumba, ndipo mulimo wa kuzenga na umo nyumba yaumaliro yizamuŵira ni vinthu vyaunenesko, ivyo ni cifukwa caumaliro panji umaliro. Kufuma apo, Aristotle wakalutizga na kuyowoya kuti vinthu ivyo vikuchitika nadi ndivyo vikwamba kuchitika pambere vindachitike. Aristotle wakayezga kumazga suzgo la umo vinthu viliri, nga ni "ntchivichi chikupangiska munthu kuŵa yumoza"? Pakuti kuyana na ivyo Plato wakayowoya, pali vinthu viŵiri: cinyama na viŵeto viŵiri, kasi munthu wakuŵa wuli cigaŵa cimoza? Ndipouli, kuyana na Aristotle, vinthu ivyo vingawoneka (vinthu) na ivyo vikuwoneka (ntchinthu) ni cinthu cimoza.{{sfn| Cohen | 2000}}{{sfn| Metaphysics | p=VIII 1045a–b}} === Kuwona vinthu === Fundo ya Aristotle yakuti vinthu vikuchitika nadi yikung'anamura kuti ivyo wakumanya vikukolerana na ivyo vikuchitika mu charu, ndipo vikukwelera ku kumanya vinthu vyose, apo Plato wakati ivyo wakumanya vikwamba na kumanya vinthu vyose (panji maghanoghano) ndipo vikukwelera ku kumanya vinthu vinyake ivyo vikukolerana na ivyo vikuchitika. Aristotle wakugwiliskira ntchito viyelezgero pakuchita vinthu, apo Plato wakuthemba fundo za mu Baibolo.{{sfn|Smith|2017}} == Filosofi ya cilengiwa == "Vinthu vyakuthupi" ivyo Aristotle wakalemba vikulongosora vinthu vinandi ivyo vikuchitika mu chilengiwa, kusazgapo vinthu ivyo pasono vikumanyikwa na sayansi ya vyaumoyo na sayansi zinyake. Kuyana na mazgu gha Aristotle, "nthanthi zacilengiwa" ni munthavi wa vinjeru vyacilengiwa uwo ukuwona vinthu ivyo vikucitika mu caru, ndipo ukuŵa na vigaŵa ivyo lero vikucemeka physics, biology, na vinyake. Ivyo Aristotle wakalemba vikawovwira ŵanthu ŵanandi chomene. Aristotle wakati vinjeru ni "sayansi". Ndipouli, mazgu ghakuti sayansi agho wakayowoya ghakupambana na ghakuti "masambiro gha sayansi". Kwa Aristotle, "sayansi yose (dianoia) njakovwira, yakulembeka, panji ya vinjeru" (Metaphysics 1025b25). Sayansi yake yikusazgapo nkharo na ndyali; sayansi yake ya vyamasalimo yikusazgapo kusambira vya maluso, kusazgapo vyamasalimo; sayansi yake ya vyamasalamusi yikusazgapo sayansi ya physics, mathematics na metaphysics.{{sfn|Wildberg|2016}} === Physics === [[File:Four Classical Elements in Burning Log.svg| thumb | The four [[classical element]]s (fire, air, water, earth) of [[Empedocles]] and Aristotle illustrated with a burning log. The log releases all four elements as it is destroyed.]] {{Main|Aristotelian physics}} ==== Five elements ==== {{Main|Classical element}} Mu buku lake lakuti On Generation and Corruption, Aristotle wakayaniska vinthu vinayi ivyo Empedocles wakayowoya, vyakuti caru, maji, mphepo, na moto, na vinthu viŵiri ivyo ŵanthu ŵakumanya, moto, kuzizima, kuthukira, na kuuma. Mu ndondomeko ya Empedoclean, vinthu vyose vikapangika na vinthu vinayi ivi. Aristotle wakasazgirapo mzimu wakucemeka ether, uwo ni mzimu wa Ciuta uwo ukupangiska vinthu vya kucanya, nyenyezi, na mapulaneti.{{sfn| Lloyd | 1968 | pages=133–139, 166–169}} {| class="wikitable" |+ [[Classical element|Aristotle's elements]]{{sfn|Lloyd|1968|pages=133–139, 166–169}} ! Element !!{{font color|red|Hot}}/{{font color|blue|Cold}} !!{{font color|green|Wet}}/{{font color|brown|Dry}} !! Motion !! Modern [[State of matter|state<br />of matter]] |- |'''[[Earth (classical element)|Earth]]'''||{{font color|blue|Cold}}||{{font color|brown|Dry}}||Down||[[Solid]] |- |'''[[Water (classical element)|Water]]'''||{{font color|blue|Cold}}||{{font color|green|Wet}}||Down||[[Liquid]] |- |'''[[Air (classical element)|Air]]'''||{{font color|red|Hot}}||{{font color|green|Wet}}||Up||[[Gas]] |- |'''[[Fire (classical element)|Fire]]'''||{{font color|red|Hot}}||{{font color|brown|Dry}}||Up||[[Plasma (physics)|Plasma]] |- |'''[[Aether (classical element)|Aether]]'''||(divine<br />substance)||—||Circular<br />(in heavens)||[[Vacuum]] |} ==== Motion ==== {{see | History of classical mechanics}} Aristotle wakalongosora za mitundu yiŵiri ya vyakuchitika: "vyakofya" panji "vyambura kwenelera", nga ni malibwe agho ghakuponyeka mu buku la Physics (254b10), kweniso "vyakuchitika", nga ni vinthu ivyo vikuwa mu buku la On the Heavens (300a20). Para munthu wakuchita vinthu mwakofya, para wakaleka waka kuchitiska, wakuleka kuchitaso vinthu vinyake. Para tapulikiska fundo iyi, tingamanya kuti nga umo Aristotle wakayowoyera, vinthu vizito vikukhumbikwira nkhongono zinandi kuti visendelere. Ici cikung'anamura kuti ciyerezgero ici :: <math>F=mv</math>, incorrect in modern physics.{{sfn| Susskind | 2011}} Cinthu ico cikupangiska kuti vinthu viŵe makora cikuthemba pa umo vinthu viliri: Eteri wakuzingilira mtambo, apo vinthu vinayi vya Empedoclean vikukwelera muchanya (nga ni moto) panji pasi (nga ni caru) uko vikukhala. Malango gha Aristotle ghakukhwaskana na kwenda. Iyo wakati vinthu vikughanda mwaluŵiro chomene kuluska uzito wake ndipo vikughanda mwakuyana waka na unandi wa maji agho vili mu maji. Ici nchigaŵa cakwenelera ca vinthu ivyo vikwenda mu maji panji mu mphepo. Mu buku lake la Physics (215a25), Aristotle wakalemba dango la unandi, lakuti mlingo wa v, wa thupi ilo likuwa, ukuyana waka na uzito wake, W, ndipo ukuyana waka na unandi, ρ, wa maji agho likuwa;{{sfn|Rovelli|2015|pp=23–40}}{{sfn|Drabkin|1938|pp=60–84}} :: <math>v=c\frac{W}{\rho}</math> Aristotle wakang'anamuranga kuti para munthu wali mu malo ghambura kanthu, wakuwa mwaluŵiro chomene. Ŵanthu ŵakuyowoya vyakupambana pa nkhani ya usange Aristotle wakakhumbanga kuyowoya malango ghakukhwaskana na unandi wa vinthu. Henri Carteron wakagomezganga kuti fundo ya Aristotle ya nkhongono njakovwira, kweni ŵanyake ŵakukana fundo iyi. Archimedes wakanozga fundo ya Aristotle yakuti mathupi ghakusendelera ku malo ghake ghakupumulirako; maboti gha visulo ghangayandukira para ghakusintha maji ghakukwana; mu ndondomeko ya Archimedes, kuyandukira kukuthemba pa unandi na unandi wa chinthu, ndipo nga umo Aristotle wakaghanaghaniranga yayi, umo chili kupangikira. Ivyo Aristotle wakalemba vikakhwaska chomene ŵanthu m'paka mu nyengo yaumaliro. John Philoponus (mu nyengo yakale) na Galileo (mu nyengo ya mazuŵa ghano) ŵakayowoya kuti ŵakalongora kuti ivyo Aristotle wakayowoya kuti chinthu chikuru chikuwa luŵiro chomene kuluska chinyake ntchautesi. Carlo Rovelli wakayowoya fundo yinyake iyo yikususkana na fundo iyi. Iyo wakati fundo ya Aristotle yakuti vinthu vikwenda makora yikukolerana na fundo yakuti vinthu ivyo vikuŵa mu malo gha gravity pa charu chapasi vikuŵa mu maji nga ni mphepo. Mu cigaŵa ici, mathupi ghakututuŵa agho ghakuwa nyengo zose ghendanga luŵiro comene kuluska mathupi ghapusu, ndipo ghakuwa pacoko comene mu malo ghakututuŵa. Newton wakalongosora kuti para munthu wakugwiliskira ntchito nkhongono ya nkhongono iyi, wakuŵa na nkhongono yakuwuskira vinthu mu malo ghake. Kweni Aristotle wakati para munthu wakugwiliskira ntchito nkhongono iyi, wakuŵa na nkhongono yakuwuskira vinthu mu malo ghake. ==== Vifukwa vinayi ==== {{Main|Four causes}} [[File:Aristotle's Four Causes of a Table.svg| thumb | upright=1.5 | Aristotle wakayowoya kuti chinthu chikupangika chifukwa cha vinthu vinayi: pa tebulo, nkhuni izo zikugwiliskirika ntchito (kanthu ako kakupangiska kuti chinthu chipangike), umo chili kupangikira (kanthu ako kakupangiska kuti chinthu chipangike), vinthu ivyo vikugwiliskirika ntchito (kanthu ako kakupangiska kuti chinthu chipangike makora), kweniso chifukwa icho chikuchitira vinthu vinyake.]] Aristotle wakati pali vinthu vinayi ivyo vikupangiska kuti vinthu vichitike. Lizgu lakuti aitia likung'anamulika kuti "cifukwa", kweni ni nyengo zose yayi apo vinthu vikucitika mu nyengo yimoza..{{sfn| Lloyd | 1996 | pages=96–100, 106–107}}{{sfn| Hankinson | 1998 | page=159}} * Cinthu ico cikupangiska cinthu cikulongosora vinthu ivyo vilipo. Ntheura, mathabwa ndigho ghakupangiska kuti paŵe thebulu. Fundo njakuti tichitengepo kanthu yayi. Cikung'anamura kuti cimayi cimoza cikugadabura cinyake yayi.{{sfn| Lloyd | 1996 | pages=96–100, 106–107}} * Cinthu ico cikupangiska kuti vinthu viŵe nthena ni umo vinthu viliri. Likutiphalira umo cinthu ciliri, kuti cinthu cikulongosoreka na ng'anamuro lake, umo ciliri, umo ciliri, umo ciliri nadi, cigaŵa cake cose, umo ciliri, panji ciyelezgero cake cikuru. Likuyowoya za vifukwa ivyo vikupangiska vinthu mu fundo za mu Baibolo panji mu malango ghanyake, pakuti vyose (mwachiyelezgero, makrostructure) ni vifukwa ivyo vikupangiska vinthu vinyake. Kuyowoya mwakupulikikwa makora, cifukwa ico munthu wakupangira cikozgo ni maghanoghano agho wakuŵa nagho. Cakuwonerapo ciwemi comene ca cifukwa ico munthu wakupangira vinthu ni maghanoghano agho munthu wakucita kupanga vinthu, nga ni kujambura vinthu.{{sfn| Lloyd | 1996 | pages=96–100, 106–107}} * Cinthu ico cikupangiska kuti vinthu visinthe ni "cinthu cakwamba", panji ico cikupangiska kuti vinthu visinthe. Likulongosora 'ivyo vikupangiska kuti vinthu viŵe makora na ivyo vikupangiska kuti vinthu visinthe' ndipo likulongora kuti pali vinthu vyakupambanapambana ivyo vikupangiska kuti vinthu visinthe, kwali ni vyamoyo panji yayi. Pakuyowoya za umo ŵanthu ŵakupulikiskira fundo yakuti pali vifukwa na umaliro, fundo iyi yikung'anamura kuti "vifukwa" ni munthu panji vinthu vinyake ivyo vikuchitika. Para pali ma domino ghaŵiri, para yimoza yawa, yimoza nayo yikuwa. Ku vinyama, ciŵaro ici cikusazgikana na umo cikukulira kufuma ku sumbi na umo thupi likugwilira nchito.{{sfn| Leroi | 2015 | pages=91–92, 369–373}} * Chifukwa chaumaliro (telos) ni cilato cake, cifukwa ico cinthu ciliripo panji cakucitikira, kusazgapo vyakucita na vyakucita ivyo vili na cilato ndiposo ivyo vikucitika mwakuyana na umo vinthu viliri. Cinthu ico cikupangiska cinthu cinyake kuti cicitike ni cilato ico cinthu ici cikwenera kufiska. Fundo iyi yikusazgapo fundo za mazuŵa ghano izo zikulongora kuti munthu wali na khumbo. Para vikuyowoya za vyamoyo, chikung'anamura kuzgoŵera umoyo unyake.{{sfn| Leroi | 2015 | pages=91–92, 369–373}} ==== Kuwona vinthu ==== {{further | History of optics}} Aristotle wakalongosora ivyo wakachita pakusanda vinthu vya mu maso. Chiŵiya ichi chikaŵanga na chipinda chamdima icho chikaŵa na chijaro chichoko icho chikapelekanga ungweru. Wakawona kuti nanga wangaŵa na kawonekero wuli, kawonekero ka dazi kakulutilira kuŵa kazingilika. Wakayowoyaso kuti para munthu wakusazgirako mtunda pakati pa jiso lake na jiso la cikozgo, cikozgo cikukura comene..{{sfn| Lahanas}} ==== Mwaŵi na kuzgoka ==== {{further | Accident (philosophy)}} Kuyana na Aristotle, vinthu vinyake vikuchitika mwamabuchi panji mwamabuchi. Vinthu ivyo vikuchitika mwangozi vikuchitika mwangozi. Paliso mwaŵi unyake uwo Aristotle wakuwuthya kuti "mwaŵi", uwo ukuyowoya waka za nkharo ya ŵanthu.{{sfn| Miller | 1973 | pp=204–213}} === Sayansi ya vya mu mlengalenga === {{further | History of astronomy}} Aristotle wakasuska fundo ya Democritus yakuti mtambo wa Milky Way uli na "nyenyezi izo caru cikubenekelera na ungweru wa dazi". Iyo wakati usange "dazi likuru kuluska caru ndipo mtunda uwo ulipo pakati pa nyenyezi na caru ngukuru comene kuluska dazi, ipo... dazi likuŵala pa nyenyezi zose ndipo caru cikubenekelera yayi". === Geology na sayansi ya cilengiwa === {{further | History of geology}} [[File:Aerial image of Stromboli (view from the northeast).jpg| thumb | Aristotle wakawona kuti malo gha mu virwa vya Aeolian ghakasintha pambere vula yindaphye.]] Aristotle wakaŵa yumoza wa ŵanthu ŵakwambilira kulemba ivyo ŵakawona. Wakayowoya kuti kusintha kwa malo kukucitika mwakucedwa comene mwakuti munthu yumoza wangaviwona yayi. Charles Lyell, wakalongosora kuti Aristotle wakalongosora umo vinthu vikasinthira, kusazgapo "maziŵa agho ghakawomira" na "mapopa agho ghakamira mu milonga". Aristotle wakawonaso vinthu vinandi vyakukhwaskana na umo maji ghakwendera kweniso umo vinthu vikuŵira pa charu chapasi. Mwaciyelezgero, wakawona kuti para maji gha mu nyanja ghakutentheka, maji gha mu nyanja ghakusunkhunyika, ndipo nyanja zikusunkhunyikaso na vula.<ref>{{cite book |last=Aristotle|translator-last=Lee|translator-first=H.D.P.|title=Meteorologica, Chapter II |year=1952 |publisher=[[Harvard University Press]] |location=Cambridge, MA |page=156 |edition=Loeb Classical Library |url=http://archive.org/details/L397AristotleMeteorologica |access-date=22 January 2021}}</ref> === Vya umoyo === {{Main|Aristotle's biology}} [[File:Tremoctopus violaceus5.jpg| thumb | upright | Pakati pa vinthu vinandi ivyo Aristotle wakachita pakusanda vyamoyo, wakalongosora vya ciŵiya ca hectocotyl ico cikupanga viŵeto vya viyuni ivi.]] ==== Kafukufuku wakukhazikika ==== Aristotle ndiyo wakaŵa wakwamba kusambira vya umoyo, ndipo wakalemba vinandi vyakukhwaskana na umoyo. Wakakhala vyaka viŵiri kuti wawone na kulongosora vyamoyo vya ku Lesbos na vyakumwera. Ivyo wakalemba mu buku lake lakuti History of Animals, Generation of Animals, Movement of Animals, and Parts of Animals, vikukolerana na ivyo wakawona, ivyo ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵakumanya vinandi, nga mbalimi ŵa njuchi na ŵalovi, ŵakayowoya, kweniso ivyo ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakufuma ku vyaru vinyake ŵakuyowoya. Ivyo wakalemba vyakukhwaskana na vyakumera na vinyama ni vyacilendo: mabuku ghake ghakukhwaskana na vyakumera ghali kutayika, kweni mabuku ghaŵiri ghakukhwaskana na vyakumera gha Theophrastus, uyo wakaŵa msambiri wake, ghachalipo. Aristotle wakalemba za vyamoyo vya mu nyanja ivyo vikawonekanga pa Lesbos na ivyo ŵalovi ŵakakora. Wakulongosora mwakukwana za somba za sumbi, magesi, na somba za nkhonyo. Wakulongosoraso za viyuni vinyake nga ni viyuni vya maphapu (octopus na paper nautilus). Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakagomezga yayi ivyo wakayowoya pa nkhani ya mawoko gha viyuni vyambura mawoko, ivyo vikagwiranga ntchito pakuseŵa. Wakalongosora makora umo viŵaro vinayi vyakunthazi vya nyama izo zikukhweŵa vikuŵira, kweniso umo viŵaro ivi vikuŵira para munthu wafwa. Iyo wakuti thupi la nyama likukolerana makora na umo likugwilira ntchito, ntheura pakati pa viyuni, kankhongono ako kakukhala mu mathipa gha mathipa ghapusu ndipo kakukora somba, kali na singo yitali, malundi ghatali, na nthonga zakuthwa nga ni mkondo, uku bakambuku awo ŵakuthunda ŵali na malundi ghafupi na malundi gha viŵegha. Darwin nayo wakawona kuti pali mphambano pakati pa vinyama vyakupambanapambana, kweni wakakolerana yayi na Aristotle. Ŵanthu ŵanandi mazuŵa ghano ŵakuwona kuti ivyo Aristotle wakalemba vikulongora kuti vinthu vikachita kusintha kufuma ku vinyake. Kuyana na Aristotle, vinthu ivyo vikuchitika mwamabuchi vikuyana waka na kuthukira kwa nyengo yakuzizima. Ntheura wakasuskanga fundo ya Empedocles yakuti vyamoyo na viŵaro vyawo vikuŵa na "umoyo". Kuti wayowoye maghanoghano ghake mu mazgu gha mazuŵa ghano, palije apo wakayowoyapo kuti vyamoyo vyakupambanapambana vingaŵa na dada yumoza, panji kuti mtundu unyake ungasintha kuŵa unyake, panji kuti mitundu yinyake yingamara.{{sfn| Leroi | 2015 | page=273}} ==== Nthowa ya sayansi ==== [[File:Two of Aristotle's Growth Laws.svg| thumb | left | upright=1.4 | Aristotle wakamanya kuti para munthu wakura, thupi lake likukwera, kweni para wakura wakwamba kubaba. Wakayowoya unenesko pa ivyo wakayowoyerathu, nanga vingaŵa vya vinyama vyakumera.]] Aristotle wakachitanga viyezgo nga umo ŵanthu ŵakuchitira mazuŵa ghano yayi. Wakagwiliskiranga ntchito lizgu Lachigiriki lakuti pepeiramenoi kuti walongosore umo vinthu viliri, panji kuti umo ŵakuchitira pakusanda vinthu nga nkhupima. Mu buku lakuti Generation of Animals, wakusanga chiŵiya cha nkhuku icho chili na nthumbo ndipo wakuchijura kuti wawonenge umo mtima wa chiŵaro ichi ukuwira. M'malo mwake, wakasanda vinthu mwakupambana na umo ŵanthu ŵakughanaghanira. Nthowa iyi njakumanyikwa chomene mu sayansi ya vinthu vyamoyo mazuŵa ghano, para ŵanthu ŵamanya vinandi pa nkhani yinyake nga ni genomics. Likuŵa lakugomezgeka yayi nga umo viliri na sayansi, kweni likulongosora fundo zakukhorweska na kulongosora ivyo vikuchitika. Mu fundo iyi, ivyo Aristotle wakalemba vikukolerana na sayansi. Ivyo Aristotle wakasanga na kulemba vikamovwira kuti wamanye malango ghanandi ghakukhwaskana na umoyo wa viyuni ivyo wakasambiranga. Vinyake mwa vinthu ivi ni ivi: Para munthu wakura, chiŵeto chikukwera, ntheura njovu yikuŵa na ŵana ŵachoko chomene (kanandi yumoza pera) kuluska mbeŵa. Umoyo wa njovu ukukura para zaŵa na nthumbo, kweniso para zaŵa na thupi likuru. Mwaciyelezgero caumaliro, para munthu wakukhala nyengo yitali, wakuŵa na ŵana ŵacoko comene.{{sfn| Leroi | 2015 | page=408}}{{-}} ==== Kusandula vyamoyo ==== {{further|Scala naturae}} [[File:Scyliorhinus retifer embryo.JPG|thumb |Aristotle wakalemba kuti nthumbo ya somba iyi yikaŵa na chingwe icho chikayegheka ku chiŵaro chinyake (placenta), nga ni nyama yinyake yapachanya.]] Aristotle wakalemba mitundu ya vinyama yakujumpha 500, ndipo mu buku lake la History of Animals wakalemba mitundu iyi kuti yiŵe yakufikapo. Vinyama ivi vikaŵa na magulu 11, kufuma pa viŵeto ivyo vikaŵa na nkhongono chomene kufika pa viŵeto ivyo vikaŵa na nkhongono zichoko chomene. Vinyama vikaŵa pachanya pa vyakumera, ndipo vyakumera navyo vikaŵa pachanya pa visomba. Iyo wakalemba kuti viŵeto vyambura msana ni "vyamoyo vyambura ndopa". Viŵeto ivyo vikaŵa na ndopa vikagaŵikanga mu viŵeto vyamoyo (vyakumera), na vyakumera (viyuni, vinyama vyakukhwaŵa, na somba). Viyuni ivyo vikaŵavya ndopa vikaŵa vibenene, vibenene (vyambura vibenene) na vibenene. Iyo wakawona kuti vinyama vikukolerana yayi na maselo, ndipo wakawona kuti pali vinyake ivyo vikupambana na maselo agha. Munthu munyake uyo wakusanda vya umoyo wa mazuŵa ghano wakuwona kuti ivyo Aristotle wakalemba ni vyautesi. Ŵanthu awo ŵakusanda vya sayansi ŵakuti Aristotle wakakhumbanga yayi kusambira vya vinyama, kweni awo ŵakasambira vya vinyama mu vyaka vya m'ma 1900, ŵakaghanaghana vyakupambana. Iyo wakagomezganga kuti vinthu vyose ivyo vikucitika mu cilengiwa vikulongozgeka na cilato ico vili na cilato..{{sfn|Mason|1979|pp=43–44}} {|class="wikitable" style="font-size: 80%;" |+ Aristotle's ''[[Scala naturae]]'' (highest to lowest) ! Group !! Examples<br/>(given by Aristotle) !! Blood !! Legs !! Souls<br/>(Rational,<br/>Sensitive,<br/>Vegetative) !! Qualities<br/>({{font color|red|Hot}}–{{font color|blue|Cold}},<br/>{{font color|green|Wet}}–{{font color|brown|Dry}}) |- |Man||Man||with&nbsp;blood||2 legs||R, S, V||{{font color|red|Hot}}, {{font color|green|Wet}} |- |[[Mammal|Live-bearing tetrapods]]||Cat, [[hare]]||with&nbsp;blood||4 legs||S, V||{{font color|red|Hot}}, {{font color|green|Wet}} |- |[[Cetaceans]]||[[Dolphin]], [[whale]]||with&nbsp;blood||none||S, V||{{font color|red|Hot}}, {{font color|green|Wet}} |- |[[Birds]]||[[Bee-eater]], [[nightjar]]||with&nbsp;blood||2 legs||S, V||{{font color|red|Hot}}, {{font color|green|Wet}}, except {{font color|brown|Dry}} eggs |- |[[Reptile|Egg-laying tetrapods]]||[[Chameleon]], [[crocodile]]||with&nbsp;blood||4 legs||S, V||{{font color|blue|Cold}}, {{font color|green|Wet}} except scales, eggs |- |[[Snakes]]||Water snake, [[Ottoman viper]]||with&nbsp;blood||none||S, V||{{font color|blue|Cold}}, {{font color|green|Wet}} except scales, eggs |- |Egg-laying [[fish]]es||[[Sea bass]], [[Sparisoma cretense|parrotfish]]||with&nbsp;blood||none||S, V||{{font color|blue|Cold}}, {{font color|green|Wet}}, including eggs |- |(Among the egg-laying fishes):<br />placental [[selachian]]s||[[Shark]], [[Skate (fish)|skate]]||with&nbsp;blood||none||S, V||{{font color|blue|Cold}}, {{font color|green|Wet}}, but [[placenta]] like tetrapods |- |[[Crustaceans]]||[[Shrimp]], [[crab]]||without||many legs||S, V||{{font color|blue|Cold}}, {{font color|green|Wet}} except shell |- |[[Cephalopods]]||[[Squid]], [[octopus]]||without||tentacles||S, V||{{font color|blue|Cold}}, {{font color|green|Wet}} |- |[[Mollusc|Hard-shelled animals]]||[[Cockle (bivalve)|Cockle]], [[Charonia variegata|trumpet snail]]||without||none||S, V||{{font color|blue|Cold}}, {{font color|brown|Dry}} (mineral shell) |- |Larva-bearing insects||[[Ant]], [[cicada]]||without||6 legs||S, V||{{font color|blue|Cold}}, {{font color|brown|Dry}} |- |[[Spontaneous generation|Spontaneously generating]]||[[Sponges]], [[worm]]s||without||none||S, V||{{font color|blue|Cold}}, {{font color|green|Wet}} or {{font color|brown|Dry}}, from earth |- |[[Plants]]||[[Common fig|Fig]]||without||none||V||{{font color|blue|Cold}}, {{font color|brown|Dry}} |- |[[Mineral]]s||Iron||without||none||none||{{font color|blue|Cold}}, {{font color|brown|Dry}} |} === Umoyo === ==== Mzimu ==== {{further | On the Soul}} [[File:Aristotelian Soul.png| thumb | upright=1.5 | Aristotle proposed a three-part [[Soul#Aristotle|structure for souls]] of plants, animals, and humans, making humans unique in having all three types of soul.]] Aristotle wakalemba mu buku lake lakuti On the Soul (peri psychēs) kuti pali mitundu yitatu ya mzimu ("psyches"): mzimu wa vyakumera, mzimu wakujipulika, na mzimu wa vinjeru. Ŵanthu ŵali na mzimu wavinjeru. Umoyo wa munthu uli na nkhongono za mitundu yinyake: Nga ni mzimu wa vyakumera, ungakura na kujipwelelera; nga ni mzimu wakujipulika, ungapulikiska vinthu na kusunkhunyika. Cinthu capadera comene ico munthu wali naco, nchakuti wakumanya kupokelera vinthu vinyake na kuviyaniska. Kuyana na Aristotle, mzimu ni wunthu. Pakuti vyamoyo vyose ni vinthu vyakuyana waka, ntheura vyamoyo vili na mikhaliro iyo yikovwira kuti viŵe na nkhongono zakwendera. Mwakupambana na ŵavinjeru ŵakwambilira, kweni mwakuyana na Ŵaegupto, iyo wakaŵika mzimu wa munthu mu mtima, m'malo mwa mu wongo. Ivyo Aristotle wakalemba vikupambana chomene na ivyo ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakaghanaghananga. Mu buku lake lakuti On the Soul, Aristotle wakasuska fundo ya Plato yakuti munthu wali na umoyo. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakususka ivyo Aristotle wakalemba mu buku lake la Timaeus. Ŵanyake ŵakuti munthu uyo wali na mzimu wakuŵa na nkhongono zakwendakwenda. Ŵasayansi ŵa mazuŵa ghano ŵakughanaghana kuti fundo ya Aristotle njakwenelera yayi. Ivyo Aristotle wakalemba vikulongora kuti munthu uyo wababikaso wakuyana yayi na thupi lake. Fundo ya Aristotle yakuti mzimu ni cinthu ico cili na umoyo yikukhumba kuti munthu waleke kubabikaso.<ref>There's a large scholarly discussion of this dialectic between Plato and Aristotle here: Douglas R. Campbell, "The Soul's Tool: Plato on the Usefulness of the Body," ''Elenchos'' 43 (1): 7-27. 2022.</ref> ==== Kukumbukila ==== Kuyana na Aristotle, mu buku lake lakuti On the Soul, kukumbukira ni luso la kusungilira ivyo munthu wakuwona mu maghanoghano ghake na kupambaniska pakati pa "kuwoneka" kwake na ivyo vikacitika kumanyuma. Fundo iyi yikung'anamura kuti munthu wangakumbuka vinthu vinyake. Aristotle wakagomezganga kuti munthu wakusintha thupi lake kuti liŵe na ivyo wakukumbuka. Munthu wakukumbuka vinthu para vinthu ivyo wakuwona panji kupulika ni vyakusuzga chomene kuti wongo wake upokelere nyengo yimoza. Vinthu ivi vikuyana waka na ivyo vikuchitika para munthu wakughanaghana. Aristotle wakugwiliskira ntchito lizgu lakuti 'kukumbuka' kuti walongosore umo munthu wakukumbukirana vinthu ivyo vikamuchitikira. Kukumbuka vinthu ni vyakumasinda, kuyowoya vyamunthazi ni vyamunthazi, ndipo kupulika ni vya sono. Para munthu wawona vinthu ivyo vyalembeka, wangachita mwamabuchi yayi. Pakukhumbikwa nthowa yakwendamo ndipo yikwenera kuŵa mu ivyo vikacitikanga kumanyuma, kwali ni ivyo vikacitikanga kumanyuma panji ivyo vikucitika sono. Cifukwa cakuti Aristotle wakagomezganga kuti ŵanthu ŵakupokera vinthu vyakupambanapambana na kuviwona nga ni vinthu ivyo ŵakuwona, ŵanthu ŵakulutilira kupanga vinthu viphya. Kuti munthu wasange vinthu ivi, wakughanaghanirapo pa ivyo wakukumbuka. Para munthu wakuwona cinthu cimoza mu malo mwa cinthu cinyake, wakukana cinthu ici mpaka wasange ico wakupenja. Para munthu wakumbuka vinthu vinyake, wakuŵa na maghanoghano ghakwenelera. Usange "vinthu" ivi vikukhumbikwa, cinthu cimoza cikovwira cinyake. Para ŵanthu ŵakukumbuka ivyo vikaŵacitikira kumanyuma, ŵakukhozga ivyo vikaŵacitikira kumasinda mpaka kufika pa ivyo ŵakukhumba. Ntheura, munthu wakujikumbuska vinthu para wakuŵikapo mtima kuti wasange ivyo wasunga. Ŵanthu pera ndiwo ŵakukumbuka vinthu ivyo ŵakumanya, nga ni manambara na mazgu. Viyuni ivyo vikumanya nyengo vingaŵakumbuska ivyo vikawonanga kale. Kukumbuka kukung'anamura kumanya waka vinthu ivyo tikukumbuka ndiposo nyengo iyo yajumphapo. [[File:Aristotle Senses Perception Memory Dreams Action.svg| thumb | upright=2.25 | Maghanoghano, kaghanaghaniro, kukumbuka vinthu, maloto, kacitiro mu kaghanaghaniro ka Aristotle. Vinthu ivyo munthu wakuwona vikusungika mu mtima wake (sensorium), ndipo vikukolerana na malango ghake (kuyana, kupambaniska, na kukolerana).]] Aristotle wakagomezganga kuti maghanoghano agho ghakumalira pa kukumbuka vinthu vinyake, ghakakolerananga na vinthu vinyake nga ni kuyana, kupambaniska, na kukolerana. Aristotle wakagomezganga kuti vinthu ivyo vikachitika kumanyuma vikubisika mu maghanoghano. Nkhongono yimoza yikuwuska vinthu vyakubisika kuti viwoneke makora. Kuyana na Aristotle, kukolerana ni nkhongono iyo munthu wali nayo mu maghanoghano, iyo yikugwira nchito pa vinthu vyambura kulongosoreka ivyo vikacitika kumasinda, ndipo yikumuzomerezga kuti waŵakumbuke.{{sfn| Warren | 1921 | p=259}}{{sfn | Sorabji | 2006 | p=54}} ==== Maloto ==== {{see | Dream#Other}} Aristotle wakalongosora za tulo mu buku lake lakuti On Sleep and Wakefulness. Para munthu wakugona, wakugwiliskira ntchito chomene nkhongono zake zakugona. Para munthu wagona, vinthu vyakuzirwa nga nkhughanaghana, kupulika, kukumbuka, vikwenda makora yayi nga umo vikuŵira para wagona. Pakuti munthu wakuŵa wambura mahara para wagona, wangakhumba yayi vinthu vinyake. Kweni para munthu wagona, nkhongono zake zikugwira ntchito mwakupambana. Para tikulota tikuwona cinthu cinyake yayi. Mu maloto, para munthu wakulota wakupulikiska vinthu vinyake. Aristotle wakalongosora kuti para munthu wakulaŵiska pa maji, ndipo waleka kulaŵiska, chinthu icho wakuwona chikuwoneka kuti chikwenda. Para munthu wawona cinthu cinyake ico cikumukhuŵazga, ndipo cinthu ico cikumukhuŵazga nchakuti wakuciwona yayi, cinthu ici cikuŵa na kawonekero. Para thupi lili maso ndipo maghanoghano ghakugwira ntchito makora, munthu wakukumana na vinthu viphya ivyo vikupangiska kuti wapulikiske vinthu vinyake. Ndipouli, para munthu wakugona, wakuwona vinthu ivyo wawona zuŵa lose. Ntheura, maloto ghakucitika cifukwa ca vinthu ivi. Pakuti vinthu ivyo vikuwoneka mu maloto ni ivyo munthu wakuwona yayi, vikupambana na ivyo vikuchitika para munthu wagona. Para munthu wakugona, maghanoghano ghake ghakusintha. Aristotle wakayaniska munthu uyo wakugona na munthu uyo wakuŵa na citima comene. Mwaciyelezgero, munthu uyo wakutemwa comene munthu munyake wangamba kughanaghana kuti wakuwona munthu uyu kulikose cifukwa cakuti wakutemwa comene. Cifukwa cakuti munthu uyo wagona wakuŵa na maghanoghano ghakwenelera ndipo wakumanya yayi kughanaghana, wakupusikika luŵiro na ivyo wakuwona mu maloto ghake, nga ni munthu uyo wali na citima. Ici cikupangiska munthu kugomezga kuti maloto ngaunenesko, nangauli ngambura kupulikikwa. Mu buku lake la De Anima iii 3, Aristotle wakayowoya kuti munthu wangapanga, kusunga, na kukumbuka vinthu para palije maghanoghano. Fundo yinyake iyo Aristotle wakayowoya yakukhwaskana na maloto yikususkana na ivyo ŵanthu ŵakagomezganga. Wakayowoya kuti maloto ghakuyowoya vyamunthazi yayi panji kutumika na Ciuta. Aristotle wakaghanaghananga kuti para maloto ghakuyana na ivyo vicitikenge munthazi vikucitika waka mwamwaŵi. Aristotle wakati maloto ghakwamba cifukwa cakuti munthu wakugona. Usange munthu wawona cinthu mu mdima, ici cikuwoneka nga ni loto yayi cifukwa wakaŵa maso apo cikacitikanga. Caciŵiri nchakuti para munthu wakugona, wakuwona vinthu vinyake yayi. Mwaciyelezgero, para munthu wakugona, cijaro cikujalika ndipo mu loto lake wakupulika kuti cijaro cajalika, mbwenu ciyezgo ici nchimoza mwa vinthu ivyo vikucitika yayi. Paumaliro, vithuzithuzi ivyo munthu wakuwona mu maloto vikwenera kuŵa nga ni vinthu ivyo wakawona apo wakaŵa maso.{{sfn| Modrak | 2009 | pp=169–181}} == Fundo zinyake == Fundo za Aristotle zikovwira pa nkhani za makhaliro, ndyali, vyachuma, na kuyowoya.{{sfn| Wildberg | 2016}} {| class="wikitable floatright" align=right style="font-size: 80%;" |+ Virtues and their accompanying vices{{sfn|Humphreys|2009}} ! Too little !! Virtuous mean !! Too much |- |Humbleness||High-mindedness||Vainglory |- |Lack of purpose||Right ambition||Over-ambition |- |Spiritlessness||Good temper||Irascibility |- |Rudeness||Civility||Obsequiousness |- |Cowardice||Courage||Rashness |- |Insensibility||Self-control||Intemperance |- |Sarcasm||Sincerity||Boastfulness |- |Boorishness||Wit||Buffoonery |- |Shamelessness||Modesty||Shyness |- |Callousness||Just resentment||Spitefulness |- |Pettiness||Generosity||Vulgarity |- |Meanness||Liberality||Wastefulness |} === Makhaliro === {{Main|Aristotelian ethics}} Aristotle wakawonanga kuti nkharo yiwemi njakovwira chomene m'malo mwa kughanaghana waka. Wakalemba mabuku ghanandi ghakulongosora makhaliro ghawemi, chomenechomene buku la Nicomachean Ethics. Aristotle wakasambizganga kuti nkharo yiwemi yikukolerana na mulimo uwo munthu wakucita. Jiso likuŵa liwemi pekha para likuwona, cifukwa mulimo wake ngwakuwona. Aristotle wakati ŵanthu ŵakwenera kuŵa na mulimo unyake, ndipo mulimo uwu ukwenera kuŵa wa mzimu (psuchē) mwakuyana na fundo (logos). Aristotle wakawona kuti umoyo wa munthu ukuŵa na viwemi vinandi, panji kuti ukuŵa na viheni vinandi. Kuti munthu waŵe wakukondwa, wakwenera kuŵa na nkharo yiwemi (ēthikē aretē). Aristotle wakasambizganga kuti kuti munthu waŵe na nkharo yiwemi ndiposo wakondwenge, wakwenera kuŵa na mwaŵi wakuti waŵe na nkharo yiwemi. Para ŵanthu ŵawemi ŵakucita nthena, vinjeru vyawo (phronesis) na vinjeru vyawo (nous) vingapulikiskika na kuŵa na nkharo yiwemi comene, vinjeru vya munthu uyo wakughanaghana makora, panji wavinjeru. === Ndyali === {{Main|Politics (Aristotle)}} Padera pa kulemba vya munthu, Aristotle wakalemba vya msumba mu buku lake la Politics. Aristotle wakawonanga msumba kuŵa cigaŵa ca ŵanthu. Nakuti wakawonanga kuti msumba ngwakuzirwa comene kuluska mbumba, iyo nayo njakuzirwa comene kuluska munthu, "pakuti cilicose cikwenera kuŵa cakuzirwa comene kuluska cigaŵa". Wakayowoya kuti "munthu ni nyama ya ndyali" ndipo wakati munthu wakuchita vinthu mwamahara. Aristotle wakaghanaghananga kuti ndyali zili nga ni vyamoyo, m'malo mwa mashini. Aristotle wakawonanga msumba nga ni vinthu vyamoyo, ndipo wakuwoneka kuti ndiyo wakaŵa wakwamba kuwona msumba mu nthowa iyi.{{sfn| Ebenstein | Ebenstein | 2002 | page=59}} [[File:Aristotle's constitutions.svg| thumb|upright=1.5 | Ivyo Aristotle wakayowoya pa nkhani ya ndyali]] Ivyo ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakugomezga pa nkhani ya ndyali ni vyakupambana chomene na ivyo Aristotle wakagomezganga. Nangauli wakamanyanga kuti maufumu ghakurughakuru ghakaŵako, kweni Aristotle wakati msumba (polis) ndiwo ukaŵa chigaŵa cha ndyali. Cilato ca msumba uwu nchakuti uleke kuŵa na vinthu vyambura urunji panji kuti ukhazikike pa vya cuma pera yayi, kweni kuti ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵa mu msumba uwu ŵaŵe na umoyo uwemi na kucita vinthu viwemi. Fundo iyi yikupambana na fundo za mazuŵa ghano, izo zikwamba na fundo yakuti ŵanthu ŵakuchita phangano la umoyo wawo wose..{{efn-ua | For a different reading of social and economic processes in the ''Nicomachean Ethics'' and ''Politics'' see Polanyi, Karl (1957) "Aristotle Discovers the Economy" in ''Primitive, Archaic and Modern Economies: Essays of Karl Polanyi'' ed. G. Dalton, Boston 1971, 78–115.}} Mu buku la Protrepticus, munthu uyo wakuzunulika kuti 'Aristotle' wakuti:{{sfn| Hutchinson | Johnson | 2015 | p=22}} {{blockquote |Pakuti tose tikuzomerezga kuti munthu muwemi comene ndiyo wakwenera kuwusa, ndiko kuti, uyo ngwapacanya comene, ndiposo kuti dango ndilo likulongozga ndipo ndilo pera lili na mazaza; kweni dango ni vinjeru, ndiko kuti, kayowoyero ako kakujintha pa vinjeru. Kweniso, kasi tili na fundo wuli yakukhwaskana na viwemi iyo njakwenelera kuluska ya munthu wamahara? Pakuti vyose ivyo munthu uyu wakusankha, usange wakusankha mwakuyana na ivyo wakumanya, ni viwemi ndipo vyakupambana navyo ni viheni. Ndipo pakuti waliyose wakusankha comene ico cikukolerana na mikhaliro yake (munthu murunji wakusankha kuŵa murunji, munthu wacikanga kuti waŵe na cikanga, kweniso munthu wakujikora kuti waŵe na cikanga), nchakuwonekerathu kuti munthu wavinjeru wakusankha comene kuŵa wavinjeru; cifukwa ni ncito ya nkhongono iyi. Ntheura nchakuwonekerathu kuti, mwakuyana na umo ŵanthu ŵakughanaghanira, vinjeru ni vinthu vyakuzirwa comene.}} Pakuŵa msambiri wa Plato, Aristotle wakasuskanga chomene demokilase, ndipo pakulondezga fundo za mu buku la Plato lakuti The Statesman, wakambiska fundo yakuti ŵanthu ŵaŵe na mazaza pa vinthu vyakupambanapambana. {{blockquote|Ni dango la boma kutolera ku ŵamazaza kuti maofesi ghakwenera kusankhika, ndipo ku demokilase kuti ivi vikwenera kucitika mwakuyana na katundu yayi. Ivi ndivyo vikucitika para ŵanthu ŵakusazga vinthu ivi, ndipo para munthu wangayowoya kuti pali dango limoza la demokilase na oligarchy, ndikuti wakuŵa na demokilase na oligarchy.|Aristotle. ''Politics'', Book 4, 1294b.10–18|source=}} Kuti walongosore makora fundo iyi, Aristotle wakayowoya fundo yakwamba pa nkhani ya mawerengero gha mavoti, nangauli yikalembeka mu malemba..{{sfn| Tangian | 2020 | pages=35-38}} === Vya Chuma === {{Main|Politics (Aristotle)}} Aristotle wakawovwira chomene pa nkhani ya vyachuma, chomenechomene mu vyaka vyapakati. Mu buku lake lakuti Politics, Aristotle wakalemba vya msumba, katundu, na malonda. Kuyana na umo Lionel Robbins wakawonera, umo wakazgoleranga ku ŵanthu awo ŵakasuskanga vinthu vya ŵanthu ŵekha, vikalongora kuti ŵanthu aŵa ŵakaŵa pakati pa ŵasayansi na ŵasayansi ŵa vyachuma. Aristotle wakagomezganga kuti nangauli vinthu ivyo ŵanthu ŵakuchita paŵekha vingawoneka nga ni viwemi ku ŵanthu, kweni viheni ivi vikufuma ku ŵanthu. Mu buku lake la Politics, Aristotle wakayowoyapo umo ndalama zikambira. Ndalama zikamba kugwira nchito cifukwa cakuti ŵanthu ŵakamba kuthemba ŵanyawo. Ŵanthu ŵakazomerezganga kugura vinthu ivyo vikaŵa vyakovwira kweniso vyakovwira, nga ni visulo na siliva. Ivyo Aristotle wakayowoya pa nkhani ya malonda na chiwongolara vikawovwira chomene pa nkhani ya vyachuma mu vyaka vyapakati. Iyo wakawonanga malonda ghambura kwenelera, ndipo wakagomezganga kuti malonda gha malonda ghakovwira munthu kusanga phindu. Lekani likugwiliskira nchito vinthu nga ni nthowa yakufiskira cilato, m'malo mwa kuŵa cilato cake. Iyo wakagomezganga kuti malonda ghanthena agha ngaheni. Mwakuyana waka, Aristotle wakawonanga kuti kusanga chandulo na chiwundikiro ntchambura kwenelera, chifukwa ndalama zikovwira munthu kusanga chandulo. Aristotle wakalemba fundo yakulongosora ntchito ya ndalama iyo yikwenera kuti yikaŵa yiwemi chomene mu nyengo yake. Iyo wakalemba kuti cifukwa cakuti nchambura macitiko kumanya mtengo wa cinthu cilicose mwa kupenda unandi wa vinthu vinyake ivyo ni vyakuzirwa, ntheura pakukhumbikwa nthowa yimoza yakuyezgera. Ntheura, ndalama zikovwira kuti vinthu vyakupambanapambana viŵe pamoza ndipo vikuyana. Wakalutilira kuyowoya kuti ndalama ni zakovwira pa kusinthana vinthu munthazi. Fundo iyi yikung'anamura kuti, "usange tikukhumba yayi cinthu sono, tingacisanga para tacisanga". === Kuyowoya na kuyowoya === {{Main|Rhetoric (Aristotle) | Poetics (Aristotle)}} [[File:Bénigne Gagneraux, The Blind Oedipus Commending his Children to the Gods.jpg| thumb | upright=1.35 | The Blind Oedipus Commending his Children to the Gods (1784) yakulembeka na Bénigne Gagneraux. Mu buku lake la Poetics, Aristotle wakugwiliskira ntchito nkhani ya Sophocles yakuyowoya vya Oedipus Tyrannus kuŵa ciyelezgero ca umo nkhani yiwemi yikwenera kuŵira, ndipo wakuŵa na munthu uyo wakwamba makora, kweni wakutaya vyose cifukwa ca kwananga.]] Buku la Aristotle la Rhetoric likuti munthu uyo wakuyowoya wangagwiliskira ntchito nthowa zitatu kuti wakhorweske ŵanthu: ethos (kuyowoya na munthu uyo wakuyowoya), pathos (kuyowoya na ŵanthu awo ŵakuyowoya), na logos (kuyowoya na ŵanthu awo ŵakughanaghana makora). Kweniso wakapatura mazgu ghakuphakazgira mu vigaŵa vitatu: epideictic (mazgu ghakuyowoya vya malumbo panji kususka), forensic (mazgu ghakuyowoya vya mulandu panji kuleka mulandu), na deliberative (mazgu ghakuchema ŵategherezgi kuti ŵasankhe chakuchita pa nkhani yinyake). Aristotle wakalongosoraso vifukwa viŵiri vyakulongosolera mazgu: nthimeme (kulongosolera na mazgu) na paradeigma (kulongosolera na ciyelezgero). Aristotle wakalemba mu buku lake lakuti Poetics kuti sumu za nthano, zachitima, zakukondweska, zachitima, vyakujambura, vyakujambura, sumu, na kuvina, vyose ni vyakuyana waka. Iyo wakugwiliskira nchito lizgu lakuti mimesis pakuyowoya za mulimo wa luso kweniso ivyo munthu wakucita. Aristotle wakati ŵanthu ŵali na luso lwa kulondezga vinthu ivyo vili kulengeka. Pa cifukwa ici, Aristotle wakagomezganga kuti luso la kutolera vinthu likuŵa na ivyo Stephen Halliwell wakuvichema kuti "nthowa zapachanya zakufiskira vilato vyake". Mwaciyelezgero, sumu zikulongora umo sumu ziliri, uku kuvina kukulongora waka umo ziliri, ndipo sumu zikulongora umo mazgu gha mu Baibolo ghaliri. Vinthu ivi vikupambanaso pa nkhani ya kuvilondezga. Mwaciyelezgero, maseŵero ghakusekeska ghakulongora ŵanthu ŵaheni comene kuluska ŵanthu wose, apo masoka ghakulongora ŵanthu ŵaheni comene kuluska ŵanthu wose. Paumaliro, mitundu iyi yikupambana mu umo yikulondezgera vinthu, nga ni nkhani panji nkharo, kusintha panji kuleka kusintha, kweniso maseŵero panji kuleka kuseŵerezga. Nangauli ŵanthu ŵakugomezga kuti buku la Aristotle la Poetics likaŵa na mabuku ghaŵiri, limoza likulongosora vya vyakusekeska ndipo linyake likulongosora vya masoka. Aristotle wakasambizganga kuti nkhani zachitima zili na vigaŵa vinkhondi na cimoza. Ŵanthu awo ŵakuzunulika mu ntharika iyi ŵakovwira waka kuti ntharika iyi yimare. Masoka ni vyakucita ivyo vikucitiska munthu kuŵa na citima na wofi, ndipo vikupangiska munthu kuti waŵe na citima. Aristotle wakamalizga buku la Poetics na kudumbiskana za nkhani iyo yikuluska zinyake. Iyo wakati chifukwa chakuti masoka ghali na mikhaliro yose ya sumu, panji ghali na mikhaliro yinyake nga ni sumu, ghakukolerana chomene, ndipo ghakufiska chilato chake. Aristotle wakatemwanga kuwunganya vidokoni, nkhani za ŵanthu, na ntharika. Iyo pamoza na awo ŵakasambiranga nawo ŵakatemwanga chomene vidokoni vya mu buku la Aesop.{{sfn| Aesop | 1998 | pages=Introduction, xi–xii}} === Umo ŵakawonera ŵanakazi === {{Main|Aristotle's views on women}} {{further | Aristotle's biology#Inheritance}} Aristotle wakalongosora kuti para mwanalume wakubaba, mzimu wake ukuwuska mwanakazi. Vinthu ivi vikupangiska kuti thupi la mwanakazi liŵe lakutowa comene mwakuti lileke kufumiska ŵana. Pa cifukwa ici, ŵanthu awo ŵakugomezga kuti ŵanakazi ndiwo ŵakulongozga ŵakuti Aristotle wakutinkha ŵanakazi. Ndipouli, Aristotle wakazirwiskanga comene cimwemwe ca ŵanakazi nga umo wakacitira na ca ŵanalume, ndipo mu buku lake la Rhetoric wakayowoya kuti vinthu ivyo vikupangiska munthu kuŵa wakukondwa vikwenera kuŵa mu ŵanakazi nga umo viliri mu ŵanalume..{{efn-ua | "Where, as among the Lacedaemonians, the state of women is bad, almost half of human life is spoilt."{{sfn| Rhetoric | p=Book I, Chapter 5}}}} == Kuŵa na Nkhongono == {{see | List of writers influenced by Aristotle}} Nangauli pajumpha vyaka vyakujumpha 2,300 kufuma apo Aristotle wakafwira, kweni wachali munthu uyo wakawovwira chomene ŵanthu. Iyo wakawovwira chomene ŵanthu kuti ŵamanye vinandi, ndipo wakambiska vinandi. Munthu munyake wavinjeru zina lake Bryan Magee wakati: "Palije munthu uyo wakumanya vinandi nga ni iyo". Padera pa vinthu vinyake vinandi ivyo Aristotle wakachita, ndiyo wakambiska fundo zaunenesko, wakambiska kafukufuku wakukhwaskana na vyamoyo, kweniso wakawovwira chomene ŵasayansi na ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵakamanyanga vya sayansi. Taneli Kukkonen, uyo wakalemba mu buku lake lakuti The Classical Tradition, wakati ivyo wakachita pakwambiska masayansi ghaŵiri ni vyapadera chomene, ndipo wakakhwaska "vigaŵa vyose vya umanyi", kusazgapo visambizgo vya ŵanthu ŵa ku Western vya makhaliro na ndyali, vya cisopa, kuyowoya, na kusanda mabuku. Kukkonen wakati chifukwa cha fundo iyi, munthu waliyose uyo wakusanda vinthu mazuŵa ghano "waŵenge na maghanoghano gha Aristotle. Jonathan Barnes wakalemba kuti: "Para munthu wangalongosora umo Aristotle wakajipulikiranga pamanyuma pa nyifwa, wangaŵa nga wakulemba mbiri ya ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe". Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakuti Aristotle ndiyo wakambiska sayansi ya vinthu vyakuthupi, sayansi ya umoyo, sayansi ya ndyali, sayansi ya vinyama, sayansi ya viŵeto, malango gha chilengiwa, masambiro gha sayansi, kusambizga ŵanthu kuyowoya makora vinthu, sayansi ya maghanoghano gha ŵanthu, kusanda vinthu, kusanda munthu payekha, sayansi ya vinthu vya mu mlengalenga, na sayansi ya nyengo.{{refn|name=LitList|1= * "the father of logic": Wentzel Van Huyssteen, Encyclopedia of Science and Religion: A-I, p. 27 * "the father of biology": S. C. Datt, S. B. Srivastava, Science and society, p. 93.{{sfn|Leroi|2015|page=352}} * "the father of political science": N. Jayapalan, Aristotle, p. 12, Jonathan Wolff, Lectures on the History of Moral and Political Philosophy, p. 48. * the "father of zoology": Josef Rudolf Winkler, A Book of Beetles, p. 12 * "the father of embryology": D.R. Khanna, Text Book Of Embryology, p. 2 * "the father of natural law": {{cite journal |last=Shellens |first=Max Solomon |title=Aristotle on Natural Law |journal=Natural Law Forum |volume=4 |issue=1 |year=1959 |pages=72–100 |doi=10.1093/ajj/4.1.72 |url=https://scholarship.law.nd.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1039&context=nd_naturallaw_forum |ref=none}} * "the father of scientific method": {{cite news |first=Martyn |last=Shuttleworth |url=https://explorable.com/history-of-the-scientific-method/ |title=History of the Scientific Method |newspaper=Explorable |ref=none}}, Riccardo Pozzo (2004) [https://books.google.com/books?id=vayp8jxcPr0C&pg=PA41 ''The impact of Aristotelianism on modern philosophy'']. CUA Press. p. 41. {{ISBN|0-8132-1347-9}} * "the father of psychology": Margot Esther Borden, Psychology in the Light of the East, p. 4 * "the father of realism": Russell L. Hamm, Philosophy and Education: Alternatives in Theory and Practice, p. 58 * "the father of criticism": Nagendra Prasad, Personal Bias in Literary Criticism: Dr. Johnson, Matthew Arnold, T.S. Eliot, p. 70. [[Henry Home, Lord Kames|Lord Henry Home Kames]], Elements of Criticism, p. 237. * "the father of meteorology":{{cite news |url=https://www.metoffice.gov.uk/about-us/what/what-is-meteorology|title=What is meteorology? |newspaper=Meteorological Office}}{{cite web |url=http://yale.edu/ynhti/curriculum/units/1994/5/94.05.01.x.html |title=94.05.01: Meteorology |access-date=16 June 2015 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160721205842/http://www.yale.edu/ynhti/curriculum/units/1994/5/94.05.01.x.html |archive-date=21 July 2016 |url-status=dead}} * "the father of individualism": Allan Gotthelf, Gregory Salmieri, A Companion to Ayn Rand, p. 325. * "the father of teleology": Malcolm Owen Slavin, Daniel H. Kriegman, The Adaptive Design of the Human Psyche: Psychoanalysis, Evolutionary Biology, and the Therapeutic Process, p. 292.}} === Pa Theophrastus, uyo wakanjira mu malo ghake === {{Main|Theophrastus | Historia Plantarum (Theophrastus)}} [[File:161Theophrastus 161 frontespizio.jpg| thumb | upright | [[Book frontispiece|Frontispiece]] to a 1644 version of [[Theophrastus]]'s ''[[Historia Plantarum (Theophrastus)|Historia Plantarum]]'', originally written around 300 BC]] Theophrastus, uyo wakaŵa msambiri wa Aristotle, wakalemba buku lakuti History of Plants. Mazuŵa ghano napo ŵanthu ŵakugwiliskira ntchito mazgu agha, nga ni carpel kufuma ku carpos, chipambi, na pericarp kufuma ku pericarpion, chipinda cha mbuto. Theophrastus wakafipiranga mtima yayi vinthu ivyo vikupangiska kuti vinthu viŵe makora kuluska Aristotle.{{sfn| Mason | 1979 | p= 46}} === Pa ŵasambizgi ŵa visopa ŵa ku Greece === {{further | Peripatetic school}} Ivyo Aristotle wakalemba vikakhwaska chomene sukulu iyi. Ŵasambiri ŵa Aristotle ŵakaŵa Aristoxenus, Dicaearchus, Demetrius wa ku Phalerum, Eudemos wa ku Rhodes, Harpalus, Hephaestion, Mnason wa ku Phocis, Nicomachus, na Theophrastus. Ivyo Aristotle wakachita vikulongora kuti Alexander Mukuru wakatora ŵanthu ŵanandi pa ulendo wake. Kweniso msambizgi wake wakamuphalira vya mitheto ya ku Peresiya. Nangauli wakaleka kuchindika Aristotle apo wakendanga, kweni wakati wawona kuti vinthu vinandi ivyo Aristotle wakalemba vikaŵa vyautesi, wakachita chitima. === On Hellenistic science === {{further | Ancient Greek medicine}} Pamanyuma pa Theophrastus, Lyceum yikatondeka kupanga mabuku ghanyake. Nangauli ŵanthu ŵakalutilira kutemwa visambizgo vya Aristotle, kweni ŵanthu ŵakaviwonanga mwakupepuka. Mu nyengo ya Ptolemy, apo msumba wa Alexandria ukaŵa pasi pa muwuso wa Ptolemy, ndimo vinthu vikasinthira chomene. Herophilus wa ku Chalcedon, uyo wakaŵa msambizgi wakwamba wa vyadokotala ku Alexandria, wakasintha maghanoghano gha Aristotle. Herophilus wakalongosoraso mphambano pakati pa misipa na misipa. Nangauli ŵasayansi ŵanyake ŵakale nga ni Lucretius ŵakasuskanga fundo ya Aristotle yakukhwaskana na umoyo, kweni Baibolo likayowoya kuti sayansi ya vinthu vyamunthazi ndiyo yikambiska vinthu ivi. Ernst Mayr wakati: "Pakati pa nyengo ya Lucretius na Galen m'paka mu nyengo ya Renaissance, pakaŵavya chinthu chakuzirwa chomene pa nkhani ya vyamoyo". === Pa ŵasambizgi ŵa ku Byzantine === {{See also|Commentaries on Aristotle | Byzantine Aristotelianism}} Ŵalembi Ŵachigiriki ŵakawovwira chomene kuti Aristotle waleke kufwa. Ŵakhristu ŵakwambilira awo ŵakayowoyapo vya Aristotle ŵakaŵa Philoponus, Elias, na David, awo ŵakaŵako mu vyaka vya m'ma 500 C.E. kweniso Stephen wa ku Alexandria, uyo wakaŵako mu vyaka vya m'ma 600 C.E. John Philoponus wakaŵa na maghanoghano ghakukhwaskana na umoyo wamuyirayira wa charu chapasi, umo vinthu vikwendera, kweniso fundo zinyake za Aristotle. Philoponus wakadandawura na ivyo Aristotle wakasambizganga pa nkhani ya sayansi, ndipo wakalembapo maubudi ghake. Pakati pajumpha vyaka vinandi, Eustratius na Michael ŵa ku Efeso ŵakalembapo fundo zinyake za mu Baibolo, ndipo zikuwoneka kuti Anna Comnena ndiyo wakalemba. === Nkhani ya Chisilamu cha mu nyengo ya ŵapositole === {{further|Logic in Islamic philosophy|Transmission of the Greek Classics}} [[File:Arabic aristotle.jpg|thumb|upright|Ivyo Ŵasilamu ŵakuyowoya vya Aristotle, c. 1220]] Aristotle wakaŵa yumoza wa ŵanthu ŵakuchindikika chomene ku vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi. Mabuku ghanandi gha Aristotle agho ghachalipo, kweniso mabuku ghanyake gha Chigiriki agho ghakalembeka pakwambilira, ghakang'anamulika mu Chiarabic ndipo ŵanthu ŵavinjeru, ŵasayansi, na ŵasambizgi ŵa chisopa cha Cisilamu ndiwo ŵakasambiranga. Averroes, Avicenna, na Alpharabius, awo ŵakalemba vya Aristotle, nawo ŵakakhwaska chomene Thomas Aquinas na ŵasambizgi ŵanyake ŵa Chikhristu. Alkindus wakazirwiskanga chomene vinjeru vya Aristotle, ndipo Averroes wakayowoya kuti Aristotle wakaŵa "ciyelezgero" ku ŵanthu wose awo ŵakakhumbanga kusambira vinjeru. Ŵasambiri ŵa visopa vya Cisilamu ŵakacemanga Aristotle kuti "Msambizgi Wakwamba". Pamanyuma, ŵavinjeru ŵa ku vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi (nga umo viliri mu sumu ya Dante) ndiwo ŵakagwiliskira ntchito zina ili.{{sfn|Nasr|1996|pp=59–60}} === Mu mbili ya Europe mu nyengo za pakati === [[File:Aristotle and Phyllis.jpg| thumb | upright | left | Chithuzithuzi cha Aristotle wakwera pa Phyllis, Hans Baldung, 1515]] {{further|Aristotelianism|Syllogism#Medieval}} Ŵanthu ŵakamba kusambira Chigiriki chakale chomene mu chigaŵa cha Latin West. 600 C.E. m'paka c. 1100 C.E. kupaturako Baibolo la Latin ilo Boethius wakang'anamura. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1200 na 1300, ŵanthu ŵakamba kutemwa chomene Aristotle, ndipo Ŵakhristu ŵa ku Latin ŵakang'anamura Baibolo kufuma mu Chiarabic, nga ni ilo Gerard wa ku Cremona wakang'anamura, kweniso kufuma mu Chigiriki chakwambilira, nga ni ilo la James wa ku Venice na William wa ku Moerbeke. Thomas Aquinas wakati walemba buku lake la Summa Theologica, wakalemba kufuma mu Mabaibolo agho Moerbeke wakang'anamura ndipo wakachemanga Aristotle kuti "The Philosopher". Ŵanthu aŵa ŵakasazga visambizgo vya Aristotle na Chikhristu, ndipo ŵakamba kughanaghana vya Ŵagiriki ŵa mu nyengo yakale. Ŵasayansi ŵanyake nga ni Boethius, Peter Abelard, na John Buridan ŵakagwiranga ntchito ya Aristotle. Mulembi munyake wa ku England, Chaucer, wakati msambiri wake wakakondwanga para wali na {{blockquote | <poem>Wakughanaghanira pa malo ghake ghakugona. Mabuku 20 ghakupakika na thete panji thete, Aristotle na vinjeru vyake,{{sfn| Allen|Fisher|2011|p=17}}</poem>}} Nkhani yinyake ya mu nyengo yakale yikulongora kuti Aristotle wakaphalira mwana wake Alexander kuti waleke kwenda na Phyllis, uyo wakaŵa wakutemweka wa themba. Phyllis wakaphalira Alexander mwakubisilizga ivyo wakeneranga kulindizga, ndipo wakawona apo Phyllis wakalongosoranga kuti nkhongono za mwanakazi zingatonda nanga ni vinjeru vya mwanalume uyo wakaŵa wavinjeru comene. Ŵaluso ŵanyake nga ni Hans Baldung, ŵakajambura vithuzithuzi vinandi vya nkhani iyi. Mulembi munyake wa ku Italy zina lake Dante wakayowoya za Aristotle mu buku lake lakuti The Divine Comedy kuti: {| class="wikitable" style="font-size: 85%;" |+ ! [[Dante Alighieri|Dante]]<br />''L'Inferno'', Canto IV. 131–135 !! Translation<br />''Hell'' |- |<poem>{{lang|it|vidi 'l maestro di color che sanno seder tra filosofica famiglia. Tutti lo miran, tutti onor li fanno: quivi vid'ïo Socrate e Platone che 'nnanzi a li altri più presso li stanno;}}</poem>||<poem>I saw the Master there of those who know, Amid the philosophic family, By all admired, and by all reverenced; There Plato too I saw, and Socrates, Who stood beside him closer than the rest. </poem> |} Padera pa ŵanyake awo ŵakalembako mabuku gha Dante, Aristotle ndiyo wakawovwira chomene pa nkhani iyi. Dante wakazenga vinjeru vya maseŵero agha na mabuku gha Aristotle, nga umo ŵasembe ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito Aristotle. Dante wakamumanyanga makora Aristotle kwizira mu mabuku agho wakang'anamura kufuma ku Chilatini. Nanga ni apo Virgil wakalongosora umo helo liliri, wakayowoya fundo za mu buku la Nicomachean Ethics.<ref>''Inferno'', Canto&nbsp;XI, lines 70-115, Mandelbaum translation.</ref> === Pa Ciyuda ca mu nyengo za pakati === Mozesi Maimonides (uyo wakuwoneka kuti wakaŵa munthu wakumanya vinandi comene pa nkhani ya Ciyuda ca mu nyengo yakale) wakazomera cisambizgo ca Aristote kufuma ku ŵasambizgi ŵa Cisilamu ndipo wakalemba buku lake lakuti Guide for the Perplexed. Maimonides nayo wakawonanga Aristotle kuŵa wavinjeru comene kuluska wose awo ŵali kuŵako. Kweniso, mu kalata iyo wakalembera Samuel ibn Tibbon, Maimonides wakati Samuyeli wakeneranga yayi kusambira ivyo ŵanthu ŵavinjeru ŵakalemba pambere Aristotle wandababike cifukwa cakuti ivyo Aristotle wakalemba "ni vyakukwana ndipo ni vyapacanya kuluska vyose ivyo vikalembeka pambere iyo wandababike. Vinjeru vyake, vya Aristotle, ndivyo vikuluska vinjeru vyose vya ŵanthu, padera pa iyo, uyo mzimu wa Ciuta wafika m'paka pa kuŵa nga ni ucimi, ndipo palije cinthu cinyake capadera kuluska ici".<ref>Menachem Kellner, Maimonides on Judaism and the Jewish People, p. 77.</ref> === Ŵasayansi Ŵakale === [[File:William Harvey ( 1578-1657) Venenbild.jpg| thumb | Buku la William Harvey lakuti De Motu Cordis, la mu 1628, likulongora kuti ndopa zikendanga, mwakupambana na umo ŵanthu ŵakaghanaghaniranga.]] Mu nyengo yakwambilira, ŵasayansi nga ni William Harvey wa ku England na Galileo Galilei wa ku Italy, ŵakasuska fundo za Aristotle na ŵanyake awo ŵakaghanaghananga nga ni Galen. Harvey wakalongosora umo ndopa zikwendera, ndipo wakalongora kuti mtima ni mphepo yayi, kweni ni mphepo. Galileo wakagwiliskira nchito fundo zakukayikiska kuti wasuske fundo za Aristotle, wakati mathupi ghose ghakuwa mwaluŵiro lumoza, kwali ghaŵe na uzito wuli.{{sfn| Machamer | 2017}} === Pa ŵanthu awo ŵakaghanaghananga vya m'ma 1700 na 1800 === Munthu munyake wa ku Germany, Friedrich Nietzsche, uyo wakaŵako mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800, wakasambira vinjeru vya Aristotle pa nkhani ya ndyali. Aristotle wakapatura vyakuchita na kupanga, ndipo wakayowoya kuti ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakwenera kuŵa ŵakujilambika ("ŵazga ŵa chilengiwa"), kweniso kuti ŵanyake ŵaŵe ŵakuzirwa chomene. Martin Heidegger ndiyo wakalongosora makora fundo ya Aristotle, ndipo ni Nietzsche yayi. Munthu munyake wa ku England, zina lake George Boole, wakazomera fundo za Aristotle, kweni mu buku lake la mu 1854 (The Laws of Thought) wakayowoya kuti fundo izi ni zautesi. Fundo iyi yikovwira masamu kuti ghaŵe na ma equation, ghakovwira kuti ghamare ma equation kweniso kuti ghaŵe ghakwenelera, kweniso yikovwira kuti ghamare masuzgo ghanandi. Charles Darwin wakawonanga Aristotle kuti ndiyo wakawovwira chomene pa nkhani ya vyamoyo. Mu kalata yinyake iyo wakalemba mu 1882, wakati: "Linnaeus na Cuvier ŵakaŵa ŵachiuta ŵane ŵaŵiri, nangauli ŵakaŵa ŵakupambana, kweni ŵakaŵa waka ŵana ŵa sukulu kwa Aristotle". Kweniso mu buku la On the Origin of Species, Darwin wakalongosora umo vinthu vikasinthira kufuma ku vinyake m'paka ku Aristotle. James Joyce wakatemwanga chomene Aristotle, uyo wakamumanyanga kuti ni "munthu wamahara comene". Samuel Taylor Coleridge wakati: "Waliyose wakubabika kuŵa Platonist panji Aristotelian. Ayn Rand wakazomerezga kuti Aristotle ndiyo wakamovwira chomene ndipo wakayowoya kuti mu mbiri ya vinjeru vya ŵanthu wangapeleka waka ulongozgi wa "A" ghatatu: Aristotle, Aquinas, na Ayn Rand. Kweniso wakati Aristotle ndiyo wakaŵa wavinjeru chomene. Karl Marx wakati Aristotle wakaŵa "munthu wamahara chomene mu nyengo yakale" ndipo wakamumanyanga kuti "munthu wamahara chomene" kweniso "chisambizgi".<ref>F. Novotny, The Posthumous Life of Plato, p. 573</ref><ref>Matt Vidal, Tony Smith, Tomás Rotta, Paul Prew, The Oxford Handbook of Karl Marx, p. 215.</ref><ref>Judith A. Swanson, C. David Corbin, Aristotle's 'Politics': A Reader's Guide, p. 146.</ref> === Modern rejection and rehabilitation === [[File:Alexander and Aristotle.jpg| thumb|upright=1.35 | "Ivyo vikulongora kuti Aristotle wakasambizganga Alexander". Chithunzi cha Charles Laplante [fr], 1866]] Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1900, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakasuska ivyo Aristotle wakalemba. Bertrand Russell wakati: "Vinthu vinandi ivyo ŵanthu ŵakusambira vikamba na kususka visambizgo vya Aristotle". Russell wakati fundo za Aristotle zikaŵa "zakukhozga yayi", ndipo wakayowoya kuti fundo zake "nkhakale chomene nga umo viliri na sayansi ya Ptolemy". Russell wakati maubudi agha ghakachitiska kuti Aristotle waleke kupulikiska ivyo vikachitika kale. Eduard Jan Dijksterhuis, wakulemba mdauko wa sayansi wa ku Netherlands, wakalemba kuti Aristotle na ŵanyake awo ŵakamuteŵeterapo ŵakalongora kuti sayansi njakusuzga chomene. Mu 1985, Peter Medawar, uyo wakumanya vya umoyo wa ŵanthu, wakayowoya kuti Aristotle wakalemba "vinthu viheni chomene ivyo ŵanthu ŵakayowoyanga, ivyo ŵanthu ŵakawonanga kuti ni viwemi yayi, kweniso ivyo ŵanthu ŵakugomezga". Kweni kukwambilira kwa vyaka vya m'ma 2000, ŵanthu ŵakamba kumughanaghanira chomene Aristotle. Kukkonen wakati: "Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1900, Aristotle wakaŵa na nkharo yiwemi chomene. Alasdair MacIntyre wakayezga kusintha ivyo wakuchema kuti mitheto ya Aristote mu nthowa iyo yikususkana na ŵanthu ŵa mu gulu la ŵanthu ŵakujikuzga. Kukkonen wakayowoyaso kuti "vinthu vyakukondweska chomene ivyo Aristotle wakachitanga pakusambizga Alexander" vikalutilira, nga umo vikaŵira mu filimu ya mu 2004 yakuchemeka Alexander. Ŵasayansi ŵa vinthu vyamoyo ŵachali kukhumba kumanya maghanoghano gha Aristotle. Armand Marie Leroi wakazengaso umoyo wa Aristotle, apo mafumbo ghanayi gha Niko Tinbergen, agho ghakajintha pa vifukwa vinayi vya Aristotle, ghakovwira kusanda nkharo ya vinyama.{{sfn|MacDougall-Shackleton|2011|pp=2076–2085}}{{sfn|Hladký|Havlíček|2013}} == Milimo iyo yikulutilira == === Corpus Aristotelicum === {{main|Corpus Aristotelicum}} [[File:Aristotelis De Moribus ad Nicomachum.jpg| thumb | upright | peji lakwamba la buku la 1566 la Nicomachean Ethics mu Cigiriki na Cilatini]] Mabuku gha Aristotle agho ghakapona kufuma mu nyengo yakale, ghakusangika mu buku la Corpus Aristotelicum. Malemba agha, ghakupambana na mabuku gha Aristotle agho ghakazgeŵa. Ŵakuzunurika mu buku la Immanuel Bekker la Royal Prussian Academy (Aristotelis Opera edidit Academia Regia Borussica, Berlin, 1831~1870), ilo likujintha pa malemba ghakale gha milimo iyi..{{sfn|Aristotelis Opera}} === Kuzgeŵa na kusungika === {{see|Recovery of Aristotle}} Aristotle wakalembanga mabuku ghake pa mipukutu ya papyrus, iyo yikaŵa yakumanyikwa pa nyengo yira. Mabuku ghake ghakupambana mu magulu ghaŵiri: gha "exoteric", agho ghakulembekera ŵanthu wose, na gha "esoteric", agho ghakulembekera sukulu ya Lyceum. Ivyo Aristotle wakalemba vikupambana chomene na ivyo vili kulembeka mu Baibolo. Nangauli mabuku agho ghakazgeŵa ghakulongora kuti ghakalembeka kuti ghazakalembeke pamanyuma, kweni ghanyake agho ghalipo ghali nga ni mabuku gha nkhani izo zikalembeka kuti zilembeke. Ivyo Cicero wakayowoya vya kalembero ka Aristotle kuti "mlonga wa golide" vikwenera kuti vikaŵa vya mabuku agho wakalemba. Fumbo likuru comene pa nkhani ya ivyo Aristotle wakalemba ni lakuti, kasi vikacitika wuli kuti mabuku gha mu Baibolo ghaleke kusangika? Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakugomezga kuti Andronicus wa ku Rhodes wakawunjika mabuku gha Aristotle agho ghakaŵa gha vigaŵa vichokovichoko, ndipo wakaŵapambaniska na mabuku gha Theophrastus na Peripatetics.{{sfn|Anagnostopoulos|2013|page=16}}{{sfn|Barnes|1995|pp=10–15}}{{-}} == Chiharo == === Vyakulongola === ;Vyakupenta Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakumanyikwa chomene nga ni Lucas Cranach the Elder, Justus van Gent, Raphael, Paolo Veronese, Jusepe de Ribera, Rembrandt, na Francesco Hayez, ndiwo ŵakamujambura. Pa vithuzithuzi vyakumanyikwa comene ni ivyo Raphael wakajambura pa nyumba yake yakucemeka The School of Athens, mu Vatican's Apostolic Palace, apo ŵanthu ŵa Plato na Aristotle ŵali pa malo ghakuzirwa comene. Aristotle wa Rembrandt uyo wali na chiŵegha cha Homer nayo ni mulimo wakumanyikwa comene, wakulongora munthu wavinjeru na wachibulumutira Homer uyo wakaŵa muchoko: nga umo Jonathan Jones wakulembera, "ciŵegha ici cikhalilirenge cimoza mwa vyakuzizwiska comene pa caru cose, ndipo cikutikora na kumanya nyengo."{{sfn|Held|1969}}{{sfn|Jones|2002}} <gallery mode="packed" heights="170px"> Aristotle in Nuremberg Chronicle.jpg| ''[[Nuremberg Chronicle]]'' [[anachronism|anachronistically]] shows Aristotle in a medieval scholar's clothing. Ink and watercolour on paper, 1493 Gent, Justus van - Aristotle - c. 1476.jpg| ''Aristotle'' by [[Justus van Gent]]. Oil on panel, c. 1476 Lucas Cranach d.Ä. - Phyllis und Aristotle (1530).jpg| ''Phyllis and Aristotle'' by [[Lucas Cranach the Elder]]. Oil on panel, 1530 Biblioteka Marciana, Aristotel.jpg| ''Aristotle'' by [[Paolo Veronese]], Biblioteka Marciana. Oil on canvas, 1560s Turchi-AristoteIMG 1713.JPG| ''Aristotle and [[Campaspe]]'',{{efn-ua | Compare the medieval tale of Phyllis and Alexander above.}} [[Alessandro Turchi]] (attrib.) Oil on canvas, 1713 Aristotle by Jusepe de Ribera.jpg| ''[[Aristotle (Ribera painting)|Aristotle]]'' by [[Jusepe de Ribera]]. Oil on canvas, 1637 Rembrandt - Aristotle with a Bust of Homer - WGA19232.jpg| ''Aristotle with a Bust of [[Homer]]'' by [[Rembrandt]]. Oil on canvas, 1653 Johann Jakob Dorner d Ä (attr) Aristoteles.jpg| ''Aristotle'' by [[Johann Jakob Dorner the Elder]]. Oil on canvas, by 1813 (Venice) Aristotele by Francesco Hayez in gallerie Accademia Venice.jpg| ''Aristotle'' by [[Francesco Hayez]]. Oil on canvas, 1811 </gallery> ;Vyakuŵaja <gallery mode="packed" heights="170px"> Aristoteles Louvre.jpg|Roman copy of 1st or 2nd century from original bronze by [[Lysippos]]. [[Louvre Museum]] DSC00218 - Aristotele - Copia romana del 117-138 dC. - Foto di G. Dall'Orto.jpg|Roman copy of 117-138 AD of Greek original. Palermo Regional Archeology Museum Formella 21, platone e aristotele o la filosofia, luca della robbia, 1437-1439.JPG|Relief of Aristotle and Plato by [[Luca della Robbia]], [[Florence Cathedral]], 1437–1439 Llyfrgell Sant Deiniol and Gladstone's Library Hawarden Penarlâg 05.JPG|Stone statue in niche, [[Gladstone's Library]], [[Hawarden]], Wales, 1899 Uni Freiburg - Philosophen 4.jpg|Bronze statue, [[University of Freiburg]], Germany, 1915 </gallery> === Mazina gha ŵanthu === Mapiri gha Aristotle agho ghali ku Antarctica ghali na zina la Aristotle. Mu buku lake la Meteorology, wakaŵa wakwamba kuyowoya kuti ku chigaŵa cha kumwera kwa Antarctica kuli mtunda ukuru. Aristotle ni crater iyo yili pa mwezi ndipo yili na zina la Aristotle.{{sfn| Aristoteles}} == Wonaniso == * [[Aristotelian Society]] * [[Conimbricenses]] * [[Perfectionism (philosophy)|Perfectionism]] == Ukaboni == === Vyakulemba === {{notelist-ua | 30em}} === Citations === {{Reflist | colwidth=25em}} === Sources === {{refbegin|30em}} * {{cite book |author=Aesop |author-link=Aesop |title=The Complete Fables By Aesop |date=1998 |translator-last=Temple |translator-first=Olivia |translator-last2=Temple |translator-first2=Robert |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZB-rVxPvtPEC&pg=PR3 |publisher=Penguin Classics |isbn=978-0-14-044649-4 }} * {{cite journal |last=Aird |first=W. 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E. R. |title=The critic of Plato |date=1968 |author-link=G. E. R. Lloyd |work=Aristotle: The Growth and Structure of His Thought |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-09456-6}} * {{cite book |last=Lloyd |first=G. E. R. |title=Causes and correlations |date=1996 | author-link=G. E. R. Lloyd |work=Adversaries and Authorities: Investigations into ancient Greek and Chinese science |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-55695-8}} * {{cite book |last=Lovejoy |first=Arthur O. |title=The Great Chain of Being: A Study of the History of an Idea |date=31 January 1976 |author-link=Arthur O. Lovejoy |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-36153-9}} * {{cite web | title=Lucas Cranach the Elder{{!}} Phyllis and Aristotle | url=http://www.sothebys.com/en/auctions/ecatalogue/2008/important-old-master-paintings-including-european-works-of-art-n08404/lot.78.html | publisher=[[Sotheby's]] | access-date=23 March 2018 | date=2008 | ref=CITEREFLucas Cranach the Elder }} * {{cite book |last=Lyell |first=Charles |title=Principles of Geology |date=1832 |author-link=Charles Lyell |url=https://archive.org/details/principlesgeolo01unkngoog |oclc=609586345 |publisher=J. Murray, 1832 }} * {{cite journal |last=MacDougall-Shackleton |first=Scott A. |title=The levels of analysis revisited |date=27 July 2011 |pages=2076–2085 |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences |volume=366 |issue=1574 |doi=10.1098/rstb.2010.0363 |pmc=3130367 |pmid=21690126}} * {{cite SEP |last=Machamer |first=Peter |title=Galileo Galilei |date=2017 | url-id=galileo}} * {{cite book |last=Magee |first=Bryan |title=The Story of Philosophy |date=2010 |author-link=Bryan Magee |publisher=Dorling Kindersley |isbn=978-0-241-24126-4}} * {{cite book |last=Mason |first=Stephen F. |title=A History of the Sciences |date=1979 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PLlMAAAAMAAJ |publisher=Collier Books |isbn=978-0-02-093400-4 |oclc=924760574 }} * {{cite book |last=Mayr |first=Ernst |author-link=Ernst Mayr |title=The Growth of Biological Thought |url=https://archive.org/details/growthofbiologic00mayr |url-access=registration |date=1982 |publisher=Belknap Press |isbn=978-0-674-36446-2 }} * {{cite book |last=Mayr |first=Ernst |author-link=Ernst Mayr |title=The Growth of Biological Thought |date=1985 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-36446-2}} * {{cite book |last=McLeisch |first=Kenneth Cole |title=Aristotle: The Great Philosophers |date=1999 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-92392-7 |url=https://archive.org/details/aristotle00mcle }} * {{cite book |title=Aristotle to Zoos: a philosophical dictionary of biology |url=https://archive.org/details/aristotletozoos0000unse |year=1984 |last1=Medawar |first1=Peter B. |author-link=Peter Medawar |last2=Medawar |first2=J. S. |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-283043-2}} * {{cite journal |last=Miller |first=Willard M. |title=Aristotle on Necessity, Chance, and Spontaneity |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-catholic-philosophical-quarterly_the-new-scholasticism_spring-1973_47_2/page/204 |year=1973 |pages=204–213 |journal=New Scholasticism |volume=47 |issue=2 |doi=10.5840/newscholas197347237}} * {{cite journal |last1=Modrak |first1=Deborah |title=Dreams and Method in Aristotle |date=2009 |pages=169–181 |journal=Skepsis: A Journal for Philosophy and Interdisciplinary Research |volume=20}} * {{cite book |last=Moore |first=Ruth |title=The Earth We Live On |url=https://archive.org/details/earthweliveonsto00moor |url-access=registration |year=1956 |publisher=Alfred A. Knopf |oclc=1024467091 }} * {{cite journal |last=Morsink |first=Johannes |title=Was Aristotle's Biology Sexist? |date=Spring 1979 |pages=83–112 |jstor=4330727 |journal=Journal of the History of Biology |volume=12 |issue=1 |doi=10.1007/bf00128136 |pmid=11615776 |s2cid=6090923}} * {{cite book |last=Nasr |first=Seyyed Hossein |title=The Islamic Intellectual Tradition in Persia |date=1996 |publisher=Curzon Press |isbn=978-0-7007-0314-2}} * {{cite web |last1=Phelan |first1=Joseph |title=The Philosopher as Hero: Raphael's The School of Athens |date=September 2002 |url=http://www.artcyclopedia.com/feature-2002-09.html |publisher=ArtCyclopedia |access-date=23 March 2018 }} * {{cite web |url=https://www.louvre.fr/en/oeuvre-notices/phyllis-and-aristotle |title=Phyllis and Aristotle |date=1 February 2019 |via=Musee du Louvre |ref=CITEREFPhyllis and Aristotle }} * {{cite book |last=Pickover |first=Clifford A. |title=The Math Book: From Pythagoras to the 57th Dimension, 250 Milestones in the History of Mathematics |year=2009 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JrslMKTgSZwC&pg=PA52 |publisher=Sterling |isbn=978-1-4027-5796-9 }} * {{cite web |url=https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/e/roman/texts/plutarch/lives/alexander*/3.html |title=Plutarch – Life of Alexander (Part 1 of 7) |date=1919 |publisher=Loeb Classical Library |website=penelope.uchicago.edu |access-date=31 January 2019 |ref=CITEREFPlutarch1919 }} * {{cite web |title=Predicate Logic |url=https://www.cs.utexas.edu/~schrum2/cs301k/lec/topic04-predicateLogic.pdf |publisher=University of Texas |access-date=29 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180329221535/https://www.cs.utexas.edu/~schrum2/cs301k/lec/topic04-predicateLogic.pdf |archive-date=29 March 2018 |url-status=live |ref=CITEREFPredicate Logic }} * {{cite book |last=Rhodes |first=Frank Harold Trevor |title=Evolution |date=1974 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EWGt0bff8agC |publisher=Golden Press |isbn=978-0-307-64360-5 }} * {{cite book |last=Robbins |first=Lionel |title=A History of Economic Thought: The LSE Lectures |date=2000 |editor1=Medema, Steven G. |editor2=Samuels, Warren J. |publisher=Princeton University Press}} * {{cite book |last1=Rorty |first1=Amélie Oksenberg |chapter=Structuring Rhetoric |date=1996 |title=Essays on Aristotle's ''Rhetoric'' |editor-last=Rorty |editor-first=Amélie Oksenberg |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-20227-6 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vd7fEb1wOmYC&q=Aristotle+deliberative+forensic+and+epideictic&pg=PA6 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/essaysonaristotl0000unse }} * {{cite journal |last1=Rovelli |first1=Carlo |author-link=Carlo Rovelli |title=Aristotle's Physics: A Physicist's Look |year=2015 |pages=23–40 |journal=Journal of the American Philosophical Association |volume=1 |issue=1 |doi=10.1017/apa.2014.11 |arxiv=1312.4057 |s2cid=44193681}} * {{cite book |last=Russell |first=Bertrand |title=A history of western philosophy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RZc3AAAAIAAJ |year=1972 |publisher=Simon and Schuster |isbn=978-0-671-31400-2 }} * {{cite book |last=Sedley |first=David |title=Creationism and Its Critics in Antiquity |year=2007 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SgRuJEfzUG8C |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-25364-3 }} * {{cite book |last=Shields |first=Christopher |title=The Oxford Handbook of Aristotle |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vTVsrl0mnH4C |date=2012 |publisher=OUP USA |isbn=978-0-19-518748-9 }} * {{cite SEP |last=Shields |first=Christopher |title=Aristotle's Psychology |date=2016 |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2016/entries/aristotle/ |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University | editor-last=Zalta | editor-first=Edward N. |edition=Winter 2016}} * {{cite book |last1=Shute |first1=Clarence |title=The Psychology of Aristotle: An Analysis of the Living Being |date=1941 |publisher=Columbia University Press |oclc=936606202}} * {{cite book |last=Sikka |first=Sonya |title=Forms of Transcendence: Heidegger and Medieval Mystical Theology |year=1997 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UNYIDrA0zrYC&pg=PA265 |publisher=SUNY Press |isbn=978-0-7914-3345-4 }} * {{cite SEP |last=Smith |first=Robin |title=Aristotle's Logic |date=2017 | url-id=aristotle-logic}} * {{cite book |url=http://archive.org/details/dictionarygreek09smitgoog |title=Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology |last=Smith |first=William George |orig-date=1869 |year=2007 |publisher=J. Walton |access-date=30 January 2019 |via=Internet Archive }} * {{cite book |last1=Sorabji |first1=R. |title=Aristotle on Memory |date=2006 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |location=Chicago |page=54 |edition=2nd |quote=And this is exactly why we hunt for the successor, starting in our thoughts from the present or from something else, and from something similar, or opposite, or neighbouring. By this means recollection occurs...}} * {{cite book |last=Sorabji |first=Richard |title=Aristotle Transformed |url=https://archive.org/details/aristotletransfo0000unse_s6y5 |date=1990 |author-link=Richard Sorabji |publisher=Duckworth |isbn=978-0-7156-2254-4}} * {{cite journal |last1=Staley |first1=Kevin |title=Al-Kindi on Creation: Aristotle's Challenge to Islam |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-the-history-of-ideas_july-september-1989_50_3/page/355 |journal=Journal of the History of Ideas |date=1989 |volume=50 |issue=3 |pages=355–370 |jstor=2709566|doi=10.2307/2709566}} * {{cite web |last1=Susskind |first1=Leonard |title=Classical Mechanics, Lectures 2, 3 |date=3 October 2011 |author-link1=Leonard Susskind |url=http://theoreticalminimum.com/courses/classical-mechanics/2011/fall/lecture-2 |website=The Theoretical Minimum |access-date=11 May 2018 }} * {{cite book |last=Taylor |first=Henry Osborn |chapter=Chapter 3: Aristotle's Biology |title=Greek Biology and Medicine |date=1922 |author-link=Henry Osborn Taylor |archive-date=27 March 2006 |chapter-url=http://www.ancientlibrary.com/medicine/0051.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060327222953/http://www.ancientlibrary.com/medicine/0051.html |url-status=dead |access-date=3 January 2017 }} * {{cite web |title=The School of Athens by Raphael |url=http://www.visual-arts-cork.com/famous-paintings/school-of-athens.htm |publisher=Visual Arts Cork |access-date=22 March 2018 |ref=CITEREFSchool of Athens }} * {{cite web |last=Stewart |first=Jessica |title=The Story Behind Raphael's Masterpiece 'The School of Athens' |url=https://mymodernmet.com/school-of-athens-raphael/ |quote=Plato's gesture toward the sky is thought to indicate his Theory of Forms. ... Conversely, Aristotle's hand is a visual representation of his belief that knowledge comes from experience. Empiricism, as it is known, theorizes that humans must have concrete evidence to support their ideas |website=My Modern Met |year=2019 |access-date=29 March 2019 }} * {{cite book |last= Tangian |first=Andranik |date=2020 |title=Analytical theory of democracy. Vols. 1 and 2|series=Studies in Choice and Welfare |publisher=Springer |location=Cham, Switzerland |isbn=978-3-030-39690-9 |doi=10.1007/978-3-030-39691-6 |s2cid=216190330 }} * {{cite book |last=Thompson |first=D'Arcy |author-link=D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson |title=Historia animalium |date=1910 |work=The works of Aristotle translated into English |editor1=Ross, W. D. |editor2=Smith, J. A. |publisher=Clarendon Press |url=https://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/a/aristotle/history/index.html |oclc=39273217 |access-date=19 March 2018 |archive-date=9 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190809140240/https://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/a/aristotle/history/index.html |url-status=dead }} * {{cite book |last=Warren |first=Howard C. |title=A History of the Association of Psychology |date=1921 |isbn=978-0-598-91975-5 |author-link=Howard C. Warren |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=D4IXAAAAYAAJ&q=The+history+of+the+association+of+psychology&pg=PA3 |oclc=21010604 <!--dlc--> }} * {{cite book |last1=Webb |first1=Wilse |title=Dreamtime and dreamwork: Decoding the language of the night |date=1990 |publisher=Jeremy P. Tarcher |isbn=978-0-87477-594-5 |url=https://archive.org/details/dreamtimedreamwo00kriprich }} * {{cite news |title=When libraries were on a roll |date=19 May 2001 |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/4723624/When-libraries-were-on-a-roll.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/4723624/When-libraries-were-on-a-roll.html |archive-date=10 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |work=The Telegraph |access-date=29 June 2017 |ref=CITEREFWhen libraries were2001}}{{cbignore}} * {{cite SEP |last=Wildberg | first Christian |title=John Philoponus |date=2016 | url-id=philoponus}} * {{cite SEP |title=Aristotle's Influence |date=2018 | url-id=aristotle-influence |edition=Spring 2018 |ref=CITEREFAristotle's Influence2018}} * {{citation |last = Darwin |first = Charles |year = 1872 |title = The Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life |edition = 6th |location = London |publisher = John Murray |url = http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F391&viewtype=text&pageseq=1 |access-date = 9 January 2009 }} * {{cite book|title=Goddess of the Market: Ayn Rand and the American Right|last=Burns|first=Jennifer|location=New York|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2009|isbn=978-0-19-532487-7|title-link=Goddess of the Market: Ayn Rand and the American Right}} * {{cite book|title=Ayn Rand: The Russian Radical|last=Sciabarra|first=Chris Matthew|author-link=Chris Matthew Sciabarra|location=University Park, Pennsylvania|publisher=Pennsylvania State University Press|year=1995|isbn=978-0-271-01440-1|title-link=Ayn Rand: The Russian Radical}} {{refend}} == Further reading == The secondary literature on Aristotle is vast. The following is only a small selection. {{refbegin|30em}} * [[J. L. Ackrill|Ackrill, J. L.]] (1997). ''Essays on Plato and Aristotle'', Oxford University Press. * {{cite book |last=Ackrill |first=J.L. |title=Aristotle the Philosopher |url=https://archive.org/details/aristotlephiloso0000ackr |publisher=Oxford University Press |date=1981 |ref=none}} * {{Cite book |last=Adler |first=Mortimer J. |author-link=Mortimer Adler |title=Aristotle for Everybody |publisher=Macmillan |date=1978 | title-link=Aristotle for Everybody |ref=none}} * {{cite book |last=Ammonius | editor1-last=Cohen | editor1-first=S. Marc | editor2-last=Matthews | editor2-first=Gareth B |title=On Aristotle's Categories |url=https://archive.org/details/onaristotlescate0000ammo |publisher=Cornell University Press |date=1991 |isbn=978-0-8014-2688-9 |ref=none}} * {{cite book |last=Aristotle |title=The Works of Aristotle Translated into English Under the Editorship of W.D. Ross, 12 vols |publisher=[[Clarendon Press]] |date=1908–1952 |ref=none}} These translations are available in several places online; see External links. * Bakalis, Nikolaos. (2005). ''Handbook of Greek Philosophy: From Thales to the Stoics Analysis and Fragments'', Trafford Publishing, {{ISBN |978-1-4120-4843-9}}. * {{cite book |last=Bocheński |first=I. M. |title=Ancient Formal Logic |url=https://archive.org/details/ancientformallog0000jose |publisher=North-Holland |date=1951 |ref=none}} * Bolotin, David (1998). ''An Approach to Aristotle's Physics: With Particular Attention to the Role of His Manner of Writing.'' Albany: SUNY Press. A contribution to our understanding of how to read Aristotle's scientific works. * [[Myles Burnyeat|Burnyeat, Myles F.]] ''et al.'' (1979). ''Notes on Book Zeta of Aristotle's Metaphysics''. Oxford: Sub-faculty of Philosophy. * {{cite book | editor1-last=Cantor | editor1-first=Norman F. | editor2-first=Peter L. | editor2-last=Klein |title=Ancient Thought: Plato and Aristotle |volume=1 |series=Monuments of Western Thought |publisher=Blaisdell |date=1969 |ref=none}} * {{cite journal |last1=Chappell |first1=V. |year=1973 |title=Aristotle's Conception of Matter |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-philosophy_1973-11-08_70_19/page/679 |journal=Journal of Philosophy |volume=70 |issue=19 |pages=679–696 |doi=10.2307/2025076 |jstor=2025076 |ref=none}} * Code, Alan (1995). Potentiality in Aristotle's Science and Metaphysics, Pacific Philosophical Quarterly 76. * {{cite web |last1=Cohen |first1=S. Marc |last2=Reeve |first2=C. D. C. |title=Aristotle's Metaphysics |date=21 November 2020 |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2020/entries/aristotle-metaphysics/ |website=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |edition=Winter 2020 |ref=none}} * {{cite book |last=Ferguson |first=John |title=Aristotle |url=https://archive.org/details/aristotle0000ferg |url-access=registration |publisher=Twayne Publishers |date=1972 |isbn=978-0-8057-2064-8 |ref=none}} * De Groot, Jean (2014). ''Aristotle's Empiricism: Experience and Mechanics in the 4th century BC'', Parmenides Publishing, {{ISBN |978-1-930972-83-4}}. * Frede, Michael (1987). ''Essays in Ancient Philosophy''. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. * {{cite book |last=Fuller |first=B.A.G. |author-link=Benjamin_Apthorp_Gould_Fuller |series=History of Greek Philosophy |volume=3 |title=Aristotle |publisher=Cape |date=1923 |ref=none}} * [[Eugene Gendlin|Gendlin, Eugene T.]] (2012). ''[http://www.focusing.org/aristotle/ Line by Line Commentary on Aristotle's De Anima] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170327012857/http://www.focusing.org/aristotle/ |date=27 March 2017 |ref=none}}'', Volume 1: Books I & II; Volume 2: Book III. The Focusing Institute. * Gill, Mary Louise (1989). ''Aristotle on Substance: The Paradox of Unity''. Princeton University Press. * {{cite book |last=Guthrie |first=W.K.C. |title=A History of Greek Philosophy |volume=6 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |date=1981 |ref=none}} * {{cite book |last=Halper |first=Edward C. |year=2009 |title=One and Many in Aristotle's Metaphysics, Volume 1: Books Alpha – Delta |publisher=Parmenides Publishing |isbn=978-1-930972-21-6 |ref=none}} * {{cite book |last=Halper |first=Edward C. |year=2005 |title=One and Many in Aristotle's Metaphysics, Volume 2: The Central Books |url=https://archive.org/details/onemanyinaristot0000halp |publisher=Parmenides Publishing |isbn=978-1-930972-05-6 |ref=none}} * {{cite book |author-link=Terence Irwin |last=Irwin |first=Terence H. |year=1988 |title=Aristotle's First Principles |place=Oxford |publisher=Clarendon Press |isbn=0-19-824290-5 |ref=none |url=http://www.cyjack.com/cognition/Aristotle%27s%20first%20principles.pdf}} * {{cite book |last=Jaeger |first=Werner |title=Aristotle: Fundamentals of the History of His Development | editor-first=Richard | editor-last=Robinson |edition=2nd |publisher=Clarendon Press |date=1948 |ref=none}} * [[Alberto Jori|Jori, Alberto]] (2003). ''Aristotele'', Bruno Mondadori (Prize 2003 of the "[[International Academy of the History of Science]]"), {{ISBN |978-88-424-9737-0}}. * {{cite book | editor-last=Kiernan | editor-first=Thomas P. |title=Aristotle Dictionary | url=https://archive.org/details/bwb_W9-CUZ-418 |publisher=Philosophical Library |date=1962 |ref=none}} * Knight, Kelvin (2007). ''Aristotelian Philosophy: Ethics and Politics from Aristotle to MacIntyre'', Polity Press. * Lewis, Frank A. (1991). ''Substance and Predication in Aristotle''. Cambridge University Press. * Lord, Carnes (1984). ''Introduction to ''The Politics'', by Aristotle''. Chicago University Press. * Loux, Michael J. (1991). Primary Ousia: An Essay on Aristotle's Metaphysics Ζ and Η. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. * Maso, Stefano (Ed.), Natali, Carlo (Ed.), Seel, Gerhard (Ed.) (2012) ''Reading Aristotle: Physics'' VII. 3: ''What is Alteration?'' ''Proceedings of the International ESAP-HYELE Conference'', Parmenides Publishing. {{ISBN |978-1-930972-73-5}}. * {{cite book |last=McKeon |first=Richard |title=Introduction to Aristotle |edition=2nd |publisher=University of Chicago Press |date=1973 |ref=none}} * {{cite journal |last=Owen |first=G. E. L. |year=1965c |title=The Platonism of Aristotle |journal=Proceedings of the British Academy |volume=50 |pages=125–150 |ref=none}} [Reprinted in J. Barnes, M. Schofield, and R.R.K. Sorabji, eds.(1975). ''Articles on Aristotle'' Vol 1. Science. London: Duckworth 14–34.] * {{cite book |doi=10.1017/CBO9780511498282 |title=Aristotle and the Philosophy of Friendship |year=2002 |last=Pangle |first=Lorraine Smith |isbn=978-0-511-49828-2 |ref=none}} * {{cite book |last=Plato |author-link=Plato |title=The Worlds of Plato and Aristotle | editor1-first=Harold Joseph | editor1-last=Allen | editor2-first=James B | editor2-last=Wilbur |publisher=Prometheus Books |date=1979 |ref=none}} * Reeve, C. D. C. (2000). ''Substantial Knowledge: Aristotle's Metaphysics''. Hackett. * {{cite book |last=Rose |first=Lynn E. |title=Aristotle's Syllogistic |url=https://archive.org/details/bwb_KS-042-806 |publisher=Charles C Thomas |date=1968 |ref=none}} * {{cite book |last=Ross |first=Sir David |author-link=W. D. Ross |title=Aristotle |publisher=Routledge |edition=6th |date=1995 |ref=none}} * Scaltsas, T. (1994). ''Substances and Universals in Aristotle's Metaphysics''. Cornell University Press. * Strauss, Leo (1964). "On Aristotle's ''Politics''", in ''The City and Man'', Rand McNally. * {{cite book |last=Swanson |first=Judith |title=The Public and the Private in Aristotle's Political Philosophy |url=https://archive.org/details/publicprivateina00swan |url-access=registration |publisher=Cornell University Press |date=1992 |isbn=978-0-8014-2319-2 |ref=none}} * {{Cite book |last=Veatch |first=Henry B. |author-link=Henry Babcock Veatch |title=Aristotle: A Contemporary Appreciation |url=https://archive.org/details/aristotlecontemp0000veat |publisher=Indiana University Press |date=1974 |ref=none}} * {{cite book |last=Woods |first=M. J. |year=1991b |chapter=Universals and Particular Forms in Aristotle's Metaphysics |series=[[Oxford Studies in Ancient Philosophy]] |title=Aristotle and the Later Tradition |volume=Suppl |pages=41–56 |ref=none}} {{refend}} == External links == {{Sister project links | b=no | n=no | s=Author:Aristotle}} {{Wikisourcelang | el | Αριστοτέλης | Ἀριστοτέλης}} {{Library resources box | by=yes | onlinebooks=yes | others=yes | about=yes | label=Aristotle | viaf= | lccn= | lcheading= | wikititle= }} * {{PhilPapers|category|aristotle}} * {{InPho | thinker | 2553}} * At the [[Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]: *: {{hlist | [https://www.iep.utm.edu/aristotl/ Aristotle (general article)] | [https://www.iep.utm.edu/aris-bio/ Biology] | [https://www.iep.utm.edu/aris-eth/ Ethics] | [https://www.iep.utm.edu/aris-log/ Logic] | [https://www.iep.utm.edu/aris-met/ Metaphysics] | [https://www.iep.utm.edu/aris-mot/ Motion and its Place in Nature] | [https://www.iep.utm.edu/aris-poe/ Poetics] | [https://www.iep.utm.edu/aris-pol/ Politics]}} * At the [https://web.archive.org/web/20230127142051/http://classics.mit.edu/Browse/index.html Internet Classics Archive] * From the [[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]: *: {{hlist | [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle Aristotle (general article)] | [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotelianism-renaissance/ Aristotle in the Renaissance] | [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-biology/ Biology] | [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-causality/ Causality] | [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-commentators/ Commentators on Aristotle] | [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-ethics/ Ethics] | [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-logic/ Logic] | [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-mathematics/ Mathematics] | [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-metaphysics/ Metaphysics] | [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-natphil/ Natural philosophy] | [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-noncontradiction/ Non-contradiction] | [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-politics/ Political theory] | [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-psychology/ Psychology] | [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-rhetoric/ Rhetoric]}} * {{cite CE1913 | first=William | last=Turner | wstitle=Aristotle | volume=1 | short=x |ref=none}} * {{cite LotEP |chapter=Aristotle |ref=none}} ;Collections of works * {{StandardEbooks|Standard Ebooks URL=https://standardebooks.org/ebooks/aristotle}} * At [https://web.archive.org/web/20110106124653/http://classics.mit.edu/Browse/index-Aristotle.html Massachusetts Institute of Technology] * {{Gutenberg author | id=2747}} * {{Internet Archive author}} * {{Librivox author | id=602}} * {{OL author | OL22105A}} * {{in lang|en|el}} [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/perscoll?.submit=Change&collection=Any&type=text&lang=Any&lookup=Aristotle Perseus Project] at [[Tufts University]] * At the [https://web.archive.org/web/20170215160252/https://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/a/aristotle/ University of Adelaide] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170215160252/https://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/a/aristotle/ |date=15 February 2017 }} * {{in lang|el|fr}} [http://remacle.org/bloodwolf/philosophes/Aristote/table.htm P. Remacle] * The 11-volume 1837 Bekker edition of ''Aristotle's Works'' in Greek ([https://web.archive.org/web/20221124034819/http://isnature.org/Files/Aristotle/ PDF]{{dot}}[https://web.archive.org/web/20050816192647/http://grid.ceth.rutgers.edu/ancient/greek/aristotle_greek/ DJVU]) {{Aristotelianism}} {{Navboxes|list= {{Peripatetics}} {{Metaphysics}} {{Ethics}} {{Natural history}} {{History of biology}} {{Philosophy of science}} {{Philosophy of language}} {{Jurisprudence}} {{Social and political philosophy}} {{Litcrit}} {{Ancient Greece topics}} }} {{Portal bar|Physics|Biology|Earth science|Psychology|Philosophy|Politics|Economics|Literature|Biography|Ancient Greece|History of science}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Aristotle| ]] [[Category:Aristotelianism|*]] [[Category:384 BC births]] [[Category:322 BC deaths]] [[Category:4th-century BC mathematicians]] [[Category:4th-century BC philosophers]] [[Category:4th-century BC writers]] [[Category:Academic philosophers]] [[Category:Acting theorists]] [[Category:Ancient Greek biologists]] [[Category:Ancient Greek epistemologists]] [[Category:Ancient Greek ethicists]] [[Category:Ancient Greek logicians]] [[Category:Ancient Greek mathematicians]] [[Category:Ancient Greek metaphysicians]] [[Category:Ancient Greek philosophers of language]] [[Category:Ancient Greek philosophers of mind]] [[Category:Ancient Greek physicists]] [[Category:Ancient Greek political philosophers]] [[Category:Ancient Greek political refugees]] [[Category:Ancient Greek philosophers of art]] [[Category:Ancient literary critics]] [[Category:Ancient Stagirites]] [[Category:Aphorists]] [[Category:Aristotelian philosophers]] [[Category:Attic Greek writers]] [[Category:Ancient Greek cosmologists]] [[Category:Greek male writers]] [[Category:Greek geologists]] [[Category:Greek meteorologists]] [[Category:Greek social commentators]] [[Category:Humor researchers]] [[Category:Irony theorists]] [[Category:Metic philosophers in Classical Athens]] [[Category:Natural philosophers]] [[Category:Ontologists]] [[Category:Peripatetic philosophers]] [[Category:Philosophers and tutors of Alexander the Great]] [[Category:Philosophers of ancient Chalcidice]] [[Category:Philosophers of culture]] [[Category:Philosophers of education]] [[Category:Philosophers of history]] [[Category:Philosophers of law]] [[Category:Philosophers of literature]] [[Category:Philosophers of logic]] [[Category:Philosophers of love]] [[Category:Philosophers of psychology]] [[Category:Philosophers of science]] [[Category:Philosophers of time]] [[Category:Philosophers of sexuality]] [[Category:Philosophers of technology]] [[Category:Philosophical logic]] [[Category:Philosophical theists]] [[Category:Philosophy academics]] [[Category:Philosophy writers]] [[Category:Rhetoric theorists]] [[Category:Social philosophers]] [[Category:Students of Plato]] [[Category:Trope theorists]] [[Category:Virtue ethicists]] [[Category:Zoologists]] [[Category:Natural law ethicists]] gjlc4548ppnvv5zi39hegtiqfketwop 0 26564 119300 118896 2026-08-13T22:10:31Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Add 3 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260813sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 119300 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Study of the past}} {{pp-semi-indef|small=yes}}{{About|the academic discipline|a general history of human beings|Human history|other uses}} [[File:Marble_bust_of_Herodotos_MET_DT11742_(cropped).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Marble_bust_of_Herodotos_MET_DT11742_(cropped).jpg|thumb|Ivyo Herodotus wakalemba (c. 425 B.C.E.), uyo kanandi wakuwoneka kuti ni "wiske wa mdauko" ku vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi]] '''History''' (derived {{etymology|grc|''{{wikt-lang|grc|ἱστορία}}'' ({{grc-transl|ἱστορία}})|inquiry; knowledge acquired by investigation}})<ref name="JosephJanda">{{Cite book|editor1-last=Joseph|editor1-first=Brian|editor2-last=Janda|editor2-first=Richard|orig-year=2004|title=The Handbook of Historical Linguistics|url=https://archive.org/details/handbookofhistor0000unse_a3u8|publisher=Blackwell Publishing|page=[https://archive.org/details/handbookofhistor0000unse_a3u8/page/163 163]|isbn=978-1405127479|year=2008}}</ref> ni kusambira na kulemba vinthu ivyo ŵanthu ŵakuchita. Nyengo iyo vinthu vikacitikiranga pambere ŵanthu ŵandambe kulemba Baibolo yikucemeka kuti nyengo ya kutayikapo. Mazgu ghakuti "mbiri" ghakung'anamura vinthu ivyo vikachitika kale, ivyo ŵanthu ŵakukumbuka, ivyo ŵakasanga, ivyo ŵakuwunjika, ivyo ŵakuchita, na umo ŵakuviyowoyera. Ŵanthu ŵakumanya mdauko ŵakukhumba kumanya ivyo vikachitika kumasinda, ndipo ŵakugwiliskira ntchito mabuku, mabuku, vinthu vyakuzengeka, na vinthu vinyake. Mbiri njambura kukwana ndipo yichali na vyakusisi. Mbiri ni sayansi iyo yikugwiliskira nchito nkhani kuti yilongosore, kusanda, kufumba, na kusanda vinthu ivyo vikacitika kale, kweniso kuti yamanye umo vikacitikira. Kanandi ŵanthu ŵakudumbiskana nkhani iyo yikulongosora makora ivyo vikachitika kweniso chifukwa icho vikachitikira. Ŵakumanya vya mdauko ŵakususkana na umo mdauko uliri, kweniso kuti ngwakuzirwa pa nkhani ya masuzgo gha mazuŵa ghano. Nkhani izo zikukolerana na mitheto yinyake, kweni zikukolerana yayi na ivyo ŵanthu ŵakuyowoya (nga ni nkhani izo zikuyowoya vya Themba Arthur), kanandi zikulongosoreka kuti ni nthano. Mbiri yikupambana na vidokoni pakuti yikukhozgeka na ukaboni. Ndipouli, mitheto yakale yikawovwira kuti ŵanthu ŵapulikiskenge makora nkhani za mu Baibolo izo zasintha mu vyaka vinandi ndipo zikulutilira kusintha mazuŵa ghano. Kafukufuku wamakono wa mbiriyakale ndiwakutali, ndipo amaphatikizapo kuphunzira madera enaake ndi kuphunzira zinthu zina zapadera kapena zowunikira za kafukufuku wakale. Kanandi ŵanthu ŵakusambira mdauko mu masukulu gha pulayimale na sekondare. Herodotus, uyo wakaŵako mu vyaka vya m'ma 500 B.C.E., wakuchemeka "wiske wa mdauko" (pakuti ndiyo wakaŵa yumoza wa ŵanthu ŵakwambilira kumanya mdauko) nangauli ŵanthu ŵakumususka kuti ni "wiske wa utesi". Iyo pamoza na Thucydides, uyo wakaŵako mu nyengo yake, ndiwo ŵakambiska kafukufuku wakukhwaskana na vinthu ivyo vikachitika kale. Ŵanthu ŵakulutilira kuŵazga mabuku ghawo m'paka sono, ndipo mphambano pakati pa Herodotus na Thucydides, awo ŵakalembanga vya mitheto. Ku East Asia, mabuku gha boma ghakuchemeka Spring and Autumn Annals, ghakalembeka mu 722 B.C.E., nangauli ni mabuku gha mu vyaka vya m'ma 200 B.C.E. pera agho ghachalipo. == Viyowoyero == [[File:History-Dielman-Highsmith.jpeg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:History-Dielman-Highsmith.jpeg|thumb|Mbiri ya Frederick Dielman (1896)]] TLizgu lakuti mdauko likufuma ku historía ({{lang-grc|ἱστορία|translit=historíā|lit=inquiry, knowledge from inquiry, or judge}}<ref>{{LSJ|i(stori/a|ἱστορία}}</ref>). Ndico cifukwa cake Aristotle wakalemba mazgu agha mu buku lake lakuti History of Animals. Lizgu lakwamba lakuti, ?? στωρ likusangika kale mu sumu za Homer, Heraclitus, chilapo cha Ŵaateni, na mu malemba gha Boeotic (mu dango, "mweruzgi" panji "kaboni", panji ghanyake ghakuyana waka). Lizgu Lachigiriki ili likang'anamulika kufuma ku Chilatini kuti historia, kung'anamura "kupenjerezga, kupenjerezga, kupenda, kulongosora, kulongosora vinthu ivyo vikachitika kale, kulemba mbiri, kulongosora vinthu ivyo vikachitika kale". Mbiri inachokera ku Chilatini (mwina kudzera ku Old Irish kapena Old Welsh) kupita ku Old English monga stær ("mbiri, nkhani, nkhani"), koma liwu ili silinagwiritsidwe ntchito kumapeto kwa nyengo ya Old English. Pa nyengo yeneyiyo, apo Chilatini chikazgokanga Chifurenchi chakale (na Anglo-Norman), historia yikamba kuwoneka nga ni istorie, estoire, na historie, ndipo yikamba kumanyikwa kuti: "mbiri ya vinthu ivyo vikachitika mu umoyo wa munthu (kwamba mu vyaka vya m'ma 1200), chikhwangwani, nkhani ya vinthu ivyo vikachitika mu gulu la ŵanthu panji ŵanthu wose (1155), vyakuchitika vya mdauko (c. 1240), umo ŵanthu ŵakasinthira, sayansi (c. 1265), nkhani ya vinthu vyaunenesko panji vyakubisika, nkhani (c. 1462)".<ref name="OED Online. Oxford University Press 2014">"history, n". OED Online. Oxford University Press, December 2014. 9 March 2015.</ref> Mbiri ya ŵanthu yikafuma mu chiyowoyero cha Anglo-Norman ndipo yikaŵa mu Chingelezi chapakati. Lizgu ili likusangika mu buku la Ancrene Wisse ilo likalembeka mu 1300, kweni likuwoneka kuti likaŵa lizgu lakupharazgika comene m'ma 1400. Mu Chingelezi chapakati, ng'anamuro la mbiri ni "mbiri". Mazgu agha ghakung'anamura kuti "mulimo wa kumanya vinthu ivyo vikachitika kale; kulemba panji kusambira vinthu ivyo vikachitika kale, chomenechomene nkhani za ŵanthu". Mu nyengo ya Renaissance, mazgu agha ghakaŵaso na ng'anamuro linyake, ndipo Francis Bacon wakagwiliskira ntchito lizgu ili mu Chigiriki m'ma 1500 apo wakalembanga vya mdauko. Kwa iyo, historia yikaŵa "kumanya vinthu ivyo vikulongosoreka na malo na nyengo", ndipo ŵanthu ŵakamanyanga vinthu ivi chifukwa cha ivyo ŵakakumbukanga (apo sayansi yikaŵa na vinjeru, ndipo sumu zikaŵanga na maghanoghano ghakupambanapambana). Mu chiyowoyero cha Chingelezi, chiyowoyero cha ku China (史 vs. (Tumbuka) sono ni mazgu ghapadera agho ghakung'anamura mbiri ya ŵanthu kweniso nkhani izo zikuyowoyeka. Mu viyowoyero vya mazuŵa ghano nga ni Chijeremani, Chifurenchi, kweniso viyowoyero vinandi vya Chijeremani na Chigiriki, mazgu agha ghakung'anamulika kuti "mbiri". Munthu wakumanya mdauko wakuzunulika kuti "wakusanda mdauko" mu 1531. Mu viyowoyero vyose vya ku Europe, mazgu ghakuti "mbiri" ghakung'anamura "ivyo vikachitikira ŵanthu" kweniso "kusanda ivyo vikachitika".<ref name="Ferrater-Mora">Ferrater-Mora, José. ''Diccionario de Filosofia''. Barcelona: Editorial Ariel, 1994.</ref> Lizgu lakuti historical likusangika mu Baibolo kufuma mu 1661, ndipo historic likusangika mu Baibolo kufuma mu 1669.<ref name="Whitney">Whitney, W.D. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=wrACAAAAIAAJ The Century dictionary; an encyclopedic lexicon of the English language] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210202174044/https://books.google.com/books?id=wrACAAAAIAAJ|date=2 February 2021}}''. New York: The Century Co, 1889.</ref> == Kuyowoya == [[File:The_Historians'_History_of_the_World_-_Title_Page.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:The_Historians'_History_of_the_World_-_Title_Page.jpg|thumb|The title page to ''[[:en:The_Historians'_History_of_the_World|The Historians' History of the World]]'']] Ŵakumanya mdauko ŵakulemba mu nyengo yawo, ndipo ŵakughanaghanira chomene maghanoghano agho ŵanthu ŵali nagho pa nkhani ya umo ŵangalongosolera ivyo vikachitika kale. Mu mazgu gha Benedetto Croce, "mbiri yose nja sono". Mbiri yikuŵa yipusu cifukwa ca kupanga "mazgu ghaunenesko gha ivyo vikacitika kale" kwizira mu nkhani na kusanda vinthu ivyo vikacitika kumanyuma vyakukhwaskana na ŵanthu. Sayansi yasono ya mdauko yikovwira kuti ŵanthu ŵamanye makora nkhani iyi. Vyose ivyo vikucitika ivyo vikukumbukika na kusungika mu nthowa yinyake, ni mbiri. Ntchito ya nkhani za m'mbiri njakuti tisange ivyo vingatovwira kuti tisange nkhani zaunenesko. Chifukwa chake, malamulo a mbiriyakale ya wolemba mbiri ndi chifukwa chozungulira mbiriyakale wamba poletsa kugwiritsa ntchito malemba ena ndi zikalata (mwa kunyenga zonena zawo kuti zikuyimira "zakale zenizeni"). Ntchito yinyake ya munthu wakusanda mdauko ni kugwiliskira ntchito makora na mwamahara vinthu vinandi ivyo vikalembeka kale. Para ŵanthu ŵakulemba mbiri ŵakukumbuka panji kulongosora vinthu vyakupambanapambana ivyo vikachitika kale, ŵakuŵa chete. Kaŵirikaŵiri maphunziro a mbiriyakale amagawidwa monga gawo la maphunziro a zaumunthu ndipo nthawi zina monga gawo la sayansi ya chikhalidwe. Kweniso tingawona kuti ni nthowa yakukumanira pakati pa vigaŵa viŵiri ivi. Ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵakusanda mdauko ŵakukolerana na fundo iyi. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1900, sukulu ya Annales yikasintha chomene umo ŵanthu ŵakusambilira mdauko wa charu chapasi. Kanandi ŵanthu ŵakulemba mdauko ŵakulemba vinthu ivyo vikachitika kale, kwali ŵakulemba panji kuphalirako ŵanthu, ndipo ŵakuyezga kusanga mazgoro gha mafumbo agha. Kwamba kale, ŵanthu ŵakulemba mdauko ŵakugwiliskira nchito vinthu nga ni vikhwangwani, malemba, na vithuzithuzi. Kanandi, ivyo ŵanthu ŵakulemba mdauko ŵakumanya vingagaŵika mu vigaŵa vitatu: ivyo vili kulembeka, ivyo vikuyowoyeka, na ivyo vili kusungika. Kweni kulemba ndiko kukupatura mdauko ku ivyo vikaŵako pambere ivi vindacitike. Ŵakufukura vinthu vyakale ŵakovwira chomene pa kusanda malo na vinthu ivyo vili kusungika. Ivyo ŵanthu ŵakufukura vinthu vyakale ŵakusanga vikusangika bweka yayi, ndipo nkhani izo ŵanthu ŵakulemba zikovwira chomene pa ivyo ŵasanga. Nthowa izo ŵasayansi ŵakusangira vinthu vyakale ŵakugwiliskira ntchito zikuyana yayi na umo ŵanthu ŵakuwonera vinthu vyakale. "Vinthu vyakale vyakumasinda" ni munthavi unyake wa vinthu vyakale uwo kanandi ukususkana na ivyo ŵanthu ŵakulemba mazuŵa ghano. Mwachiyelezgero, Mark Leone, uyo wakafukura na kung'anamulira vinthu mu msumba wa Annapolis, ku Maryland, U.S.A., wakayezga kupulikiska mphindano iyo yilipo pakati pa malemba agho ghakuyowoya vya "ufulu" na mabuku ghanyake agho ghakulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵakaŵa ŵazga kweniso kuti vinthu vikaŵa vyambura kuyana. Pali nthowa zakupambanapambana izo tingalongosolera mdauko, kusazgapo nyengo, mitheto, vigaŵa, na nkhani. Vinthu ivi vikupambana yayi, ndipo kanandi vikupambana. Ŵanthu awo ŵakusanda mdauko ŵangasanda nkhani zakupambanapambana, nangauli mazuŵa ghano ŵanthu ŵakutemwa chomene nkhani zakupambanapambana. Malo agho ghakuchemeka Big History ghakususkana na fundo iyi, ndipo ghakukhumba kuti vinthu vichitikenge mu charu chose. Kanandi ŵanthu ŵakusambira mdauko na chilato chakuti ŵamanye vinandi, kweni nyengo zinyake ŵakusambiraso chifukwa cha kukhumba kumanya waka.<ref name="graham-ch1">{{cite book|title=The Shape of the Past|url=https://archive.org/details/shapeofpast0000grah|author=Graham, Gordon|publisher=[[University of Oxford]]|year=1997|chapter=Chapter 1}}</ref> == Mbili yapakwambilila == {{Human history and prehistory|250}} {{Further|Protohistory}} Mdauko wa ŵanthu ni ivyo ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Homo sapiens ŵakacita kumasinda pa caru cose capasi, ndipo vyose ivi vili kusungika mu mabuku. Pakuyowoya za "mbiri yakale", awo ŵakusanda mdauko ŵakung'anamura kumanya vinthu ivyo vikachitika kale chomene mu malo agho mulije maukaboni panji umo ŵanthu ŵakupulikiskira yayi umo vinthu vikalembekera. Para munthu wakusanda vithuzithuzi, vyakujambura, na vinthu vinyake, wangasanga fundo zinyake nangauli palije ivyo vili kulembeka. Kwambira mu ma 1900, ŵanthu ŵakughanaghana kuti para munthu wakusambira vya mdauko wakwamba wakwenera yayi kuzomerezga kuti ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵalutilire kukhala mu vyaru vinyake, nga ni vyaru vya ku Sub-Saharan Africa na America. Ŵasayansi ŵanyake ŵakususka kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi ndiwo ŵakulemba chomene mdauko. Mu 1961, E. H. Carr wakalemba kuti: {{blockquote|Para ŵanthu ŵaleka kughanaghanira waka vya mazuŵa ghano, ŵakwamba kughanaghana vya ivyo vikaŵachitikira kumasinda ndiposo ivyo viŵachitikirenge munthazi. Mbiri yikwamba na kuphalirana mitheto; ndipo mitheto yikung'anamura kuphalirana mitheto na masambiro gha ivyo vikacitika kale. Mabuku agho ghakalembeka kumasinda ghakwamba kusungika kuti ghazakovwire miwiro yakunthazi.<ref>{{cite book|last=Carr|first=Edward H.|year=1961|title=What is History?|page=108|isbn=0140206523}}</ref>}} Fundo iyi yikusazgapo ivyo ŵanthu ŵakutemwa nga ni ŵanthu ŵa ku Australia na New Zealand Māori, kweniso ivyo ŵanthu ŵakalemba pambere ŵandafike ku Europe. == Kulemba mbiri == {{Main|Historiography}} [[File:Guicciardini_M_Francesco_La_Historia_dItalia.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Guicciardini_M_Francesco_La_Historia_dItalia.jpg|right|thumb|Pa peji lakwamba la La Historia d'Italia]] Mu Baibolo ili, mazgu agha ghakung'anamura vinandi. Chakwamba, likung'anamura umo mbiri yikapangikira: umo nthowa na vyakuchita vikasinthira (kufuma pa nkhani zakudumura za umoyo wa munthu kuya pa nkhani zakudumura). Chachiŵiri, lingang'anamura ivyo vyalembeka: mabuku ghakulongosora mdauko (kuyelezgera kuti, "mdauko wa m'ma 1960" kung'anamura "Mdauko wa m'ma 1960"). Chachitatu, lingang'anamura chifukwa icho ŵanthu ŵakupangira mdauko. Pakuwona umo vinthu vikaŵira kumanyuma, fundo yachitatu iyi yikukolerana na fundo ziŵiri zakwambilira, chifukwa kanandi ŵanthu ŵakuyowoya chomene vya nkhani, umo ŵanthu ŵakulongosolera vinthu, umo charu chikuwonekera, umo ŵanthu ŵakugwiliskira ntchito ukaboni, panji umo ŵakulongosolera vinthu. Ŵakusanda mdauko ŵakufumbaso usange tingasambizga mdauko nga ni nkhani yimoza yakukolerana panji nkhani zinandi zakupambanapambana.<ref>Ernst Breisach, ''Historiography: Ancient, medieval, and modern'' (University of Chicago Press, 2007).</ref><ref>Georg G. Iggers, ''Historiography in the twentieth century: From scientific objectivity to the postmodern challenge'' (2005).</ref> == Methods == {{Further|Historical method}} {{very long section|reason=The long intro needs further refactoring into subsection, or child articles.|date=November 2022}} {| class="toccolours" |[[File:Ancientlibraryalex.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ancientlibraryalex.jpg|none|thumb|A depiction of the ancient [[:en:Library_of_Alexandria|Library of Alexandria]]]]<div>Historical method basics</div>The following questions are used by historians in modern work. # ''When was'' the source, written or unwritten, produced ([[:en:Calendar_date|date]])? # Where was it produced ([[wiktionary:localize|localization]])? # By whom was it produced ([[:en:Author|authorship]])? # From what pre-existing material was it produced ([[wiktionary:analysis|analysis]])? # In what original form was it produced ([[wiktionary:integrity|integrity]])? # What is the evidential value of its contents ([[:en:Credibility|credibility]])? The first four are known as [[:en:Historical_criticism|historical criticism]]; the fifth, [[:en:Textual_criticism|textual criticism]]; and, together, external criticism. The sixth and final inquiry about a source is called internal criticism. |} Nthowa ya mdauko yikusazgapo nthowa na fundo izo ŵanthu ŵakulemba mdauko ŵakugwiliskira nchito pakusanda nkhani na vinthu vinyake. Herodotus wa ku Halicarnassus (484 B.C.E. 425 B.C.E.) wakumanyikwa kuti ni "wiske wa mdauko". Ndipouli, Thucydides (c. 460 B.C.E. 400 B.C.E.) ndiyo wakambiska nkhani za mdauko mu buku lake la History of the Peloponnesian War. Thucydides wakawonanga kuti mdauko ukufuma ku ivyo ŵanthu ŵasankha na kuchita, ndipo wakawonanga kuti pali chifukwa na umaliro wake m'malo mwa Chiuta (nangauli Herodotus nayo wakagomezganga fundo iyi yayi). Thucydides wakalongosora umo vinthu vikachitikiranga mu nyengo iyo vikachitikiranga. Ŵakumanya vya mdauko ŵa ku Greece nawo ŵakawonanga kuti mdauko ukucitika nyengo zose. Ku China kukaŵa mitheto ya mdauko kweniso nthowa zakugwiliskira ntchito mdauko. Mulimo wa kulemba mbiri ya ŵanthu ku East Asia ukambika na Sima Qian (145-90 B.C.E.), uyo wakalemba buku lakuti Records of the Grand Historian (Shiji). Chifukwa cha ivyo wakalemba, Sima Qian wakumanyikwa na zina lakuti Dada wa mbiri ya ku China. Ŵasayansi ŵa ku China awo ŵakalembako mbiri ya mafumu ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito buku lake la Shiji pakulemba mabuku gha mdauko. Augustine wakaŵa na nkharo yiwemi chomene mu nyengo ya Ŵakhristu ŵakwambilira. Mu nyengo za ku Middle Ages na Renaissance, ŵanthu ŵakasambiranga vya mdauko kufuma ku vinthu vyakupatulika. Cha m'ma 1800, nkhwantha ya vya mdauko ya ku Germany, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, yikiza na vinjeru vya ŵanthu mu nkhani ya mdauko. Mu mazgu ghakwambilira gha mu buku lake la Muqaddimah (1377), Ibn Khaldun, uyo wakaŵa Muarabu, wakachenjezga za maubudi ghankhondi na ghaŵiri agho ŵanthu ŵakulemba mbiri ŵakacitanga. Mu nkhani iyi, wakawonanga vinthu vyamunthazi nga ni vyakuzizika ndipo vikukhumbikwira kung'anamulika. Ivyo Ibn Khaldun wakalemba vikulongora kuti mphambano ya mitheto ya mu nyengo yinyake yikwenera kulongozga umo vinthu vya mdauko vikweruzgikira, kuti munthu wapambaniskenge fundo izo wangayezgera kughanaghanirapo, kweniso kuti wamanye kuti ntchakukhumbikwa kuŵa na vinjeru. Kanandi Ibn Khaldun wakasuskanga "maluso ghambura ntchito na kuzomera waka vinthu ivyo vikachitika kale". Lekani wakambiska masambiro ghakukhwaskana na mdauko, ndipo kanandi wakaghacemanga kuti "sayansi yiphya". Nthowa yake ya kusanda mdauko yikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵamanye udindo wa boma, umo ŵanthu ŵakuyowoyeskana, umo ŵanthu ŵakuyowoyera, kweniso umo ŵanthu ŵakughanaghanira pa nkhani za mdauko. Ntheura ŵanthu ŵakumuwona kuti ni "wiske wa mbiri" panji "wiske wa vinjeru vya mdauko". Ku vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi, ŵanthu ŵakumanya mdauko ŵakamba kulemba mdauko mu vyaka vya m'ma 1600 na 1800, chomenechomene ku France na Germany. Mu 1851, Herbert Spencer wakalongosora nthowa izi: {{blockquote|From the successive strata of our historical deposits, they [Historians] diligently gather all the highly colored fragments, pounce upon everything that is curious and sparkling and chuckle like children over their glittering acquisitions; meanwhile the rich veins of wisdom that ramify amidst this worthless debris, lie utterly neglected. Cumbrous volumes of rubbish are greedily accumulated, while those masses of rich ore, that should have been dug out, and from which golden truths might have been smelted, are left untaught and unsought<ref>Cited in [[Robert Carneiro]], ''The Muse of History and the Science of Culture'', New York: Kluwer Publishers, 2000, p 160.</ref>}} By the "rich ore" Spencer meant scientific theory of history. Meanwhile, [[:en:Henry_Thomas_Buckle|Henry Thomas Buckle]] expressed a dream of history becoming one day science: {{blockquote|In regard to nature, events apparently the most irregular and capricious have been explained and have been shown to be in accordance with certain fixed and universal laws. This have been done because men of ability and, above all, men of patient, untiring thought have studied events with the view of discovering their regularity, and if human events were subject to a similar treatment, we have every right to expect similar results<ref>Cited in ''Muse of History'', pp. 158–159.</ref>}} Contrary to Buckle's dream, the 19th-century historian with greatest influence on methods became [[:en:Leopold_von_Ranke|Leopold von Ranke]] in Germany. He limited history to "what really happened" and by this directed the field further away from science. For Ranke, historical data should be collected carefully, examined objectively and put together with critical rigor. But these procedures "are merely the prerequisites and preliminaries of science. The heart of science is searching out order and regularity in the data being examined and in formulating generalizations or laws about them."<ref>''Muse of History'', p 147.</ref> {{blockquote|As Historians like Ranke and many who followed him have pursued it, ''no'', history is not a science. Thus if Historians tell us that, given the manner in which he practices his craft, it cannot be considered a science, we must take him at his word. If he is not doing science, then, whatever else he is doing, he is not ''doing'' science. The traditional Historian is thus no scientist and history, as conventionally practiced, is not a science.<ref>''Muse of History'', p 150.</ref>}} Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1900, ŵanthu ŵakusambira mdauko ŵakaŵikanga chomene mahara yayi pa nkhani za kutemwera charu, izo kanandi zikalumbanga mtundu panji ŵanthu ŵakumanyikwa. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1900, ŵanthu ŵakamba kuwona kuti mdauko ni sayansi yayi, kweni ni luso. Ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵakasambizganga chomene vya mdauko wa ŵanthu ŵakaŵa ŵasambizgi ŵanandi, kusazgapo Fernand Braudel, E. H. Carr, Fritz Fischer, Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie, Hans-Ulrich Wehler, Bruce Trigger, Marc Bloch, Karl Dietrich Bracher, Peter Gay, Robert Fogel, Lucien Febvre, na Lawrence Stone. Ŵanandi awo ŵakasambizganga vya mdauko wa ŵanthu ŵakamanyikwanga chomene chifukwa cha umo ŵakenderanga. Braudel wakasazga mdauko na geography, mdauko wa Bracher na political science, mdauko wa Fogel na economics, mdauko wa Gay na psychology, mdauko wa Trigger na archeology, uku Wehler, Bloch, Fischer, Stone, Febvre, na Le Roy Ladurie ŵakasazga mdauko na sociology, geography, anthropology, na economics. Ndipouli, nthowa izi zikatondeka kupanga fundo ya mdauko. Mpaka sono pali fundo yimoza pera ya mdauko iyo yikayowoyeka na munthu munyake wakulemba mdauko. Ivyo tikugomezga pa nkhani ya mdauko vikalembeka na ŵanthu awo ŵakumanya vinandi pa nkhani iyi. Sonosono apa, sayansi ya nkhani za mu digito yamba kuwona umo ŵangagwiliskira ntchito kompyuta kuti ŵafumbisiske mafumbo ghakukhwaskana na mdauko kweniso umo ŵangasambilira vya mu digito. Pakususkana na fundo yakuti mdauko ni sayansi, ŵanthu awo ŵakumanya mdauko nga ni Hugh Trevor-Roper, John Lukacs, Donald Creighton, Gertrude Himmelfarb, na Gerhard Ritter ŵakayowoya kuti ŵanthu awo ŵakumanya mdauko ŵakughanaghana kuti mdauko ni luso. Ŵasayansi ŵa ku France awo ŵakasambizganga vya mdauko ŵakamba kulemba vya mdauko wa ŵanthu awo ŵakaŵako kale. Ŵanthu ŵakumanya vya mdauko nga ni Herbert Butterfield, Ernst Nolte na George Mosse ŵakayowoyapo kuti fundo za mu mdauko ni zakuzirwa. Ŵanthu ŵa ku America awo ŵakasanda mdauko ŵakawona kuti ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yinyake, mitundu yinyake, na ŵanthu ŵamitundu yinyake ŵakaŵa ŵambura kuzirwa. Nkhani yinyake iyo yikayowoyeka pamanyuma pa Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Charu Chose yikaŵa yakuti Alltagsgeschichte. Ŵasayansi ŵanyake nga ni Martin Broszat, Ian Kershaw, na Detlev Peukert, ŵakayezga kuwona umo umoyo ukaŵira mu nyengo ya Nazi. Ŵakumanya mdauko ŵa Marx, nga ni Eric Hobsbawm, E. P. Thompson, Rodney Hilton, Georges Lefebvre, Eugene Genovese, Isaac Deutscher, C. L. Wakayama R. James, Timothy Mason, Herbert Aptheker, Arno J. Mayer, na Christopher Hill ŵayezga kuti ŵasimikizge fundo za Karl Marx mwa kusanda mbiri kufuma ku fundo za Marx. Pakuzgora ng'anamuro la Marxist la mdauko, ŵa mbiri nga ni François Furet, Richard Pipes, J. C. Kuŵa wakukondwa. D. Kuŵa wakukondwa. Clark, Roland Mousnier, Henry Ashby Turner, na Robert Conquest ŵakulongosora umo ŵanthu ŵakuwonera mdauko. Ŵasayansi ŵa mbiri ya ŵanakazi nga ni Joan Wallach Scott, Claudia Koonz, Natalie Zemon Davis, Sheila Rowbotham, Gisela Bock, Gerda Lerner, Elizabeth Fox-Genovese, na Lynn Hunt, ŵayowoyapo kuti nchakuzirwa kusambira ivyo ŵanakazi ŵakakumana navyo kumanyuma. Mu vyaka vyasonosono apa, ŵanthu awo ŵakugomezga kuti vinthu vyasintha kufuma ku vinyake ŵakukayikira usange ivyo ŵanthu ŵakusambira mu mbiri yakale ni vyaunenesko. Mu buku lake la mu 1997, Richard J. Evans wakavikilira mbiri. Buku linyake ilo wakalemba mu 1994 (The Killing of History) likayowoyaso umo ŵanthu ŵakasuzgikira pa nkhani ya mdauko. Mazuŵa ghano, ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakusanda mdauko ŵakwamba kupenjerezga nkhani mu mabuku gha mdauko. Kanandi ŵakughanaghana fundo yinyake ndipo ŵakugwiliskira ntchito ivyo ŵasanga. John H. Arnold wakayowoya kuti mdauko ni fundo iyo yikovwira kuti vinthu visinthe. Makampani gha vinthu vya digito, nga ni Google, ghapangiska kuti paŵe mphindano pa nkhani ya umo ŵanthu ŵakuwonera Intaneti.<ref>{{Cite book|last=King|first=Michelle T.|title=Research Methods for History|publisher=Edinburgh University Press|year=2016|edition=2nd|location=Edinburgh|chapter=Working With/In the Archives}}</ref> === Marxian theory === {{Main|Marx's theory of history}} Fundo ya Marx yakuti vinthu vyakuthupi ni vyakuzirwa yikulongora kuti vinthu vikwenda makora pa nyengo iyo ŵanthu ŵakukhala. Pa vyose, Marx na Engels ŵakayowoya kuti ŵakamanya vigaŵa vinkhondi ivyo vinthu vikaŵa makora mu vyaru vya ku Europe. Mu nyengo ya Soviet Union, ŵanthu ŵakagomezganga chomene nkhani za Marx, kweni kufuma waka apo boma la Communist likamalira mu 1991, Mikhail Krom wakati nkhani izi zili kuchepa chomene..<ref>Mikhail M. Krom, "From the Center to the Margin: the Fate of Marxism in Contemporary Russian Historiography," ''Storia della Storiografia'' (2012) Issue 62, pp. 121–130</ref> === Potential shortcomings in the production of history === Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakumanya mdauko ŵakugomezga kuti para ŵanthu ŵakulemba mdauko ŵakuŵa na maghanoghano ghakupambanako chifukwa vinthu ivyo vikuchitika mu mdauko vikung'anamulika munthowa zakupambanapambana. Constantin Fasolt wakati mdauko ukuyana waka na ndyali chifukwa cha kukhala chete. Wakayowoyaso kuti: "Ivyo ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuyowoya pa nkhani ya umo mbiri na ndyali vikukolerana vikuthemba pa fundo yakuti ŵanthu awo ŵakusanda mdauko ŵakukhwaskika na ndyali". Kuyana na Michel-Rolph Trouillot, ndondomeko ya mdauko yili kufuma mu mabuku gha mdauko, ntheura para ŵanthu ŵakhala chete panji ŵakuluwa vinthu vinyake vya mdauko, ŵangaŵa kuti ŵakumanya makora umo ŵanthu ŵakukumbukirana. Vinthu ivyo vikaleka kulembeka mu Baibolo vingachitika munthowa zinandi ndipo vingatimbanizga chomene mbiri. Kweniso munthu wangataya mwadala panji mwangozi. Ŵanthu ŵakumanya mdauko ŵali kulemba mazgu ghanandi agho ghakulongosora umo munthu wakuchitira para waleka kupulika nkhani za mu Baibolo. Mulembi wa mdauko wa m'ma 1900, zina lake Gerda Lerner, wakalongosora umo ŵanthu ŵachoko waka ŵakakhwaskikira na ivyo ŵanakazi ŵakachita. Munthu munyake wakumanya mdauko wakwendakwenda, William Cronon, wakayowoya nthowa zitatu zakumazgira kusankhana maghanoghano na kuvikilira nkhani zaunenesko na zakugomezgeka..<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Cronon|first=William|date=1992|title=A Place for Stories: Nature, History, and Narrative|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-american-history_1992-03_78_4/page/1347|journal=The Journal of American History|volume=78|issue=4|pages=1347–1376|doi=10.2307/2079346|jstor=2079346}}</ref> == Vigaŵa vya masambiro == {| class="toccolours" !Particular studies and fields |- |These are approaches to history; not listed are histories of other fields, such as [[:en:History_of_science|history of science]], [[:en:History_of_mathematics|history of mathematics]] and [[:en:History_of_philosophy|history of philosophy]]. * [[:en:Ancient_history|Ancient history]]: the study of history from the beginning of human history until the Early Middle Ages. * [[:en:Atlantic_history|Atlantic history]]: the study of the history of people living on or near the Atlantic Ocean. * [[:en:History_of_art|Art history]]: the study of changes in and the social context of art. * [[:en:Comparative_history|Comparative history]]: the historical analysis of social and cultural entities not confined to national boundaries. * [[:en:Contemporary_history|Contemporary history]]: the study of recent historical events. * [[:en:Counterfactual_history|Counterfactual history]]: the study of historical events as they might have happened in different causal circumstances. * [[:en:Cultural_history|Cultural history]]: the study of culture in the past. * [[:en:Digital_history|Digital history]]: the use of computing technologies to do massive searches in published sources. * [[:en:Economic_history|Economic history]]: the use of economic models fitted to the past. * [[:en:Intellectual_history|Intellectual history]]: the study of ideas in the context of the cultures that produced them and their development over time. * [[:en:Maritime_history|Maritime history]]: the study of maritime transport and all connected subjects. * [[:en:Material_history|Material history]]: the study of objects and the stories they can tell. * [[:en:Modern_history|Modern history]]: the study of Modern Times, the era after the [[:en:Middle_Ages|Middle Ages]]. * [[:en:Military_history|Military history]]: the study of warfare, historical wars, and [[:en:Naval_history|Naval history]], which is sometimes considered to be a sub-branch of military history. * [[:en:Oral_history|Oral history]]: the collection and study of historical information by utilizing spoken interviews with people who have lived past events. * [[:en:Palaeography|Palaeography]]: the study of ancient texts. * [[:en:People's_history|People's history]]: historical work from the perspective of common people. * [[:en:Political_history|Political history]]: the study of politics in the past. * [[:en:Psychohistory|Psychohistory]]: the study of the psychological motivations for historical events. * [[:en:Pseudohistory|Pseudohistory]]: studies about the past that fall outside the domain of mainstream history (sometimes equivalent to [[:en:Pseudoscience|pseudoscience]]). * [[:en:Social_history|Social history]]: the study of the process of social change throughout history. * [[:en:Women's_history|Women's history]]: the history of female human beings. [[:en:Gender_history|Gender history]] is related and covers the perspective of gender. * [[:en:World_history_(field)|World history]]: the study of history from a global perspective, with special attention to non-Western societies. |} === Periods === {{Main|Periodization}} Historical study often focuses on events and developments that occur in particular blocks of time. Historians give these [[:en:Periodization|periods of time]] names in order to allow "organising ideas and classificatory generalisations" to be used by historians.<ref name="Marwick-p169">{{cite book|title=The Nature of History|url=https://archive.org/details/natureofhistory0000marw|author=Marwick, Arthur|publisher=The Macmillan Press LTD|year=1970|page=[https://archive.org/details/natureofhistory0000marw/page/169 169]}}</ref> The names given to a period can vary with geographical location, as can the dates of the beginning and end of a particular period. [[:en:Century|Centuries]] and [[:en:Decade|decades]] are commonly used periods and the time they represent depends on the [[:en:Calendar_era|dating system]] used. Most periods are constructed retrospectively and so reflect value judgments made about the past. The way periods are constructed and the names given to them can affect the way they are viewed and studied.<ref name="Tosh-p168-169">{{cite book|title=The Pursuit of History|url=https://archive.org/details/pursuitofhistory0000tosh|author=Tosh, John|publisher=Pearson Education Limited|year=2006|pages=[https://archive.org/details/pursuitofhistory0000tosh/page/168 168]–169}}</ref> ==== Prehistoric periodization ==== The field of history generally leaves prehistory to archeologists, who have entirely different sets of tools and theories. In [[:en:Archeology|archeology]], the usual method for periodization of the distant [[:en:Prehistory|prehistoric]] past is to rely on changes in material culture and technology, such as the [[:en:Stone_Age|Stone Age]], [[:en:Bronze_Age|Bronze Age]], and [[:en:Iron_Age|Iron Age]], with subdivisions that are also based on different styles of material remains. Here prehistory is divided into a series of "chapters" so that periods in history could unfold not only in a relative chronology but also narrative chronology.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Archaeology of Time|last=Lucas|first=Gavin|publisher=Routledge|year=2005|isbn=0415311977|location=Oxon|pages=50}}</ref> This narrative content could be in the form of functional-economic interpretation. There are periodizations, however, that do not have this narrative aspect, relying largely on relative chronology, and that are thus devoid of any specific meaning. Despite the development over recent decades of the ability through [[:en:Radiocarbon_dating|radiocarbon dating]] and other scientific methods to give actual dates for many sites or artefacts, these long-established schemes seem likely to remain in use. In many cases neighboring cultures with writing have left some history of cultures without it, which may be used. Periodization, however, is not viewed as a perfect framework, with one account explaining that "cultural changes do not conveniently start and stop (combinedly) at periodization boundaries" and that different trajectories of change need to be studied in their own right before they get intertwined with cultural phenomena.<ref>{{Cite book|title=A Living Landscape: Bronze Age Settlement Sites in the Dutch River Area (c. 2000–800 BC)|last=Arnoldussen|first=Stijn|publisher=Sidestone Press|year=2007|isbn=978-9088900105|location=Leiden|pages=468}}</ref> === Geographical locations === Particular [[:en:Geography|geographical]] locations can form the basis of historical study, for example, [[:en:Continent|continents]], [[:en:Country|countries]], and [[:en:City|cities]]. Understanding why historic events took place is important. To do this, historians often turn to [[:en:Geography|geography]]. According to [[:en:Jules_Michelet|Jules Michelet]] in his book ''Histoire de France'' (1833), "without geographical basis, the people, the makers of history, seem to be walking on air".<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Relations of History and Geography: Studies in England, France and the United States|last=Darby|first=Henry Clifford|author-link=Clifford Darby|publisher=University of Exeter Press|year=2002|isbn=978-0859896993|location=Exeter|page=14}}</ref> Weather patterns, the water supply, and the landscape of a place all affect the lives of the people who live there. For example, to explain why the ancient Egyptians developed a successful civilization, studying the [[:en:Geography_of_Egypt|geography of Egypt]] is essential. Egyptian civilization was built on the banks of the Nile River, which flooded each year, depositing soil on its banks. The rich soil could help farmers grow enough crops to feed the people in the cities. That meant everyone did not have to farm, so some people could perform other jobs that helped develop the civilization. There is also the case of [[:en:Environmental_determinism|climate]], which historians like [[:en:Ellsworth_Huntington|Ellsworth Huntington]] and [[:en:Ellen_Churchill_Semple|Ellen Churchill Semple]] cited as a crucial influence on the course of history. Huntington and Semple further argued that climate has an impact on racial temperament.<ref>{{Cite book|title=World history from early times to AD 2000|last=Rao|first=B.V.|publisher=Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd.|year=2007|isbn=978-8120731882|location=New Delhi|page=5}}</ref> ==== Regions ==== * [[:en:History_of_Africa|History of Africa]] begins with the first emergence of modern human beings on the continent, continuing into its modern present as a patchwork of diverse and politically developing nation states. * [[:en:History_of_the_Americas|History of the Americas]] is the collective history of North and South America, including Central America and the Caribbean. ** [[:en:History_of_North_America|History of North America]] is the study of the past passed down from generation to generation on the continent in the Earth's northern and western hemisphere. ** [[:en:History_of_Central_America|History of Central America]] is the study of the past passed down from generation to generation on the continent in the Earth's western hemisphere. ** [[:en:History_of_the_Caribbean|History of the Caribbean]] begins with the oldest evidence where 7,000-year-old remains have been found. ** [[:en:History_of_South_America|History of South America]] is the study of the past passed down from generation to generation on the continent in the Earth's southern and western hemisphere. [[File:Pedro_I_of_Brazil_and_Charles_Stuart_.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pedro_I_of_Brazil_and_Charles_Stuart_.jpg|thumb|Allegory of the recognition of the [[:en:Empire_of_Brazil|Empire of Brazil]] and [[:en:Independence_of_Brazil|its independence]]. The painting depicts British diplomat [[:en:Charles_Stuart,_1st_Baron_Stuart_de_Rothesay|Sir Charles Stuart]] presenting his letter of credence to Emperor [[:en:Pedro_I_of_Brazil|Pedro I of Brazil]], who is flanked by his wife [[:en:Maria_Leopoldina_of_Austria|Maria Leopoldina]], their daughter Maria da Glória (later Queen [[:en:Maria_II_of_Portugal|Maria II of Portugal]]), and other dignitaries. At right, a winged figure, representing History, carving the "great event" on a stone tablet.<ref>{{Cite book|title=''As barbas do imperador : D. Pedro II, um monarca nos trópicos ''|url=https://archive.org/details/asbarbasdoimpera00schw|last1=Schwarcz|first1=Lilia Moritz|date=1998|pages=[https://archive.org/details/asbarbasdoimpera00schw/page/181 181]|publisher=Companhia das Letras|isbn=85-7164-837-9|edition=|location=São Paulo|oclc=}}</ref>]] * [[:en:History_of_Antarctica|History of Antarctica]] emerges from early Western theories of a vast continent, known as Terra Australis, believed to exist in the far south of the globe. * [[:en:History_of_Eurasia|History of Eurasia]] is the collective history of several distinct peripheral coastal regions: the Middle East, South Asia, East Asia, Southeast Asia, and Europe, linked by the interior mass of the Eurasian steppe of Central Asia and Eastern Europe. ** [[:en:History_of_Europe|History of Europe]] describes the passage of time from humans inhabiting the European continent to the present day. ** [[:en:History_of_Asia|History of Asia]] can be seen as the collective history of several distinct peripheral coastal regions, East Asia, South Asia, and the Middle East linked by the interior mass of the Eurasian steppe. *** [[:en:History_of_East_Asia|History of East Asia]] is the study of the past passed down from generation to generation in East Asia. *** [[:en:History_of_the_Middle_East|History of the Middle East]] begins with the earliest civilizations in the region now known as the Middle East that were established around 3000 BC, in Mesopotamia (Iraq). *** [[:en:History_of_India|History of India]] is the study of the past passed down from generation to generation in the sub-Himalayan region. *** [[:en:History_of_Southeast_Asia|History of Southeast Asia]] has been characterized as interaction between regional players and foreign powers. * [[:en:History_of_Oceania|History of Oceania]] is the collective history of Australia, New Zealand and the Pacific Islands. ** [[:en:History_of_Australia|History of Australia]] starts with the documentation of the Makassar trading with Indigenous Australians on Australia's north coast. ** [[:en:History_of_New_Zealand|History of New Zealand]] dates back at least 700 years to when it was discovered and settled by Polynesians, who developed a distinct Māori culture centered on kinship links and land. ** [[:en:History_of_the_Pacific_Islands|History of the Pacific Islands]] covers the history of the islands in the Pacific Ocean. === Political === {{Main|Political history|Political history in the United States}} Political history covers the type of government, the branches of government, leaders, legislation, political activism, political parties, and voting. === Military === {{Main|Military history}} [[:en:Military_history|Military history]] concerns warfare, strategies, battles, weapons, and the psychology of combat.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Howard|first1=Michael|last2=Bond|first2=Brian|last3=Stagg|first3=J. C. A.|last4=Chandler|first4=David|last5=Best|first5=Geoffrey|last6=Terrine|first6=John|title=What is Military History ... ?|url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-349-19161-1_2|website=What is History Today ... ?|publisher=Macmillan Education UK|access-date=20 January 2021|pages=4–17|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-1-349-19161-1_2|date=1988|isbn=978-0333422267|s2cid=156592827|archive-date=9 June 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180609030334/https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007%2F978-1-349-19161-1_2|url-status=live}}</ref> The "new military history" since the 1970s has been concerned with soldiers more than generals, with psychology more than tactics, and with the broader impact of warfare on society and culture.<ref name="Pavkovic">{{Cite book|last1=Pavkovic|first1=Michael|last2=Morillo|first2=Stephen|title=What is Military History?|url=https://archive.org/details/whatismilitaryhi0000mori|location=Oxford|publisher=Polity Press|pages=[https://archive.org/details/whatismilitaryhi0000mori/page/3 3]–4|isbn=978-0745633909|year=2006}}</ref> === Religious === {{Main|History of religion}} The history of religion has been a main theme for both secular and religious historians for centuries, and continues to be taught in seminaries and academe. Leading journals include ''[[:en:Church_History_(journal)|Church History]]'', ''[[:en:The_Catholic_Historical_Review|The Catholic Historical Review]]'', and ''[[:en:History_of_Religions_(journal)|History of Religions]]''. Topics range widely from political and cultural and artistic dimensions, to theology and liturgy.<ref>{{cite journal|first=Eric|last=Cochrane|title=What Is Catholic Historiography?|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_catholic-historical-review_1975-04_61_2/page/169|journal=Catholic Historical Review|volume=61|issue=2|year=1975|pages=169–190|jstor=25019673}}</ref> This subject studies religions from all regions and areas of the world where humans have lived.<ref>For example, see {{cite journal|first1=Sofia Boesch|last1=Gajano|first2=Tommaso|last2=Caliò|title=Italian Religious Historiography in the 1990s|journal=Journal of Modern Italian Studies|year=1998|volume=3|issue=3|pages=293–306|doi=10.1080/13545719808454982}}</ref> === Social === {{Main|Social history}} ''Social history'', sometimes called the ''new social history'', is the field that includes history of ordinary people and their strategies and institutions for coping with life.<ref>Peter Stearns, ed. ''Encyclopedia of Social History'' (1994)</ref> In its "golden age" it was a major growth field in the 1960s and 1970s among scholars, and still is well represented in history departments. In two decades from 1975 to 1995, the proportion of professors of history in American universities identifying with social history rose from 31% to 41%, while the proportion of political historians fell from 40% to 30%.<ref>Diplomatic dropped from 5% to 3%, economic history from 7% to 5%, and cultural history grew from 14% to 16%. Based on full-time professors in U.S. history departments. {{cite journal|at=p. 42|jstor=2539326|title=Brothers under the Skin: Diplomatic History and International Relations|journal=International Security|volume=22|issue=1|last1=Haber|first1=Stephen H.|last2=Kennedy|first2=David M.|last3=Krasner|first3=Stephen D.|year=1997|doi=10.1162/isec.22.1.34|s2cid=57570041}}</ref> In the history departments of British universities in 2007, of the 5723 faculty members, 1644 (29%) identified themselves with social history while [[:en:Political_history|political history]] came next with 1425 (25%).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Teachers of History in the Universities of the UK 2007 – listed by research interest |url=http://www.history.ac.uk/ihr/Resources/Teachers/a27.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060530073940/http://www.history.ac.uk/ihr/Resources/Teachers/a27.html |archive-date=30 May 2006}}</ref> The "old" social history before the 1960s was a hodgepodge of topics without a central theme, and it often included political movements, like Populism, that were "social" in the sense of being outside the elite system. Social history was contrasted with [[:en:Political_history|political history]], [[:en:Intellectual_history|intellectual history]] and the history of [[:en:Great_Man_theory|great men]]. English historian [[:en:G._M._Trevelyan|G. M. Trevelyan]] saw it as the bridging point between economic and political history, reflecting that, "Without social history, economic history is barren and political history unintelligible."<ref>{{cite book|title=English Social History: A Survey of Six Centuries from Chaucer to Queen Victoria|url=https://archive.org/details/englishsocialhis0000trev_y7q6|author=G.M. Trevelyan|publisher=Book Club Associates|year=1973|chapter=Introduction|page=i|isbn=978-0582484887|author-link=G.M. Trevelyan}}</ref> While the field has often been viewed negatively as history with the politics left out, it has also been defended as "history with the people put back in".<ref>{{cite book|title=The People's State: East German Society from Hitler to Honecker|url=https://archive.org/details/peoplesstateeast0000fulb|author=Mary Fulbrook|location=London|publisher=[[Yale University Press]]|year=2005|chapter=Introduction: The people's paradox|page=[https://archive.org/details/peoplesstateeast0000fulb/page/17 17]|isbn=978-0300144246}}</ref> ==== Subfields ==== The chief subfields of social history include: * [[:en:Black_history_(disambiguation)|Black history]]<!--Intentional link to DAB page--> * [[:en:Demographic_history|Demographic history]] * [[:en:Ethnic_history|Ethnic history]] * [[:en:Gender_history|Gender history]] * [[:en:History_of_childhood|History of childhood]] * [[:en:History_of_education|History of education]] * [[:en:History_of_the_family|History of the family]] * [[:en:Labor_history_(discipline)|Labor history]] * [[:en:LGBT_history|LGBT history]] * [[:en:Rural_history|Rural history]] * [[:en:Urban_history|Urban history]] ** [[:en:American_urban_history|American urban history]] * [[:en:Women's_history|Women's history]] === Cultural === {{Main|Cultural history}} Cultural history replaced [[:en:Social_history|social history]] as the dominant form in the 1980s and 1990s. It typically combines the approaches of anthropology and history to look at language, popular cultural traditions and cultural interpretations of historical experience. It examines the records and narrative descriptions of past knowledge, customs, and arts of a group of people. How peoples constructed their memory of the past is a major topic. Cultural history includes the study of [[:en:History_of_art|art in society]] as well is the study of images and human visual production ([[:en:Iconography|iconography]]).<ref>The first World Dictionary of Images: Laurent Gervereau (ed.), "Dictionnaire mondial des images", Paris, Nouveau monde, 2006, 1120 p. {{ISBN|978-2847361858}}. (with 275 specialists from all continents, all specialities, all periods from Prehistory to nowadays); Laurent Gervereau, "Images, une histoire mondiale", Paris, Nouveau monde, 2008, 272 p. {{ISBN?}}</ref> === Diplomatic === {{Main|Diplomatic history}} [[:en:Diplomatic_history|Diplomatic history]] focuses on the relationships between nations, primarily regarding diplomacy and the causes of wars.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Watt|first1=D. C.|last2=Adams|first2=Simon|last3=Bullen|first3=Roger|last4=Brauer|first4=Kinley|last5=Iriye|first5=Akira|title=What is Diplomatic History ... ?|url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-349-19161-1_12|website=What is History Today ... ?|publisher=Macmillan Education UK|access-date=20 January 2021|pages=131–142|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-1-349-19161-1_12|date=1988|isbn=978-0333422267|archive-date=28 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210128015952/https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-349-19161-1_12|url-status=live}}</ref> More recently it looks at the causes of peace and human rights. It typically presents the viewpoints of the foreign office, and long-term strategic values, as the driving force of continuity and change in history. This type of ''political history'' is the study of the conduct of [[:en:International_relations#History_of_International_Relations|international relations]] between states or across state boundaries over time. Historian [[:en:Muriel_Chamberlain|Muriel Chamberlain]] notes that after the First World War, "diplomatic history replaced constitutional history as the flagship of historical investigation, at once the most important, most exact and most sophisticated of historical studies".<ref>Muriel E Chamberlain, ''Pax Britannica'? British Foreign Policy 1789–1914'' (1988) p. 1</ref> She adds that after 1945, the trend reversed, allowing social history to replace it. === Economic === {{main|Economic history|Business history}} Although economic history has been well established since the late 19th century, in recent years academic studies have shifted more and more toward economics departments and away from traditional history departments.<ref>Robert Whaples, "Is Economic History a Neglected Field of Study?," Historically Speaking (April 2010) v. 11#2 pp. 17–20, with responses pp. 20–27</ref> [[:en:Business_history|Business history]] deals with the history of individual business organizations, business methods, government regulation, labour relations, and impact on society. It also includes biographies of individual companies, executives, and entrepreneurs. It is related to economic history. Business history is most often taught in business schools.<ref>Franco Amatori, and Geoffrey Jones, eds. ''Business History Around the World'' (2003) [https://web.archive.org/web/20090619213940/http://www.questia.com/read/114846992 online edition] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090619213940/http://www.questia.com/read/114846992|date=19 June 2009}}</ref> === Environmental === {{main|Environmental history}} Environmental history is a new field that emerged in the 1980s to look at the history of the environment, especially in the long run, and the impact of human activities upon it.<ref>J.D. Hughes, ''What is Environmental History'' (2006) [https://www.amazon.com/What-Environmental-History/dp/0745631886/ excerpt and text search] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160422092807/http://www.amazon.com/What-Environmental-History/dp/0745631886|date=22 April 2016}}</ref> It is an offshoot of the environmental movement, which was kickstarted by Rachel Carson's ''Silent Spring'' in the 1960s. === World === {{main|World history (field)}} {{See also|Human history|Universal history}} World history is the study of major civilizations over the last 3000 years or so. World history is primarily a teaching field, rather than a research field. It gained popularity in the United States,<ref>[[Ainslie Embree]] and Carol Gluck, eds., ''Asia in Western and World History: A Guide for Teaching'' (M.E. Sharpe, 1997)</ref> Japan<ref>Shigeru Akita, "World History and the Emergence of Global History in Japan,"''Chinese Studies in History'', Spring 2010, Vol. 43 Issue 3, pp. 84–96</ref> and other countries after the 1980s with the realization that students need a broader exposure to the world as globalization proceeds. It has led to highly controversial interpretations by [[:en:Oswald_Spengler|Oswald Spengler]] and [[:en:Arnold_J._Toynbee|Arnold J. Toynbee]], among others. The World History Association publishes the ''Journal of World History'' every quarter since 1990.<ref>{{cite web |title=Journal of World History |url=http://www.historycooperative.org/jwhindex.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110501050602/http://www.historycooperative.org/jwhindex.html |archive-date=1 May 2011 |access-date=7 February 2011}}</ref> The H-World discussion list<ref>{{cite web |title=H-World |url=http://www.h-net.org/~world/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110310065155/http://www.h-net.org/%7Eworld/ |archive-date=10 March 2011 |access-date=7 February 2011 |website=www.h-net.org}}</ref> serves as a network of communication among practitioners of world history, with discussions among scholars, announcements, syllabi, bibliographies and book reviews. === People's === {{Main|People's history}} A [[:en:People's_history|people's history]] is a type of historical work which attempts to account for historical events from the [[:en:Populism|perspective of common people]]. A people's history is the history of the world that is the story of mass movements and of the outsiders. Individuals or groups not included in the past in other types of writing about history are the primary focus, which includes the [[:en:Disfranchisement|disenfranchised]], the [[:en:Oppression|oppressed]], the [[:en:Poverty|poor]], the [[:en:Counterculture|nonconformists]], and the otherwise forgotten people. The authors are typically on the left and have a socialist model in mind, as in the approach of the [[:en:History_Workshop_Journal|History Workshop]] movement in Britain in the 1960s.<ref>{{cite book|author=Wade Matthews|title=The New Left, National Identity, and the Break-up of Britain|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lfmZAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA20|year=2013|publisher=Brill|pages=20–21|isbn=978-9004253070|access-date=8 May 2016|archive-date=28 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200928073152/https://books.google.com/books?id=lfmZAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA20|url-status=live}}</ref> === Intellectual === {{Main|Intellectual history}} Intellectual history and the history of ideas emerged in the mid-20th century, with the focus on the intellectuals and their books on the one hand, and on the other the study of ideas as disembodied objects with a career of their own.<ref>{{cite journal|first=Anthony|last=Grafton|title=The History of Ideas: Precept and Practice, 1950–2000 and beyond|journal=Journal of the History of Ideas|volume=67|issue=1|year=2006|pages=1–32|url=http://sydney.edu.au/intellectual-history/documents/grafton-history-ideas.pdf|doi=10.1353/jhi.2006.0006|s2cid=143746040|access-date=6 December 2015|archive-date=3 June 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160603130940/http://sydney.edu.au/intellectual-history/documents/grafton-history-ideas.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|editor-first=Maryanne Cline|editor-last=Horowitz|title=New Dictionary of the History of Ideas|volume=6|year=2004}}</ref> === Gender === {{Main|Gender history|LGBT history}} [[:en:Gender_history|Gender history]] is a subfield of History and [[:en:Gender_studies|Gender studies]], which looks at the past from the perspective of [[:en:Gender|gender]]. The outgrowth of gender history from [[:en:Women's_history|women's history]] stemmed from many non-[[:en:Feminism|feminist]] historians dismissing the importance of women in history. According to Joan W. Scott, "Gender is a constitutive element of social relationships based on perceived differences between the sexes, and gender is a primary way of signifying relations of power",<ref>{{Cite book|last=Wallach Scott|first=Joan|title=Gender and the Politics of History|url=https://archive.org/details/genderpoliticso00scot|publisher=Columbia University Press|year=1988|isbn=0231188013|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/genderpoliticso00scot/page/28 28]–50|chapter=Gender: A Useful Category of Analysis}}</ref> meaning that gender historians study the social effects of perceived differences between the sexes and how all genders use allotted power in societal and political structures. Despite being a relatively new field, gender history has had a significant effect on the general study of history. Gender history traditionally differs from women's history in its inclusion of all aspects of gender such as masculinity and femininity, and today's gender history extends to include people who identify outside of that binary. [[:en:LGBT_history|LGBT history]] deals with the first recorded instances of same-sex love and sexuality of [[:en:Ancient_history|ancient civilizations]], and involves the history of [[:en:Lesbian|lesbian]], [[:en:Gay|gay]], [[:en:Bisexuality|bisexual]] and [[:en:Transgender|transgender]] ([[:en:LGBT|LGBT]]) peoples and cultures around the world.<ref>{{cite web |title=History of Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender Social Movements |url=https://www.apa.org/pi/lgbt/resources/history |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210111182438/https://www.apa.org/pi/lgbt/resources/history |archive-date=11 January 2021 |access-date=20 January 2021 |website=www.apa.org}}</ref> === Public === {{Main|Public history}} [[:en:Public_history|Public history]] describes the broad range of activities undertaken by people with some training in the discipline of history who are generally working outside of specialized academic settings. Public history practice has quite deep roots in the areas of historic preservation, archival science, oral history, museum curatorship, and other related fields. The term itself began to be used in the U.S. and Canada in the late 1970s, and the field has become increasingly professionalized since that time. Some of the most common settings for public history are museums, historic homes and [[:en:Historic_site|historic sites]], parks, battlefields, archives, film and television companies, and all levels of government.<ref>{{Cite journal|jstor=3377910|title=Public History and the Study of Memory|journal=The Public Historian|volume=18|issue=2|pages=7–23|last1=Glassberg|first1=David|year=1996|doi=10.2307/3377910|doi-access=free}}</ref> == Historians == {{Main list|List of historians}} [[File:B.Croce.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:B.Croce.jpg|right|thumb|[[:en:Benedetto_Croce|Benedetto Croce]]]] [[File:Ban_Zhao.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ban_Zhao.jpg|alt=Ban Zhao, courtesy name Huiban, was the first known female Chinese historian.|thumb|[[:en:Ban_Zhao|Ban Zhao]], courtesy name Huiban, was the first known female Chinese historian.]] Professional and amateur historians discover, collect, organize, and present information about past events. They discover this information through archeological evidence, written primary sources, verbal stories or oral histories, and other archival material. In [[:en:List_of_historians|lists of historians]], historians can be grouped by order of the historical period in which they were writing, which is not necessarily the same as the period in which they specialized. [[:en:Chronicle|Chroniclers]] and [[:en:Annals|annalists]], though they are not historians in the true sense, are also frequently included. == Judgement == {{see also|Ash heap of history}} Since the 20th century, Western historians have disavowed the aspiration to provide the "judgement of history".<ref name="Curran2000p413">Curran, Vivian Grosswald (2000) ''Herder and the Holocaust: A Debate About Difference and Determinism in the Context of Comparative Law'' in F.C. DeCoste, Bernard Schwartz (eds.) ''Holocaust's Ghost: Writings on Art, Politics, Law and Education'' [https://books.google.com/books?id=lLnBSq7YP0gC&pg=PA413 pp. 413–415] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150912190241/https://books.google.com/books?id=lLnBSq7YP0gC&pg=PA413&lpg=PA413|date=12 September 2015}}</ref> The goals of historical judgements or interpretations are separate to those of [[:en:Judgment_(law)|legal judgements]], that need to be formulated quickly after the events and be final.<ref name="Curran2000p415">Curran, Vivian Grosswald (2000) ''Herder and the Holocaust: A Debate About Difference and Determinism in the Context of Comparative Law'' in F.C. DeCoste, Bernard Schwartz (eds.) ''Holocaust's Ghost: Writings on Art, Politics, Law and Education'' [https://books.google.com/books?id=lLnBSq7YP0gC&pg=PA415 p. 415] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150912184555/https://books.google.com/books?id=lLnBSq7YP0gC&pg=PA415&lpg=PA415|date=12 September 2015}}</ref> A related issue to that of the judgement of history is that of [[:en:Collective_memory|collective memory]]. == Pseudohistory == {{Main|Pseudohistory}} [[:en:Pseudohistory|Pseudohistory]] is a term applied to texts which purport to be historical in nature but which depart from standard [[:en:Historical_method|historiographical conventions]] in a way which undermines their conclusions. It is closely related to deceptive [[:en:Historical_negationism|historical revisionism]]. Works which draw controversial conclusions from new, speculative, or disputed historical evidence, particularly in the fields of national, political, military, and religious affairs, are often rejected as pseudohistory. == Teaching == === Scholarship vs teaching === A major intellectual battle took place in Britain in the early twentieth century regarding the place of history teaching in the universities. At Oxford and Cambridge, scholarship was downplayed. Professor [[:en:Charles_Harding_Firth|Charles Harding Firth]], Oxford's Regius Professor of history in 1904 ridiculed the system as best suited to produce superficial journalists. The Oxford tutors, who had more votes than the professors, fought back in defense of their system saying that it successfully produced Britain's outstanding statesmen, administrators, prelates, and diplomats, and that mission was as valuable as training scholars. The tutors dominated the debate until after the Second World War. It forced aspiring young scholars to teach at outlying schools, such as Manchester University, where [[:en:Thomas_Frederick_Tout|Thomas Frederick Tout]] was professionalizing the History undergraduate programme by introducing the study of original sources and requiring the writing of a thesis.<ref>Ivan Roots, "Firth, Sir Charles Harding (1857–1936)", ''Oxford Dictionary of National Biography'' (Oxford University Press, 2004) [http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/33137, Online; accessed 10 Nov 2014] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730035753/https://www.oxforddnb.com/view/10.1093/ref:odnb/9780198614128.001.0001/odnb-9780198614128-e-33137;jsessionid=715D4DE77EF65011A2FFC9D5B4B69210|date=30 July 2022}}</ref><ref>Reba Soffer, "Nation, duty, character and confidence: history at Oxford, 1850–1914." ''Historical Journal'' (1987) 30#01 pp. 77–104.</ref> In the United States, scholarship was concentrated at the major PhD-producing universities, while the large number of other colleges and universities focused on undergraduate teaching. A tendency in the 21st century was for the latter schools to increasingly demand scholarly productivity of their younger tenure-track faculty. Furthermore, universities have increasingly relied on inexpensive part-time adjuncts to do most of the classroom teaching.<ref>Frank Donoghue, ''The Last Professors: The Corporate University and the Fate of the Humanities'' (2008)</ref> === Nationalism === From the origins of national school systems in the 19th century, the teaching of history to promote national sentiment has been a high priority. In the United States after World War I, a strong movement emerged at the university level to teach courses in Western Civilization, so as to give students a common heritage with Europe. In the U.S. after 1980, attention increasingly moved toward teaching [[:en:World_history_(field)|world history]] or requiring students to take courses in non-western cultures, to prepare students for life in a globalized economy.<ref>Jacqueline Swansinger, "Preparing Student Teachers for a World History Curriculum in New York," ''History Teacher'', (November 2009), 43#1 pp. 87–96</ref> At the university level, historians debate the question of whether history belongs more to social science or to the humanities. Many view the field from both perspectives. The teaching of history in French schools was influenced by the ''[[:en:Nouvelle_histoire|Nouvelle histoire]]'' as disseminated after the 1960s by ''Cahiers pédagogiques and Enseignement'' and other journals for teachers. Also influential was the Institut national de recherche et de documentation pédagogique, (INRDP). Joseph Leif, the Inspector-general of teacher training, said pupils children should learn about historians' approaches as well as facts and dates. Louis François, Dean of the History/Geography group in the Inspectorate of National Education advised that teachers should provide historic documents and promote "active methods" which would give pupils "the immense happiness of discovery". Proponents said it was a reaction against the memorization of names and dates that characterized teaching and left the students bored. Traditionalists protested loudly it was a postmodern innovation that threatened to leave the youth ignorant of French patriotism and national identity.<ref>Abby Waldman, " The Politics of History Teaching in England and France during the 1980s," ''History Workshop Journal'' Issue 68, Autumn 2009 pp. 199–221 [http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/history_workshop_journal/v068/68.waldman.html online]</ref> === Bias in school teaching === [[File:Historybooks.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Historybooks.JPG|thumb|History books in a bookstore]] In several countries history textbooks are tools to foster nationalism and patriotism, and give students the official narrative about national enemies.<ref>Jason Nicholls, ed. ''School History Textbooks across Cultures: International Debates and Perspectives'' (2006)</ref> In many countries, history textbooks are sponsored by the national government and are written to put the national heritage in the most favorable light. For example, in Japan, mention of the [[:en:Nanking_Massacre|Nanking Massacre]] has been removed from textbooks and the entire Second World War is given cursory treatment. Other countries have complained.<ref>Claudia Schneider, "The Japanese History Textbook Controversy in East Asian Perspective," ''Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science'', May 2008, Vol. 617, pp. 107–122</ref> Another example includes Turkey, where there is no mention of the [[:en:Armenian_Genocide|Armenian Genocide]] in Turkish textbooks as a result of the denial of the genocide.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Guillory|first1=John|author-link=John Guillory|title=The Common Core and the Evasion of Curriculum|date=2015|publisher=PMLA|pages=666–672|edition=vol 130}}</ref> It was standard policy in communist countries to present only a rigid Marxist historiography.<ref>"Problems of Teaching Contemporary Russian History," ''Russian Studies in History'', Winter 2004, Vol. 43 Issue 3, pp. 61–62</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title=Blackwell-Synergy.com|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_international-affairs_2008-03_84_2/page/365|journal=International Affairs|volume=84|issue=2|pages=365–370|doi=10.1111/j.1468-2346.2008.00708.x|year=2008|last1=Wedgwood Benn|first1=David}}</ref> In the [[:en:United_States|United States]], textbooks published by the same company often differ in content from state to state.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2020/01/12/us/texas-vs-california-history-textbooks.html|title=Two States. Eight Textbooks. Two American Stories.|first=Dana|last=Goldstein|newspaper=The New York Times|date=12 January 2020|access-date=5 May 2020|archive-date=5 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200505140015/https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2020/01/12/us/texas-vs-california-history-textbooks.html|url-status=live}}</ref> An example of content that is represented different in different regions of the country is the history of the [[:en:Southern_United_States|Southern states]], where [[:en:Slavery_in_the_United_States|slavery]] and the [[:en:American_Civil_War|American Civil War]] are treated as controversial topics. [[:en:McGraw-Hill_Education|McGraw-Hill Education]] for example, was criticized for describing Africans brought to American plantations as "workers" instead of slaves in a textbook.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Fernandez|first1=Manny|last2=Hauser|first2=Christine|date=5 October 2015|title=Texas Mother Teaches Textbook Company a Lesson on Accuracy|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/10/06/us/publisher-promises-revisions-after-textbook-refers-to-african-slaves-as-workers.html?_r=0|work=The New York Times|access-date=14 July 2018|archive-date=15 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180715011315/https://www.nytimes.com/2015/10/06/us/publisher-promises-revisions-after-textbook-refers-to-african-slaves-as-workers.html?_r=0|url-status=live}}</ref> Academic historians have often fought against the politicization of the textbooks, sometimes with success.<ref>"Teaching History in Schools: the Politics of Textbooks in India," ''History Workshop Journal'', April 2009, Issue 67, pp. 99–110</ref><ref>Tatyana Volodina, "Teaching History in Russia After the Collapse of the USSR," ''History Teacher'', February 2005, Vol. 38 Issue 2, pp. 179–188</ref> In 21st-century Germany, the history curriculum is controlled by the 16 states, and is characterized not by superpatriotism but rather by an "almost pacifistic and deliberately unpatriotic undertone" and reflects "principles formulated by international organizations such as UNESCO or the Council of Europe, thus oriented towards human rights, democracy and peace." The result is that "German textbooks usually downplay national pride and ambitions and aim to develop an understanding of citizenship centered on democracy, progress, human rights, peace, tolerance and Europeanness."<ref>Simone Lässig and Karl Heinrich Pohl, "History Textbooks and Historical Scholarship in Germany," ''History Workshop Journal'' Issue 67, Spring 2009 pp. 128–129 [http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/history_workshop_journal/v067/67.lassig.html online at project MUSE]</ref> == See also == * [[:en:Outline_of_history|Outline of history]] * [[:en:Glossary_of_history|Glossary of history]] * {{Portal-inline|History}} == References == <references group="" responsive="0"></references> == Vinandi == {{refbegin|30em}} * {{cite book|editor-last1=Norton|editor-first1=Mary Beth|editor-link1=Mary Beth Norton|editor-last2=Gerardi|editor-first2=Pamela|title=The American Historical Association's Guide to Historical Literature|url=https://archive.org/details/americanhistoric02nort|edition=3rd|publisher=Oxford U.P.|date=1995|postscript=;}} Annotated guide to 27,000 of the most important English language history books in all fields and topics. * {{cite book|last=Benjamin|first=Jules R.|title=A Student's Guide to History|date=2009}} * {{cite book|last=Carr|first=E.H.|title=What is History?|location=Basingstoke|publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]]|date=2001|isbn=0333977017|others=With a new introduction by Richard J. Evans}} * {{cite journal|last=Cronon|first=William|title=Storytelling|journal=American Historical Review|volume=118|number=1|date=2013|pages=1–19|doi=10.1093/ahr/118.1.1|url=http://www.williamcronon.net/aha-writings.htm|access-date=24 July 2016|archive-date=23 July 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160723044136/http://www.williamcronon.net/aha-writings.htm|url-status=live|postscript=;|doi-access=free}} Discussion of the impact of the end of the Cold War upon scholarly research funding, the impact of the Internet and Wikipedia on history study and teaching, and the importance of storytelling in history writing and teaching. * {{cite book|last=Evans|first=Richard J.|title=In Defence of History|publisher=W.W. Norton & Company|date=2000|isbn=0393319598}} * {{cite book|last1=Furay|first1=Conal|last2=Salevouris|first2=Michael J.|title=The Methods and Skills of History: A Practical Guide|url=https://archive.org/details/methodsskillsofh0000fura|date=2010}} * {{cite book|last=Kelleher|first=William|title=Writing History: A Guide for Students|date=2008|postscript=;}} [https://www.amazon.com/dp/0195337557/ excerpt and text search]. * {{cite book|last=Lingelbach|first=Gabriele|chapter=The Institutionalization and Professionalization of History in Europe and the United States|title=The Oxford History of Historical Writing|volume=4: 1800–1945|date=2011|pages=78–|isbn=978-0199533091|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xVrwFT6zAFoC&pg=PA78|access-date=2 July 2015|archive-date=15 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150915192900/https://books.google.com/books?id=xVrwFT6zAFoC&pg=PA78|url-status=live}} * {{cite book|last=Presnell|first=Jenny L.|title=The Information-Literate Historian: A Guide to Research for History Students|url=https://archive.org/details/informationliter0000pres_k0x9|date=2006|postscript=;}} [https://www.amazon.com/dp/0195176510/ excerpt and text search]. * {{cite book|last=Tosh|first=John|title=The Pursuit of History|url=https://archive.org/details/pursuitofhistory0000tosh|date=2006|isbn=1405823518}} * {{cite book|last=Woolf|first=D.R.|title=A Global Encyclopedia of Historical Writing|publisher=Garland Reference Library of the Humanities|volume=2|date=1998|postscript=;}} [https://www.amazon.com/Encyclopedia-Historical-Writing-Reference-Humanities/dp/0815315147/ excerpt and text search]. * {{cite book|editor-last=Williams|editor-first=H.S.|date=1907|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g5sFAAAAIAAJ|title=The Historians' History of the World|volume=Book 1|access-date=2 July 2015|archive-date=15 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150915174251/https://books.google.com/books?id=g5sFAAAAIAAJ|url-status=live|postscript=;}} This is Book 1 of 25 Volumes. * {{cite book|last1=Schwarcz|first1=Lilia Moritz|year=1998|language=pt|title=As barbas do imperador: D. Pedro II, um monarca nos trópicos|url=https://archive.org/details/asbarbasdoimpera00schw|publisher=Companhia das Letras|location=São Paulo|isbn=85-7164-837-9}} {{refend}} == External links ==<!--Please discuss on the talk page before adding more external links.--> * {{oweb|http://www.besthistorysites.net/}} of BestHistorySites * {{oweb|https://www.bbc.co.uk/history}} of BBC History * [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/ Internet History Sourcebooks Project] See also [[:en:Internet_History_Sourcebooks_Project|Internet History Sourcebooks Project]] (Collections of public domain and copy-permitted historical texts for educational use) {{Time topics}}{{Humanities}}{{Social sciences}}{{Chronology}}{{Theories of History}}{{Subject bar|commons=yes|wikt=yes|n=yes|q=yes|s=yes|s-search=Portal:History|b=yes|b-search=Category:History|v=yes|v-search=Portal:History|d=yes|d-search=Q309}} {{Use dmy dates|date=January 2020}} {{Authority control}} cttkkvniat42thaktxx49yvv3r3zncd 0 29184 119268 77084 2026-08-13T13:07:03Z Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi 11606 /* growthexperiments-addlink-summary-summary:2|0|0 */ 119268 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|Church in Malawi}} {{coord|15|47|02.71|S|35|01|14.54|E|display=title}} [[File:St_Michael_and_All_Angels_Church_facade,_Blantyre,_Malawi.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:St_Michael_and_All_Angels_Church_facade,_Blantyre,_Malawi.JPG|thumb|Chikhomo chakumanjiliro gha dazi]] [[File:St_Michael_and_All_Angels_Church.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:St_Michael_and_All_Angels_Church.JPG|thumb|Kumwera kwa tchalitchi la St. Michael and All Angels]] '''St. Michael na All Angels Church''' ni tchalitchi ilo likazengeka mu 1888 mpaka 1891 mu njerwa ku [[Blantyre]] Mission ku Blantyre, [[Malaŵi|Malawi]]. Likusangika pa malo ghakwambilira gha mishoni ya ku Scotland, kufupi na Chileka Rd, ndipo lili mu tchalitchi la Central Africa, Presbyterian's Blantyre Synod.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Presbyterian Church in Canada |url=http://www.presbyterian.ca/showcase/45 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706201722/http://www.presbyterian.ca/showcase/45# |archive-date=2011-07-06 |accessdate=2010-01-22}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=CityInfo Guide, Blantyre, Malawi |url=http://www.citinfomalawi.com/south.html |accessdate=2010-01-22}} {{Dead link|date=October 2010|bot=H3llBot}}</ref>Kwambira mu 1991, gulu ili ndakukolerana na Hiland Presbyterian Church mu Pittsburgh, [[Pennsylvania]]. Mu 1885, Mulara H. E. O'Neil wakamanya kuti Blantyre ni mtunda wa maora ghaŵiri na maminiti 20 na masekondi 13.56 kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Greenwich, ndipo wakawona mwezi mu nyengo zakukwana 365. Tchalitchi ili likuyowoyeka kuti : ''tchalitchi lakwamba la Cikristu ilo likazengeka pakati pa Zambezi na Nile.'' – Mliska. Alexander Hetherwick C.B.E., D.D., F.R.G.S. == Kuzengeka == Tchalitchi ili likazengeka na Rev. David Clement Scott, uyo wakasambirako yayi vya kuzenga.<ref name="Rennie">{{cite web |author=Douglas Rennie |year=2007 |title=Blantyre Mission Church |url=http://www.federalsaints.net/backissues/FSNL29.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110723125252/http://www.federalsaints.net/backissues/FSNL29.pdf# |archive-date=2011-07-23 |access-date=2010-01-22 |publisher=The Federal Saints |page=12}}</ref><ref name="Hetherwick0">{{cite book|title=The building of Blantyre Church, Nyasaland, 1888–1891: being the story of a great achievement|author=((Rev. Alexander Hetherwick C.B.E., D.D., F.R.G.S.))|publisher=Blantyre Synod Bookshop|year=1962|chapter=Preface|url=http://www.federalsaints.net/backissues/FSNL24.pdf|access-date=2010-01-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110723125518/http://www.federalsaints.net/backissues/FSNL24.pdf|archive-date=2011-07-23|url-status=dead}}</ref> Ŵanalume awo ŵakagwiranga nchito iyi ŵakaŵa kuti ŵandaciteko nchito iyi. Malibwe ghose agho ŵakagwiliskiranga nchito ghakapangikanga pa malo agha kufuma ku dongo la ku malo agha na kughawotcha mu ng'anjo zakugwiliskira nchito nkhuni. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakuti ŵakagwiliskira nchito njerwa zakupambanapambana zakukwana 81.<ref name="Hetherwick1">{{cite book|title=The building of Blantyre Church, Nyasaland, 1888–1891: being the story of a great achievement|author=((Rev. Alexander Hetherwick C.B.E., D.D., F.R.G.S.))|publisher=Blantyre Synod Bookshop|year=1962|chapter=I. Preparation|url=http://www.federalsaints.net/backissues/FSNL25.pdf|access-date=2010-01-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110723125018/http://www.federalsaints.net/backissues/FSNL25.pdf|archive-date=2011-07-23|url-status=dead}}</ref> Viŵiya ivyo ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuzenga ni vya mathabwa ghakukwana masentimita 12 pa 6 pa 3, ndipo ŵakuviŵika pa malo ghakupatulika. Pambere ŵandambe kuzenga, Scott wakalembapo chilichose yayi. M'malo mwake, ŵakayezgekanga na njerwa zakomira. Utali wake uli pafupifupi mamita 106, usani wake mamita 30 kufuma ku chiliŵa kuya ku chiliŵa, ndipo msinkhu wake mamita 37 kufika pa mtenje. Scott wakalongosora umo wakacitira: : ''Chikaŵa mphinjika ya Cilatini iyo yikaŵa na vithuzithuzi vifupi chomene. Gulu la ŵimboni lafupi, ilo likupambana mita 12, na cipata cakupambanapambana ca mita 8. Cilato cikaŵa cakuti tiŵe na malo ghawemi ghakusoperapo gha Presbyterian.''<ref name="Hetherwick2">{{cite book|title=The building of Blantyre Church, Nyasaland, 1888–1891: being the story of a great achievement|author=((Rev. Alexander Hetherwick C.B.E., D.D., F.R.G.S.))|publisher=Blantyre Synod Bookshop|year=1962|chapter=II. The Building|url=http://www.federalsaints.net/backissues/FSNL26.pdf|access-date=2010-01-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110723125100/http://www.federalsaints.net/backissues/FSNL26.pdf|archive-date=2011-07-23|url-status=dead}}</ref> Vinthu vinyake ivyo vikapangika ni vyakujinthira, vyakujinthira, na vyakujinthira. Makuni ghaŵiri agha ghakupambana. Mu ng'anjo ya kumwera kwa tawuni iyi muli chikopi icho chili na makwelero. Mu nyumba iyi muli vipinda 6 vya Byzantine.<ref name="Hetherwick3">{{cite book|title=The building of Blantyre Church, Nyasaland, 1888–1891: being the story of a great achievement|author=((Rev. Alexander Hetherwick C.B.E., D.D., F.R.G.S.))|publisher=Blantyre Synod Bookshop|year=1962|chapter=II. The Interior|url=http://www.federalsaints.net/backissues/FSNL27.pdf|access-date=2010-01-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110723125201/http://www.federalsaints.net/backissues/FSNL27.pdf|archive-date=2011-07-23|url-status=dead}}</ref> == Kusintha na kunozga == Mu 1907, ŵakaŵikamo chiŵinda mu North transept, ndipo mu 1912 ŵakaŵikamo [[magesi]]. Chiŵiya ichi chikasinthika mu 1954. Mu ma 1970, tchalitchi ili likazengekaso, kweni likuwoneka makora yayi kufuma apo likazengekera. Ŵakasanga mphanji yikuru ndipo ŵakayinozga na mabokosi.<ref name="Hetherwick5">{{cite book|title=The building of Blantyre Church, Nyasaland, 1888–1891: being the story of a great achievement|author=((Rev. Alexander Hetherwick C.B.E., D.D., F.R.G.S.))|publisher=Blantyre Synod Bookshop|year=1962|chapter=Addendum|url=http://www.federalsaints.net/backissues/FSNL29.pdf|access-date=2010-01-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110723125252/http://www.federalsaints.net/backissues/FSNL29.pdf#|archive-date=2011-07-23|url-status=dead}}</ref> == Malo ghapafupi == Ku chigaŵa cha kumpoto kwa tchalitchi ili kuli windo la wachi, ilo lili pa mtunda wa mamita 30, ndipo lili kuzingilizgika na nyumba zinyake izo kale zikaŵa na sukulu, chipatala, makina ghakusindikizgira mabuku, na shopu ya kuzenga vinthu. Pa malo agha pakaŵa nyumba yamasono yakugwilira nchito zinandi na Henry Henderson Institute, yakucemeka kucindika mishonale wa ku Scotland, Henry Henderson (1843-91).<ref>{{cite web |author=Victor Kaonga |title=NDAGHA: Monday, November 16, 2009 |url=http://ndagha.blogspot.com/ |accessdate=2010-01-22}}</ref> == Vithuzi == <gallery> File:St_Michael_and_All_Angels_Church,_Blantyre,_Malawi_Back.jpg|East end with semi-circular apse File:St_Michael_and_All_Angels_Church,_Blantyre,_Malawi_Stained_Glass.JPG|Stained glass in the apse as seen through door in facade File:St_Michael_and_All_Angels_Church,_Blantyre,_Malawi_Side_Detail_2.JPG|North side detail File:St_Michael_and_All_Angels_Church,_Blantyre,_Malawi_Clock_Tower.JPG|Clock tower File:St_Michael_and_All_Angels_Church,_Blantyre,_Malawi_Brick_Detail.JPG|Brick detail File:St_Michael_and_All_Angels_Church,_Blantyre,_Malawi_Brick_Detail_2.JPG|Brick detail File:St_Michael_and_All_Angels_Church,_Blantyre,_Malawi_Brick_Detail_3.JPG|Brick detail File:St_Michael_and_All_Angels_Church,_Blantyre,_Malawi_Brick_Detail_4.JPG|Brick detail File:St_Michael_and_All_Angels_Church,_Blantyre,_Malawi_Plaque_1.JPG|Plaque on clock tower File:St_Michael_and_All_Angels_Church,_Blantyre,_Malawi_Plaque_2.JPG|Plaque on clock tower File:St_Michael_and_All_Angels_Church,_Blantyre,_Malawi_Plaque_3.JPG|Plaque on clock tower File:St_Michael_and_All_Angels_Church,_Blantyre,_Malawi_Plaque_4.JPG|Plaque on front </gallery> == Ukaboni == <references responsive="0"></references> == Vigaŵa vya kuwaro == * [https://web.archive.org/web/20070531164722/http://www.blantyresynod.org/ Church of Central Africa Presbyterian’s Blantyre Synod] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20140712042518/http://dacb.org/stories/malawi/scott-davidc.html Dictionary of African Christian Biography: David Clement Scott] lr40435dafj3cbhgn42n9croiwvuzka 0 29625 119339 111161 2026-08-13T23:24:11Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260813sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 119339 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Nkhani iwemi}} {{Use dmy dates|date=November 2020}} {{Infobox economy | continent = Afilika | image = 2014 Tinubu Square Lagos Nigeria 14640600637.jpg | caption = [[Lagos]] ni msumba ukuru chomene mu Afilika. | image_size = 325px | population = 1.39 billion{{UN Population|ref}} | gdp = {{plainlist| * $3.14 trillion ([[GDP (nominal)|nominal]]; 2023 est)<ref name="IMF01">{{cite web|title=GDP (Nominal), current prices|url=https://www.imf.org/external/datamapper/NGDPD@WEO/OEMDC/ADVEC/WEOWORLD|website=International Monetary Fund|publisher=International Monetary Fund|accessdate=5 November 2022}}</ref> * $8.86 trillion ([[Purchasing power parity|PPP]]; 2023 est)<ref name="IMF02">{{cite web|title=GDP (PPP), current prices|url=https://www.imf.org/external/datamapper/PPPGDP@WEO/OEMDC/ADVEC/WEOWORLD/AFQ|website=International Monetary Fund|publisher=International Monetary Fund|accessdate=5 November 2022}}</ref> }} | gdp rank = {{plainlist| * [[List of continents by GDP#Continents by GDP (nominal)|5th (nominal; 2023)]] * [[List of continents by GDP#Continents by GDP (PPP)|4th (PPP; 2023)]] }} | per capita = {{plainlist| * $2,260 (nominal; 2023 est)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.imf.org/external/datamapper/NGDPDPC@WEO/OEMDC/ADVEC/WEOWORLD|title=Nominal GDP per capita|work=IMF Data Mapper|publisher=International Monetary Fund|author=International Monetary Fund|date=2022|access-date=5 November 2022}}</ref> * $6,370 (PPP; 2023 est)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.imf.org/external/datamapper/PPPPC@WEO/OEMDC/ADVEC/WEOWORLD|title=GDP PPP per capita|work=IMF Data Mapper|publisher=International Monetary Fund|author=International Monetary Fund|date=2022|access-date=5 November 2022}}</ref> }} | per capita rank = {{plainlist| * [[List of continents by GDP#Continents by GDP per capita (nominal)|6th (nominal; 2023)]] * [[List of continents by GDP#Continents by GDP per capita (PPP)|6th (PPP; 2023)]] }} | growth = 3.9% (2023 est.)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.imf.org/external/datamapper/NGDP_RPCH@WEO/OEMDC/ADVEC/WEOWORLD|title=Real GDP growth |work=IMF Data Mapper|publisher=International Monetary Fund|author=International Monetary Fund|date=2022|access-date=5 November 2022}}</ref> | inflation = 12.4% (2023 est.)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.imf.org/external/datamapper/PCPIPCH@WEO/OEMDC/ADVEC/WEOWORLD|title=Inflation rate, average consumer prices|work=IMF Data Mapper|publisher=International Monetary Fund|author=International Monetary Fund|date=2022|access-date=5 November 2022}}</ref> | millionaires = 352,000 (2022)<ref name="databook2022">{{Cite book|last1=Shorrocks|first1=Anthony|url=https://www.credit-suisse.com/media/assets/corporate/docs/about-us/research/publications/global-wealth-databook-2022.pdf|title=Global Wealth Databook 2022|last2=Davies|first2=James|last3=Lluberas|first3=Rodrigo|publisher=[[Credit Suisse]] Research Institute|year=2022}}</ref> | debt = 62.4% of GDP (2023 est.)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.imf.org/external/datamapper/GGXWDG_NGDP@WEO/APQ|title=General government gross debt |work=IMF Data Mapper|publisher=International Monetary Fund|author=International Monetary Fund|date=2022|access-date=5 November 2022}}</ref> | footnote = Most numbers are from the [[International Monetary Fund]]. [https://www.imf.org/external/datamapper/profile/AFQ IMF Africa Datasets] }} {{World economy}} '''Chuma cha mu Africa''' ni malonda, vyamalonda, ulimi, na ŵanthu. Mu 2019, ŵanthu pafupifupi 1.3 biliyoni ŵakakhalanga mu vyaru 54 mu Africa. Africa ni caru ico cili na vinthu vinandi.<ref name="worldbank.org">{{cite web |title=Overview |url=http://www.worldbank.org/en/region/afr/overview}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2015/05/12/africa/africa-inequality/|title=Why is Africa so unequal?|first=Milena|last=Veselinovic|work=CNN|access-date=2017-09-12}}</ref> Kukula kwaposachedwapa kwachitika chifukwa cha kukwera kwa malonda, katundu, mautumiki, na kupanga.<ref name="economist.com">{{cite news|url=http://www.economist.com/node/21541015|newspaper=The Economist|title=Africa rising|date=3 December 2011}}</ref>Ku West Africa, East Africa, Central Africa, na Southern Africa, kuzakafika mu 2050 GDP yawo yizamuŵa $29 trillion.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://globalpublicsquare.blogs.cnn.com/2013/01/22/get-ready-for-an-africa-boom/|title=Get ready for an Africa boom|access-date=2017-09-12|language=en}}</ref> Mu Malichi 2013, Africa yikamanyikwa kuti ni caru cikavu comene pa caru cose; ndipouli, Banki ya Caru Cose yikukhazga kuti vyaru vinandi vya mu Africa vizamusanga ndalama zakukwana "pakati" (kusanga ndalama zakukwana $1,025 pa munthu yumoza pa cilimika) mu 2025 usange vinthu vikulutilira makora. Pali vifukwa vinandi ivyo vyapangiska kuti Afrika yiŵe na cuma ciheni: Nangauli mu nyengo yakale, caru ca Africa cikaŵa na maufumu ghanandi agho ghakalutanga ku vyaru vinyake, kweni ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakakhalanga ku mizi.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Anyangwe|first=Eliza|date=2017-06-28|title=Why is Africa so poor? You asked Google – here's the answer|language=en-GB|work=The Guardian|url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2017/jun/28/why-africa-so-poor-google|access-date=2021-03-09|issn=0261-3077}}</ref> Ndipouli, mu 2013 caru ca Africa cikaŵa na ŵanthu ŵanandi comene pa caru cose, ndipo ciŵelengero ici cikukwera na 5.6% pa caka. Mu 2017, African Development Bank yikati Africa ndiyo yikaŵa yaciŵiri pa vyaru ivyo vyakurya vikukura mwaluŵiro comene, ndipo yikati mu 2017, caru ici cizamukulirakulira pa 3,4%. Vyaru vinandi vya mu Africa vikukura, ndipo vyaru vyakujumpha pacitatu vya mu Africa vikukura na ciŵelengero ca 6% panji kujumpha apa. Ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakuwona vya malonda pa caru cose ŵakuti caru ca Africa ndico cizamuŵa cakukhumbikwa comene pa caru cose.<ref>{{cite web |date=22 June 2016 |title=Rise of the African opportunity |url=http://www.slideshare.net/KimberleeLuce/rise-of-the-african-opportunity |work=Boston Analytics}}</ref> == Mbiri == {{further|Economic history of Africa|Scramble for Africa}} [[File:Market_scene_from_the_Old_Kingdom_of_Egypt.jpg|right|thumb|Malo gha msika mu Ufumu Wakale: Ŵalendo ŵaŵiri ŵakunyamura mabokosi pa viŵegha vyawo, ndipo ŵakukayika usange muli visulo.]] Kwa vyaka vinandi, vyaru vya mu Africa vikaŵa na vinthu vinandi ivyo vikendeskeka na malonda agho ghakachitikanga pakati pa misumba na maufumu. Misewu yinyake yikendanga pa mtunda, yinyake pa milonga, ndipo yinyake yikazingilizga misumba ya ku dowoko. Maufumu ghakurughakuru gha mu Africa ghakazgoka gha cuma cifukwa ca malonda ghawo, nga ni Eguputo wakale, Nubia, Mali, Ashanti, Ufumu wa Oyo na Carthage wakale. [[File:Mogadishan_currency.JPG|left|thumb|359x359px|Ndalama za ku Mogadishu]] Vigaŵa vinyake vya mu Africa vikaŵa paubwezi wakukhora na maufumu gha Ŵaarabu, ndipo mu nyengo ya Ufumu wa Ottoman, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa mu Africa ŵakamba kuzgoka Ŵasilamu. Ivi vikapangiska kuti Ŵapwitikizi ŵalute ku vyaru vya kumwera kwa Sahara. Vinthu ivyo vikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵa mu vyaru vinyake ŵaŵe na vilato viphya vikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵa mu vyaru vinyake ŵaŵe na vilato viphya.<ref>{{Cite web |title=European Trade, Colonialism, and Human Capital Accumulation in Senegal, Gambia and Western Mali, 1770–1900 – African Economic History Network |url=https://www.aehnetwork.org/european-trade-colonialism-and-human-capital-accumulation-in-senegal-gambia-and-western-mali-1770-1900/ |access-date=2017-08-17 |website=www.aehnetwork.org |language=en-US}}</ref> Cinthu cinyake ico cikapangiska kuti vinthu vyendenge makora mu caru cikaŵa kuti ŵanthu ŵacekuru ŵakasanganga ndalama zinandi. Pakati pa virimika vya m'ma 1400 na 1900, ŵanthu ŵa mu vyaru ivyo vikaŵa na nkhaza zinandi na kufwa luŵiro, ŵakaŵavya ndalama zinandi zakusambizgira ŵanthu. Ntheura, unandi wa ŵanthu awo ŵakukhala mu vyaru ivi (pakuwona unandi wa ŵanthu awo ŵakukhala mu vyaru ivi) nguheni comene kuluska mu vyaru vinyake. Ivi vingapangiska kuti mu vyaru vya ku Africa muŵe mphambano ya umo vinthu vikuŵira.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Baten|first1=Jörg|last2=Alexopoulou|first2=Kleoniki|title=Elite violence and elite numeracy in Africa from 1400 CE to 1950 CE.|journal=}}</ref> === Nkhondo za m'ma 1900 === Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1900, mu vyaru vinandi vya mu Africa mukaŵa masuzgo gha vyachuma, ndyali, na vya ndyali. Ndipouli, mu vyaru vinyake vinthu vyamba kwenda makora mu vyaka vyasonosono apa. Nyengo iyo vinthu vikendanga makora mu vyaru vya ku Africa (kwamba m'ma 2000) yikayaniskika na umo vinthu vikaŵira mu vyaru vya ku China mu vyaka vya m'ma 1970. Mu 2013, mu Africa mukaŵa vyaru vinkhondi na viŵiri ivyo vikaŵa na chuma chikuru chomene. Kufika mu chaka cha 2018, Nigeria ndiyo yikaŵa na chuma chikuru chomene mu Africa pa GDP, ndipo yikulondezgana na South Africa. Charu cha Equatorial Guinea ndicho chili na GDP yikuru chomene pa charu chose cha Africa. Vyaru ivyo vili na mafuta ghanandi nga ni Algeria, Libya na Gabon, na Botswana ivyo vili na vinthu vinandi vyakuthupi vyafuma mu vyaru ivyo vili na cuma cikuru comene kwambira mu vyaka vya m'ma 2000, apo Zimbabwe na Democratic Republic of Congo ni vyaru ivyo vili na cuma cikuru comene pa caru cose, kweni vili kunjira mu gulu la vyaru vikavu comene cifukwa ca vimbundi, nkhondo, na kusama. Dziko la Botswana ndakumanyikwa cifukwa ca kukura kwa vinthu kwambura kumara kufuma apo likapokera wanangwa.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Overview |url=https://www.worldbank.org/en/country/botswana/overview |access-date=2021-07-07 |website=World Bank |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-28 |title=Botswana – an African economic miracle? |url=https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/internationaldevelopment/2020/01/28/botswana-an-african-economic-miracle/ |access-date=2021-07-07 |website=LSE International Development}}</ref> == Umo vinthu viliri sono == [[File:Factory_of_National_Cement_Share_Company.jpg|right|thumb|Kampani ya National Cement Share ya ku Ethiopia yikupanga fakitale yiphya ku Dire Dawa]] Wupu wa United Nations ukayowoyerathu kuti chuma cha Africa chizamukura na 3.5% mu 2018 na 3.7% mu 2019. Mu 2007, ciŵelengero ca ŵanthu mu vyaru vya ku Africa cikaluska ca ku East Asia. Malipoti ghakulongora kuti vigaŵa vinyake vya caru ici vikukura luŵiro comene cifukwa ca ivyo vikusanga na kukhazikika kwa ndyali. Wupu wa World Bank ukati chuma cha vyaru vya ku Africa kumwera kwa Sahara chikakura chomene kuluska charu chose. Kuyana na Dipatimenti ya vya Ndalama na Vya Umoyo wa Ŵanthu ya United Nations (UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs), vinthu vikwenda makora comene mu caru ici cifukwa cakuti ku Eguputo, Nigeria, na South Africa, uko ni vyaru vitatu vikuru comene mu Africa, vinthu vikwenda makora. Charu cha Sub-Saharan Africa chikapwetekeka comene apo ndalama za boma zikakhira kufuma pa 22% ya GDP mu 2011 kufika pa 17% mu 2021. Vyaru 15 vya mu Africa vili na ngongoli zinandi, ndipo vyaru 7 vya mu Africa vili mu suzgo la ndalama. Chigaŵa ichi chikapokera wanangwa wapadera wa IMF wa $23 billion mu 2021 kuti wovwire ndalama za boma. Vyaru vya mu Africa ivyo vikukura luŵiro comene vikakura comene kuluska caru cose. Vyaru ivyo vikaŵa pa malo ghapacanya comene mu 2007 ni Mauritania, uko kukakura pa 19.8%, Angola pa 17.6%, Sudan pa 9.6%, Mozambique pa 7.9% na Malawi pa 7.8%. Vyaru vinyake ivyo vikukura luŵiro ni Rwanda, Mozambique, Chad, Niger, Burkina Faso, na Ethiopia. Ndipouli, ku vigaŵa vinandi vya mu Africa, kusazgapo Zimbabwe, Democratic Republic of Congo, Republic of Congo na Burundi, vinthu vikwenda makora yayi. Mabungwe ghanandi gha pa caru cose ghakukhumba comene kuti ghaŵikeko ndalama mu vyaru vya ku Africa ivyo vikukura, comenecomene apo caru ici cikulutilira kukura nangauli pasono pa caru cose vinthu vili makora yayi. Pasono ndalama izo ŵanthu ŵakuguliska mu vyaru vya kumwera. Mabungwe ghanyake gha pa caru cose ghakovwira kuti caru ca Africa ciŵe na ndalama zinandi. Mu 1996, wupu wa United Nations ukawovwira pa mulimo wa kuchepeska ngongoli ku vyaru vikavu ivyo vili na ngongoli zinandi. Kuzakafika mu 2013, mu vyaru 30 vya mu Africa, ngongoli zinyake zaŵamalira. Kukwambilira kwa chaka cha 2021, European Investment Bank, na wovwiri wa Make Finance Work for Africa Partnership (MFW4A), yikafumba mabanki 78 mu vyaru vya ku Sub-Saharan Africa kuti ghacite kafukufuku wa EIB Banking in Africa. Mabanki agho ghakaŵapo ghakalongozganga pafupifupi 30% ya katundu wa mu Africa. Pafupifupi vigaŵa viŵiri pa vigaŵa vitatu vya mabanki agho ghakafumbika ghakaŵa na malango ghakusuzga pakupeleka ngongoli, kweni ghakujumpha 80% ghakaŵikapo mtima kuti ghaleke kupeleka ngongoli. Mabanki ghachoko waka ndigho ghakakhumbikwiranga kusintha unandi wa ŵantchito ŵawo, ndipo ghakukwana pafupifupi chigaŵa chimoza pa vigaŵa vitatu pera. Pafupifupi hafu ya mabanki agho ghakazgora ghakaŵa na vimbundi vya ŵantchito, ndipo vinandi vikafuma ku banki, boma, panji ku wupu wa vya ndalama. Vinthu ivyo vyakhwaska ndalama mu vyaru vya mu Africa mpaka pakati pa 2020 vikaŵa pafupifupi 1 ¢2% ya GDP, ndipo ndalama izo ŵakakhwaska zikaŵa pafupifupi 2% ya GDP. Ichi chili kufupi na chiŵelengero cha IMF pa charu chose cha vyaru vyakukhulirakulira ivyo vikusanga ndalama zichoko, icho chili pafupifupi 2% ya GDP ya 2020 mu chaka chimoza kufuma apo nthenda ya COVID-19 yikambira. Pa nyengo yeneyiyo, vyaru vyakusintha vikapokera ndalama zakukwana pafupifupi 4% ya GDP, apo vyaru vyakusintha vikapokera ndalama zakukwana 16% ya GDP.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book|last=Bank|first=European Investment|url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/economic-report-finance-in-africa-green-smart-inclusive-private-sector-development|title=Finance in Africa: for green, smart and inclusive private sector development|date=2021-11-18|publisher=European Investment Bank|isbn=978-92-861-5063-0|language=EN}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Policy Responses to COVID19 |url=https://www.imf.org/en/Topics/imf-and-covid19/Policy-Responses-to-COVID-19 |access-date=2021-12-06 |website=IMF |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=World Economic Situation Prospects |url=https://www.un.org/development/desa/dpad/wp-content/uploads/sites/45/WESP2021_CH3.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210126153559/https://www.un.org/development/desa/dpad/wp-content/uploads/sites/45/WESP2021_CH3.pdf |archive-date=26 January 2021}}</ref> Apo vyaru vya mu Africa vikasuzgikanga kuti vileke kusuzgika na nthenda iyi, ndalama izo ŵanthu ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito mu Africa zikakwera kufuma pa 5% ya GDP mu 2019 kufika pa 8% mu 2020. Cifukwa ca kucepa kwa ndalama, suzgo la ndalama likapangiska kuti ŵambeso kutora ngongoli zinandi. Vyaru vya kumpoto na kumwera kwa Africa ndivyo vyacitapo vinandi kuti viwovwire pa suzgo la ndalama ilo laŵapo cifukwa ca nthenda iyi. Vyaru 34 vya mu Africa vyacitapo kanthu kuti viŵe na ndalama zinandi na kucepeskako ndalama izo ŵakuguliska, comenecomene mwa kucepeska msonkho. Mwaciyelezgero, caru ca South Africa cikadumulizga msonkho na fundo 200 panji kujumpha apa. Ndondomeko iyo yikugwiliskirika nchito comene njakuti kusinthiska umo ngongoli izo zikugwilira nchito yayi zikugwilira nchito mwa kuchepeska ivyo vikukhumbikwa. Kuti mabanki ghaleke kusuzgika na nthenda ya COVID-19, ŵamazaza ŵakugwiliskira nchito ndalama zakupambanapambana panji ivyo ŵanthu ŵakugwiliskira nchito, ŵakuzomerezga kuti ndalama izo ŵakugwiliskira nchito pa nyengo yichoko zipelekeke, ŵakukhozga ndalama izo ŵakukhumba, panji kusintha vinthu vinyake. Nangauli kukaŵa nthenda ya COVID-19, ndalama izo ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa ŵakagwiliskira nchito zikakhazikika mu 2020, ndipo zikafika pa $4.3 biliyoni kufuma pa $3.9 biliyoni mu 2019 apo ntchito za ku Africa zikamara. Pa vyaru ivyo vikukhumbikwira ndalama zinandi, GDP ya munthu yumoza yikwenera kukhala pasi kuluska umo yikaŵira pambere nthenda iyi yindambe m'paka mu 2024, ndipo mu 2022 na 2023, chiŵelengero cha vyaru ivi chikwenera kukura na 1 peresenti pera pa chaka. Pambere nthenda iyi yindambe, ŵanthu ŵakaghanaghananga kuti caru cizamuŵa cakukhora pa 2% panji kujumpha apa.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Global Growth to Slow through 2023, Adding to Risk of 'Hard Landing' in Developing Economies |url=https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2022/01/11/global-recovery-economics-debt-commodity-inequality |access-date=2022-11-18 |website=World Bank |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Country notes |url=https://www.afdb.org/sites/default/files/2022/05/25/aeo22_countrynotes_eng.pdf |website=African Development Bank}}</ref> === Kukula kwa malonda === Vinthu vya malonda ndivyo vyawovwira chomene kuti chuma cha mu Africa chikure mu vyaka vya m'ma 2000. Charu cha China na India ni vyaru vyakuzirwa comene pa malonda; 12,5% ya vyakurya ivyo vyatumizgika ku Africa vikuluta ku China, ndipo 4% vikuluta ku India, uko kuli 5% ya vyakurya ivyo vyatumizgika ku China na 8% ya vyakurya ivyo vyatumizgika ku India. Gulu la vyaru vinkhondi (Indonesia, Malaysia, Saudi Arabia, Thailand, na United Arab Emirates) ni msika unyake wakuzirwa comene wa vyakurya vya ku Africa.<ref>{{cite web |title=Economic Report on Africa 2012 |url=http://www.uneca.org/sites/default/files/publications/era2012_eng_fin.pdf |access-date=2 March 2013 |publisher=United Nations Economic Commission for Africa (UNECA) |page=44}}</ref> === Nthazi === [[File:Uganda_-_ad_on_van_in_Kampala.jpg|thumb|Chipharazgo cha foni ya m'manja mumphepete mwa galimoto, ku Kampala, Uganda]] Chuma cha mu Africa chikulutilira kukura, ndipo chiyowoyero cha Chingelezi ndicho ntchakuzomerezgeka mu vyaru vinandi vya ku Sub-Sahara. Mu 2011, malonda gha pakati pa Africa na China ghakafika pa madola mabiliyoni 166. Mu 2035, caru ca Africa cizamuŵa na "vigaŵa vya ŵanthu" apo ŵacinyamata na awo ŵakugwira nchito ŵazamuŵa na ŵana ŵachoko na ŵanthu awo ŵafumapo pa nchito. Ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakugwira nchito mu caru ici ŵali kusambira comene, ndipo pafupifupi hafu ya ŵanthu aŵa ŵazamuŵa kuti ŵali kusambira sukulu za sekondare mu 2020. Ku Africa nako kuli ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakuguliska vinthu, ndipo ŵakukhazga kuti ŵalutilirenge kukura. Mu Africa muli ŵanthu pafupifupi 90 miliyoni awo ndalama izo ŵakupokera zikuluska madola 5,000 gha ku United States. Ichi chikung'anamura kuti ndalama zawo zinandi ŵakuzigwiliskira ntchito pa vinthu vinyake. Kuzakafika mu 2020, chiŵelengero ichi chingafika pa 128 miliyoni. Mu Julayi 2013, apo pulezidenti wa United States, Barack Obama, wakaluta ku Africa, wakapharazga vya ndalama zakukwana madola mabiliyoni 7 za ku Africa kuti viwovwire ŵanthu ŵa mu vyaru ivi. Obama nayo wakavumbura pulogiramu yiphya yakucemeka Trade Africa, iyo yikovwira kuti malonda gha pa caru cose ndiposo pakati pa Africa na United States ghalutilire. Pakuyambiska ndondomeko yiphya ya kukura na kukura kwa cuma iyo yikwiza na mamembara gha African Union, mamembara pafupifupi 27 agho ghali pakati pa vyaru ivyo vikukura comene pa caru ca Africa, ghazamovwira kuti caru ici ciŵe cakukolerana pa nkhani za cuma na ndyali. Malo gha Malonda Ghakupambanapambana gha mu Africa ghazamovwira kuti ŵanthu ŵa mu vyaru vinyake na mu vyaru vinyake ŵachitenge malonda. Ivi viwovwirenge kuti ŵanthu ŵaleke kuthemba chomene vyakurya vyakumalizgika na vinthu vinyake vyakukhumbikwa. Vikuwoneka kuti mu vyaka vyakulondezgapo, mphambano pakati pa vyaru visambazi na vikavu yizamulutilira kukura.<ref>The Economist, The African Century, 28 March 2020.</ref> === Kucita malonda === Kucita bizinesi nkhwakuzirwa comene kuti munthu wakure. Maboma ghakwenera kuvikilira malango ghakovwira ŵamalonda kuti ŵalutilire kupanga vinthu viphya. Mu 2019, ndalama izo ŵanthu ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito pakwamba zikakwera kufika pa madola 1.3 biliyoni. Vinthu ivyo vikupangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵasuzgikenge ni viŵi yayi.<ref name="The Economist 2020">The Economist, "The African century", 28 March 2020.</ref> == Vinthu ivyo vikapangiska kuti vinthu vileke kwenda makora mu vyaru vinyake == Cifukwa cakuti ukavu mu Africa ukuwoneka kuti ungatonda yayi, ŵanthu ŵakususkana na ivyo vikupangiska ukavu. Nkhondo na vivulupi, vimbundi, na maboma ghaciwembu ndivyo vikupangiska masuzgo gha vyachuma. Mu Africa mukaŵa masuzgo ghanandi cifukwa ca nkhondo ya pa caru cose. Kwamba m'ma 1900, Nkhondo Yakuzizima, vimbundi vikuru, maboma ghaheni, matenda, na nkhaza vyapangiska kuti chuma cha mu Africa chileke kwenda makora.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hyden|first=Goran|date=2007-10-23|title=Governance and poverty reduction in Africa|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=104|issue=43|pages=16751–16756|doi=10.1073/pnas.0700696104|pmid=17942700|pmc=2040419|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{cite thesis|last1=Lange|first1=Matthew Keith|title=The British colonial lineages of despotism and development|year=2004|id={{ProQuest|305225106}}|oclc=61140381}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Bhattacharyya|first1=S.|title=Root Causes of African Underdevelopment|journal=Journal of African Economies|date=1 November 2009|volume=18|issue=5|pages=745–780|doi=10.1093/jae/ejp009}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Awojobi|first1=Oladayo Nathaniel|title=CORRUPTION AND UNDERDEVELOPMENT IN AFRICA: A DISCOURSE APPROACH|journal=International Journal of Economics, Commerce and Management|volume=2|issue=10|date=October 2014|url=https://ijecm.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/21023.pdf}}</ref> Magazini yinyake yikati vinthu ivi ni vimbundi mu maboma, ndyali zikusintha yayi, ndyali zikugwiliskira ntchito vyamalonda, kweniso ŵanthu ŵakukhumba yayi kuti maboma ghaŵasuzgenge.<ref name="The Economist 2020" /> === Vyakuzenga === [[File:Map_of_Trans-African_Highways.PNG|thumb|350x350px|Msewu wa Trans-African Highway]] Kuyana na ŵasayansi ŵa ku Overseas Development Institute, kuchepa kwa vinthu vyakukhumbikwa mu vyaru vinandi ivyo vikukura ni suzgo likuru comene pa nkhani ya vinthu ivyo vingatondeska kuti vinthu vyendenge makora mu vyaru ivi. Kugwiliskira nchito vinthu ivi na kuvisunga vingaŵa vyakudura comene, comenecomene mu vyaru vya ku Africa ivyo vili kutali na nyanja. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakuti pakati pa 1990 na 2005, ndalama izo ŵanthu ŵakugwiliskira nchito pa kupanga vinthu vikovwira kuti vinthu viŵe makora mu Africa. Ndalama izo ŵakugwiliskira nchito pakugwiliskira nchito nthowa zakwendeskera vinthu ni zinandi comene. Ku Africa, ŵanthu ŵakuti kuti vilato vya MDG vifiskike mu 2015, ndalama izo ŵanthu ŵakugwiliskira ntchito pa kupanga vinthu vikwenera kukwana pafupifupi 15 peresenti ya GDP. Pasono ndalama izo ŵakupeleka zikupambana chomene pakati pa vyaru. Vigaŵa vinyake vikusangika na ndalama za boma, vinyake na wovwiri wa vyaru vinyake, ndipo vinyake na ŵaganyu. Mu vyaru vya kumwera kwa Sahara, boma likupeleka ndalama zakukwana madola mabiliyoni 9.4 pa madola mabiliyoni 24.9. Pa nkhani ya ulimi wa milonga, vyaru vya ku South Africa vikugwiliskira nchito ndalama zinandi; pa nkhani ya vyakwendeskera vinthu na magesi, ndalama zinandi zikufuma ku boma; pa nkhani ya matekinoloje gha vyamasalamusi na maji, na maofesi gha vyaumoyo, ndalama zinandi zikufuma ku vyaru vya ŵekha. Pafupifupi, wovwiri wa boma, wa ŵanthu ŵekha na wa ŵanthu ŵambura kukolerana na OECD, ukujumpha ndalama izo boma likupeleka. Ndalama izo maboma ghakupeleka ku makampani ghapachanya, zikuyana waka na izo boma likupeleka ku maboma ghanyake. Ndalama zakufuma ku vyaru vinyake zikakwera kufuma pa 7 biliyoni (2002) kufika pa 27 biliyoni (2009). Mwaciyerezgero, caru ca China caŵa na ndalama zinandi.<ref name="ODI1">Christian K.M. Kingombe 2011. [https://web.archive.org/web/20120918135821/http://www.odi.org.uk/resources/details.asp?id=5666&title=latin-america-medellin-colombia-microfinance-post-washington-consensus-microcredit-microenterprise-local-development Mapping the new infrastructure financing landscape] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120918135821/http://www.odi.org.uk/resources/details.asp?id=5666&title=latin-america-medellin-colombia-microfinance-post-washington-consensus-microcredit-microenterprise-local-development|date=18 September 2012}}. London: [[Overseas Development Institute]]</ref> === Chikoloni === {{Main|Colonisation of Africa}} [[File:Map_of_railways_in_Africa_1899.jpg|thumb|350x350px|Mapu gha sitima za mu Africa, kusazgapo misewu iyo yikunozgeka na iyo yikuzengeka, The Statesman's Yearbook, 1899]] Cakulinga cikuru ca maboma gha ku Europe agho ghakaŵa na mazaza pa caru ca Africa cikaŵa cakuti ghasange usambazi mu Africa pa mtengo ucoko. Ŵalembi ŵanyake, nga ni Walter Rodney mu buku lake lakuti How Europe Underdeveloped Africa, ŵakuti ndyali izi ndizo zikupangiska masuzgo ghanandi agho ghalipo mu Africa mazuŵa ghano. Awo ŵakususka boma la ŵanthu ŵakususka kuti boma la ŵanthu likuŵapweteka ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa. Ŵasayansi ŵanyake awo ŵakasambira vya nyengo ya ŵakaronga, chomenechomene Frantz Fanon, ŵakayowoya kuti vinthu ivyo vikupangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵambe kulamulira ŵakaronga ni vya mu maghanoghano, kweniso kuti ŵanthu ŵakujiwona kuti mbambura kuzirwa. Ŵanthu aŵa ŵakughanaghana kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa awo ŵalije maghanoghano gha ŵanthu ŵa mu vyaru vinyake ndiwo ŵakwamba kusintha vinthu. Ŵakulemba mbiri L. H. Gann na Peter Duignan ŵakayowoya kuti mu Africa mukaŵa vyandulo vinandi chifukwa cha muwuso wa ŵanthu. Nangauli ukakoloni ukaŵa na maubudi ghake, kweni panji ukaŵa "umoza mwa vinthu ivyo vikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵambuke mu caru". Ndipouli, maghanoghano agha ngakususkana ndipo ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakughazomera yayi. Nkhwantha ya vya cuma, David Kenneth Fieldhouse, yikayowoya kuti vinthu ivyo vikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵambe kulamulira caru vikaŵa vyakukwana yayi, ndipo suzgo lawo likuru likaŵa lakuti ŵakalutilira yayi kukura, kweni kuti ŵakatondeka. Niall Ferguson wakukolerana na fundo yake yaumaliro, wakuti mauteciteci gha cikoloni ghakaŵa kwananga kwa kuleka kucita kanthu. Para tawona umo vyaru vya mu Africa vikaŵira, tikuwona kuti vyaru vyakujiyimira vyenevivi nga ni Liberia na Ethiopia vikaŵa makora yayi pa nkhani ya vyachuma kuluska vyaru vinyake. Makamaka vinthu vikenda makora mu vyaru ivyo vikaŵa pasi pa Britain kuluska vyaru ivyo vikaŵa pasi pa France. Ukavu uwo ukaŵa mu Africa ukamba ni kale comene pambere ŵanthu ŵandambe kulamulira caru. Mu buku lake lakuti Guns, Germs, and Steel, Jared Diamond wakulongosora kuti charu cha Africa chikalutilira kuŵa na ukavu chifukwa cha vinthu vinandi ivyo vikachitiska kuti ŵanthu ŵasuzgikenge. Vinthu ivi ni unandi wa ŵanthu ŵachoko, viŵeto vyambura kulengeka makora na vyakumera, kweniso charu cha Africa chili kumpoto na kumwera. Kweni ŵanyake ŵakususka fundo za Diamond, kusazgapo James Morris Blaut. John K. Thornton wakati mu nyengo ya Ŵakhristu ŵakwambilira, mu Africa mukaŵa vinthu vinandi chomene. Ŵasayansi ŵanyake ŵakugomezga kuti mu nyengo yakale, mu Africa mukaŵa ŵanthu ŵakavu chomene kuluska mu vyaru vinyake. Mwaciyelezgero, Acemoglue na Robinson ŵakayowoya kuti vyaru vinandi vya mu Africa vikaŵa vikavu, kweni "Aksum, Ghana, Songhay, Mali, [na] Great Zimbabwe... vikaŵa vyakutukuka nga ni vyaru vinyake". Ŵanthu ŵanyake nga ni Rodney na Joseph E. Inikori wakayowoya kuti ukavu wa mu Africa pakwamba kwa nyengo ya ukoloni ukaŵa cifukwa ca kuchepa kwa ŵanthu awo ŵakaguliskikanga ŵazga kweniso cifukwa ca kusintha kwa vinthu. Ŵanyake nga ni J. D. Kuŵa wakukondwa. Fage na David Eltis ŵakususka fundo iyi.<ref>David Eltis, ''Economic Growth and the Ending of the Transatlantic Slave Trade''</ref> === Kupambana kwa viyowoyero === [[File:TamaleGhana2.jpg|thumb|250x250px|Ŵanthu ŵaŵiri ŵakusoleka mwamwaŵi mu [[Ghana]] ŵali na mwaŵi wa 8.1% waka wa kuyowoya chiyowoyero chawo.]] Vyaru vya mu Africa vikuŵa na suzgo la kuyowoyeskana cifukwa ca viyowoyero vyakupambanapambana. Greenberg wakuwona kuti ŵanthu ŵaŵiri awo ŵakusoleka mwamwaŵi ŵali na viyowoyero vyakupambana. Pa vyaru 25 ivyo vili na ŵanthu ŵakupambanapambana, 18 (72%) ni vyaru vya ku Africa.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.ethnologue.com/ethno_docs/distribution.asp?by=country#6|title=Summary by country|work=Ethnologue|access-date=2017-09-12}}</ref> Ivi vikusazgapo vyaru 12 ivyo Greenberg wakuyowoya viyowoyero vyakupambanapambana ivyo vikuluska 0.9, ico cikung'anamura kuti ŵanthu ŵaŵiri awo ŵasoleka mwamwaŵi ŵali na mwaŵi wa viyowoyero vyakuyana yayi. Ndipouli, chiyowoyero chikuru icho ŵanthu ŵakuyowoyera mu boma, mu ndyali, mu masukulu, na mu vyaru vinyake, kanandi chikuŵa Chingelezi, Chifurenchi, panji Ciphwitikizi. === Maghanoghano ghakukhwaskana na malonda === Fundo iyi yikulongora kuti usambazi wa ŵamazaza na ŵabwezi ŵawo ku Europe, North America, na East Asia vikuthemba pa ukavu wa vyaru vinyake, kusazgapo Africa. Ŵanthu awo ŵakugomezga fundo iyi ŵakugomezga kuti vyaru vikavu vikwenera kuleka kusolerana na vyaru visambazi kuti viŵe makora. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakuti vinthu vikwenda makora yayi mu vyaru visambazi. Para vyaru vikusuzgika na vinthu vyakuthupi vyamba kunozga vyakurya pa mtengo uwemi, vikuguliska viŵere vinandi yayi. Ŵanthu ŵakughanaghana kuti nchifukwa cakuti mu vyaru vyakutukuka muli ndalama zinandi izo zikupeleka ku vyakurya vyakupambanapambana, ndipo ku vyaru ivi kuli msonkho ukuru comene wa vinthu ivyo vikunjira mu vyaru vinyake. Nangauli wovwiri uwu na msonkho uwu vyachepeskeka, kweni vichali kukwera. Vinthu ivyo vikucitika mu vyaru vinyake vikukhwaskaso vyakurya ivyo vikupelekeka ku vyaru vinyake. Kafukufuku uyo wakachitika pa nkhani ya vyachuma wakuyowoya vya ŵanthu nga umo wakachitira Jane Shaw, wakulongora kuti ŵanthu awo ŵakukhumba kuti vinthu vyendenge makora ŵakuchita vinthu pamoza na boma. Ŵalimi awo ŵali na mphaka pa vyakurya ivyo ŵakuguliska ku vyaru vinyake ŵakuguliska ku malo ghanyake, ndipo ivi vikuŵapangiska kuti ŵaleke kugwiliskira ntchito makora vinthu. Para vinthu vyasintha pa msika, ŵalimi ŵakuchichizga boma kuti liŵawovwire kuti ŵaleke kuphalizgana. Pakuti ŵanthu ŵakuleka kuphalizgana, ŵalimi ŵakuleka kupanga vinthu viphya na kulima vyakurya vinandi.<ref>{{cite web |last=Shaw |first=Jane |date=April 2004 |title=Overlooking the Obvious in Africa |url=http://www.econjournalwatch.org/pdf/Shaw%20Comment%20April%202004.pdf |access-date=2008-10-01 |publisher=Econ Journal Watch}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Pasour |first=E.C. |date=April 2004 |title=Intellectual Tyranny of the Status Quo |url=http://www.econjournalwatch.org/pdf/Pasour%20Intellectual%20Tyranny%20April%202004.pdf |access-date=2008-10-01 |publisher=Econ Journal Watch}}</ref> === Kulamulira === {{Political corruption sidebar}} Nangauli mu ma 1960, vyaru vya ku Africa na Asia vikaŵa na ndalama zakuyana waka, kweni kufuma nyengo yira vyaru vya ku Asia vyajumpha pa vyaru vya ku Africa. Ŵasayansi ŵanyake ŵakuti chuma cha ku Asia chikukura chifukwa cha ndalama izo ŵanthu ŵakuŵika mu vyaru ivi. Vimbundi mu vyaru vya ku Africa vikwamba na kupoka ndalama mu vyaru vinyake m'malo mwa kugwiliskira nchito ndalama mu vyaru vyawo. Ŵasayansi ŵa pa Yunivesite ya Massachusetts Amherst, ŵakati kwamba mu 1970 m'paka mu 1996, ndalama izo zikathera mu vyaru 30 ivyo vili kumwera kwa Sahara zikaŵa madola 187 biliyoni. Awo ŵakalemba ni Leonce Ndikumana na James K. Boyce wakati kwamba mu 1970 m'paka mu 2008, ndalama izo zikaluta ku vyaru vinyake kufuma ku vyaru 33 vya ku Sub-Sahara, zikakwana madola 700 biliyoni. Mobutu Sese Seko, uyo wakaŵa muwusi wa ku Congo, wakaŵa na mbiri yiheni cifukwa ca vimbundi, kutemwera ŵabali, na kunanga ndalama zakukwana madola 4 panji 15 biliyoni. Maboma gha Socialist agho ghakalongozgekanga na fundo za Marx na kusintha vinthu pa nkhani ya vyaru, nagho ghakatimbanizga vinthu mu Africa. Mwaciyelezgero, muwuso wa Robert Mugabe ku Zimbabwe, comenecomene uwo ukapangiska kuti ŵalimi ŵazungu ŵatore malo ghawo, ukapangiska kuti ciŵelengero ca vyakurya mu caru ici cileke kwenda makora. Charu cha Tanzania chikaŵa chinyake mwa vyaru vikavu chomene pa charu chapasi ndipo chikakhumbikwiranga wovwiri wa ŵanthu ŵanandi. Kufuma apo boma la chipani chimoza likamara mu 1992 ndipo charu cha Tanzania chikaŵa na demokilase, chuma chikukura chomene, ndipo mu 2017 chikakura na 6.5%..<ref>{{Cite web |title=Download entire World Economic Outlook database, October 2017 |url=https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2017/02/weodata/download.aspx |access-date=2021-05-27 |website=www.imf.org}}</ref> === Wovwiri wa ku vyaru vinyake === Kweni nga umo Amartya Sen wakalongolera, njara zinandi zikucitika cifukwa ca kusoŵa cakurya yayi kweni cifukwa ca kusoŵa ndalama. Para vyaŵa nthena, wovwiri wa vyakurya ‒ mwakupambana na wovwiri wa ndalama ‒ ukuparanya vyakurya mu vyaru ivi ndipo ukuwovwira chomene makampani gha vyakurya gha ku vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi, agho ghakupanga vyakurya vinandi comene cifukwa ca wovwiri wa vyakurya. Kwamba kale, wovwiri wa vyakurya ukuyana comene na vyakurya ivyo vyasoŵa mu vyaru vya ku vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi kuluska ivyo vikukhumbikwa mu vyaru vyakusintha. Kufuma mu ma 1980, wovwiri wakufuma ku vyaru vinyake waŵa cigaŵa cakuzirwa comene ca vyachuma mu Africa. Ndondomeko iyi yikususkika cifukwa cakuti yikunjira mu malo mwa ndondomeko za malonda. Ukaboni ukulongora kuti wovwiri wa vyaru vinyake wawovwira kuti caru ici ciŵe cikavu comene. Yumoza mwa ŵanthu awo ŵakususka chomene ndondomeko iyi ni Dambisa Moyo, uyo wakumanya vya ndalama wa ku Zambia. Mazuŵa ghano, mu vyaru vya mu Africa vikusuzgika kusanga wovwiri ku vyaru vinyake. Likukhumbikwira ndyali zinandi za vya cuma na kunjilirapo comene mu vya cuma ca caru cose. Pakuti caru cose cacemera wovwiri wa vyaru vinyake, caru ca Africa cikukhumba comene wovwiri uwu. Kweniso charu cha Africa chili kupanga pulani ya "Africa Action Plan" kuti chiŵe paubwezi na ŵantchito awo ŵakovwira kuti vinthu vyende makora.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=May 2003|title=African Action Plan|url=https://repository.uneca.org/handle/10855/38608|website=UN Economic Commission for Africa}}</ref> == Mabungwe gha malonda na mawupu ghanandi == Wupu wa African Union ni wupu ukuru comene pa caru cose. Makhaliro gha wupu uwu ghakukolerana na kuzenga malo gha malonda gha wanangwa, wupu wa mitheto, msika umoza, banki yikuru, na ndalama yimoza (wonani African Monetary Union), na kukhazikiska wupu wa vyachuma na ndalama. Ndondomeko iyo yilipo sono njakuti mu 2023, paŵe wupu wa African Economic Community uwo uzamuŵa na ndalama yimoza. Banki ya vya Ndalama ya ku Africa yikovwira kuti vinthu vyende makora. Ndondomeko ya wupu wa AU yikusazgapo kuzenga wupu wa African Monetary Fund (AMF). Magulu ghanyake ghakukolerana na fundo yakuti kuŵe United States of Africa. Mabungwe gha vya ndalama na mabanki gha pa caru cose ghakusazgapo: * [[Central Bank of West African States]] * [[Bank of Central African States]] * [[Common Monetary Area]] Vinthu vikuruvikuru ivyo vikuchitika mu vyaru vinyake vikuzunulika pa chithuzithuzi. {{African Economic Community}} {{further|Economy of the African Union}} === Wupu wa vyachuma wa vigaŵa === Mu m'ma 1960, Kwame Nkrumah, wa ku Ghana, wakawovwira kuti vyaru vya mu Africa viŵe na umoza pa nkhani za ndyali na vya cuma. Kufuma nyengo yira, vilato na mawupu ghakupambanapambana vyaŵa vinandi. Mu vyaka vyasonosono apa, ŵanthu ŵayezgayezga comene kuti ŵafike pa umoza mu vyaru ivi. Mu 2012, malonda gha vyaru vya mu Africa ghakaŵa waka 11 peresenti ya malonda ghose gha mu Africa. Vinthu vinandi ivyo ŵanthu ŵakuguliskana mu vyaru vya mu Africa vikufuma ku South Africa, ndipo vinandi ivyo vikufuma mu vyaru ivi vikuluta ku vyaru vya kumwera kwa Africa. Pasono pali mawupu 8 agho ghakovwira pa vyachuma mu Africa:<ref>{{cite journal|title=2013 Guide economique du continentBourses Africaines|journal=Africa 24|year=2013|issue=8|pages=64–65|editor1-last=Sarl}}</ref> {| class="wikitable" !Zina la wupu !Zuŵa la kupangika !Vyaru !GDP yose (mu mamiliyoni gha madola gha ku US) |- |[[Economic Community of West African States]] |28 May 1975 |[[Benin]], [[Burkina Faso]], [[Cape Verde]], [[Gambia]], [[Ghana]], [[Guinea-Bissau]], [[Guinea]], [[Ivory Coast]], [[Liberia]], [[Mali]], [[Niger]], [[Nigeria]], [[Senegal]], [[Sierra Leone]], [[Togo]] |657 |- |[[East African Community]] |30 November 1999 |[[Burundi]], [[Kenya]], [[Uganda]], [[Rwanda]], [[Tanzania]] |232 |- |[[Economic Community of Central African States]] |18 October 1983 |[[Angola]], [[Burundi]], [[Cameroon]], [[Central African Republic]], [[Republic of the Congo|Congo]], [[Democratic Republic of Congo]], [[Gabon]], [[Guinea]], [[São Tomé and Príncipe]], [[Chad]] |289 |- |[[Southern African Development Community]] |17 August 1992 |[[Angola]], [[Botswana]], [[Eswatini|Eswatini (Swaziland)]], [[Lesotho]], [[Madagascar]], [[Malawi]], [[Mauritius]], [[Mozambique]], [[Namibia]], [[Democratic Republic of Congo]], [[Seychelles]], South Africa, [[Tanzania]], [[Zambia]], [[Zimbabwe]] |909 |- |[[Intergovernmental Authority on Development]] |25 November 1996 |[[Djibouti]], [[Ethiopia]], [[Kenya]], [[Uganda]], [[Somalia]], [[Sudan]], [[South Sudan]] |326 |- |[[Community of Sahel-Saharan States]] |4 February 1998 |[[Benin]], [[Burkina Faso]], [[Central African Republic]], [[Comoros]], [[Djibouti]], [[Egypt]], [[Eritrea]], [[Gambia]], [[Ghana]], [[Guinea]], [[Guinea-Bissau]], [[Ivory Coast]], [[Kenya]], [[Liberia]], [[Libya]], [[Mali]], [[Morocco]], [[Mauritania]], [[Niger]], [[Nigeria]], [[São Tomé and Príncipe]], [[Senegal]], [[Sierra Leone]], [[Somalia]], [[Sudan]], [[Chad]], [[Togo]], [[Tunisia]] |1, 692 |- |[[Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa]] |5 November 1993 |[[Burundi]], [[Comoros]], [[Djibouti]], [[Egypt]], [[Eritrea]], [[Eswatini|Eswatini (Swaziland)]], [[Ethiopia]], [[Kenya]], [[Liberia]], [[Madagascar]], [[Malawi]], [[Mauritius]], [[Uganda]], [[Democratic Republic of Congo]], [[Rwanda]], [[Seychelles]], [[Sudan]], [[Zambia]], [[Zimbabwe]] |1,011 |- |[[Arab Maghreb Union]] |17 February 1989 |[[Algeria]], [[Libya]], [[Morocco]], [[Mauritania]], [[Tunisia]] |579 |} == Vinthu vyakupambanapambana vya vyachuma == [[File:Africa_GDP_Map_2020.svg|thumb|350x350px|Map of Africa by nominal GDP in billions USD (2020) {| border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" style="width:100%; background:none;" | valign="top" |{{Legend|#000000|>200}} {{Legend|#002200|100–200}} {{Legend|#004400|50–100}} {{Legend|#006600|20–50}} | valign="top" | {{Legend|#008800|10–20}} {{Legend|#00AA00|5–10}} {{Legend|#00CC00|1–5}} {{Legend|#00EE00|<1}} |} ]] Mu 2009, ku Africa kukaŵa suzgo la vyachuma, kweni mu 2011, ŵanthu ŵa ku Arab ŵakamba kuwukira boma. Kukura kwa caru ici kukakhira kufuma pa 5% mu 2010 kufika pa 3.4% mu 2011. Chifukwa chakuti chuma cha kumpoto kwa Africa chikusintha ndipo vinthu vikulutilira kwenda makora mu vigaŵa vinyake, chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu ku Africa chikwenera kusazgikira kufika pa 4.5% mu 2012 na 4.8% mu 2013. [Pakukhumbika ukaboni apa] Masuzgo gha nyengo yicoko waka ghakukhalilira mu caru cose apo caru ca Europe cikukumana na suzgo la ngongoli. Mtengo wa vyakurya vikuruvikuru vya mu Africa ukakhira comene cifukwa ca kupempha kwacepa na kusazgikira kwa vyakurya, ndipo vinyake vingaweleraso. Kweni mitengo yikwenera kuti yilutilirenge kuŵa yiwemi ku ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa awo ŵakuguliska katundu.<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite web |date=28 May 2012 |title=Economic Outlook |url=http://www.africaneconomicoutlook.org/en/outlook/ |access-date=2012-06-13 |publisher=African Economic Outlook}}</ref> === Vigaŵa === Vinthu vyamba kwenda makora mu Africa mose. Ndipouli, vinthu vikenda makora yayi mu vyaru na vigaŵa. Vyaru ivyo vikuguliska mafuta vikakura comene kuluska vyaru ivyo vikuguliska mafuta. Mu 2010, vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Africa na vya kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Africa ndivyo vikachita makora chomene. Malonda gha mu vyaru vya mu Africa ghakulopwa cifukwa ca ndyali izo zikovwira kuti vyaru na vigaŵa vileke kusuzgika, ndipo ghakukhala waka pasi pa 17 peresenti pakuyaniska na mu vyaru vya ku Europe, uko malonda gha mu vyaru ivi ghali pa 69 peresenti. Nangauli vikaŵa nthena, kweni malonda pakati pa vyaru ivyo vili mu wupu wa Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA), uwo ni cigaŵa cakukhora comene pa nkhani ya vyachuma, ghakakura comene mu vyaka 10 ivyo vyajumpha. Mwaciyelezgero, caru ca Ghana na Kenya vili na misika ya vinthu vya kuzenga, makina, na vyakurya vyamahara. Mu 2010, ŵalongozgi ŵa vyamalonda ŵa mu vyaru vya Africa ŵakazomerezga kuti paŵe chigaŵa cha malonda ghapachanya. Ivi vingawovwira kuti vyaru vichepeskeko msonkho pa vinthu ivyo vikunjira mu vyaru vinyake na kusazgirako malonda mu vyaru vya mu Africa.<ref>{{cite web |title=Economic Report on Africa 2012 |url=http://www.uneca.org/sites/default/files/publications/era2012_eng_fin.pdf |access-date=2 March 2013 |publisher=United Nations Economic Commission for Africa (UNECA) |page=47}}</ref> [[File:Worlds_regions_by_total_wealth(in_trillions_USD),_2018.jpg|thumb|250x250px|Worlds regions by total [[wealth]] (in trillions USD), 2018]] [[File:Countries_by_total_wealth_(trillions_USD),_Credit_Suisse.png|thumb|250x250px|Countries by [[List of countries by total wealth|total wealth]] (trillions USD), Credit Suisse]] [[File:Countries_by_GDP_(PPP)_per_capita_in_2020.png|right|thumb|250x250px|Countries by 2020 [[List of countries by GDP (PPP) per capita|GDP (PPP) per capita]]<ref>Based on the [[International Monetary Fund|IMF]] data. If no data was available for a country from IMF, data from the [[World Bank]] is used.</ref>]] [[File:Sub-Saharan-Africa-Mean-Wind-Speed-Global-Wind-Atlas.png|thumb|288x288px|Mean Wind Speed in Sub-Saharan Africa<ref name="Global Wind Atlas">{{Cite web |title=Global Wind Atlas |url=https://globalwindatlas.info/ |access-date=6 December 2018}}</ref>]] [[File:Sub_Saharan_Africa_GHI_Solar-resource-map_GlobalSolarAtlas_World-Bank-Esmap-Solargis.png|thumb|309x309px|Umo Vinthu Viliri pa Charu Chose ku Africa<ref name="Global Wind Atlas" />]] === Vyaru vya ku Africa === {| class="wikitable sortable" style="font-size:95%;text-align: right" !Charu ![[List of countries by GDP (nominal)|Total GDP (nominal)]] in<br />2019 (billion US$)<ref name="IMF">{{cite web |title=World Economic Outlook Database, Octobre 2020 |url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2020/October/select-country-group |access-date=2020-11-02 |publisher=[[IMF]]}}</ref> ![[List of countries by GDP (PPP) per capita|GDP per capita]] in<br />2019 (US$, PPP)<ref name="IMF" /> !Average annual<br />[[real GDP]] growth<br />2010-2019 (%)<ref name="IMF" /> ![[List of countries by Human Development Index|HDI 2019]]<ref>[http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/hdr_20072008_en_complete.pdf Source] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110429033726/http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_20072008_EN_Complete.pdf|date=29 April 2011}}, 2005</ref> |- | style="text-align:left;" |{{flagcountry|Algeria}} |{{Nts|169.3}} |{{Nts|11,729}} |{{Nts|2.6}} |0.748 |- | style="text-align:left;" |{{flagcountry|Angola}} |{{Nts|89.4}} |{{Nts|7,384}} |{{Nts|1.9}} |0.581 |- | style="text-align:left;" |{{flagcountry|Benin}} |{{Nts|14.4}} |{{Nts|3,423}} |{{Nts|5.1}} |0.545 |- | style="text-align:left;" |{{flagcountry|Botswana}} |{{Nts|18.5}} |{{Nts|17,949}} |{{Nts|4.3}} |0.735 |- | style="text-align:left;" |{{flagcountry|Burkina Faso}} |{{Nts|15.7}} |{{Nts|2,282}} |{{Nts|5.7}} |0.452 |- | style="text-align:left;" |{{flagcountry|Burundi}} |{{Nts|3.1}} |{{Nts|821}} |{{Nts|2.0}} |0.433 |- | style="text-align:left;" |{{flagcountry|Cameroon}} |{{Nts|38.9}} |{{Nts|3,856}} |{{Nts|4.6}} |0.563 |- | style="text-align:left;" |{{flagcountry|Cape Verde}} |{{Nts|2.0}} |{{Nts|7,471}} |{{Nts|2.9}} |0.665 |- | style="text-align:left;" |{{flagcountry|Central African Republic}} |{{Nts|2.3}} |{{Nts|985}} |{{Nts|-1.8}} |0.397 |- | style="text-align:left;" |{{flagcountry|Chad}} |{{Nts|10.9}} |{{Nts|1,654}} |{{Nts|2.2}} |0.398 |- | style="text-align:left;" |{{flagcountry|Comoros}} |{{Nts|1.2}} |{{Nts|3,108}} |{{Nts|3.1}} |0.554 |- | style="text-align:left;" |{{flagcountry|Democratic Republic of the Congo}} |{{Nts|49.8}} |{{Nts|1,015}} |{{Nts|6.1}} |0.480 |- | style="text-align:left;" |{{flagcountry|Republic of the Congo}} |{{Nts|12.5}} |{{Nts|4,600}} |{{Nts|-1.0}} |0.574 |- | style="text-align:left;" |{{flagcountry|Djibouti}} |{{Nts|3.3}} |{{Nts|5,195}} |{{Nts|6.6}} |0.524 |- | style="text-align:left;" |{{flagcountry|Egypt}} |{{Nts|302.3}} |{{Nts|12,391}} |{{Nts|3.8}} |0.707 |- | style="text-align:left;" |{{flagcountry|Equatorial Guinea}} |{{Nts|11.8}} |{{Nts|19,291}} |{{Nts|-2.9}} |0.592 |- | style="text-align:left;" |{{flagcountry|Eritrea}} |{{Nts|2.0}} |{{Nts|1,836}} |{{Nts|3.4}} |0.459 |- | style="text-align:left;" |{{flagcountry|Eswatini|name=Eswatini (Swaziland)}} |{{Nts|4.6}} |{{Nts|9,245}} |{{Nts|2.4}} |0.611 |- | style="text-align:left;" |{{flagcountry|Ethiopia}} |{{Nts|92.8}} |{{Nts|2,724}} |{{Nts|9.5}} |0.485 |- | style="text-align:left;" |{{flagcountry|Gabon}} |{{Nts|16.9}} |{{Nts|16,273}} |{{Nts|3.7}} |0.703 |- | style="text-align:left;" |{{flagcountry|Gambia}} |{{Nts|1.8}} |{{Nts|2,316}} |{{Nts|2.4}} |0.496 |- | style="text-align:left;" |{{flagcountry|Ghana}} |{{Nts|67.0}} |{{Nts|5,688}} |{{Nts|6.5}} |0.611 |- | style="text-align:left;" |{{flagcountry|Guinea}} |{{Nts|13.8}} |{{Nts|2,506}} |{{Nts|6.2}} |0.477 |- | style="text-align:left;" |{{flagcountry|Guinea-Bissau}} |{{Nts|1.4}} |{{Nts|2,429}} |{{Nts|3.8}} |0.480 |- | style="text-align:left;" |{{flagcountry|Ivory Coast}} |{{Nts|58.6}} |{{Nts|5,327}} |{{Nts|6.7}} |0.538 |- | style="text-align:left;" |{{flagcountry|Kenya}} |{{Nts|95.4}} |{{Nts|4,985}} |{{Nts|5.6}} |0.601 |- | style="text-align:left;" |{{flagcountry|Lesotho}} |{{Nts|2.4}} |{{Nts|3,010}} |{{Nts|2.8}} |0.527 |- | style="text-align:left;" |{{flagcountry|Liberia}} |{{Nts|3.2}} |{{Nts|1,601}} |{{Nts|2.7}} |0.480 |- | style="text-align:left;" |{{flagcountry|Libya}} |{{Nts|39.8}} |{{Nts|14,174}} |{{Nts|-10.2}} |0.724 |- | style="text-align:left;" |{{flagcountry|Madagascar}} |{{Nts|14.1}} |{{Nts|1,720}} |{{Nts|3.4}} |0.528 |- | style="text-align:left;" |{{flagcountry|Malawi}} |{{Nts|7.7}} |{{Nts|1,004}} |{{Nts|3.8}} |0.483 |- | style="text-align:left;" |{{flagcountry|Mali}} |{{Nts|17.3}} |{{Nts|2,508}} |{{Nts|4.3}} |0.434 |- | style="text-align:left;" |{{flagcountry|Mauritania}} |{{Nts|7.6}} |{{Nts|6,036}} |{{Nts|3.9}} |0.546 |- | style="text-align:left;" |{{flagcountry|Mauritius}} |{{Nts|14.0}} |{{Nts|23,819}} |{{Nts|3.6}} |0.804 |- | style="text-align:left;" |{{flagcountry|Mayotte}} (France) |{{Nts|3.1}} (2018)<ref name="Mayotte">{{cite web |author=[[Eurostat]] |title=Gross domestic product (GDP) at current market prices by NUTS 2 regions |url=https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/view/NAMA_10R_2GDP__custom_148814/default/table |access-date=2020-11-02}}</ref> |{{Nts|11,815}} (nominal, 2018)<ref name="Mayotte" /> |{{Nts|}} (N/A) |{{Nts|}} (N/A) |- | style="text-align:left;" |{{flagcountry|Morocco}} |{{Nts|118.6}} |{{Nts|8,148}} |{{Nts|3.4}} |0.686 |- | style="text-align:left;" |{{flagcountry|Mozambique}} |{{Nts|15.2}} |{{Nts|1,302}} |{{Nts|5.4}} |0.456 |- | style="text-align:left;" |{{flagcountry|Namibia}} |{{Nts|12.5}} |{{Nts|10,279}} |{{Nts|2.8}} |0.646 |- | style="text-align:left;" |{{flagcountry|Niger}} |{{Nts|12.9}} |{{Nts|1,276}} |{{Nts|5.9}} |0.394 |- | style="text-align:left;" |{{flagcountry|Nigeria}} |{{Nts|448.1}} |{{Nts|5,353}} |{{Nts|3.0}} |0.539 |- | style="text-align:left;" |{{flagcountry|Réunion}} (France) |{{Nts|22.0}}<ref name="Reunion">{{cite web |author=CEROM |title=Comptes économiques rapides de La Réunion en 2019 |url=https://www.cerom-outremer.fr/IMG/pdf/cerom_comptes_2019_vdef3.pdf |access-date=2020-11-02 |language=fr}}</ref> |{{Nts|25,639}} (nominal)<ref name="Reunion" /> |{{Nts|2.1}}<ref>{{cite web |author=[[INSEE]] |title=Figure 1 – Le PIB progresse de 2,2 % en volume en 2019 |url=https://www.insee.fr/fr/statistiques/4510571?sommaire=4476042#tableau-figure1 |access-date=2020-11-02 |language=fr}}</ref> |{{Nts|0.850}} (2003)<ref>{{cite web |date=1 December 2006 |title=... dévoile ses propositions locales. "Enfin !" |url=http://www.temoignages.re/article.php3?id_article=18997}}</ref> |- | style="text-align:left;" |{{flagcountry|Rwanda}} |{{Nts|10.1}} |{{Nts|2,363}} |{{Nts|7.6}} |0.543 |- | style="text-align:left;" |{{flagcountry|Sao Tome and Principe}} |{{Nts|0.4}} |{{Nts|4,141}} |{{Nts|3.9}} |0.625 |- | style="text-align:left;" |{{flagcountry|Senegal}} |{{Nts|23.6}} |{{Nts|3,536}} |{{Nts|5.3}} |0.512 |- | style="text-align:left;" |{{flagcountry|Seychelles}} |{{Nts|1.7}} |{{Nts|30,430}} |{{Nts|4.6}} |0.796 |- | style="text-align:left;" |{{flagcountry|Sierra Leone}} |{{Nts|4.2}} |{{Nts|1,778}} |{{Nts|4.4}} |0.452 |- | style="text-align:left;" |{{flagcountry|Somalia}} |{{Nts|5.2}} |{{Nts|888.00}} |{{Nts|}} (N/A) |{{Nts|0.364}} (2008)<ref>https://www.unescap.org/sites/default/files/wp-09-02.pdf {{Bare URL PDF|date=March 2022}}</ref> |- | style="text-align:left;" |{{flagcountry|South Africa}} |{{Nts|351.4}} |{{Nts|12,962}} |{{Nts|1.5}} |0.709 |- | style="text-align:left;" |{{flagcountry|South Sudan}} |{{Nts|4.9}} |{{Nts|862}} |{{Nts|}} (N/A) |0.433 |- | style="text-align:left;" |{{flagcountry|Sudan}} |{{Nts|33.4}} |{{Nts|4,140}} |{{Nts|-1.6}} |0.510 |- | style="text-align:left;" |{{flagcountry|Tanzania}} |{{Nts|60.8}} |{{Nts|2,841}} |{{Nts|6.7}} |0.529 |- | style="text-align:left;" |{{flagcountry|Togo}} |{{Nts|5.5}} |{{Nts|1,657}} |{{Nts|5.6}} |0.515 |- | style="text-align:left;" |{{flagcountry|Tunisia}} |{{Nts|38.8}} |{{Nts|11,125}} |{{Nts|1.8}} |0.740 |- | style="text-align:left;" |{{flagcountry|Uganda}} |{{Nts|36.5}} |{{Nts|2,646}} |{{Nts|5.2}} |0.544 |- | style="text-align:left;" |{{flagcountry|Zambia}} |{{Nts|24.2}} |{{Nts|3,526}} |{{Nts|4.3}} |0.584 |- | style="text-align:left;" |{{flagcountry|Zimbabwe}} |{{Nts|18.7}} |{{Nts|2,896}} |{{Nts|4.2}} |0.571 <!-- Make sure you spell stuff right! --> |} == Vigaŵa vya vyamalonda na vyakupangira vinthu == Chifukwa chakuti vyakurya ivyo vyakhwaskika na vyakurya vinyake ndivyo vikulondezgana na vyakurya ivyo vyakhwaskika na vyakurya vinyake, ndalama izo vyakhwaskika na vyakurya ivi zikuthemba pa kusinthasintha kwa mitengo ya vinthu. Ici cikupangiska kuti caru ici ciŵe cakusuzgika comene na vinthu vyakuthupi ndipo cikukhumbikwira kuti vyakurya vyakwambukira ku vyaru vinyake. Mu 2012, malonda gha vinthu vyapaulendo, comenecomene vyendeshoni, ghakalutilira kukura.<ref name="autogenerated1" /><ref name="Monthly-Review-51-03-Saul-Leys">John J. Saul and Colin Leys, [http://monthlyreview.org/1999/07/01/sub-saharan-africa-in-global-capitalism Sub-Saharan Africa in Global Capitalism], ''[[Monthly Review]]'', 1999, Volume 51, Issue 03 (July–August)</ref><ref name="Monthly-Review-Magdoff-65-06">Fred Magdoff, [http://monthlyreview.org/2013/11/01/twenty-first-century-land-grabs Twenty-First-Century Land Grabs: Accumulation by Agricultural Dispossession], ''[[Monthly Review]]'', 2013, Volume 65, Issue 06 (November)</ref> === Ulimi === {{See also|Women and agriculture in Sub-Saharan Africa}} [[File:2DU_Kenya_86_(5367322642).jpg|left|thumb|Mulimi wa ku Mount Kenya]] Ŵanthu ŵakuti ivyo vyaru vya ku Africa vikuguliska vyakurya ku vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi uku ŵanthu mamiliyoni ghanandi ŵakufwa na njara, vikucitika cifukwa ca ndyali za vyaru vyakutukuka. Vyaru ivi vikuvikilira vyakurya vyawo na msonkho ukuru wa vyakurya ivyo vikufuma ku vyaru vinyake ndipo vikupeleka wovwiri ku ŵalimi ŵawo. Vinthu vikulongora kuti wovwiri wa vyakurya ku vyaru vyakupambanapambana ukukhwaska chomene ŵalimi ŵa vyaru vyakutukuka. Vyakovwira pa vyakurya vingawovwira kuti mitengo yichepeko kuti ŵanthu ŵasangepo chandulo, kweni vikovwiraso kuti ŵalimi ŵa mu vyaru vyakukhuŵara awo ŵakutondeka kusanga vyakurya vyakwenelera, ŵasuzgikenge chomene pa charu chose. IFPRI yikati mu 2003, vyaru ivyo vikusuzgika chifukwa cha wovwiri uwu vikumalira ndalama zakukwana madola mabiliyoni 24 pa vyakurya ivyo vikufuma ku vyaru vinyake. Ici cikupangiska kuti mtengo wa vyakurya ivi ukhizgikenge comene pa caru cose mpaka ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa ŵaleke kuphalizgana na vyakurya vinyake. Mu vyaka vyasonosono apa, vyaru nga ni Brazil, ivyo vyaŵa na luso lwa kupanga vyakurya, vyazomerezga kugaŵana na vyakupangapanga na Africa kuti viwovwire kuti vyakurya viŵeko makora. Kuŵika ndalama zinandi mu vyakupangapanga vya ku Africa kungatonda ukavu. Msika wa cacao wa ku Africa ukakura comene mu 2008. Maboma gha Nigeria, South Africa na Uganda ghali na ndondomeko zakovwira ŵanthu kuti ŵamanye umo ŵangagwiliskira ntchito vinthu vinyake vyaulimi. Wupu wa African Union uli na vilato vyakuti uŵikenge ndalama zinandi mu vyakurya vya mu Africa, ndipo wupu wa United Nations ukuwona umo vinthu viliri. Viyuni ivi vikusuzga viŵeto vya mu Africa. Nangauli kuno ŵalimi ŵakutemwa kugwiliskira nchito munkhwala wakukoma viŵanda, kweni sono vikovwira viŵi yayi. Vyakulera vyakwimikana na nthenda ya nthenda iyi vikupangika ndipo vingaŵa vyakukwana.<ref name="Agaba-2022">{{cite web |last=Agaba |first=John |date=2022-05-02 |title=African researchers: Tick vaccines can stop use of dangerous pesticides |url=http://allianceforscience.cornell.edu/blog/2022/05/african-researchers-tick-vaccines-can-stop-use-of-dangerous-pesticides/ |access-date=2022-05-03 |website=[[Alliance for Science]]}}</ref> === Vya nkhongono === {{Further|Energy in Africa}} [[File:Greater_Cape_Town_12.02.2007_16-41-31.2007_16-41-33.JPG|thumb|Chomera cha Mphamvu cha Athlone ku Cape Town, South Africa]] Africa yili na nkhongono zinandi zakugwilira nchito za magesi (magesi gha maji, mafuta na gasi, magesi gha malasha, uranium, magesi ghakusinthika nga ni zuŵa, mphepo na geothermal). Cifukwa ca kupeleŵera kwa vinthu ivi, mazuŵa ghano ŵanthu ŵakugwiliskira nchito vinandi yayi. Vyaru vikuru comene ivyo vikugwiliskira nchito magesi mu Africa ni South Africa, Libya, Namibia, Egypt, Tunisia, na Zimbabwe, ndipo waliyose wakugwiliskira nchito magesi pakati pa 1000 na 5000 KWh/m2 pa munthu yumoza. Mafuta na vyakurya ivyo vikufuma mu mafuta ni vyakurya ivyo vyaru 14 vya mu Africa vikuguliska. Mu 2010, mafuta na vyakurya vya mafuta vikaŵa na ciŵelengero ca 46.6% ca vyakurya ivyo vyatumizgika ku vyaru vya ku Africa. Ku South Africa pera ndiko ŵanthu ŵakugwiliskira nchito nkhongono za nyukiliya.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-04-10 |title=As Africa looks for clean power, interest in nuclear grows |url=https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2020/04/10/business/africa-clean-power-nuclear/ |access-date=2021-07-07 |website=[[The Japan Times]] |language=en-US}}</ref> === Vinthu vyakwendakwenda === [[File:Lagos_Island.jpg|left|thumb|Lagos, Nigeria, msumba ukuru comene mu Africa]] Kuŵavya vinthu vyakukhumbikwa vikupangiska kuti mabungwe gha mu Africa ghaleke kuchita makora. Nangauli chili na maboti ghanandi, kweni para palije nthowa zakwendeskera vinthu, ndalama zikusazgikira pa 30 panji 40 peresenti. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800, ntchito ya kujima njanji yikaŵa yakuzirwa chomene mu mizi ya migodi. Paumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1800, ŵakazenga misewu yikuru na njanji. Mu nyengo ya ŵakoloni, ŵakaŵika mtima comene pa njanji, ndipo mu nyengo ya 'pambuyo pa ŵakoloni' ŵakaŵika mtima comene pa misewu. Jedwab & Storeygard ŵakasanga kuti mu 1960 m'paka mu 2015, pakaŵa kukolerana pakati pa ndalama zakwendeskera magalimoto na vyachuma. Mu vyaru ivi mukaŵa ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yakupambanapambana, ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yakupambanapambana, ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe ŵakakhalanga mu vyaru vinyake, ŵanthu ŵakathembanga chomene vinthu vyakuthupi, kweniso ŵanthu ŵakutemwa demokilase. Mu vyaru vinandi vya mu Africa, muli mapulojekiti ghakurughakuru ghakukhwaskana na vinthu vyapasi. Vigaŵa vinandi vya mapulojekiti agha ni vya kupanga na kutumizga magesi. Vinyake ivyo ŵakuzenga ni misewu yikuruyikuru, njanji, ma eyapoti, na vinyake. Vipinda vya mawoko na mawoko navyo vikukura comene mu Africa. Nangauli ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakugwiliskira ntchito Intaneti kuluska mu vyaru vinyake, kweni ŵalipo 9%. Mu 2011, ku Africa kukaŵa ŵanthu 500,000,000 awo ŵakaŵa na mafoni gha mtundu uliwose, kusazgapo 15,000,000 gha "mafoni".<ref>{{cite journal|title=2013 Guide economique du continent Bourses Africaines|journal=Africa 24|year=2013|issue=8|page=24|editor1-last=Sarl}}</ref> === Kugwira ntchito za migodi na kubowola === {{Main|Mineral industry of Africa}} {| class="wikitable sortable" style="float:right" |+Kupanga mafuta kuyana na vyaru<ref>{{cite web |title=Country Comparison :: Oil - Production |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2173rank.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120512233445/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2173rank.html |archive-date=12 May 2012 |work=[[The World Factbook]] |publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency (CIA)]]}}</ref> ! rowspan="2" |Rank !Area !bb/day !Year ! rowspan="2" |Like |- !W: World !85540000 !2007 est. |- |01 |E: Russia |9980000 |2007 est. | |- |02 |Ar: Saudi Arb |9200000 |2008 est. | |- |04 |As: Libya |4725000 |2008 est. |Iran |- |10 |Af: Nigeria |2352000 |2011 est. |Norway |- |15 |Af: Algeria |2173000 |2007 est. | |- |16 |Af: Angola |1910000 |2008 est. | |- |17 |Af: Egypt |1845000 |2007 est. | |- |27 |Af: Tunisia |664000 |2007 est. |Australia |- |31 |Af: Sudan |466100 |2007 est. |Ecuador |- |33 |Af: Eq. Guinea |368500 |2007 est. |Vietnam |- |38 |Af: [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|DR Congo]] |261000 |2008 est. |- |39 |Af: Gabon |243900 |2007 est. | |- |40 |Af: Sth Africa |199100 |2007 est. | |- |45 |Af: Chad |156000 |2008 est. |Germany |- |53 |Af: Cameroon |87400 |2008 est. |France |- |56 |E: France |71400 |2007 | |- |60 |Af: Ivory Coast |54400 |2008 est. | |- |'''—''' |'''Af: Africa''' |'''10780400''' |'''2011''' |'''Russia''' |} Makampani gha migodi mu Africa ndigho ngakuru comene pa caru cose. Africa ni caru caciŵiri pa vyaru vikuruvikuru pa caru cose capasi, ndipo cili na malo ghakukwana 30 miliyoni km2, ico cikung'anamura kuti kuli vinthu vinandi. Mu vyaru vinandi vya mu Africa, kupenja na kupanga vinthu vyakukhumbikwa ni vyakuzirwa comene pa cuma cawo ndipo ni vyakuzirwa comene kuti vinthu viŵe makora munthazi. Mu Africa muli vinthu vinandi vyakututuŵa, ndipo mu vyaru vinyake muli bauxite, cobalt, diamondi, phosphate, platinamu, vermiculite, na zirconium. Mu vyaru vya ku Africa, vinthu vyakuzirwa chomene ni bauxite, cobalt, dayamondi, phosphate, platinamu, vermiculite, na zirconium. Vinthu vinyake vinandi ivyo vikuzunulika mu Baibolo vilipo. Chiŵelengero cha vyakumera vya mu charu cha Africa mu 2005 nchakuti: bauxite 9%; aluminium 5%; chromite 44%; cobalt 57%; mkuwa 5%; golide 21%; iron ore 4%; steel 2%; lead (Pb) 3%; manganese 39%; zinc 2%; cement 4%; natural diamond 46%; graphite 2%; phosphate rock 31%; coal 5%; mineral fuels (including coal) & petroleum 13%; uranium 16%. === Kupanga vinthu === [[File:Soucreye_Sidi_Bennour.jpg|left|thumb|The Soucreye sugar factory in Sidi Bennour ([[Doukkala]]), [[Morocco]]]] Chigomezgo ichi, pamoza na kuŵapo kwa ŵalongozgi ŵaphya mu Africa kunthazi, vikapangiska kuti paŵe lizgu lakuti "Chaka cha ku Africa". Cigomezgo ici ca ŵanthu awo ŵakucita malonda na vyakupangapanga cikovwira cifukwa cakuti mu vyaru vinandi vya ku Africa, vinthu vikwenda makora comene pa nkhani ya mawoko. Mu vyaka vyasonosono apa, Namibia wali kukopa ndalama mu mafakitale, ndipo South Africa nayo wali kwamba kupeleka ndalama zakovwira ŵanthu kuti ŵasange ndalama zakwendeskera malonda. Vyaru vinyake nga ni Mauritius vili na mapulani gha kupanga vinthu viphya ivyo vikovwira kuti vinthu vileke kunangika. Vinthu vyanthena ivi vingapangiska kuti mu vyaru vya mu Africa muŵe misika yiphya, chifukwa ŵanthu ŵakukhazga kuti kunthazi vinthu viheni vichitikenge chifukwa cha mafuta ghapasi pa charu chose. Boma la Nigeria mu vyaka vyasonosono apa likamba kupanga magalimoto. Pasono lili na kampani yakuzenga magalimoto ya Innoson Vehicle Manufacturing (IVM) iyo yikupanga mabasi gha Rapid Transit, magalimoto ghakurughakuru na SUV. Mazuŵa ghano, magalimoto gha mitundu yakupambanapambana ghalipo ku Nigeria, Ghana na vyaru vinyake vya kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Africa. Nigeria nayo wali na makompyuta ghachoko waka nga ni Zinox, makompyuta ghakwambilira gha ku Nigeria na vinthu vya makompyuta (nga ni ma tablet PC). Mu 2013, boma la Nigeria likakhazikiska ndondomeko ya kunozga magalimoto kuti likhozge makampani gha kunozga magalimoto mu charu ichi. Pa nkhani iyi, makampani ghanyake agho ghakuzenga magalimoto nga ni Nissan, ghakukhumba kupanga magalimoto mu Nigeria. Padera pa vinthu vya magesi na magalimoto, vinthu vinandi vya ŵanthu, vyakurya vya munkhwala na vyakutoweskera, vyakuzengera, vyakuvwara, vinthu vya pa nyumba, pulasitiki na vinyake vinandi vikupangika mu charu ichi na kutumizgika ku vyaru vinyake vya kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Africa. Boma la Nigeria ndilo likupangiska simenti yikuru chomene mu vigaŵa vya kumwera kwa Sahara mu Africa. Dangote Cement Factory, Obajana ndiyo yikupangiska simenti yikuru chomene mu vigaŵa vya kumwera kwa Sahara mu Africa. Ogun wakuwoneka kuti ni msumba ukuru wa mafakitale wa Nigeria (pakuti mafakitale ghanandi ghali mu Ogun ndipo mabungwe ghanandi ghakusamukira kwenekuko). Vigaŵa vya vyakupangira vinthu ni vichoko kweni vikukura mu vyaru vya kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Africa. Vigaŵa vikuruvikuru ni vyakuvwara na vyakuvwara, kupanga vikumba, vyakurya, vyakumera, vinthu vya makemikari, vinthu vya magesi na magalimoto. Vyaru vya kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Africa nga ni Uganda navyo vikupanga njinga zamoto za mu vyaru vyawo.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Calabrese |first=Linda |date=March 2017 |title=How manufacturing motorcycles can boost Uganda's economy |url=https://www.odi.org/comment/10497-how-manufacturing-motorcycles-can-boost-ugandas-economy |website=ODI}}</ref> === Investment and banking === {{See also|Central banks and currencies of Africa|List of African stock exchanges}} [[File:South_Africa-Johannesburg-Skyline02.jpg|thumb|Many financial firms have offices in downtown [[Johannesburg, South Africa]].]] Makampani gha vya ndalama gha ku Africa agho ghali na ndalama zakukwana US$107 biliyoni ghazamukura chomene mu vyaka 10 ivyo vyajumpha. Ntchito za banki zakura comene, comenecomene cifukwa ca vinthu vyakupambanapambana ivyo vikucitika pa nkhani ya sayansi. Charu cha China na India vikulongora kuti vikukhumba comene kuti vyaru vya ku Africa viŵe na cuma mu vyaka vya m'ma 2000. Mu vyaka vyasonosono apa, ndalama izo ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa na China ŵakugwiliskira nchito zakwera comene cifukwa ca suzgo la vya ndalama. Boma la China likukhozga comene ndalama izo likuŵika mu Africa ndipo likovwira kuti ŵa mu vyaru vya ku Europe ŵambe kudumbiskana za ndalama izo zingaŵawovwira. Ŵanthu ŵa mu vyaru vinyake ŵa ku Africa, comenecomene ŵa mu EU na United States, ŵayezgayezga comene kuti ŵagwiliskirenge nchito bizinesi yawo kuti ŵagulire ndalama mu vyaru vya ku Africa na kukhozga ndalama izo ŵanthu ŵa mu vyaru vya ku Africa ŵakuguliska mu vyaru vya ku Europe. Ndalama izo ŵanthu ŵa mu vyaru vya ku Africa ŵakutumizga ku vyaru vinyake na ivyo ŵanthu ŵa ku vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi ŵakukhumba kuzakaŵika mu vyaru vyawo vizamovwira chomene vyaru vya ku Africa ivyo vikusuzgika chomene nga ni Burundi, Togo na Comoros. Ndipouli, ŵanthu awo ŵakumanya vya ndalama ŵakudandawura kuti ndalama zinandi zikupelekeka para munthu wakutumizga ndalama ku Africa cifukwa cakuti Western Union na MoneyGram ndiwo ŵakulongozga malonda gha ndalama mu Africa. Ŵadokotala ŵanyake ŵakuti ndalama zinandi izo ŵanthu ŵakulipira pakutumizga ndalama ku vyaru vya mu Africa zikovwira kuti vyaru ivi vileke kukura. Angola wapharazga kuti wakukhumba kucitako vyandulo mu EU, comenecomene mu Portugal. Boma la United States likuwona kuti caru ca South Africa nchakukhumbikwa comene pakucita malonda mu vyaru vya vyamalonda, vya ndalama, na vyamalonda. Pali maboma ghaŵiri gha mu Africa: West African Banque Centrale des Etats de l'Afrique de l'Ouest (BCEAO) na Central African Banque des États de l'Afrique Centrale (BEAC). Vyaru vyose viŵiri ivi vikugwiliskira nchito CFA franc. Fundo yakuti mu Africa mose muŵe ndalama yimoza yikayowoyeka kale, ndipo pali vilato vyakuti yiŵeko m'paka mu 2020, nangauli pali vinandi ivyo vikutondeska kuti yiŵeko.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Liedong |first=Tahiru Azaaviele |date=8 August 2017 |title=Could West Africa launch a single currency? |url=http://www.cnn.com/2017/08/08/africa/single-currency-west-africa/index.html |access-date=2017-08-17 |publisher=CNN}}</ref> ==== Stock exchanges ==== [[File:Bvmt_headquarters.JPG|right|thumb|The [[Bourse de Tunis]] headquarters in [[Tunis]], [[Tunisia]]]] Kuzakafika mu 2012, mu Africa mukaŵa maburosha 23 agho ghakusinthiska ndalama. Ndipouli, pa caru cose capasi, ndalama izo zikwendeskeka pa masitoro gha ku Africa ni pacoko comene kuluska 1%. Makampani 10 agho ghakusinthiska masheya gha mu Africa (mabiliyoni gha madola gha ku United States) ni agha:<ref>{{cite journal|title=2013 Guide economique du continentBourses Africaines|journal=Africa 24|year=2013|issue=8|page=128|editor1-last=Sarl}}</ref> * South Africa (82.88)(2014)<ref>{{Cite web |title=The World Factbook – Central Intelligence Agency |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/south-africa/ |access-date=2017-09-12 |website=www.cia.gov |language=en}}</ref> * Egypt ($73.04 billion (30 November 2014 est.))<ref>{{Cite web |title=The World Factbook – Central Intelligence Agency |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2200rank.html#eg |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071211211610/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2200rank.html#eg |archive-date=11 December 2007 |access-date=2017-09-12 |website=www.cia.gov |language=en}}</ref> * Morocco (5.18) * Nigeria (5.11) (Actually has a market capitalisation value of $39.27 Bln)<ref>{{Cite web |title=The World Factbook – Central Intelligence Agency |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/nigeria/ |access-date=2017-09-12 |website=www.cia.gov |language=en}}</ref> * Kenya (1.33) * Tunisia (0.88) * [[BRVM]] (regional stock exchange whose members include Benin, Burkina Faso, Guinea-Bissau, Ivory Coast, Mali, Niger, Senegal and Togo: 6.6) * Mauritius (0.55) * Botswana (0.43) * Ghana (.38) Mu vyaka vyapakati pa 2009 na 2012, makampani 72 ghakalembeka pa maburosha gha mu vyaru 13 vya mu Africa.<ref>{{cite journal|title=2013 Guide economique du continent Bourses Africaines|journal=Africa 24|year=2013|issue=8|page=130|editor1-last=Sarl}}</ref> == Wonaniso == {{Portal|Africa|Business and economics}} {{div col|colwidth=25em}} * [[United Nations Economic Commission for Africa]] * [[Africa–China economic relations]] * [[African Economic Community]] * [[African Economic Outlook]] * [[Demographics of Africa]] * [[Economic history of Africa]] * [[Land grabbing]] * [[Languages of Africa]] * [[List of countries by percentage of population living in poverty]] * [[List of countries by Human Development Index]] * [[Central banks and currencies of Africa]] * [[List of countries by credit rating]] * [[List of countries by future gross government debt]] * [[List of countries by public debt]] * [[List of countries by leading trade partners]] * [[List of countries by industrial production growth rate]] * [[List of countries by GDP (nominal)]] * [[List of countries by GDP (nominal) per capita]] * [[List of countries by GDP (PPP)]] * [[List of countries by GDP (PPP) per capita]] * [[List of countries by GNI (nominal) per capita]] * [[List of countries by tax revenue as percentage of GDP]] * [[List of countries by GDP growth]] {{div col end}} == Vyakulemba == {{Reflist|30em}} == Vinyake == {{refbegin}} * Fage, J. D. ''A History of Africa'' (Routledge, 4th edition, 2001 {{ISBN|0-415-25247-4}}) (Hutchinson, 1978, {{ISBN|0-09-132851-9}}) (Knopf 1st American edition, 1978, {{ISBN|0-394-32277-0}}) * {{cite journal|last1=Goldsmith|first1=Arthur A.|title=Foreign Aid and Statehood in Africa|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_international-organization_winter-2001_55_1/page/123|journal=International Organization|date=2001|volume=55|issue=1|pages=123–148|doi=10.1162/002081801551432|jstor=3078599|s2cid=154839545}} * Kayizzi-Mugerwa, Steve ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=YiLaMsvQMBQC The African Economy: Policy, Institutions and the Future]'' (Routledge, 1999, {{ISBN|0-415-18323-5}}) * Laouisset, Djamel (2009). A Retrospective Study of the Algerian Iron and Steel Industry. New York City: Nova Publishers. {{ISBN|978-1-61761-190-2}} * Moshomba, Richard E. ''[https://archive.org/details/africainglobalec0000msho <!-- quote=ISBN1555877184. --> Africa in the Global Economy]'' (Lynne Rienner, 2000, {{ISBN|1-55587-718-4}}) * OECD. ''[http://www.oecd.org/bookshop?9789264033139 African Economic Outlook 2006/2007]'' (OECD, 2007, {{ISBN|978-92-64-03313-9}}) * Rodney, Walter. ''How Europe Underdeveloped Africa''. (Washington: Howard UP, 1982, {{ISBN|0-88258-096-5}}) * Sahn, David E., Paul A. Dorosh, Stephen D. Younger, ''Structural Adjustment Reconsidered: Economic Policy and Poverty in Africa'' (Cambridge University Press, 1997, {{ISBN|0-521-58451-5}}) {{refend}} == Vigaŵa vya kuwalo == {{External links|section|date=December 2021}} {{Commons category}} {{Spoken Wikipedia|Economy of africa part 1.ogg|date=2009-11-27}} * {{Curlie|Regional/Africa/Business_and_Economy}} * [http://www.spiegel.de/international/world/0,1518,484603,00.html The Age of the Dragon: China's Conquest of Africa] * [http://fpif.org/obama-africa/ Holding the door open for multinationals to extract Africa's wealth], ''Foreign Policy in Focus'' * [https://web.archive.org/web/20100906203320/http://www.fondad.org/publications/africaworld/contents.htm Africa in the World Economy: the national, regional and international challenges] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100906203320/http://www.fondad.org/publications/africaworld/contents.htm|date=6 September 2010}} by Jan Joost Teunissen and Age Akkerman * [https://web.archive.org/web/20150924062436/http://www.osisa.org/sites/default/files/sup_files/africa_-_living_on_the_fringe_0.pdf Africa: Living on the Fringe], ''[[Monthly Review]]''. [[Samir Amin]] offers a [[Marxist]] analysis of Africa's continued economic crisis * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/shared/spl/hi/africa/05/africa_economy/html/poverty.stm BBC: Africa's Economy] * [http://www.oecd.org/dev/publications/africanoutlook OECD work on African economy] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20040923121852/http://www.africaeconomicanalysis.org/ Africa Economic Analysis] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20041110105825/http://www.weforum.org/site/homepublic.nsf/Content/Africa+Economic+Summit+2004 World Economic Forum – Africa] * [http://www.afdb.org/ African Development Bank Group] * [http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2003/02/index.htm IMF World Economic Outlook (WEO) – September 2003 – Public Debt in Emerging Markets] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20030803140603/http://damnsw.net/~matt/pdf/africa.pdf Language and Africa] * [http://www.economist.com/world/africa/displaystory.cfm?story_id=7089006 Africa's economy: A glimmer of light at last?] – ''[[The Economist]]'' * [https://web.archive.org/web/20181202194512/http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/WBI/WBIPROGRAMS/KFDLP/0,,contentMDK:21002841~menuPK:2792491~pagePK:64156158~piPK:64152884~theSitePK:461198,00.html Africa and the Knowledge Economy] – [[World Bank Institute]] report. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20070509005812/http://www.guinea.aha.ru/ Economic analysis of Middle Africa] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20081015002050/http://www.ipsnews.net/new_focus/trade_af_eu/index.asp From Aid to Trade with Africa] News and analysis by Inter Press Service * [http://www.democracynow.org/2009/8/12/land African Development Hindered by Vast US Corporate Interests in Continent’s Resources] – video report by ''[[Democracy Now!]]'' * [http://repository.library.georgetown.edu/handle/10822/552501 Africa: Going Forward or Backward?] from the [https://web.archive.org/web/20120312184049/http://repository.library.georgetown.edu/handle/10822/549457 Dean Peter Krogh Foreign Affairs Digital Archives] {{Africa in topic|Economy of}} {{Africa topic|Poverty in}} {{Africa topics}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Economy Of Africa}} [[Category:Economy of Africa| ]] [[Category:Economies by continent|Africa]] 71fqbzio8gd8ymvc5vqi5xji1zwvoh9 0 30407 119282 81393 2026-08-13T21:45:07Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Add 7 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260813sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 119282 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Socialist system in 1960s Tanzania}} {{Nkhani iwemi}} [[File:Julius_Nyerere_cropped.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Julius_Nyerere_cropped.jpg|thumb|[[:en:Julius_Nyerere|Julius Nyerere]]]] '''Ujamaa''' (lit. 'ubwezi' mu [[Ciswahili]]) ukaŵa wupu wa socialist uwo ukaŵa wakwendeskera fundo za J[[ulius Nyerere]] za chitukuko cha umoyo na chuma mu [[Tanzania]] pamanyuma pakuti charu ichi chajiyimira pawekha kufuma ku [[Britain]] mu 1961.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Delehanty|first=Sean|title=From Modernization to Villagization: The World Bank and Ujamaa|journal=Diplomatic History|language=en|doi=10.1093/dh/dhz074|year=2020|volume=44|issue=2|pages=289–314}}</ref>{{History of Tanzania}}Mu ciyowoyero cinyake, lizgu lakuti ujamaa likung'anamura kuti "ŵanthu ŵa mu cigaŵa ici ŵakukolerana kuti ŵasange vyakukhumbikwa pa umoyo", panji "kuzenga na kusunga malo ghithu ghakusungiramo vinthu, na vyamalonda vinyake na kusangapo chandulo pamoza".<ref>{{Cite web |date=2005 |title=Julius Nyerere, African socialist |url=https://libcom.org/library/julius-nyerere-marxist-humanism |url-status=live}}</ref> == Maghanoghano na vyakucita == Nyerere wakagwiliskira nchito Ujamaa pakuzenga pulogiramu ya caru cose. Iyo wakang'anamura fundo ya Ujamaa kuŵa fundo yakovwira kuti ŵanthu ŵaŵe ŵakuyana pa vinthu vya umoyo, vyachuma, na ndyali. Ulongozgi wa Julius Nyerere mu Tanzania ukakondweska ŵanthu pa caru cose ndipo ŵanthu ŵakamuchindikanga cifukwa cakuti wakalutilira kudidimizga fundo za makhaliro ghawemi. Pa nyengo ya muwuso wa Nyerere, caru ca Tanzania cikanjira panthazi comene pa vinthu vyakuzirwa pa umoyo wa ŵanthu: unandi wa ŵana awo ŵakafwanga ukakhira kufuma pa 138 pa ŵanthu 1000 awo ŵakababika mu 1965 kufika pa 110 mu 1985; unandi wa ŵanthu awo ŵakafwanga mu 1960 ukakwera kufuma pa 37 kufika pa 52 mu 1984; unandi wa ŵana awo ŵakasambiranga sukulu za pulayimare ukakwera kufuma pa 25% mu 1960 kufika pa 72% mu 1985 (panji kuti unandi wa ŵanthu awo ŵakafwanga ukaŵa ukuru comene). Ndipouli, Ujamaa wakadumulizga vyakupangira, ndipo ici cikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵakayikenge usange nchito iyi yingawovwira kuti vinthu visinthe. Pakati pajumpha chaka chimoza kufuma apo boma la Nyerere likapokera wanangwa wake, likapeleka dango lakuti ŵanthu ŵakakike kwambura mulandu. Mu 1967, boma likaŵa na nchito yikuru comene mu caru ici cifukwa ca kucitiska kuti caru cose ciŵe cawo. Ŵasayansi ŵa ku World Bank ŵakayowoya kuti misonkho yikuru na maburokocrasi vikapangiska kuti ŵamalonda ŵaleke kuguliska ndalama. Mu 1973, boma likamba kukakamiza ŵanthu kuti ŵakhalenge mu vikaya vyawo.<ref>Lange, Siri. (2008) ''[http://www.cmi.no/publications/publication/?3008=land-tenure-and-mining-in-tanzania Land Tenure and Mining In Tanzania]''. Bergen: Chr. Michelson Institute, p. 2.</ref> == Ndondomeko za ndyali mu Tanzania == Ndondomeko ya ndyali ya Tanzania iyo yikapangika pamanyuma pa kujithemba mu 1961 yikaŵa zgoro lakuzirwa ku vinthu vya ukoloni. Ŵanandi ŵakakhalanga mu caru ca Tanzania cifukwa ca mphambano izo zikaŵapo pakati pa caru ca East Africa na caru ca Tanzania mu Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Caru Cose. Boma ili likapangika mu nyengo ya ufumu wa Britain nga ni Tanganyika Territory. Mu 1960, mawupu ghanandi agho ghakalongozganga ŵanthu ŵa ku malo agha ghakamba kuŵa na mazaza pa vinthu vya boma. Magulu agha ghakaŵako mu vikaya vichoko kuti ghaŵe na ŵanthu ŵachoko waka mu nyengo ya muwuso wa ŵakoloni. Maufumu agha ghakawovwira kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakhalenge mu mizi. Nakuti pa nyengo iyi, chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu awo ŵakwiza ku maungano gha mwezi uliwose chikakwera kufika pa 75%.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Huizer|first=Gerrit|date=June 1973|title=Theujamaa village program in tanzania: new forms of rural development|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_studies-in-comparative-international-development_summer-1973_8_2/page/189|journal=Studies in Comparative International Development|volume=8|issue=2|pages=189|doi=10.1007/bf02810000|s2cid=79510406|issn=0039-3606}}</ref> Pa Disembala 9, 1961, boma la Tanzania likati lapokera wanangwa kufuma ku Britain, likakhumbikwiranga ndondomeko yiphya ya ndyali. Pa nyengo iyo ufumu wa Britain ukaparanyikiranga, gulu la Tanganyika African National Union (TANU) likaŵa na ŵanthu ŵanandi chomene. TANU yikapanga ndondomeko ya ndyali iyo yikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵa mu mizi ŵayimilire. Ivi vikapangiska kuti chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu awo ŵakakolerananga na TANU chikure kufuma pa 100,000 kufika pa 1,000,000,000 mu vilimika vinkhondi pera.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Huizer|first=Gerrit|date=June 1973|title=Theujamaa village program in tanzania: new forms of rural development|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_studies-in-comparative-international-development_summer-1973_8_2/page/186|journal=Studies in Comparative International Development|volume=8|issue=2|pages=186|doi=10.1007/bf02810000|s2cid=79510406|issn=0039-3606}}</ref> TANU yikakwaniska kunjizga mabungwe ghakupambanapambana gha ŵantchito na vyakurya mu chipani cawo kuti ŵanthu awo ŵakagwiranga nchito mu caru ici ŵimilire. Ŵalongozgi ŵa chipani ŵakakumananga na ŵalongozgi ŵa mu muzi (kanandi ŵalara ŵa mu muzi) mwa kwenda maulendo ghakucemeka "Safari" na kudumbiskana nkhani za mu muzi. Para mphaka za chigaŵa ichi zaŵa zakukhora, ŵanthu ŵakasankhikanga kuti ŵimilire chigaŵa. Nga ni umo Gerrit Huizer wakayowoyera, ŵanthu aŵa ŵakacemekanga "Cell Boundary Commissions".<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Huizer|first=Gerrit|date=June 1973|title=Theujamaa village program in tanzania: new forms of rural development|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_studies-in-comparative-international-development_summer-1973_8_2/page/187|journal=Studies in Comparative International Development|volume=8|issue=2|pages=187|doi=10.1007/bf02810000|s2cid=79510406|issn=0039-3606}}</ref> == Ivyo Vikacitika ku Arusha == === Kulemba na kufiska fundo za Ujamaa === TANU yikugomezga kuti ni mulimo wa boma kunjilirapo comene mu umoyo wa ndyali wa caru kuti ŵanthu wose ŵakondwenge, kuti munthu munyake panji gulu linyake lileke kumugwiriska nchito, ndiposo kuti munthu waleke kuŵa na usambazi unandi comene.<ref name="auto">{{Cite web |year=1967 |title=Arusha Declaration |url=http://library.fes.de/fulltext/bibliothek/2-tanzania-s0019634.pdf |access-date= |publisher=TANU |page=1 |via=library.fes.de |place=Dar es Salaam}}</ref> === Ideology of self-reliance and the Five Year Plan === Ndalama zinandi izo boma likagwiliskiranga nchito zikapelekeka mu ndondomeko ya Arusha. Ndondomeko izi zikayowoyerathu kuti vyakurya na vyakupangira vyakurya vizamuŵa vinandi, comenecomene ku mizi. Nthowa yakumazgira suzgo ili yikaŵa ya kupanga "Midzi ya Ujamaa". Nangauli chikaŵa chakukhumbikwa kuti charu cha Tanzania chiŵe na chuma chakujiyimira paŵekha, kweni ŵanthu ŵa ku Ujamaa ŵakagomezganga chomene ŵanthu. Kuyana na maghanoghano gha Ujamaa, cigaŵa cakuzirwa comene ca ŵanthu nchakuti ŵanthu ŵa mu cikaya. Munthu uyu wakaŵa waciŵiri.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Julius Nyerere {{!}} Biography, Philosophy, & Achievements {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Julius-Nyerere |access-date=2022-05-24 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> Kweniso, fundo ya Ujamaa yikawovwira kuti ŵanthu ŵakhalenge pamoza na kusintha vinthu pa nkhani ya vyakurya. Ujamaa yikaŵa nchito ya mu caru pera yayi, kweni ukaŵa ukaboni ku caru cose kuti cisopa ca ku Africa cingafiskika na kuzakasanga candulo na kupanga cuma cakujiyimira. == Misumba ya Ujamaa na ŵanthu ŵa ku Tanzania == Fundo ya Ujamaa iyo yikayowoyeka mu ndondomeko ya Arusha iyo yikayowoyeka na TANU, kweniso iyo yikayowoyeka na Pulezidenti Nyerere, yikakhwaska comene ndondomeko ya ndondomeko ya vyaka vinkhondi yakwamba. Cigaŵa ca Ruvuma, mu cigaŵa ca Songea, ku Tanzania, ndico cikaŵa cakwamba kwa ciyezgo ici. Ungano wa Litowa ukathandazgika makora ndipo ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakaluta ku malo agha. Munthu munyake wakusanda ŵanthu, zina lake John Shaw, wakati: "Mwakuyana na ivyo wakayowoya Pulezidenti Julius Nyerere, kwamba mu Seputembala 1973 m'paka Juni 1975, ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 7 miliyoni ŵakasamukira ku malo ghanyake, ndipo kufuma mu Juni 1975 m'paka kuumaliro wa 1976, ŵanthu ŵanyake 4 miliyoni ŵakasamukira ku malo ghanyake".<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Shao|first=John|date=1986|title=The Villagization Program and the Disruption of the Ecological Balance in Tanzania|url=https://archive.org/details/canadian-journal-of-african-studies_1986_20_2/page/219|journal=Canadian Journal of African Studies|volume=20|issue=2|pages=219–239|doi=10.2307/484871|jstor=484871|issn=0008-3968}}</ref> === Kavwaliro ka muzi wa Ujamaa === Ŵakazenga mizi ya Ujamaa mu nthowa yakuti ŵanthu ŵa mu mizi iyi ŵajikorenge. Mu muzi uwu mukaŵa nyumba zakupambanapambana mu msumba uwu. Midzi iyi yikazingilizgika na minda yikuruyikuru. Mbumba yiliyose yikapika malo ghakukwana ekara limoza kuti yikolere vyakurya vyawo. Kweni minda iyo yikazingilizga yikaŵa yakukhumbikwa kuti ŵanthu ŵasange ndalama. Mu muzi wa Ujamaa, vinthu vikasinthanga kuyana na umo muzi uliri. Mu mizi iyo muli vyakurya vichoko na ŵanthu ŵachoko, ŵanthu ŵakugaŵikana chomene. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakagwiranga nchito ya kulima na kulima vyakurya. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakasuzgikanga na kugaŵikana kwa ntchito. Apo vikaya vikuruvikuru vya Ujamaa vikakuranga, pakaŵaso suzgo la vyakurya pera yayi, kweniso ntchito. Apo mizi ya Ujamaa yikakuranga, ŵanthu ŵakagwiranga ntchito zinandi yayi ndipo kanandi ŵakakanizgikanga kugwira maora ghanandi. Gulu ili likawovwira comene ŵanthu ŵa mu mizi ya Ujamaa. TANU yikapeleka ndalama zinandi, nga ni maji ghawemi, vyakuzenga, na vyakukhumbikwa vinyake. Kweniso, TANU yikawovwira ŵanthu ŵa mu cigaŵa ici mwa kupanga maungano gha vyaru vinyake.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Huizer|first=Gerrit|date=June 1973|title=Theujamaa village program in tanzania: new forms of rural development|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_studies-in-comparative-international-development_summer-1973_8_2/page/195|journal=Studies in Comparative International Development|volume=8|issue=2|pages=195|doi=10.1007/bf02810000|s2cid=79510406|issn=0039-3606}}</ref> === Ntchito ya Vijiji === Ntchito ya Vijiji yikaŵa ya Ujamaa, iyo yikovwira kuti ŵanthu ŵakhalenge makora mu vikaya. Ŵalaraŵalara ŵa pa projekiti iyi ŵakawoneseska kuti ŵanthu ŵa mu mizi ya Ujamaa ŵafike pa mbumba zakukwana 250, ndipo viŵaro vya ulimi vikagaŵikana mu viŵaro 10 ivyo vikawovwira kuti ŵanthu ŵakhalenge pamoza. Mulimo wa Vijiji ukapangiska misumba kuŵa na maghanoghano gha mazuŵa ghano. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakusambira ŵasambira vya Vijiji Project ku Tanzania. Priya Lal wakalongosora kuti mizi iyi yikaŵa na nyumba izo zikaŵa pafupi na msewu uwo ukalutanga ku msumba. Nangauli ivi vingawoneka nga ni vyacilendo yayi, kweni ni kusintha kukuru uko kukacitika mu vyaru vya ku mizi. Ntheura, ndondomeko ya Ujamaa yikagwiliskira nchito ndondomeko ya Vijiji mu ndondomeko ya vilimika vinkhondi kuŵa ciyerezgero kuti yilongore kuti vyakurya vikupambika makora mukati mwa umoyo wa cikaya. Chimoza mwa vinthu vikuru ivyo vikapangiska kuti Vijiji Project yileke kwenda makora chikaŵa kupuluska ŵanthu. Ŵalaraŵalara ŵa TANU kanandi ŵakalembanga vikaya vya Ujamaa ivyo vikaŵako kale kuŵa vikaya viphya kuti ŵasazgireko unandi wa ŵanthu awo ŵakafiska.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=LAL|first=PRIYA|title=Militants, Mothers, and the National Family: Ujamaa, Gender, and Rural Development in Postcolonial Tanzania|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-african-history_2010_51_1/page/3|date=March 2010|journal=The Journal of African History|volume=51|issue=1|pages=3|doi=10.1017/s0021853710000010|s2cid=154960614|issn=0021-8537}}</ref> == Ujamaa na wanakazi na wanalume == Gulu la Ujamaa likasintha vinthu vinandi mu Tanzania kweniso likasintha umo mbumba zikenderanga mu charu ichi. Mulimo wa Ujamaa ukakhozgera fundo ya mbumba ya nyukiliya. Mbumba yikuru mukati mwa vikaya ivyo vikamba kuwoneka pamanyuma, yikadodoliska comene pa mbumba m'malo mwa ubwezi na ubwezi wa cikaya, ico cikapangiska kuti paŵe mphindano pakati pa maghanoghano gha Ujamaa. Nakuti pamasinda, ŵanthu ŵa mu mizi ya Ujamaa ŵakamba kulimbana kuti ŵatore mazaza. Ndipouli, chipani cha TANU chikapanga chigaŵa chose cha boma icho chikimiranga wanangwa wa ŵanakazi na kuyana kwa ŵanthu. Dipatimenti iyi yikacemekanga Umoja wa Wanawke wa Tanganyika (UWT). UWT, nga umo Priya wakulongosolera, yikapangika kuti yiwonenge nkhani zakukhwaskana na kunjizga ŵanakazi mu chalo cha socialist; kweni vikawoneka kuti ŵantchito ŵa dipatimenti iyi ŵakaŵa ŵawoli ŵa ŵantchito ŵakuzirwa ŵa TANU ndipo ŵakakhozgeranga fundo za ŵafumu. Wupu wa UWT ukacitanga vinthu vinandi kuti ŵanakazi ŵa Tanzania ŵamanye kuŵazga na kulemba. Ndipouli, masukulu agha ghakasambizganga ŵanakazi umo ŵangaŵira "awoli ŵawemi" na kovwira ŵanthu. Mwaciyelezgero, Lal wakupeleka ciyelezgero cakuti masambiro nga ni "Kupwelelera Ŵana + Vyakurya na Masuzgo gha Umoyo mu Msumba" ghakasambizgika mu masukulu agha. Nangauli pamasinda UWT yikamba kusambizga ŵanakazi fundo zakukhwaskana na vinthu vya mu nyumba, kweni ŵakasambizgikanga vya ndalama. Ndipouli, ŵanalume na ŵanakazi mu vyaru vya ku mizi vya ku Tanzania ŵakalutilira kulima minda yawo kuti ŵasange vyakurya vyakukhumbikwa na ndalama zakovwilira mbumba zawo ("makamaka minda yawo ya cashew".<ref>{{Cite journal|last=LAL|first=PRIYA|title=Militants, Mothers, and the National Family: Ujamaa, Gender, and Rural Development in Postcolonial Tanzania|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-african-history_2010_51_1/page/11|date=March 2010|journal=The Journal of African History|volume=51|issue=1|pages=11|doi=10.1017/s0021853710000010|s2cid=154960614|issn=0021-8537}}</ref>). == Vinthu vyakuthupi == Mu nyengo ya projekiti ya Ujamaa, kukaŵa vinthu vinandi ivyo vikakhwaska umoyo wa ŵanthu. Ŵasayansi nga ni John Shao ŵakulongora kuti vinthu vikususkana chomene na ivyo Ujamaa wakachitanga pa nkhani za ndyali na vyendende. Vula yikuŵa yakuzirwa comene pa ulimi. Mu projekiti ya Ujamaa, Shao wakalemba kuti "Charu icho chili na masentimita 20 panji kuchepera apa... nchambura kwenelera kulima ndipo kanandi chikuŵa chakuliskako viŵeto". Ndipouli, malo agho ghakaŵanga na vula zinandi pa chaka, ŵakaghagwiliskiranga nchito kulima vyakurya vikuruvikuru na vyakurya vinyake nga ni katoni. Pa nyengo iyi, vinthu vikasuzga chomene mu Tanzania chifukwa cha boma la TANU na pulezidenti Nyerere. Pa nyengo iyo ŵanthu ŵakakhalanga mu vigaŵa ivi, TANU yikapelekanga wovwiri wa vyakurya mwakupambanapambana uku yikukanizga vyakurya. Caru cikagwiriskirika nchito yayi mwakukwana, ntheura vyakurya vikaŵa vyambura kupambika makora, kweniso vyamoyo vinandi vikaŵa vyambura kupambika makora.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Tanzania - Independence {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Tanzania/Independence |access-date=2022-05-15 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> == Kupereŵera na umaliro wa Ujamaa Project == Pakaŵaso vinthu vinyake ivyo vikapangiska kuti ndondomeko ya Ujamaa yileke kwenda makora. Cakwamba, ŵanthu ŵakakana. Mu m'ma 1970, ŵalimi ŵakakana kuleka minda yawo na kwamba kukhala mu vikaya vyawo chifukwa cha kusoŵerwa kwa ndalama. Ivi vikapangiska kuti Pulezidenti Nyerere waŵape dango lakuti ŵafumemo mu vikaya vya Ujamaa.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ergas|first=Zaki|date=1980|title=Why Did the Ujamaa Village Policy Fail? - Towards a Global Analysis|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/160361|journal=The Journal of Modern African Studies|volume=18|issue=3|pages=387–410|doi=10.1017/S0022278X00011575|jstor=160361|s2cid=154537221|issn=0022-278X}}</ref> == Mu mitheto == Chigaŵa cha hip-hop mu Tanzania chikakhwaskika chomene na fundo na fundo za Ujamaa. Paumaliro wa vilimika ivi, fundo za Ujamaa zikawuskika kwizira mu "ŵalendo ŵambura kwenelera: ŵakwimba rap na ŵanthu ŵakwimba nyimbo za hip hop mu misewu ya mu Tanzania". Pakuzgora kwa vyaka vinandi vya ŵalongozgi ŵa boma na banthu ŵa ndyali ŵaheni pamanyuma pa Nyerere, mitu ya kukolerana na mbumba na wenenawene yikaŵa mauthenga agho ghakapulikikwa mu sumu zinandi izo zikapangika. Ici cikaŵa cimoza na kuyuzgika kwa ŵantchito ndipo mu nthowa yinyake cikaŵa mtundu unyake wa kukana. Fundo za kugwilira lumoza ntchito zaumoyo - "ŵanthu awo ŵakukhala mu malo agha ŵakukolerana kuti ŵasange vyakukhumbikwa pa umoyo" - zikuwoneka mu mazgu gha ŵakwimba ŵanandi ŵa ku Tanzania. Ujamaa ni zina la nyumba ziŵiri za ŵana ŵa sukulu ŵa ku Africa ku Cornell University na Stanford University.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ujamaa &#124; Residential Education |url=https://resed.stanford.edu/house-profiles/theme-houses/ethnic/ujamaa |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180311030244/https://resed.stanford.edu/house-profiles/theme-houses/ethnic/ujamaa |archive-date=2018-03-11 |access-date=2018-03-28}}</ref> == Wonaniso == {{Portal|Africa|Tanzania}} * [[:en:Distributism|Distributism]] * [[:en:Harambee|Harambee]] * [[:en:Ubuntu_(ideology)|Ubuntu (ideology)]] * [[:en:African_socialism|African socialism]] * [[:en:Uhuru_Movement|Uhuru Movement]] == Ukaboni == <references group="" responsive="1"></references> == Vyakulemba vinyake == * ''[http://lccn.loc.gov/74151368 A collection of essays on Ujamaa villages]'', by Kayombo, E. O. [and others] University of Dar es Salaam. [Dar es Salaam] 1971. * [[:en:Paul_Collier|Paul Collier]]: ''Labour and Poverty in Rural Tanzania. Ujamaa and Rural Development in the [[:en:United_Republic_of_Tanzania|United Republic of Tanzania]]''. New York: Oxford University Press, 1986, {{ISBN|0198285310}} * [[:en:Julius_Nyerere|Nyerere, Julius K]]. ''Ujamaa. English Ujamaa--essays on socialism''. Dar es Salaam, Oxford University Press, 1968. * ''[http://lccn.loc.gov/74983083 Building Ujamaa villages in Tanzania]''. Edited by J. H. Proctor. Dar es Salaam, Tanzania Pub. House, 1971. * Huizer, Gerrit. ''[http://lccn.loc.gov/74162524 The Ujamaa village programme in Tanzania: new forms of rural development]''. [[:en:The_Hague|The Hague]], Institute of Social Studies, 1971. * {{Cite book|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=0520039971|last=Hydén|first=Göran|author-link=Göran Hydén|title=Beyond ujamaa in Tanzania: underdevelopment and an uncaptured peasantry|location=Berkeley|date=1980}} * Kijanga, Peter A. S. ''[http://lccn.loc.gov/89150423 Ujamaa and the role of the church in Tanzania]''. Arusha, Tanzania : Evangelical Lutheran Church in Tanzania, c1978. * Jennings, Michael. ''[http://lccn.loc.gov/2007026289 Surrogates of the state : NGOs, development, and Ujamaa in Tanzania]'' Bloomfield, CT : Kumarian Press, 2008. * {{Cite book|publisher=Institute of International Studies, University of California|isbn=0877251398|last=McHenry|first=Dean E.|title=Tanzania's ujamaa villages: the implementation of a rural development strategy|location=Berkeley|series=Research series - Institute of International Studies, University of California, Berkeley ; no. 39|date=1979|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/tanzaniasujamaav0000mche}} * Putterman, Louis G. ''[http://lccn.loc.gov/86002915 Peasants, collectives, and choice : economic theory and Tanzania's villages]''. Greenwich, Conn. : JAI Press, c1986. * ''[http://lccn.loc.gov/79113296 Ujamaa villages : a collection of original manuscripts, 1969-70]''. Dar es Salaam : [s.n.], 1970. * Vail, David J. ''[http://lccn.loc.gov/74025876 Technology for Ujamaa Village development in Tanzania]'' Syracuse, N. Y. : Maxwell School of Citizenship and Public Affairs, Syracuse University, 1975. == Vigaŵa vya kuwalo == * [[:en:Bonny_Ibhawoh|Ibhawoh]], Bonny and J.I. Dibua, {{cite web |title=Deconstructing Ujamaa: The Legacy of Julius Nyerere in the Quest for Social and Economic Development |url=http://archive.lib.msu.edu/DMC/African%20Journals/pdfs/political%20science/volume8n1/ajps008001004.pdf}}&nbsp;{{small|(1.30&nbsp;[[Mebibyte|MiB]])}} in ''African Journal of Political Science'', Vol. 8, No. 1, 2003: pp.&nbsp;59–83. * Lawrence Cockcroft and Gerald Belkin, Ralph Ibbott: "Who conceived/led the way to Ujamaa?" in [http://www.tzaffairs.org/?p=583 ''Tanzanian Affairs''] Issue 92, January 2009. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20150516032213/http://crossroadsbooksonline.net/product/ujamaa-the-hidden-story-of-tanzanias-socialist-villages/ Ujamaa: the hidden story of Tanzania's socialist villages] Ralph Ibbott, participant, December 2014 {{Tanzania topics}}{{Economy of Tanzania}}{{Chama Cha Mapinduzi|state=collapsed}}{{Italic title}} {{Authority control}} dey10t0t46wrir2ur8d1m2tqwbfthmg 0 30408 119275 118872 2026-08-13T21:38:08Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Add 5 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260813sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 119275 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Conflict mainly fought between Uganda and Tanzania from October 1978 until June 1979}} {{good article}} {{Use dmy dates|date=December 2019}} {{Infobox military conflict|conflict=Nkhondo ya ku Uganda na Tanzania|image=[[File:Battles of the Uganda–Tanzania War.svg|275px]]|caption=Nkhondo ya ku Uganda-Tanzania|date=9 October 1978 – 3 June 1979<br>({{Age in years, months, weeks and days|day1=9|month1=10|year1=1978|day2=3|month2=06|year2=1979}})|place=[[Tanzania]] and [[Uganda]]|result=Tanzanian victory *Overthrow of [[Idi Amin]] *Eventual outbreak of the [[Ugandan Bush War]]|territory=''[[Status quo ante bellum]]''|combatant1={{flag|Uganda}}<br>{{flag|Libyan Arab Jamahiriya|name=Libya}}<br>{{flagicon|Palestine}} [[Palestine Liberation Organisation]]<br>'''Supported by''':<br>{{flag|Pakistan}}<br>{{flag|Saudi Arabia}} <!-- There were also reports of troops from Morocco and Zaire fighting for Amin's government, but these are unconfirmed. -->|combatant2={{flag|Tanzania}}<br>{{flagicon|Uganda}} [[Uganda National Liberation Front]] *[[Kikosi Maalum]] *[[Front for National Salvation]] *[[Save Uganda Movement]] *Others {{flag|People's Republic of Mozambique|1975|name=Mozambique}}<br>'''Supported by''':<br>{{flag|Zambia|1964}}<br>{{flagicon|Angola}} [[People's Republic of Angola|Angola]]<br>{{flagicon image|Flag of Ethiopia (1975–1987) (02).svg}} [[Derg|Ethiopia]]<br>{{flag|Algeria}}|commander1={{flagicon|Uganda}} [[Idi Amin]]<br>{{flagicon|Uganda}} [[Yusuf Gowon]]<br/>{{flagicon|Uganda}} [[Isaac Maliyamungu]]<br>{{flagicon|Uganda}} [[Ali Fadhul]]<br>{{flagicon|Libyan Arab Jamahiriya}} [[Muammar Gaddafi]]<br/>{{flagicon|Palestine}} Mutlaq Hamdan{{WIA}}<br/>{{flagicon|Palestine}} [[Mahmoud Da'as]]|commander2={{flagicon|Tanzania}} [[Julius Nyerere]]<br>{{flagicon|Tanzania}} Abdallah Twalipo<br>{{flagicon|Tanzania}} Tumainiel Kiwelu<br>{{flagicon|Tanzania}} [[David Musuguri]]<br>{{flagicon|Tanzania}} [[Silas Mayunga]]<br>{{flagicon|Uganda}} [[Tito Okello]]<br>{{flagicon|Uganda}} [[David Oyite-Ojok]]<br>{{flagicon|Uganda}} [[Yoweri Museveni]]|strength1={{flagicon|Uganda}} 20,000<br>{{flagicon|Libyan Arab Jamahiriya}} 4,500<br>{{flagicon|Palestine}} 400+|strength2={{flagicon|Tanzania}} 150,000<br>{{flagicon|Uganda}} 2,000<br>{{flagicon|Mozambique|1975}} 800|casualties1=~1,000 Ugandans killed<br>3,000 Ugandans captured<br>600+ Libyans killed<br>59 Libyans captured<br/>12–200 Palestinians killed/missing|casualties2=373 Tanzanians killed<br>~150 UNLA fighters killed|casualties3=~1,500 Tanzanian and 500+ Ugandan civilians killed|notes=|campaignbox={{campaignbox Uganda-Tanzania War}}}} '''Nkhondo ya Uganda-Tanzania''', iyo yikumanyikwa mu [[Tanzania]] kuti Nkhondo ya Kagera ([[Chiswahili]]: Vita vya Kagera) na mu [[Uganda]] kuti Nkhondo ya Ufulu ya 1979, yikacitika pakati pa Uganda na Tanzania kwambira Okutobala 1978 mpaka Juni 1979 ndipo yikapangiska kuti pulezidenti wa Uganda Idi Amin wathereskeke. Nkhondo iyi yikamba apo ubwezi pakati pa Uganda na Tanzania ukakhira chifukwa chakuti Amin wakawuskapo pulezidenti Milton Obote mu 1971. Mu vyaka vyakulondezgapo, boma la Amin likakhwaskika na nkhaza, masuzgo gha vyachuma, na kukwiya kwa ŵasilikari ŵa Uganda. Ŵanthu ŵakumanya makora yayi umo nkhondo iyi yikambira, ndipo pali nkhani zakupambana pa nkhani iyi. Mu Okutobala 1978, ŵasilikari ŵa Uganda ŵakamba kuwukira caru ca Tanzania. Paumaliro wa mwezi wenewura, ŵasilikari ŵa ku Uganda ŵakanjira mu caru cawo, ŵakapoka katundu na kukoma ŵanthu. Ŵapharazgi ŵa boma ŵa ku Uganda ŵakapharazga kuti Kagera Salient yatoreka. Pa Novembala 2, Nyerere wakapharazga nkhondo ku Uganda ndipo wakapangiska gulu la Tanzania People's Defence Force (TPDF) kuti liwezgere malo agha. Nyerere wakawovwiraso ŵakugaluka ŵa ku Uganda awo ŵakaŵa ŵakugomezgeka kwa Obote na Yoweri Museveni kuti ŵambe kusuzga boma la Amin. Pamanyuma pakuti Amin wakatondeka kuleka ivyo wakakhumbanga kwa Kagera ndipo wupu wa African Unity (OAU) ukatondeka kususka nkhondo ya Uganda, TPDF yikapoka matawuni gha Masaka na Mbarara kumwera kwa Uganda. Apo ŵasilikari ŵa TPDF ŵakanozgekeranga kuluta ku Kampala, msumba ukuru wa Uganda, Muammar Gaddafi, mulongozgi wa [[Libya]] na mubwezi wa Amin, wakatuma ŵasilikari ŵanandi ku Uganda kuti ŵawovwire ŵasilikari ŵa Uganda. Wupu wakuwona vya wanangwa wa ŵanthu ku Palestina nawo ukatuma ŵasilikari ŵanandi kuti ŵawovwire Amin. Mu Malichi, nkhondo yikuru comene yikacitika apo ŵakugaluka ŵa ku Tanzania na Uganda ŵakathereska ŵasilikari ŵa ku Uganda, Libya, na Palestina ku Lukaya. Kufwa kwa Lukaya kukapangiska kuti ŵasilikari ŵa ku Uganda ŵambe kusweka. Nyerere wakagomezganga kuti ŵakugaluka ŵa ku Uganda ŵakwenera kupika nyengo kuti ŵanozge boma lawo na kunjira mu malo gha Amin. Iyo wakawovwira pa ungano wa ŵakugaluka na ŵakucimbira mu Moshi mu mwezi wenewura, uko gulu la Uganda National Liberation Front (UNLF) likakhazikiskika. Libiya likamalizga kunjilirapo pa nkhondo mu Epulero ndipo ŵasilikari ŵake ŵakafumamo mu caru ici. Pa 10 Epulero, ŵasilikari ŵa TPDF na UNLF ŵakawukira Kampala, ndipo ŵakamupoka zuŵa lakulondezgapo. Amin wakacimbilira ku caru cinyake apo boma la UNLF likakhazikiskikanga. Mu myezi yakulondezgapo, TPDF yikanjira mu Uganda, ndipo yikakumana na ŵanthu ŵanandi yayi. Wakaponoska mphaka ya Uganda na Sudan mu Juni, ndipo nkhondo yikamara. Nkhondo iyi yikananga comene cuma ca ku Tanzania, ndipo Kagera wakasuzgika comene. Chikaŵaso na masuzgo ghakuru gha vyachuma mu Uganda, ndipo chikapangiska kuti ubendezi na nkhaza za ndyali vifike paheni apo boma la UNLF likayezgayezga kusungilira bata. Nkhondo ya ku Uganda yikamba mu 1980 chifukwa cha kupambana maghanoghano pa nkhani za ndyali kweniso chifukwa chakuti ŵasilikari ŵa ku Uganda ŵakalutilira kukhala mu vigaŵa vya mphaka. == Mbiri == === Nkharo za Uganda na Tanzania zakunangika === [[File:LocationUganda&Tanzania.png|alt=Map of Africa with Tanzania and Uganda highlighted|left|thumb|[[Uganda]] (red) and [[Tanzania]] (blue) in [[Africa]] ]] Mu 1971, Colonel Idi Amin wakayamba kuwusa mu charu cha Uganda pamanyuma pakuti ŵasilikari ŵawuskapo pulezidenti Milton Obote. Pulezidenti wa ku Tanzania, Julius Nyerere, wakaŵa paubwezi wakukhora na Obote ndipo wakakhozganga fundo zake za cisosiyali.{{sfn|Roberts|2017|p=155}} Amin wakajiŵika kuŵa Pulezidenti wa Uganda ndipo wakawusa caru mu muwuso wa nkhaza.<ref name="honey2">{{cite news|last=Honey|first=Martha|title=Ugandan Capital Captured|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|date=12 April 1979|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1979/04/12/ugandan-capital-captured/1eb604a7-5ff0-4c51-9fa0-527169e5bffa/?noredirect=on|access-date=7 November 2018}}</ref> Nyerere wakakana kuzomerezga boma liphya ndipo wakapeleka malo gha chivikiliro kwa Obote na awo ŵakamukhozganga. Apo Amin wakambiska nkhondo ya kuwuskamo ŵalwani ŵake mu Uganda, ŵanthu 30,000 m'paka 50,000 ŵakakomeka. Na kuzomerezgeka kwa Nyerere, ŵanthu aŵa ŵakakhazikiska gulu la ŵasilikari, ndipo ŵakayezga kuti ŵanjire mu Uganda na kuwuskamo Amin mu 1972. Amin wakamususka Nyerere cifukwa ca kovwira na kuvikilira ŵalwani ŵake, ndipo wakawezgera na kuwombera matawuni gha ku mphaka na Tanzania. Nangauli ŵalongozgi ŵake ŵakamuciska kuti wazgore mwakuyana waka, kweni Nyerere wakazomera kuti wapharazgire pamoza na pulezidenti wa Somalia, Siad Barre, ndipo ici cikapangiska kuti palembeke phangano la Mogadishu. Phangano ili likati ŵasilikari ŵa Uganda na Tanzania ŵafumemo mu charu ichi na kuluta ku malo agho ghali pa mtunda wa makilomita 10.{{sfn|Roberts|2017|p=155}} Nangauli vikaŵa nthena, kweni vinthu vikalutilira kwenda makora yayi pakati pa pulezidenti uyu na pulezidenti munyake. Pa nyengo yeneyira, ubwezi pakati pa Tanzania na Kenya ukakhora comene, ndipo mu 1977, wupu wa East African Community ukamara. Uganda nayo wakususka mphaka yake na Tanzania, wakati chigaŵa cha Kagera Salient (makilomita 1,900) pakati pa mphaka na Mlonga wa Kagera (makilomita 29) kumwera, chikwenera kuŵa pasi pa mazaza ghake. Pambere Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Caru Cose yindambe, ŵamazaza ŵa Britain na Germany ndiwo ŵakadumbiskana za mphaka iyi.<ref name="darnton1">{{cite news|last=Darnton|first=John|title=Mediation is Begun in Tanzanian War|newspaper=The New York Times|page=5|date=7 November 1978|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1978/11/07/archives/mediation-is-begun-in-tanzanian-war-african-nations-trying-to.html|access-date=12 February 2019}}</ref> === Kuleka Kukhazikika mu Uganda === {{further|Mbiri ya Uganda (1971-79)|Gulu la nkhondo la Uganda (1971-1980)}} Pa nyengo yeneyiyo, Amin wakapharazga "Nkhondo ya vyachuma" mu Uganda umo vikwi na vikwi vya ŵanthu ŵa ku Asia ŵakachimbizgika mu charu mu 1972 ndipo malonda ghawo ghakaŵikika mu mawoko gha Ŵafrika. Ndondomeko iyi yikananga comene vinthu pa nkhani ya vya cuma, ndipo yikasazgikira cifukwa cakuti boma la United States likakanizga ŵanthu kumwa khofi wa ku Uganda. Pa nyengo yeneyiyo pera, Amin wakasazgirako nkhongono za ŵasilikari mu boma lake, wakaŵika ŵasilikari ŵanandi mu nduna zake na kovwira awo ŵakaŵa ŵakugomezgeka kwa iyo. Ŵanandi awo ŵakasanganga chandulo na ivyo wakachitanga ŵakaŵa Ŵasilamu ŵa kumpoto, comenecomene ŵa ku Nubian na Sudan. Amin wakathereska ŵanthu ŵa mafuko gha kumwera mu ŵasilikari na kukoma ŵalwani ŵake. Mu vyaka vyakulondezgapo, wakapona ku ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakakhumbanga kumukoma, ntheura wakaleka kugomezga ŵanthu ndipo kanandi waka wakawuskanga ŵasilikari ŵa ku Uganda. Mu 1977, mu gulu la ŵasilikari ŵa Uganda mukaŵa kugaŵikana pakati pa ŵanthu awo ŵakakolerananga na Amin na ŵasilikari awo ŵakaŵa ŵakugomezgeka kwa Mubali Mustafa Adrisi, uyo wakaŵa na mazaza mu boma. Mu Epulero 1978, Adrisi wakapwetekeka comene pa ngozi ya galimoto. Apo ŵakamufumiskanga mu caru kuti wakacizgike, Amin wakamuwuskamo udindo wake. Kweniso wakapharazga kuti ŵapolisi ŵanandi ŵakakakika, ndipo mu mwezi wakulondezgapo wakalekeska mauteŵeti gha ŵalara ŵa boma na ŵasilikari. Kuzgoka uku kukasuzga nkhongono za Amin mu ŵasilikari izo zikaŵa zakukhora comene cifukwa ca suzgo la vya cuma. Pakopa kuti wangafwa ndipo wakaleka kugomezga kuti wangamazga suzgo ili, Amin wakafumapo pa wumba ndipo wakachezganga viŵi yayi na ŵasilikari ŵake. Pa nyengo yeneyira, wakamba kususka Tanzania kuti wakuswa mphaka ya Uganda.{{sfn|Avirgan|Honey|1983|p=51}} == Umo Nkhondo Yikendera == === Nkhondo yikamba === {{multiple image|align=right|direction=horizontal|total_width=300|caption_align=center|image1=Idi Amin cropped.jpg|image2=Ford A9584 NLGRF photo contact sheet (1976-04-26)(Gerald Ford Library) (cropped)a.jpg|footer_align=center|caption1=Ugandan President [[Idi Amin]] (1977)|caption2=Tanzanian President [[Julius Nyerere]] (1976)}} Nkhondo yikamba pakati pa Uganda na Tanzania mu Okutobala 1978, ndipo ŵanthu ŵa ku Uganda ŵakamba kuwukira charu ichi. Ŵanthu ŵakumanya makora yayi umo nkhondo iyi yikambira, ndipo pali nkhani zinandi zakupambana pa nkhani iyi. Obote wakalemba kuti ivyo wakacita pakunjira mu Kagera "nkhumanya kuti wafumiskenge Amin ku masuzgo agho ghaŵapo cifukwa ca ivyo wakakhumbanga kucita na ŵasilikari ŵake". Ŵasilikari ŵanandi ŵa Uganda ŵakasuska Mulara wa ŵasilikari Juma Butabika kuti ndiyo wakambiska nkhondo iyi, kusazgapo Mulara Abdu Kisuule, uyo wakamususka Butabika kuti wakapangiska ngozi pa mphaka kuti waŵe na mwaŵi wa kuwukira Tanzania. Kuyana na mwana wa Amin, Jaffar Remo, mphekesera za kuthekera kwa nkhondo ya ku Tanzania zikapangiska kuti ŵasilikari ŵa ku Uganda ŵapemphe kuti ŵambe kuwukira Tanzania. Ŵasilikari ŵa ku Tanzania ŵakayowoya kuti Amin wakakhumbanga kutora chigaŵa chikuru cha kumpoto kwa Tanzania, kusazgapo msumba wa Tanga, kuti waŵe na mwaŵi wa kwenda pa nyanja. Mutolamakani wa ku Uganda Faustin Mugabe wakasanga ukaboni uliwose yayi wa fundo iyi mu mabuku gha ku Uganda. Ŵalaraŵalara ŵanyake ŵa boma la Uganda ŵayowoya kuti nkhondo iyi yikacitika cifukwa ca nkhondo za pa mphaka. Vinyake mwa vinthu ivyo vingapangiska nkhondo iyi ni kwiba ng'ombe, kutinkhana pakati pa mafuko, mbembe pakati pa mwanakazi wa ku Uganda na mwanakazi wa ku Tanzania pa msika, kweniso mbembe pakati pa msilikari wa ku Uganda na msilikari wa ku Tanzania panji ŵanthu ŵanyake. Ŵasilikari ŵanandi ŵa ku Uganda awo ŵakakolerana na fundo yakuti ŵanthu ŵakakumananga ku malo ghakusanguluskira ŵakakolerana yayi na umo vinthu vikaŵira, kweni ŵakakolerana kuti ivyo vikachitika vikachitika pa Okutobala 9 mu malo gha ku Tanzania. Iwo ŵakakolerana kuti Butabika wakati waphalirika za suzgo ili, wakalangura gulu lake, lakuti Suicide Battalion, kuti liwukire Tanzania. Ŵasilikari aŵa ŵakati Amin wakaphalirika yayi ivyo ŵakadumura ndipo ŵakakolerana navyo kuti ŵaleke kumususka. Mulara munyake wa ku Uganda, Bernard Rwehururu, wakati Butabika wakateta kwa Amin pa vifukwa ivyo wakawukira Kagera. Kuyana na nyuzipepara za ku America Tony Avirgan na Martha Honey, chiphikiro ichi chikachitika pa 22 Okutobala, apo msilikari wa ku Uganda uyo wakaloŵera wakafwa na futi. Pa mise yeneyira, wayilesi ya Radio Uganda yikapharazga kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Tanzania ŵakakora msilikari wa ku Uganda, ndipo yikati Amin wakawofya kuti wachitengepo kanthu usange ŵandamuwezgere.{{sfn|Avirgan|Honey|1983|pp=57–58}} Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakuti ŵasilikari ŵa Uganda ndiwo ŵakanjilira mu charu ichi chifukwa cha kuskera ŵanthu awo ŵakagalukira boma la Tanzania. Pali mitundu yakupambanapambana ya nkhani iyi, iyo yikayowoyeka na ŵanthu ŵanyake. Wapolisi wa ku Uganda Paul Etiang na mulara wa Royal Dutch Shell ŵakayowoya kuti ŵasilikari ŵa Simba Battalion ŵakakoma ŵanthu ŵaphya ŵa ku Sudan ndipo apo ŵasilikari ŵa ku Uganda ŵakatumika kuti ŵaŵakanizge, ŵakachimbira pa mphaka pa Okutobala 30. Ŵanyake ŵakuti ŵanthu ŵa mu gulu la Chui panji la ŵanthu ŵakujiparanya ndiwo ŵakambiska vivulupi. Nkhwantha ya vya ndyali, Okon Eminue, yikati ŵanthu pafupifupi 200 awo ŵakagaluka ŵakachimbilira ku Kagera. Kuyana na nkhani iyi, Amin wakalangura gulu la Simba Battalion na la Suicide Battalion kuti ŵalondezge ŵanthu awo ŵakagaluka. Msilikari wa ku Uganda uyo Drum wakamufumba wakati ivyo vikacitika pakwamba vikaŵa nkhondo ya ŵanthu ŵatatu pakati pa ŵasilikari ŵa Uganda, ŵanthu awo ŵakafumako ku boma la Uganda, na ŵalinda ŵa ku Tanzania. Ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵakapona ŵakasamira ku mizi ya ku Tanzania. Ŵasayansi Andrew Mambo na Julian Schofield ŵakasuska fundo iyi, ŵakati ŵasilikari awo ŵakatenge ŵakagaluka ŵakalutilira kugomezgeka kwa Amin mu nyengo yose ya nkhondo. Gulu la Tanzania People's Defence Force (TPDF) likapokera waka mauthenga ghachoko waka ghakukhwaskana na umo charu cha Uganda chingawukira charu ichi, ndipo ŵakanozgekera yayi, chifukwa ŵalongozgi ŵa Tanzania ŵakagomezganga kuti Amin wangaghanaghanapo yayi za kuwukira Tanzania apo charu chake chikakhwaskika na vinthu vya ndyali, vyachuma, na vya nkhondo. Nanga ni uko kukaŵa malo ghambura nkhondo agho ghakaŵa ku Mogadishu, kukaŵavya malo ghakuvikilira. Ku Tanzania kukaŵa mphindano na Zaire, Kenya, na Malawi, ndipo gulu la ŵasilikari la 202 ilo likaŵa ku Tabora ndilo likavikiliranga charu ichi. Pafupi na mphaka pakaŵa gulu la ŵasilikari lacitatu. Kukwambilira kwa Seputembala, ŵanthu ŵa ku Tanzania ŵakaphara za ŵasilikari ŵanandi ŵa ku Uganda awo ŵakendanga pafupi na mphaka - ŵanyake ŵakaŵa na ndege zakulongozga ŵasilikari - kweniso ndege zinandi zakwendeskeka. Pakati pa mwezi uwu, ndege za ku Uganda zikamba kwambukira ku Tanzania. Mulara wa ŵasilikari wa ku malo agha wakaphalira ŵalara ŵa ŵasilikari ŵa ku Tabora kuti ŵamutumire vilwero vya nkhondo. Ŵakafika yayi, ndipo mu Okutobala, ŵasilikari ŵakamba kopa chomene.{{sfn|Avirgan|Honey|1983|pp=53–54}} === Vinthu vyakwamba === [[File:Bukoba_0817_.jpg|left|thumb|Gulu la nkhondo la Uganda Air Force likaponya mabomba kanandi waka pa Bukoba (pa chithuzi mu 2017) apo nkhondo yikaŵa kwamba.]] Pakati pa zuŵa pa 9 Okutobala, ŵasilikari ŵa Uganda ŵakafika ku Tanzania apo gulu la ŵasilikari likaluta ku Kakunyu na kotcha nyumba ziŵiri. Gulu la ŵasilikari ŵa ku Tanzania likaŵawukira, likaparanya galimoto yakuyegha ŵasilikari yakufuma ku Uganda na galimoto, na kukoma ŵasilikari ŵaŵiri. Ŵasilikari ŵa ku Uganda ŵakamuwukira, kweni ŵakamupweteka yayi. Namise, wayilesi ya Radio Uganda yikati nkhondo ya ku Tanzania yikanangika. Zuŵa lakulondezgapo, ndege za ku Uganda za MiG zikaponya mabomba mu makuni gha ku Tanzania. Ŵasilikari ŵa ku Uganda ŵakalutilira kuponya mabomba mu charu cha Tanzania, ntheura pa Okutobala 14, ŵasilikari ŵa ku Tanzania ŵakagwiliskira ntchito mabomba ghawo, ndipo ŵasilikari ŵa ku Uganda ŵakaleka kuwombera. Mu mazuŵa ghacoko waka ghakulondezgapo, ŵasilikari ŵa ku vigaŵa vyose viŵiri ŵakamba kuwombera ŵanyawo, ndipo pamasinda ŵakafika pa mphaka yose. Ŵalongozgi ŵa ku Tanzania ŵakawonanga kuti Amin wakacitanga viheni pera. Pa 18 Okutobala, ndege za ku Uganda za MiG zikaponya mabomba ku Bukoba, msumba ukuru wa West Lake Region. Nangauli ŵasilikari ŵa charu cha Tanzania ŵakaŵavya nkhongono pa kuwukira, kweni ŵasilikari ŵara ŵakaparanya vinthu vicoko waka. Ndipouli, kupulika kwa kupulika kwa mabomba agha kukaphyora mawindo ndipo ŵanthu ŵakacita wofi. Mwakupambana na umo Tanzania yikakhalira chete, Radio Uganda yikayowoya za "kuwukira" kwa Tanzania mu charu cha Uganda na nkhani za nkhondo zautesi, na kulongosora kuti ŵasilikari ŵa Tanzania ŵakaluta mu Uganda mtunda wa makilomita 15, ŵakakoma ŵanthu na kunanga katundu. Amin wakaphalira ŵanthu ŵa ku Mutukula kuti nangauli "ŵakaŵawukira", kweni wakaŵa na cigomezgo cakuti vinthu viŵenge makora na Tanzania. Pa nyengo yeneyiyo, mawayilesi gha Radio Uganda gha chiyowoyero cha Kinyankole, agho ŵanthu ŵa ku West Lake ŵakaghawoneleranga na kughapulikiska, ghakachenya chomene Nyerere na kuyowoya kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Tanzania ŵakukhumba kuŵa pasi pa boma la Uganda kuti ŵaleke kulamulirika na boma ili. Pa nyengo yeneyira, boma la Uganda likamba kusuzgika chomene. Ŵasilikari ŵanandi ŵa ku Masaka awo ŵakamanyikwa kuti mbambura kugomezgeka ŵakakomeka, ŵasilikari ŵa boma awo ŵakakwesananga nawo ŵakakumana mu Kampala, ndipo ŵasilikari ŵanyake ŵakakomeka apo ŵakayezganga kukora mulara wa vya ndalama.{{sfn|Avirgan|Honey|1983|p=56}} === Kuwukira Kagera === ==== Kuwukira kwa Uganda ==== {{main|Kuwukira Kagera}} {{further|Air campaign of the Uganda–Tanzania War}} [[File:Kagera-Missenyi.svg|alt=Map of Kagera Region with Missenyi District highlighted|right|thumb|Uganda wakaŵa kumpoto kwa Mlonga wa Kagera, chigaŵa icho sono chikuchemeka Missenyi (chiswesi)]] Pa 25 Okutobala mulenjilenji, ŵanthu ŵa ku Tanzania awo ŵakaŵa na telesikopu ŵakawona kuti mu Mutukula muli magalimoto ghanandi. Pamanyuma, ŵasilikari ŵa ku Uganda ŵakamba kuwombera ŵanthu apo ŵasilikari ŵa pa mtunda ŵakalutanga. Ŵasilikari wose ŵa ku Tanzania ŵakacimbira cifukwa ca kuwotcheka, kupaturako gulu limoza ilo likafumako mwaluŵiro. Ŵasilikari ŵakujumpha 2,000 ŵa ku Uganda awo ŵakalongozgekanga na Mulara Marajani, Mulara Butabika, na Mulara Kisuule ŵakawukira Kagera. Ŵasilikari ŵa Uganda ŵakaŵa na matangi gha T-55 na M4A1 Sherman, pamoza na OT-64 SKOT armored personnel carriers (APC), kweniso magalimoto gha Alvis Saladin, ndipo ŵakaluta mu magulu ghaŵiri pasi pa Butabika na Kisuule. Nangauli ŵasilikari ŵa ku Uganda ŵakasangana na chiyezgo chichoko waka, kweni ŵakamba kwenda pachokopachoko chifukwa cha malo ghakupambanapambana. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Tanzania ŵakamba kulaŵilira mawayilesi gha ku Uganda, ndipo ŵakamanya kupulika ivyo vikacitikanga pakati pa Marajani na Republic House, ofesi yikuru ya ŵasilikari ŵa Uganda mu Kampala. Marajani wakapharazga kuti ŵanthu ŵakamususka comene nangauli ŵasilikari wose ŵa TPDF ŵakafumako ku mphaka. Ŵasilikari ŵa ku Tanzania ŵakaŵika vilwero vyawo pa mtunda wa makilomita 10 kufuma ku Ŵauganda ndipo ŵakaŵaponya mabomba ghanandi. Muhanya wose, ndege za ku Uganda za MiG zikambukira mu malo gha ku Tanzania, uko zikaŵa na vilwero vya nkhondo. Ŵakati ŵathereskeka, Ŵauganda ŵakanozgekera kuti ŵambeso kuwukira. Pa Okutobala 30, ŵasilikari pafupifupi 3,000 ŵa ku Uganda ŵakanjira mu charu cha Tanzania kufuma ku Kukunga, Masanya, Mutukula, na Minziro. Ŵakaŵa na ŵasilikari ŵa boma la Uganda, awo ŵakalongozgekanga na Joseph Gowon. Nangauli ŵasilikari ŵa ku Tanzania ŵakaŵasuskanga comene, kweni ŵasilikari ŵa ku Uganda ŵakalondezga mwamahara. Ŵakamba kuwukira ŵasilikari na ŵanthu bweka, pambere ŵandafike ku Mlonga wa Kagera na Kyaka Bridge namise. Nangauli malo agho ghakaŵa pakati pa mlonga na Bukoba ghakaŵa ghambura kuvikilirika chifukwa cha kufumako kwa TPDF, kweni ŵasilikari ŵa Uganda ŵakalekeska ulendo wawo kumpoto kwa mlatho uwu. Ŵasilikari ŵa ku Uganda awo ŵakakhalanga mu chigaŵa cha Kagera ŵakamba kwiba vinthu vyawo. Ŵanthu pafupifupi 1,500 ŵakakomeka, ndipo ŵanyake 5,000 ŵakabisama mu thengere. Pa Novembala 1, Radio Uganda yikapharazga za "kufwatuka" kwa Kagera Salient ndipo yikati Mlonga wa Kagera ndiwo ukaŵa mphaka pakati pa Uganda na Tanzania. Amin wakenda mu cigaŵa ici na kutorako vithuzi na vilwero vya nkhondo vya ku Tanzania. Ŵalongozgi ŵa boma la Uganda ŵakawopanga kuti munjilira wa Kyaka ungagwiliskirika nchito pakuwukira ŵanyawo, ntheura pa Novembala 3, nkhwantha yinyake yikaponya mabomba pa munjilira uwu na kuwuparanya.{{sfn|Avirgan|Honey|1983|p=65}} ==== Ivyo Ŵanthu Ŵakuyowoya ==== Pambuyo pa malipoti oyambirira a chiwopsezo cha pa 30 Okutobala kufika ku Dar es Salaam, Nyerere adachita msonkhano ndi alangizi ake ndi atsogoleri a TPDF kunyumba yake ya m'mphepete mwa nyanja. Wakaŵa na cigomezgo yayi kuti ŵasilikari ŵake ŵangagwentha nkhondo ya ku Uganda, kweni Mulara wa TPDF Abdallah Twalipo wakaŵa na cigomezgo kuti ŵasilikari ŵangaŵachimbizga ku Tanzania. Nyerere wakamuphalira kuti "yambako" ndipo ungano ukamara. Pa 31 Okutobala Radio Tanzania yikati ŵasilikari ŵa Uganda ŵanjira mu chigaŵa cha kumpoto kwa charu ichi ndipo TPDF yikunozgekera kuti yiwukire. Pa Novembala 2, Nyerere wakapharazga nkhondo ku Uganda, wakati pa wayilesi: "Tili na vifukwa, tili na vinthu vyakukhumbikwa, ndipo tili na khumbo la kulimbana nayo [Amin]". Ŵalongozgi 6 ŵa mu Africa ŵakasuska kuti Kagera ni malo ghakofya gha Uganda: Mengistu Haile Mariam wa ku Ethiopia, Didier Ratsiraka wa ku Madagascar, Agostinho Neto wa ku Angola, Seretse Khama wa ku Botswana, Samora Machel wa ku Mozambique, na Kenneth Kaunda wa ku Zambia. Maboma gha Guinea, Mali, Senegal, na vyaru vinyake vinandi vya mu Africa ghakaŵasuska yayi, kweni ghakaŵachiska kuti ŵaleke kurwa nkhondo. Wupu wa African Union (OAU) ukaŵa wakujipatura pa nkhani iyi, apo ŵimiliri ŵa wupu uwu ŵakayezga kuŵa ŵimiliri pakati pa Uganda na Tanzania.<ref name="darnton1" /> ==== Tanzanian counter-attack ==== [[File:Samora_Moises_Machel_detail_DF-SC-88-01383.jpg|left|thumb|Charu cha Mozambique icho chikaŵa pasi pa Samora Machel (chithunzi mu 1985) chikaŵa chimoza mwa vyaru vichoko waka ivyo vikawovwira Tanzania pa nyengo ya nkhondo.]] Nyerere wakalangura Tanzania kuti waŵikengepo nkhongono zake zose pa nkhondo. Pa nyengo iyi, TPDF yikaŵa na mabrigadi ghanayi. Pakati pa ŵasilikari aŵa, ni gulu la ŵasilikari ŵa ku Southern Brigade pera ilo likaŵa kuti lacita makora comene nkhondo. Gulu ili likaŵa ku Songea, kutali na Kagera kuluska magulu ghanyake. Ŵakati ŵenda ulendo utali pa njanji na msewu, ŵakiza ku Bukoba-Kyaka ndipo ŵakazenga msasa. Ŵasilikari ŵanyake ŵakatumika kufuma ku Tabora. Mulara wa boma Edward Sokoine wakaphalira ŵalara ŵa boma la Tanzania kuti ŵatumizge ŵasilikari na ŵanthu wose ku nkhondo. Mu masabata ghacoko waka, ŵasilikari ŵa ku Tanzania ŵakasazgikira kufuma pa ŵasilikari ŵambura kukwana 40,000 kufika pa ŵasilikari ŵakujumpha 150,000, kusazgapo ŵasilikari pafupifupi 40,000 kweniso ŵapolisi, ŵakayidi, na ŵantchito ŵa boma. Ŵanandi mwa ŵasilikari aŵa ŵakaŵatumizga ku mphaka ya kumwera kwa Tanzania panji ku malo ghanyake gha mu charu ichi. Machel wakapeleka wovwiri kwa Nyerere wa gulu la ŵasilikari ŵa Mozambique. Gulu la ŵasilikari ŵakukwana 800 ŵakaŵatolera mwaluŵiro ku Tanzania na kuluta ku Kagera. Mu myezi iyo yikajumphapo pambere nkhondo yindayambe, ŵasilikari ŵa ku Uganda ŵakaŵa kuti ŵafwa chifukwa cha kutambuzgana, ndipo ŵakalemba ŵasilikari ŵaphya pafupifupi 10,000. Kuyana na msilikari munyake wa ku Uganda uyo wakafumbika na magazini ya Drum, ŵasilikari ŵaphya aŵa ŵakasambizgika makora yayi ndipo ŵakaŵa ŵakwenelera yayi kurwa nkhondo. Kweniso kuumaliro wa 1978, ŵasilikari ŵa ku Uganda ŵakagalukira boma. Pafupifupi, ŵasilikari ŵa ku Uganda ŵakaŵa 20,000 panji 21,000 mu 1978/79, ndipo ŵanthu ŵacoko waka pa 3,000 ndiwo ŵakateŵeteranga ku nkhondo. Nangauli ŵasilikari ŵa ku Uganda ŵakamanyikwa kuti Tanzania yikunozgekera nkhondo, kweni ŵakakhozga yayi malo ghawo. Ŵalara ŵa ŵasilikari ŵanandi na ŵalaŵiliri ŵa ŵasilikari ŵakazerezga mauthenga gha ŵapolisi ndipo ŵakaŵikapo mtima kuti ŵapoke vinthu vya mu Kagera Salient. Pakwamba, boma la Tanzania likakhumbanga kuti nkhondo iyi yambike pa Novembala 6, kweni yikenera kuchedwa. Kuumaliro wa Novembala, ŵasilikari aŵa ŵakaŵa na ŵasilikari ŵanandi chomene ku sirya la kumwera kwa Mlonga wa Kagera. Mulara wa TPDF Major General Tumainie Kiwelu wakatora mazaza gha ŵasilikari, ndipo ŵa Tanzania ŵakamba kuwombera kumpoto kwa nyanja, ndipo ŵasilikari ŵanandi ŵa Uganda ŵakachimbira. Pa Novembala 14, Amin, wakati wawona kuti vyaru vinyake vya mu Africa vikumovwira yayi ndipo wakawopa kuti Soviet Union yikukhumba kupeleka vilwero viphya ku Tanzania, wakapharazga kuti ŵasilikari wose ŵa Uganda ŵafumemo mu Kagera ndipo wakachema ŵanthu ŵa OAU kuti ŵaŵepo. Boma la Tanzania likasuska mazgu agha kuti "mbutesi", apo ŵalendo awo ŵakulaŵilira vinthu ku vyaru vinyake ŵakutondeka kufiska fundo yimoza pa nkhani ya kufumiska ŵasilikari. OAU yikati ivyo yikacita vikaŵa makora. Pa Novembala 19, ŵanthu ŵa ku Tanzania ŵakazenga mlatho wakudumura Mlonga wa Kagera, ndipo mu mazuŵa ghakulondezgapo ŵakatuma ŵasilikari kuti ŵakendere mu mlonga uwu. Ŵasilikari ŵa boma la Uganda ŵakamba kusuzgika chomene, ndipo ŵasilikari ŵacoko waka ndiwo ŵakayezga kutimbanizga nkhondo. Pa Novembala 23, magulu ghatatu gha TPDF ghakaswa mlatho wa ponton ndipo ŵakamba kuwuskaso Kagera Salient. Boma la Uganda likapharazga kuumaliro wa Novembala kuti lifumiskenge ŵasilikari wose mu Kagera Salient ndipo nkhondo zose zaleka. Ŵadipuloma ŵakufuma ku vyaru vinyake 50 ŵakaluta ku mphaka, ndipo ŵakayowoya kuti pakaŵavya ukaboni wakuti nkhondo yikulutilira. Ŵalaraŵalara ŵa boma la Tanzania ŵakasuska ivyo boma likayowoya, ŵakati ŵasilikari ŵa Uganda ŵakwenera kufumiskika ku caru cawo. Pa 4 Disembala ma Brigade 206 na Southern gha TPDF ghakapoka Mutukula ku chigaŵa cha Tanzania kwambura suzgo, apo Brigade 207 yikatora Minziro. Kukwambilira kwa mwezi wa Janyuwale, ŵasilikari wose ŵa ku Uganda ŵakafumamo mu Kagera.<ref name="lubega2" /> === Border clashes and Battle of Mutukula === {{main|Nkhondo ya Mutukula}} {{further|Wovwiri wakuwalo wa Uganda mu Nkhondo ya Uganda-Tanzania}} [[File:2015-05-05._Репетиция_парада_Победы_103.jpg|right|thumb|Gulu la Tanzania People's Defence Force likagwiliskiranga ntchito makina ghakuponya mabomba gha BM-21 Grad (chiyelezgero cha mu Russia icho chili pa cithuzithuzi) mu nyengo ya Nkhondo ya Uganda-Tanzania. ]] Ŵasilikari ŵa ku [[Uganda]] ŵakakhuŵara comene apo ŵa ku [[Tanzania]] ŵakaŵafumiskanga mu Kagera na kuŵawukira mumphepete mwa mphaka. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Tanzania ŵakati ŵathereskeka, ŵakafipanga mtima kuti ŵasilikari ŵa ku Uganda ŵayezgeso kupoka caru cawo. Ŵalongozgi ŵa ku Tanzania ŵakawona kuti usange ŵasilikari ŵa ku Uganda ŵakulongozga malo ghatali gha ku Mutukula, ku Uganda, ŵakwambiska suzgo. Nyerere wakazomera ndipo wakaphalira ŵasilikari ŵake kuti ŵapoke msumba uwu. Apo ŵakanozgekeranga mulimo uwu, TPDF ŵakatangwanika na kusambizga na kunozga ŵasilikari ŵawo. Ntheura, nkhondo izo zikacitika mu Disembala 1978 zikaŵa za "nkhondo ya mu miphaka" pera, ndipo nyengo zinyake ŵanthu ŵakakumananga na kuwukira ŵasilikari. Pa nyengo iyi, ŵasilikari ŵa Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) ŵakateŵeteranga lumoza na ŵanthu ŵa ku Uganda. Gulu la PLO likaŵa mubwezi wa boma la Amin kwa vyaka vinandi, ndipo ŵasilikari ŵa Palestina pafupifupi 400 ŵakasambizgika mu Uganda. Ŵasilikari aŵa ŵakatumika ku mphaka kuti ŵakawovwire ŵasilikari ŵa Uganda, cifukwa PLO yikawonanga kuti nkhondo na Tanzania yikaŵa pangozi kwa iwo. Magazini ya Africa yikati "ŵanthu ŵakumanya vinandi" ŵakayowoya kuti "ŵantchito ŵa ku Pakistan na ŵasilikari ŵa nkhondo" ŵakakhozganga ŵasilikari ŵa Amin. Ŵasayansi ŵa ku Pakistan pafupifupi 200-350 ŵakaŵa mu Uganda kwamba mu 1978. African Review yikati Saudi Arabia yikapeleka "wovwiri wa nkhondo" ku boma la Amin mu 1978/79. Amin wakaluta ku Saudi Arabia kaŵiri kupempha wovwiri wa ndalama mu nyengo ya nkhondo ya Uganda-Tanzania. Ŵalaraŵalara ŵa boma la Uganda ŵakaghanaghananga kuti ku Tanzania kulije nkhondo, nangauli ŵasilikari ŵa ku mphepete ŵakayowoyapo vyakupambana. Gulu la nkhondo la Uganda likazizwa apo TPDF yikamba kuwukira mu mphepete mwa mphaka mwakugwiliskira nchito vyakuponya mabomba vya BM-21 Grad pa Disembala 25. Ŵa Ugandan ŵakaŵavya vilwero ivyo vingaŵawovwira kuti ŵarwe nkhondo na ŵasilikari ŵa ku Tanzania. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Uganda ŵakaŵa na wofi comene cifukwa cakuti pakwamba ŵakatondeka kumanya ico cikaŵa munkhondo uwu. Gulu la TPDF likaponya mabomba pa mphaka kwa masabata ghanandi, na kusuzga ŵanthu ŵa ku Uganda. Ŵasilikari ŵa Uganda ŵakayezga kuti ŵaparanyenge mabomba gha ku Tanzania kweni ŵakatondeka. Amin wakatuma ŵasilikari ku Spain kuti ŵakayezge kugura ndege na mabomba gha napalm kuti ŵagwenthe mabomba agha, kweni ŵakasanga yayi vilwero. Ŵasilikari ŵa ku Tanzania ŵakanjira mu mizi yapafupi na Kikagati pa 20 January, 1979, ndipo Amin wakambiska nkhondo. Gulu la TPDF la South Brigade (lakucemeka kuti 208th Brigade) likambuka mphaka usiku wa 21 January na kuwukira Mutukula zuŵa lakulondezgapo. Gulu la ŵasilikari ŵa ku Uganda likathereskeka mwaluŵiro ndipo ŵakachimbira, ndipo Ŵatanzania ŵakathereska Mutukula na kutora vilwero vinandi ivyo ŵakasida. Ŵasilikari ŵa TPDF ŵakamba kuparanya tawuni yose na kukoma ŵanthu ŵanandi kuti ŵawezgere nduzga izo ŵakacita ku Kagera. Nyerere wakakwiya comene wati waphalirika, ndipo wakaphalira TPDF kuti waleke kupweteka ŵanthu na katundu wawo. Boma la Uganda likapulikira yayi ivyo vikachitikira Mutukula. Ŵakatuma waka gulu la ŵasilikari kuti likakhozge nkhondo, uku ŵakuŵika mtima pa kukondwelera chaka cha 8 cha Amin kuŵa pulezidenti. Kacitiro aka kakapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵa mu Uganda ŵaleke kugomezgeka. Gulu la TPDF likagwiliskira nchito nyengo iyo kukaŵavya nkhondo kuti liŵe ŵakunozgeka kwambaso nkhondo. Kuti ŵawovwirepo, caru ca Mozambique, Zambia, Angola, Ethiopia, na Algeria ŵakatumizga vilwero ku Tanzania. Kuyana na wasayansi munyake zina lake Gerald Chikozho Mazarire, Ethiopia wakatuma "ŵasilikari na mabomba gha ku Russia" ku Tanzania kuti ŵakakhozge nkhondo ya ku Uganda. Pakaŵaso ŵanthu awo ŵakatenge ŵasilikari ŵa ZANLA ŵakurwa pamoza na TPDF. Boma la Tanzania nalo likapempha China kuti liŵawovwire vya nkhondo. Ŵabali aŵa ŵakakhumbanga kuti ŵaleke kunjilirapo pa nkhondo iyi. Nangauli ŵa ku China ŵakaphalira ŵanthu kuti ŵadumbiskane, kweni ŵakatumizga vilwero vinandi ndipo ŵakawovwira kuti vinthu vinyake ivyo ŵakapempha vifike luŵiro. Ufumu wa United Kingdom nawo ukakhumba yayi kunjilirapo pa nkhondo iyi, kweni ukagwiranga lumoza nchito na ŵanthu ŵa ku Tanzania kuti uŵape mwaluŵiro vinthu vya nkhondo ivyo ŵakagura. Pa nyengo yeneyira, Soviet Union yikaleka kupeleka vilwero ku Uganda ndipo yikapharazga kuti yikukhumba kuwuskamo ŵalongozgi ŵake wose ŵa nkhondo. {{efn|The Soviet government extended its assurances to Nyerere that no technical assistance would be given to Uganda during the war, though it did dispatch a new military specialist to the country in January 1979.{{sfn|Legum|1980|p=B 438}}}} === Kuwungana kwa ŵakugaluka ŵa ku Uganda na awo ŵali ku wuzga === Mwaluŵiro pamanyuma pa kuwukira kwa Kagera, Nyerere wakalongora kuti pakuti Mgwirizano wa Mogadishu waleka kugwira ntchito, boma lake lipelekenge ndalama, kusambizga, na kuvikilira ŵanthu wose ŵa ku Uganda awo ŵakukhumba kurwa nkhondo kuti ŵawuskepo Amin. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakufuma mu vyaru vyakupambanapambana kweniso awo ŵakususka boma la Uganda ŵakazomera uthenga uwu. Gulu likuru la ŵakugaluka likapanga Kikosi Maalum, gulu lakugomezgeka kwa Obote ilo likalongozgekanga na Tito Okello na David Oyite Ojok; Front for National Salvation (FRONASA) ilo likalongozgekanga na Yoweri Museveni; na Save Uganda Movement (SUM) ilo likalongozgekanga na Akena p'Ojok, William Omaria, na Ateker Ejalu.{{sfn|Otunnu|2017|p=46}}{{sfn|Nyeko|1997|p=105}}Kweniso, magulu ghacoko waka nga ni Catholic Group na Uganda Nationalist Organization ghakati ghali na vilwero.<ref name="honey3">{{cite news|last=Honey|first=Martha|title=Ugandan Exiles Seek to Unite Forces Against Amin|newspaper=The Washington Post|date=24 March 1979|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1979/03/24/ugandan-exiles-seek-to-unite-forces-against-amin/804c8573-e9b8-4ad2-b9a1-3fabe535cbfc/|access-date=2 January 2021}}</ref> Magulu agha ghakaŵa ghaheni comene pakwamba kwa nkhondo, kweni pamanyuma ghakathandazgika mwaluŵiro. Nangauli ŵakamanyikwanga kuti mbalwani, kweni ŵakasuskananga pa nkhani za ndyali. Apo Kikosi Maalum na FRONASA ŵakapeleka ŵasilikari ŵa panthazi na ŵasilikari awo ŵakateŵeteranga nga ni wovwiri na ŵakwendakwenda ku TPDF, SUM yikapanga mabomba na kuwukira boma la Amin kufuma mukati. Gulu la Uganda Liberation Group (Z) ilo lili ku Zambia likachiska ŵanthu awo ŵali mu gulu ili kuti ŵapeleke ndalama zakovwira nkhondo ya ku Tanzania. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Uganda awo ŵakaŵa ku wuzga ŵakayezgayezga kuti ŵachiteko vinthu vinyake ku Kenya, kweni boma la Kenya likaŵatondeska. Mu Janyuwale, Obote wakaswa cete lake ndipo wakacema ŵanthu ŵa ku Uganda kuti ŵawukire boma. Mu nyengo yakwambilira ya nkhondo iyi, magulu ghanandi gha ŵakugaluka, kusazgapo Obote, FRONASA, na SUM, ghakakolerana pasi pa gulu la "National Revolt".<ref name="honey3" /> === Tanzanian invasion of southern Uganda === {{main|Battle of Simba Hills|Battle of Gayaza Hills|Battle of Masaka}} {{further|Air campaign of the Uganda–Tanzania War|Western Uganda campaign of 1979}} {{Location map+|Uganda|float=right|caption=Map of Uganda, showing locations of importance during the initial Tanzanian counter-invasion.|places={{Location map~|Uganda|lat=-0.341111|long=31.736111|position=right |label_size=75 |label=[[Masaka]]}} {{Location map~|Uganda|lat=-0.613333|long=30.658333|position=left |label_size=75 |label=[[Mbarara]]}} {{Location map~|Uganda|lat=-1|long=31.416667|position=bottom |label_size=75 |label=[[Mutukula, Uganda|Mutukula]]}} {{Location map~|Uganda|lat=-0.8966670|long=31.4005560|position=top |label_size=75 |label=Lukoma}}}} Pakwamba Nyerere wakakhumbanga waka kurwa nkhondo kuti wavikilire caru ca Tanzania. Pamanyuma pakuti Amin wakatondeka kulekeska ivyo wakakhumbanga ku Kagera ndipo OAU yikatondeka kususka nkhondo ya ku Uganda, iyo wakadumura kuti ŵasilikari ŵa Tanzania ŵanjire mu chigaŵa cha kumwera kwa Uganda, chomenechomene matawuni ghaŵiri ghakuru: Masaka na Mbarara. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Tanzania ŵakaghanaghana za kuŵakora kuti ŵaŵalyerepo mulandu cifukwa ca uheni uwo ŵasilikari ŵa ku Uganda ŵakacita mu caru cawo ndiposo kuti ŵambiske cigaluka. Obote wakasimikizgira Nyerere kuti usange matawuni agha ghazamuwukira boma la Amin, boma lizamuwuskikapo mu masabata ghachoko waka na kuzomerezga ŵanthu ŵa ku Tanzania kuti ŵafumemo mu nkhondo. Kweniso Obote wakaŵa na cigomezgo (ndipo Nyerere nayo wakaŵa na cigomezgo) kuti ŵasilikari ŵa ku Uganda ŵazamubwanganduka usange Masaka wangakoleka. Ŵasilikari ŵa ku Tanzania ŵakamba kunozgekera makora nkhondo ya kuzenga matawuni ghaŵiri agha. Muwuso wa ŵasilikari ŵa TPDF ukati wawona kuti ŵasilikari ŵa TPDF ŵafumako ku Uganda, ŵakakwiya chomene. Pakwamba ŵakagomezganga kuti ŵakugaluka ŵa ku Uganda ndiwo ŵadangilirenge nkhondo iyi, kweni ŵakaŵa waka 1,000, ntheura ŵa ku Tanzania ndiwo ŵakeneranga kulongozga nkhondo iyi. Pakati pa malo gha TPDF na Masaka pakaŵa malo ghanandi agho ghakaŵa na ŵasilikari ŵa Uganda agho ghakakhumbikwanga kufwatulika, kusazgapo malo ghakukwelera ndege ku Lukoma na mabatire ghakupambanapambana gha futi. Gulu la ŵasilikari la 201, 207, na 208 likapika languro lakuti lifumiskemo ŵasilikari. Ŵasilikari ŵa ku Tanzania ŵakamba kuwukira mu Febuluwale. Ŵakafika pafupi, ŵakakoma ŵasilikari ŵanandi ŵa ku Uganda, ŵakaparanya katundu wawo, ndipo ŵakakora malo ghakukwelera ndege pa Febuluwale 13. Pa nyengo yeneyiyo, Amin wakati ŵasilikari ŵa ku Tanzania na ŵasilikari awo ŵakugwira ntchito na malupanga ŵatorapo chigaŵa chikuru cha Uganda. Pakuŵa na mafumbo kufuma ku wupu wa vyaru vyakupambanapambana, Tanzania yikati ŵasilikari ŵake ŵakasunga waka malo agho ghali kufupi na mphaka ya Uganda. Ŵapolisi ŵa ku Tanzania ŵakawerezgapo mazgu gha Nyerere ghakuti "Tanzania yikukhumba yayi malo gha ku Uganda" kweni ŵakakana kufumba mafumbo ghakukhwaskana na umo ŵasilikari ŵawo ŵakwendeskera. Apo ŵasilikari ŵa ku Tanzania ŵakalutanga ku Masaka ŵakalutanga panthazi mwaluŵiro, gulu la TPDF la 206th Brigade likakumana na ŵanthu ŵakususka apo likalutanga ku Mbarara. Gulu la ŵasilikari la Uganda likathereska gulu la ŵasilikari kufupi na Nyanja ya Nakivale, na kukoma ŵanthu ŵa ku Tanzania 24. Ici cikaŵa cimoza mwa vinthu vikuru comene ivyo vikathereskeka na TPDF mu nyengo ya nkhondo, ndipo pamanyuma pake yikakhira. Mu chigaŵa cha Masaka, TPDF yikathereska ŵasilikari ŵa Kalisizo, tawuni iyo yili pa mtunda wa makilomita 28 kumwera kwa Masaka. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Uganda awo ŵakawelera ku Masaka ŵakaŵa na wofi comene ndipo ŵasilikari awo ŵakakhalanga ku malo agha ŵakaŵavya cikanga. Apo ŵasilikari ŵa ku Tanzania ŵakendanga kumwera kwa Uganda, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakaŵalumbanga. Gulu la TPDF likazingilizga msumba wa Masaka kufuma ku vigaŵa vitatu, kweni likalangulika kuti lileke kunjiramo, pakuti ungano wa OAU ukacitikira ku Nairobi mu chiyezgo cakuti uŵe wakunjilirapo pa nkhondo. Mulara wa ŵasilikari wa ku Uganda, Isaac Maliyamungu wakawona mwaŵi wakuti waŵawukire, ntheura ŵasilikari ŵake ŵakamba kufumiska ŵasilikari ŵa ku Tanzania pa Febuluwale 23. Gulu la TPDF likathereska luŵiro ŵasilikari aŵa, ndipo usiku wenewura likamba kuwombera msumba wa Masaka. Pamanyuma, ŵasilikari ŵanandi ŵakachimbira, ndipo namulenji Ŵatanzania ŵakakora tawuni. Pakukhumba kuwezgera uheni uwo ukacitika mu Kagera, ŵasilikari ŵa ku Tanzania ŵakagwiliskira nchito mabomba kuti ŵabwangandure nyumba zinandi izo zikapona. Pa 25 February, TPDF na ŵakugaluka ŵa ku Uganda awo ŵakalongozgekanga na Museveni ŵakabomba Mbarara ndipo ŵakati ŵapoka msumba uwu, ŵakaparanya nyumba izo zikakhalako na dinamiti. Pakaŵavya kuwukira Amin. Pamanyuma pa kupoka matawuni ghaŵiri agha, TPDF yikaleka kuwungana. Silas Mayunga wakakwezgeka kuŵa mulara wa ŵasilikari ndipo wakapika mazaza gha "Task Force" iyo yikaŵa yiphya. Apo gulu la 20th Division likanyamuka kufuma kumwera kwa Uganda na kuwukira vigaŵa vikuruvikuru mu chalo ichi, gulu la Task Force likaluta kumpoto ku Western Uganda mu myezi yakulondezgapo, ndipo likakumana na ŵasilikari ŵa Uganda. Nyengo yeneyiyo, ŵasilikari ŵa boma la Uganda ŵakakomeka comene mu Febuluwale.{{sfn|Brzoska|Pearson|1994|p=207}} === Libyan intervention and Battle of Lukaya === {{main|Battle of Lukaya}} {{further|Battle of Tororo|Battle of Sembabule}} {{see also|Foreign support of Uganda in the Uganda–Tanzania War}} [[File:Moamer_el_Gadafi_(cropped).jpg|left|thumb|Mulongozgi wa ku Libya Muammar Gaddafi (uyo wali pa cithuzithuzi) wakapeleka ŵasilikari na vinthu vinyake ku Uganda pa nyengo ya nkhondo.]] Mulongozgi wa ku Libya Muammar Gaddafi, uyo wakaŵa mubwezi wa Amin, wakawona kuti caru ca Uganda - ico iyo wakaciwonanga kuti ni caru ca Cisilamu - cikaŵa pangozi cifukwa ca ŵasilikari ŵa Cikhristu, ndipo wakakhumbanga kuti ŵasilikari ŵa ku Tanzania ŵaleke kunjira. Wakayowoyaso kuti mu nyengo ya muwuso wa Amin, charu cha Uganda chikaŵa na mazaza ghakupambanapambana na vyaru vya Sudan na Egypt. Ivyo ŵanthu ŵa ku Libya ŵakacita mu Novembala 1978 na Febuluwale 1979 vikatondeka kumazga suzgo pakati pa Tanzania na Uganda. Kaddafi wakaphalirika kuti wakakhumbanga kunjilirapo pa nkhondo kwambura kudumbiskana na ŵamazaza ŵanyake ŵa ku Libya kweniso nangauli mulara wake wa ŵasilikari, Major Farak Suleiman, wakakana. Pakati pa mwezi wa Febuluwale, ŵasilikari ŵa ku Libya ŵakanjira mu Entebbe kuti ŵawovwire ŵasilikari ŵa ku Uganda, nangauli kukwambilira kwa mwezi wa Malichi boma la Libya likakana kuti ŵasilikari ŵake ŵatumizgikenge ku Uganda. Pa nyengo yeneyiyo, wupu wa PLO ukawona kuti boma la Amin lili pafupi kuparanyika cifukwa ca nkhondo ya ku Tanzania. Mulongozgi Yasser Arafat, na ŵawovwiri ŵakuru Khalil al-Wazir na Saad Sayel ŵakadumbiskana vyakusankha vyawo, ndipo ŵakadumura kutuma ŵasilikari ŵanandi ŵa PLO ku Uganda kuti ŵavikilire boma la Amin. Colonel Mutlaq Hamdan, wakucemeka "Abu Fawaz", na ŵalongozgi ŵanyake ŵakaŵatuma kuti ŵakawovwire ŵalara ŵa boma la Uganda pakunozga nkhondo. Pa March 18, Arafat wakasimikizgira kuti ku Uganda kukaŵa ŵasilikari ŵa Palestina awo ŵakalweranga Amin. Pa nyengo yeneyiyo, gulu la 20 la TPDF likanozgekera kunjira kufuma ku Masaka kuya ku Kampala. Nthowa yimoza pera yakufumira ku Masaka kuya ku Kampala yikajumphanga mu msumba wa Lukaya, uwo uli pa mtunda wa makilomita 39 kumpoto kwa msumba uwu. Kufuma apo, nthowa yikalutilira pa msewu wa makilomita 25 uwo ukajumphanga mu mathipa m'paka ukafika ku Nabusanke. Malo agha ghakaŵa ghakusuzga kujumphapo, ndipo para misewu iyi yinganangika mphanyi ŵasilikari ŵa ku Tanzania ŵakakhalira myezi yinandi. Nangauli ŵasilikari ŵa TPDF ŵakaŵa ŵakusuzgika, kweni Musuguri wakaŵaphalira kuti ŵavikilire malo agha. Gulu la 207 la TPDF likatumika kujumpha mu chipalamba kumafumiro gha dazi, gulu la 208 likatumika kumanjiliro gha dazi kuti likapenje chipalamba icho chikizenge na kumpoto kwa chipalamba, ndipo gulu la 201 ilo likakhozgeka na gulu la ŵakugaluka ŵa ku Uganda likaluta mu msewu na kunjira mu tawuni. Kweniso nga ni cigaŵa ca ndondomeko ya kupoka Kampala, TPDF's 205th Brigade yikeneranga kunjilira ku Mpigi kukwambilira kwa mwezi wa Malichi ndipo kufuma apo ku Mityana na kwamba kuwukira msumba ukuru kufuma kwenekura. Amin wakapharazga pa wayilesi kuti ŵasilikari ŵake ŵali pafupi kuzingilizga TPDF. Pakukhumba kumanya usange ivyo ŵakayowoya vikaŵa vyaunenesko, ŵalongozgi ŵa ŵasilikari ŵa ku Tanzania ŵakasanda ivyo ŵakaghanaghananga ndipo ŵakamanya kuti gulu la ŵasilikari ŵa Tiger ku Mubende ŵalije. Pakughanaghana kuti ŵasilikari aŵa ŵakalutanga kumwera, ŵakatuma gulu la ŵasilikari la nambara 205 kufuma ku Masaka kumpoto kuti liŵawukire. Gulu la ŵasilikari la 205 likakumana na ŵasilikari ŵa Uganda ku Sembabule. Pa nyengo yeneyira, Amin wakaphalirika kuti waleke kunanga msewu wa Lukaya, kweni iyo wakakana, wakati uwu ungapangiska kuti ŵasilikari ŵake ŵaleke kunjilirapo pa nkhondo. Wakagomezganga kuti para ŵanthu ŵa ku Libya ŵawovwirenge ŵasilikari ŵa TPDF ŵathereskekenge mwaluŵiro, ndipo ntheura kuparanya na kuzengaso msewu uwu kukaŵa kwakukhumbikwa yayi. Pa Malichi 24, ŵasilikari ŵa Uganda ŵakathereska ŵakugaluka mu Nkhondo ya Tororo. Pakulondezga ivyo ŵalongozgi ŵake ŵakamuphalira, muwuso wa ku Tororo ukapangiska kuti pulezidenti waŵaphalire kuti ŵambeso nkhondo. Pa Malichi 9, ŵasilikari ŵakujumpha 1,000 ŵa ku Libya na ŵasilikari pafupifupi 40 ŵa PLO ŵa Fatah ŵakanjira mu Uganda. Gulu la ŵasilikari ŵa ku Libya likaŵa na ŵasilikari ŵakwendakwenda, ŵasilikari ŵa People's Militia, na ŵasilikari ŵa Pan-African Legion. Ŵakaŵa na matangi 15 gha T-55, magalimoto ghakuyegha ŵasilikari ghakujumpha khumi na ghaŵiri, magalimoto ghanandi gha Land Rovers agho ghakaŵa na futi za 106 mm (4.2 inches) zambura kuzgoka, magalimoto ghanandi gha BM-21 Grad gha Katyusha, na magalimoto ghanyake ghakuru nga ni mabomba gha 122 mm (4.8 inches) na mabomba ghaŵiri gha D-30. Mu nyengo ya nkhondo, ŵasilikari 4,500 ŵa ku Libya ŵakatumika ku Uganda. Amin wakalangura kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Libya, pamoza na ŵasilikari ŵa ku Uganda na ŵasilikari ŵa PLO, ŵapoke Masaka. {{sfn|Cooper|Fontanellaz|2015|pp=32–33}} [[File:Libyan_troop_movements_in_Uganda,_1979.svg|right|thumb|Ŵasilikari ŵa ku Libya pambere nkhondo ya Lukaya yindambe na pamanyuma pake]] Pa 10 March mulenji, gulu la TPDF la 201th Brigade likapoka Lukaya kulindilira kuti ŵajumphe msewu wakulondezgapo. Kuumaliro wa mise, ŵasilikari ŵa ku Uganda, Libya, na Palestina ŵakamba kusendelera ku Lukaya. Ŵalibi ŵakati ŵawona ŵasilikari ŵa ku Tanzania, ŵakaŵaponya mabomba gha Katyusha. Ŵasilikari ŵa mu gulu la ŵasilikari la 201, awo ŵakaŵa ŵambura kumanya vinandi, ŵakawopa chomene ndipo ŵanandi ŵakachimbira. Ŵanyake wose ŵakawelera ku malo ghakututuŵa agho ghakaŵa mumphepete mwa msewu wa Masaka ŵakati ŵawona kuti ŵasilikari ŵa ku Libya ŵa T-55 na ŵa ku Uganda ŵa M4A1 Sherman ŵakwiza. Nangauli ŵasilikari ŵa ku Uganda, Libya, na Palestina ŵakaŵatuma kuti ŵatore msumba wa Masaka, kweni ŵakakhalira waka ku Lukaya. Ŵalongozgi ŵa ku Tanzania ŵakaghanaghana vyakusintha ivyo ŵakakhumbanga kuti ŵaleke kuti nyifwa ya Lukaya yiŵe suzgo. Gulu la 208 ilo likaŵa pasi pa Brigadier Mwita Marwa, ilo likaŵa pa mtunda wa makilomita 60 kumpoto ca kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa tawuni iyi, likalangulika kuti liwelere nyuma na kupatura ŵanthu ŵa ku Uganda na ŵa ku Libya ku Kampala. Gulu la 208 likafika pa msewu wa Kampala mulenjilenji pa 11 March ndipo likamba kugalukira. Gulu la ŵasilikari la 201 likamba kuwukira kufuma kunthazi, ndipo la 208 likamba kuwukira kufuma kumasinda. Ŵasilikari ŵa ku Tanzania ŵakaŵaponya pasi. Pamanyuma, Ŵalibiya ŵanandi ŵakamba kufumapo. Mulara wa ŵasilikari ŵa ku Uganda, Lieutenant Colonel Godwin Sule, wakakomeka, panyake cifukwa ca kudumulika na galimoto yake. Nyifwa yake yikapangiska kuti ŵasilikari ŵa ku Uganda ŵathere, ndipo ŵasilikari awo ŵakakhalapo ŵakaleka malo ghawo na kucimbira. Pamanyuma pa nkhondo iyi, ŵasilikari ŵa ku Uganda ŵakasanga kuti pali ŵasilikari ŵakujumpha 400 awo ŵali kufwa mu cigaŵa ici, kusazgapo ŵanthu pafupifupi 200 ŵa ku Libya. Nkhondo ya Lukaya yikaŵa yikuru comene mu Nkhondo ya Uganda na Tanzania. Nkhondo ya Lukaya yikati yamara, ŵasilikari ŵa ku Uganda ŵakamba kusweka. Mwaluŵiro, TPDF yikamba ntchito ya Dada Idi, ndipo mu mazuŵa ghakulondezgapo, ma Brigade gha 207 na 208 ghakawuskamo ŵanthu mu msewu wa Kampala na kutora Mpigi. Ŵasilikari ŵa ku Uganda na ku Libya ŵakafumako ku nkhondo na kuluta ku msumba ukuru. Amin wakawuskapo Gowon pa udindo wake wa kuŵa mulara wa ŵasilikari, ndipo wakati wawona kuti ŵasilikari ŵakamukwiyira, wakachimbilira ku Zaire. Wakasinthika na Ali Fadhul. Kuuyambiro wa mwezi wa Epulero, TPDF yikapoka msumba wa Sembabule. Ŵasilikari ŵanandi ŵa ku Uganda ŵakasoŵa vilwero, mafuta, na vyakurya. Ŵasilikari ŵanandi ŵa ku Uganda ŵakamba kwiba, kukoma na kuyuzga ŵanthu apo ŵakachimbiliranga ku Zaire na Sudan. Mwakuyana na ivyo Alicia C. Decker, nkharo ya ŵasilikari awo ŵakaleka kunjilirapo yikaŵa cifukwa ca kuleka kujikora pera yayi, kweniso cifukwa ca fundo za urongozgi: pakwambiska vivulupi na kutimbanizga ŵanthu kuti ŵacimbire, ŵakawovwirika kuti ŵajivikilire. Ŵasilikari awo ŵakakhalanga pa malo ghawo kanandi ŵakamba kuwezgera ŵanthu awo ŵakaghanaghananga kuti ŵakukolerana na ŵakugaluka. Pakumanya kuti nkhondo yili kumara, ŵasilikari ŵanyake ŵa ku Uganda ŵakanozga vyakuti ŵamuwuskemo Amin. Ŵanthu ŵakayowoyanga kuti ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵakendanga pafupi na pulezidenti ŵakukolerana na ndondomeko iyi. Pa nyengo iyi, ŵanthu ŵanandi ku Uganda ŵakasuskanga boma la Amin ndipo ŵakakhumbanga kuti nkhondo yimare luŵiro. Ŵakamba kuchema ŵanthu ŵa ku Tanzania kuti bakombozi ("ŵakufwatura").{{sfn|Decker|2014|p=148}} === Moshi Conference === [[File:Obote_cropped.png|left|thumb|Despite his prominent role in the Ugandan rebel movement, [[Milton Obote]] (pictured) was convinced by President Nyerere to refrain from attending the Moshi Conference.]] Pamanyuma pa kupoka Mpigi, Nyerere wakalangura TPDF kuti yimike ulendo wake. Nangauli wakawona kuti pamanyuma pakuti Libya wanjilirapo pa Lukaya nchambura machitiko kuti ŵakugaluka ŵa ku Uganda ŵatorenge Kampala ŵekha, kweni wakagomezga kuti nchakuzirwa comene kuti ŵaŵe na nyengo yakuŵikapo boma lawo kuti ŵatore malo gha Amin. Ŵalaraŵalara ŵa boma la Tanzania ŵakamba kunozgekera boma liphya nga umo ŵakacitira ŵakugaluka ŵa ku Uganda, awo ŵakalongozgekanga na Obote na Dani Wadada Nabudere. Ŵapanduki na awo ŵakaŵa ku wuzga ŵakanozgekeranga ivi kwa myezi yinandi, ndipo ŵakamba kuyowoyeskana kufuma waka apo nkhondo yikambira. Apo kudumbiskana pakati pa magulu agha kukaŵa mukati, Museveni wakapeleka fundo yakuti FRONASA yake yikure cifukwa ca kuyezga kwambiska ŵasilikari ŵa ku Mbarara pamoza na Kikosi Maluum wa Obote kuti ŵapange gulu limoza la ŵasilikari. Obote wakakana fundo iyi ndipo wakayezga kukolerana na magulu ghanyake ghakwimikana nawo, kweni maghanoghano gha Museveni ghakakondweska ŵalongozgi ŵanyake awo ŵakaŵa ku wuzga. Apo ŵanthu ŵa ku Tanzania ŵakambanga kunozga ungano wa ŵakugaluka na awo ŵakaŵa ku wuzga, Nyerere wakambaso kughanaghanirapo pa udindo wa Obote mu gulu ili. Wakakhumba yayi kuti ŵanthu ŵawonenge nga kuti Tanzania yikukhumba kukhazikiska boma mu Uganda mwa kovwira Obote kuti walongozge gulu la ŵakugaluka. Nyerere wakawopaso kuti Obote wangatondeska ungano uwu kuti uleke kwenda makora. Wakamuphalira Obote kuti waleke kuluta ku ungano uwu, ndipo wakatuma ŵanthu kufuma ku Uganda People's Congress, chipani cha Obote. Mu malo gha Obote, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Uganda awo ŵakaŵa ku wuzga ŵakamba kutemwera Yusuf Lule, uyo wakaŵa mulara wa vya sayansi na ndyali wa ku Muganda. Ungano uwu ukajulika pa Malichi 24 mu tawuni ya Moshi ku Tanzania, pamanyuma pa kudumbiskana comene za magulu na ŵanthu awo ŵangazomerezgeka. Muhanya wenewura ŵimiliri ŵakapharazga za kuwumbika kwa Uganda National Liberation Front (UNLF), iyo yikeneranga kulongozgeka na Komiti Yakudumbiskana ya ku Uganda (NCC) iyo yikaŵa na ŵanthu 30 na Komiti Yakurongozga ya ku Uganda iyo yikaŵa na ŵanthu 11. Mazuŵa ghaŵiri ghakulondezgapo ŵakadumbiskana umo ŵamazaza ŵa wupu uwu ŵakenderananga na kusankha mulongozgi wa wupu uwu. Ŵakati ŵadumbiskana, ŵakazomerezgana kuti Lule ndiyo waŵe mulongozgi ndipo Muwanga ndiyo waŵe mulara wa komiti ya vya nkhondo. Ungano uwu ukamara pa 26 Malichi 1979. Ŵasilikari ŵakugaluka awo ŵakaŵa ku Moshi ŵakakolerana na gulu la Uganda National Liberation Army (UNLA). Pakwamba, gulu la ŵakugaluka likaŵa na ŵasilikari pafupifupi 2,000.{{sfn|Cooper|Fontanellaz|2015|p=28}} === Kuwa kwa Kampala na umaliro wa nkhondo === {{main|Nkhondo ya Entebbe|Kuwa kwa Kampala}} {{further|Nkhondo ya kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Uganda mu 1979|Nkhondo ya Jinja|Nkhondo ya Bombo|Nkhondo ya Lira|Nkhondo ya Karuma Falls|Nkhondo ya Bondo|Nkhondo yamphepo ya ku Uganda-Tanzania}} [[File:Tupolev_Tu-22_(1977).jpg|right|thumb|Ndege yaku Libya yakuzenga mabomba yakucemeka Tupolev Tu-22 mu 1977 ]] Zuŵa lakulondezgapo pamanyuma pa ungano wa Moshi, kazembe wa Libya ku Tanzania wakapeleka kwa Nyerere kalata yakufuma kwa Gaddafi, iyo yikati boma la Libya lizamunjira mu nkhondo mu zina la Amin usange Tanzania yingaleka kufumiska ŵasilikari ŵake mu Uganda mu maora 24. Nyerere wakazizwa comene na mazgu agha, cifukwa wakamanyanga kuti ŵasilikari ŵa ku Libya ŵakarwa nkhondo na Ŵauganda ku Lukaya. Wakayowoya pa wayilesi kuti nangauli chenjezgo la Gaddafi likasazgirako "vinthu vinyake" ku nkhondo, kweni likasintha yayi umo Tanzania yikuwonera Amin. Pakati pajumpha mazuŵa ghanayi, Gaddafi wakakhumbanga kuti Nyerere waŵe na wofi. Ndege iyi yikasanga yayi ico yikakhumbanga, kweni yikafika pa malo ghanyake. Ndege za ku Tanzania zikawukira malo ghakusungiramo mafuta ku Kampala, Jinja, na Tororo.{{sfn|Cooper|Fontanellaz|2015|p=35}} Kukwambilira kwa mwezi wa Epulero, ŵasilikari ŵa ku Tanzania ŵakamba kuŵikapo mtima kuti ŵathereske ŵasilikari ŵa ku Uganda ku Kampala. Pa nyengo iyi, ŵasilikari ŵa Uganda ŵakaŵa kuti ŵamara. Ŵadipuloma ŵakagomezganga kuti ŵasilikari ŵa ku Nubia na Sudan ndiwo ŵakaŵa ŵakugomezgeka, apo boma la Amin likalutilira kulamulira chifukwa cha wovwiri wa ku Libya. Mulembi wa nyuzipepara ya New York Times, John Darnton, wakati ŵasilikari 2,500 pera ndiwo ŵakalutilira kugomezgeka. Pakwamba, ŵalongozgi ŵa ku Tanzania ŵakaghanaghananga kuti Amin waŵikenge ŵasilikari ŵake ŵanandi mu msumba ukuru. Kweni kufuma ku Mpigi ŵakawonanga chirwa cha Entebbe, uko kukaŵa ndege zinandi za ku Libya na ŵasilikari ŵanandi ŵa ku Uganda na Libya. Usange ŵasilikari ŵa TPDF ŵatoranga Kampala pambere ŵandapoke tawuni ya Entebbe, ŵasilikari ŵa TPDF mu Kampala ŵangawukirapo yayi. Kuwukira Entebbe kungatondeska ŵasilikari ŵa ku Uganda kuti ŵaleke kwambiska nkhondo na ŵanthu ŵa ku Libya. Mwantheura, Musuguri wakalangura gulu la ŵasilikari la 208 kuti lipokere cigaŵa ici. Ŵasilikari ŵa TPDF ŵakazenga vilwero na kuwukira tawuni iyi kwa mazuŵa ghatatu. Amin wakaŵa ku Entebbe State House pa nyengo iyi kweni wakacimbira na helikopta kuya ku Kampala. Ŵasilikari ŵanandi ŵa ku Uganda ŵakachimbira, kweni Ŵalibiya ŵakakhala. {{Quote box|width=246px|bgcolor=#c6dbf7|align=left|quote=[Ŵalibi] ŵakaŵa palipose, ndipo ŵakamanyanga yayi uko ŵakalutanga. Ŵakamanyanga yayi uko kukaŵa Kampala, ntheura ŵakachimbira. [...] Ndipo ŵakakomeka. Ŵanthu ŵakaŵasanganga ndipo ŵakachemerezganga kuti "ŵali kuno". Nyengo zinyake ŵakaŵasunganga mu nyumba na kuŵakoma.|source=—Jane Walusimbi, a Ugandan farmer, describing how civilians treated Libyan soldiers during the [[Battle of Entebbe]]{{sfn|Decker|2014|p=164}}}} Pa 6 Epulero, ŵasilikari ŵakakhozga comene nkhondo iyi. Gulu la ŵasilikari la 208 likaluta ku Entebbe mulenji wakulondezgapo. Gulu limoza la ŵasilikari ŵa ku Libya likayezga kucimbira mu msewu wa ku Kampala, kweni likakomeka na kuparanyika. Namise ŵasilikari ŵa TPDF ŵakakora tawuni iyi na kutora vilwero vinandi vya ku Libya. Mulenji wakulondezgapo, ŵasilikari ŵanandi ŵa Uganda ŵakajipeleka ku TPDF. Nkhondo iyi yikapangiska kuti ŵasilikari ŵa Uganda ŵaleke kwendera ndege. Ndege zake zinandi zikaparanyika panji kukoreka, ndipo ŵasilikari ŵa nkhondo awo ŵakacimbilira ku viŵanja vya Jinja na Nakasongola ŵakawofya ŵasilikari ŵa Uganda. Ici cikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵaleke kusopa Yehova. Nyerere wakazomerezga ŵasilikari ŵa ku Libya, awo ŵakasuzgika comene pa nkhondo iyi, kuti ŵafumemo mu Kampala na kufumamo mu nkhondo kwambura soni. Wakatumizga uthenga kwa Gaddafi kulongosora ivyo wakacita, wakati ŵasilikari ŵa ku Libya ŵangasezgeka mu ndege kufuma mu Uganda kwambura kukanizgika kufuma ku Jinja. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Libya awo ŵakachimbiranga ŵakaŵasuzganga na ŵanthu ŵa ku Uganda awo ŵakaŵapuluskanga, kuŵapeleka ku TPDF panji kuŵakoma. Ŵanandi awo ŵakapona ŵakachimbilira ku Kenya na Ethiopia, uko ŵakawelera kukwawo. Kuwombokwa kwa ŵasilikari ŵa ku Libya mu Uganda kukaŵa suzgo likuru ku ndyali za ku vyaru vinyake za Gaddafi, ndipo vikapangiska kuti mu boma la Libya muŵe mphindano. Gulu la TPDF likaluta ku Kampala pa 10 Epulero. Ŵasilikari ŵachoko waka ŵa ku Uganda panji ŵa ku Libya ndiwo ŵakakananga. Zuŵa lakulondezgapo, apo ŵasilikari ŵa Tanzania na UNLF ŵakasuzganga ŵasilikari ŵa Uganda awo ŵakaŵa mu Kampala, Oyite-Ojok wakaluta ku Radio Uganda kuti wakapharazge kuti msumba uwu wapokeka. Wakayowoya mu wayilesi kuti boma la Amin lili kukanizgika ndipo Kampala wali pasi pa mazaza gha UNLF, ndipo wakacema ŵanthu kuti ŵakhale bata ndipo ŵasilikari ŵa Uganda ŵajipeleke. Ŵanthu ŵakafumanga mu nyumba zawo na kwamba kwiba vinthu. Pa 13 Epulero Lule wakatolekera ku msumba uwu na kuŵikika kuŵa purezidenti muphya wa Uganda. Boma liphya la UNLF likamanyikwa mwaluŵiro na vyaru vinyake nga ni boma lakuzomerezgeka mu Uganda. Ŵakaŵavya ŵapolisi panji ŵantchito ŵa boma, kweniso ŵakaŵavya vinthu vyakukhumbikwa pa maofesi. Boma likateŵeterapo yayi pa nkhondo iyo yikachitika na ŵasilikari ŵa Amin.{{sfn|Avirgan|Honey|1983|p=197}} [[File:Karuma_Falls_-_by_sarahemcc.jpg|right|thumb|The [[Karuma Falls]] of the [[Nile River]] (pictured in 2006) were one of the last places where the Uganda Army [[Battle of Karuma Falls|offered resistance]] to the [[Tanzania People's Defence Force|TPDF]].]] Amin wakacimbilira ku Libya ndipo pamanyuma ku Saudi Arabia. Nangauli Amin wakachimbira na kuwira kwa msumba ukuru, kweni ŵasilikari ŵa Uganda ŵakalutilira kulimbana. Na wovwiri wa ŵasilikari ŵa ku Libya, ŵasilikari aŵa ŵakawelera kumpoto, ndipo ŵakamba kwiba vinthu. Ŵakaŵa pamoza na ŵasilikari ŵa PLO awo ŵakalongozgekanga na Mahmoud Da'as awo ŵakafika ku Sudan. Ŵakati ŵathereska msumba wa Kampala, nkhondo zikalutilira yayi. Pa 22 Epulero, TPDF yikapoka msumba wa Jinja na Damu la Owen Falls, ilo likapelekanga magesi ghose mu caru. Ŵasilikari ŵanandi ŵa Uganda ŵakagaluka panji kupasuka, ndipo ŵasilikari ŵa Tanzania na UNLF ŵakamba kukhala mu vigaŵa vinandi vya kumafumiro gha dazi na kumpoto kwa Uganda kwambura ŵakususka. Gulu linyake la ŵasilikari ŵa ku Uganda likalimbana na ŵasilikari aŵa, kweni nawo ŵakathereskeka. Ŵalwani ŵa Amin ŵakayezga kuti ŵaleke kunjilira kumpoto kwa Tanzania, kweni ŵakathereskeka pa Nkhondo ya Bombo, Lira, na Karuma Falls. Ku Mbale, ŵasilikari ŵa Uganda ŵakukwana 250 ŵakafumako ndipo ŵakasankha kuvikilira tawuni iyi ku ŵasilikari ŵakugomezgeka awo ŵakaweranga na kulindilira kuti ŵa Tanzania ŵize. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakajikora na kuwukira ŵanthu ŵa ku Uganda awo ŵakakhalanga ku malo ghanyake, kweniso ŵanthu wose ŵa mafuko panji visopa awo ŵakakolerananga na boma la Amin. Ŵanthu ŵaheni ŵakaparanya mizi yose. Ŵalwani ŵa FRONASA na Kikosi Maalum ŵa ku Uganda ndiwo ŵakacitiska vigeŵenga viheni comene. Kanandi, ŵasilikari ŵa ku Tanzania ŵakazomerezganga panji kovwirapo pa kukoma ŵasilikari ŵa ku Uganda. Nangauli vili nthena, kweni ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuzomerezga kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Tanzania ŵakacita makora comene, comenecomene pakuyaniska na ŵakugaluka ŵa ku Uganda na ŵasilikari ŵa mafuko. Nkhondo yaumaliro ya nkhondo iyi yikacitika pa 27 Meyi apo gulu la ŵasilikari ŵa Uganda ŵakawukira ŵasilikari ŵa TPDF kufupi na Bondo pambere ŵandacimbire. Pakati pajumpha nyengo yicoko waka, ŵasilikari ŵakakora Arua kwambura kukumana na ŵanthu. Pakunjira mu chigaŵa cha West Nile, FRONASA yikamba "kukoma ŵanthu" ŵa ku malo agha, na wovwiri wa ŵanthu awo ŵakususkana na Amin. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku West Nile ŵakachimbira pamoza na ŵasilikari ŵa Uganda. Kufuma ku Arua, gulu la ŵasilikari ŵa ku Tanzania likaluta ku mphaka ya kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Uganda na Sudan na Zaire. Pa Juni 3, 1979, ŵakawoneseska kuti mphaka ya Sudan njakukhora. Pa nyengo iyi, ŵasilikari ŵa TPDF ŵakukwana 30,000-45,000 ŵakaŵa kuti ŵatumika ku Uganda. Gulu la TPDF likathera ŵasilikari 373 mu nyengo ya nkhondo, ndipo 96 pera ndiwo ŵakafwa. Ŵasilikari ŵakuwukira ŵa ku Uganda ŵakukwana 150 ŵakafwa, ndipo ŵanandi ŵakafwa apo boti lawo likabwangasukira mu Nyanja ya Victoria. Ŵasilikari pafupifupi 1,000 ŵa gulu la ŵasilikari ŵa Uganda ŵakakomeka ndipo 3,000 ŵakakoleka. Pa nkhondo iyi, ŵasilikari 600 ŵa ku Libya ŵakafwa, ndipo ŵasilikari pafupifupi 1,800 ŵakapwetekeka. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Tanzania ŵakatora ŵakayidi 59 ŵa ku Libya, ndipo ŵakaŵafumiska myezi yinandi pamanyuma pa nkhondo. Ŵalwani ŵanandi ŵa PLO ŵakakomeka mu nyengo ya nkhondo iyi, nangauli chiŵelengero cawo nchakususkana. Gulu la PLO likuzomera kuti ŵali kutaya ŵasilikari 12 mu Uganda, kusazgapo awo ŵali kufwa na awo ŵasoŵa. Mwakupambana na ivi, ŵasilikari ŵa ku Tanzania ŵakayowoya kuti ŵanthu 200 ŵa ku Palestina ŵakakomeka pa nkhondo iyi. Munthu munyake wa ku Pakistan nayo wakakoleka na TPDF pamoza na ŵasilikari ŵa ku Libya, ndipo ŵakamufumiska pamanyuma pa nkhondo. Ŵanthu 1,500 ŵa ku Tanzania ŵakakomeka na ŵasilikari ŵa Uganda ku Kagera. Avirgan na Honey ŵakati ŵanthu pafupifupi 500 ŵa ku Uganda ŵakakomeka na ŵasilikari wose. Ŵanyake ŵakuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakakomeka ku Uganda. Kuyana na Madanjeet Singh, uyo ni muyimiliri wa boma la India, ŵasilikari ŵa boma la Uganda ŵakamba kukoma ŵanthu ŵa ku Uganda na ŵenecho caru. A.B.K. Kasozi wakati ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakakomeka na ŵanthu ŵakugomezgeka kwa Amin mu Malichi na Epulero 1979, apo Ogenga Otunnu wakati ŵanthu awo ŵakususka Amin ŵakakoma ŵanthu ŵanandi mu chigaŵa cha West Nile mu nyengo ya nkhondo.{{sfn|Otunnu|2017|p=48}} == Vyakulembapo na vyakupharazga == Mu Okutobala 1978, apo nkhondo yikambanga, wayilesi ya Radio Tanzania yikapharazga yayi vya nkhondo iyi, apo wayilesi ya Uganda yikapharazga mwakubudika vya nkhondo iyo yikaŵa pafupi kuchitika ku Tanzania. Ŵakati ŵapharazga za nkhondo ya ku Kagera, Radio Tanzania yikamba upharazgi wakukhozga kuti ŵanthu ŵambe kukhozgera nkhondo iyi. Mwaluŵiro, wayilesi ya Tanzania na ya Uganda yikamba kulimbana pa nkhani ya mawayilesi. Mu myezi yakwambilira, ŵanthu ŵa ku Tanzania ŵakapokera vinandi yayi padera pa ivyo Nyerere wakayowoya. Mwaluŵiro boma la Tanzania likakhazikiska "Komiti Yakuphalira Ŵanthu vya Nkhondo". Wupu uwu ukadangiliranga na mulembi mu ofesi ya Unduna wa vya Malango, George Mhina, ndipo ukaŵa na ŵalembi ŵa manyuzipepara gha boma ghaŵiri gha ku Tanzania, mulara wa Radio Tanzania, mulembi wa vya mtende wa pulezidenti Sammy Mdee, na ŵimiliri ŵa TPDF na ŵasilikari. Mhina wakamba kubisa nkhani za nkhondo mwakuti nangauli ŵapharazgi ŵanandi ŵa ku Tanzania na ŵakujambura vithuzithuzi ŵakaluta ku nkhondo, kweni vikaŵanga vichoko waka ivyo ŵakalemba. Mdee na ŵalembi ŵa nyuzipepara ŵakaleka kuwungana na komiti iyi. Kanandi, nyuzipepara ya ku Tanzania yikazomerezgekanga kulemba ivyo yikukhumba mwakuyana na dango, kweni kanandi yikapharazganga mwakupambana na nyuzipepara za boma.<ref name="winfrey1">{{cite news|last=Winfrey|first=Carey|title=In Tanzanian Capital, Little Is Heard of War With Uganda|newspaper=The New York Times|page=A8|date=6 April 1979|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1979/04/06/archives/in-tanzanian-capital-little-is-heard-of-war-with-uganda-little-news.html|access-date=18 September 2019}}</ref> {{Quote box|width=246px|bgcolor=#c6dbf7|align=left|quote=In war propaganda we were not good. It's important to inform the population or else they become terrorised. I realise now that the people must be told more. In this case our enemy had verbal diarrhea.|source=—Nyerere's reflection on the Tanzanian propaganda effort after the war{{sfn|Avirgan|Honey|1983|p=71}}}} Pakuwona kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Tanzania ŵakukana kuŵapharazgira, ŵakamba kutegherezga mawayilesi gha ku vyaru vinyake nga ni BBC Radio, Voice of America, Voice of Kenya, Radio South Africa, na Radio Uganda. Ku Dar es Salaam, ŵanthu ŵakaluta ku hotelo ya Kilimanjaro kuti ŵakawone nkhani izo zikayowoyeka na Reuters. Paumaliro, Komiti Yakupharazga yikaphalira ŵanthu kuti ŵaleke kugwiliskira nchito ciŵiya ici. Pa nyengo yose iyo nkhondo yikaŵa mukati, wayilesi ya Radio Tanzania yikapharazganga nkhani zakukondweska, sumu, na mapowemu ghakukhwaskana na nkhondo iyi kweniso yikalumbanga TPDF. Ŵakapenja ŵapharazgi awo ŵakayowoyanga viyowoyero vya ku Uganda ndipo ŵakapharazgiranga ŵanthu ŵa ku Uganda. Munthu munyake wa ku Uganda zina lake Sam Odaka, wakendeskanga pulogiramu ya maminiti 45 zuŵa lililose pa wayilesi ya Radio Tanzania. Ungano uwu ukaŵawovwira kuti ŵasilikari ŵa ku Uganda ŵaleke kopa. SHIHATA wakatemwanga kuyowoya kuti Amin ni "munthu wakuwukira boma". Ku Uganda kukaŵavya wanangwa wa vyakupharazga, ndipo manyuzipepara ghanandi ghakasanganga nkhani zawo ku wupu wa boma wa Uganda News Agency. Amin wakagwiliskiranga nchito vyakupharazga vya boma kuti wayowoye na ŵanthu ŵambura mulandu mu nyengo yose ya nkhondo na kuwukira Tanzania. Uthenga wa mu Uganda ukaŵa wautesi kweniso ukaŵa wambura unenesko. Likayezga kukhozga wunthu wa Idi Amin na kukhozga mtima wa ŵasilikari ŵa ku Uganda mwa kuthandazga nkhani zautesi, nga ni izo zikayowoyanga kuti gulu linyake la ku Tanzania likakomeka na ng'ona panji kuti pulezidenti wangathereska ŵanthu 20,000 ŵa ku Tanzania na ŵasilikari 20 pera ŵa ku Uganda. Yumoza mwa nkhani zakumanyikwa chomene izo zikayowoyeka na ŵanthu awo ŵakakolerana na Amin, ni nkhani ya muwoli wa Pulezidenti, Sarah Kyolaba, apo wakadangiliranga gulu la ŵanakazi awo ŵakaŵa na vilwero kwimikana na TPDF. Kweni pakaŵavya ukaboni wakukhorweska wakuti kuli ŵangelo aŵa. Decker wakughanaghana kuti nkhani za "Suicide Sarah" zikwenera kuti zikovwira kuti "ŵalwani ŵaŵe ŵanakazi". Ivyo UNLF yikalemba vikaŵa vyambura kupulikikwa panji vikaŵa vyawaka. Nkhondo yikati yamara, boma la Tanzania likapempha muteŵeti wa wayilesi iyi kuti waŵawovwire umo ŵangagwiliskira ntchito wayilesi kuti ŵanthu ŵawovwirepo pa ntchito ya kuzenga. Apo nkhondo yikambanga, boma la Tanzania likiza na ŵapharazgi ŵanayi ku Kagera kuti ŵalongore kuti charu cha Uganda ndicho chikapoka malo agha. Kufuma apo, ŵapharazgi ŵakazomerezgekanga yayi kuluta ku nkhondo, ntheura chikaŵa chakusuzga kuti waliyose wakhorweske ivyo munyake wayowoya. Ŵapharazgi kanandi ŵakayezganga kuti ŵamanye usange nkhani za ku Uganda ni zaunenesko. Ŵapharazgi ŵa Reuters, Tony Avirgan na Martha Honey, ndiwo ŵakazomerezgeka na Nyerere kuti ŵalute na TPDF apo ŵakanjira mu Uganda. Ŵapharazgi ŵanayi ŵa ku Europe awo ŵakayezga kunjira mu Uganda kufuma ku Kenya mukati mwa nkhondo ŵakakomeka na ŵasilikari ŵa ku Uganda. Ŵapharazgi ŵanandi ŵakalemba nkhani za nkhondo iyi kufuma ku Kenya, chomenechomene ku Nairobi. Kufuma kura, ŵakacemerezganga pa foni ku ŵimiliri ŵa vyaru vinyake mu Kampala, ndipo apo nkhondo yikalutiliranga, ŵakapokera mauthenga kufuma ku ŵanthu ŵa mu msumba uwu.<ref name="brittain">{{cite news|last=Brittain|first=Victoria|title=Conflict in Uganda Obscured by Fog Of Misinformation|newspaper=The Washington Post|date=9 April 1979|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1979/04/09/conflict-in-uganda-obscured-by-fog-of-misinformation/5d336464-92e1-4145-84b5-2625ade97895/|access-date=15 November 2019}}</ref> == Ivyo Vikachitika == === Kusanda === Ronald Aminzade, uyo wakumanya vya umoyo wa ŵanthu, wakati "cifukwa cikuru" ico ŵanthu ŵa ku Tanzania ŵakathereskera nkhondo iyi nchakuti ŵakaghanaghananga kuti nkhondo iyi njakofya ku caru. Aminzade wakayowoya kuti Uganda "yikatora nkhondo ya vigaŵa ivyo vikukolerana yayi na maghanoghano gha ŵanthu", ndipo yikagwiliskira ntchito ŵasilikari awo ŵakaŵa na mtima wa kughanaghana viheni kweniso ŵakasuskananga. Mlembi wa nyuzipepara Godwin Matatu wakati kutondeka kwa gulu la nkhondo la Uganda kuli cifukwa ca kuleka kugomezgeka kwa ŵasilikari na kugomezga magalimoto na misewu ivyo vikaŵapangiska kuti ŵathereskeke na ŵasilikari ŵa ku Tanzania awo ŵakendanga pasi nyengo yinandi ya nkhondo. Mlembi wa nyuzipepala Anne Abaho wakati Uganda wakataya nkhondo iyi chifukwa cha vinthu vinayi: kusuzgika kwa mukati na kutondeka kwa ŵasilikari ŵa Uganda, kutuma kwa Tanzania mabomba gha BM-21 Grad na kutondeka kwa Uganda kughana nagho, kusoŵa kwa umanyi wa nkhondo, na kukolerana na Libya. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵa ku Western ŵakayowoya kuti boma la Tanzania likathereska ŵasilikari ŵa Uganda. Ŵanyake ŵakaghanaghana kuti umo TPDF yikwendera vikulongora kuti maofesi gha ŵasilikari ŵa ku Africa ghasintha comene. William Thom, uyo wakumanya vya nkhondo, wakawonga kuti TPDF yikumanya kutuma ŵasilikari awo ŵali kutali. Kenneth M. Pollack wakati cifukwa ca kutondeka kwa ŵasilikari ŵa ku Libya nchakuti ŵakaŵa na mtima wambura kwenelera kweniso ŵakamanyanga vinandi yayi vya nkhondo. Benoni Turyahikayo-Rugyema wakalemba mu 1998 kuti: "Aŵenge kuti Amin wakanjira yayi mu Kagera Salient mu Tanzania mphanyi wachali kuwusa Uganda". Ŵasayansi ŵanandi ŵakuwona usange ivyo boma la Tanzania likachita pakunjira mu charu cha Uganda na kufumiska Amin ku ufumu ni vyakuchitika vyachitemwa. Nangauli ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakuzomerezga kuti ivyo Tanzania yikacita vikaŵa vyacitemwa, kweni ŵanyake ŵakususka fundo iyi, ŵakuti nangauli Tanzania yikacita nkhondo iyi cifukwa ca citemwa, kweni cifukwa cikuru ico yikacitira nthena cikaŵa cakuti yikapoka caru ca Uganda. Boma la Tanzania nalo likasuska Amin kuti wakuchitira nkhaza ŵanthu ŵakwake ndipo likati ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Uganda "ŵakakondwa" na ivyo boma la Tanzania likachita, kweni vikaŵa vyambura kuzomerezgeka. M'malo mwake, likati caru ici cikacita nthena kuti civikilire caru cake ndiposo kuti muwuso wa Amin ukaŵa "wowofya comene ku mtende na civikiliro ca ku East Africa". Emmanuel K., nkhwantha ya cisopa ca Cikhristu Twesigye wakawona nkhondo iyi kuŵa "ciyelezgero ciwemi ca fundo yakuti 'nkhondo njakunyoloka.' Daniel G. Acheson-Brown wakati, kuyana na fundo ya nkhondo yaurunji iyo yikayowoyeka mu buku la Michael Walzer lakuti Just and Unjust Wars, nkhondo ya Tanzania ku Uganda yikaŵa yiwemi cifukwa cakuti yikaŵa ya ŵanthu wose. Acheson-Brown wakayowoyaso kuti ŵasilikari ŵa Uganda ŵakacita "mauryarya ghanandi" pa nyengo ya nkhondo iyi ndipo Tanzania yikacita "vinthu vinyake ivyo vikususka nkhondo", comenecomene apo TPDF yikaparanya Mutukula. Walzer nayo wakawonanga kuti nkhondo iyi yikaŵa nthowa yiwemi yakunjilirapo. Noreen Burrows, nkhwantha ya vya malango, wakalemba kuti nangauli ivyo charu cha Tanzania chikacita pakurwa na Uganda vikapambana na malango gha caru cose, kweni vikaŵa vyakwenelera cifukwa ca fundo zaurunji na za ndyali. Nkhwantha yinyake ya vya malango, zina lake Sean D. Murphy wakalongosora kuti caru ca Tanzania cikapoka caru ca Uganda cifukwa ca "cifukwa ca kujivikilira na kuvikilira wanangwa wa ŵanthu". Pamanyuma, caru ca Belgium cikati cazomera kunjilirapo pa nkhondo ya ku Uganda na Tanzania, cikati cazomera kunjilirapo pa nkhondo ya ku Kosovo.{{sfn|Chesterman|2002|p=79}} === Nkhondo za ndyali pa caru cose === Mu nyengo ya ku Africa, ŵasilikari ŵa vyaru vinyake ŵakaŵavya mwaŵi wakuti ŵathereske mulongozgi wa boma. Pa ungano wa OAU mu Julayi 1979, Pulezidenti Gaafar Nimeiry wa ku Sudan wakati nkhondo ya Uganda na Tanzania yikaŵa "nthondwe yikuru" ndipo chikalata cha wupu uwu "chikukanizga kunjilirapo pa vya mukati na kunjira mu vyaru vinyake". Mulongozgi wa boma la Nigeria Olusegun Obasanjo nayo wakafipanga mtima. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakususka fundo iyi ndipo ŵakuti vinthu ivi vikulongora kuti chikalata cha OAU chikwenera kusintha. Nyerere wakanena OAU kuti yikuvikilira ŵalongozgi ŵa Afirika ku ŵanthu ŵabendezi, ndipo wakati boma la Amin likakoma ŵanthu ŵanandi kuluska maboma gha ŵanthu ŵatuŵa ku southern Africa. Kweniso wakagaŵira "Blue Book" iyo yikalembeka na boma la Tanzania, ilo likati mulimo wa Tanzania mu nkhondo ukaŵa wakwenelera cifukwa ca kuwukira kwa Uganda ku Kagera Salient na kunjilirapo kwa Libya, ico cikakanizga ŵakugaluka ŵa Uganda kuwuskapo Amin. Pulezidenti Godfrey Binaisa, uyo wakanjira mu malo gha Lule, wakalumba ivyo Tanzania yikacita. Vyaru vinandi vya ku Western vikakana kuyowoyapo vya udindo wa Tanzania pakuwuskapo Amin, nangauli Secretary of Foreign wa Britain David Owen wakayowoya kuti wakakondwa na umaliro wa muwuso wa Amin. Kuyana na ŵasayansi Roy May na Oliver Furley, caru cose cikapokelera "mwakufwasa" kuwuskako muwuso wa boma ili, nga ni umo ŵakacitira na boma la UNLF. === Uganda === {{History of Uganda}} {{main|Ugandan Bush War}} {{further|Uganda since 1979}} Nkhondo iyo yikacitika na Tanzania yikananga comene cuma ca Uganda, cifukwa cakuti vinthu vikamba kukwera comene ndipo ndalama zikakwera comene. Mu 1979, ŵasilikari ŵa charu cha Uganda ŵakanjira mu charu ichi ndipo nyengo ya kulima yikamara. Nangauli pakaŵa masuzgo agha, kweni ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakakhalanga ku mizi, ndipo nkhondo yikaŵa pa malo ghanyake. Ŵanthu pafupifupi 100,000 ku Uganda ŵakaŵavya pakukhala cifukwa ca nkhondo iyi. Nkhondo iyi yikapangiska kuti paŵe vivulupi vinandi. Amin wakati walekeskeka, magulu ghakupambanapambana gha ndyali na mafuko ghakamba kuphalizgana na kulimbana kuti ŵaŵe na mazaza. Kweniso ukapangiska kuti ubendezi wambeso apo vigeŵenga ivyo vikamanyikwanga na zina lakuti "kondos" ndipo vikaŵa na vilwero ivyo vikaŵa vya TPDF, ŵakugaluka ŵa ku Uganda, na ŵasilikari ŵa Amin, ŵakagwiliskira ntchito uheni uwu kuti ŵapoke vinthu. Ŵanthu ŵakakomekanga cifukwa ca ndyali ndipo ŵanthu ŵakalutilira kutinkhana mu Kampala m'paka mu 1981, cifukwa cakuti pakaŵavya makhoti na ŵapolisi awo ŵakateŵeteranga makora. Mu vigaŵa vya ku mizi mukaŵavya vivulupi, cifukwa malango gha cikaya ghakaŵa na ndondomeko. Mwakusazgirapo, nkhondo iyi yikapangiska kuti vigeŵenga vyambuke mu caru cose, ndipo vikananga comene cilengiwa. TPDF yikakhala mu Uganda kuti yisungilire mtende, ndipo pamasinda ŵasilikari ŵa Tanzania ŵakababa ŵana ŵanandi ŵa ku Uganda. Ŵasilikari ŵanandi ŵa TPDF ŵakatora ŵanakazi ŵa ku Uganda na kwiza nawo ku Tanzania. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵa kumwera kwa Uganda ŵakagomezganga kuti ŵasilikari ŵa ku Tanzania ŵakiza na HIV/AIDS mu cigaŵa ici na kuthandazga nthenda iyi mwa kugonana na ŵanthu bweka. Nyengo yikati yajumphapo, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Uganda ŵakavuka na boma la Tanzania. Pa nyengo yeneyiyo, ŵasilikari ŵa Amin ŵa Uganda ŵakawungana ku Zaire na Sudan, ndipo ŵakanjira mu Uganda mu 1980 ndipo ŵakambiska nkhondo ya mukati mwa chalo iyo yikamanyikwa kuti Uganda Bush War. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa TPDF ŵakafwa pa nyengo ya nkhondo ya Uganda kuluska mu nyengo ya nkhondo ya Uganda-Tanzania. Ŵasilikari ŵaumaliro ŵa ku Tanzania ŵakafumako ku Uganda mu Okutobala 1981. Ŵalongozgi ŵa ŵasilikari ŵa ku Tanzania ŵakakhala mu caru mpaka mu 1984. Nyengo yichoko waka kufuma apo gulu la UNLF likambira kuwusa, mu Uganda mukaŵa suzgo la ndyali. Lule wakasulako mapangano gha Moshi Conference agho ghakulongosora mazaza gha pulezidenti ghakulopwa ndipo wakayezga kulongora kuti wangachita vinthu mwakuyana na mazaza ghakuru agho ghakapelekeka na boma la Uganda pambere Amin wandapange boma. Wakagomezgaso yayi UNLA, iyo wakawonanga kuti yikupangika na ŵakugomezgeka ŵa Obote na Museveni. Pa nyengo yeneyira, Museveni na Oyite-Ojok wose ŵakayezga kuti ŵasazgireko ŵanthu awo ŵakakolerana nawo. Pakuti Lule wakakana kufumba NCC vya mauteŵeti, komiti yikakwiya comene, ndipo pa Juni 20, 1979, yikamuwuskapo. Mubali Godfrey Binaisa, uyo wakaŵa loya mukuru wa boma la Uganda mu nyengo ya Obote, wakasuskanga iyo na Amin. Kuwuskika kwa Lule kukapangiska kuti mu Kampala muŵe viwawa vikuruvikuru na kugazgana pakati pa awo ŵakalongoranga na ŵasilikari ŵa Tanzania awo ŵakayezga kukhozga bata. Nyerere wakapharazga kuti walutilirenge kovwira caru ca Uganda usange cikulutilira kuŵa na boma limoza ndiposo lambura vimbundi. Mu mwezi wakulondezgapo, ŵasilikari ŵanandi ŵa TPDF ŵakawerako ndipo vivulupi vya ndyali mu Kampala vikakura. Mu Novembala, Binaisa wakamba kopa kuti Muwanga, uyo wakaŵa nduna mu boma, wakunozgekera kuti wawezgereso Obote ku mazaza. Pakulondezga ulongozgi wa Obote, Muwanga wakapharazga kuti Obote walije khumbo la kuwuskapo umukuru wa chalo ndipo wazamukhozgera Binaisa pa chisankho chakulondezgapo. Nga ni umo Obote na Muwanga ŵakaghanaghaniranga, Binaisa wakawona kuti njakuvikilirika ndipo wakawuskapo Museveni, uyo wakaŵa mulwani wa Obote. Vinthu vikalutilira kuhenipa mu Uganda apo ŵasilikari ŵa ku Tanzania ŵakarwa nkhondo na ŵanthu ŵambura mulandu, ndipo Binaisa wakajiŵika pa kugwiliskira nchito ofesi yake kuti wasange ndalama.Mu 1980, Binaisa wakayezga kumuchimbizga Oyite-Ojok pa udindo wake wakuŵa Chief of Staff wa UNLA. Ici cikakwiyiska ŵasilikari ŵanandi ŵa ku Uganda, ndipo Muwanga na Oyite-Ojok, na kuzomerezgeka na Museveni, ŵakamba kufumiska Binaisa. Pa Meyi 12, Komiti ya vya Nkhondo ya NCC yikapharazga kuti yikwamba kuwusa. Nyerere wakakana kunjilirapo, cifukwa wakawopanga kuti TPDF na UNLA viwukenge. Mwaluŵiro Obote wakawelera ku Uganda ndipo wakamba kunozga UPC pakunozgekera mavoti agho ghakaŵako pa Disembala 10. Chifukwa cha vinthu vinyake ivyo vikachitika, UPC yikathereska pa viphikiro vya pa nyumba ya maparamende ndipo yikambiska boma. Mu Febuluwale 1981, Museveni, wakakanira mavoti, wakapangiska gulu la ŵanthu ŵakugaluka ndipo ŵakamba kuwukira ŵasilikari ŵa UNLA, ndipo ivi vikapangiska kuti paŵe nkhondo ya mukati. Pakati pajumpha nyengo yicoko waka, ŵakambiska gulu liphya la ŵakugaluka lakucemeka National Resistance Movement. Mu 1986, Museveni wakawuskapo boma la Uganda na kuŵa pulezidenti.{{sfn|Cooper|Fontanellaz|2015|p=51}} === Tanzania === {{History of Tanzania}} {{see also|Ujamaa|Chuma cha Tanzania}} Nkhondo iyi yikamba pa nyengo iyo chuma cha Tanzania chikamba kuwelera nyuma ya chilangalanga mu 1974 na 1975. Maofesi ghose gha boma ghakakanizgika kugwira ntchito, kupaturako ya kuvikilira. Nyerere wakayowoya mu Janyuwale 1979 kuti mulimo wa TPDF wa kufumiska ŵanthu ŵa ku Uganda ukakhumbikwiranga kuti ndalama za charu ichi zileke kugwiliskirika ntchito pa mulimo wa vyakuzenga. Ŵasayansi ŵakuti nkhondo iyi yikananga vinthu vinandi chomene ku ŵanthu ŵa ku Tanzania. Ku Kagera, katundu wakukwana $108 miliyoni wakaparanyika. Pa nyengo ya nkhondo, vyaru vinyake vya mu wupu wa OAU vikapeleka yayi wovwiri ku Tanzania. Pa cifukwa ici, boma la Dar es Salaam likakhumbikwiranga kupeleka ndalama zakwendeskera nkhondo ya ku Uganda na ntchito yakulondezgapo ya kusungilira mtende kufuma ku ndalama zake, ndipo ici cikapangiska kuti caru ciŵe mu ukavu. Chifukwa cha suzgo la ndalama, vyakurya vikasoŵa ndipo ŵanthu ŵakasuzgikanga chomene. Ku Tanzania, nkhondo yikaŵa kuti yaluta panthazi chomene m'paka apo charu cha Uganda chikawezgera ngongoli yake mu 2007. Apo ŵasilikari ŵa TPDF ŵakamba kuwelera ku Tanzania, ŵasilikari ŵacoko waka ndiwo ŵakawerako ku nkhondo. Ŵalongozgi ŵa ŵasilikari ŵakamba kunozga vinthu vinyake kuti ŵasazgireko ŵasilikari awo ŵakaŵa mu nyengo ya nkhondo. Ŵanyake mu gulu la ŵasilikari ŵakasuska cifukwa ca suzgo la vya ndalama mu Tanzania, ndipo cuma ca caru ici cikasuzgika comene mwakuti ŵasilikari ŵa TPDF ŵakeneranga kumazga ŵasilikari ŵanandi. Ndipouli, TPDF yikasungilira ŵasilikari ŵanandi mu gulu la ŵasilikari, ndipo yikaghanaghananga kuti ŵangaŵawovwira kuti ŵalangure ŵasilikari para ŵakukhumbikwira kuŵapempha kuti ŵambeso kuteŵetera. Nkhondo yikati yamara, TPDF yikalutilira kuŵa yikuru kuluska iyo yikaŵako pambere nkhondo yindambe. Nangauli PLO yikakhwaskika na nkhondo ya ku Uganda, Nyerere wakakhumba yayi kuti wupu uwu uŵe na viheni, kweni wakawona kuti uli kutali na Amin cifukwa cakuti ukaŵa pa caru cose. Mu 1982, vinthu vikasintha pakati pa Tanzania na Libya. Boma la Tanzania likakhozga chomene ŵasilikari ŵa Kagera pamanyuma pa nkhondo iyi. Pa cifukwa ca kuvikilira ŵanthu, ŵanthu ŵa mu muzi ŵakakanizgikanga kutora malo agho ghakaŵa pa mtunda wa mamita 100 kufuma ku mphaka, nangauli nyengo yikati yajumphapo, ŵanthu ŵakasulako waka. Nkhondo yikati yamara waka, boma likajara misika ya ku vyaru vinyake. Kweniso ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakamba kwiza na vigeŵenga. Mu ma 1990, ŵanthu ŵakambaso kwenda na Uganda. Pakuti mphaka ya ku Uganda na Tanzania yikafumiskika pa nkhondo iyi, mphindano pakati pa vyaru viŵiri ivi yikalutilira nangauli yikaŵa yacilendo. Maungano gha pakati pa Uganda na Tanzania ghakukhwaskana na kuŵaso na mphaka yakufikapo, ghakamba mu 1999 ndipo ghakamara mu 2001. Kweniso, ku Tanzania kukaŵa vigeŵenga vinandi na vivulupi, comenecomene vigeŵenga ivyo vikatimbanga viŵeto. Ŵasilikari ŵanandi ŵakagwiliskirika nchito mu caru ca Tanzania, cifukwa ŵawukirano ŵanandi ŵa mu mbumba zaukavu ŵakaŵa na mazaza, mwaŵi wa kupoka vinthu, ndiposo malipiro ghawemi. Para ŵanthu aŵa ŵafumiskika mu mawoko, kanandi ŵakaŵanga ŵambura nchito ndipo ŵakaweleranga ku ukavu cifukwa ca suzgo la vya cuma mu Tanzania. Kweniso, ŵasilikari ŵa ku Tanzania ŵakanjizga munjilira ukuru wa vilwero vya ku Uganda mu caru cawo. Ŵasilikari ŵanandi ŵakazgoŵera nkhaza, ntheura ŵakagwiliskiranga nchito futi zawo kuti ŵasange usambazi. Ici cikapangiska kuti ucigeŵenga ukure comene, kweniso kuti paŵe mphindano pakati pa ŵanthu. Magulu ghanyake ghakaŵa na ŵasilikari ŵanandi chomene mu TPDF; comenecomene mu 1978, ŵasilikari ŵa ku Tanzania ŵakujumpha 50% ŵakaŵa ŵa fuko la Kuria, nangauli ŵakaŵa ŵacoko kuluska 1% ŵa ŵanthu wose ŵa mu caru ici. Kweniso mu vigaŵa vinyake, ŵanthu awo ŵakaŵa ŵasilikari kale ŵakaŵa ŵakupambana. Vyose ivi vikapangiska kuti paŵe kusintha kwa mazaza, kweniso kuti paŵe vivulupi pakati pa mafuko, mafuko, na mizi mu Tanzania. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Tanzania na ŵantchito ŵanyake ŵa vyaumoyo ŵakugomezga kuti nkhondo ndiyo yikapangiska kuti nthenda ya AIDS yikathandazgike mu charu chose.{{sfn|Francis|1994|pp=210–213}} == Chiharo == === Kukumbukira === Ŵasilikari 435 ŵa Tanzania awo ŵakafwa pa nyengo ya nkhondo ŵakasungika pa Kaboya Military Cemetery mu chigaŵa cha Muleba, Kagera Region. Pa dindi pakaŵa chikumbusko chituŵa icho pakalembeka mazina gha awo ŵakafwa. Nyerere, Vice President wa Tanzania Aboud Jumbe, Prime Minister Sokoine, Chief of Defence Forces Abdallah Twalipo, na Chama Cha Mapinduzi Executive Secretary Pius Msekwa ŵakaluta ku chikumbusko ichi pa 26 July 1979 kuti ŵakachindikenge ŵasilikari awo ŵakafwa. Ku Arusha, ŵakazengaso cikumbusko cinyake, ico cikulongora cikozgo ca msilikari uyo wakakondwa cifukwa ca kutonda. Nyerere wakaluta ku Tabora, Arusha, Mtwara, Bukoba, Mwanza, Tanga, Zanzibar, Iringa, Dodoma, Dar es Salaam, na Mara kuti wawonge ŵanthu ŵa ku Tanzania chifukwa cha kovwira nkhondo. Pa Seputembala 1, 1979, ŵakacita viphikiro vyakupambanapambana kuti ŵacindike ŵanthu awo ŵakawovwira pa nkhondo. Pa Julayi 25, 2014, charu cha Tanzania chikakumbukira chaka cha 36 cha nkhondo iyi ndipo chikachindika ŵasilikari na ŵanthu awo ŵakafwa pa nkhondo iyi. Pamanyuma pa nkhondo na mpaka mu 1986, apo Museveni wakatora mazaza, pa 11 Epulero ŵakakondweleranga "Zuŵa la Kufwatuka" mu Uganda. Mu 2002, charu cha Uganda chikambaso kukondwelera kukomeka kwa Amin. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 2000 boma la Uganda likakhazikiska Kagera Medal kuti ŵapelekenge ku ŵakugaluka ŵa Uganda panji ŵalendo awo ŵakarwa nkhondo na boma la Amin pakati pa 1971 na 1979.<ref>{{cite news|last=Musinguzi|first=John|title=Understanding Museveni's medals|newspaper=The Observer|date=24 February 2013|url=https://www.observer.ug/news-headlines/23905-understanding-musevenis-medals|access-date=8 March 2019}}</ref> === Kulemba mbiri === Ŵakulemba mdauko ŵakuŵikako mahara comene yayi ku nkhondo iyi ndipo pali mabuku ghacoko waka agho ghakuyowoya za nkhondo iyi. Mulembi wa nyuzipepara ya ku Tanzania, Baldwin Mzirai, wakalemba buku lakuti Kuzama kwa Idi Amin mu 1980, ilo likulongosora mwakudumura umo ŵasilikari ŵa ku Tanzania ŵakagwilira ntchito pa nkhondo iyi. Mu 1983, Tony Avirgan na Martha Honey ŵakalemba buku lakuti War in Uganda: The Legacy of Idi Amin. Ŵakalondezga ŵasilikari ŵa ku Tanzania na kunjira mu Uganda, ndipo ŵakawona nkhondo ya Entebbe na Kampala. Buku ili lili na vipaturo 11, ndipo likulongosora umo nkhondo iyi yikwendera. Henry R. Muhanika wakalemba buku la Utezi ilo likulongosora vya nkhondo iyi mu 1981, Utezi wa vita vya Kagera na anguko la Idi Amin Dada. Mu 1980, kampani ya boma ya Tanzania Film Company na Audio Visual Institute ŵakafumiska filimu ya vithuzithuzi yakuyowoya vya nkhondo iyi, yakucemeka Vita vya Kagera. Likati ŵasilikari ŵa ku Tanzania ŵakaŵa na "cikanga na kuŵikapo mtima". Nkhondo iyi yikumanyikwa mu Tanzania kuti Nkhondo ya Kagera ndipo mu Uganda yikuchemeka kuti Nkhondo ya Kufwatuka mu 1979.<ref name="lubega2">{{cite web |last=Lubega |first=Henry |date=26 April 2014 |title=Revisiting the Tanzania-Uganda war that toppled Amin |url=https://www.monitor.co.ug/SpecialReports/Revisiting-the-Tanzania-Uganda-war-that-toppled-Amin/688342-2293306-110gxl9/index.html |access-date=7 February 2019 |website=Daily Monitor}}</ref> == Wonaniso == * [[List of wars involving Tanzania]] * [[List of wars involving Uganda]] == Vyakulemba vinyake == {{notelist}} == Ukaboni == {{reflist}} == Mazgo == {{refbegin}} * {{cite journal|title=Accessions List, Eastern Africa|journal=Accessions List, Eastern Africa. Annual Serial Supplement|volume=15|publisher=Library of Congress Office|location=Nairobi|date=1982|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0aGiQxfp7KAC|issn=0090-371X|ref={{harvid|Accessions List, Eastern Africa|1982}}}} * {{cite journal|last=Acheson-Brown|first=Daniel G.|title=The Tanzanian Invasion of Uganda: A Just War?|journal=International Third World Studies Journal and Review|volume=12|pages=1–11|date=2001|url=http://www.unomaha.edu/itwsjr/ThirdXII/AchesonBrownTanzaniaVol12.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110612085235/http://www.unomaha.edu/itwsjr/ThirdXII/AchesonBrownTanzaniaVol12.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=2011-06-12|issn=1041-3944}} * {{cite book|last=Aminzade|first=Ronald|title=Race, Nation, and Citizenship in Postcolonial Africa: The Case of Tanzania|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zQ6hAQAAQBAJ|year=2013|location=New York City|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-43605-3}} * {{cite book|last=Amos|first=John W. II|title=Palestinian Resistance: Organization of a Nationalist Movement|publisher=Pergamon Press|date=1980|location=New York City|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eXSLBQAAQBAJ|isbn=978-0-08-025094-6}} * {{cite book|last1=Avirgan|first1=Tony|author-link=Tony Avirgan|last2=Honey|first2=Martha|author2-link=Martha Honey|title=War in Uganda: The Legacy of Idi Amin|location=Dar es Salaam|publisher=Tanzania Publishing House|date=1983|isbn=978-9976-1-0056-3}} * {{cite book|last1=Brzoska|first1=Michael|last2=Pearson|first2=Frederic S.|title=Arms and Warfare: Escalation, De-escalation, and Negotiation|publisher=University of South Carolina Press|date=1994|location=Columbia, South Carolina|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=to7hS3Wlro4C|isbn=978-0-87249-982-9}} * {{cite book|last=Chesterman|first=Simon|title=Just War Or Just Peace?: Humanitarian Intervention and International Law|publisher=Oxford University Press|edition=revised|date=2002|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DNUPcfTOIJEC|isbn=978-0-19-925799-7}} * {{cite book|last1=Cooper|first1=Tom|last2=Fontanellaz|first2=Adrien|title=Wars and Insurgencies of Uganda 1971–1994|date=2015|publisher=Helion & Company Limited|location=[[Solihull]]|isbn=978-1-910294-55-0}} * {{cite book|last=Decker|first=Alicia C.|title=In Idi Amin's Shadow: Women, Gender, and Militarism in Uganda|publisher=Ohio University Press|date=2014|location=Athens, Ohio|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9JKdBAAAQBAJ|isbn=978-0-8214-4502-0}} * {{cite book|last=Eminue|first=Okon|chapter=Conflict development in the African region|editor-last=Bassey|editor-first=Celestine Oyom|editor-last2=Oshita|editor-first2=Oshita O.|title=Governance and Border Security in Africa|location=Lagos|publisher=African Books Collective|date=2010|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wYZ6tQG9G9IC|isbn=978-978-8422-07-5}} * {{cite book|last=Fair|first=Laura|title=Reel Pleasures: Cinema Audiences and Entrepreneurs in Twentieth-Century Urban Tanzania|publisher=Ohio University Press|location=Athens, Ohio|date=2018|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TbpCDwAAQBAJ|isbn=978-0-8214-4611-9}} * {{cite book|last=Fleisher|first=Michael L.|title=Kuria Cattle Raiders: Violence and Vigilantism on the Tanzania/Kenya Frontier|publisher=University of Michigan Press|date=2003|edition=4th|orig-year=1st pub. 2000|location=Ann Arbor, Michigan|isbn=978-0-472-08698-6|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tWEbdRDSZMcC}} * {{cite journal|last1=Fleisher|first1=Michael L.|title='War is Good for Thieving!' The Symbiosis of Crime and Warfare Among the Kuria of Tanzania|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_africa-uk_2002_72_1/page/131|journal=[[Africa (journal)|Africa]]|date=February 2002|volume=72|issue=1|pages=131–149|doi=10.3366/afr.2002.72.1.131|s2cid=145478448}} * {{cite thesis|last=Francis|first=Joyce L.|date=1994|title=War as a social trap: The case of Tanzania|publisher=American University|type=PhD thesis|oclc=33488070|url=https://auislandora.wrlc.org/islandora/object/thesesdissertations:2786}} * {{cite book|editor-last=Harneit-Sievers|editor-first=Axel|title=A Place in the World: New Local Historiographies from Africa and South Asia|publisher=BRILL|date=2002|location=Leiden|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f3kfbxlCvP4C|isbn=978-90-04-12303-8}} * {{cite book|last=Hilgers|first=Andrea|chapter=Der Krieg in Uganda|editor-last=Siegelberg|editor-first=Jens|title=Die Kriege 1985 bis 1990: Analyse ihrer Ursachen|trans-title=The wars 1985 to 1990: Analysis of their causes|publisher=LIT|location=Münster; Hamburg|date=1991|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F7huN4d4sgIC|pages=156–165|isbn=3-88660-757-7|language=de}} * {{cite book|last=Hockenberry|first=John|author-link=John Hockenberry|title=War: With John Hockenberry|series=The Infinite Mind|publisher=Lichtenstein Creative Media|date=2003|location=Cambridge, Massachusetts|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OGvWO38SjlYC|isbn=978-1-933644-12-7}} * {{cite book|last=Hooper|first=Edward|title=The River: A Journey Back to the Source of HIV and AIDS|publisher=Allen Lane|date=1999|location=London|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5hMgAQAAIAAJ|isbn=978-0-7139-9335-6}} * {{cite thesis|last=Kamazima|first=Switbert Rwechungura|date=2004|title=Borders, Boundaries, Peoples, and States: a Comparative Analysis of Post-independence Tanzania-Uganda Border Regions|type=PhD thesis|publisher=University of Minnesota|oclc=62698476|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kkIag9gBxacC}} * {{cite journal|last=Kamazima|first=Switbert R.|title=Fifty years of the Tanzania-Uganda 1°00´S terrestrial border peace mediation: an insider-outsider's perspective|journal=International Journal of Advanced Scientific Research and Management|volume=3|issue=8|date=August 2018|url=http://ijasrm.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/IJASRM_V3S7_701_1_12.pdf|issn=2455-6378}} * {{cite book|last=Kasozi|first=A.B.K.|editor1=Nakanyike Musisi|editor2=James Mukooza Sejjengo|title=Social Origins of Violence in Uganda, 1964–1985|publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press|date=1994|location=Montreal; Quebec|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YSa7Wxuw50YC|isbn=978-0-7735-1218-4}} * {{cite book|last=Konde|first=Hadji|title=Press Freedom in Tanzania|publisher=Eastern Africa Publications|date=1984|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Jd-6AAAAIAAJ|isbn=978-9976-2-0029-4}} * {{cite book|last=Lagarde|first=Dominique|chapter=Ugandan-Tanzanian war examined. Amin Dada: His War in Tanzania|title=Translations on Sub-Saharan Africa, No. 2073|publisher=United States Joint Publications Research Service|date=8 March 1979|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DlxEAQAAIAAJ&pg=RA10-PA1|pages=1–9}} * {{cite book|last=Lamb|first=David|author-link=David Lamb (journalist)|title=The Africans|publisher=Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group|edition=reprint|date=2011|location=London|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GEVnODW09HMC|isbn=978-0-307-79792-6}} * {{cite book|editor-last=Legum|editor-first=Colin|editor-link=Colin Legum|title=Africa Contemporary Record: Annual Survey and Documents: 1978–1979|publisher=Africana Publishing Company|volume=XI|date=1980|location=New York City|isbn=978-0-8419-0160-5|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rzkEAQAAIAAJ}} *{{cite book|last=Leopold|first=Mark|title=Inside West Nile. Violence, History & Representation on an African Frontier|date=2005|publisher=James Currey|location=Oxford|isbn=978-0-85255-941-3}} * {{cite thesis|last=Lowman|first=Thomas James|date=2020|title=Beyond Idi Amin: Causes and Drivers of Political Violence in Uganda, 1971-1979|type=PhD thesis|publisher=Durham University|url=http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/13439/1/Tom_Lowman_-_Thesis_Corrected_Draft.pdf?DDD17+|access-date=6 July 2020}} * {{cite journal|last=Lupogo|first=Herman|title=Tanzania: Civil-military Relations and Political Stability|journal=African Security Review|volume=10|issue=1|pages=75–86|date=2001|url=http://www.iss.co.za/pubs/ASR/10No1/Lupogo.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130417020918/http://www.iss.co.za/pubs/ASR/10No1/Lupogo.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=2013-04-17|doi=10.1080/10246029.2001.9628102|s2cid=218648473}} * {{cite book|editor-last=Macrae|editor-first=Joanna|editor-last2=Zwi|editor-first2=Anthony|title=War and Hunger: Rethinking International Responses to Complex Emergencies|url=https://archive.org/details/warhungerrethink0000unse|publisher=Zed Books|date=1994|location=London|isbn=978-1-85649-291-1}} * {{cite journal|last1=Mambo|first1=Andrew|last2=Schofield|first2=Julian|title=Military Diversion in the 1978 Uganda–Tanzania War|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-political-and-military-sociology_winter-2007_35_2/page/299|journal=Journal of Political and Military Sociology|volume=35|issue=2|pages=299–321|date=2007|issn=0047-2697}} * {{cite journal|last=Mazarire|first=Gerald Chikozho|title=ZANU's External Networks 1963–1979: An Appraisal|journal=African Diplomacy and International Connections|volume=43|issue=1|pages=83–106|date=2017|doi=10.1080/03057070.2017.1281040|s2cid=151530240}} * {{cite magazine|last=Matatu|first=Gordon|title=The End of Uganda's Nightmare|magazine=Africa|issue=93|pages=10–16|date=May 1979|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=twHjAAAAMAAJ}} * {{cite book|last1=May|first1=Roy|last2=Furley|first2=Oliver|title=African Interventionist States|location=Milton, Vale of White Horse|publisher=[[Routledge]]|date=2017|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0JU4DwAAQBAJ|isbn=978-1-351-75635-8}} * {{cite book|last=Mmbando|first=S. I.|title=The Tanzania-Uganda War in Pictures|publisher=Longman Tanzania|date=1980|location=Dar es Salaam|isbn=978-0-582-78534-2}} * {{cite journal|last=Moshiro|first=G.|title=The Role of Radio Tanzania Dar es Salaam in Mobilising the Masses: A Critique|journal=Africa Media Review|volume=4|issue=3|pages=18–35|date=1990|url=http://pdfproc.lib.msu.edu/?file=/DMC/African%20Journals/pdfs/africa%20media%20review/vol4no3/jamr004003003.pdf|issn=0258-4913}} * {{cite book|last=Murphy|first=Sean D.|title=Humanitarian Intervention: The United Nations in an Evolving World Order|publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press|date=1996|location=Philadelphia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sZa_RlVjiSMC|isbn=978-0-8122-3382-7}} * {{cite journal|last=Mwikwabe|first=Mbota Amani|title=An Assessment of Media Influence and its Effects on Tanzania Peoples Defence Forces Operations during the Kagera War from 1978 to June 1979|journal=International Journal of Law, Humanities & Social Science|volume=3|issue=1|pages=55–67|date=December 2018|url=http://www.ijlhss.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/IJLHSS-12-18-26.pdf|issn=2521-0793}} * {{cite book|last=Mzirai|first=Baldwin|title=Kuzama kwa Idi Amin|publisher=Publicity International|date=1980|location=Dar es Salaam|language=sw|oclc=9084117}} * {{cite journal|last=Nyeko|first=Balam|title=Exile Politics and Resistance to Dictatorship: The Ugandan Anti-Amin Organizations in Zambia, 1972–79|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_african-affairs_1997-01_96_382/page/95|journal=African Affairs|volume=96|issue=382|date=January 1997|pages=95–108|doi=10.1093/oxfordjournals.afraf.a007823}} * {{cite book|last=Oloya|first=Opiyo|title=Child to Soldier: Stories from Joseph Kony's Lord's Resistance Army|location=Toronto|publisher=University of Toronto Press|date=2013|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B3Jf-FQTHmgC|isbn=978-1-4426-1417-8}} * {{cite book|last1=Omara-Otunnu|first1=Amii|title=Politics and the Military in Uganda, 1890–1985|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I9evCwAAQBAJ|year=1987|publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]]|location=London|isbn=978-1-349-18738-6}} *{{cite book|last=Otunnu|first=Ogenga|title=Crisis of Legitimacy and Political Violence in Uganda, 1890 to 1979|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aZDLDQAAQBAJ|date=2016|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|location=Chicago|isbn=978-3-319-33155-3}} *{{cite book|last=Otunnu|first=Ogenga|title=Crisis of Legitimacy and Political Violence in Uganda, 1979 to 2016|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4UQwDwAAQBAJ|date=2017|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|location=Chicago|isbn=978-3-319-33155-3}} * {{cite book|editor-last=Paxton|editor-first=J.|title=The Statesman's Year-Book 1978-79|publisher=Springer|edition=reprint|location=London|date=2016|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YI3LDQAAQBAJ|isbn=978-0-230-27107-4}} * {{cite book|last=Pollack|first=Kenneth Michael|title=Arabs at War: Military Effectiveness, 1948–1991|location=Lincoln|publisher=University of Nebraska Press|date=2004|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sSHYdGR_xvoC|isbn=978-0-8032-0686-1}} * {{cite journal|last=Posnett|first=Richard|title=Uganda after Amin|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_world-today_1980-04_36_4/page/147|journal=The World Today|volume=36|issue=4|pages=147–153|date=April 1980|jstor=40395418}} * {{cite journal|last=Rice|first=Andrew|title=The General|journal=Institute of Current World Affairs Letters|volume=AR|issue=12|date=20 August 2003|url=http://www.icwa.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/12/AR-12.pdf}} * {{cite book|last=Roberts|first=George|chapter=The Uganda–Tanzania War, the fall of Idi Amin, and the failure of African diplomacy, 1978–1979|editor-last=Anderson|editor-first=David M.|editor-last2=Rolandsen|editor-first2=Øystein H.|title=Politics and Violence in Eastern Africa: The Struggles of Emerging States|publisher=Routledge|location=London|date=2017|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AGNQDwAAQBAJ|pages=154–171|isbn=978-1-317-53952-0}} * {{cite journal|last=Ronen|first=Yehudit|title=Libya's Intervention in Amin's Uganda– A Broken Spearhead|journal=Asian and African Studies|volume=26|issue=2|pages=173–183|date=July 1992|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=u6ZS8CGacNUC|issn=0066-8281}} * {{cite book|last=Rwehururu|first=Bernard|title=Cross to the Gun|publisher=Monitor|date=2002|location=Kampala|oclc=50243051}} * {{cite journal|last=Southall|first=Aiden|title=Social Disorganisation in Uganda: Before, during, and after Amin|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-modern-african-studies_1980-12_18_4/page/627|journal=The Journal of Modern African Studies|volume=18|issue=4|pages=627–656|date=December 1980|jstor=160801|doi=10.1017/s0022278x00014774|s2cid=154245518}} * {{cite book|editor-last=Seftel|editor-first=Adam|title=Uganda: The Bloodstained Pearl of Africa and Its Struggle for Peace. From the Pages of Drum|url=https://archive.org/details/ugandabloodstain0000seft|publisher=Fountain Publishers|date=2010|orig-year=1st pub. 1994|location=Kampala|isbn=978-9970-02-036-2}} * {{cite book|last=Singh|first=Madanjeet|author-link=Madanjeet Singh|title=Culture of the Sepulchre: Idi Amin's Monster Regime|publisher=Penguin Books India|date=2012|location=New Delhi|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h7YGkcrJZJsC|isbn=978-0-670-08573-6}} * {{cite journal|last=Thom|first=William G.|title=Judging Africa's Military Capabilities|journal=Journal of Third World Studies|volume=5|issue=1|pages=52–65|date=1988|jstor=45192991}} * {{cite book|last=Thornton|first=Robert|title=Unimagined Community: Sex, Networks, and AIDS in Uganda and South Africa|publisher=University of California Press|date=2008|location=Berkeley|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qpa7MZShFIoC|isbn=978-0-520-25552-4}} * {{cite book|last=Twesigye|first=Emmanuel K.|title=Religion & Ethics for a New Age: Evolutionist Approach|publisher=University Press of America|date=2001|location=Lanham, Maryland|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UvkQAQAAIAAJ|isbn=978-0-7618-2024-6}} * {{cite book|last=Wheeler|first=Nicholas J.|title=Saving Strangers: Humanitarian Intervention in International Society|publisher=Oxford University Press|date=2000|edition=reprint|location=Oxford|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QrXmCwAAQBAJ|isbn=978-0-19-829621-8}} {{refend}} {{Tanzania topics}} {{Uganda topics}} {{Cold war}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Uganda-Tanzania War}} [[Category:Uganda–Tanzania War| ]] [[Category:Wars involving the states and peoples of Africa]] [[Category:Wars involving Tanzania]] [[Category:Wars involving Uganda]] [[Category:Wars involving Libya]] [[Category:Wars involving Mozambique]] [[Category:Wars involving Palestinians]] [[Category:Military history of Tanzania]] [[Category:1978 in Uganda]] [[Category:1978 in Tanzania]] [[Category:1979 in Uganda]] [[Category:1979 in Tanzania]] [[Category:Conflicts in 1978]] [[Category:Conflicts in 1979]] [[Category:Proxy wars]] need5gi6iqs7uszw1v6i25mo90kfds1 0 30856 119296 111654 2026-08-13T22:05:48Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260813sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 119296 wikitext text/x-wiki {{History of Tanzania}} Ŵanthu ŵakukhala mu [[Zanzibar]] kwa vilimika 20,000. Mbiri ya caru ici yikamba apo virwa ivi vikazgoka malo agho ŵamalonda ŵakendangamo pa ulendo wawo pakati pa [[Africa Great Lakes]], [[Somali Peninsula]], [[Arabia Peninsula]], [[Iran]], na [[India]]. Unguja wakaŵa na dowoko lakuvikilirika, ntheura nangauli ku virwa ivi kukaŵavya vinthu vinandi vyakuzirwa, kweni ŵanthu ŵa ku [[Oman]] na [[Yemen]] ŵakakhalanga mu msumba wa Zanzibar. Ŵakazenga misasa pa virwa ivi na kuzenga masisiteri ghakwamba mu chigaŵa cha ku [[Africa]]. Mu nyengo iyo ŵanthu ŵakasandanga malo, ufumu wa [[Portugal]] ndiwo ukaŵa wakwamba kulamulira Zanzibar. Mu 1698, Zanzibar yikakhwaskika na boma la Oman, ilo likagwiliskiranga ntchito malonda na vyakurya vinyake. Ŵanthu ŵakamba kulima vyakununkhira pa malo agha. Lekani ŵakamba kuchema virwa ivi kuti Spice Islands. Cinthu cinyake cikuru ico ŵakaguliskanga ni mino gha zovu agho ŵakakomanga mu caru ca Tanganyika. Chigaŵa chacitatu ico cikapangiska kuti caru ici ciŵe na ndalama zinandi ni ŵazga. Fumu ya Zanzibar yikaŵa na mazaza pa chigaŵa chikuru cha mumphepete mwa Nyanja Yikuru ya ku Africa, icho chikachemekanga Zanj. Nyengo zinyake, mwakucepa, nyengo zinyake mwamabuci, ufumu wa [[Britain]] ukamba kuwusa Zanzibar. Mu 1890, charu cha Zanzibar chikaŵa pasi pa Britain. Kufwa kwa fumu yimoza na kuwusa kwa fumu yinyakeso iyo Ŵacigiriki ŵakakondwa nayo yayi, kukacitiska nkhondo ya Anglo-Zanzibar, iyo yikucemekaso kuti nkhondo yifupi comene mu mdauko. Virwa ivi vikafwatuka ku boma la Britain mu Disembala 1963. Pakati pajumpha mwezi umoza, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Zanzibar ŵakakomeka, ndipo ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku India na Ŵaarabu ŵakachimbizgika. Mu Epulero, caru ici cikasazgikana na caru cikuru ca Tanganyika, panji kuti Tanzania. Mu vyaka vyasonosono apa, ku Zanzibar kwacitika vivulupi vya ndyali cifukwa ca masankho, ndipo mu 2001 kukacitika nkhondo yikuru. == Nkhani za mu nyengo yakale == [[File:View_of_Zanzibarians,_1685.jpg|thumb|Ŵanthu ŵa ku Zanzibar ŵakuwoneka mu 1685 na Alain Manesson Mallet]] Ŵanthu ŵakukhala mu Zanzibar kwambira mu nyengo ya paleolitiki. Mu 2005, ŵakafukura mu mphanji ya Kuumbi, kumwera kwa Zanzibar, ndipo ŵakasanga visulo vikuruvikuru vya malibwe ivyo vikulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵakakhalanga mu mphanji iyi vyaka 22,000 ivyo vyajumpha.<ref>[http://uu.diva-portal.org/smash/record.jsf?pid=diva2:47830 "Excavations at Kuumbi Cave on Zanzibar 2005", ''The African Archaeology Network: Research in Progress'', Paul Sinclair (Uppsala University), Abdurahman Juma, Felix Chami, 2006]</ref> Ŵasayansi awo ŵakasanga mphanji ya malibwe ghakukhoma ŵakagwiliskira ntchito nthowa za radiocarbon kuti ŵasimikizge kuti ŵanthu ŵakakhalanga mu malo agha kufuma cha m'ma 2800 B.C.E. m'paka mu 1 C.E. (Chami 2006). Vinthu vinyake ivyo vikulongora kuti ŵanthu aŵa ŵakakhalanga ku malo agha, ni mphete za galasi. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakughanaghana kuti pakwenera kuti pakaŵa ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵakendanga mu nyanja. Palije mphanji iyo yilipo pa Zanzibar iyo yikulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Bantu ŵakagwiranga ntchito ya kulima na kupanga visulo mu vyaka vya m'ma 1000 C.E. Ku Zanzibar, pali ukaboni wakulongora kuti kukaŵa ŵanthu ŵakulima na ŵantchito ŵa visulo awo ŵakaŵako pakati pa vyaka vya m'ma 1000 C.E. Ukaboni uwu ukulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵakamba kuzenga matawuni mu malo agha. Uwu ukaŵa ukaboni wakwambilira chomene kuluska ukaboni uwo ulipo wakuti kukaŵa matawuni mu vigaŵa vinyake vya mumphepete mwa nyanja ya Swahili. Ŵanthu ŵakwambilira awo ŵakakhalanga ku Zanzibar ŵakaŵa ŵasekuru ŵa ŵanthu ŵa ku Hadimu na Tumbatu, awo ŵakamba kwiza kufuma ku Africa cha m'ma 1000 C.E. Ŵanthu aŵa ŵakaŵa ŵa mafuko ghakupambanapambana gha Bantu, ndipo ŵakakhalanga mu mizi yichoko waka ku Zanzibar. Cifukwa cakuti ŵakaŵavya gulu lakuŵawovwira, ŵanthu ŵa kuwaro ŵakaŵawusanga pasi. == Early Trade Routes == [[File:1528_-_Bordone_-_BNF_-_Maidegascar_e_Zanzibar.jpg|thumb|Zanzibar (kumazere) mu 1528 Isolario ya Benedetto Bordone]] [[File:KizimkaziMosque1.JPG|thumb|Mzikiti wa Kizimkazi: Kuwona kuchokera kunja]] Vinthu vyakale vya dongo vikulongora kuti kale ŵanthu ŵa ku Sumeriya na Asiriya ŵakendanga mu nthowa zakwendera ku Zanzibar. Chidindo chakale icho ŵakasanga kufupi na Eshnunna. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 2500-2400 B.C.E., ŵanthu ŵakamba kugura copal kufuma ku Zanzibar.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Meyer|first=Carol|author2=Joan Markley Todd|author3=Curt W. Beck|title=From Zanzibar to Zagros: A Copal Pendant from Eshnunna|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-near-eastern-studies_1991-10_50_4/page/289|journal=Journal of Near Eastern Studies|volume=50|issue=4|pages=289–298|jstor=545490|doi=10.1086/373516|year=1991|s2cid=161728895}} </ref> Ŵamalonda ŵakufuma ku Arabia (kanandi ku Yemen), ku Persian Gulf ku Iran (makamaka ku Shiraz), na kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa India, ŵakwenera kuti ŵakaluta ku Zanzibar mu vyaka vya m'ma 100 C.E., ndipo ŵalondezgi ŵawo ŵakaŵa ŵa ku Somalia. Ŵakenda mu nyanja ya Indian Ocean na mphepo za mu nyengo ya vula, ndipo ŵakafika pa dowoko ilo sono ni tawuni ya Zanzibar. Nangauli virwa ivi vikaŵa na vinthu vichoko waka ivyo ŵamalonda ŵakasanganga, kweni vikaŵa makora kuti ŵendepo na kwendera misumba yinyake ya mumphepete mwa Nyanja ya Swahili. Nyengo yinyake, ŵanthu ŵakamba kugwiliskira ntchito malibwe mu ntchito ya kuzenga mu Africa. "Mwenyi Mkuu", fumu yaumaliro ya Zanzibar Ŵamalonda ŵakamba kukhazikika ku Zanzibar mu vyaka vya m'ma 1100 panji 1200 C.E., ndipo ŵakatorana na ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa. Paumaliro, muwusi munyake (uyo wakamanyikwanga na zina lakuti Mwenyi Mkuu panji Jumbe) wakawuka pakati pa Ŵadimu. Nangauli wose ŵakaŵa na mazaza ghachoko, kweni ŵakakhozga mtundu wawo. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Yemen ŵakazenga nyumba yakwamba ya chisopa ku Kizimkazi, tawuni yakumwera chomene ya Unguja. Pa mihrab yake pali kulembeka kuti AH 500, ndiko kuti, Mu 1107 C.E.<ref>{{Citation|last=Fay|first=Robert|title=Swahili People|date=2005-04-07|work=African American Studies Center|publisher=Oxford University Press|doi=10.1093/acref/9780195301731.013.43544|isbn=978-0-19-530173-1}}</ref> Pakaŵaso mizi iyo ŵanthu ŵakakhalanga pamoza. == Ufumu wa Portugal == Mu 1499, [[Vasco da Gama]] wakafika ku [[Spain]]. Mu 1503 panji 1504, Zanzibar wakazgoka chigaŵa cha Ufumu wa Portugal apo Kaputeni Ruy Lourenço Ravasco Marques wakafika na kupempha na kupokera msonkho kufuma kwa sultan pakusintha mtende. Zanzibar wakalutilira kulamulirika na Portugal kwa vilimika pafupifupi 200. == Ufumu wa Zanzibar == [[File:Sultanat_de_Zanzibar_vèrs_1875.png|thumb|Zanzibar's Sultanate circa 1875]] [[File:Stone_Town_carved_door.jpg|thumb|A carved door in Stone Town.]] [[File:Stone_Town,_fort.jpg|thumb|Chipata chakale cha Zanzibar, icho chikazengeka kuumaliro wa m'ma 1600 na ŵanthu ŵa ku Oman kuti ŵavikilire chilumba ichi ku Ŵapwitikizi.]] [[File:Die_Gartenlaube_(1885)_b_101.jpg|thumb|Stone Town, 1885]] [[File:Die_Gartenlaube_(1885)_b_102.jpg|thumb|Mwanakazi wa ku Zanzibari, 1885]] [[File:Zanzibari_muslim_ca_1880.png|thumb|Dada wa ku Zanzibari, 1880]] {{Main|Zanzibar Sultanate}} Mu 1698, Zanzibar yikaŵa pasi pa muwuso wa Sultan wa Oman. Ŵapwitikizi ŵakachimbizgika, ndipo malonda gha ŵazga ghakaŵa ghakovwira chomene. Pakuti msumba wa Stone Town (mzinda ukuru wa Zanzibar) ukaŵa na dowoko liwemi comene ndiposo maji ghawemi, ukazgoka msumba ukuru comene na usambazi comene mu vyaru vya kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Africa. Pa nyengo iyo boma la Oman likalamuliranga, malo ghose ghakupambika makora ghakapelekeka ku ŵanthu ŵakuzirwa ŵa ku Oman awo ŵakagwiliskiranga nchito ŵalimi. Caka cilicose, maboti ghanandi ghakayeghanga nyanja ya Indian Ocean kufuma ku Arabia, Persia, na India na mphepo za mphepo izo zikufuma kumpoto ca kumafumiro gha dazi. Para mphepo za mu nyengo ya mphepo zikwamba kuputa kumwera ca kumanjiliro gha dazi mu Malichi panji Epulero, ŵamalonda aŵa ŵakanyamukanga na ngalaŵa zawo zakuzura na viswaswa vya visomba, makuni gha copal, makuni gha cindere, coconut, mpunga, njovu, na ŵazga.<ref name="Pett6-8">[[Donald K. Petterson|Petterson, Donald]], ''Revolution In Zanzibar An American's Cold War Tale''. New York: Westview, 2002. pp. 6-8.</ref> Ŵaarabu ŵakazenga misasa mu Zanzibar, Pemba, na Kilwa. Ufumu wa Ŵaarabu ukafika pachanya chomene mu nyengo ya muwuso wa Sayyid Said (uyo wakachemekanga Sayyid Said bin Sultan al-Busaid), uyo mu 1840 wakasamuska msumba wake ukuru ku Muscat, Oman, na kuwuŵika ku Stone Town. Wakakhozga ŵanthu ŵa ku Arabia kuti ŵambe kulima viŵaya, na kugwiliskira ntchito ŵazga ŵa pa chirwa ichi. Ŵamalonda ŵa ku India ndiwo ŵakamba kuguliska vinthu mu Zanzibar, ndipo Said wakaŵachiska kuti ŵakhalenge pa chirwa ichi. Pamanyuma pa nyifwa yake mu 1856, ŵana ŵake ŵakamba kulimbana kuti ŵaŵe na mazaza. Pa Epulero 6, 1861, Zanzibar na Oman vikagaŵika kuŵa mafumu ghaŵiri. Sayyid Majid bin Said Al-Busaid (wakababika mu 1834 m'paka mu 1870), mwana wake wa nambara sikisi, wakaŵa Sultan wa Zanzibar, apo mwana wake wacitatu, Sayyid Thuwaini bin Said al-Said, wakaŵa Sultan wa Oman. Ŵanthu awo ŵakuluta ku Zanzibar ŵakutemwa kuyowoya vya malo agha. Mu 1856, Richard Francis Burton, uyo wakacitanga kafukufuku wa ku Britain, wakati: "Charu, nyanja, na mtambo vikawoneka nga vyapumulika mwakukondwa... Nyanja ya safiro yituŵa, iyo yikaŵa kuti yindafumirepo na kuŵala kwake kwa buluu mu mlengalenga... yikaŵa pasi pa ungweru wa dazi uwo ukakhwaska chinthu chilichose na golide". Ku msumba uwu kukaŵaso minara yituŵa ya masisiteri na nyumba za themba mu tawuni ya Stone Town. Awo ŵakafika pafupi ŵakalongosora kuti msumba wa Stone Town ukaŵa na sungu liheni comene, ukaŵa na mvuchi wa vyoto vya ŵanthu na vinyama, vimbundi, na vitanda vyakubisika. Munthu munyake wakucemeka Dr. Mu 1866, David Livingstone wakati wakukhala mu tawuni ya Stone Town, wakalemba mu buku lake la vyakumasinda kuti: "Mzimu uheni uwo ukufuma mu nyanja iyo yili pafupi na tawuni iyi ngwakofya comene. Panji tingati Stinkabar m'malo mwa Zanzibar". Padera pa kununkha kwa malo agha, ŵalendo ŵakalongosora kuti mu tawuni iyi mukaŵa ŵazga ŵanandi awo ŵakaŵa pafupi kufwa na njara.<ref name="Pett6-8" /> Mu vyaru vyose vya Zanzibar, ŵazga ndiwo ŵakasanganga ndalama zinandi comene, ndipo ŵanthu wose ŵafipa awo ŵakakhalanga pa cirwa ici ŵakaŵa ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Bantu. Ŵazga aŵa ŵakaŵatolera ku Zanzibar mu maboti, ndipo ŵakaŵakakiliranga pamoza kwambura kuŵaghanaghanira. Ŵanandi ŵakapona yayi pa ulendo wa ku Zanzibar. Ŵakati ŵafika ku Zanzibar, ŵazga ŵakaŵavura malaya ghose, ŵakaŵatozga, ŵakaŵavwalika mafuta gha kokosoni, ndipo ŵakaŵachichizganga kuvwara mabangili ghagolide na siliva agho pakaŵa zina la munthu uyo wakaguliskanga ŵazga. Pa nyengo iyi, ŵazga ŵakacicizgika kwenda nkhule mu msewu wa Stone Town uku ŵazga ŵakugomezgeka ŵa awo ŵakaŵaguliskanga ŵazga ŵakunyamura malupanga panji mikondo m'paka apo munthu munyake wakalongolera kuti wakunweka. Mulongozgi wa ngaraŵa ya East India Company uyo wakaluta ku Zanzibar mu 1811 ndipo wakawona umo ŵanthu aŵa ŵakendanga, wakalemba umo munthu munyake uyo wakaguranga ŵazga wakawoneranga ŵazga: {{bquote|The mouth and teeth are inspected, and afterwards every part of the body in succession, not even excepting the breasts, etc, of the girls, many of whom I have seen examined in the most indecent manner in the public market by the purchasers...The slave is then made to walk or run a little way to show that there is no defect about the feet; after which, if the price is agreed to, they are stripped of their finery and delivered over to their future master. I have frequently counted twenty or thirty of these files in the market at one time...Women with children newly born hanging at their breasts and others so old they can scarcely walk, are sometimes seen dragged about in this manner. They had in general a very dejected look; some groups appeared so ill fed that their bones seemed as if ready to penetrate the skin.<ref name="Pett23-24"/>}} Chaka chilichose, ŵazga pafupifupi 40,000-50,000 ŵakatolekera ku Zanzibar. Pafupifupi cigaŵa cacitatu ca ŵanthu aŵa ŵakagwiranga nchito mu minda ya zinandi na ya kokosoni mu Zanzibar na Pemba, ndipo ŵanyake ŵakaluta ku Peresiya, Arabia, Ufumu wa Ottoman na Eguputo. Vinthu vikaŵa makora yayi pa malo agha mwakuti pafupifupi 30% ya ŵazga ŵanalume ŵakafwanga chaka chilichose. Ŵaarabu ŵa ku Oman awo ŵakalongozganga charu cha Zanzibar ŵakayowoya mazgu gha Donald K. Petterson "visambizgo vya nkhaza", apo ŵanthu ŵakutemwa kugwiliskira ntchito nkongono zawo kuti ŵamazge masuzgo. Mbumba ya al-Busaid iyo yikaŵa na mazaza yikaŵa na mphindano chifukwa ŵabali ŵakakomanga ŵanyawo. Kanandi awo ŵakizanga ku Zanzibar ŵakayowoyanga za "nkhaza zikuru" izo mabwana gha Ŵaarabu ghakacitiranga ŵazga ŵawo. Nkhaza izo mabwana gha Ŵaarabu ghakacitiranga ŵazga ŵawo zikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵambe kutinkhana comene, ndipo ici cikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵambe kutinkhana mu 1964.<ref name="Pett23-24">Petterson, pages 23-24.</ref> Fumu ya ku Zanzibar yikaŵa na mazaza pa chigaŵa chikuru cha mumphepete mwa Nyanja Yikuru ya ku Africa, icho chikachemekanga Zanj, kweniso pa nthowa zakwendamo malonda izo zikafika m'paka ku Kindu pa Mlonga wa Congo. Mu Novembala 1886, wupu wa ku Britain na Germany ukati Zanj ni mtunda wa makilomita 19 kufuma ku Cape Delgado (uko sono ni Mozambique) m'paka ku Kipini (uko sono ni Kenya). Ndipouli, kwamba mu 1887 m'paka 1892, vyaru vyose ivi vikaŵa pasi pa ufumu wa Britain, Germany, na Italy. Kuumaliro wa ma 1800, Omani Sultan wa ku Zanzibar nayo wakati wakulongozga msumba wa Mogadishu ku Horn na kumwera kwa Somalia. Ndipouli, mazaza ghakaŵa mu mawoko gha ufumu wankhongono wa ku Somalia, Geledi Sultanate (uwo ukaŵa na mazaza pa Mlonga wa Jubba na chigaŵa cha Shebelle mukati mwa Somalia, ndipo ukaŵa pa nyengo yake yapachanya). Mu 1892, themba la Geledi, Osman Ahmed, likapeleka msumba uwu ku Italy. Paumaliro, ŵa ku Italy ŵakagura wanangwa wa kuwusa mu 1905, ndipo ŵakazgora msumba wa Mogadishu kuŵa msumba ukuru wa chigaŵa cha Somaliland.<ref>{{cite book|last=Hamilton|first=Janice|title=Somalia in Pictures|url=https://archive.org/details/somaliainpicture00hami/page/28|page=28|url-access=registration|date=1 January 2007|publisher=Twenty-First Century Books|isbn=978-0-8225-6586-4}}</ref> Zanzibar wakaŵa wakumanyikwa pa caru cose cifukwa ca vyakununkhira na ŵazga ŵake. Mu vilimika vya m'ma 1800, caru ca Zanzibar cikamanyikwa pa caru cose, nga ni umo Petterson wakayowoyera kuti: "Cirwa ici cikaŵa na vyakununkhira vinandi, cikaŵa malo ghakofya gha wuzga, ndipo ŵanthu ŵakalutanga ku caru ici. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800, mu Zanzibar mukaŵa ŵanthu pafupifupi 50,000 awo ŵakaguliskanga ŵazga. (David Livingstone wakati ŵazga ŵaphya 80,000 ŵakafwanga caka cilicose pambere ŵandafike pa cirwa ici.) Tippu wakaŵa wamalonda wa ŵazga wakumanyikwa comene, kweniso wakaŵa wamalonda, mweneko wa minda, ndiposo kazembe. Vyakununkhira vya ku Zanzibar vikakopanga ŵanthu kufuma ku vyaru vyakutali nga ni United States. Ufumu wa United Kingdom ukayamba kutemwa chomene charu cha Zanzibar cifukwa ca malonda kweniso kukhumba kumazga malonda gha ŵazga. Mu 1822, ŵa ku Britain ŵakacita phangano lakwamba na Sultan Said kuti ŵaleke kusuzga ŵanthu. Mu 1876, boma la Britain likakanizga kuguliska ŵazga, kweni ŵazga ŵakalutilira kuguliskika mu Zanzibar m'paka mu 1897. Zanzibar ndiyo yikaŵa yakwamba kuŵa na sitima ya ku Africa iyo yikendanga na mphepo, apo Sultani Bargash bin Said wakalangura kuti paŵe galimoto ya 0-4-0 kuti yikwendere galimoto yake kufuma ku tawuni iyi kuya ku nyumba yake ya chihanya ku Chukwani. Yimoza mwa nyumba zakutowa comene izo ŵakazenga ni Nyumba ya Vyakuzizwiska, iyo lero njimoza mwa malo agho ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakutemwa kuluta ku Zanzibar. == Nkhongono na muwuso wa Britain == {{anchor|British protectorate}} [[File:Zanzibar_1900_to_1920.jpg|thumb|Msika wa ku Zanzibar, cha m'ma 1910. Pa cithuzithuzi ici pakaŵa munthu wa ku Britain uyo wakavwara salu ya salu yiwemi na cisoti.]] Ufumu wa Britain ukamba kuwusa; ubwezi uwu ukazomerezgeka na phangano la Heligoland-Zanzibar ilo likalembeka mu 1890. Phangano ili likapangiska kuti Zanzibar na Pemba viŵe vigaŵa vya Britain, ndipo Caprivi Strip (iyo sono ni Namibia) yikaŵa chigaŵa cha German South West Africa. Ufumu wa Britain ukendanga mwakuyana waka. Hamad bin Thuwaini wakati wafwa pa 25 Ogasiti 1896, Khalid bin Bargash, mwana mulara wa Barghash ibn Sa'id, uyo wakaŵa fumu yachiŵiri, wakatora nyumba ya fumu na kujiphara kuti ndiyo ni fumu yiphya. Ivi vikapambana na ivyo boma la Britain likakhumbanga, ilo likakondwanga na Hamoud bin Mohammed. Ivi vikapangiska kuti pa 27 Ogasiti mulenji, paŵe nkhondo ya Anglo-Zanzibar. Wakakana, ndipo pa 9 koloko mulenji, maboti ghakamba kuwombera. Ŵasilikari ŵa Khalid ŵakamuwukira ndipo wakacimbilira ku ofesi ya boma ya Germany. Nkhondo iyi yikati yamara, pakaŵavya uyo wakazomerezgeka kurwa nkhondo. Hamud wakapharazgika kuŵa fumu yiphya ndipo mtende ukaŵaso. Mu 1897, wakazomerezga ivyo Britain likakhumbanga, ndipo wakalekeska malonda gha ŵazga ku Zanzibar. Mwana wa Hamoud, Ali, wakasambira ku Britain. Kwambira mu 1913 m'paka mu 1963, apo boma la Britain likamba kujiyimira palokha, ŵanthu ŵakasankhanga ŵamazaza. Cimoza mwa vinthu vyakuzirwa comene ivyo Ŵacigiriki ŵakacita, nchakuti ŵakazenga maji ghakwenda makora, na malo ghakusungiramo viswaswa, mwakuti misewu ya ku Zanzibar yileke kununkha na vitanda, viswaswa, na viswaswa.<ref>Petterson, Donald ''Revolution In Zanzibar An American Cold War's Tale'', New York: Westview, 2002 page 7.</ref> == Kujiyimira paŵekha na chipani == {{Main|Zanzibar Revolution}} [[File:Dares_222.jpg|thumb|Nyumba ya Ufumu.]] [[File:Zanzibar,_12_Jan._2004,_celebration_of_40_years'_Revolution.JPG|thumb|Mwambo wa kukumbukira chaka cha 40 cha kusintha kwa Zanzibar mu 2004.]] [[File:Wohnungsbau_der_DDR_in_Stone_Town.jpg|thumb|Nyumba zakuzengeka na DDR mu Michenzani, Zanzibar City]] Pa 10 Disembala, 1963, Zanzibar yikapokera wanangwa wake kufuma ku United Kingdom nga ni boma lachifumu ilo likulongozgeka na Sultan. Vinthu ivi vikamara yayi, pakuti pa Janyuwale 12, 1964, themba la Zanzibar na boma lake ŵakathereskeka. Sheikh Abeid Amani Karume wakasankhika kuŵa purezidenti wa Republic of Zanzibar. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa mtundu wa Ŵaarabu (Ŵaarabu 5,000 m'paka 12,000 ŵa ku Zanzibar) na ŵa ku India ŵakakomeka ndipo ŵanyake ŵanandi ŵakakakika panji kuchimbizgika. Filimu ya Africa Addio yikulongosora nkhaza na kukoma ŵanthu ŵambura kuvikilirika ŵa mtundu wa Ciarabu. Boma la ku Zanzibar likaŵa na maboma ghaŵiri, la Standard Bank na National na Grindlays Bank. Vinthu ivi vikapangiska kuti paŵe Banki ya Zanzibar. Jetha Lila, banki yimoza ya ŵanthu ŵa ku Zanzibar, yikajalika. Nangauli boma la Zanzibar likaŵachiska kuti ŵalutilire kugwira ntchito, kweni chifukwa chakuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Zanzibar ŵakaleka kugwiliskira ntchito malo agha, ŵakaleka kugwiliskira ntchito. Cimoza mwa vinthu vikuru ivyo vikacitika cifukwa ca kugaluka kwa Zanzibar cikaŵa kuti ŵathereske mazaza gha ŵamazaza ŵa Ŵaarabu na ŵa ku Asia, awo ŵakaŵa na mazaza kwa vilimika pafupifupi 200.<ref name="triplett612">{{Harvnb|Triplett|1971|p=612}}</ref><ref name="speller1">{{Harvnb|Speller|2007|p=1}}</ref>Nangauli charu ichi chikasazgikana na charu cha Tanganyika, kweni Zanzibar chikalutilira kuŵa na wupu wa Revolutionary Council na House of Representatives. Boma la Zanzibar likulongozgeka na pulezidenti, ndipo Karume ndiyo wakaŵa wakwamba. Boma ili likagwiliskira nchito ivyo vikacitika pa nyengo ya kugaluka kuti licitiske kusintha vinthu mu caru cose. Vinyake mwa vinthu ivi vikaŵa vya kuwuskako mazaza gha Ŵaarabu. Mwaciyelezgero, nchito ya boma ya ku Zanzibar yikazgoka cigaŵa ca ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa, ndipo caru cikagaŵikaso ku Ŵaarabu na ŵa ku Africa. Boma likambaso kusintha vinthu pa umoyo wa ŵanthu, nga ni wovwiri wa wupu wakuwona vya umoyo wa ŵanthu wose na kujura masambiro ku ŵana ŵa sukulu ŵa ku Africa (awo ŵakaŵa na malo 12% pera pa masukulu gha sekondare pambere nkhondo yindambe).<ref name="triplett612" /> Boma likapempha wovwiri ku Soviet Union, German Democratic Republic (GDR), na P. R. Ku China, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakukhumba ndalama zakwendeskera mapulojekiti ghanandi na kupeleka ulongozgi wa vya nkhondo. Ntchito zinandi izo zikendeskeka na DDR zikathera yayi, kusazgapo ntchito ya New Zanzibar Project, iyo yikaŵa ndondomeko ya kuzenga tawuni mu 1968 kuti ŵanthu wose ŵa ku Zanzibar ŵasange nyumba. Boma la Zanzibar likati lapulikiska ivyo vikachitika, ŵakamba kumususka kuti wakuŵa na wanangwa wakwendakwenda, kweniso kuti wakutemwa ŵabali ŵake. Ŵanthu ŵakakondwa yayi na boma apo Karume wakakomeka pa Epulero 7, 1972. Mu 1992, boma la Zanzibar likamba kwendera ndondomeko ya vyaru vinandi, kweni likalutilira kusuzgika na milandu ya vimbundi.<ref name="one party">{{Citation|last=Sadallah|first=Mwinyi|title=Revert to single party system, CUF Reps say|newspaper=[[The Guardian]]|date=23 January 2006|url=http://kurayangu.com/ipp/guardian/2006/01/23/58381.html|access-date=14 April 2009|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://archive.today/20070802153207/http://kurayangu.com/ipp/guardian/2006/01/23/58381.html|archive-date=2 August 2007|df=dmy-all}}.</ref><ref name="freedom">{{Citation|last=Freedom House|author-link=Freedom House|title=Freedom in the World – Tanzania|year=2008|url=http://www.freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-world/2008/tanzania|access-date=5 April 2012}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|last=Freedom House|author-link=Freedom House|title=Freedom in the World – Tanzania|year=2011|url=http://www.freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-world/2011/tanzania|access-date=5 April 2012}}</ref> Ŵanthu ŵa ku Zanzibar na ŵasayansi ŵakukondwa chomene na ivyo vikachitika pa nyengo ya nkhondo iyi. Ŵakulemba mdauko ŵakasanda umo vinthu vikaŵira pa nyengo iyi, ndipo ŵanyake ŵakuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa ndiwo ŵakagalukira ŵamazaza awo ŵakakhalanga mu vyaru vinyake. Ŵanyake ŵakususka fundo iyi ndipo ŵakuyiwona nga ni nkhani ya ŵanthu ŵa mafuko ghanyake. Mu Zanzibar, cipandano ni cinthu cakuzirwa comene ca cikaya, ico cikulongosora za kufwatulika kwa ŵakayidi 545 pa cilimika ca nambara 10 na ungano wa ŵasilikari pa cilimika ca nambara 40. Zuŵa la Zanzibar Revolution Day laŵikika kuŵa holide na boma la Tanzania; likukondwelereka pa 12 January chaka chilichose.<ref>{{Citation|last=Commonwealth Secretariat|author-link=Commonwealth Secretariat|title=Tanzania|year=2005|url=http://www.thecommonwealth.org/YearbookInternal/140064/society/|access-date=10 February 2009|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081201170736/http://www.thecommonwealth.org/YearbookInternal/140064/society/|archive-date=1 December 2008|df=dmy-all}}</ref> == Mgwilizano na Tanganyika == [[File:Zanzibar_revolution_40_years.JPG|thumb|Purezidenti [[Amani Abeid Karume]] akugwira nawo ntchito ya usilikali pa chikumbutso cha zaka 40 za kusintha kwa boma]] [[File:ASP-TANU_kanga.jpg|right|thumb|Kanga wakukondwelera vyaka 10 kufuma apo kuzgoka kwa boma kukachitikira (mapinduzi), pamoza na ivyo vikulongosora vya ASP na TANU (malo ghakusungiramo vinthu vyakuzizwiska, Stone Town)]] {{Main|Mbiri ya Tanzania}} Pa 26 Epulero, 1964, charu cha Tanganyika chikasazgikana na Zanzibar kuti chiŵe United Republic of Tanganyika na Zanzibar. Zina ili likasazgikira na kuŵa United Republic of Tanzania pa 29 Okutobala, 1964. Pamanyuma pa kuwungana kwa vyaru ivi, pulezidenti Abeid Amani Karume ndiyo wakalaŵiliranga vinthu vya mu charu ichi. Charu cha Zanzibar chikulutilira kuŵa chigaŵa cha Tanzania. Malo gha Zanzibar ghakuyana waka na Hong Kong nga umo ŵasayansi ŵanyake ŵakuyowoyera. Nyumba ya Wupu Wakulongozga ya Zanzibar yikakhazikiskika mu 1980. Pambere ivi vindachitike, wupu wa Revolutionary Council ukaŵa na udindo wa executive na legislative kwa vyaka 16 pamanyuma pa Zanzibar Revolution mu 1964.<ref>{{cite web |title=History of the ZHoR |url=http://www.zanzibarassembly.go.tz/history.php |access-date=15 November 2014 |publisher=Zanzibar House of Representatives}}</ref> == Chaka vyasono == Mu Zanzibar muli vipani vinandi, kweni vipani vikuru comene ni Chama Cha Mapinduzi (CCM) na Civic United Front (CUF). Kwambira mu ma 1990, ndyali za ku virwa ivi zikuŵa na mphindano pakati pa magulu ghaŵiri agha. Mavoti gha mavoti agho ghakacitika mu nyengo ya mavoti gha vipani vinandi ghakaŵa agha:<ref>{{cite web |title=Elections in Zanzibar |url=http://africanelections.tripod.com/zanzibar.html |access-date=15 November 2014}}</ref> {| border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;" ! rowspan="2" align="left" scope="col" |[[Political Party]] ! colspan="8" align="center" scope="col" |[[Election]] Year |- |- bgcolor="#e8e8e8" ! scope="col" |1995 ! scope="col" |2000 ! scope="col" |2005 |- | align="left" |[[Chama Cha Mapinduzi]] (CCM) | align="center" |26 | align="center" |34 | align="center" |30 |- | align="left" |[[Civic United Front]] (CUF) | align="center" |24 | align="center" |16 | align="center" |19 |- | align="left" |'''Total''' | align="center" |'''50''' | align="center" |'''50''' | align="center" |'''50''' |} Pa 27 Janyuwale, 2001, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakakomeka chifukwa cha masankho agho ghakachitika mu Okutobala 2000. Ŵasilikari aŵa, pamoza na ŵalara ŵa chipani na ŵasilikari, ŵakaluta ku nyumba na nyumba, kukora ŵanthu, kuŵatimba, na kuŵachitira nkhaza. Ŵanthu pafupifupi 2,000 ŵakachimbilira ku Kenya. Nkhondo yikambaso pamanyuma pa chisankho chinyake icho chikachitika pa Okutobala 31, 2005, ndipo CUF yikati yikapokeka njombe yake. Ŵanthu 9 ŵakafwa. Pamanyuma pa 2005, vyaru viŵiri ivi vikamba kudumbiskana vya kumazga suzgo na kukolerana kuti vigaŵane mazaza, kweni vikabudiska. Pa maungano agha, ghakuzirwa chomene ghakachitika mu Epulero 2008, apo CUF yikafumapo pa thebulu la kudumbiskirana pamanyuma pakuti CCM yikapempha kuti paŵe referendamu kuti yikhozgere ivyo vikaŵa nga vyachitika kale. Mu Novembala 2009, purezidenti wakale wa Zanzibar, Amani Abeid Karume, wakakumana na mulembi mukuru wa CUF, Seif Sharif Hamad ku State House kuti ŵakadumbiskane umo ŵangaponoskera Zanzibar ku masuzgo gha ndyali munthazi na kumazga ukali pakati pawo. Ŵanthu ŵanandi, kusazgapo ŵa ku United States, ŵakakondwa na ivyo ŵakacita. Aka kakaŵa kakwamba kufuma apo boma la Zanzibar likambira kulamulira na vipani vinandi kuti CUF yizomerezge Karume kuŵa pulezidenti wa Zanzibar. Pa Julayi 31, 2010, ŵanthu 66,2 pa 100 ŵakakolerana na fundo yakuti paŵe kusintha malango gha charu cha Zanzibar kuti vipani vyakwimikana vipangenge maboma gha umoza. Mazuŵa ghano, chipani cha Alliance for Change and Transparency-Wazalendois (ACT-Wazalendo) chikuwoneka nga ni chipani chikuru chakususka boma la Zanzibar. Dango la Zanzibar likukhumba kuti chipani icho chizamunjira pa chiŵiri mu mavoti, chiŵe mu wupu wakukolerana na chipani icho chizamupambana. ACT-Wazalendo adalumikizana ndi boma la mgwirizano ndi chipani cholamulira cha Chama Cha Mapinduzi mu Disembala 2020 pambuyo pa zisankho za Zanzibar.<ref>{{Cite web |date=6 December 2020 |title=Zanzibar's opposition party to join coalition government |url=https://apnews.com/article/constitutions-tanzania-elections-africa-dar-es-salaam-316350ec78b5299743309ebca78ba889 |website=[[Associated Press]]}}</ref> == Mndandanda wa ŵakumulira == === Mafumu gha Zanzibar === {{main|Mndandanda wa ma Sultan gha Zanzibar}} # [[Majid bin Said of Zanzibar|Majid bin Said]] (1856–1870) # [[Barghash bin Said of Zanzibar|Barghash bin Said]] (1870–1888) # [[Khalifah bin Said of Zanzibar|Khalifah bin Said]] (1888–1890) # [[Ali bin Said of Zanzibar|Ali bin Said]] (1890–1893) # [[Hamad bin Thuwaini of Zanzibar|Hamad bin Thuwaini]] (1893–1896) # [[Khalid bin Barghash of Zanzibar|Khalid bin Barghash]] (1896) # [[Hamud bin Muhammed of Zanzibar|Hamud bin Muhammed]] (1896–1902) # [[Ali bin Hamud of Zanzibar|Ali bin Hamud]] (1902–1911) (abdicated) # [[Khalifa bin Harub of Zanzibar|Khalifa bin Harub]] (1911–1960) # [[Abdullah bin Khalifa of Zanzibar|Abdullah bin Khalifa]] (1960–1963) # [[Jamshid bin Abdullah of Zanzibar|Jamshid bin Abdullah]] (1963–1964) === Viziers === # [[Lloyd Mathews|Sir Lloyd William Matthews]], (1890 to 1901) # [[A.S. Rogers]], (1901 to 1906) # [[Arthur Raikes]], (1906 to 1908) # [[Francis Barton]], (1906 to 1913) === British residents === # [[Francis Pearce]], (1913 to 1922) # [[John Sinclair (colonial administrator)|John Sinclair]], (1922 to 1923) # [[Alfred Hollis]], (1923 to 1929) # [[Richard Rankine]], (1929 to 1937) # [[John Hall (colonial administrator)|John Hall]], (1937 to 1940) # [[Henry Pilling]], (1940 to 1946) # [[Vincent Glenday]], 1946 to 1951) # [[John Rankine (governor)|John Rankine]], (1952 to 1954) # [[Henry Steven Potter]], (1955 to 1959) # [[Arthur George Mooring]], (1959 to 1963) == Wonaniso == * [[Timeline of Zanzibar City]] == Ukaboni == {{Reflist}} == Vyakulemba vinyake == * {{citation|last1=Kalley|first1=Jacqueline Audrey|last2=Schoeman|first2=Elna|last3=Andor|first3=Lydia Eve|title=Southern African Political History|year=1999|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oVrVK2ElINMC|isbn=978-0-313-30247-3}}.*{{citation|last=Kuper|first=Leo|title=Theories of Revolution and Race Relations|journal=Comparative Studies in Society and History|year=1971|volume=13|issue=1|pages=87–107|jstor=178199|doi=10.1017/S0010417500006125|s2cid=145769109}}. * {{citation|last=Myers|first=Garth A.|title=Making the Socialist City of Zanzibar|journal=Geographical Review|year=1994|volume=84|issue=4|pages=451–464|doi=10.2307/215759|jstor=215759}}. * Petterson, D. (2002) ''Revolution In Zanzibar: An American's Cold War Tale'', New York: Westview. {{ISBN|0813342686}} * {{citation|last=Speller|first=Ian|title=An African Cuba? Britain and the Zanzibar Revolution, 1964.|journal=Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History|year=2007|volume=35|issue=2|pages=1–35|url=http://eprints.nuim.ie/archive/00000841/|doi=10.1080/03086530701337666|s2cid=159656717}}. * {{citation|last=Triplett|first=George W.|title=Zanzibar: The Politics of Revolutionary Inequality|journal=The Journal of Modern African Studies|year=1971|volume=9|issue=4|pages=612–617|jstor=160218|doi=10.1017/S0022278X0005285X|s2cid=153484206}}. == Vigaŵa vya kuwalo == * [https://web.archive.org/web/20180723152306/http://www.unpo.org/content/view/9848/83/ Excerpt from: ''Race, Revolution and the Struggle for Human Rights in Zanzibar'' by Thomas Burgess] * {{cite Q|Q19046291)}}<!-- Some account of the town of Zanzibar --> {{History of Africa}} {{Tanzania topics}} {{Portuguese overseas empire}} {{DEFAULTSORT:History Of Zanzibar}} [[Category:History of Zanzibar| ]] 9438f2a51bwz8lkgsvnal01j193037u 0 35543 119320 118836 2026-08-13T22:48:27Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260813sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 119320 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Country in East Africa}} {{Redirect|Sudanese Republic|other uses|Sudan (disambiguation)}} {{Distinguish|Sudan (region)|the Sudans}} {{Use dmy dates|date=April 2023}} {{Infobox country | conventional_long_name = Charu cha Sudan | common_name = Sudan | native_name = {{native name|ar|جمهورية سودان|italics=off}}<br />''{{transliteration|ar|Jumhūriyyat Sūdān}}'' | image_flag = Flag of Sudan.svg | flag_type = [[Flag of Sudan|Flag]] | religion_year = 2020 | image_coat = Emblem of Sudan.svg | symbol_type = [[Emblem of Sudan|Chidindo cha boma]] | national_motto = {{lang|ar|النصر لنا}}<br />{{transliteration|ar|an-Naṣr lanā}}<br />"Victory is ours" | national_anthem = {{lang|ar|نحن جند الله، جند الوطن}}<br />{{transliteration|ar|[[Nahnu Jund Allah Jund Al-watan|Naḥnu jund Allah, jund al-waṭan]]}}<br />"We are the soldiers of God, the soldiers of the Nation"{{parabr}}{{center|[[File:Sudanese national anthem, performed by the U.S. Navy Band (instrumental).oga]]}} | image_map = File:Sudan (orthographic projection) highlighted.svg | map_caption = Sudan displayed in dark green color, claimed territories in light green | image_map2 = | capital = [[Khartoum]] | coordinates = {{coord|15.5007|N|32.5599|E|type:city_region:SD}} | largest_city = [[Omdurman]] | official_languages = {{hlist|[[Arabic]]|[[English_language|English]]}} | ethnic_groups = {{vunblist |79% [[Sudanese Arab]]<ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/sudan/| title = People and Society CIA world factbook| date = 10 May 2022}}</ref> |5.5% [[Beja people|Beja]] |2.5% [[Nuba peoples|Nuba]] |2% [[Fur people|Fur]] |2% [[Egyptians|Egyptian]]<ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.capmas.gov.eg/Pages/ShowPDF.aspx?page_id=%20/Admin/Pages%20Files/2017109143840cns.pdf| title = الجهاز المركزي للتعبئة العامة والإحصاء}}</ref> |1% [[Hausa people|Hausa]] |0.5% [[Fula people|Fulani]]<ref>{{cite web| url = https://joshuaproject.net/people_groups/11774/SU| title = Sudanese Fulani in Sudan}}</ref> |17.3% [[Demographics of Sudan|other]] }} | government_type = [[Federalism|Federal]] republic under a [[military junta]]<ref>{{cite news |last1=Gavin |first1=Michelle |title=Junta and Public at Odds in Sudan |url=https://www.cfr.org/blog/junta-and-public-odds-sudan |access-date=20 March 2023 |work=[[Council on Foreign Relations]] |date=8 April 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Jeffrey |first1=Jack |title=Analysis: Year post-coup, cracks in Sudan's military junta |url=https://apnews.com/article/middle-east-africa-cairo-sudan-democracy-2b87ee19685ec2667ac05acff8b4ed9e |access-date=20 March 2023 |work=[[Associated Press]] |date=23 October 2022 |location=[[Cairo, Egypt]]}}</ref> | leader_title1 = [[Transitional Sovereignty Council]] | leader_name1 = {{indented plainlist| *[[Abdel Fattah al-Burhan]] (Chairman) *[[Malik Agar]] (Deputy chairman) }} {{Collapsible list |title=Others<ref>{{cite news |title=Sudan coup leader restores restructured Sovereignty Council |url=https://www.dabangasudan.org/en/all-news/article/sudan-coup-leader-restores-restructured-transitional-sovereignty-council |access-date=26 March 2023 |work=[[Radio Dabanga]] |date=11 November 2021 |location=[[Khartoum]]}}</ref> |bullets = true |1=Shams al-Din Khabbashi |2=Yasser al-Atta |3=Ibrahim Jabir Karim |5=El Hadi Idris Yahya |6=El Tahrir Abubakr Hajar |7=[[Raja Nicola]] |8=Abdulgasim Bortom |9=Yousef Jad Karim |10=Abdelbagi al-Zubeir |11=Salma Abdeljabbar }} | leader_title2 = [[List of heads of government of Sudan|Prime Minister]] | leader_name2 = {{indented plainlist|*[[Osman Hussein (politician)|Osman Hussein]] (acting)}} | legislature = [[Transitional Legislative Council (Sudan)|Transitional Legislative Council]] | religion = {{ublist||90.7% [[Islam in Sudan|Islam]] |5.5% [[Christianity in Sudan|Christianity]] |3.5% [[Traditional African religions|Traditional Faiths]] |1.0% [[Religion in Sudan|Others]]}} | sovereignty_type = [[History of Sudan|Formation]] | established_event1 = [[Kerma culture|Kingdom of Kerma]] | established_date1 = 2500 BC | established_event2 = [[Kingdom of Kush]] | established_date2 = 1070 BC | established_event3 = [[Mahdist State]] | established_date3 = 1885 | established_event4 = [[Anglo-Egyptian Sudan|Anglo-Egyptian Condominium]] | established_date4 = 1899 | established_event5 = Independence from the United Kingdom and the [[Kingdom of Egypt]] | established_date5 = 1 January 1956 | established_event6 = Secession of [[South Sudan]] | established_date6 = 9 July 2011 | established_event7 = [[2019 Sudanese coup d'état|2019 coup d'état]] | established_date7 = 11 April 2019 | established_event8 = [[2019–2026 Sudanese transition to democracy#Draft Constitutional Declaration|2019 Draft Constitutional Declaration]] effective | established_date8 = 20 August 2019 | established_event9 = [[2021 Sudan coup d'état|2021 coup d'état]] | established_date9 = 25 October 2021 | area_km2 = 1886068 | area_rank = 15th | area_sq_mi = 728215 | percent_water = | population_estimate = 49,197,555<ref>{{Cite CIA World Factbook|country=Sudan|access-date=24 September 2022}}</ref> | population_estimate_year = 2023 | population_estimate_rank = 30th | population_density_km2 = 21.3 | population_density_sq_mi = 55.3 | population_density_rank = 202nd | GDP_PPP = {{decrease}}$207.7&nbsp;billion<ref name="imf2">{{cite web|url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2022/October|title=World Economic Outlook Database, October 2022|date=October 2022|website=IMF.org|publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]]|access-date= 23 December 2022}}</ref> | GDP_PPP_year = 2022 | GDP_PPP_rank = 71st | GDP_PPP_per_capita = {{decrease}}$4,450<ref name="imf2" /> | GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 151st | GDP_nominal = {{decrease}}$42.7&nbsp;billion<ref name="imf2" /> | GDP_nominal_year = 2022 | GDP_nominal_rank = 96th | GDP_nominal_per_capita = {{decrease}}$916<ref name="imf2" /> | GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 171st | Gini = 34.2 <!--number only--> | Gini_year = 2014 | Gini_change = decrease <!--increase/decrease/steady--> | Gini_ref = <ref name="wb-gini">{{cite web |url= http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI/ |title=Gini Index |publisher=World Bank |access-date=16 June 2021}}</ref> | Gini_rank = | HDI = 0.508 <!--number only--> | HDI_year = 2021 <!-- Please use the year to which the data refers, not the publication year--> | HDI_change = increase <!--increase/decrease/steady--> | HDI_ref = <ref name="UNHDR">{{cite book|title=Human Development Report 2020 The Next Frontier: Human Development and the Anthropocene|date=15 December 2020|publisher=United Nations Development Programme|isbn=978-92-1-126442-5|pages=343–346|url=http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/hdr2020.pdf|access-date=16 December 2020}}</ref> | HDI_rank = 172nd | currency = [[Sudanese pound]] | currency_code = SDG | time_zone = [[Central Africa Time|CAT]] | utc_offset = +2 | date_format = dd/mm/yyyy <!--numeric dates (dd-mm-yyyy, yyyy.mm.dd, etc.) plus era (AD, AH, etc.)--> | drives_on = Right | calling_code = [[+249]] | iso3166code = SD | cctld = [[.sd]]<br />[[سودان.]] | religion_ref = <ref>{{Cite web |title=National Profiles |url=https://www.thearda.com/world-religion/national-profiles?u=211c |access-date=8 October 2022 |website=[[Association of Religion Data Archives]]}}</ref> | demonym = [[Demographics of Sudan|Sudanese]] }} '''Sudan''' ([[Chingelezi]]: /suːˈdɑːn/ panji /suːˈdæn/; Arabic: سودان, romanized: Sūdān), mwalamulo '''Republic of Sudan''' (Arabic: جمهورية سودان, romanized: Jumhūriyyat Sūdān), ni chalo icho chili ku [[North East Africa]]. Charu ichi chili kumafumiro gha dazi kwa [[Central African Republic]], kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Chad, kumpoto kwa [[Egypt]], kumpoto kwa [[Eritrea]], kumwera kwa [[Ethiopia]], kumwera kwa [[Libya]], kumwera kwa [[South Sudan]], na ku [[Nyanja Yiswesi]]. Mu 2022, ŵanthu ŵakukwana 45.7 miliyoni<ref>{{cite web |url=https://worldpopulationreview.com/countries/sudan-population/ |title=Sudan Population 2021 (Live) |website=worldpopulationreview.com |access-date=26 July 2021 }}</ref> Charu ichi chili na malo ghakukwana 1,886,068 square kilometres (728,215 square miles), ndipo ntchigaŵa chachitatu mu Africa. Charu ichi chikaŵa chikuru chomene pa vyaru vya mu [[Afilika|Africa]] na vyaru vya [[Arab League]] m'paka apo South Sudan yikapatukira mu 2011. Msumba wake ukuru ni Khartoum, ndipo msumba wake ukuru ni [[Omdurman]]. Mbiri yikulongora kuti Ufumu wa Kerma (c. 2500-1500 B.C.E.), Ufumu Waphya wa Eguputo (c. 1500 BC~1070 BC), na Ufumu wa Kush (c. 785 BC~350 AD). Pamanyuma pakuti Kush wabwangandulika, ŵanthu ŵa ku Nubia ŵakamba kulamulira mu maufumu ghatatu gha Ŵakhristu gha Nobatia, Makuria, na Alodia. Pakati pa vyaka vya m'ma 1400 na 1500, ŵanthu ŵa ku Arabia ŵakamba kukhala mu vigaŵa vinandi vya mu Sudan. Kwambira mu ma 1500 m'paka m'ma 1800, chigaŵa chapakati na kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Sudan chikaŵa pasi pa muwuso wa Funj, apo Darfur wakaŵa kumanjiliro gha dazi ndipo Ottomans kumafumiro gha dazi. Mu 1811, Mamluks ŵakakhazikiska boma ku Dunqulah, ilo likaŵa likuru la malonda gha ŵazga. Mu nyengo ya muwuso wa Ŵaeguputo na Ŵaturuki mu charu cha Sudan, mu 1820, ŵanthu ŵakaguliskanga ŵazga mu vigaŵa vya kumpoto na kumwera.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Walz |first1=Terence |url=https://oxfordre.com/abstract/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-8 |title=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History |year=2018 |isbn=978-0-19-027773-4 |chapter=Egyptian‐Sudanese Trade in the Ottoman Period to 1882 |doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.013.8}}</ref> Kwambira mu ma 1800, caru cose ca Sudan cikathereskeka na Ŵaegupto awo ŵakalongozgekanga na ufumu wa Muhammad Ali. Nkhondo iyi yikati yacitika, ŵasilikari ŵa ku Eguputo na Britain ŵakathereska ŵasilikari ŵa ku [[Egypt|Eguputo]]. Mu 1899, ku Britain, Eguputo wakazomera kugaŵana mazaza pa Sudan na Britain. Nakuti charu cha Sudan chikaŵa pasi pa Britain.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Henehan |first=Alva D. Jr.|title=For Want Of A Camel: The Story of Britain's Failed Sudan Campaign, 1883–1885|date=2016|publisher=Outskirts Press|isbn=978-1-4787-6562-2|location=[Place of publication not identified]|oclc=1007048089}}</ref>Nkhondo ya ku Eguputo ya mu 1952 yikawuskapo muwuso wa ufumu ndipo yikati ŵasilikari ŵa Britain ŵafumemo mu Eguputo na Sudan. Muhammad Naguib, yumoza wa ŵalongozgi ŵaciŵiri ŵa cigaluka ici, ndiposo pulezidenti wakwamba wa Egupto, uyo wakaŵa wa ku Sudan ndipo wakakulira mu Sudan, wakaŵika pakwamba kuti boma la Sudan liŵe na wanangwa wa kujilongozga. Chaka chakulondezgapo, ku Eguputo na ku Sudan, United Kingdom yikakolerana na ivyo Eguputo wakakhumbanga. Pa Janyuwale 1, 1956, charu cha Sudan chikamba kujiyimira paŵekha. Boma la Jaafar Nimeiry likamba kulamulira charu cha Sudan. Ici cikapangiska kuti paŵe kugaŵikana pakati pa boma la kumpoto kwa caru ici, na ŵavisopa vya [[Cisilamu]] na Ŵakhristu ŵa kumwera. Nkhondo iyi yikamba pakati pa ŵasilikari ŵa boma, awo ŵakakolerananga na gulu la National Islamic Front (NIF), na ŵakugaluka ŵa ku South Sudan, awo gulu lawo likuru chomene ni Sudan People's Liberation Army (SPLA).<ref>Collins, Robert O. (2008). ''A History of Modern Sudan''. Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-521-85820-5}}.</ref> Pakati pa 1989 na 2019, muwuso wa ŵasilikari wa vyaka 30 uwo ukalongozgekanga na Omar al-Bashir ndiwo ukalamuliranga Sudan ndipo ukachitanga viheni vinandi pa wanangwa wa ŵanthu, kusazgapo kutambuzga, kutambuzga ŵanthu ŵachoko waka, kutemwera vigeŵenga pa caru cose, na kukoma ŵanthu ŵanandi mu Darfur kwambira mu 2003 mpaka 2020. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakuti boma ili likakoma ŵanthu pakati pa 300,000 na 400,000. Chiwonetsero chinabuka mu 2018, chofuna kuti Bashir achoke, zomwe zinapangitsa kuti boma liwonongeke pa 11 April 2019 ndipo Bashir anamangidwa.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cnn.com/2012/12/10/world/africa/omar-al-bashir---fast-facts/index.html|title=Omar al-Bashir Fast Facts|website=CNN|date=10 December 2012}}</ref> Chisilamu chikaŵa chisopa cha boma la Sudan ndipo malango gha Chisilamu ghakaŵako kwambira mu 1983 m'paka mu 2020 apo charu chikazgoka charu cha charu.<ref name="sudan.gov.sd">{{cite web |title=عن السودان |url=http://sudan.gov.sd/ar/index.php?option=com_content&view=category&layout=blog&id=39&Itemid=75 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130902160838/http://sudan.gov.sd/ar/index.php?option=com_content&view=category&layout=blog&id=39&Itemid=75 |archive-date=2 September 2013 |access-date=14 July 2017 |language=Arabic}}</ref> Sudan ni yimoza mwa vyaru vyakutukuka yayi ndipo yili pa malo 172 pa Human Development Index mu 2022. Chuma chake chimadalira kwambiri ulimi chifukwa cha ziletso zapadziko lonse lapansi komanso kudzipatula, komanso mbiri yakusakhazikika kwamkati ndi ziwawa zamagulu. Charu chose cha Sudan ntchakomira ndipo ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 35 peresenti mbakavu. Charu cha Sudan chili mu wupu wa United Nations, Arab League, African Union, COMESA, Movement of Non-Aligned and the Organization of Islamic Cooperation. ==Kwiza kwa zina== Zina lakuti Sudan ni zina ilo likapelekeka ku chigaŵa chikuru cha Sahel, kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa charu cha Sudan. Pakwamba, zina lakuti Sudan likang'anamuranga chigaŵa icho chikaŵa kufupi na nyanja ya Atlantic kufuma ku Senegal m'paka kumpoto cha kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Africa. Zina ili lili kufuma ku lizgu la Chiarabu lakuti bilād as-sūdān (بلاد السودان), panji "Charu cha Ŵachibulumutira".<ref>{{citation |author=International Association for the History of Religions |title=Numen |publisher=EJ Brill |place=Leiden |year=1959 |page=131 |quote=West Africa may be taken as the country stretching from Senegal in the West to the Cameroons in the East; sometimes it has been called the central and western Sudan, the ''Bilad as-Sūdan'', 'Land of the Blacks', of the Arabs}}</ref> Ili ni zina linyake la malo agho ŵanthu ŵakukhala. Pambere ivi vindachitike, Ŵaeguputo ŵakale ŵakachemanga charu cha Sudan kuti Nubia na Ta Nehesi panji Ta Seti. ==Mbili== {{Main|History of Sudan}} === Charu cha Sudan (pambere c. 8000 B.C.E.) === [[File:Western Deffufa - Kerma.jpg|thumb|Tempile likuru la mathabwa, lakucemeka Deffufa wa ku Western, mu msumba wakale wa Kerma]] [[File:Fortress of the Middle Kingdom, reconstructed under the New Kingdom ( about 1200 B.C.).jpg|thumb|Linga la Buhen, la mu Ufumu wapakati, likazengekaso mu Ufumu uphya (pafupifupi 1200 BC)]] Kuzakafika mu vyaka vya m'ma 1000 B.C.E., ŵanthu ŵa mu nyengo ya Neolithic ŵakakhalanga mu vikaya vyakukhora vya mathipa, ndipo ŵakalondezganga vyakurya na viŵeto.<ref name=locearlyhist>{{cite web|url=http://countrystudies.us/sudan |title=Sudan A Country Study |publisher=Countrystudies.us}}</ref> Neolithic peoples created cemeteries such as [[R12 (cemetery)|R12]]. During the fifth millennium BC, migrations from the drying Sahara brought neolithic people into the Nile Valley along with agriculture. The population that resulted from this cultural and genetic mixing developed a social hierarchy over the next centuries which became the [[Kingdom of Kush]] (with the capital at Kerma) at 1700 BC. Anthropological and archaeological research indicates that during the predynastic period Nubia and Nagadan Upper Egypt were ethnically and culturally nearly identical, and thus, simultaneously evolved systems of pharaonic kingship by 3300 BC.<ref name="Keita, S.O.Y. 1993 129–54">{{cite journal|title = Studies and Comments on Ancient Egyptian Biological Relationships| author = Keita, S.O.Y. |year = 1993| journal=History in Africa|volume=20| issue = 7 |pages=129–54|jstor=317196|doi = 10.2307/3171969| s2cid = 162330365 }}</ref> === Ufumu wa Kush (c. 1070 BC~350 AD) === {{main|Ufumu wa Kush|Ufumu wa Ŵaeguputo wa 25}} [[File:Sudan Meroe Pyramids 2001.JPG|thumb|[[Nubian pyramids]] ku [[Meroë]]]] [[File:Xerxes detail Ethiopian.jpg|thumb|Msilikari wa ku Kušiya wa ŵasilikari ŵa Achaemenid, c. 480 B.C.E. Ivyo vili pa dindi la Xerxes I.]] Ufumu wa Kush ukaŵa ufumu wakale wa ku Nubia uwo ukaŵa pa malo agho mukakumananga Mlonga wa Blue Nile na White Nile, kweniso Mlonga wa Atbarah na Nile. Likakhazikiskika mu nyengo ya Bronze apo ufumu uphya wa Eguputo ukamara. Fumu Kashta ("Mkhushite") yikati yaluta ku Eguputo mu vyaka vya m'ma 700 B.C.E., mathemba gha Kushite ghakawusa nga ni mafaro gha muwuso wa Ŵaeguputo wa vyaka pafupifupi 100 pambere Ŵaasiriya ŵandaŵathereske. Pa nyengo iyo Ŵakushi ŵakaŵa ŵankhongono comene, ŵakathereska ufumu uwo ukafumanga ku caru ico sono cikucemeka South Kordofan m'paka ku Sinayi. Farawo Piye wakayezga kusazgirako ufumu wake mu vyaru vya ku Near East, kweni themba la ku Asiriya, Sarigoni II, likamutondeska. Pakati pa 800 B.C.E. na 100 C.E. ŵakazenga mapiramidi gha Nubian, pakati pawo pali El-Kurru, Kashta, Piye, Tantamani, Shabaka, mapiramidi gha Gebel Barkal, mapiramidi gha Meroe (Begarawiyah), mapiramidi gha Sedeinga, na mapiramidi gha Nuri.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last1=Takacs |first1=Sarolta Anna |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SPcvCgAAQBAJ&q=%22in+fact%2C+there+are+twice+as+many+Nubian+pyramids%22&pg=PA15 |title=The Ancient World |last2=Cline |first2=Eric H. |date=17 July 2015 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-1-317-45839-5 |language=en}}</ref> Baibolo likuyowoya za ufumu wa Kush kuti ndiwo ukaponoska Ŵaisrayeli ku ukali wa Ŵaasiriya. Nkhondo iyo yikacitika pakati pa Farawo Taharqa na Senakeribu themba la Asiriya yikaŵa yakuzirwa comene mu mbiri ya caru ca kumanjiliro gha dazi. Esarihadoni, uyo wakanjira mu malo gha Senakeribu, wakaluta patali comene ndipo wakawukira Egupto kuti wawuske caru ca Levant. Wakacita nthena cifukwa wakacimbizga Taharqa mu caru ca Lower Egypt. Taharqa wakachimbilira ku Upper Egypt na Nubia, uko wakafwira pakati pajumpha vyaka viŵiri. Ŵaegupto ŵakamba kulamulirika na Ŵaasiriya, kweni ŵakaleka kupulikira. Kufuma apo, themba Tantamani, ilo likakanjira mu malo gha Taharqa, likayezgapo kaumaliro kupoka caru ca Lower Egypt kwa Neko I, uyo wakaŵa kuti wawelerapo ku ufumu wake. Wakathereska msumba wa Memfisi na kukoma Neko. Ashurbanipal, uyo wakanjira mu malo gha Esarhaddon, wakatuma ŵasilikari ŵanandi ku Egupto kuti ŵakambeso kuwusa. Wakathereska Tantamani kufupi na Memfisi ndipo wakati wamulondezga, wakapoka msumba wa Thebes. Nangauli Ŵaasiriya ŵakafumako mwaluŵiro ku Upper Egypt pamanyuma pa vinthu ivi, kweni Thebes wakajipeleka kwa Psamtik I, mwana wa Neko. Ici cikapangiska kuti Ufumu wa Nubia uleke kuwuskika, ndipo ukalutilira kuŵa ufumu ucoko uwo ukaŵa ku Napata. Msumba uwu ukaparanyika na Ŵaeguputo ca. 590 B.C.E., ndipo nyengo yichoko waka pamanyuma paumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 300 B.C.E., Ŵakushi ŵakasamukira ku Meroë.<ref name=Kelsey>{{cite book|chapter=A Cultural History of Kush: Politics, Economy, and Ritual Practice|url=https://lsa.umich.edu/content/dam/kelsey-assets/kelsey-publications/pdfs/Graffiti-as-Devotion.pdf|title=Graffiti as Devotion along the Nile and Beyond|last1=Emberling|first1=Geoff|last2=Davis|first2=Suzanne|publisher=[[Kelsey Museum of Archaeology]]|date=2019|access-date=3 November 2021|pages=5–6, 10–11|isbn=978-0-9906623-9-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lh4GBNLsCUsC|title=Forgotten Africa: An Introduction to Its Archaeology|last=Connah|first=Graham|publisher=[[Routledge]]|date=2004|access-date=3 November 2021|pages=52–53|isbn=0-415-30590-X}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=Semantic Shift on a Geographical Term|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_bible-translator_1998-07_49_3/page/323|last=Unseth|first=Peter|journal=[[The Bible Translator]]|date=1 July 1998|volume=49|issue=3|pages=323–324|doi=10.1177/026009359804900302|s2cid=131916337}}</ref> ===Medieval Christian Nubian kingdoms (c. 350–1500)=== {{main|Nobatia|Makuria|Alodia|Daju kingdom}} [[File:Christian Nubia.png|thumb|upright=0.8|Maufumu ghatatu gha Cikhristu gha ku Nubia. Mphaka ya kumpoto ya Alodia yikumanyikwa makora yayi, kweni yikwenera kuti yikaŵa kumpoto, pakati pa chigodobu chachinayi na chachisanu cha Nile.{{sfn|Welsby|2002|p=26}}]] Paumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 400 C.E., Ŵablemmyes ŵakakhazikiska ufumu uwo ukakhala nyengo yichoko waka mu Upper Egypt na Lower Nubia, ndipo panyake ukaŵa kuzingilizga Talmis (Kalabsha). Kweni pambere chaka cha 450 C.E. chindafike, Ŵanobatiya ŵakaŵachimbizga kale mu Dambo la Nayelo. Paumaliro ŵanthu aŵa ŵakamba kuwusa mu ufumu wawo wa Nobatia. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 500 C.E., pakaŵa maufumu ghatatu gha ku Nubia: Nobatia kumpoto, ilo likaŵa na msumba ukuru ku Pachoras (Faras); ufumu wapakati, Makuria uwo ukaŵa ku Tungul (Old Dongola), makilomita 13 kumwera kwa Dongola; na Alodia, uwo ukaŵa mu ufumu wakale wa Kushitic, uwo ukaŵa na msumba ukuru ku Soba (uno ni tawuni ya Khartoum). Ŵakazgoka Ŵakhristu mu vyaka vya m'ma 500 C.E. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 600 C.E., panyake pakati pa 628 na 642, Nobatia wakazgoka chigaŵa cha Makuria.{{sfn|Werner|2013|p=77}} Pakati pa 639 na 641, Ŵaarabu ŵa mu ufumu wa Rashidun ŵakathereska charu cha Byzantium. Mu 641 panji 642 kweniso mu 652 ŵakanjira mu Nubia, kweni ŵakaŵachimbizga. Pamanyuma, fumu ya Makuria na Ŵaarabu ŵakakolerana kuti ŵaleke kuwukira caru cawo. Nangauli Ŵaarabu ŵakatondeka kuthereska Nubia, kweni ŵakamba kukhala kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Mlonga wa Nayelo.{{sfn|Welsby|2002|pp=77–78}} [[File:King Moses George of Makuria.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|Mozesi George, fumu ya Makuria na Alodia]] Kufuma pakati pa vyaka vya m'ma 700 m'paka m'ma 1100, ufumu wa Chikhristu wa Nubia ukaŵa na nkhongono chomene. Mu 747, Makuria wakawukira Eguputo, uyo pa nyengo iyi wakaŵa wa Ŵaumaliyadi, ndipo wakawuskaso ufumu uwu mu ma 960, apo ukafika kumpoto kwa Akhmim. Makuria wakaŵa paubwezi wakukhora na Alodia, ndipo panji ici cikapangiska kuti maufumu ghaŵiri agha ghaŵe ufumu umoza. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Nubia awo ŵakakhalanga mu nyengo yakale ŵakachemekanga "Afro-Byzantine", kweni ŵakakhwaskikanga chomene na ŵanthu ŵa ku Arabia. Gulu la boma ili likaŵa lapakati chomene, ndipo likajintha pa ŵamazaza ŵa ku Byzantine ŵa mu vyaka vya m'ma 500 na 600. Ŵanthu ŵakamba kupenta vinthu vya ku dongo, chomenechomene vithuzithuzi vya ku viliŵa. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Nubia ŵakalemba vilembo vya chiyowoyero chawo, Old Nobiin, ivyo vikajintha pa vilembo vya Chigiriki, Chigiriki, Chigiriki, na Chiarabu. Ŵanakazi ŵakaŵa na udindo wapachanya: ŵakasambiranga, ŵakaguranga, kugura na kuguliska malo, ndipo kanandi ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito chuma chawo kuti ŵapeleke ndalama ku matchalitchi. Nanga mphapu ya fumu yingaŵa ya mu mbumba ya amama ŵake, ndipo mwana wa mudumbu wa fumu ndiyo wakeneranga kuŵa muhaliri. Kuumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1100 na 1200, msumba ukuru wa Makuria, Dongola, ukamba kuchepa. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1400 na 1500, mafuko gha Ŵabedouin ghakaŵa mu vigaŵa vinandi vya ku Sudan, ndipo ŵakaluta ku Butana, Gezira, Kordofan, na Darfur. Mu 1365, nkhondo ya pawenenawene yikapangiska ŵanthu ŵa ku Makuria kuti ŵachimbilire ku Gebel Adda ku Lower Nubia. Kufuma apo, Makuria wakalutilira kuŵa ufumu ucoko waka. Pakati pajumpha nyengo yitali kufuma apo themba Joel likawusira, charu cha Makuria chikamara. Malo gha mumphepete mwa nyanja kufuma kumwera kwa Sudan m'paka ku tawuni ya Suakin ghakaŵa gha Adal Sultanate mu vyaka vya m'ma 1500. Kumwera, ufumu wa Alodia ukathereskeka na Ŵaarabu, awo ŵakalongozgekanga na Abdallah Jamma, panji Funj, ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa awo ŵakafuma kumwera. Vinthu ivi vikaŵako mu vyaka vya m'ma 900 C.E. (c. 1396~1494 C.E.), mu vyaka vya m'ma 1500 C.E., 1504 m'paka 1509. Ufumu wa alodian ungapona mu ufumu wa Fazughli, uwo ukakhalapo m'paka mu 1685.{{sfn|Spaulding|1974|pp=12–30}} === Ufumu wa Sennar na Darfur (c. 1500–1821) === {{main|Sultanate of Sennar|Tunjur kingdom|Sultanate of Darfur}} [[File:Sennar mosque (cropped).jpg|thumb|Mzikiti ukuru wa Sennar, uwo ukazengeka mu 17th century{{sfn|Holt|Daly|2000|p=25}}]] Mu 1504 Ŵafunj ŵakakhazikiska Ufumu wa Sennar, uwo ukaŵa chigaŵa cha Abdallah Jamma. Mu 1523, apo Muyuda munyake zina lake David Reubeni wakaluta ku Sudan, caru ca Funj cikafika ku Dongola. Pa nyengo iyi, ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga ku Nile ŵakamba kupharazga vya cisopa ca Cisilamu. Ndipouli, ŵanthu ŵa ku Funj ŵakalutilira kusunga mitheto iyo yikaŵa ya chisopa chautesi, nga nkhutora ufumu wa Chiuta panji kumwa moŵa m'paka mu 1800. Chisilamu cha ŵanthu ŵa ku Sudan chikasungilira maluso ghanandi agho ghakafuma ku Chikhristu m'paka sono.{{sfn|Werner|2013|pp=177–184}} Mwaluŵiro Ŵafunj ŵakanjira mu nkhondo na Ŵaotomu, awo ŵakakora Suakin mu 1526 ndipo pamasinda ŵakaluta kumwera mumphepete mwa Mlonga wa Nayelo, m'paka ŵakafika ku chigaŵa chachitatu mu 1583/1584. Ŵasilikari ŵa Ottoman ŵakayezga kupoka Dongola mu 1585. Pamanyuma pake, Hannik, uyo wakaŵa kumwera kwa nthenda ya katara, ndiyo wakaŵa mphaka pakati pa vyaru viŵiri ivi. Pamanyuma pa kuwukira kwa Ŵaotomu, ŵakayezga kupoka ufumu wa Ajib, themba lichoko la kumpoto kwa Nubia. Nangauli Funj ŵakamukoma mu 1611/1612, kweni Abdallab, awo ŵakamulondezganga, ŵakapika mazaza ghakulongozga vinthu vyose kumpoto kwa uko maji gha Blue na White Nile ghakukumana. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1700, ufumu wa Funj ukafika paheni chomene, kweni mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800, ukamba kuchepa. Kuwukira boma mu 1718 kukapangiska kuti muwuso wa mafuko usinthe, ndipo mu 1761 panji 1762, boma la Hamaj likamba kulamulira. Pakati pajumpha nyengo yichoko waka, ufumu uwu ukamba kupasuka; ndipo kukwambilira kwa vyaka vya m'ma 1800, ukaŵa waka mu chigaŵa cha Gezira.{{sfn|Spaulding|1985|p=382}}[[File:Southern Sudan - 1800.png|thumb|Kumwera kwa Sudan mu c. 1800. Vikuwoneka kuti mazuŵa ghano pali mphaka.]] Kuwukira boma kwa mu 1718 kukapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵambe kulondezga chisopa cha Cisilamu, ndipo ichi chikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵa mu charu ichi ŵambe kuŵa Ŵarabu. Kuti ŵaŵe na mazaza pa ŵanthu ŵa ku Arabia, Funj ŵakamba kusambizga ŵanthu ŵa ku Umayyad. Kumpoto kwa uko maji gha Blue na White Nile ghakusanganirana, kufupi na Al Dabbah, ŵanthu ŵa ku Nubia ŵakasankha mtundu wa Aarabu ŵa ku Jaalin. M'paka m'ma 1800, Chiarabu ndicho chikaŵa chiyowoyero chikuru chomene mu chigaŵa chapakati pa milonga ya Sudan na mu chigaŵa chikuru cha Kordofan. Kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Mlonga wa Nayelo, ku Darfur, nyengo ya Chisilamu yikati yakwana, ufumu wa Tunjur ukawuka, uwo ukasintha ufumu wakale wa Daju mu vyaka vya m'ma 1500. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Tunjur ŵakwenera kuti ŵakaŵa Ŵaarabu ŵa mtundu wa Berber ndipo awo ŵakalongozganga ŵakaŵa Ŵasilamu. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1700, ufumu wa Fur Keira ukachimbizga ŵanthu ŵa ku Tunjur. Boma la Keira, ilo likaŵa la Chisilamu kufuma mu nyengo ya Solomoni Solong (uyo wakawusa mu 1660 m'paka mu 1680), likaŵa ufumu uchoko kumpoto kwa Jebel Marra, kweni likakura kumanjiliro gha dazi na kumpoto mu vyaka vya m'ma 1700 na kumafumiro gha dazi mu nyengo ya muwuso wa Muhammad Tayrab (uyo wakawusa mu 1751 m'paka mu 1786). Ufumu uwu ukaŵa ukuru chomene, ndipo ukaŵa ukuru wakuyana na wa Nigeria wa mazuŵa ghano.{{sfn|O'Fahey|Tubiana|2007|p=9}} === Turkiyah na Mahdist Sudan (1821-1899) === {{Main|Mbili ya Sudan (1821-1885)|Mahdist Sudan|Kuwukira kwa Anglo-Egypt kwa Sudan}} [[File:Ismail Pacha.JPG|thumb|upright=0.8|Ismail Pasha, Khedive wa Ottoman wa Egypt na Sudan kufuma 1863 mpaka 1879]] [[File:Muhammad Ahmad al-Mahdi.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|Muhammad Ahmad, muwusi wa Sudan (1881-1885)]] Mu 1821, muwusi wa ku Eguputo, Muhammad Ali, wakawukira na kuwukira kumpoto kwa Sudan. Nangauli Muhammad Ali wakaŵa fumu ya Eguputo mu nyengo ya Ufumu wa Ottoman, kweni wakajiwonanga kuti ni khedive wa Eguputo. Pakukhumba kuti Sudan nayo waŵe chigaŵa chake, wakatuma mwana wake wacitatu Ismail (uyo wakwenera kutimbanizgika yayi na Isma'il Pasha uyo wazunulika kunthazi) kuti wakawuske caru ici, ndipo pamanyuma pake wakaciŵika mu Eguputo. Padera pa Shaiqiya na Darfur sultanate mu Kordofan, ŵakamususka yayi. Mwana wa Ibrahim Pasha, Ismaʻil, ndiyo wakalutilira kuthereska Eguputo. Mu nyengo ya muwuso wake, charu cha Sudan chikathereskeka. Ŵalaraŵalara ŵa boma la Egypt ŵakanozga vinthu vinandi mu caru ca Sudan, comenecomene kumpoto kwa caru ici, comenecomene pa nkhani ya ulimi wa milonga na ulimi wa katoni. Mu 1879, maufumu ghakuru ghakachimbizga Ismail na kwimika mwana wake Tewfik Pasha. Uheni wa Tewfik ukapangiska kuti 'Urabi wagomezge kuti Khedive wafwa. Tewfik wakapempha ŵasilikari ŵa Britain kuti ŵamovwire. Charu cha Sudan chikakhala mu mawoko gha boma la Khedivial, na maboma agho ghakacitanga vinthu mwambura kwenelera ndiposo uheni. Mu nyengo ya Khedivial, ŵanthu ŵakamba kususkika chifukwa cha msonkho ukuru uwo ŵakakhomanga pa milimo yinandi. Malipiro gha msonkho pa visimi vya maji na vyakurya ghakaŵa ghanandi comene mwakuti ŵalimi ŵanandi ŵakaleka minda yawo na viŵeto. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1870, ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe awo ŵakasuskanga malonda gha ŵazga ŵakakhwaska chomene chuma cha kumpoto kwa Sudan. Muhammad ibn Abd Allah, Mahdi (Uyo Wakulongozgeka), wakapeleka mwaŵi ku Ansars (ŵalondezgi ŵake) na awo ŵakamupulikira kuti ŵasankhepo yumoza pakati pa kupokelera cisopa ca Ciisilamu panji kukomeka. Ufumu wa Mahdiyah ukakhazikiska malango gha Chisilamu. Pa Ogasiti 12, 1881, pakacitika cinthu cinyake pa cirwa ca Aba, ico cikapangiska kuti paŵe Nkhondo ya Mahdist. Kufuma apo wakapharazgira vya Mahdiyya mu Juni 1881 m'paka apo msumba wa Khartoum ukaparanyikira mu Janyuwale 1885, Muhammad Ahmad wakalongozga nkhondo yakuluska ya nkhondo yakwimikana na boma la Turk-Egypt ku Sudan, ilo likamanyikwanga kuti Turkiyah. Muhammad Ahmad wakafwa pa Juni 22, 1885, myezi 6 pera kufuma apo ŵakathereskera Khartoum. Pamanyuma pa kulimbana na ŵasilikari ŵake, Abdallahi ibn Muhammad, na wovwiri wa Baggara ŵa kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Sudan, wakathereska ŵakususka ŵanyake na kuŵa mulongozgi wa Mahdiyah. Wakati wakhozga mazaza ghake, Abdallahi ibn Muhammad wakatora udindo wa Khalifa (wakulondezgapo) wa Mahdi, wakambiska boma, ndipo wakasora Ansar (ŵeneawo kanandi ŵakaŵa Baggara) kuŵa ma emirs pa chigaŵa chilichose.[[File:Battle of Omdurman-1.JPG|thumb|upright=1.2|Kuthawa kwa Khalifa wati wathereskeka ku Nkhondo ya Omdurman mu 1898]] Mu nyengo ya Mahdiyah, vinthu vikaŵa makora yayi mu chigaŵa ichi, chifukwa cha nkhaza izo Khalifa wakachitanga kuti wawuse charu chose. Mu 1887, ŵasilikari ŵa Ansar ŵakukwana 60,000 ŵakanjira mu Etiyopiya, ndipo ŵakafika m'paka ku Gondar. Mu Malichi 1889, fumu Yohannes IV ya ku Etiyopiya yikaluta ku Metemma. Kweni Yohannes wakati wafwa pa nkhondo, ŵasilikari ŵa ku Etiyopiya ŵakawerako. Abd ar-Rahman an-Nujumi, mulara wa ŵasilikari ŵa Khalifa, wakayezga kuti wawukire Eguputo mu 1889, kweni ŵasilikari ŵa ku Eguputo awo ŵakalongozgekanga na Britain ŵakathereska ŵasilikari ŵa Ansar ku Tushkah. Cifukwa ca kutondeka kwa nkhondo ya Ŵaegupto, ŵasilikari ŵa Ansar ŵakathera. Ŵa Belgian ŵakalekeska ŵanthu ŵa Mahdi kuwukira Equatoria, ndipo mu 1893, ŵa Italiya ŵakathereska ŵalwani ŵa Ansar ku Agordat (mu Eritrea) na kuŵachichizga kuti ŵafumemo mu Ethiopia. Mu ma 1890, ŵa ku Britain ŵakayezga kuwezgerapo mazaza ghawo pa Sudan, mwantheura ŵakambaso kulamulira mu zina la Khedive wa ku Egypt, kweni mu unenesko ŵakacitanga vinthu nga ni caru ca Britain. Kuuyambiro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1890, ŵanthu ŵa ku Britain, France, na Belgium ŵakamba kudokera maji gha Nile. Britain wakafipanga mtima kuti maboma ghanyake ghacitenge vinthu mwambura kwenelera mu Sudan na kupoka malo agho ghakaŵa pasi pa Eguputo. Padera pa fundo za ndyali izi, Britain wakakhumbanga kuti wakhozge Nile kuti waleke kunanga chiziŵa cha Aswan. Herbert Kitchener wakalongozga nkhondo yakwimikana na Mahdist Sudan kufuma mu 1896 mpaka 1898. Nkhondo ya Kitchener yikamalira pa Nkhondo ya Omdurman pa Seputembala 2, 1898. Chaka chimoza pamanyuma, Nkhondo ya Umm Diwaykarat pa 25 November 1899 yikapangiska kuti Abdallahi ibn Muhammad wafwe, ndipo nkhondo ya Mahdist yikamara. ===Anglo-Egyptian Sudan (1899–1956)=== {{Main|Anglo-Egyptian Sudan}} [[File:The war in the Soudan.jpg|thumb|Nkhondo ya Mahdist yikacitika pakati pa gulu la Ŵasilamu ŵakucemeka Mahdists, awo ŵakathereska caru cose ca Sudan, na ŵasilikari ŵa Britain.]] Mu 1899, Britain na Egypt ŵakakolerana kuti Sudan walongozgekenge na kazembe uyo wakimikika na Eguputo. Nakuti caru ca Sudan cikaŵa pasi pa muwuso wa boma. Ŵanalume ŵa ku Britain ŵakaŵa ŵakukhumbisiska kuti ŵamazge ndondomeko iyo yikamba mu muwuso wa Muhammad Ali Pasha ya kuwunganya Nile Valley pasi pa ŵalongozgi ŵa ku Eguputo. [Pakukhumbika ukaboni apa] Pa nyengo iyi, ŵanthu ŵa mu vigaŵa vya ku Sudan ŵakasuzgikanga kuti ŵamanye mphaka ya charu ichi na Abisini. Mu 1905, mulongozgi wa chigaŵa ichi, Sultan Yambio, wakaleka kurwa nkhondo na ŵasilikari ŵa Britain awo ŵakakhalira mu chigaŵa cha Kordofan. Boma la Britain likalutilira kulamulira mu Sudan, ndipo ŵanthu ŵakamba kulimbana na boma la Egypt. Mu 1914, boma la Ottoman likati lamara, Sir Reginald Wingate wakatumika ku Sudan mu Disembala. Hussein Kamel wakapharazgika kuŵa Sultan wa ku Egypt na Sudan, nga umo vikaŵira na mubali wake Fuad I. Ŵakalutilira kukhumba boma limoza la ku Egypt na Sudan nanga ni apo ufumu wa Egypt ukasinthika zina kuŵa Ufumu wa Egypt na Sudan, kweni Saad Zaghloul ndiyo wakalutilira kukhuŵara na ivyo ŵakakhumbanga mpaka apo wakafwira mu 1927.{{sfn|Daly|p=346}}[[File:Anglo-Egyptian Sudan camel soldier of the British army.jpg|thumb|right|Msilikari wa ngamila wa ŵasilikari ŵa ku Britain, kukwambilira kwa m'ma 1900]] From 1924 until independence in 1956, the British had a policy of running Sudan as two essentially separate tMalo gha kumpoto na kumwera. Kukomeka kwa kazembe wa Anglo-Egyptian Sudan ku Cairo ndiko kukacitiska kuti boma la Wafd ilo likasoleka liŵe na ŵasilikari. Gulu la ŵasilikari ŵaŵiri mu msumba wa Khartoum likasinthika zina kuŵa Sudan Defence Force (SDF) ilo likateŵeteranga pasi pa boma la Sudan. Ŵa Wafist ŵakakana fundo yakuti Sarwat Pasha wakhalenge na Austen Chamberlain ku London. Kweni Cairo wakakhumbikwiranga ndalama. Ndalama za boma la Sudan zikafika pachanya mu 1928 pa £6.6 million, pamanyuma pa kusinthasintha kwa Wafdist, na kupoka kwa mphaka za Italy kufuma ku Somaliland, London wakadumura kuchepeska ndalama mu nyengo ya suzgo yikuru. Vinthu vinandi ivyo ŵakaguliskanga ku Britain vikapangiska kuti ku Khartoum kuŵe suzgo la ndalama. Mu Julayi 1936, mulongozgi wa Liberal Constitutional, Muhammed Mahmoud wakanyengelereka kuti wize na nthumwi za Wafd ku London kuti zizakasayine phangano la Anglo-Egypt, "kwamba kwa nyengo yiphya mu ubwezi wa Anglo-Egypt", wakalemba Anthony Eden. Ŵasilikari ŵa Britain ŵakazomerezgeka kuwelera ku Sudan kuti ŵavikilire cigaŵa ca Canal. Ŵakasanga malo ghakusambizgirako ndipo ŵasilikari ŵa nkhondo ŵakendanga mwakufwatuka mu Eguputo. Ndipouli, likamazga yayi suzgo la ku Sudan: ŵanthu ŵa ku Sudan ŵakamba kucitiska kuti boma la msumba uwu liwelere, ndipo ŵakakolerana na ŵantchito ŵa ku Germany. Mussolini wakalongosora makora kuti wangakananga yayi kuwukira Abyssinia kwambura kuwukira Eguputo na Sudan. Ŵasilikari ŵa boma la Britain ŵakanozgekera kuti ŵavikilire cigaŵa ici, ico cikaŵa cakusuzga comene. Mthenga wa ku Britain wakajandizga Italy kuti waleke kukolerana na Egypt na Sudan. Kweni Mahmoud wakaŵa movwiri wa Mufti Mukuru wa ku Yerusalemu.{{sfn|Morewood|pp=164–165}} Boma la Sudan likacitako nkhondo ya ku East Africa. Gulu la Sudan Defence Force likakhazikiskika mu 1925. Mu 1940, ŵasilikari ŵa Italy ŵakakora Kassala na vigaŵa vinyake vya kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Somaliland. Mu 1942, SDF yikawovwiraso pa nkhondo ya ku Italy iyo yikacitika na ŵasilikari ŵa Britain na ŵa Commonwealth. Kazembe waumaliro wa Britain wakaŵa Robert George Howe. Nkhondo ya ku Eguputo iyo yikacitika mu 1952, yikalongora kuti caru ca Sudan capokera wanangwa. Pakumazga muwuso wa ufumu mu 1953, ŵalongozgi ŵaphya ŵa ku Eguputo, Mohammed Naguib, uyo nyina wakaŵa wa ku Sudan, na Gamal Abdel Nasser, ŵakagomezganga kuti nthowa yimoza pera ya kumazgira muwuso wa Britain mu Sudan yikaŵa yakuti Eguputo waleke kujilambika. Kweniso Nasser wakamanyanga kuti cikaŵa cakusuzga kuti Eguputo wambe kuwusa caru cikavu ca Sudan para capokera wanangwa. Kweni ŵa ku Britain ŵakalutilira kovwira mu ndyali na vya ndyali muhaliri wa Mahdist, Abd al-Rahman al-Mahdi, uyo ŵakagomezganga kuti walekelerenge kuyuzgika na Ŵaeguputo kuti charu cha Sudan chiŵe na wanangwa wa kusankha. Rahman wakaŵa wakwenelera kucita nthena, kweni boma lake likaŵa lambura mahara pa nkhani za ndyali. Ŵaegupto na Britain wose ŵakamanya kuti vinthu vikwenda makora yayi, ntheura ŵakasankha kuzomerezga vigaŵa vyose vya Sudan, kumpoto na kumwera kuti viŵe na wanangwa wa kuvota usange vikukhumba kujiyimira paŵekha panji kufumamo kwa Britain.. === Kujiyimira (1956~pano) === {{Main|Republic of the Sudan (1956–1969)|Democratic Republic of the Sudan}} [[File:Sudan independence 2.png|upright=1.05|thumb|Ndembera ya Sudan yikakwezgeka pa ciphikiro ca kujithemba pa 1 Janyuwale 1956 na nduna yikuru Ismail al-Azhari ndipo pakunozgekera mulongozgi wakususka Mohamed Ahmed Almahjoub.]] Kuvota kukacitika ndipo pakapangika nyumba ya malango ya demokilase ndipo Ismail al-Azhari wakasankhika kuŵa nduna yikuru yakwamba na kulongozga boma lakwamba la ku Sudan. Pa Janyuwale 1, 1956, pa ciphikiro capadera ico cikacitikira mu Nyumba ya Ufumu, ndembera za Eguputo na Britain zikakhira ndipo ndembera yiphya ya Sudan, yakuŵa na viyuni, vyamabuluu na vyafipa, yikakwezgeka na nduna yikuru Ismail al-Azhari. Ŵanthu ŵakakondwa yayi na ivyo vikachitika ndipo pa Meyi 25, 1969, boma likapoka boma laciŵiri. Mulongozgi wa boma, Col. Gaafar Nimeiry, wakazgoka nduna yikuru, ndipo boma liphya likamazga Nyumba ya Malamulo na kukanizga vipani vyose vya ndyali. Mphindano pakati pa ŵanthu ŵa Marxist na ŵambura Marxist mukati mwa ŵasilikari awo ŵakaŵa ku muwuso wa ŵasilikari, zikapangiska kuti boma lipoke boma mu July 1971. Pakati pajumpha mazuŵa ghacoko waka, ŵasilikari awo ŵakasuskanga boma la Communist ŵakawezgerapo Nimeiry ku mazaza. Mu 1972, phangano la Addis Ababa likawovwira kuti nkhondo ya kumpoto na kumwera yimare. Ivi vikapangiska kuti nkhondo ya pawenenawene yimare kwa vyaka 10, kweni ŵasilikari ŵa ku America ŵakaleka kugwiliskira ntchito ndalama pa mulimo wa kuzenga Jonglei Canal. Ivi vikaŵa vyakukhumbikwa chomene kuti maji gha mu chigaŵa cha Upper Nile ghaleke kunjira mu maji, kweniso kuti paleke kuŵa suzgo la vinthu vyakuthupi kweniso kuti paleke kuŵa njara yikuru pakati pa mafuko gha ku malo agha, chomenechomene Dinka. Mu nyengo ya nkhondo ya pawenenawene iyo yikati yacitika, caru cawo cikapokeka, kupokeka, na kotcheka. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa fuko ili ŵakakomeka pa nkhondo ya pa cikaya iyo yikatora vilimika vyakujumpha 20.[[File:Hashem al Atta, 1971 Sudanese coup d'état.jpg|thumb|[[1971 Sudanese coup d'état]]]] M'paka m'ma 1970, vyakurya vinandi vya ku Sudan vikagwiliskirika ntchito mu charu. Mu 1972, boma la Sudan likamba kutemwera vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi, ndipo likakhumbanga kuti vyakurya na vyakurya vinyake vifumiskike mu vyaru vinyake. Kweni mu ma 1970, mitengo ya vinthu yikakhira, ndipo vinthu vikamba kunangika mu Sudan. Pa nyengo yeneyiyo pera, ndalama izo ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito pakunozga vyakurya zikakwera. Mu 1978, IMF yikadumbiskana na boma za ndondomeko ya kusintha vinthu. Ici cikakhozga comene vyakurya ivyo vikupelekeka ku vyaru vinyake. Ici cikapangiska kuti ŵaliska ŵa viŵeto ŵa ku Sudan ŵasuzgikenge comene (wonani ŵanthu ŵa ku Nuba). Mu 1976, gulu la Ansars likayezga kutimbanizga boma, kweni likatondeka. Kweni mu Julayi 1977, Pulezidenti Nimeiry wakakumana na mulongozgi wa Ansar, Sadiq al-Mahdi, ndipo ivi vikajura nthowa yakuti paŵe mtende. Ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakakakika cifukwa ca ndyali ŵakafwatulika, ndipo mu Ogasiti, ŵanthu wose ŵakususkana na boma ŵakafwatulika. ====Bashir era (1989–2019)==== [[File:Omar al-Bashir (2017-11-23) (cropped).jpg|thumb|right|Omar al-Bashir in 2017]] {{further|Republic of the Sudan (1985–2019)}} Pa Juni 30, 1989, Colonel Omar al-Bashir wakalongozga boma la nkhondo kwambura kuthiska ndopa. Boma liphya la ŵasilikari likakanizga vyaru vinyake vya ndyali ndipo likambiska dango la chisopa cha Cisilamu. Nyengo yikati yajumphapo, al-Bashir wakayezga kukanizga magulu gha ŵasilikari, vyaru vya ndyali, na manyuzipepara ghakujiyimira pawekha, kweniso wakakaka ŵanthu ŵakumanyikwa ŵa ndyali na ŵamutolamakani. Pa Okutobala 16, 1993, al-Bashir wakajiŵika kuŵa "Mukuru wa Boma" ndipo wakasesa wupu wa Revolutionary Command Council. Al-Bashir ndiyo wakaŵa na mazaza gha kuwusa na kusora malango. Mu 1996, iyo wakaŵa yekha uyo wakaŵa wakwenelera kusankhapo. Charu cha Sudan chikaŵa na chipani chimoza icho chikaŵa pasi pa National Congress Party (NCP). Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1990, Hassan al-Turabi, uyo pa nyengo iyo wakaŵa mulaŵiliri wa Nyumba ya Malango, wakawungana na magulu gha chisopa cha Cisilamu ndipo wakachema Osama bin Laden kuti wize mu caru ici. Pamanyuma pake, boma la United States likalemba kuti Sudan ni boma ilo likuwovwira vigeŵenga. Pamanyuma pakuti ŵasilikari ŵa Al-Qaeda ŵaponya mabomba pa ofesi ya ufumiskiri wa ku United States ku Kenya na Tanzania, ŵasilikari ŵa United States ŵakamba ntchito ya Operation Infinite Reach ndipo ŵakakoma fakitare ya Al-Shifa, iyo boma la United States likagomezganga kuti yikupanga vilwero vya vyamizimu. Nkhongono ya Al-Turabi yikamba kuchepa, ndipo ŵanji awo ŵakakhumbanga kuti vinthu viŵe makora ŵakayezga kusintha umo charu cha Sudan chikaŵira. Charu ichi chikagwiranga nchito kuti cikhozge ŵakususka ŵake mwa kufumiska ŵanthu ŵa ku Egypt ŵa Islamic Jihad na kukhuŵilizga bin Laden kuti wafumeko.<ref>{{cite book|last=Wright|first=Lawrence|title=The Looming Tower|url=https://archive.org/details/loomingtoweralqa00wrig|url-access=registration|date=2006|publisher=Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-307-26608-8|pages=[https://archive.org/details/loomingtoweralqa00wrig/page/221 221]–223}}</ref>[[File:Government Militia in Darfur.PNG|thumb|Gulu la boma ku Darfur]] Pambere chisankho cha 2000 chindachitike, al-Turabi wakapeleka dango lakukanizga mazaza gha pulezidenti, ndipo al-Bashir wakalangura kuti boma lileke kugwira ntchito. Apo al-Turabi wakaciskanga ŵanthu kuti ŵaleke kucita nawo phangano na gulu la Sudan People's Liberation Army, al-Bashir wakaghanaghananga kuti ŵakukhumba kuwuskapo boma. Hassan al-Turabi ŵakamujalira mu jele mu chaka chenechicho. Mu Febuluwale 2003, gulu la Sudan Liberation Movement/Army (SLM/A) na Justice and Equality Movement (JEM) mu Darfur ŵakanyamura vilwero, ŵakasuska boma la Sudan kuti likusuzga ŵanthu ŵa ku Sudan awo ŵakaŵa Ŵarabu yayi. Kufuma waka pa nyengo iyi, nkhondo iyi yikucemeka kuti ni kukoma ŵanthu, ndipo Khoti la ku Hague (ICC) lili kupeleka malango ghaŵiri kuti al-Bashir wakomeke. Gulu la ŵanthu ŵakuchemeka Janjaweed, ilo likuyowoya Ciarabu, likuyuyulika cifukwa ca vinthu viheni ivyo likucita. Pa 9 Janyuwale 2005, boma likasaina phangano la Nairobi Comprehensive Peace Agreement na Sudan People's Liberation Movement (SPLM) na chilato cha kumazga Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya ku Sudan. Wupu wa United Nations Mission in Sudan (UNMIS) ukakhazikiskika na UN Security Council Resolution 1590 kuti uwovwire pakugwiliskira nchito ndondomeko iyi. Phangano la mtende likaŵa chakukhumbikwa kuti paŵe referendum ya mu 2011: chilato chake chikaŵa chakuti South Sudan yipatulike.[[File:Southern Sudan Referendum1.jpg|thumb|Ŵanthu ŵa ku South Sudan ŵakulindilira kuvota pa 2011 South Sudanese independence referendum.]] Gulu la Sudan People's Liberation Army (SPLA) ndilo likaŵa na mazaza pa Eastern Front. Pambuyo pa mgwirizano wamtendere, malo awo adatengedwa mu February 2004 pambuyo pa kuphatikiza kwa Fulani wamkulu ndi Beja Congress ndi Rashaida Free Lions yaying'ono. Pa Okutobala 14, 2006, boma la Sudan likasaina phangano la mtende na gulu la Eastern Front ku Asmara. Pa Meyi 5, 2006, pakalembeka phangano la mtende la ku Darfur, ilo likakhumbanga kumazga nkhondo iyo yikatora vyaka vitatu. Nkhondo ya Chad na Sudan (2005-2007) yikamba pamanyuma pakuti nkhondo ya Adré yikapangiska kuti Chad yipharazge nkhondo. Ŵalongozgi ŵa ku Sudan na Chad ŵakalembeska phangano ku Saudi Arabia pa 3 May 2007 kuti ŵaleke kurwa nkhondo ya ku Darfur iyo yikaŵa pa mphaka ya makilomita 1,000. Mu Julayi 2007, mu caru ici mukaŵa maji ghanandi agho ghakatimba ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 400,000. Kwambira mu 2009, nkhondo izo zikuchitika pakati pa mafuko gha visopa ku Sudan na South Sudan zakoma ŵanthu ŵanandi. ==== Kugaŵa na kuwezgerapo ==== Nkhondo ya ku Sudan ku South Kordofan na Blue Nile mu ma 2010s pakati pa Army of Sudan na Sudan Revolutionary Front yikamba nga nkhukwesana pa chigaŵa cha Abyei icho chili na mafuta ghanandi mu myezi yakulondezgapo pambere South Sudan yindaŵe na wanangwa mu 2011, nangauli yikukolerana na nkhondo ya ku Darfur iyo yili kumalizgika. Ivyo vikacitika pamanyuma pake vikacemeka kuti Sudanese Intifada, ndipo vikamara mu 2013 apo al-Bashir wakalayizga kuti wazamusankhikaso yayi mu 2015. Pamanyuma wakaleka kufiska ivyo wakalayizga ndipo wakakhumba kuwuskika mu 2015, ndipo wakawina cifukwa cakuti ŵakususka ŵakazomerezga yayi kuti mavoti ghaŵenge ghakufwatuka yayi. Kuvota kukaŵa kwacoko comene, 46%. Pa January 13, 2017, pulezidenti wa ku United States, Barack Obama, wakalembapo dango ilo likawuskapo vyeruzgo vinandi ivyo boma la Sudan likakanizga. Pa 6 Okutobala 2017, purezidenti wa US Donald Trump wakamazga vyeruzgo vinandi ivyo vikaŵapo pa charu ichi na mafuta, katundu wakunjira na kunjilira mu vyaru vinyake.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Wadhams|first1=Nick|last2=Gebre|first2=Samuel|title=Trump Moves to Lift Most Sudan Sanctions|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2017-10-06/u-s-lifting-most-sudan-sanctions-on-progress-in-terrorism-fight|access-date=6 October 2017|work=Bloomberg Politics|date=6 October 2017}}</ref> ====2019 Sudanese Revolution and transitional government==== {{main|Sudanese Revolution|2019–2026 Sudanese transition to democracy}} {{see also|Sovereignty Council of Sudan}} [[File:Sudanese protestors celebrate signing of political agreement.png|thumb|Awo ŵakwimira boma la Sudan ŵakukondwelera kusazgikira kwa ndondomeko ya malango gha chalo pa 17 August 2019.]] Pa Disembala 19, 2018, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakamba kususka ivyo boma likadumura vyakuti mitengo ya vinthu yikwane katatu. Kweniso, Pulezidenti al-Bashir, uyo wakaŵa pa mazaza kwa vilimika vyakujumpha 30, wakakana kufumapo, ndipo ivi vikapangiska kuti magulu gha ŵakususka ghaŵe pamoza. Boma likawezgera na kukora ŵanthu ŵakuwukira boma ŵakujumpha 800 na awo ŵakasuskanga, ndipo ŵanthu pafupifupi 40 ŵakafwa, kuyana na wupu wa Human Rights Watch. Chiwonetserochi chinapitilizidwa pambuyo pa kugonjetsedwa kwa boma lake pa 11 Epulo 2019 pambuyo pa chiwonetsero chachikulu kutsogolo kwa likulu la Sudanese Armed Forces, pambuyo pake atsogoleri a nduna adaganiza kulowererapo ndipo adalamula kumangidwa kwa Purezidenti al-Bashir ndikulengeza miyezi itatu yachilendo.<ref name="Sudan military coup topples Bashir">{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-47891470|title=Sudan military coup topples Bashir|date=11 April 2019|access-date=11 April 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/01/sudan-crowds-rally-bashir-police-tear-gas-rival-protest-190109115845545.html |title=Sudan's Omar al-Bashir vows to stay in power as protests rage &#124; News |publisher=Al Jazeera |date=9 January 2019 |access-date=24 April 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=Arwa Ibrahim|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/01/future-unclear-sudan-protesters-president-loggerheads-190108135021310.html |title=Future unclear as Sudan protesters and president at loggerheads &#124; News |publisher=Al Jazeera |date=8 January 2019 |access-date=24 April 2019}}</ref> Ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 100 ŵakafwa pa Juni 3 pamanyuma pakuti ŵasilikari ŵabwangandura ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga pasi na kugwiliskira nchito mafuta gha masozi na vilwero vyeneco. Ŵawukirano ŵa ku Sudan ndiwo ŵakapelekanga ulongozgi pa viyezgo ivi. Ungano uwu ukamara apo gulu la Forces for Freedom and Change (bungwe la magulu agho ghakachitiska ungweru uwu) na Transitional Military Council (boma la ŵasilikari) ŵakasaina chiphangano cha Julayi 2019.<ref name="raisethevoices_4Aug2019_const_dec" /><ref name="Const_Dec_En_unofficial" /> Vinthu ivi vikapangiska kuti paŵe wupu wa ŵasilikari na ŵanthu wose wa ku Sudan, kweniso kuti paŵe mulara wa boma, kweniso kuti paŵe mulara wa boma, Nemat Abdullah Khair. Mulara wa boma wakale, Abdalla Hamdok, wa vyaka 61, uyo wakagwiranga nchito ku wupu wa UN Economic Commission for Africa, wakapika nchito pa Ogasiti 21. Wakamba kudumbiskana na wupu wa IMF na World Bank kuti ŵamazge suzgo la vyakurya, mafuta na ndalama. Hamdok wakati ndalama zakukwana madola 10 biliyoni mu vyaka viŵiri zingamazga wofi. Maboma gha Saudi Arabia na United Arab Emirates ghakaŵika ndalama zinandi pakovwira wupu wa ŵasilikari kufuma apo Bashir wakathereskekera. Pa 3 Seputembala, Hamdok wakasora ŵanalume 14 kuŵa nduna za boma, kusazgapo mwanakazi wakwamba kuŵa nduna ya vyaru vinyake na Mkhristu wakwamba wa ku Coptic, uyo nayo wakaŵa mwanakazi. Mu Ogasiti 2021, chalo chikalongozgekanga na Chairman wa Transitional Sovereign Council, Abdel Fattah al-Burhan, na Prime Minister Abdallah Hamdok.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://english.aawsat.com/home/article/3136536/sudan-threatens-use-military-option-regain-control-over-border-ethiopia |title=Sudan Threatens to Use Military Option to Regain Control over Border with Ethiopia |work=Asharq Al-Awsat |date=17 August 2021 |access-date=23 August 2021 }}</ref> ====2021 coup and the al-Burhan regime ==== {{main|October–November 2021 Sudanese coup d'état}} Boma la Sudan likapharazga pa 21 Seputembala 2021 kuti pakaŵa chiyezgo chakutondeka cha boma kufuma ku ŵasilikari icho chikapangiska kuti ŵapolisi 40 ŵakakike. Pakati pajumpha mwezi umoza kufuma apo boma likayezga kutimbanizga boma, ŵasilikari ŵakambaso kuwukira boma pa Okutobala 25, 2021. Nkhondo iyi yikalongozgeka na Jenerale Abdel Fattah al-Burhan uyo pamasinda wakapharazga kuti kuli suzgo. Pa Novembala 21, 2021, Hamdok wakambaso kuŵa nduna yikuru pamanyuma pakuti Abdel Fattah al-Burhan wasayina phangano la ndyali kuti wawezgepo muwuso wa ŵanthu (nangauli Burhan wakalutilira kuwusa). Phangano la vigaŵa 14 likati ŵakayidi wose ŵa ndyali awo ŵakakakika pa nyengo ya vimbundi ŵafwatulike. Hamdok wakachimbizga mulara wa ŵapolisi Khaled Mahdi Ibrahim al-Emam na wachiŵiri wake Ali Ibrahim. Pa Janyuwale 2, 2022, Hamdok wakapharazga kuti wafumengepo pa udindo wake wa nduna yikuru pamanyuma pa umoza wa viphikiro ivyo vyapangiska ŵanthu ŵanandi kufwa. Kufika mu Malichi 2022 ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 1,000 kusazgapo ŵana 148 ŵakaŵa kuti ŵakakika cifukwa ca kukana boma la boma, ndipo pakaŵa milandu 25 yakucicizga ndipo ŵanthu 87 ŵakakomeka kusazgapo ŵana 11.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |last=Bachelet |first=Michelle |date=7 March 2022 |title=Oral update on the situation of human rights in the Sudan – Statement by United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights |url=https://reliefweb.int/report/sudan/oral-update-situation-human-rights-sudan |access-date=22 March 2022 |website=ReliefWeb/ 49th Session of the UN Human Rights Council |language=en}}</ref> ====2023 internal conflict==== {{main|2023 Sudan conflict}} Mu Epulero chaka cha 2023, apo ŵanthu ŵa vyaru vyakupambanapambana ŵakadumbiskananga za ndondomeko ya kusinthira boma ku boma la ŵanthu ŵambura mulandu, nkhondo ya mazaza yikakura pakati pa mulongozgi wa ŵasilikari (na mulongozgi wa charu) Abdel Fattah al-Burhan, na movwiri wake, Mohamed Hamdan Daglo, mulongozgi wa gulu la ŵasilikari la Rapid Support Forces & Rapid Strike Force ("RSF"), ilo likapangika kufuma ku Janjaweed. Pa 15 Epulero, 2023, nkhondo yawo yikazgoka nkhondo zaciwawa comene mu misewu ya mu Khartoum pakati pa ŵasilikari na RSF na ŵasilikari, matangi na ndege. Kuyana na wupu wa United Nations, pa zuŵa lacitatu, ŵanthu 400 ŵakafwa ndipo 3,500 ŵakapwetekeka. Pa ŵanthu awo ŵakafwa, pakaŵa ŵantchito ŵatatu ŵa WFP, ndipo ici cikapangiska kuti wupu uwu uleke kugwira nchito mu Sudan, nangauli mu caru cose muli njara. Mulembi-mulongozgi wa UN, António Guterres, wakapempha "urunji" mwaluŵiro cifukwa ca kukoma ŵanthu aŵa, ndipo wakapempha kuti nkhondo yimare. Ŵadipuloma ŵa African Union na Saudi Arabia ŵaluta ku Sudan kuti ŵakayezge kuwezgerapo mtende. Ŵakaŵaphalira kuti ŵaleke kuwombera ŵanthu awo ŵapwetekeka, kweni nkhondo yikalutilira.<ref name="fighting_2023_04_16_france27_com">[https://www.france24.com/en/africa/20230416-death-toll-mounts-in-sudan-as-army-paramilitary-fight-for-power "Fighting continues in Sudan despite humanitarian pause,"] 16 April 2023, [[France24]], retrieved 16 April 2023</ref><ref name="clashes_2023_04_16_abc_news">[https://abcnews.go.com/International/clashes-erupt-sudan-army-paramilitary-group-government-transition/story?id=98607846 "Clashes erupt in Sudan between army, paramilitary group over government transition,"] 16 April 2023, [[ABC News]], retrieved 16 April 2023</ref> ==Makhalilo gha charu== {{Main|Geography of Sudan}} [[File:Map of Sudan (New).jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|Mapu gha Sudan. Chigaŵa cha Hala'ib Triangle chili pasi pa boma la Egypt kwambira mu 2000.]] [[File:Koppen-Geiger Map SDN present.svg|thumb|Mapu gha charu cha Sudan]] Charu cha Sudan chili kumpoto kwa Africa, ndipo chili na mtunda wa makilomita 853 kufupi na Nyanja Yiswesi. Charu ichi chili na mphaka na vyaru nga ni Egypt, Eritrea, Ethiopia, South Sudan, Central African Republic, Chad, na Libya. Na malo ghakukwana 1,886,068 km2 (728,215 sq mi), ni chalo chachitatu pakukura mu Africa (panyuma pa Algeria na Democratic Republic of Congo) na cha 15 pa vyaru vyose. Charu cha Sudan chili pakati pa 8° na 23°N. Malo agha ngakutowa chomene ndipo ghali na mapiri ghanandi. Kumanjiliro gha dazi, Deriba Caldera (3,042 m), iyo yili mu mapiri gha Marrah, ndiyo ni malo ghapacanya comene mu Sudan. Kumafumiro gha dazi kuli mapiri gha ku Nyanja Yiswesi. Mlonga wa Blue Nile na White Nile ukukumana ku Khartoum kuti uŵe Mlonga wa Nile, uwo ukufuma kumpoto kujumpha mu Eguputo kuya ku Nyanja ya Meditereniyani. Mlonga wa Blue Nile ukujumpha mu Sudan ndipo uli na utali wa makilomita pafupifupi 800. Mlonga wa White Nile mu Sudan ulije milonga yinandi. Pali madamu ghanandi pa Mlonga wa Blue na White Nile. Zina mwa madamu agha ni madamu gha Sennar na Roseires agho ghali pa Mlonga wa Blue Nile, kweniso madamu gha Jebel Aulia agho ghali pa Mlonga wa White Nile. Paliso Nyanja ya Nubia pa mphaka ya Sudan na Eguputo. Mu Sudan muli vinthu vinandi vyakukhumbikwa nga ni asibesiti, chromite, cobalt, mkuwa, golide, granite, gypsum, chisulo, kaolin, lead, manganese, mica, gasi, nikele, mafuta, siliva, tini, uranium na zinki..<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.sudan-embassy.co.uk/infobook/geograph.php |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20050930235450/http://www.sudan-embassy.co.uk/infobook/geograph.php |archive-date=30 September 2005 |title=Geography of Sudan |publisher=Sudan Embassy in London |date=n.d.}}</ref> ===Climate=== {{Main|Geography of Sudan#Climate|l1=Climate of Sudan}} Mvula yikukhilira kumwera. Ku chigaŵa chapakati na kumpoto kuli malo ghakomira chomene nga ni chipalamba cha Nubia kumpoto na kumafumiro gha dazi. Nyengo ya vula ku Sudan yikutora myezi yinayi (June m'paka September) kumpoto, ndipo myezi 6 (May m'paka October) kumwera. Ku vigaŵa vyakomira, kukuchitika chimphepo chikuru cha mchenga, icho chikuchemeka haboob. Ku vigaŵa vya kumpoto na kumanjiliro gha dazi uko kuli mapopa ghacoko, ŵanthu ŵakuthemba comene vula izo zikulokwa yayi kuti ŵambe kulima. Pafupi na Mlonga wa Nayelo, pali minda iyo yili na maji ghanandi. Mu vyaru vinandi, zuŵa likuŵala nyengo yitali comene, kweni comenecomene mu mapopa uko likuŵala maora 4,000 pa caka..<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.oxfam.org.uk/coolplanet/kidsweb/world/sudan/sudgeog.htm |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20121001164348/http://www.oxfam.org.uk/coolplanet/kidsweb/world/sudan/sudgeog.htm |archive-date= 1 October 2012 |title=Sudan – Geography & Environment |publisher=[[Oxfam GB]] |date=n.d. |access-date=13 January 2011}}</ref> ===Environmental issues=== Kuzgoka mapopa ni suzgo likuru comene mu Sudan. Kweniso ŵanthu ŵakufipa mtima na kunangika kwa dongo. Vyaru vinandi vya boma na vya ŵanthu ŵekha vyalutilira kukura kwambura kuvikilirika. Vinthu ivi vyapangiska kuti makuni ghaphyoleke, dongo liwomire, kweniso kuti maji gha mu dongo ghaleke kuŵa ghawemi. Vinyama vyamuthondo vya mu caru ici vili pangozi cifukwa ca ulovi. Kuzakafika mu 2001, vyamoyo 21 vya vinyama na vyamoyo 9 vya viyuni vikaŵa pangozi. Viyuni vinyake ivyo vili pangozi ni: waldrapp, northern white rhinoceros, tora hartebeest, gazela wa masengwe ghafupi, na hawksbill turtle. Nyama ya Sahara oryx yili kumara mu ciŵaya.<ref>{{Unreliable source?|date=January 2011|reason=appear to be user-generated site; how are entries vetted?}} {{cite encyclopedia |url= http://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/Africa/Sudan-ENVIRONMENT.html |title=Sudan – Environment |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of the Nations |date=n.d. |access-date=13 January 2011}}</ref> ==Politics== {{Main|Politics of Sudan}} Ndyali za ku Sudan zikaŵa za boma la Islamic Republic m'paka mu April 2019, apo boma la President Omar al-Bashir likathereskeka na boma la ŵasilikari. Pakwamba wakambiska wupu wa Transitional Military Council kuti uwuse vyalo vya mukati. Kweniso wakalekeska malango gha boma na kumazga nyumba za malango izo zikaŵanga na nyumba ziŵiri. Kweni Ibn Auf wakakhalako zuŵa limoza pera ndipo wakafumapo, ndipo Abdel Fattah al-Burhan ndiyo wakaŵa mulongozgi wa wupu wa Transitional Military Council. Pa 4 Ogasiti 2019, chikalata chiphya cha Constitution chikalembeka pakati pa ŵimiliri ŵa Transitional Military Council na Forces of Freedom and Change, ndipo pa 21 Ogasiti 2019 Transitional Military Council yikasinthika mwalamulo kuŵa mutu wa boma na wupu wa 11 wa Sovereignty Council, ndipo nga mutu wa boma na nduna yikuru. ===Sharia law=== ====Under al-Bashir==== Mu nyengo ya muwuso wa Omar al-Bashir, malango gha mu Sudan ghakajintha pa Sharia. Mu 2005, pakaŵa phangano la Naivasha ilo likamazga nkhondo pakati pa kumpoto na kumwera kwa Sudan. Dango la Chisilamu la ku Sudan ndakupambana na vyaru vinyake. Ku Sudan, ŵanthu ŵakakomeranga munthu na malibwe. Pakati pa 2009 na 2012, ŵanakazi ŵanandi ŵakakomeka na malibwe. Dango likatenge munthu wakwenera kukomeka. Mu vyaka vyapakati pa 2009 na 2014, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakalangika kuti ŵapike chilango cha kuŵatimba na mafayiti 40. Mu Ogasiti 2014, ŵanalume ŵanandi ŵa ku Sudan ŵakafwira mu jele chifukwa cha kutambuzgika. Mu 2001, Ŵakhristu 53 ŵakatimbika. Dango la boma la Sudan likazomerezganga ŵapolisi kuti ŵathyapure ŵanakazi awo ŵakuti ŵakuchita vinthu vyambura kwenelera. Kweniso dango likalanganga munthu para wakhomeka pa khuni. Mu 2002, ŵanthu 88 ŵakeruzgika kuti ŵakomeke cifukwa ca kukoma ŵanthu, kwiba na vilwero, na kurwa nkhondo. Wupu wa Amnesty International ukalemba kuti ŵanthu aŵa ŵangakomeka na kukhomeka panji kukhomeka pa khuni. Khoti la pa caru cose likuzomera kuti ndise ŵakwenelera kweruzga. Kuyana na phangano la Naivasha, dango la Chisilamu likagwiranga nchito yayi mu South Sudan. Kufuma waka apo South Sudan yikapatukira, pakaŵa kukayika usange dango la Sharia lizamugwira nchito ku ŵanthu ŵacoko waka awo Mbasilamu yayi mu Sudan. Boma la Sudan lili na khoti la malango ilo lili na ŵeruzgi 9, Khoti Likuru Chomene, Khoti la Cassation, na makhoti ghanyake gha mu charu ichi..<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-12033185 |title= Sharia law to be tightened if Sudan splits – president |work=BBC News |date=19 December 2010 |access-date=4 October 2011}}</ref> ====After al-Bashir==== {{Main|2019–2024 Sudanese transition to democracy}} Following the ouster of al-Bashir, the interim constitution signed in August 2019 contained no mention of Sharia law.<ref name="MOM 09-2020">{{cite web|url=https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/20200907-sudan-separates-religion-from-state-ending-30-years-of-islamic-rule/|title=Sudan separates religion from state ending 30 years of Islamic rule|date=7 September 2020}}</ref> As of 12 July 2020, Sudan abolished the apostasy law, public flogging and alcohol ban for non-Muslims. The draft of a new law was passed in early July. Sudan also criminalized [[female genital mutilation]] with a punishment of up to 3 years in jail.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-53379733|title=Sudan scraps apostasy law and alcohol ban for non-Muslims|work=BBC News|date=12 July 2020|access-date=12 July 2020}}</ref> An accord between the transitional government and rebel group leadership was signed in September 2020, in which the government agreed to officially separate the state and religion, ending three decades of rule under Islamic law. It also agreed that no official state religion will be established.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://gulfnews.com/world/africa/sudan-ends-30-years-of-islamic-law-by-separating-religion-state-1.1599359147751|title=Sudan ends 30 years of Islamic law by separating religion, state}}</ref><ref name="MOM 09-2020"/><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.firstpost.com/world/islamic-world-at-decisive-point-in-history-will-it-take-the-path-of-emirates-or-turkey-8789981.html|title=Islamic world at decisive point in history: Will it take the path of Emirates or Turkey?|date=6 September 2020}}</ref> ===Foreign relations=== {{Main|Foreign relations of Sudan}} [[File:Al bashir1.jpg|upright=1.35|thumb|Bashir (right) and U.S. Deputy Secretary of State [[Robert Zoellick]], 2005]] Pakuti charu cha Sudan chili na visambizgo vya chisopa chautesi, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuchimbira kwawo. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1990, charu cha Uganda, Kenya, na Ethiopia, vikaŵa mu wupu wa ad hoc uwo ukachemekanga "Front Line States" na wovwiri wa United States kuti uwonenge umo boma la National Islamic Front likuchitira. Boma la Sudan likapeleka wovwiri ku magulu gha ŵakugaluka gha ku Uganda nga ni Lord's Resistance Army (LRA). Apo boma la National Islamic Front ku Khartoum likamba kuwoneka nga ni suzgo ku chigaŵa ichi na caru cose, boma la United States likamba kuŵika Sudan pa ndondomeko ya vyaru ivyo vikovwira ŵanthu kuti ŵacite vinthu vyakofya. Pamanyuma pakuti boma la United States lalemba kuti Sudan ni boma ilo likupeleka wovwiri ku vigeŵenga, wupu uwu ukaghanaghana vyakuti wambiske ubwezi na Iraq, ndipo pamanyuma Iran, vyaru viŵiri ivyo vili na mphindano mu cigaŵa ici. Kwamba m'ma 1990, Sudan yikamba kuchepeskako maghanoghano ghake cifukwa ca kukhuŵilizgika na boma la United States pamanyuma pa kuphulika kwa maboma gha United States mu 1998, ku Tanzania na Kenya, kweniso cifukwa ca kunozgaso malo gha mafuta agho ghakaŵa mu mawoko gha ŵakugaluka. Sudan nayo wali na mphindano na Egypt pa nkhani ya Hala'ib Triangle. Kufuma mu 2003, maubwezi gha ku vyaru vinyake gha Sudan ghakaŵa ghakuthemba pa wovwiri wa kumazga Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya ku Sudan na kususka wovwiri wa boma ku magulu gha nkhondo mu Darfur. Charu cha Sudan chili paubwezi wakukhora na China. Charu cha China chikupokera mafuta 10 pa 100 gha mu Sudan. Kuyana na uyo wakaŵa nduna ya boma la Sudan, caru ca China ndico cikupeleka vilwero vinandi comene ku Sudan. Mu Disembala 2005, Sudan yikaŵa yimoza mwa vyaru vichoko ivyo vikazomera mazaza gha Morocco pa Western Sahara.<ref>{{cite news |archive-date=26 February 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060226210429/http://www.moroccotimes.com/paper/article.asp?idr=2&id=11765 |url=http://www.moroccotimes.com/paper/article.asp?idr=2&id=11765 |title=Sudan supports Moroccan sovereignty over Southern Provinces |newspaper=Morocco Times |location=Casablanca |date=26 December 2005}}</ref>[[File:Secretary Pompeo Meets with Sudanese Sovereign Council Chair General Fattah el-Burhan (50267527813).jpg|thumb|The chairman of Sudan's sovereign council, General [[Abdel Fattah al-Burhan]], with U.S. Secretary of State [[Mike Pompeo]], 2020]] Mu 2015, Sudan yikawovwirapo pa nkhondo ya Saudi Arabia ku Yemen kwimikana na ma Houthi na ŵasilikari ŵakugomezgeka kwa pulezidenti wakale Ali Abdullah Saleh, uyo wakathereskeka mu 2011. Mu Juni 2019, charu cha Sudan chikalekeka kunjira mu wupu wa African Union chifukwa chakuti pakaŵavya icho chikachitika pakukhazikiska wupu wakulongozgeka na ŵanthu. Mu Julayi 2019, ŵimiliri ŵa vyaru 37 ku UN, kusazgapo Sudan, ŵakasaina kalata yakukolerana ku UNHRC kuvikilira umo China yikuchitira na ma Uyghur mu chigaŵa cha Xinjiang. Pa 23 Okutobala 2020, U.S. Pulezidenti Donald Trump wakapharazga kuti Sudan yikwamba kuwezgerapo ubwezi wake na Israel, ndipo yikaŵa chalo chachitatu cha ma Arab kuchita nthena mu chigaŵa cha Abraham Accords icho chikalembeka na United States. Pa Disembala 14 mu U.S. Boma la Sudan likawuskamo boma ili pa ndondomeko ya boma ilo likovwira ŵanthu kuti ŵachitenge vinthu vyakofya. Mkangano pakati pa Sudan na Ethiopia pa Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam ukakura mu 2021. Munthu munyake uyo wakupeleka ulongozgi kwa mulongozgi wa Sudan, Abdel Fattah al-Burhan, wakayowoya kuti nkhondo ya maji "yiŵenge yakofya comene kuluska umo munthu wangaghanaghanira". Mu Febuluwale 2022, ŵapharazgi ŵa ku Sudan ŵakaluta ku Israel kukakhozga ubwezi pakati pa vyaru ivi. Mu myezi yakwambilira ya 2023, nkhondo yikambaso, comenecomene pakati pa ŵasilikari ŵa Gen. Abdel Fattah al-Burhan, mulongozgi wa ŵasilikari na mulongozgi wa boma, pamoza na gulu la ŵasilikari la Rapid Support Forces ilo likulongozgeka na mulwani wake, Gen. Mohamed Hamdan Dagalo. Pa cifukwa ici, boma la United States na vyaru vinandi vya ku Europe vyajara maboma ghawo mu Khartoum na kuyezga kufumiska ŵanthu. Mu 2023, ŵanthu ŵakaghanaghananga kuti ku Sudan kukaŵa ŵanthu 16,000 ŵa ku America awo ŵakakhumbikwiranga kufumamo. Pakuti ku United States kulije ndondomeko ya kufumiskako ŵanthu, Ku ofesi ya boma, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku America ŵakeneranga kuluta ku maboma gha vyaru vinyake kukapempha ulongozgi, ndipo ŵanandi ŵakachimbilira ku Nairobi. Vyaru vinyake vya mu Africa na mawupu ghanyake ghakovwira ŵanthu, ghakayezga kovwira. Ŵapolisi ŵa ku Turkey ŵati ŵazomerezga ŵanthu ŵa ku America kuti ŵafumemo mu charu chawo. TRAKboys, gulu la ndyali la ku South Africa ilo likususkana na Wagner Group, kampani yaku Russia iyo yikugwira ntchito ya usilikari mu Sudan kwambira mu 2017, yikovwira kuti ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yose ŵa ku America na ku Sudan ŵafumemo mu charu ichi na kuluta ku malo ghakukhora mu South Africa.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Americans and other foreigners struggle to flee Sudan amid fierce fighting |language=en-US |newspaper=Washington Post |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2023/04/26/sudan-fighting-evacuation-americans-british/ |access-date=2023-05-03 |issn=0190-8286}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fDS8IQSdZ-E | title=Trakboys David Mbatha, Blose begin peaceful talks w/ Mayor Kaunda about Durban Port tariff increase | website=[[YouTube]] }}</ref> === Wankhondo === {{Main|Sudanese Armed Forces}} Gulu la ŵasilikari la Sudan ni gulu la ŵasilikari ŵa boma la Sudan ndipo lili kugaŵikana mu vigaŵa vinkhondi: Gulu la ŵasilikari ŵa Sudan, Navy ya Sudan (kukusazgapo Marine Corps), Air Force ya Sudan, Border Patrol na Internal Affairs Defence Force. Gulu la ŵasilikari la Sudan laŵa na vilwero viwemi comene; cifukwa ca kusazgikira kwa vilwero vizito na vyapacanya. Gulu ili likulongozgeka na wupu wa National Assembly ndipo fundo zake ni za kuvikilira mphaka za Sudan na kuvikilira wanangwa wa mukati. Kufuma waka pa suzgo la Darfur mu 2004, kuvikilira boma lapakati pa caru ku ŵanthu awo ŵakulimbana na gulu la ŵakugaluka nga ni Sudan People's Liberation Army (SPLA), Sudanese Liberation Army (SLA) na Justice and Equality Movement (JEM) ni vyakuzirwa comene. Nangauli ŵasilikari ŵa ku Sudan ŵakugwira ntchito yayi, kweni ŵakugwiliskira ntchito magulu gha ŵasilikari, ndipo ŵakumanyikwa chomene ni Janjaweed. Pakati pa 200,000 na 400,000<ref name="cia">{{cite web|title=Sudan|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/sudan/|access-date=10 July 2011|work=The World Factbook|publisher=U.S. Central Intelligence Agency|issn=1553-8133}}</ref><ref name="peopledaily1">{{cite news |url=http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/200511/28/eng20051128_224254.html |title=Darfur Peace Talks To Resume in Abuja on Tuesday: AU |agency=Xinhua News Agency |newspaper=[[People's Daily]] |location =Beijing |date=28 November 2005 |access-date=14 January 2011}}</ref><ref name="washingtonpost.com">{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/04/10/AR2007041001775.html |agency= Associated Press |newspaper=The Washington Post |title=Hundreds Killed in Attacks in Eastern Chad – U.N. Agency Says Sudanese Militia Destroyed Villages |date=11 April 2007 |access-date=14 January 2011}}</ref> ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵali kufwa cifukwa ca nkhondo. ===International organisations ku Sudan=== Mabungwe ghanandi gha UN ghakugwira ntchito mu Sudan nga ni World Food Programme (WFP); Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO); United Nations Development Programme (UNDP); United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO); United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF); United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR); United Nations Mine Service (UNMAS), United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) na World Bank. Kweniso pali wupu wa International Organization for Migration (IOM).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iom.int/jahia/Jahia/activities/africa-and-middle-east/east-africa/sudan/cache/offonce/ |title=Sudan |publisher=International Organisation for Migration |date=2 May 2013 |access-date=31 May 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120310183842/http://www.iom.int/jahia/Jahia/activities/africa-and-middle-east/east-africa/sudan/cache/offonce/ |archive-date=10 March 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.acdi-cida.gc.ca/acdi-cida/ACDI-CIDA.nsf/Eng/JUD-217124359-NT2 |title=The Sudans |publisher=Canadian International Development Agency |location=Gatineau, Quebec |date=29 January 2013 |access-date=31 May 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130528183621/http://www.acdi-cida.gc.ca/acdi-cida/ACDI-CIDA.nsf/eng/JUD-217124359-NT2 |archive-date=28 May 2013 }}</ref> Pakuti mu Sudan muli nkhondo ya pawenenawene kwa vyaka vinandi, mabungwe ghanandi ghambura kwendera boma (NGO) ghakovwiraso ŵanthu awo ŵafumamo mu vikaya vyawo. Mabungwe ghambura vya boma ghakugwira nchito mu vigaŵa vyose vya Sudan, comenecomene kumwera na kumanjiliro gha dazi. Mu nyengo ya nkhondo ya pawenenawene, mawupu gha vyaru vyakupambanapambana nga ni Red Cross ghakacitanga milimo yawo comene mu vigaŵa vya kumwera, kweni ghakaŵa mu msumba wa Khartoum. Ŵanthu ŵakamba kughanaghanira chomene nkhondo iyo yikacitika ku Darfur, kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Sudan. Wupu wakuwoneka comene mu South Sudan ni Operation Lifeline Sudan (OLS). Wupu unyake wa vyamalonda ukuwona kuti charu cha Sudan chili ku chigaŵa cha Great Horn of Africa Nangauli mawupu ghanandi gha pa caru cose ghali mu vigaŵa vya South Sudan na Darfur, kweni ghanyake ghakugwira nchito mu vigaŵa vya kumpoto. Mwaciyerezgero, wupu wa United Nations Industrial Development Organization ukucita makora nchito yake mu msumba wa Khartoum. Ndimo viliriso na sukulu zinyake za ku Europe. Wupu wa Canada wakuwona vya Vyakusazgirako Vinthu pa Caru Cose ukucitako milimo yinandi kumpoto kwa Sudan.<ref>{{cite press release |url=http://www.unido.org/media-centre/press-releases/news/article/date////eu-unido-set-up-centre-in-sudan-to-develop-industrial-skills-entrepreneurship-for-job-creation.html |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130615200234/http://www.unido.org/media-centre/press-releases/news/article/date////eu-unido-set-up-centre-in-sudan-to-develop-industrial-skills-entrepreneurship-for-job-creation.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=15 June 2013 |title=EU, UNIDO set up Centre in Sudan to develop industrial skills, entrepreneurship for job creation |publisher=UN Industrial Development Organisation |date=8 February 2011 |access-date=4 June 2013 }}</ref> ===Human rights=== {{Main|Human rights in Sudan|Freedom of religion in Sudan|Slavery in Sudan|Child marriage in Sudan}} SKwambira mu 1983, nkhondo ya pawenenawene na njara vyakoma ŵanthu pafupifupi 2 miliyoni mu Sudan. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakuti ŵanthu pafupifupi 200,000 ŵakakoleka wuzga pa nyengo ya Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya ku Sudan. Kuyana na lipoti la wupu wa Reporters Without Borders, charu cha Sudan chili pa nambara 172 pa vyaru 180. Ŵakukhumba kuti ŵapharazgi ŵaleke kutangwanika na nkhani za vimbundi. Ŵasilamu awo ŵakung'anamukira ku Cikristu ŵangalangika na nyifwa cifukwa ca kusopa kwautesi, wonani Kutambuzgika kwa Ŵakristu mu Sudan na cilango ca nyifwa kwa Mariam Yahia Ibrahim Ishag (uyo wakakulira mu Cikristu). Lipoti la wupu wa UNICEF la mu 2013, likati ŵanakazi 88 pa 100 ŵaliwose ku Sudan ŵakomeka. Dango la ku Sudan lakukhwaskana na nthengwa likususkika cifukwa ca kukanizga wanangwa wa ŵanakazi na kuzomerezga nthengwa za ŵana. Ukaboni ukulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuzomerezga kuti ŵanakazi ŵakomeke, comenecomene ŵanthu ŵa ku mizi kweniso awo ŵakusambira comene yayi. Kugonana kwa ŵanalume panji ŵanakazi ŵekhaŵekha nkhwakukanizgika; kwambira mu Julayi 2020 kulije chilango cha nyifwa. Lipoti la wupu wa Human Rights Watch ilo likalembeka mu 2018 likulongora kuti charu cha Sudan chindachitepo kanthu kuti ŵanthu ŵeruzgike chifukwa cha vinthu viheni ivyo vikachitikanga kale kweniso ivyo vikuchitika sono. Lipoti ili likulongosora umo ŵanthu ŵakusuzgikira mu Darfur, kumwera kwa Kordofan, na Blue Nile. Mu 2018, wupu wa National Intelligence and Security Service (NISS) ukagwiliskira nchito nkhongono zinandi pakupatura ŵanthu awo ŵakasuskanga boma. Kweniso ŵasilikari ŵa ku Sudan ŵakakanizga mawupu gha United Nations-African Union Hybrid Operation na mawupu ghanyake gha pa caru cose kuti ghasangire ŵanthu ŵakusuzgika mu Darfur.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2019/country-chapters/sudan|title=World Report 2019: Rights Trends in Sudan|chapter=Sudan: Events of 2018 |date=17 January 2019 |website=Human Rights Watch |access-date=10 July 2019}}</ref> ====Darfur==== {{Main|War in Darfur|International Criminal Court investigation in Darfur}} [[File:Darfur refugee camp in Chad.jpg|right|thumb|Darfur refugee camp ku [[Chad]], 2005]] Kalata yakufuma kwa mulara wa wupu wa Human Rights Watch ya pa Ogasiti 14, 2006, yikati boma la Sudan ndakutondeka kuvikilira ŵanthu ŵake mu Darfur kweniso likukhumba yayi kuvikilira ŵanthu ŵake. Kweniso ŵasilikari ŵake ŵali na mulandu wa kuswa malango gha boma. Kalata iyi yikayowoyaso kuti ŵanthu ŵakuswa wanangwa uwu kwambira mu 2004. Malipoti ghanyake ghakulongora kuti ŵakugaluka, boma, na gulu la Janjaweed ndiwo ŵakuswa malango. U.S. Lipoti la Dipatimenti Yakuwona vya Wanangwa wa Ŵanthu ilo likalembeka mu Malichi 2007, likati: "Ŵanthu wose awo ŵakanjilirapo pa nkhondo iyi ŵakachitanga vinthu viheni chomene, kusazgapo kukoma ŵanthu ŵanandi, kuyuzga ŵanalume na ŵanakazi, kutambuzga ŵanthu, kwiba na kulemba ŵana ŵankhondo". Ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 2.8 miliyoni ŵali kufumamo mu vikaya vyawo ndipo ŵanthu 300,000 ŵali kufwa. Ŵasilikari ŵa boma na ŵasilikari awo ŵakukolerana na boma ŵakumanyikwa kuti ŵakuwukira ŵanthu bweka yayi mu Darfur, kweniso awo ŵakovwira ŵanthu. Ŵanthu awo ŵakukolerana na magulu gha ŵakugaluka ŵakukakika mwambura kwenelera, nga mba nyuzipepara ŵakufuma ku vyaru vinyake, ŵakuvikilira wanangwa wa ŵanthu, ŵana ŵa sukulu, na ŵanthu awo ŵali kufumamo mu vikaya vya mu msumba wa Khartoum na vigaŵa vyapafupi. Lipoti linyake la boma la United States likayowoya kuti gulu la ŵakugaluka likuwukira awo ŵakovwira ŵanthu na kukoma ŵanthu ŵambura mulandu. Wupu wa UNICEF ukati mu 2008, mu Darfur mukaŵa ŵana 6,000 awo ŵakaŵa ŵasilikari.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7796507.stm|title=Africa – Sudan 'has 6,000 child soldiers'|access-date=15 February 2015}}</ref> ===Disputed areas and zones of conflict=== * In April 2012, the South Sudanese army captured the [[Heglig]] oil field from Sudan, which the Sudanese army later recaptured. * [[Kafia Kingi]] and [[Radom National Park]] was a part of [[Bahr el Ghazal (region of South Sudan)|Bahr el Ghazal]] in 1956.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.pca-cpa.org/upload/files/GoS%20Memorial.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120415073643/http://www.pca-cpa.org/upload/files/GoS%20Memorial.pdf |archive-date=15 April 2012|page=xii |title=Memorial of the Government of Sudan |publisher=Permanent Court of Arbitration |location=The Hague |date=18 December 2008}}</ref> Sudan has recognised South Sudanese independence according to the borders for 1 January 1956.<ref>{{cite press release |url=http://www.menasborders.com/menasborders/news/article/1956/South_Sudan_ready_to_declare_independence/ |title=South Sudan ready to declare independence |publisher=Menas Associates |date=8 July 2011 |access-date=4 June 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130529175404/http://www.menasborders.com/menasborders/news/article/1956/South_Sudan_ready_to_declare_independence/ |archive-date=29 May 2013 }}</ref> * The [[Abyei Area]] is disputed region between Sudan and [[South Sudan]]. It is currently under Sudanese rule. * The states of [[South Kurdufan]] and [[Blue Nile (state)|Blue Nile]] are to hold "popular consultations" to determine their constitutional future within Sudan. * The [[Hala'ib Triangle]] is disputed region between Sudan and [[Egypt]]. It is currently under Egyptian administration. * [[Bir Tawil]] is a [[terra nullius]] occurring on the border between Egypt and Sudan, claimed by neither state. ===Administrative divisions=== {{main|States of Sudan|List of current state governors in Sudan|Districts of Sudan}} Sudan is divided into [[States of Sudan|18 states]] (''[[wilaya]]t'', [[Grammatical number|sing.]] ''[[wilayah]]''). They are further divided into 133 [[Districts of Sudan|districts]]. [[File:Political Regions of Sudan, July 2010.svg|thumb|{{legend|#f7931d|Central and northern states}} {{legend|#8cc63f|[[Darfur]]}} {{legend|#800080|[[Eastern Front (Sudan)|Eastern Front]]}} {{legend|#FFFF00|[[Abyei|Abyei Area]]}} {{legend|#fb6282|[[South Kurdufan]] and [[Blue Nile (state)|Blue Nile]] states}}]] {{div col|colwidth=10em|content= * [[Gezira (state)|Gezira]] * [[Al Qadarif (state)|Al Qadarif]] * [[Blue Nile (state)|Blue Nile]] * [[Central Darfur]] * [[East Darfur]] * [[Kassala (state)|Kassala]] * [[Khartoum (state)|Khartoum]] * [[North Darfur]] * [[North Kordofan]] * [[Northern state, Sudan|Northern]] * [[Red Sea (state)|Red Sea]] * [[River Nile (state)|River Nile]] * [[Sennar (state)|Sennar]] * [[South Darfur]] * [[South Kordofan]] * [[West Darfur]] * [[West Kordofan]] * [[White Nile (state)|White Nile]] }} ===Regional bodies=== Padera pa maboma, paliso maboma ghanyake agho ghakaŵako cifukwa ca mtende uwo ukaŵako pakati pa boma na gulu la ŵakugaluka. * Boma la Darfur likakhazikiskika na phangano la mtende la Darfur kuti liŵe wupu wakulongozga vyaru ivyo vili mu Darfur. * Wupu wakuwona vya vyaru vya kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Sudan ukakhazikiskika na Eastern Sudan Peace Agreement pakati pa boma la Sudan na gulu la rebels la Eastern Front. * Chigaŵa cha Abyei, icho chili pa mphaka ya South Sudan na Republic of Sudan, pasono chili na mazaza ghapadera ndipo chikulongozgeka na boma la Abyei. Mu 2011, boma la Sudan likakhumbanga kuti ŵanthu ŵayowoyepo maghanoghano ghawo pa nkhani yakuti charu ichi chiŵe chigaŵa cha South Sudan panji cha Republic of Sudan. ==Chuma== {{Main|Economy of Sudan}} {{See also|Telecommunications in Sudan|Transport in Sudan}} [[File:Sudan Product Exports (2019).svg|thumb|right|A proportional representation of Sudan exports, 2019]] [[File:Sudan Map Oelgas.png|thumb|upright=0.8|[[Petroleum|Oil]] and [[Natural gas|gas]] concessions in Sudan – 2004]] [[File:GDP per capita development in Sudan.svg|thumb|GDP per capita development in Sudan]] Mu 2010, charu cha Sudan chikaŵa pa nambara 17 pa vyaru ivyo vili na chuma chakukwera luŵiro chomene pa charu chose. Chifukwa cha kupatukana kwa South Sudan, komwe kunali pafupifupi 75 peresenti ya malo opangira mafuta ku Sudan, Sudan idalowa gawo la stagflation, kukula kwa GDP kudatsika mpaka 3.4 peresenti mu 2014, 3.1 peresenti mu 2015 ndipo zikuyembekezeka kuchira pang'onopang'ono mpaka 3.7 peresenti mu 2016 pomwe kukwera kwamitengo kudakhalabe kokwera mpaka 21.8% kuyambira 2015. GDP ya Sudan yikakhira kufuma pa US$123.053 billion mu 2017 kufika pa US$40.852 billion mu 2018. Nanga ni apo charu cha South Sudan chikaŵa kuti chindapatuke, chikaŵa na masuzgo ghakuru gha vyachuma. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 2000, chuma cha ku Sudan chikakura chomene, ndipo lipoti la World Bank likati GDP yikakura chomene mu 2010. Kukura uku kukalutilira nanga ni mu nyengo ya nkhondo ya ku Darfur kweniso apo charu cha South Sudan chikaŵa na wanangwa wa kujilongozga. Mafuta ndigho ghakaŵa vyakurya vikuru ivyo Sudan wakuguliska ku vyaru vinyake. Chifukwa cha kunjira kwa mafuta, chuma cha Sudan chikakura chomene, ndipo mu 2007 chikakura na 9 peresenti. Kweni chifukwa chakuti charu cha South Sudan chikaŵa na mafuta ghanandi, chikaleka kulamulira boma la Sudan. Kufuma waka pa nyengo iyi, mulimo wa kunozga vyakurya wawelera pa malo ghake ndipo pa chaka cha 2014-15 wafika pa 40,000 m3/d. Kuti charu cha South Sudan chipeleke mafuta, chikuthemba pa chitoliro icho chikulongozgera ku Port Sudan mumphepete mwa Nyanja Yiswesi. Mu Ogasiti 2012, Sudan na South Sudan ŵakakolerana kuti ŵagulire mafuta ku South Sudan kwizira mu mapaipi gha ku Sudan. Boma la China ndilo likwendeska malonda ku Sudan, ndipo China yili na masheya 40 pa 100 gha Greater Nile Petroleum Operating Company. Charu ichi chikuguliskaso ku Sudan vilwero vichoko, ivyo vyagwiliskirika nchito pa nkhondo nga ni nkhondo za ku Darfur na South Kordofan. Nangauli kale vyakurya na vyakurya ndivyo vikaŵa vyakukhumbikwa chomene ku ŵanthu ŵa ku Sudan, ndipo vikawovwira ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 80 pa 100 pa 100 pa caru cose. Pasono, wupu wa International Monetary Fund (IMF) ukuteŵetera lumoza na boma la Khartoum kuti viwovwire pakunozga vinthu. Ivi vikacitika mu vyaka vya m'ma 1980 apo caru ca Sudan cikaŵa na suzgo la ngongoli, ndipo ubwezi wake na IMF na World Bank ukakhira. Lipoti linyake likati mu charu cha Sudan ndimo vimbundi vyazara chomene. Kuyana na Global Hunger Index ya 2013, charu cha Sudan chili na chiŵerengero cha GHI cha 27.0 icho chikulongora kuti charu ichi chili na 'njara yikuru.' Charu ichi chili pa nambara 5 pa vyaru ivyo vili na njara chomene pa charu chose. Kuyana na 2015 Human Development Index (HDI), charu cha Sudan chili pa malo 167. Ichi chikulongora kuti charu ichi chili na ŵanthu ŵachoko chomene pa charu chose. Mu 2014, ŵanthu 45 pa ŵanthu 100 ŵaliwose ŵakukhala na ndalama zakuchepera pa madola 3.20 gha ku United States pa zuŵa..<ref>{{Cite web|title=Poverty headcount ratio at $3.20 a day (2011 PPP) (% of population) – Sudan {{!}} Data|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.LMIC?locations=SD|website=data.worldbank.org|access-date=22 May 2020}}</ref> === Science and research === Ku Sudan kuli ma yunivesite pafupifupi 25-30 ndipo ŵanthu ŵakusambira mu ciarabu panji Cingelezi. Masambiro gha ku sekondare na ku yunivesite ghakutimbanizgika comene cifukwa cakuti ŵanalume ŵanandi ŵakukhumbikwira kunjira usilikari pambere ŵandafike ku malizgo gha masambiro ghawo. Kweniso, "Chisisilamu" ico pulezidenti Al-Bashir wakakhwimiska cikapangiska kuti ŵasayansi ŵanandi ŵaleke kusambira Baibolo. Ndalama izo ŵanthu ŵakugwiliskira nchito pakusanda vya sayansi zikumara. Wupu wa UNESCO ukati pakati pa 2002 na 2014, ŵanthu ŵakufufuza ŵakujumpha 3,000 ŵa ku Sudan ŵakafumamo mu charu ichi. Kuzakafika mu 2013, caru ici cikaŵa na ŵasayansi 19 pera pa ŵanthu 100,000, panji 1/30 ya ciŵelengero ca ku Eguputo, kuyana na Sudan National Center for Research. Mu 2015, ku Sudan kukalembeka nkhani za sayansi pafupifupi 500. Kuyaniska na caru ici, caru ca Poland, ico cili na ŵanthu ŵanandi, cikupanga manyuzipepara pafupifupi 10,000 pa caka. Ndondomeko ya vya mu mlengalenga ya ku Sudan yili kupanga mapulaneti ghanandi gha CubeSat, ndipo yili na mapulani gha kupanga mapulaneti gha kudumbiskirana gha ku Sudan (SUDASAT-1) na mapulaneti gha kudumbiskirana gha ku Sudan (SRSS-1). Boma la Sudan likapeleka ndalama zakugulira satellite yakuwona malo ya boma ya Arabsat 6A iyo yikugwira ntchito pachanya pa Sudan, iyo yikatoleka makora pa 11 April 2019, kufuma ku Kennedy Space Centre. Pulezidenti wa ku Sudan Omar Hassan al-Bashir wakapempha kuti mu 2012 paŵe wupu wakuwona vya mlengalenga wa ku Africa, kweni ivi vikamara yayi.<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Smith |first1=David |last2=correspondent |first2=Africa |date=6 September 2012 |title=Sudanese president calls for African space agency |language=en-GB |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/sep/06/sudanese-president-african-space-agency |access-date=7 March 2023 |issn=0261-3077}}</ref> == Ŵanthu == {{Main|Demographics of Sudan}} {{see also|List of cities in Sudan}} [[File:Sudan 2010 population density2.png|thumb|Sudan 2010 estimated population density]] Ku Sudan, ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 30 miliyoni ŵakukhala kumpoto, kumanjiliro gha dazi, na kumafumiro gha dazi kwa charu ichi. Ivi vikulongora kuti ŵanthu awo ŵakukhala mu charu cha Sudan kufuma apo charu cha South Sudan chikapatukira ŵalipo 30 miliyoni. Ichi ntchiŵelengero icho chikukwera comene mu vyaka 20 ivyo vyajumpha, cifukwa pa kalembera wa mu 1983, ŵanthu wose ŵa mu Sudan, kusazgapo awo sono ŵakucemeka South Sudan, ŵakaŵa 21.6 miliyoni. Ŵanthu awo ŵakukhala mu msumba wa Greater Khartoum (ukusazgapo Khartoum, Omdurman, na Khartoum North) ŵakukura mwaluŵiro ndipo ŵalipo 5.2 miliyoni. Padera pa kuŵa na ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuchimbira kwawo, mu Sudan muli ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuchimbira kwawo ŵakufuma mu vyaru vinyake. Kuyana na kafukufuku wa UNHCR, ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 1.1 miliyoni awo ŵakacimbira kwawo na awo ŵakapempha civikiliro ŵakakhalanga mu Sudan mu Ogasiti 2019. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakafuma ku South Sudan (ŵanthu 858,607), Eritrea (123,413), Syria (93,502), Ethiopia (14,201), Central African Republic (11,713) na Chad (3,100). Padera pa ŵanthu aŵa, wupu wa UNHCR ukayowoya kuti pali ŵanthu 1,864,195 awo ŵali kufumamo mu vikaya vyawo. Charu cha Sudan chili kunjilirapo pa phangano la mu 1951 lakukhwaskana na ŵanthu ŵakuchimbira kwawo. ===Ethnic groups=== [[File:Eisa shikawi.JPG|thumb|[[Sudanese Arab]] of [[manasir|Al-Manasir]]]] Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Ciarabu ŵakukwana 70 peresenti ya ŵanthu wose ŵa mu caru ici. Ŵanandi mwa ŵanthu aŵa Mbasilamu ndipo ŵakuyowoya Chiarabic. Mitundu yinyake ni Beja, Fur, Nubians, Armenians, na Copts. Ŵanthu awo Mbambura Ciarabu kanandi ŵakupambana mitundu, viyowoyero, na mitheto. Ŵanyake mwa ŵanthu aŵa mba Beja (ŵanandi chomene), Fur (ŵanandi chomene), Nuba (ŵanandi chomene), Moro, Masalit, Bornu, Tama, Fulani, Hausa, Songhay, Nubians, Berta, Zaghawa, Nyimang, Ingessana, Daju, Koalib, Gumuz, Midob na Tagale. Chi Hausa chikugwiliskirika ntchito nga chiyowoyero cha malonda. Paliso Ŵagiriki ŵachoko waka, kweni ŵakumanyikwa chomene. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵa ku Arabia ŵakuyowoya viyowoyero vinyake nga ni Awadia na Fadnia, na Bani Arak, awo ŵakuyowoya Chiarabic cha Najdi. Ŵabedouin ŵachoko waka ŵa kumpoto kwa Rizeigat ŵakuyowoya Chiarabu cha ku Sudan ndipo ŵali na mitheto yakuyana na ya Ŵaarabu ŵa ku Sudan. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵa ku Baggara na Tunjur ŵakuyowoya Chiarabic. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Sudan awo ŵakukhala kumpoto na kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Sudan ŵakuti ŵali kufuma ku ŵanthu awo ŵakafuma ku Arabia. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Nubia ŵakukolerana na ŵanthu ŵa ku Nubia awo ŵakakhalanga kumwera kwa Eguputo. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa mafuko gha Ŵaarabu ku Sudan ŵakasamukira ku Sudan mu vyaka vya m'ma 1200 C.E., ndipo ŵakatorana na ŵanthu ŵa ku Nubia na ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵa ku Africa. Kweniso, mafuko ghaciarabu agho ghakaŵako pambere Chisilamu cindafike ghakaŵako mu Sudan kufuma ku ŵanthu awo ŵakasamukira mu caru ici kufuma ku Arabia. Mu mabuku ghanandi agho ghakulongosora umo ŵanthu ŵa ku Sudan ŵakazgoka Ŵaarabu, ŵanthu ŵakusanda mdauko ŵakudumbiskana za umo ŵanthu ŵa ku Arabia ŵakawonekeranga. Mwaciyelezgero, Elena Vezzadini wakulemba mdauko wakuti ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yakupambanapambana mu Sudan ŵakuthemba pa umo ŵakulongosolera nkhani iyi. Mwakudumura, iyo wakuti "Ŵanthu awo ŵakasamukira ku vyaru vinyake ŵakaŵako mu nyengo yira, ndipo ŵakazgoka "Ŵanthu ŵa ku Sudan". Mu nkhani yinyake yakulongosora za mbumba za ŵanthu ŵa ku Sudan, Claude Rilly, uyo wakumanya vya mipukutu ya ŵanthu ŵa ku France, wakati Ŵarabu ŵanandi ŵa ku Sudan awo ŵakuti ŵali kufuma ku ŵanthu ŵa ku Arabia, ŵakumanya yayi kuti DNA yawo yikupangika na ŵanakazi ŵa ku Africa na ŵana ŵawo.<ref>{{cite book |author-last=Rilly |author-first=Claude |title=Le Soudan, de la Préhistoire à la conquête de Méhémet Ali |publisher=Soleb Bleu autour |year=2021 |isbn=978-2-35848-186-1 |editor-last=Rilly |editor-first=Claude |publication-place=Paris |pages=543–544 |language=fr |chapter=Aux racines de la population soudanaise |oclc=1298202018 |editor-last2=Francigny |editor-first2=Vincent |editor-last3=Maillot |editor-first3=Marc |editor-last4=Cabon |editor-first4=Olivier}}</ref><ref>See also: Spaulding, J. (2000) ''The chronology of Sudanese Arabic genealogical tradition''. In History in Africa 27, Cambridge University Press, pp. 325–337</ref> ===Urban areas=== {{Further|List of cities in Sudan}} {{Largest cities of Sudan|Osman=}} ===Viyowoyelo=== {{Main|Languages of Sudan}} Ku Sudan kuli viyowoyero pafupifupi 70. Mu charu cha Sudan muli viyowoyero vinandi vya mawoko ivyo vikupulikikwa yayi. Mu 2009, pakaŵa ndondomeko yakuti paŵe chiyowoyero chimoza cha mawoko cha ku Sudan. Pambere chaka cha 2005 chindafike, Chiarabic ndicho chikaŵa chiyowoyero cha boma. Mu 2005, Dango la Charu cha Sudan likati viyowoyero vya boma ni Chiarabic na Chingelezi. Ŵanalume ŵakumanya kulemba na kulemba ni 79.6%, ŵanakazi 60.8%.<ref name="cia.gov">{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/sudan/|title=The World Factbook|work=cia.gov|access-date=13 August 2015}}</ref> ===Chisopo=== {{Main|Religion in Sudan}} Mu 2011, apo charu cha South Sudan chikagaŵikana, ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 97% ŵakasopanga Chisilamu. Ŵasilamu ŵanandi ŵali kugaŵikana mu magulu ghaŵiri: Ŵasilamu ŵa Sufi na Salafi. Magulu ghaŵiri agho ghakumanyikwa na ŵanthu ŵanandi, Ansar na Khatmia, ghakukolerana na chipani cha Umma na Democratic Unionist. Malo gha Darfur pera ndigho ghakaŵavya magulu gha Sufi agho ghakusangika mu vyaru vinyake. Mu msumba wa Khartoum na misumba yinyake ya kumpoto, muli Ŵakhristu ŵa Coptic Orthodox na Greek Orthodox. Mu Khartoum na kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Sudan, mu vyaru ivi muli ŵanthu ŵa tchalitchi la Orthodox la Ethiopia na Eritrea. Tchalitchi la Armenian Apostolic nalo lilipo ndipo likuteŵetera ŵanthu ŵa ku Sudan. Tchalitchi la Sudan Evangelical Presbyterian nalo lili na ŵanthu awo ŵali mu tchalitchi ili. Chisopa ndicho chikupangiska kuti mu charu ichi muŵe kugaŵikana. Ŵasilamu ŵa kumpoto na ŵa kumanjiliro gha dazi ndiwo ŵakulongozga ndyali na vyachuma mu charu ichi kufuma apo charu chikapokera wanangwa. Chipani cha NCP chikukhozgeka chomene na ŵa Islam, Salafis/Wahhabis na Ŵaarabu ŵanyake ŵa ku mpoto. Chipani cha Umma chakopa ŵalondezgi ŵa Aarabu ŵa gulu la Ansar la Sufism pamoza na Ŵasilamu ŵambura Aarabu kufuma ku Darfur na Kordofan. Chipani cha Democratic Unionist Party (DUP) chili na Ŵaarabu na Ŵasilamu ŵanyake ŵa kumpoto na kumafumiro gha dazi, comenecomene awo ŵali mu cisopa ca Khatmia Sufi. ===Health=== {{Main|Health in Sudan}} Sudan has a [[life expectancy]] of 65.1 years according to the latest data for the year 2019 from macrotrends.net<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.macrotrends.net/countries/SDN/sudan/life-expectancy|title=Sudan Life Expectancy) {{!}} Data|website=macrotrends.net|access-date=25 November 2019}}</ref> Infant mortality in 2016 was 44.8 per 1,000.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.DYN.IMRT.IN?locations=SD&year_high_desc=true|title=Mortality rate, infant (per 1,000 live births) {{!}} Data|website=data.worldbank.org|access-date=25 August 2018}}</ref> [[UNICEF]] estimates that 87% of Sudanese females between the ages of 15 to 49 have had [[female genital mutilation]] performed on them.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://data.unicef.org/wp-content/uploads/country_profiles/Sudan/FGM_SDN.pdf|title=UNICEF FGM country profile for Sudan|website=UNICEF|access-date=3 May 2019}}</ref> ===Education=== {{Main|Education in Sudan}} [[File:Faculty of Science (University of Khartoum) 002.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|The [[University of Khartoum]], established as [[Gordon Memorial College]] in 1902]] Sukulu mu Sudan njambura kulipira ndipo njakukakamira ku ŵana ŵa vyaka 6 m'paka 13, nangauli ŵana ŵakujumpha 40% ŵakuluta yayi ku sukulu cifukwa ca suzgo la vya cuma. Vinthu vinyake ivyo vikuchitika pa umoyo wa ŵanthu vikupangiska kuti ŵana ŵasungwana ŵasuzgikenge kuluta ku sukulu. Masambiro gha ku pulayimale ghakukhala vyaka 8, ndipo gha sekondare ghakwenda vyaka vitatu. Mu 1990, masambiro ghakaŵa gha 6 + 3 + 3. Chiarabu ndicho chikuyowoyeka pa vigaŵa vyose. Masukulu ghanandi ghali mu matawuni, ndipo ghanyake gha kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa caru ici ghatimbanizgika panji kunangika cifukwa ca nkhondo ya pa cikaya. Mu 2001, Banki ya Caru Cose yikati ŵana 46 pa 100 ŵaliwose awo ŵakeneranga kusambira masambiro gha ku pulayimale, ndipo 21 pa 100 ŵaliwose awo ŵakasambiranga masambiro gha ku sekondare. Ŵanandi ŵakunjira sukulu izi, ndipo mu vigaŵa vinyake ŵakujumpha 20 peresenti. Ŵanthu awo ŵakumanya kuŵazga na kulemba ni 70.2%, ŵanalume 79.6%, ŵanakazi 60.8%.<ref name="cia" /> ==Culture== {{Further|Visual arts of Sudan|Architecture of Sudan|Sudanese literature}} Ŵanthu ŵa mafuko pafupifupi 578 ŵakuyowoya viyowoyero vyakupambanapambana. Ŵanthu aŵa ŵakukhala mu vigaŵa vinandi vya mu Africa. Ukaboni wasono ukulongora kuti nangauli ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa mu charu ichi ŵakutemwa chomene vinthu vya ku Sudan na chisopa chawo, kweni ŵanthu ŵa ku Arabia na ku Africa ŵakutemwana chomene..<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.bath.ac.uk/economics/research/working-papers/2014-papers/21-14.pdf|title=Hamilton, A. and Hudson, J. (2014) Bribery and Identity: Evidence from Sudan. Bath Economic Research Papers, No 21/14|access-date=30 April 2014|archive-date=2 May 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140502003707/http://www.bath.ac.uk/economics/research/working-papers/2014-papers/21-14.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> ===Music=== {{main|Music of Sudan}} [[File:Drummer at Hamed el-Nil Mosque (8625532075).jpg|thumb|A [[Sufi]] [[dervish]] drums up the Friday afternoon crowd in [[Omdurman]].]] Charu cha Sudan chili na mitheto ya sumu iyo yikasuzga chomene ŵanthu. Pakwamba na kukhazikiskika kwa dango la Salafi la Sharia mu 1983, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakumanyikwa ŵa mu charu ichi nga ni Mahjoub Sharif ŵakakakika apo ŵanyake nga ni Mohammed el Amin (uyo wakawelera ku Sudan pakati pa ma 1990s) na Mohammed Wardi (uyo wakawelera ku Sudan mu 2003), ŵakachimbilira ku Cairo. Sumu za mu nyengo yakale nazo zikapwetekeka, ndipo viphikiro vya mu nyengo yakale vya Zār vikamara. Nyengo yeneyiyo, ŵasilikari ŵa ku Europe ŵakayambiska sumu za ku Sudan. Chiyelezgero ni ungano wa Shulkawi No. 1. Kumpoto kwa Sudan kuli sumu zakupambana na zinyake. Mu sumu yinyake iyo yikuchemeka Aldlayib, ŵakugwiliskira nchito cakwimbira cakucemeka Tambur. Chiŵiya ichi chili na vingwe vinkhondi, chili kupangika na khuni ndipo chikulizga sumu pamoza na ŵanthu awo ŵakwimba. ===Cinema === {{Main|Cinema of Sudan|Photography of Sudan}} Sinema ya ku Sudan yikamba na vithuzithuzi ivyo ŵanthu ŵa ku Britain ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito mu vyaka vya m'ma 1900. Pamanyuma pa kujithemba mu 1956, filimu yakulongosora vya mdauko yikaŵa yakukhora, kweni boma la Chisilamu likapangiska kuti mafilimu ghachepe mu ma 1990. Kwambira mu 2010, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakamba kuwoneseska kuti mafilimu ghaŵaso ghakunozga kweniso kuti ŵanthu ŵakutemwa chomene mafilimu. Kugwiliskira nchito vithuzi mu Sudan kukamba mu ma 1880 apo ufumu wa Britain na Eguputo ukalamuliranga. Nga ni umo vikaŵira mu vyaru vinyake, kucindikwa kwa vithuzithuzi pa nkhani za ŵanthu ŵanandi nga ni manyuzipepara, kweniso vya ŵanthu awo ŵakujambura vithuzithuzi, kukapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵamanye vinandi pa nkhani ya vithuzithuzi mu Sudan mu vyaka vya m'ma 1900. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 2000, vinthu vikasintha chomene mu charu cha Sudan, chomenechomene chifukwa cha vithuzi vya digito. ===Clothing=== [[File:Bedscha.jpg|thumb|Bejia men wearing galabiyas]] Ŵanthu ŵanandi ku Sudan ŵakuvwara vyakuvwara vya ku Europe na vyakumwera. Ŵanalume ŵa ku Sudan ŵakutemwa kuvwara malaya ghakuchemeka jalabiya. Kanandi jalabiya wakuvwara chisoti chikuru na chigudulu, ndipo chakuvwara ichi chingaŵa chituŵa, cha mitundu yakupambanapambana, cha mikwawu, ndiposo chakuvwara chakupambanapambana, kuyana na nyengo ya chaka na ivyo munthu wakukhumba. Chovala chofala kwambiri cha akazi a ku Sudan ndi thobe kapena thawb, chomwe chimatchulidwa kuti tobe m'chinenero cha ku Sudan. Thube ni salu yitali yituŵa panji ya mitundu yakupambanapambana iyo ŵanakazi ŵakuvwara mu malaya ghawo, ndipo kanandi ŵakubisa mutu na sisi. Chifukwa cha dango la milandu ilo likaŵako mu 1991, ŵanakazi ŵakazomerezgekanga yayi kuvwara mathalauza pa wumba. Munthu uyo wakavwara mathalauza wakalangikanga kuti wapwetekenge na nthonga 40. Kweni mu 2009, mwanakazi munyake wakapika ndalama zakukwana madola 200.<ref name="auto">{{Cite news|url=https://www.thestar.com/news/2009/09/06/woman_faces_40_lashes_for_wearing_trousers.html|title=Woman faces 40 lashes for wearing trousers|date=6 September 2009|newspaper=The Toronto Star|last1=Ross|first1=Oakland}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url= https://www.nytimes.com/2009/09/08/world/africa/08sudan.html?_r=0| work=The New York Times |first1=Jeffrey |last1=Gettleman |first2=Waleed |last2=Arafat |title=Sudan Court Fines Woman for Wearing Trousers |date=8 September 2009}}</ref> ===Sport=== {{Main articles|Sudan national football team |Sudan women's national football team}} Nga umo viliri mu vyaru vinandi, mpira ndiwo ngwakuzirwa comene mu Sudan. Bungwe la mpira la Sudan Football Association likakhazikiskika mu chaka cha 1936 ndipo ndi umo likakhalira limoza mwa mabungwe ghakale chomene mu Africa. Ndipouli, pambere wupu wa football Association undaŵeko, chalo cha Sudan chikamba kuseŵera mpira uwo ukatoleka na ŵasilikari ŵa Britain kufuma ku Egypt. Mabungwe ena a ku Sudan omwe adakhazikitsidwa panthawiyo akuphatikizapo Al-Hilal Omdurman, Al-Merrikh, zomwe zidapangitsa kuti mpira ukhale wotchuka mdzikolo. Khartoum League ndiyo yikaŵa ligi yakwamba ku Sudan. Kufuma mu Seputembala 2019, pakaŵa ligi ya ŵanakazi ya mpira iyo yikamba kufuma ku magulu gha ŵanakazi ghambura kulembeka. Mu chaka cha 2021, timu ya mpira ya ku Sudan yikwenela kakwamba mu chiphalizgano cha Arab Women's Cup, icho chikachitikira ku Cairo, Egypt. Chikwata cha mpira wa m'mphepete mwa nyanja cha ku Sudan chikapikisana pa CAVB Beach Volleyball Continental Cup ya 2018-2020 mu chigawo cha azimayi ndi amuna. Mu Juni 2022, Patricia Seif El Din El Haj, mwanakazi wakwamba wa ku Sudan uyo wakachitako maseŵero gha ku Africa, wakatoleka vithuzi na Mohamed Nureldin Abdallah wa ku Reuters, apo wakanozgekeranga kuluta ku Nigeria kunozgekera maseŵero gha Olimpiki mu 2024..<ref>{{Cite web |date=8 June 2022 |title=Reuters Pictures – Sudan-Women/Martial art |url=https://pictures.reuters.com/CS.aspx?VP3=SearchResult&VBID=2C0BXZ1THRXCM&SMLS=1&RW=1498&RH=904&POPUPPN=25&POPUPIID=2C0FQED8J07WH |access-date=11 August 2022 |website=pictures.reuters.com}}</ref> ==Wonaniso== {{Portal|Africa}} * [[Outline of Sudan]] * [[Orders, decorations, and medals of Sudan]] ==Ukaboni== {{notelist}} {{reflist|refs= <ref name="Const_Dec_En_unofficial">{{cite web |last = Reeves |first = Eric |author-link = Eric Reeves |others=[[Forces of Freedom and Change|FFC]], [[Transitional Military Council (2019)|TMC]], [[International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance|IDEA]] |title = Sudan: Draft Constitutional Charter for the 2019 Transitional Period |website= sudanreeves.org |date = 10 August 2019 |url = https://sudanreeves.org/2019/08/06/sudan-draft-constitutional-charter-for-the-2019-transitional-period/ |access-date = 10 August 2019 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20190810213233/https://sudanreeves.org/2019/08/06/sudan-draft-constitutional-charter-for-the-2019-transitional-period/ |archive-date= 10 August 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> <ref name="raisethevoices_4Aug2019_const_dec">{{cite web |others=[[Forces of Freedom and Change|FFC]], [[Transitional Military Council (2019)|TMC]] |title = (الدستوري Declaration (العربية)) |trans-title = (Constitutional Declaration) |language = ar |website= raisethevoices.org |date =4 August 2019 |url = http://raisethevoices.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/sudan-amendment.pdf |access-date = 5 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190805170905/http://raisethevoices.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/sudan-amendment.pdf |archive-date= 5 August 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> }} ==Vyamu mabuku== {{Scholia}} ; Mabuku * {{cite book |last=Adams |first=William Y. |title=Nubia. 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A Social and Economic History |publisher=Oxford University}} * {{cite book |last=Shackelford|first=Elizabeth |year=2020 |title=The Dissent Channel: American Diplomacy in a Dishonest Age |publisher=Public Affairs |isbn=978-1-5417-2448-8}} * {{cite book |last=Shinnie |first=P.L. |title=The Cambridge History of Africa. Volume 2 |url=https://archive.org/details/cambridgehistory02fage |chapter=Christian Nubia. |editor=J.D. Fage |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University |year=1978 |pages=556–588 |isbn=978-0-521-21592-3}} * {{cite book |last=Spaulding |first=Jay |title=The Heroic Age in Sennar |year=1985 |publisher=Red Sea |isbn=978-1569022603}} * {{cite book |last=Suliman |first=Osman |year=2010 |title=The Darfur Conflict: Geography or Institutions? |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-0-203-83616-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Hrn-dkM00koC}} * {{cite book |last=Vantini |first=Giovanni |title=Oriental Sources concerning Nubia |year=1975 |publisher=Heidelberger Akademie der Wissenschaften |url=http://www.medievalnubia.info/dev/index.php/Giovanni_Vantini%27s_Oriental_Sources_Concerning_Nubia |oclc=174917032}} * {{cite book |last=Welsby |first=Derek |title=The Medieval Kingdoms of Nubia. Pagans, Christians and Muslims Along the Middle Nile|url=https://archive.org/details/medievalkingdoms0000wels |year=2002 |publisher=British Museum |place=London |isbn=978-0714119472}} * {{cite book |last=Werner |first=Roland |title=Das Christentum in Nubien. Geschichte und Gestalt einer afrikanischen Kirche |year=2013 |publisher=Lit |isbn=978-3-643-12196-7|language=de}} * Zilfū, ʻIṣmat Ḥasan (translation: Clark, Peter) (1980). ''Karari: The Sudanese Account of the Battle of Omdurman''. Frederick Warne & Co (London). {{ISBN|978-0-7232-2677-2}}. ; Articles * "Sudan." Background Notes, U.S. Department of State, 2009. [https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A194470122/GPS?u=wikipedia&sid=GPS&xid=bb340529 online] * "Quo Vadis bilad as-Sudan? The Contemporary Framework for a National Interim Constitution". ''Law in Africa'' ([[Cologne]]; 2005). Vol. 8, pp.&nbsp;63–82. {{ISSN|1435-0963}}. * {{cite book |last=Lajtar |first=Adam |chapter=Qasr Ibrim's last land sale, AD 1463 (EA 90225) |title=Nubian Voices. 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Proceedings of the X International Conference of Nubian Studies Rome 9–14 September 2002 |editor= Alessandro Roccati and Isabella Caneva |year=2006 |chapter=Some new light on the end of Soba |pages=487–491 |publisher=Libreria Dello Stato |isbn=978-88-240-1314-7}} ; Intaneti * {{cite web |last1=O'Fahey |first1=R. S. |last2=Tubiana |first2=Jérôme |year=2007 |title=Darfur. Historical and Contemporary Aspects |url=https://org.uib.no/smi/darfur/A%20DARFUR%20WHOS%20WHO3.pdf |access-date=23 August 2018 |archive-date=28 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191228022400/https://org.uib.no/smi/darfur/A%20DARFUR%20WHOS%20WHO3.pdf |url-status=dead }} == Vigaŵa vya kuwalo == {{Sister project links|Sudan|voy=Sudan}} * [http://www.sudan.gov.sd/index.php/en Government of Sudan] website * [https://rainerebert.com/2017/08/25/archaeological-sites-in-sudan/ Archaeological sites in Sudan] * {{GovPubs|sudan}} * {{curlie|Regional/Africa/Sudan}} * {{Wikiatlas|Sudan}} * {{osmrelation-inline|192789}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20210111020040/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/sudan/ Sudan]. ''[[The World Factbook]]''. [[Central Intelligence Agency]]. * {{Cite EB1911|wstitle= Sudan |volume= 26 |last= Cana |first= Frank Richardson |author-link= |pages = 9–19 ||short= 1}} * [https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14094995 Sudan profile] from [[BBC News]] * [https://www.scribd.com/doc/127199474/CIMIC-activities-int-he-African-Union-Mission-in-Sudan%20 CIMIC activities in the African Union Mission in Sudan] * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FAYxXu53m04 The conflict in South Sudan] – ''[[The Economist]]'' * [https://unamid.unmissions.org/ UNAMID {{!}} UNITED NATIONS – AFRICAN UNION HYBRID OPERATION IN DARFUR] {{Sudan topics|state=collapsed}} {{coord|15|N|032|E|region:SD_type:country|display=title}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Sudan]] <!--Keep at top (category corresponding to article), with a blank space, to keep this article at the top of the category.--> [[Category:1956 establishments in Africa]] [[Category:Arabic-speaking countries and territories]] [[Category:Countries in Africa]] [[Category:East African countries]] [[Category:English-speaking countries and territories]] [[Category:Federal republics]] [[Category:Least developed countries]] [[Category:Member states of the African Union]] [[Category:Member states of the Arab League]] [[Category:Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation]] [[Category:Member states of the United Nations]] [[Category:Military dictatorships]] [[Category:Saharan countries]] [[Category:States and territories established in 1956]] nd8vluro2uaxo39loa4qcfo84dglxxe 0 35996 119335 118813 2026-08-13T23:19:07Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Add 12 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260813sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 119335 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Mlimo wakulondezga ndondomeko pakusanga umanyi}} {{pp-semi-indef}} {{pp-move}} {{For-multi|the journal|Science (journal){{!}}''Science'' (journal)|a topical guide|Outline of science|other uses}} {{Use British English|date=December 2024}} {{Use dmy dates|date=February 2025}} {{Sidebar | name = Usanthuro | pretitle = Part of [[Portal:Science|a series]] on | title = [[Usanthuro]] | image = [[File:Stylised atom with three Bohr model orbits and stylised nucleus.svg|100px]] | contentclass = hlist | heading1 = Usanisani | content1 = * [[Mbiri ya Usanthuro|Mbiri]] * [[vyakulemba vya Usanthuro|Vyakulemba]] * [[Ndondomeko ya Usanthuro|Ndondomeko]] * [[Kusanda umanyi mwa usanthuro|Kusanda-Umanyi]] | heading2 = Nthavi | content2 = * [[usanthuro wa malango ghakunyoloka|Vya malango ghakunyoloka]] * [[Usanthuro chilengiwa chose|Vya chilengiwa chose]] ** [[Usanthuro wa vya mvimba|Vya mvimba]] ** [[Usanthuro wa vya moyo|Vya moyo]] * [[Usanthuro wa ŵanthu|Vya ŵanthu]] ** [[Usanthuro wa nkharo za ŵanthu|Vya nkharo za ŵanthu]] ** [[Usanthuro wa vya zeru|Vya zeru]] * [[Usanthuro wa kukhazikiskika|wa Kukhazikiskika]] | heading3 = Mu Vikaya | content3 = * [[Kudumbiskana kwa vya usanthuro|Kudumbiskana]] * [[Ŵasanthuri|Ŵasanthuri]] * [[Masambiro gha sayansi|Masambiro]] * [[Kufighilira ndalama za usanthuro|Kufighilira ndalama]] * [[Malango gha usanthuro|Malango]] * [[Ma usanthuro gha yautesi]] * [[Msanthura]] | below = * [[File:Nuvola apps kcmsystem.png|15px|link=Portal:Science]] [[Portal:Science|Science portal]] * [[Outline of science|Outline]] * [[:Category:Science|Category]] * [[Index of science articles|Article indexes]] * [[Glossary of scientific terms|Glossaries]] }} '''Usanthuro''' ni nthowa yakulongosoka ya masambiro iyo yikuzenga na kunozga umanyi kwizira mu [[maghanoghano|maghanoghano gha kusachizga]] agho ghangapimika na [[ivyo vikusololeka|vyakuloskeka]] vya chilengiwa chose.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Wilson |first=E. O. |url=https://archive.org/details/consilienceunity00wils_135 |title=Consilience: The Unity of Knowledge |publisher=Vintage |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-679-76867-8 |edition=Reprint |location=New York |pages=[https://archive.org/details/consilienceunity00wils_135/page/n55 49]–71 |chapter=The natural sciences |url-access=limited}}</ref><ref name="Heilbron2003">{{cite book |last=Heilbron |first=J. L. |author-link=J. L. Heilbron |title=The Oxford Companion to the History of Modern Science |url=https://archive.org/details/oxfordcompaniont0000unse_q5e5 |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-19-511229-0 |location=New York |pages=vii–x |chapter=Preface |quote=...modern science is a discovery as well as an invention. It was a discovery that nature generally acts regularly enough to be described by laws and even by mathematics; and required invention to devise the techniques, abstractions, apparatus, and organization for exhibiting the regularities and securing their law-like descriptions. |display-authors=etal}}</ref> Usanthuro wa mu nyengo yasono kanandi yikugaŵika mu vipaturo vikuru viŵiri{{snd}}panji vitatu{{snd}}vikuru:<ref name="Cohen2021">{{cite book |last=Cohen |first=Eliel |url=https://www.routledge.com/The-University-and-its-Boundaries-Thriving-or-Surviving-in-the-21st-Century/Cohen/p/book/9780367562984 |title=The University and its Boundaries: Thriving or Surviving in the 21st Century |publisher=Routledge |year=2021 |isbn=978-0-367-56298-4 |location=New York |pages=14–41 |chapter=The boundary lens: theorising academic activity |access-date=4 May 2021 |archive-date=5 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210505045450/https://www.routledge.com/The-University-and-its-Boundaries-Thriving-or-Surviving-in-the-21st-Century/Cohen/p/book/9780367562984 |url-status=live}}</ref> [[vipaturo vya kusanda vinthu vya chilengiwa]], ivyo vikusanda [[charu chakukhwaskika na vyakuwoneka|vya mvimba]], na [[vipaturo vya kusanda makhaliro gha ŵanthu|mausanthuro gha kusanda makhaliro gha ŵanthu]], agho ghakusanda munthu payekha na kakhaliro ka ŵanthu mu vikaya na misumba.<ref name="Colander2019">{{cite book |last1=Colander |first1=David C. |title=Social Science: An Introduction to the Study of Society |last2=Hunt |first2=Elgin F. |year=2019 |publisher=Routledge |edition=17th |location=New York |pages=1–22 |chapter=Social science and its methods}}</ref><ref name="Nisbet2020">{{cite encyclopedia |title=Social Science |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/social-science |access-date=9 May 2021 |date=16 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220202193947/https://www.britannica.com/topic/social-science |archive-date=2 February 2022 |last2=Greenfeld |first2=Liah |last1=Nisbet |first1=Robert A. |url-status=live}}</ref> Nangauli ghakuchemeka [[masambiro gha malango ghakunyoloka|mausanthuro gha malango ghakunyoloka]], masambiro gha [[kaghanaghaniro kanyoloka|kaghanaghaniro kakunyoloka]], [[kusanda kwa manambala|kusanda kwa kupenda]], na [[kaghanaghaniro ka makina ghakupenda|usanthuro wa fundo za makina gha kurangura]] kanandi ghakuwoneka kuti ngapadera chifukwa ghakuthemba pa [[nthowa yakulongosolera kufuma ku malango ghakumanyikwa kale]] m'malo mwa [[nthowa ya kusanda vinthu pakuyezgelera|nthowa ya kusanthura]] kuŵa nthowa yawo yikuru ya kachitiro ka milimo.<ref name="Kluwer">{{cite book |last1=Bishop |first1=Alan |title=Mathematical Enculturation: A Cultural Perspective on Mathematics Education |publisher=Kluwer |year=1991 |isbn=978-0-7923-1270-3 |location=Norwell, MA |pages=20–59 |chapter=Environmental activities and mathematical culture |access-date=24 March 2018 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9AgrBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA54}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Bunge |first1=Mario |title=Philosophy of Science: Volume 1, From Problem to Theory |publisher=Routledge |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-7658-0413-6 |edition=revised |volume=1 |location=New York |pages=3–50 |chapter=The Scientific Approach}}</ref><ref name="Fetzer2013">{{cite book |last1=Fetzer |first1=James H. |title=Computers and Cognition: Why Minds are not Machines |publisher=Kluwer |year=2013 |isbn=978-1-4438-1946-6 |location=Newcastle, United Kingdom |pages=271–308 |chapter=Computer reliability and public policy: Limits of knowledge of computer-based systems}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Nickles |first1=Thomas |title=Philosophy of Pseudoscience: Reconsidering the Demarcation Problem |publisher=The University of Chicago Press |year=2013 |page=104 |chapter=The Problem of Demarcation}}</ref> Panyengo yeneyiyo, [[masambiro ghakuŵika kumanya pa milimo|mausanthuro ghakuŵika kumanya pa milimo]] ni masambiro agho ghakugwiliskira ntchito kumanya kwa usanthuro pa milimo yakukhwaskika, nga ni luso la kupanga-mwaufundi na luso la munkhwara.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Fischer |first1=M. R. |last2=Fabry |first2=G |year=2014 |title=Thinking and acting scientifically: Indispensable basis of medical education |journal=GMS Zeitschrift für Medizinische Ausbildung |volume=31 |issue=2 |pages=Doc24 |doi=10.3205/zma000916 |pmc=4027809 |pmid=24872859}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sinclair |first=Marius |year=1993 |title=On the Differences between the Engineering and Scientific Methods |url=https://www.ijee.ie/contents/c090593.html |url-status=live |journal=The International Journal of Engineering Education |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171115220102/https://www.ijee.ie/contents/c090593.html |archive-date=15 November 2017 |access-date=7 September 2018}}</ref><ref name="Bunge1966">{{Cite book |last=Bunge |first=M. |title=Contributions to a Philosophy of Technology |publisher=Springer |year=1966 |isbn=978-94-010-2184-5 |editor-last=Rapp |editor-first=F. |location=Dordrecht |pages=19–39 |chapter=Technology as Applied Science |doi=10.1007/978-94-010-2182-1_2 |s2cid=110332727}}</ref> [[Mbiri ya kusanda kwa ndondomeko|Mbiri ya usanthuro]] yikutandazgika mu vyaka vinandi ivyo vili kulembeka kale, apo masambiro ghakwambilira agho ghakatovwira kufika pa masambiro gha mazuŵa ghano ghakamba mu [[Nyengo ya Chikuŵa]] ku [[Eguputo wa kale|Eguputo]] na [[Mesopotamiya]] ({{circa|3000–1200 BC}}). Kutovwira kwawo pa masambiro gha manambala, [[kusanda nyenyezi]], na [[luso la kurapa]] kukasolora na kuozga [[mahala gha chilengedwe]] gha Chigiriki gha [[nyengo yakale chomene]] ndipo pamanyuma masambiro gha mu [[Medieval renaissances|nyengo ya kuwuka kwa masambiro ya mu pakati]], apo pakaŵa kuyezgelera kwa ndondomeko kuti paŵe kulongosola vinthu ivyo vikuchitika mu [[charu chakukhwaskika na vyakuwoneka]] kwizira mu vifukwa vya chilengedwe; apo kukulira kunyake, kusazgapo kwizika kwa [[nthowa ya manambala ya ku Indiya na Chiarabu]], kukachitika mu [[Golden Age of India#Gupta Empire|Nyengo ya Ukuru ya Indiya]] na [[Islamic Golden Age|Nyengo ya Ukuru ya Chisilamu]].<ref name="Lindberg2007">{{Cite book |last=Lindberg |first=David C. |title=The beginnings of Western science: the European Scientific tradition in philosophical, religious, and institutional context |url=https://archive.org/details/beginningsofwest0000lind_d9a5 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-226-48205-7 |edition=2nd}}</ref><ref name="Grant2007a"> {{cite book |last=Grant |first=Edward |title=A History of Natural Philosophy: From the Ancient World to the Nineteenth Century |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofnatural0000gran |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-521-68957-1 |location=New York }}</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=rMAaBgAAQBAJ Building Bridges Among the BRICs] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230418081025/https://books.google.com/books?id=rMAaBgAAQBAJ |date=18 April 2023 }}, p. 125, Robert Crane, Springer, 2014</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Keay |first=John |url=https://archive.org/details/indiahistory00keay/page/132 |title=India: A history |publisher=Atlantic Monthly Press |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-87113-800-2 |page=[https://archive.org/details/indiahistory00keay/page/132 132] |quote=The great era of all that is deemed classical in Indian literature, art and science was now dawning. It was this crescendo of creativity and scholarship, as much as ... political achievements of the Guptas, which would make their age so golden. |author-link=John Keay}}</ref><ref name="Lindberg2007" /> Kusangika so na kusazgika kwa [[Ancient Greek literature|mabuku gha Chigiriki]] na [[Science in the medieval Islamic world|mafumbo gha Chisilamu]] mu kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Yuropu mu nyengo ya [[Renaissance|Kuwuka kukhuru kwa masambiro]] kukawuska so mahala gha chilengedwe,<ref name="Lindberg2007" />{{rp|pp=193–224, 225–253}}<ref>Sease, Virginia; Schmidt-Brabant, Manfrid. Thinkers, Saints, Heretics: Spiritual Paths of the Middle Ages. 2007. [https://books.google.com/books?id=8Lkzp-StZGUC&dq=%22Everything+we+would+today+call+science+came+through+Islam%22&pg=PA80 Pages 80–81] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240827070053/https://books.google.com/books?id=8Lkzp-StZGUC&dq=%22Everything%20we%20would%20today%20call%20science%20came%20through%20Islam%22&pg=PA80 |date=27 August 2024 }}. Retrieved 6 October 2023</ref> ilo pamanyuma likasinthika na [[Scientific Revolution|Kusintha kukhuru kwa nthowa zakusandira vinthu]] uko kukamba mu vyaka vya m'ma 1500<ref>{{cite book |last=Principe |first=Lawrence M. |title=Scientific Revolution: A Very Short Introduction |url=https://archive.org/details/scientificrevolu0000prin |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-19-956741-6 |location=New York |pages=[https://archive.org/details/scientificrevolu0000prin/page/1 1]–3 |chapter=Introduction}}</ref> apo maghanoghano na visangwa viphya vikapatukana na kaghanaghaniro na maluso gha kale gha Chigiriki.<ref name="Lindberg2007" /><ref name="Grant2007a" /> [[nthowa ya kusanda vinthu pakuyezgelera]] mwaluŵiro yikamba kuchita ntchito yikuru pa kusanga kumanya, ndipo mu [[19th century in science|vyaka vya m'ma 1800]], vinandi mwa kakhaliro ka [[Institutionalisation|nyumba za masambiro]] na [[Professionalization|luso la pa ntchito]] la kusanda kwa ndondomeko vikamba kuoneka,<ref>{{cite book |title=From Natural Philosophy to the Sciences: Writing the History of Nineteenth-Century Science |url=https://archive.org/details/fromnaturalphilo0000unse |year=2003 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-08928-7 |editor1-last=Cahan |editor1-first=David}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Lightman |first1=Bernard |title=Wrestling with Nature: From Omens to Science |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780226317830 |year=2011 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-31783-0 |editor1-last=Shank |editor1-first=Michael |page=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780226317830/page/367 367] |chapter=13. Science and the Public |editor2-last=Numbers |editor2-first=Ronald |editor3-last=Harrison |editor3-first=Peter}}</ref> pamoza na kusintha kwa "mahala gha chilengedwe" kuŵa "vipaturo vya kusanda vinthu vya chilengedwe".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Harrison |first1=Peter |title=The Territories of Science and Religion |year=2015 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-18451-7 |pages=164–165 |quote=The changing character of those engaged in scientific endeavors was matched by a new nomenclature for their endeavors. The most conspicuous marker of this change was the replacement of "natural philosophy" by "natural science". In 1800 few had spoken of the "natural sciences" but by 1880 this expression had overtaken the traditional label "natural philosophy". The persistence of "natural philosophy" in the twentieth century is owing largely to historical references to a past practice (see figure 11). As should now be apparent, this was not simply the substitution of one term by another, but involved the jettisoning of a range of personal qualities relating to the conduct of philosophy and the living of the philosophical life. |author-link1=Peter Harrison (historian)}}</ref> Kumanya kupya mu kusanda kwa ndondomeko kukukulira chifukwa cha kusanda kwa ŵasandi awo ŵali na khumbo la kumanya vinandi vya charu na khumbo la kumazga masuzgo.<ref>{{cite book |last=MacRitchie |first=Finlay |url=https://www.routledge.com/Scientific-Research-as-a-Career/MacRitchie/p/book/9781439869659 |title=Scientific Research as a Career |publisher=Routledge |year=2011 |isbn=978-1-4398-6965-9 |location=New York |pages=1–6 |chapter=Introduction |access-date=5 May 2021 |archive-date=5 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210505074020/https://www.routledge.com/Scientific-Research-as-a-Career/MacRitchie/p/book/9781439869659 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Marder |first=Michael P. |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/research-methods-for-science/1C04E5D747781B68C52A79EE86BF584B |title=Research Methods for Science |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-521-14584-8 |location=New York |pages=1–17 |chapter=Curiosity and research |access-date=5 May 2021 |archive-date=5 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210505001547/https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/research-methods-for-science/1C04E5D747781B68C52A79EE86BF584B |url-status=live}}</ref> Kusanda kwa ndondomeko kwa mazuŵa ghano kanandi nkhwa kugwilira ntchito pamoza kwa magulu mu [[nyumba za masambiro na zakusandiramo vinthu]], maofesi gha boma,<ref name="Lindberg2007" /> na magulu gha malonda.<ref>{{cite book |last=Szycher |first=Michael |url=https://www.routledge.com/Commercialization-Secrets-for-Scientists-and-Engineers/Szycher/p/book/9781498730600 |title=Commercialization Secrets for Scientists and Engineers |publisher=Routledge |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-138-40741-1 |location=New York |pages=159–176 |chapter=Establishing your dream team |access-date=5 May 2021 |archive-date=18 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210818032914/https://www.routledge.com/Commercialization-Secrets-for-Scientists-and-Engineers/Szycher/p/book/9781498730600 |url-status=live}}</ref> Pa nyengo yeneyiyo, visangwa vinandi vikuru—makamaka mu [[kusanda vinthu pafupifupi na mizu yawo]]—vafuma ku ŵasandi payekha ndipo vikumanyikwa chomene kwizira mu [[chawanangwa]] chikuru cha pa charu chose nga ni [[Nobel Prize|Chawanangwa cha Nobelo]]. Vyandulo vyakukhwaskika vya ntchito ya kusanda vinthu vyapangiska kuti kuŵe [[Science policy|ndondomeko za boma pa vya kusanda vinthu]] izo zikupenja kuŵika pakwamba [[Responsible Research and Innovation|kukuzga mwakuchita makora]] kwa vinthu vya malonda, chisamaliro cha umoyo, nthowa za kwendera na kukhala kwa ŵanthu, [[environmental protection|kuvikilira chilengedwe]], na mphanvu za kuvikilira charu. == Kujima lizgu == Mazgu ghakuti ''science (usanthuro)'' ghayamba kale kugwiliskirika ntchito mu Chingelezi kufuma mu vyaka vya m'ma 1300 ([[Middle English|Chingelezi cha mu vyaka vya pakati]]) mu kakhaliro kakuti "kuŵa na kumanya". Mazgu agha ghakatoleka kufuma ku [[Anglo-Norman language|chiyowoyero cha Anglo-Norman]] nga ni chivizizgo cha {{lang|xno|-cience}}, icho chikachita kutoleka kufuma ku mazgu gha [[Latin|Chilatini]] gha {{lang|la|[[wikt:scientia|scientia]]}}, kung'anamura {{gloss|kumanya, kuŵa maso, kupulikiska}}, [[Morphological derivation|mazgu ghakufuma]] ku {{lang|la|[[wikt:sciens|sciens]]}} kung'anamura {{gloss|kumanya}}, ilo pakulokha ni kanyake ka mazgu ghakuchita ka {{wikt-lang|la|sciō}} {{gloss|kumanya}}.<ref>{{cite dictionary |title=Science |encyclopedia=Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary |url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/science |access-date=16 October 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190901035713/https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/science |archive-date=1 September 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> Paliso maghanoghano ghanandi ghakuyezgelereka pa nkhani ya uko mazgu ghakuti ''science'' ghakafuma na kukhazikika. Kuyana na [[Michiel de Vaan]], wakumanya vya viyowoyero wa ku Netherlands ndipo [[Indo-Europeanist|wakumanya viyowoyero vya ku Indiya na Yuropu]], {{lang|la|sciō}} lingaŵa kuti lina mafumiro ghake mu [[Proto-Italic language|chiyowoyero chakwambilira cha Chitaliya]] nga ni {{lang|itc-x-proto|*skije-}} panji {{lang|itc-x-proto|*skijo-}} kung'anamura {{gloss|kumanya}}, icho lingaŵa kuti lina mafumiro kufuma mu [[Proto-Indo-European language|chiyowoyero chakwambilira cha ku Indiya na Yuropu]] nga ni {{lang|ine-x-proto|skh₁-ie}}, {{lang|ine-x-proto|skh₁-io}} kung'anamura {{gloss|kuŵatula}}. Buku la ''[[Lexikon der indogermanischen Verben]]'' likati {{lang|la|sciō}} ni [[back-formation|mazgu ghakupangika kufuma]] ku {{lang|la|[[wikt:nescire|nescīre]]}}, kung'anamura {{gloss|kuleka kumanya, kuleka kuŵa na chizambizambi}}, icho lingafuma ku Proto-Indo-European ''{{lang|ine-x-proto|[[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/sek-|sekH-]]}}'' mu Chilatini ni {{lang|la|[[wikt:secare|secāre]]}}, panji {{lang|ine-x-proto|skh₂-}} kufuma ku {{lang|ine-x-proto|sḱʰeh2(i)-}} kung'anamura {{gloss|kudumura}}.<ref>{{Cite dictionary |year=2008 |title=sciō |dictionary=Etymological Dictionary of Latin and the other Italic Languages |url=https://archive.org/details/m-de-vaan-2008-etymological-dictionary-of-latin-and-the-other-italic-languages/page/544/ |last=Vaan |first=Michiel de |author-link=Michiel de Vaan |series=[[Indo-European Etymological Dictionary]] |page=545 |isbn=978-90-04-16797-1}}</ref> Mu nyengo zakale, kusanda kwa ndondomeko yikaŵa chinthu chimoza na "kumanya" panji "kusambira," mwakukolerana na mafumiro ghake gha Chilatini. Munthu uyo wakachitanga kafukufuku wa kusanda kwa ndondomeko wakachemekanga "[[natural philosopher|wamahara wa vinthu vya chilengedwe]]" panji "munthu wa masambiro gha kusanda."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Cahan |first=David |title=From natural philosophy to the sciences: writing the history of nineteenth-century science |url=https://archive.org/details/fromnaturalphilo0000unse |year=2003 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=0-226-08927-4 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/fromnaturalphilo0000unse/page/3 3]–15}}</ref> Mu chaka cha 1834, [[William Whewell]] wakazika mazgu ghakuti ''scientist'' (wakumanya vya kusanda kwa ndondomeko) mu kuwunika kwake kwa buku la [[Mary Somerville]] lakuti ''[[On the Connexion of the Physical Sciences]]'',<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ross |first=Sydney |year=1962 |title=Scientist: The story of a word |journal=[[Annals of Science]] |volume=18 |issue=2 |pages=65–85 |doi=10.1080/00033796200202722 |doi-access=free}}</ref> apo wakapeleka ulemu wa kupangika kwa mazgu agha kwa "mwanalume munyake wamahara" (panyake wakaŵa iyeyu mwaŵene).<ref>{{cite OED|scientist}}</ref> == Mbiri == {{Main|Mbiri ya usanthuro}} === Mbiri yakwambilira === {{Main|Usanthuro mu charu cha mchiyamwaka}} [[File:Megaliths Aswan Nubia museum.JPG|left|thumb|Malibwe ghakuru kufuma ku [[Nabta Playa]], ghakazengeka na ŵanthu ŵa mu [[Neolithic|nyengo ya mawe ghasono]] kuti ŵalongozge kawonero ka vinthu vya mu mlengalenga, ghakusangika mu [[Aswan]], [[Upper Egypt|Kuchanya kwa Eguputo]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ehret |first1=Christopher |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q5KjEAAAQBAJ |title=Ancient Africa: A Global History, to 300 CE |date=20 June 2023 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-24409-9 |page=107 |language=en}}</ref>]] [[File:Plimpton 322.jpg|thumb|Lupapati la dongo la [[Plimpton 322]] cha ŵanthu ŵa ku [[Babylonia]] chikulemba [[Pythagorean triple|vigaŵa vitatu vya Pythagoras]], chikulembeka {{circa|1800 BCE}}|alt=Clay tablet with markings, three columns for numbers and one for ordinals]] Kusanda kwa ndondomeko kulije mafumiro ghamoza pera. M'malo mwake, kaghanaghaniro ka kusanda kanyumba kano kakamba kuoneka pachoko na pachoko mu vyaka vinkhaniro vinandi,<ref>{{Citation |last=Carruthers |first=Peter |title=The roots of scientific reasoning: infancy, modularity and the art of tracking |date=2 May 2002 |work=The Cognitive Basis of Science |pages=73–96 |editor-last=Carruthers |editor-first=Peter |publisher=Cambridge University Press |doi=10.1017/cbo9780511613517.005 |isbn=978-0-521-81229-0 |editor2-last=Stich |editor2-first=Stephen |editor3-last=Siegal |editor3-first=Michael}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Lombard |first1=Marlize |last2=Gärdenfors |first2=Peter |year=2017 |title=Tracking the Evolution of Causal Cognition in Humans |journal=Journal of Anthropological Sciences |volume=95 |issue=95 |pages=219–234 |doi=10.4436/JASS.95006 |pmid=28489015 |issn=1827-4765}}</ref> pakutora kakhaliro kantu kakupambanapambana pa charu chose, ndipo vigaŵa vichoko pera ndivyo vikumanyikwa pa nkhani ya kukuzga kwakwambilira chomene. [[Women in science|Ŵanakazi]] ŵakaŵa na ntchito yikuru chomene mu kusanda kwa ndondomeko mu nyengo zakuzizwa pambere mbiri yindakhalikike,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Graeber |first1=David |last2=Wengrow |first2=David |author-link1=David Graeber |author-link2=David Wengrow |year=2021 |title=The Dawn of Everything |title-link=The Dawn of Everything |page=[https://archive.org/details/dawnofeverything0000grae/page/248 248]}}</ref> nga ni umo vikaŵira na [[Ritual#Religious perspectives|maluso gha chisopa]].<ref>{{cite journal |title=The Faerie Smith Meets the Bronze Industry: Magic Versus Science in the Interpretation of Prehistoric Metal-Making |jstor=124782 |last1=Budd |first1=Paul |last2=Taylor |first2=Timothy |journal=World Archaeology |year=1995 |volume=27 |issue=1 |pages=133–143 |doi=10.1080/00438243.1995.9980297 |bibcode=1995WoArc..27..133B }}</ref> Ŵamahara ŵanyake ŵakugwiliskira ntchito mazgu ghakuti "[[protoscience|masambiro ghakuyana na kusanda]]" pakuyowoya vya milimo ya mu nyengo yakale iyo yikuyana na kusanda kwa mazuŵa ghano mu vigaŵa vinyake kweni mu vyose yayi;<ref>{{cite book |last=Tuomela |first=Raimo |year=1987 |chapter=Science, Protoscience, and Pseudoscience |editor-last1=Pitt |editor-first1=J. C. |editor-last2=Pera |editor-first2=M. |title=Rational Changes in Science |series=Boston Studies in the Philosophy of Science |volume=98 |pages=83–101 |publisher=Springer |location=Dordrecht |doi=10.1007/978-94-009-3779-6_4 |isbn=978-94-010-8181-8}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1086/599864 |first=Pamela H. |last=Smith |title=Science on the Move: Recent Trends in the History of Early Modern Science |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_renaissance-quarterly_summer-2009_62_2/page/345 |journal=Renaissance Quarterly |volume=62 |number=2 |year=2009 |pages=345–375 |pmid=19750597 |s2cid=43643053}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fleck |first=Robert |date=March 2021 |title=Fundamental Themes in Physics from the History of Art |journal=Physics in Perspective |volume=23 |issue=1 |pages=25–48 |doi=10.1007/s00016-020-00269-7 |bibcode=2021PhP....23...25F |s2cid=253597172 |issn=1422-6944 |doi-access=free}}</ref> kweni, mazgu agha ghakususulika kuti ghakuyuyura, panji ghakuŵika mtima chomene pa [[Presentism (historical analysis)|kawonero ka mazuŵa ghano]], pakughanaghanira milimo iyo mwakukolerana pera na vigaŵa vya mazuŵa ghano.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1177/007327531205000203 |first=Peter |last=Dear |title=Historiography of Not-So-Recent Science |journal=History of Science |volume=50 |number=2 |year=2012 |pages=197–211 |s2cid=141599452}}</ref> Ukaboni wakudunjika wa nthowa za kusanda kwa ndondomeko ukumanyikwa makora chomene pamanyuma pa kwizika kwa [[writing systems|nthowa za kulembera]] mu [[Bronze Age|nyengo ya chikuŵa]] mu vyaka vya m'ma civilisations gha [[Ancient Egypt|Eguputo wa kale]] na [[Mesopotamia|Mesopotamiya]] ({{circa|3000–1200 BCE}}), kupanga maliboti ghakwambilira gha kulembeka mu [[history of science|mbiri ya kusanda kwa ndondomeko]].<ref name="Lindberg2007" /><ref name="Grant2007a" /> Nangauli mazgu na maghanoghano gha "kusanda kwa ndondomeko" na "chilengedwe" ghakaŵa mu maghanoghano gha ŵanthu panyengo iyo yayi, ŵanthu ŵa ku Eguputo ŵakale na Mesopotamiya ŵakaŵa na vyakusanguluska ivyo pamanyuma vikaŵa na malo mu kusanda kwa Chigiriki na kwa mu nyengo ya pakati: masambiro gha manambala, kusanda nyenyezi, na luso la kurapa.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Rochberg |first1=Francesca |author-link=Francesca Rochberg |editor1-last=Shank |editor1-first=Michael |editor2-last=Numbers |editor2-first=Ronald |editor3-last=Harrison |editor3-first=Peter |title=Wrestling with Nature: From Omens to Science |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780226317830 |year=2011 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-31783-0 |page=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780226317830/page/9 9] |chapter=Ch.1 Natural Knowledge in Ancient Mesopotamia}}</ref><ref name="Lindberg2007" /> Kufuma mu vyaka vya m'ma 3000 BCE, ŵanthu ŵa ku Eguputo ŵakale ŵakazenga [[Decimal#Origin|nthowa ya kupenda ya nambala khumi]] iyo njakuzengeka pa kakhaliro ka manambala yayi,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Krebs |first=Robert E. |title=Groundbreaking Scientific Experiments, Inventions, and Discoveries of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance |url=https://archive.org/details/groundbreakingsc0000kreb_p4w4 |publisher=[[Greenwood Publishing Group]] |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-313-32433-8 |page=[https://archive.org/details/groundbreakingsc0000kreb_p4w4/page/127 127]}}</ref> ŵakamazgo masuzgo gha pa mlima kwizira mu [[geometry|masambiro gha mikhaliro ya malo na vigaŵa]],<ref>{{cite book |last1=Erlich |first1=Ḥaggai |author-link=Haggai Erlich |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LcsJosc239YC&q=egyptian%20geometry%20Nile&pg=PA80 |title=The Nile: Histories, Cultures, Myths |last2=Gershoni |first2=Israel |year=2000 |publisher=Lynne Rienner |isbn=978-1-55587-672-2 |pages=80–81 |quote=The Nile occupied an important position in Egyptian culture; it influenced the development of mathematics, geography, and the calendar; Egyptian geometry advanced due to the practice of land measurement "because the overflow of the Nile caused the boundary of each person's land to disappear." |access-date=9 January 2020}}</ref> ndipo ŵakapanga [[Egyptian calendar|ndondomeko ya kalendala]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Telling Time in Ancient Egypt |url=https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/tell/hd_tell.htm |access-date=27 May 2022 |website=The Met's Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History |date=February 2017 |archive-date=3 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220303133140/https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/tell/hd_tell.htm |url-status=live}}</ref> Nthowa zawo za kuraŵa zikasazgapo matupi gha munkhwala na milimo yakuzizwa, nga ni malurombo, [[incantation|mashontho]], na maluso gha kachitiro.<ref name="Lindberg2007" /> Ŵanthu ŵa ku [[Nubians|Nubiya]] ŵakale ŵakaŵa na nthowa yakwambilira ya [[antibiotics|minkhwala yakukoma tushilingini mu thupi]] ndipo ŵakakhazikiska nthowa ya [[geometrics|masambiro gha mikhaliro ya malo]] iyo yikawovwira pa [[sundials|maworoghe gha dazi]] ghakwambilira. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Nubiya ŵakagwiliskirangaso ntchito nthowa ya [[Trigonometry|masambiro gha makona gha vigaŵa vitatu]] yakuyanako na ŵanyawo ŵa ku Eguputo.<ref>{{Cite journal |author=Armelagos, George |date=2000 |title=Take Two Beers and Call Me in 1,600 Years: Use of Tetracycline by Nubians and Ancient Egyptians |url=https://digitallibrary.amnh.org/items/482bd90a-de71-49b3-9bbc-d8ff0ab974b3 |journal=Natural History |volume=109 |issue=5 |pages=50–3 |s2cid=89542474}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title=Gnomons at Meroë and Early Trigonometry|first=Leo|last=Depuydt|date=1 January 1998|journal=The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology|volume=84|pages=171–180|doi=10.2307/3822211|jstor=3822211}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.archaeology.org/online/news/nubia.html|title=Neolithic Skywatchers|date=27 May 1998|first=Andrew|last=Slayman|website=Archaeology Magazine Archive|access-date=17 April 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110605234044/http://www.archaeology.org/online/news/nubia.html|archive-date=5 June 2011|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vO5FCVIxz2YC&q=nubia&pg=PA744|title=A History of Ancient Mathematical Astronomy|last=Neugebauer|first=O.|date=2004-09-17|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-3-540-06995-9|language=en}}</ref> Ŵanthu ŵa ku [[Mesopotamia|Mesopotamiya]] ŵakale ŵakagwiliskira ntchito kumanya kwa makhaliro gha vinthu vyakupambanapambana vya chilengedwe pakupanga [[pottery|viŵiya vya dongo]], [[faience|vinthu vya dongo vyakuŵala]], gilasi, sopo, visulo, [[lime plaster|malasitara gha njala]], na nthowa za kukanizga maji kunjira.<ref name="McIntosh2005">{{cite book |last1=McIntosh |first1=Jane R. |author-link=Jane McIntosh |title=Ancient Mesopotamia: New Perspectives |year=2005 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |location=Santa Barbara, CA |isbn=978-1-57607-966-9 |pages=273–276 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9veK7E2JwkUC&q=science+in+ancient+Mesopotamia |access-date=20 October 2020}}</ref> Ŵakasambira vya [[animal physiology|kakhaliro ka matupi gha vinyama]], [[anatomy|makhaliro gha mukati mwa thupi]], [[animal behavior|makhaliro gha vinyama]], na [[astrology|kusambira nyenyezi]] chifukwa cha [[divinatory|milimo ya kuombeza]].<ref>{{Cite journal |title=Scientific Astronomy in Antiquity |last=Aaboe |first=Asger |author-link=Asger Aaboe |journal=[[Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society]] |volume=276 |issue=1257 |date=2 May 1974 |pages=21–42 |doi=10.1098/rsta.1974.0007 |bibcode=1974RSPTA.276...21A |jstor=74272 |s2cid=122508567}}</ref> Ŵanthu ŵa ku Mesopotamiya ŵakaŵa na [[Babylonian medicine|khumbo likuru mu luso la kurapa]] ndipo [[medical prescription|machira gha minkhwala]] ghakwambilira ghakaoneka mu [[Sumerian language|chiyowoyero cha Chisumeriya]] mu nyengo ya [[Third Dynasty of Ur|Ufumu wachitatu wa Ur]].<ref name="McIntosh2005" /><ref>{{cite journal |title=Medicine, Surgery, and Public Health in Ancient Mesopotamia |first=R. D. |last=Biggs |journal=Journal of Assyrian Academic Studies |volume=19 |number=1 |year=2005 |pages=7–18}}</ref> Vikulongora kuti ŵakasambiranga vinthu vya kusanda ivyo vikaŵa na ntchito ya pa mlima panji ya chisopa ndipo ŵakaŵa na khumbo lichoko chomene la kumanya vinthu chifukwa cha khumbo lakukhorweska waka fumbo la mu mtima.<ref name="McIntosh2005" /> === Nyengo yakale ya mahara === {{Main|Science in classical antiquity}} [[File:MANNapoli 124545 plato's academy mosaic.jpg|left|thumb|[[Plato's Academy mosaic]], yakupangika pakati pa 100 BC na 79 AD, yikulongora ŵavinjeru ŵanandi na ŵakusambira ŵa Chigiriki.|alt=Chithuzi cha ŵavinjeru ŵakuwungana na kudumbiskana]] Mu [[classical antiquity|nyengo yakale ya mahara]], mukaŵavyepi munthu uyo tingamuyana na munasayansi wa mazuŵa ghano. M'malo mwake, ŵanalume ŵakusambira, awo kanandi ŵakaŵa ŵakusampha, ŵakachitanga kafukufuku wakupambanapambana mu vyaka vya chilengiwa pa nyengo iyo ŵakaŵira na mpata.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lehoux |first1=Daryn |editor1-last=Shank |editor1-first=Michael |editor2-last=Numbers |editor2-first=Ronald |editor3-last=Harrison |editor3-first=Peter |title=Wrestling with Nature: From Omens to Science |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780226317830 |year=2011 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-31783-0 |page=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780226317830/page/39 39] |chapter=2. Natural Knowledge in the Classical World}}</ref> Pambere fundo ya [[concept|chilengiwa]] panji kuti ''[[phusis]]'' yindasandulike na [[pre-Socratic philosopher|ŵavinjeru ŵakwambilira ŵa Chigiriki]], mazgu ghamoza ghakagwiliskirikanga ntchito pakulongosora "nthowa" iyo khuni likukulira,<ref>An account of the pre-Socratic use of the concept of φύσις may be found in {{cite book |last=Naddaf |first=Gerard |year=2006 |title=The Greek Concept of Nature |publisher=SUNY Press |postscript=,}} and in {{cite journal |last1=Ducarme |first1=Frédéric |last2=Couvet |first2=Denis |year=2020 |title=What does 'nature' mean? |journal=[[Palgrave Communications]] |volume=6 |issue=14 |article-number=14 |publisher=[[Springer Nature]] |doi=10.1057/s41599-020-0390-y |doi-access=free |url=https://hal.science/hal-02554932/file/s41599-020-0390-y.pdf |access-date=16 August 2023 |archive-date=16 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230816053756/https://hal.science/hal-02554932/file/s41599-020-0390-y.pdf |url-status=live}} The word φύσις, while first used in connection with a plant in Homer, occurs early in Greek philosophy, and in several senses. Generally, these senses match rather well the current senses in which the English word ''nature'' is used, as confirmed by {{cite book |last=Guthrie |first=W. K. C. |title=Presocratic Tradition from Parmenides to Democritus |postscript=none}} (volume 2 of his ''History of Greek Philosophy''), Cambridge University Press, 1965.</ref> kweniso "nthowa" iyo fuko linyake likusopera chiuta wawo. Pa chifukwa ichi, chikuyowoyeka kuti ŵanthu aŵa ŵakaŵa ŵavinjeru ŵakwamba panji kuti ŵafilozofwa ŵeneko, kweniso ŵakwamba kupatula pakati pa "chilengiwa" na "maluso gha ŵanthu".<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Strauss |first1=Leo |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cpx2j0TumyIC |title=An Introduction to Political Philosophy: Ten Essays by Leo Strauss |last2=Gildin |first2=Hilail |publisher=[[Wayne State University Press]] |isbn=978-0-8143-1902-4 |chapter=Progress or Return? The Contemporary Crisis in Western Education |year=1989 |access-date=30 May 2022 |page=209}}</ref> Ŵavinjeru ŵakwambilira ŵa [[Greek philosophers|Chigiriki]] ŵa ku sukulu ya ku Mileto, iyo yikambika na [[Thales of Miletus|Thales]] ndipo panyuma yikalutilizgika na [[Anaximander]] ndipo pamanyuma [[Anaximenes of Miletus|Anaximenes]], ŵakaŵa ŵakwamba kuyezga kulongosora [[natural phenomena|vinthu vyakuzizwiska vya chilengiwa]] kwambura kuthemba pa [[supernatural|nkhongono za mizimu]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=O'Grady |first1=Patricia F. |author-link=Patricia O'Grady |title=Thales of Miletus: The Beginnings of Western Science and Philosophy |year=2016 |publisher=Routledge |location=New York |isbn=978-0-7546-0533-1 |page=245 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZTUlDwAAQBAJ&q=Thales+of+Miletus+first+scientist&pg=PA245 |access-date=20 October 2020}}</ref> Ŵa [[Pythagoreans|pizagoliyasi]] ŵakapanga mahara ghakusuzga ghakukhwaskana na manambara<ref name="Burkert1972">{{cite book |last=Burkert |first=Walter |author-link=Walter Burkert |date=1 June 1972 |title=Lore and Science in Ancient Pythagoreanism |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0qqp4Vk1zG0C&q=Pythagoreanism |location=Cambridge, MA |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-53918-1}}</ref>{{rp|467–468}} ndipo ŵakawovwira chomene pakukuzga mahara gha kupenda na kulinganya.<ref name="Burkert1972" />{{rp|465}} Fundo ya [[atomism|tizidutswa tuchoko-tuchoko]] yikapangika na mwanamahara wa ku Giriki [[Leucippus]] na msambiri wake [[Democritus]].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Pullman |first1=Bernard |title=The Atom in the History of Human Thought |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-19-515040-7 |pages=31–33 |publisher=Oxford University Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IQs5hur-BpgC&q=Leucippus+Democritus+atom&pg=PA56 |bibcode=1998ahht.book.....P |access-date=20 October 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Cohen |editor1-first=Henri |editor2-last=Lefebvre |editor2-first=Claire |title=Handbook of Categorization in Cognitive Science |year=2017 |publisher=Elsevier |location=Amsterdam |isbn=978-0-08-101107-2 |page=427 |edition=2nd |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zIrCDQAAQBAJ&q=Leucippus+Democritus+atom&pg=PA427 |access-date=20 October 2020}}</ref> Pamanyuma, [[Epicurus]] wakazenga fundo yakunonoka ya makhaliro gha chilengiwa yakujintha pa tizidutswa utu, ndipo wakambiska "ndondomeko" iyo yikaŵika vipimo vya unenesko wa sayansi. <ref>[[Lucretius]] ({{floruit}}1st century BCE) {{lang|la|[[De rerum natura]]}}</ref> Dokotala wa ku Giriki [[Hippocrates]] wakambiska ndondomeko ya masambiro gha munkhwala na wovwiri wa thupi<ref>{{cite book |last=Margotta |first=Roberto |year=1968 |title=The Story of Medicine |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vFZrAAAAMAAJ |location=New York |publisher=[[Golden Press]] |access-date=18 November 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Touwaide |first1=Alain |title=Medieval Science, Technology, and Medicine: An Encyclopedia |year=2005 |editor1-last=Glick |editor1-first=Thomas F. |editor2-last=Livesey |editor2-first=Steven |editor3-last=Wallis |editor3-first=Faith |publisher=Routledge |location=New York |isbn=978-0-415-96930-7 |page=224 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=77y2AgAAQBAJ&q=Hippocrates+medical+science&pg=PA224 |access-date=20 October 2020}}</ref> ndipo wakumanyikwa kuti "[[List of persons considered father or mother of a scientific field#Medicine and physiology|Wiske wa Munkhwala]]".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Leff |first1=Samuel |last2=Leff |first2=Vera |year=1956 |title=From Witchcraft to World Health |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HjNrAAAAMAAJ |location=London |publisher=Macmillan |access-date=23 August 2020}}</ref> Kusinthika kukuru mu mdauko wa vinjeru vya chilengiwa kukawoneka pa chiyelezgero cha [[Socrates]] uyo wakagwiliskira ntchito mahara pakusambira vya makhaliro gha ŵanthu, makhaliro gha magulu gha ndale, na kumanya kwa munthu mwenecho. [[Socratic method|Ndondomeko ya Socrates]] umo yikulembekera mu mabuluku gha [[Plato]] ni nthowa ya kudumbiskana m’paka kusanga unenesko: fundo ziwemi zikusangika mwa kuwunguzga na kuseka zila izo zikupereka kususukana. Nthowa iyi yikupenja unenesko uwo ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵali nawo uwo ukulongozga vigomezgo vyawo na kuviwunguzga kuti viwoneke usange ni vyaunenesko.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0170%3Atext%3DApol.%3Apage%3D17 |title=Plato, Apology |page=17 |access-date=1 November 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180129145253/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0170%3Atext%3DApol.%3Apage%3D17 |archive-date=29 January 2018}}</ref> Socrates wakasuska masambiro gha kale gha sayansi ya vinthu (physics) chifukwa wakati ghakaŵa gha maghanoghano waka kwambura kujiwunguzga dankha.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0170%3Atext%3DApol.%3Apage%3D27 |title=Plato, Apology |page=27 |access-date=1 November 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180129145253/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0170%3Atext%3DApol.%3Apage%3D27 |archive-date=29 January 2018}}</ref> Mu vyaka vya m'ma 300 BCE, [[Aristotle]] wakambiska ndondomeko yakunozgeka makora ya vinjeru vya [[teleological|chilato cha chilengiwa]].<ref>{{cite book |author1=Aristotle |title=Nicomachean Ethics |edition=H. Rackham |url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0054%3Abekker%20page%3D1139b |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120317140402/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc= |archive-date=17 March 2012 |access-date=22 September 2010 |at=1139b}}</ref> Mu vyaka vya m'ma 200 BCE, munthu wakusambira vya nyenyezi wa ku Giriki [[Aristarchus of Samos]] wakaŵa wakwamba kuyowoya kuti [[heliocentric model|dazi lili pakati pa chilengiwa]], ndipo mapulaneti ghose ghakuchizungulira.<ref name="McClellan2015">{{cite book |last1=McClellan |first1=James E. III |last2=Dorn |first2=Harold |title=Science and Technology in World History: An Introduction |year=2015 |publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press |location=Baltimore |isbn=978-1-4214-1776-9 |pages=99–100 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ah1ECwAAQBAJ&q=Aristarchus+heliocentrism&pg=PA99 |access-date=20 October 2020}}</ref> Fundo ya Aristarchus yikakanika na ŵanthu ŵanandi chifukwa ŵakawonanga kuti yikususkana na malango gha sayansi ya vinthu,<ref name="McClellan2015" /> ndipo m'malo mwake buku la Ptolemy la ''[[Almagest]]'', lilo likuti charu chapasi ndicho chili pakati pa [[Solar System|ndondomeko ya dazi]], likapokelereka m’paka mu nyengo ya Renaissance.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Graßhoff |first=Gerd |title=The History of Ptolemy's Star Catalogue |year=1990 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-4612-8788-9 |series=Studies in the History of Mathematics and Physical Sciences |volume=14 |location=New York |doi=10.1007/978-1-4612-4468-4}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Hoffmann |first=Susanne M. |title=Hipparchs Himmelsglobus |year=2017 |publisher=Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden |isbn=978-3-658-18682-1 |location=Wiesbaden |language=de |doi=10.1007/978-3-658-18683-8 |bibcode=2017hihi.book.....H}}</ref> Munthu wakupanga vinthu na kusambira manambara [[Archimedes of Syracuse]] wakachita vintu vikuru pakwambiska masambiro gha [[calculus|masamu ghakusuzga]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Edwards |first1=C. H. Jr. |title=The Historical Development of the Calculus |year=1979 |publisher=Springer |location=New York |isbn=978-0-387-94313-8 |page=75 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ilrlBwAAQBAJ&q=Archimedes+calculus&pg=PA75 |access-date=20 October 2020}}</ref> [[Pliny the Elder]] wakaŵa mulembi wa Chiroma uyo wakamanyanga vinthu vinandi, ndipo wakalemba buku likuru lakuti ''[[Natural History (Pliny)|Natural History]]''.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lawson |first1=Russell m. |title=Science in the Ancient World: An Encyclopedia |year=2004 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |location=Santa Barbara, CA |isbn=978-1-85109-539-1 |pages=190–191 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1AY1ALzh9V0C&q=Pliny+the+Elder+encyclopedia&pg=PA190 |access-date=20 October 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Murphy |first1=Trevor Morgan |title=Pliny the Elder's Natural History: The Empire in the Encyclopedia |year=2004 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-926288-5 |page=1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6NC_T_tG9lQC&q=Pliny+the+Elder+encyclopedia |access-date=20 October 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Doody |first1=Aude |title=Pliny's Encyclopedia: The Reception of the Natural History |year=2010 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-139-48453-4 |page=1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YoEhAwAAQBAJ&q=Pliny+the+Elder+encyclopedia |access-date=20 October 2020}}</ref> [[Positional notation|Nthowa yakulembera manambara kuyana na malo ghawo]] yikulongora kuti yikawoneka pakati pa vyaka vya m'ma 200 na 400 CE mu nthowa za malonda za ku Indiya. Ndondomeko ya manambara iyi yikapangitsa kuti [[arithmetic|kupenda manambara]] kuŵe kwambura kusuzga ndipo pamanyuma yikazakaŵa nthowa yakuzirwa ya masamu pa charu chose.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Conner |first=Clifford D. |title=A People's History of Science: Miners, Midwives, and "Low Mechanicks" |url=https://archive.org/details/peopleshistoryof0000conn_v0x0 |year=2005 |publisher=Nation Books |isbn=1-56025-748-2 |location=New York |pages=[https://archive.org/details/peopleshistoryof0000conn_v0x0/page/72 72]–74}}</ref> === Vyaka vya Pakati === {{Main|History of science#Middle Ages}} [[File:ViennaDioscoridesEndpaperPeacock.jpg|thumb|Pa peji lakwamba la [[Vienna Dioscurides]] pali chithuzi cha [[peacock|nkhwali]], icho chikalembeka mu vyaka vya m’ma 500.|alt=Picture of a peacock on very old paper]] Chifukwa cha [[collapse of the Western Roman Empire|kubwanganduka kwa Ufumu wa Roma wa Kumanjiliro gha Dazi]], mu vyaka vya m’ma 400 vinjeru vikakhira chomene, ndipo kamanidwe ka vinjeru vya Ŵagriki ŵakale pakuyowoya vya chilengiwa kakamba kumala mu Ulaya wa Kumanjiliro gha Dazi.<ref name="Lindberg2007" />{{rp|p=194}} Ŵasungiri ŵa vinjeru mu viyowoyero vya Chilatini mu nyengo iyi, nga ni [[Isidore of Seville]], ŵakasungilira vinjeru vinandi vya kale.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Grant |first1=Edward |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YyvmEyX6rZgC |title=The Foundations of Modern Science in the Middle Ages: Their Religious, Institutional and Intellectual Contexts |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-521-56762-6 |series=Cambridge Studies in the History of Science |pages=7–17 |access-date=9 November 2018}}</ref> Kweni mwakupambana na ichi, chifukwa chakuti [[Byzantine Empire|Ufumu wa Bizantini]] ukatonda nkhondo za ŵalwani, ukaŵa na nkhongono yakusungilira na kunozga vinjeru ivyo vikaŵako kale.<ref name="Lindberg2007" />{{rp|p=159}} [[John Philoponus]], nkhwantha ya ku Bizantini mu vyaka vya m’ma 500, wakamba kususkana na masambiro gha Aristotelu pa nkhani ya malango gha chilengiwa, ndipo wakambiska [[theory of impetus|chigomezgo cha nkhongono ya kachidukulu]].<ref name="Lindberg2007" />{{rp|pp=307, 311, 363, 402}} Kususkana kwake kukawovwira nkhwantha za mu vyaka vya pakati na Galileo Galilei, uyo wakazunura chomene mabuku ghake pakati pajumpha vyaka chikwi chimoza.<ref name="Lindberg2007" />{{rp|pp=307–308}}<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Philoponus |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2016/entries/philoponus/ |encyclopedia=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |first=Christian |last=Wildberg |editor-first=Edward N. |editor-last=Zalta |date=1 May 2018 |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=1 May 2018 |archive-date=22 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190822110331/https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2016/entries/philoponus/ |url-status=live}}</ref> Mu nyengo ya [[late antiquity|kunthazi ya usambazi wakale]] na [[Early Middle Ages|Vyaka vya Pakati vya Pakwamba]], vinjeru vya chilengiwa vikapimikanga chomene kwizira mu kandiro ka Aristotelu. Kandiro aka kakuŵa na [[four causes|vifukwa vinayi]] vya Aristotelu: chifukwa cha chinthu icho chapangika, kawonekelo kake, icho chikuchichititiska kwenda, na chilato chake chaumaliro.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Aristotle on Causality |last=Falcon |first=Andrea |editor-last=Zalta |year=2019 |editor-first=Edward |encyclopedia=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |edition=Spring 2019 |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2019/entries/aristotle-causality/#FouCau |access-date=3 October 2020 |archive-date=9 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201009032459/https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2019/entries/aristotle-causality/#FouCau |url-status=live}}</ref> Malemba manandi gha Ŵagriki ŵakale yakasungika na [[Byzantine Empire|Ufumu wa Bizantini]] ndipo yakang’anamulika mu [[Arabic|Chiarabu]] na Ŵakhristu, chomenechomene ŵa [[Nestorian schism|Chinesitoli]] na ŵa [[Miaphysites|Chimiyafiziti]]. Mu muwuso wa Ŵaabasi, mang’anamuliro agha ghakanozgeka na kukuzgika na nkhwantha za Chiarabu.<ref name="Grant2007a"/>{{rp|pp=62-67}} Mu vyaka vya m’ma 500 na 600, [[Sasanian Empire|Ufumu wa Sasani]] uwo ukaŵa pafupi ukakhazikiska sukulu ya un’anga ya [[Academy of Gondishapur]], iyo yikawonekanga na madokotala gha Chigriki, Chisiriya, na Chipereziya kuŵa malo ghakuzirwa chomene gha munkhwala mu charu cha kale.<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Cambridge history of Iran |url=https://archive.org/details/cambridgehistory0007unse_b4w5 |date=1968–1991 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |last=Fisher |first=W. B. |isbn=978-0-521-20093-6}}</ref> Kusanda kwa Chisilamu pa vya [[Aristotelianism#Islamic world|Masambiro gha Aristotelu]] kukakura chomene mu [[House of Wisdom|Nyumba ya Vinjeru]] iyo yikakhazikiskika mu msumba wa [[Baghdad]], Iraq<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Bayt-al-Hikmah |title=Bayt al-Hikmah |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=3 November 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161104043313/https://www.britannica.com/place/Bayt-al-Hikmah |archive-date=4 November 2016}}</ref> ndipo kukalutilira<ref>{{Cite book |editor-last=Hossein Nasr |editor-first=Seyyed |title=History of Islamic Philosophy |title-link=History of Islamic Philosophy |editor-last2=Leaman |editor-first2=Oliver |publisher=Routledge |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-415-25934-7 |pages=165–167 |editor-link=Seyyed Hossein Nasr}}</ref> m’paka mu nyengo ya [[Mongol invasions|kuwukira kwa Ŵamongoli]] mu vyaka vya m’ma 1200. [[Ibn al-Haytham]], uyo wakumanyikwa na zina lakuti Alhazen, wakachita magesi ghakupimika mu kusanda kwake kwa mboniwoni.{{efn|name=doubtPtolemy|1= Buku la Ibn al-Haytham la ''[[Book of Optics|Mboniwoni]]'' likasuskana na chigomezgo cha Claudius Ptolemy chakuti mboniwoni yikufuma mu maso kuluta ku chinthu: "Ntheura, kufuma kwa minziro ya mboniwoni nkhwakusazgirapo waka ndipo kulije ntchito". Wonani kung’anamulika kwa A. Mark Smith kufuma mu Chilatini,<ref name="Smith2001" /> Buku I, [6.54], pp. 372, 408. }}<ref>{{cite journal |jstor=228328 |last1=Toomer |first1=G. J. |title=Reviewed work: Ibn al-Haythams Weg zur Physik, Matthias Schramm |journal=Isis |volume=55 |issue=4 |pages=463–465 |year=1964 |doi=10.1086/349914}} Wonani p. 464: "Schramm wakulongosora ivyo [Ibn Al-Haytham] wafiska pa nkhani ya kukuzga nthowa ya vinjeru.", p. 465: "Schramm walongora .. kwambura kukana kulikose kuti Ibn al-Haytham ni munthu wakuzirwa mu luso la vinjeru vya Chisilamu, chomenechomene pa nkhani ya kulenga nthowa zakuyezgelera." p. 465: "pekha pala muwuso wa Ibn al-Haytham na ŵanyake pa malemba gha chilengiwa gha mu vyaka vya pakati wasandika mwakupwelelera ndipo apo chigomezgo cha Schramm chakuti Ibn al-Haytham ndiyo wakaŵa muvumbuzi wanadi wa vinjeru vya mazuŵa gano gha chilengiwa chingapimika."</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Cohen |first1=H. Floris |author-link=Floris Cohen |chapter=Greek nature knowledge transplanted: The Islamic world |title=How modern science came into the world. Four civilizations, one 17th-century breakthrough |year=2010 |pages=99–156 |publisher=Amsterdam University Press |isbn=978-90-8964-239-4 |edition=2nd}}</ref> Kudandawula kwa [[Avicenna]] mu buku la ''[[The Canon of Medicine|Dango la Un’anga]]'', ilo ni buku likuru la usambazi wa munkhwala, kukuwoneka kuŵa limoza mwa mabuku ghakuzirwa chomene mu un’anga ndipo likagwiriskikanga ntchito m’paka mu vyaka vya m’ma 1700.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures |url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopaediahis00seli |url-access=limited |year=2006 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/encyclopaediahis00seli/page/n168 155]–156 |publisher=Springer |bibcode=2008ehst.book.....S |isbn=978-1-4020-4559-2 |editor-last1=Selin |editor-first1=Helaine |editor-link=Helaine Selin}}</ref> Pofika mu vyaka vya m’ma 1000, vigaŵa vinandi vya Ulaya vikaŵa vya Chikhristu,<ref name="Lindberg2007" />{{rp|p=204}} ndipo mu 1088, [[University of Bologna|Sukulu Yikuru ya Bologna]] ikawoneka kuŵa sukulu yikuru yakwamba mu Ulaya.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Russell |first=Josiah C. |year=1959 |title=Gratian, Irnerius, and the Early Schools of Bologna |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_mississippi-quarterly_fall-1959_12_4/page/168 |journal=[[The Mississippi Quarterly]] |volume=12 |issue=4 |pages=168–188 |jstor=26473232 |quote=Panji ntheura kale chomene mu 1088 (nyengo iyo yikapangika mwadango yakukhazikiskika kwa Sukulu Yikuru)}}</ref> Chifukwa cha ichi, khumbiro la kung’anamulira malemba gha kale na gha vinjeru mu Chilatini likakura,<ref name="Lindberg2007" />{{rp|p=204}} icho chikaŵa chifukwa chikuru cha [[Renaissance of the 12th century|Kuŵajikaso kwa Vinjeru kwa mu vyaka vya m’ma 1100]]. Masambiro gha ku sukulu mu Ulaya wa kumanjiliro gha dazi yakakura, ndipo magesi ghakachitikanga mu nthowa ya kulaŵiska, kulongosora, na kupanga magulu gha vinthu vya m’chilengiwa.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Saint-Albertus-Magnus |title=St. Albertus Magnus |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=27 October 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171028045424/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Saint-Albertus-Magnus |archive-date=28 October 2017}}</ref> Mu vyaka vya m’ma 1200, ŵasambi na ŵasambizgi ŵa un’anga ku Bologna ŵakamba kujula mathupi gha ŵanthu, icho chikapangiska kuti paŵe buku lakwamba la kamanidwe ka thupi lakuzingatira pa kujula thupi la munthu ilo likalembeka na [[Mondino de Luzzi]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Numbers |first=Ronald |url=http://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674057418 |title=Galileo Goes to Jail and Other Myths about Science and Religion |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-674-03327-6 |page=45 |access-date=27 March 2018 |archive-date=20 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210120190509/https://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674057418 |url-status=live}}</ref> === Kuŵajikaso kwa Vinjeru === {{Main|Science in the Renaissance|Copernican heliocentrism}} [[File:De Revolutionibus manuscript p9b.jpg|thumb|Chithuzi cha nthowa ya kuzingulira kwa dazi nga umo vikasachizgika na Copernicus mu buku lake la {{lang|la|[[De revolutionibus orbium coelestium]]}}alt=Drawing of planets' orbit around the Sun]] Vinthu viphanya ivyo vikavumbulika pa nkhani ya mboniwoni vikawovwira pakwamba kwa [[Renaissance|Kuŵajikaso kwa Vinjeru]], mwa kususkana na maghanoghano gha kale gha [[metaphysical|vinjeru vya kuseri kwa chilengiwa]] pa nkhani ya umo munthu wakuwonera vinthu, kweniso mwa kuwovwira pa kunozga na kukuzga maluso gha mazuŵa gano nga ni [[camera obscura]] na [[telescope|galasi lakulaŵiskira vyakumaso]]. Pakuyamba kwa Kuŵajikaso kwa Vinjeru, [[Roger Bacon]], [[Vitello]], na [[John Peckham]] waliyose wakazenga usambazi wa [[ontology|masambiro gha umo vinthu viliri]] pa nkhani ya kudura kwa vinthu kwambira na kupulika, kuwona, na paumaliro [[apperception|kumanya chomene]] kwa kawonekelo ka munthu payekha na ka chilengiwa chose ka Aristotelu.<ref name="Smith2001">{{cite book |last=Smith |first=A. Mark |title=Alhacen's Theory of Visual Perception: A Critical Edition, with English Translation and Commentary, of the First Three Books of Alhacen's ''De Aspectibus'', the Medieval Latin Version of Ibn al-Haytham's ''Kitāb al-Manāẓir'': Volume Two |title-link=De Aspectibus |publisher=[[American Philosophical Society]] |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-87169-914-5 |series=Transactions of the American Philosophical Society |volume=91, parts 4 & 5 |location=Philadelphia }}</ref>{{rp|Book I}} Nthowa ya mboniwoni iyo pambere yikamanyikwanga kuti [[perspectivism|nthowa ya kawonekelo]] [[One-point perspective|yikagwiriskikanga ntchito na kusambirika]] na ŵaluso ŵa vyakujambula ŵa mu nyengo ya Kuŵajikaso kwa Vinjeru. Chigomezgo ichi chikugwiriskira ntchito vifukwa vitatu pera pa vifukwa vinayi vya Aristotelu: kawonekelo, chinthu icho chapangika, na chilato chaumaliro.<ref name="Smith1981">{{Cite journal |jstor=231249 |doi=10.1086/352843 |pmid=7040292 |title=Getting the Big Picture in Perspectivist Optics |journal=Isis |volume=72 |issue=4 |pages=568–589 |last1=Smith |first1=A. Mark |year=1981 |s2cid=27806323}}</ref> Mu vyaka vya m’ma 1500, [[Nicolaus Copernicus]] wakapanga [[Copernican_heliocentrism|nthowa yakuti dazi ndilo liri pakati]] pa nthandala ya vyakuzingulira, uku Dazi lili pafupi na pakati pa chilengiwa chose,<ref>"Munthu uyo wakawuskapo charu pa malo ghake ghakunotha pakuŵa pakati pa chilengiwa ndipo wakamanya kuti nkhachimoza waka mwa vyakuzingulira vinyake, wakawona kuti nkhwakukhumbikwa kuchipha malo ghapadera mu nthowa yake yiphanya. Nangauli wakati 'pakati pa vyose pali dazi,' mu vigomezgo vyake vya vyakuzingulira wakayezgerera kuti pakati pa mayendero ghose pakaŵa pakati pa nthandala ya charu, apo dazi pakaŵavye." Dreyer, J.L.E. ''A History of Astronomy from Thales to Kepler,'' (Dover Publications, 1953). p.343. {{ISBN|9780486600796}}</ref><ref>"...chikaŵa chakuwonekerathu kwa Copernicus...kuti charu chingenda mwakuyana yanyi yayi mu nkhulungulu uku dazi lili pakati. Ntheura Copernicus wakaŵika dazi pakati pa nthandala ya charu yayi, kweni patali kachoko. Pakati pa nthandala ya vyakuzingulira, na pa chilengiwa chose, mu nthowa ya Copernicus ni dazi yayi, kweni ni 'dazi la pakati,' la pakati pa nthandala ya charu. Ntheura, nkhunozga chomene kuchema nthowa ya Copernicus kuŵa nthowa yakukhazikika ya dazi kuluska nthowa yakuti dazi liri pakati." [[I. Bernard Cohen|Cohen, I. Bernard]]. ''The Birth of a New Physics (Revised and Updated)'' (W.W. Norton & Company, 1985). p.44. {{ISBN|0-393-01994-2}}</ref> kwambura kwenda, uku Charu na vyakuzingulira vinyake vikuchizungulira mu mayendero gha nkhulungulu,<ref>"Mayendero ghose mukati mwake (kuwaro kwa pafupi na Charu) yakutolezga dango lakuti mayendero gha kuchanya nga nkhulungulu ndipo ntheura ghakusintha yayi. Ptolemy, Copernicus wakaghanaghana, wakapambana na dango ili...mwa kusazgirapo tumikhulungulu tuchoko pa mayendero ghakuru kuti walongosore chifukwa chake vyakuzingulira nyengo zinyake vikuwoneka nga vikufuma kunyuma mu mlengalenga, kweni mwa kwambiska [[equant]] kuti wachitiske mayendero agha kwenda luŵiro panji kukhira." [[David_Wootton_(historian)|Wootton, David]]. ''The Invention of Science: A New History of the Scientific Revolution'' (Penguin, 2015). p.152. {{ISBN|0-06-175952-X}}</ref> ghakosoleka na [[epicycle|tumikhulungulu]], kweniso pa maluwiro ghakuyana. Nthowa ya Copernicus ikasuskana na [[Geocentrism#Ptolemaic_model|nthowa yakuti charu chili pakati]] ya [[Ptolemy]], iyo yikaŵika Charu pakati pa chilengiwa chose. Ŵasanda-nyenyezi ŵa m’ma 1500 ŵakagomezganga kuti kufumyapo kwa Copernicus kwa [[equant]] ndiko kukaŵa kufiska kwake kukuru<ref>"Kupenda kwane kwa Copernicus paumaliro kukawovwira kukhazikiska kuti unandi wa ŵasanda-nyenyezi ŵa m’ma 1500 ŵakaghanaghananga kuti kufumyapo kwa [[equant]] ndiko kukaŵa kufiska kukuru kwa Copernicus, chifukwa chikakhorweska dango la kale la kawonekelo kakutowa lakuti mayendero ghamuyirayira gha kuchanya yakaŵenge ghakuyana na gha nkhulungulu..." Gingerich, Owen. ''The Book Nobody Read'' (Walker & Company, 2004).p.55. {{ISBN|0-8027-1415-3}}</ref> kweni nthowa yake yikapoka malo gha Ptolemy yayi, iyo yikaluŵika pakati pajumpha vyaka 70 kufuma apo [[Galileo_Galilei#Phases_of_Venus|Galileo wakawonera na galasi lakulaŵiskira mu 1610]].<ref>"Nkhupusu kulongora kuti usambazi wa Ptolemy ukaŵa wakukula m’paka 1610 [apo Galileo wakawona masinthiro gha Venus na galasi] ndipo ukathera nyengo yichoko waka panyuma...Ukaboni ngwakupanikizga: [[Geocentrism#Ptolemaic_model|usambazi wa Ptolemy]] ukayambukirika na Copernicus yayi; ukasuzgika kachoko waka na [[SN 1572|nyenyezi yiphanya ya 1572]], kweni pofika kuumaliro wa vyaka vya m’ma 1500 ukaŵa kuti waŵajikaso. Galasi lakulaŵiskira, ku kanyake, likapangiska kubwanganduka kwake kwa luŵiro na kwambura kuwelera." [[David_Wootton_(historian)|Wootton, David]]. ''The Invention of Science: A New History of the Scientific Revolution'' (Penguin, 2015). p.152. {{ISBN|0-06-175952-X}}</ref> === Kusintha Kukuru kwa Vinjeru vya Chilengiwa === {{Main|Scientific Revolution}} [[Johannes Kepler]] na ŵanyake ŵakasuskana na maghanoghano ghakuti ntchito yimoza pera ya jiso nkhuwona, ndipo ŵakasuntha khumbo likuru mu masambiro gha mboniwoni kufuma ku jiso kuya ku umo ungweru ukuyendera.<ref name="Smith1981" /><ref>{{cite book |last1=Cohen |first1=H. Floris |author-link=Floris Cohen |chapter=Greek nature knowledge transplanted and more: Renaissance Europe |title=How modern science came into the world. Four civilizations, one 17th-century breakthrough |year=2010 |pages=99–156 |publisher=Amsterdam University Press |isbn=978-90-8964-239-4 |edition=2nd}}</ref> Kweni Kepler wakumanyikwa chomene chifukwa cha kusanga kwa [[Kepler's laws of planetary motion|malango gha Kepler gha mayendero gha vyakuzingulira]]. Kepler wakakana yayi vinjeru vya kuseri kwa chilengiwa vya Aristotelu ndipo wakalongosora ntchito yake nga nkhupenja [[Harmony of the Spheres|Kuyana kwa Vyakuchanya]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Koestler |first=Arthur |url=https://archive.org/details/sleepwalkershist00koes_0/page/1 |title=The Sleepwalkers: A History of Man's Changing Vision of the Universe |publisher=Penguin |year=1990 |isbn=0-14-019246-8 |location=London |page=[https://archive.org/details/sleepwalkershist00koes_0/page/1 1] |author-link=Arthur Koestler |orig-date=1959}}</ref> [[Galileo]] wakachita vintu vyakuzirwa chomene mu usambazi wa nyenyezi, malango gha chilengiwa, na vyakupangapanga. Kweni, wakamba kutambuzgika panyuma pakuti Papa Urban VIII wamupaka mulandu chifukwa cha kulemba vya nthowa yakuti dazi ndilo liri pakati.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://galileo.rice.edu/gal/urban.html |title=Pope Urban VIII |last=van Helden |first=Al |year=1995 |website=The Galileo Project |access-date=3 November 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161111033150/http://galileo.rice.edu/gal/urban.html |archive-date=11 November 2016}}</ref> [[printing press|Chakuponderezgera malemba]] chikagwiriskikanga ntchito chomene pakupharazga maghanoghano gha nkhwantha, kusazgapo ghanyake agho yakasuskana chomene na maghanoghano gha mu nyengo iyo pa vya chilengiwa.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Gingerich |first=Owen |title=Copernicus and the Impact of Printing |journal=Vistas in Astronomy |volume=17 |year=1975 |issue=1 |pages=201–218 |doi=10.1016/0083-6656(75)90061-6 |bibcode=1975VA.....17..201G}}</ref> [[Francis Bacon]] na [[René Descartes]] ŵakafumiska maghanoghano gha vinjeru pakuvikilira mtundu uphanya wa vinjeru vya chilengiwa uwo ukaŵa wa Aristotelu yayi. Bacon wakadidimizga pa kuzirwa kwa kuyezgelera kuluska kulanguruka waka, wakasuskana na vifukwa vya Aristotelu vya kawonekelo na chilato chaumaliro, ndipo wakachiska fundo yakuti vinjeru vya chilengiwa visambirenge [[Physical law|malango gha chilengiwa]] na kunozga kwa umoyo wa ŵanthu wose.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Zagorin |first=Perez |title=Francis Bacon |url=https://archive.org/details/francisbacon0000zago |page=[https://archive.org/details/francisbacon0000zago/page/84 84] |year=1998 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-00966-7}}</ref> Descartes wakadidimizga pa kaghanaghaniro ka munthu payekha ndipo wakayowoya kuti masambiro gha manambala m’malo mwa masambiro gha mapangikiro gha vinthu ndigho ghagwiriskikenge ntchito pa kusanda chilengiwa.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Davis |first1=Philip J. |last2=Hersh |first2=Reuben |year=1986 |title=Descartes' Dream: The World According to Mathematics |url=https://archive.org/details/descartesdreamwo0000davi |location=Cambridge, MA |publisher=[[Harcourt Brace Jovanovich]]}}</ref> Gemini said === Nyengo ya Kungweluka kwa Vinjeru === {{Main|Science in the Age of Enlightenment}} [[File:Newton's Principia title page.png|thumb|upright|Pa peji lakwamba la buku lakwamba la mu 1687 la {{lang|la|[[Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica]]}} lakulembeka na Isaac Newton]] Kuyamba kwa [[Age of Enlightenment|Nyengo ya Kung’weluka kwa Vinjeru]], [[Isaac Newton]] wakakhazikiska fumbiro la [[classical mechanics|malango gha kanyamazira na kachidukulu]] kwizira mu buku lake la {{lang|la|[[Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica]]}} ilo likawovwira chomene nkhwantha za vinjeru vya chilengiwa zanthazi.<ref>{{cite book |last=Gribbin |first=John |title=Science: A History 1543–2001 |url=https://archive.org/details/sciencehistory150000grib |year=2002 |page=[https://archive.org/details/sciencehistory150000grib/page/241 241] |publisher=Allen Lane |isbn=978-0-7139-9503-9 |quote=Nangauli chikaŵa chimoza mwa vinthu vinandi mu Nyengo ya Kung'weluka, kutonda kwa malango gha Newton pa nkhani ya kupereka ndondomeko ya manambala ya charu chakunozgeka kukachita chigaŵa chikuru mu kukura kwa kayendero aka mu vyaka vya m'ma 1700}}</ref> [[Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz]] wakasazgira mazgu ghakufuma mu [[Aristotelian physics|vinjeru vya chilengiwa vya Aristotelu]], agho panyengo iyi ghakagwiriskikanga ntchito mu nthowa yiphanya [[teleological|yambura kulinga pa chilato chakubabika nacho]]. Ichi chikang’anamuranga kusintha kwa umo vinthu vikuwonekerwa: vinthu vikamba kuwoneka kuŵa vyambura vilato vya m’kati. Leibniz wakagomezganga kuti mitundu yakupambanapambana ya vinthu yose yikugwira ntchito kuyana na malango ghakuyana gha chilengiwa, kwambura vifukwa vyapadera vya kawonekelo panji vya chilato chaumaliro.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Leibniz/ |title=Gottfried Leibniz – Biography |website=Maths History |access-date=2 March 2021 |archive-date=11 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170711221621/http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Biographies/Leibniz.html |url-status=live}}</ref> Mu nyengo iyi, chilato na kuzirwa kwa vinjeru vya chilengiwa kukazgoka kupanga usambazi na vyakupangapanga ivyo vinganozga umoyo wa ŵanthu, mu nthowa ya [[Economic materialism|khumbiro la vyakuthupi]] ya kuŵa na vyakurya vinandi, vyakuvwala, na vinthu vinyake. Mu [[Novum Organum|mazgu gha Bacon]], "chilato cheneko na chakuzomerezgeka cha vinjeru {{em|nkhupereka mwaŵi ku umoyo wa munthu na vyakupangapanga viphanya na usambazi}}", ndipo wakachiska nkhwantha kuti zileke kulondezga maghanoghano gha kuseri kwa chilengiwa panji gha vyauzimu, agho wakagomezganga kuti ghakovwira pachoko chomene ku chimwemwe cha munthu kuluska "utunthi wa maghanoghano ghakusuzga panji ghakukondweska waka".<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PgmbZIybuRoC&pg=PA162 |title=The Social and Economic Roots of the Scientific Revolution: Texts by Boris Hessen and Henryk Grossmann |last1=Freudenthal |first1=Gideon |last2=McLaughlin |first2=Peter |date=20 May 2009 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-4020-9604-4 |access-date=25 July 2018}}</ref> Vinjeru vya chilengiwa mu nyengo ya Kung’weluka vikalongozgekanga na [[scientific societies|mabungwe gha nkhwantha]] na masukulu ghakuya,<ref>{{Cite book |editor-last1=Goddard Bergin |editor-first1=Thomas |editor1-link=Thomas G. Bergin |url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofre0000unse_d0p5 |title=Encyclopedia of the Renaissance |editor-last2=Speake |editor-first2=Jennifer |editor2-link=Jennifer Speake |year=1987 |publisher=Facts on File |isbn=978-0-8160-1315-9}}</ref> agho panyengo iyi yakatora malo gha masukulu ghachanya pakuŵa malo ghakusandira na kukuzgyira vinjeru. Mabungwe na masukulu agha yikaŵa fumbiro la kukura kwa ntchito ya unkhwantha wa vinjeru vya chilengiwa. Chinthu chinyake chakuzirwa chikaŵa [[popular culture|kuthandazgika kwa vinjeru]] pakati pa ŵanthu awo ŵakambanga kumanya chomene kuŵazga na kulemba.<ref>{{Cite book |last=van Horn Melton |first=James |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/rise-of-the-public-in-enlightenment-europe/BA532085A260114CD430D9A059BD96EF |title=The Rise of the Public in Enlightenment Europe |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-511-81942-1 |doi=10.1017/CBO9780511819421 |access-date=27 May 2022 |url-access=subscription |pages=82–83 |archive-date=20 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120143805/https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/rise-of-the-public-in-enlightenment-europe/BA532085A260114CD430D9A059BD96EF |url-status=live}}</ref> Nkhwantha za vinjeru za mu nyengo ya Kung’weluka zikaŵazganga ntchito za ŵakale ŵawo—chomenechomene [[Galileo]], [[Kepler]], [[Robert Boyle|Boyle]], na Newton—pakuŵa ŵalongozgi mu vigaŵa vyose vya vyakuthupi na vya kukhaliro kwa ŵanthu vya mazuŵa gano.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Scientific Revolution and the Enlightenment (1500–1780) |url=https://www.tamaqua.k12.pa.us/cms/lib07/PA01000119/Centricity/Domain/119/TheScientificRevolution.pdf |access-date=29 January 2024 |archive-date=14 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240114191547/https://www.tamaqua.k12.pa.us/cms/lib07/PA01000119/Centricity/Domain/119/TheScientificRevolution.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Scientific Revolution |url=https://www.britannica.com/science/Scientific-Revolution |access-date=29 January 2024 |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |archive-date=18 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190518105004/https://www.britannica.com/science/Scientific-Revolution |url-status=live}}</ref> Mu vyaka vya m’ma 1700 kukawoneka kukura kukuru mu kachitidwe ka un’anga<ref>{{cite book |title=Brock Biology of Microorganisms |url=https://archive.org/details/brockbiologyofmi0011madi |publisher=Prentice Hall |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-13-144329-7 |editor-last=Madigan |editor-first=M. |editor-last2=Martinko |editor-first2=J. |edition=11th}}</ref> na vinjeru vya chilengiwa;<ref>{{cite book |last=Guicciardini |first=N. |url=https://archive.org/details/readingprincipia0000guic |title=Reading the Principia: The Debate on Newton's Methods for Natural Philosophy from 1687 to 1736 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-521-64066-4 |location=New York |url-access=registration}}</ref> kukuzgyika kwa [[Taxonomy (biology)|ndondomeko ya magulu gha vyamoyo]] na [[Carl Linnaeus]];<ref>{{cite journal |author1-link=Charles Calisher |last1=Calisher |first1=CH |year=2007 |title=Taxonomy: what's in a name? Doesn't a rose by any other name smell as sweet? |journal=Croatian Medical Journal |volume=48 |issue=2 |pages=268–270 |pmc=2080517 |pmid=17436393}}</ref> kapulikisko kaphanya ka [[magnetism|nkhongono yakuguza]] na mphenzi; <ref>{{cite book |last1=Darrigol |first1=Olivier |url=https://archive.org/details/electrodynamicsf0000darr |title=Electrodynamics from Ampère to Einstein |year=2000 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=0-19-850594-9 |location=New York |url-access=registration}}</ref> ndipo kukura kwa vinjeru vya [[chemistry|kapangikiro ka vinthu]] pakuŵa chigaŵa chakujiyimira pa chekha.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Olby |first1=R. C. |last2=Cantor |first2=G. N. |last3=Christie |first3=J. R. R. |last4=Hodge |first4=M. J. S. |year=1990 |title=Companion to the History of Modern Science |location=London |publisher=Routledge |page=265}}</ref> Maghanoghano pa nkhani ya mukhaliro wa munthu, chalo, na usambazi yakasinthaso mu nyengo ya Kung’weluka. Hume na nkhwantha zinyake za ku Scotland ŵakapanga buku la ''[[A Treatise of Human Nature|Muwonekelo wa Mukhaliro wa Munthu]]'', ilo likalongosoreka mu nthowa ya mbiri mu malemba gha ŵalembi nga ni [[James Burnett, Lord Monboddo|James Burnett]], [[Adam Ferguson]], [[John Millar (philosopher)|John Millar]] na [[William Robertson (historian)|William Robertson]], ŵose awo ŵakasazga kusanda kwa unkhwantha kwa umo ŵanthu ŵakachitiranga mu nyengo za kale na mu mitheto yakwamba, uku ŵakumanya chomene nkhongono izo zikupanga [[modernity|mukhaliro wa mazuŵa gano]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Magnusson |first=Magnus |date=10 November 2003 |title=Review of James Buchan, ''Capital of the Mind: how Edinburgh Changed the World'' |url=http://www.newstatesman.com/200311100040 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110606015918/http://www.newstatesman.com/200311100040 |archive-date=6 June 2011 |access-date=27 April 2014 |work=New Statesman}}</ref> Masambiro gha mazuŵa gano gha mukhaliro wa ŵanthu mu chalo yakambira mu nthandala iyi.<ref>{{Cite journal |jstor=588406 |title=Origins of Sociology: The Case of the Scottish Enlightenment |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_british-journal-of-sociology_1970-06_21_2/page/164 |journal=The British Journal of Sociology |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=164–180 |last1=Swingewood |first1=Alan |year=1970 |doi=10.2307/588406}}</ref> Mu 1776, [[Adam Smith]] wakafumiska buku la ''[[The Wealth of Nations|Usambazi wa Mabuku]]'', ilo kanandi likuwoneka kuŵa ntchito yakwamba ya masambiro gha mazuŵa gano gha usambazi.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Fry |first=Michael |url=https://archive.org/details/adamsmithslegacy0000unse |title=Adam Smith's Legacy: His Place in the Development of Modern Economics |publisher=[[Routledge]] |others=[[Paul Samuelson]], [[Lawrence Klein]], [[Franco Modigliani]], [[James M. Buchanan]], [[Maurice Allais]], [[Theodore Schultz]], [[Richard Stone]], [[James Tobin]], [[Wassily Leontief]], [[Jan Tinbergen]] |year=1992 |isbn=978-0-415-06164-3 |url-access=registration}}</ref> === Vyaka vya m’ma 1800 === {{Main|19th century in science}} [[File:Darwin Tree 1837.png|thumb|upright|Chithuzi chakwamba cha [[Phylogenetic tree|khuni la kusanduka kwa vyamoyo]] chakupangika na [[Charles Darwin]] mu 1837|alt=Sketch of a map with captions]] Mu vyaka vya m’ma 1800, vinthu vinandi ivyo vikumanyikwitsa vinjeru vya chilengiwa vya mazuŵa gano vikamba kuŵako. Ivi vikasazgapo kusanduka kwa masambiro gha vyamoyo na vyakuthupi; kugwiriskira ntchito chomene vipimiro vyakugomezgeka; kuŵako kwa mazgu nga ni "wasanda-vyamoyo", "wasanda-vyakuthupi", na "wasanda-vinjeru vya chilengiwa"; kukura kwa ntchito ya kusanda chilengiwa; nkhwantha za vinjeru kusanga mazaza gha mitheto pa vigaŵa vinandi vya ŵanthu; kukhazikiskika kwa mafakitale mu vyaru vinandi; kuthandazgika kwa malemba gha vinjeru vya chilengiwa pakati pa ŵanthu; na kuŵako kwa mabuku gha nkhwantha.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lightman |first1=Bernard |editor1-last=Shank |editor1-first=Michael |editor2-last=Numbers |editor2-first=Ronald |editor3-last=Harrison |editor3-first=Peter |title=Wrestling with Nature: From Omens to Science |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780226317830 |year=2011 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-31783-0 |page=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780226317830/page/367 367] |chapter=13. Science and the Public}}</ref> Mu vyaka vya m’ma 1800, masambiro gha makhaliro gha maghanoghano yakafumamo mu masambiro gha vinjeru vya umoyo apo [[Wilhelm Wundt]] wakakhazikiskika malo ghakwamba ghakusandira makhaliro gha maghanoghano mu 1879.<ref>{{cite book |last=Leahey |first=Thomas Hardy |title=A History of Psychology: From Antiquity to Modernity |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofpsychol0000thom |year=2018 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-138-65242-2 |edition=8th |location=New York |pages=[https://archive.org/details/historyofpsychol0000thom/page/219 219]–253 |chapter=The psychology of consciousness}}</ref> Pakati pa vyaka vya m’ma 1800, [[Charles Darwin]] na [[Alfred Russel Wallace]] waliyose payekha wakasachizga chigomezgo cha kusanduka kwa vyamoyo kwizira mu [[natural selection|kusankhika na chilengiwa]] mu 1858, icho chikulongosora umo vyakumera na vinyama vyakupambanapambana vikayambira na kusanduka. Chigomezgo chawo chikayowoyeka mwakudidimizga mu buku la Darwin la ''[[On the Origin of Species|Pa Chiyambi cha Mitundu ya Vyamoyo]]'', ilo likafumiskika mu 1859.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Padian |first=Kevin |title=Darwin's enduring legacy |journal=Nature |volume=451 |issue=7179 |pages=632–634 |year=2008 |doi=10.1038/451632a |pmid=18256649 |bibcode=2008Natur.451..632P |doi-access=free}}</ref> Kwakujiyimira pa yekha, [[Gregor Mendel]] wakapereka lipoti lake, "[[Experiments on Plant Hybridisation|Kuyezgelera pa Kusazga Vyakumera]]" mu 1865,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Henig |first=Robin Marantz |author-link=Robin Marantz Henig |url=https://archive.org/details/monkingardenlost00heni |title=The monk in the garden: the lost and found genius of Gregor Mendel, the father of genetics |year=2000 |pages=134–138}}</ref> ilo likalongosora malango gha chiharo cha m’thupi, icho chikachita pakuŵa fumbiro la vinjeru vya mazuŵa gano vya chiharo.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Miko |first=Ilona |title=Gregor Mendel's principles of inheritance form the cornerstone of modern genetics. So just what are they? |journal=Nature Education |volume=1 |issue=1 |page=134 |year=2008 |url=https://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/gregor-mendel-and-the-principles-of-inheritance-593/ |access-date=9 May 2021 |archive-date=19 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190719224056/http://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/gregor-mendel-and-the-principles-of-inheritance-593 |url-status=live}}</ref> Kuyamba kwa vyaka vya m’ma 1800 [[John Dalton]] wakasachizga [[atomic theory|chigomezgo cha mazuŵa gano cha kachidutswa kambura kugaŵika]], chakuzingatira pa ghanoghano la Democritus la tuchidutswa tuchoko chomene twambura kugaŵika uto tikuchemeka ''atoms''.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rocke |first1=Alan J. |year=2005 |title=In Search of El Dorado: John Dalton and the Origins of the Atomic Theory |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_social-research_spring-2005_72_1/page/125 |journal=Social Research |volume=72 |issue=1 |pages=125–158 |doi=10.1353/sor.2005.0003 |jstor=40972005 |s2cid=141350239}}</ref> Malango gha [[conservation of energy|kusungilira nkhongono]], [[conservation of momentum|kusungilira kanyamazira]] na [[conservation of mass|kusungilira unandi wa chinthu]] yakalongora chilengiwa chakukhalira apo pangaŵa kutayika pachoko kwa vinthu. Kweni, chifukwa cha kwiza kwa [[steam engine|injini ya nthuzi]] na [[Industrial Revolution|Kusintha Kukuru kwa Mafakitale]] pakaŵa kapulikisko kakuru kakuti ni mitundu yose ya nkhongono yayi iyo yili na mukhaliro wakuyana, mwa kupusu kusandulika kuŵa [[Work (thermodynamics)|ntchito]] yakuzirwa panji kuŵa nkhongono yinyake.<ref name="Reichl1980" /> Kumanya ichi kukapangiska kukuzga kwa malango gha [[thermodynamics|vinjeru vya nkhongono ya chithukuzi]], mwa icho nkhongono yakuzirwa ya chilengiwa yikuwoneka kuŵa yakukhira nyengo zose: [[entropy|kubwanganduka]] kwa chilengiwa chakuzingika kukuluta panthazi m’paka muyirayira.{{efn|name= HelmholtzGibbsGuthLinde|1= Usange chilengiwa chili chakuzingika panji chakujulika, panji [[shape of the universe|kawonekelo ka chilengiwa]], ni fumbo lambura kumanyikwa. Dango lachiŵiri la vinjeru vya nkhongono ya chithukuzi,<ref name="Reichl1980">{{cite book |last=Reichl |first=Linda |author-link=Linda Reichl |year=1980 |title=A Modern Course in Statistical Physics |url= |location= |publisher=Edward Arnold |isbn=0-7131-2789-9}}</ref>{{rp|9}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Rao |first=Y. V. C. |title=Chemical Engineering Thermodynamics |publisher=Universities Press |isbn=978-81-7371-048-3 |year=1997 |page=158}}</ref> na dango lachitatu la vinjeru vya nkhongono ya chithukuzi<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.aop.2016.07.031 |title=Bounded energy exchange as an alternative to the third law of thermodynamics |year=2016 |last1=Heidrich |first1=M. |journal=Annals of Physics |volume=373 |pages=665–681 |bibcode=2016AnPhy.373..665H}}</ref> ghakulongora [[heat death of the universe|nyifwa ya chithukuzi ya chilengiwa]] usange chilengiwa chili nthandala yakuzingika, kweni ni ntheura yayi kwa chilengiwa icho chikukulirako.}} [[electromagnetic theory|Chigomezgo cha nkhongono ya mphenzi na kuguza]] chikakhazikiskika mu vyaka vya m’ma 1800 na ntchito za [[Hans Christian Ørsted]], [[André-Marie Ampère]], [[Michael Faraday]], [[James Clerk Maxwell]], [[Oliver Heaviside]], na [[Heinrich Hertz]]. Chigomezgo chiphanya ichi chikawuska mafumbo agho yakaŵa ghakusuzga kuzgoreka kwizira mu ndondomeko ya Newton. Kusangika kwa [[X-ray|minziro ya X]] kukachiska kusangika kwa [[radioactivity|ungweru wakofya wa malibwe]] na [[Henri Becquerel]] na [[Marie Curie]] mu 1896,<ref>{{cite book |last=Mould |first=Richard F. |title=A century of X-rays and radioactivity in medicine: with emphasis on photographic records of the early years |year=1995 |publisher=Inst. of Physics Publ. |isbn=978-0-7503-0224-1 |edition=Reprint. with minor corr |location=Bristol |page=12}}</ref> Marie Curie panyuma wakazgoka munthu wakwamba kutonda viphale viŵiri vya Nobel.<ref name="Estreicher1938">{{cite book |last=Estreicher |first=Tadeusz |title=Polski słownik biograficzny, vol. 4 |title-link=Polski słownik biograficzny |year=1938 |page=113 |language=pl |chapter=Curie, Maria ze Skłodowskich |author-link=Tadeusz Estreicher}}</ref> Mu chaka chakulondezgapo kukasangika kachidutswa kakwamba kam’kati ka atomu, kano kakuchemeka [[electron]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Thomson |first=J. J. |year=1897 |title=Cathode Rays |journal=[[Philosophical Magazine]] |volume=44 |issue=269 |pages=293–316 |doi=10.1080/14786449708621070 |bibcode=1897LEDPM..44..293T }}</ref> === Vyaka chitanda cha 20 === {{Main|20th century in science}} [[File:Carte trou ozone Antarctique.jpg|alt=Chithuzi chikulongora kuchepa kwa nkhongono ya mlengalenga ku Mpoto kwa charu|thumb|Chithuzi cha pakompyuta cha [[dindi la mlengalenga]] icho chikachitika mu chaka cha 1987 pakugwiliskira ntchito uthenga wa telesikopu ya ku mlengalenga]] Mu chigaŵa chakwamba cha chaka chitanda ichi, kupangika kwa [[munkhwala wakukoma tumpoyo]] na [[mufundo wakupangika na mawoko]] kukawovya chomene umoyo wa ŵanthu pa charu chose.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Goyotte |first=Dolores |year=2017 |title=The Surgical Legacy of World War II. Part II: The age of antibiotics |url=https://www.ast.org/ceonline/articles/402/files/assets/common/downloads/publication.pdf |url-status=live |journal=The Surgical Technologist |volume=109 |pages=257–264 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210505180530/https://www.ast.org/ceonline/articles/402/files/assets/common/downloads/publication.pdf |archive-date=5 May 2021 |access-date=8 January 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Erisman |first1=Jan Willem |first2=M. A. |last2=Sutton |first3=J. |last3=Galloway |first4=Z. |last4=Klimont |first5=W. |last5=Winiwarter |date=October 2008 |title=How a century of ammonia synthesis changed the world |url=http://www.physics.ohio-state.edu/~wilkins/energy/Resources/Essays/ngeo325.pdf.xpdf |journal=[[Nature Geoscience]] |volume=1 |issue=10 |pages=636–639 |bibcode=2008NatGe...1..636E |doi=10.1038/ngeo325 |s2cid=94880859 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100723223052/http://www.physics.ohio-state.edu/~wilkins/energy/Resources/Essays/ngeo325.pdf.xpdf |archive-date=23 July 2010 |access-date=22 October 2010}}</ref> Masuzgo ghakofya gha [[vyakuzingilizga]] nga ni [[kumalika kwa mlengalenga]], [[kununkhira kwa nyanja]], [[kuzara kwa vyakumera mu maji]], na [[kusintha kwa kanyengo]] kukamba kumanyikwa na ŵanthu ndipo kukambiska [[masambiro gha vyakuzingilizga]].<ref>{{cite journal |editor-last1=Emmett |editor-first1=Rob |editor-last2=Zelko |editor-first2=Frank |url=http://www.environmentandsociety.org/perspectives/2014/2/minding-gap-working-across-disciplines-environmental-studies |title=Minding the Gap: Working Across Disciplines in Environmental Studies |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220121054306/https://www.environmentandsociety.org/perspectives/2014/2/minding-gap-working-across-disciplines-environmental-studies |archive-date=21 January 2022 |series=RCC Perspectives no. 2 |year=2014 |doi=10.5282/rcc/6313 |last1=Emmett |first1=Robert |last2=Zelko |first2=Frank |journal=Environment & Society Portal}}</ref> Mu nyengo iyi, kuyezgelera kwa vya umanyi kukakula chomene ndipo kukamba kupenja [[Umanyi ukuru|ndalama zinandi na nthowa zikuru]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Furner |first=Jonathan |date=1 June 2003 |title=Little Book, Big Book: Before and After Little Science, Big Science: A Review Article, Part I |url=https://archive.org/details/journal-of-librarianship-and-information-science_2003-06_35_2/page/115 |journal=Journal of Librarianship and Information Science |volume=35 |issue=2 |pages=115–125 |doi=10.1177/0961000603352006 |s2cid=34844169}}</ref> Kusintha kukuru kwa luso chifukwa cha [[Nkhondo Yakwamba ya pa Charu Chose]], [[Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya pa Charu Chose]], na [[Nkhondo ya Mazgu]] kukambiska chiphalizgano pakati pa [[Mautongi ghankhongono|mautongi ghakurughakuru gha charu]], nga ni [[Chiphalizgano cha ku Mlengalenga]] na [[chiphalizgano cha vilwero vyakofya]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kraft |first1=Chris |url=https://archive.org/details/flight00chri |title=Flight: My Life in Mission Control |first2=James |last2=Schefter |publisher=Dutton |year=2001 |isbn=0-525-94571-7 |location=New York |author-link1=Christopher C. Kraft, Jr. |pages=3–5}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Kahn |first=Herman |author-link=Herman Kahn |year=1962 |title=Thinking about the Unthinkable |url=https://archive.org/details/thinkingaboutunt0000kahn |publisher=Horizon}}</ref> Kukawa so kukolerana kukuru pakati pa vyaru, nangauli pakaŵa nkhondo.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Shrum |first=Wesley |title=Structures of scientific collaboration |url=https://archive.org/details/structuresofscie0000shru |year=2007 |publisher=MIT Press |others=Joel Genuth, Ivan Chompalov |isbn=978-0-262-28358-8 |location=Cambridge, MA}}</ref> Kukumpoto kwa vyaka chitanda cha 20, kukoleka kwa ŵanakazi na kuwuskapo kwa [[kusankhulana chifukwa cha kwanakazi]] kukapangiska kuti ŵanakazi ŵanandi ŵaje ŵasanduzi ŵa umanyi, kweni kupambana kukuru pakati pa ŵanalume na ŵanakazi kukhalilira mu vigaŵa vinyake.<ref>{{cite book |last=Rosser |first=Sue V. |title=Breaking into the Lab: Engineering Progress for Women in Science |url=https://archive.org/details/breakingintolabe0000ross |date=12 March 2012 |publisher=New York University Press |isbn=978-0-8147-7645-2 |page=[https://archive.org/details/breakingintolabe0000ross/page/7 7]}}</ref> Kusangika kwa [[kungweruka kwa mlengalenga]] mu chaka cha 1964<ref>{{cite journal |last=Penzias |first=A. A. |year=2006 |title=The origin of elements |url=http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1978/penzias-lecture.pdf |journal=Science |publisher=[[Nobel Foundation]] |volume=205 |issue=4406 |pages=549–554 |doi=10.1126/science.205.4406.549 |pmid=17729659 |access-date=4 October 2006 |archive-date=17 January 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110117225210/http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1978/penzias-lecture.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref> kukapangiska kukana [[fundo ya chilengiwa chakukhazikika]] na kupokelera fundo ya [[Big Bang]] ya [[Georges Lemaître]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Weinberg |first=S. |url=https://archive.org/details/gravitationcosmo00stev_0/page/495 |title=Gravitation and Cosmology |publisher=John Whitney & Sons |year=1972 |isbn=978-0-471-92567-5 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/gravitationcosmo00stev_0/page/495 464–495] |url-access=registration}}</ref> Chaka chitanda ichi chikawona kusintha kukuru mu vigaŵa vya umanyi. Kusintha kwa vyamoyo kukazgoka fundo yimoza mu vyaka vyakwamba vya 1900 apo [[Kukolerana kwa mazuŵa gano (chaka chitanda cha 20)|kukolerana kwa mazuŵa gano]] kukasazga fundo ya kusintha kwa vyamoyo ya Darwin na [[masambiro gha mazuŵa ghano gha ndonda za umoyo]].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Futuyma |first1=Douglas J. |title=Evolution |url=https://archive.org/details/evolution0000futu_j9h3 |last2=Kirkpatrick |first2=Mark |year=2017 |isbn=978-1-60535-605-1 |edition=4th |pages=[https://archive.org/details/evolution0000futu_j9h3/page/n26 3]–26 |chapter=Chapter 1: Evolutionary Biology |publisher=Sinauer}}</ref> [[Albert Einstein]] na [[fundo yake ya unandi wa vinthu]] kweniso kukura kwa [[umanyi wa tinthu tuchoko chomene]] kukasazgirapo pa umanyi wakale wa kanyengo na [[nkhongono yakuguzira]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Miller |first=Arthur I. |title=Albert Einstein's special theory of relativity. Emergence (1905) and early interpretation (1905–1911) |year=1981 |location=Reading |publisher=Addison–Wesley |isbn=978-0-201-04679-3}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=ter Haar |first=D. |url=https://archive.org/details/oldquantumtheory0000haar |title=The Old Quantum Theory |publisher=Pergamon |year=1967 |isbn=978-0-08-012101-7 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/oldquantumtheory0000haar/page/206 206] |url-access=registration}}</ref> Kugwiliskira ntchito chomene [[nthambo zakukolerana za magesi]] mu vigaŵa vyaumaliro vya chaka chitanda cha 20, pamoza na [[pachanya pa mlengalenga vyakuperekera uthenga]], kukambiska kusintha kukuru mu luso lwa uthenga na kukura kwa nthambo ya charu chose ya uthenga na [[vipangizgo vyakuyendayenda]], kusazgapo [[foni zamazuŵa gano]]. Kukhumbikwa kwa ndondomeko ya vinthu vinandi vyakukolerana kukapangiska kukura kwa [[fundo ya ndondomeko]] na [[kapangiro ka vinthu pakugwiliskira ntchito kompyuta]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=von Bertalanffy |first1=Ludwig |year=1972 |title=The History and Status of General Systems Theory |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_academy-of-management-journal_1972-12_15_4/page/407 |journal=The Academy of Management Journal |volume=15 |issue=4 |pages=407–426 |jstor=255139 |bibcode=1972AManJ..15..407V }}</ref> === Vyaka chitanda cha 21 === {{Main|21st century#Science and technology}} [[Ndondomeko ya ndonda za umoyo wa muntu]] ikamalizgika mu chaka cha 2003 pakumanya na kuŵika mapu gha ndonda zose za [[ndonda za muntu]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Naidoo |first1=Nasheen |last2=Pawitan |first2=Yudi |last3=Soong |first3=Richie |last4=Cooper |first4=David N. |last5=Ku |first5=Chee-Seng |date=October 2011 |title=Human genetics and genomics a decade after the release of the draft sequence of the human genome |journal=Human Genomics |volume=5 |issue=6 |pages=577–622 |doi=10.1186/1479-7364-5-6-577 |pmc=3525251 |pmid=22155605 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Maselo ghakwamba gha [[Maselo ghakuyana na gha mwana uyo wandababike]] ghakapangika mu chaka cha 2006, icho chikazomerezga maselo gha ŵanthu ŵakuru kuzgoka [[maselo ghakwamba]] na kuŵa selo lililose ilo likusangika mu thupi.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Rashid |first1=S. Tamir |last2=Alexander |first2=Graeme J. M. |date=March 2013 |title=Induced pluripotent stem cells: from Nobel Prizes to clinical applications |journal=Journal of Hepatology |volume=58 |issue=3 |pages=625–629 |doi=10.1016/j.jhep.2012.10.026 |issn=1600-0641 |pmid=23131523 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Pakusimikizga kusangika kwa [[Higgs boson]] mu chaka cha 2013, kantu kaumaliro ako kakayowoyekerathu na [[Ndondomeko ya Umanyi]] ya umanyi wa tinthu tuchoko chomene kakasangika.<ref>{{cite press release |last=O'Luanaigh |first=C. |date=14 March 2013 |title=New results indicate that new particle is a Higgs boson |publisher=[[CERN]] |url=http://home.web.cern.ch/about/updates/2013/03/new-results-indicate-new-particle-higgs-boson |access-date=9 October 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151020000722/http://home.web.cern.ch/about/updates/2013/03/new-results-indicate-new-particle-higgs-boson |archive-date=20 October 2015}}</ref> Mu chaka cha 2015, [[mafumbi gha nkhongono yakuguzira]], agho ghakayowoyekerathu na [[fundo ya unandi wa vinthu]] chaka chitanda chimoza kumasinda, [[Kuwoneka kwakwamba kwa mafumbi gha nkhongono yakuguzira|ghakawoneka kakwamba]].<ref>{{Cite journal |doi=10.3847/2041-8213/aa91c9 |title=Multi-messenger Observations of a Binary Neutron Star Merger |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |volume=848 |issue=2 |page=L12 |year=2017 |last1=Abbott |first1=B. P. |last2=Abbott |first2=R. |last3=Abbott |first3=T. D. |last4=Acernese |first4=F. |last5=Ackley |first5=K. |last6=Adams |first6=C. |last7=Adams |first7=T. |last8=Addesso |first8=P. |last9=Adhikari |first9=R. X.|last10 = Adya|first10 = V. B. |last11=Affeldt |first11=C. |last12=Afrough |first12=M. |last13=Agarwal |first13=B. |last14=Agathos |first14=M. |last15=Agatsuma |first15=K. |last16=Aggarwal |first16=N. |last17=Aguiar |first17=O. D. |last18=Aiello |first18=L. |last19=Ain |first19=A.|last20 = Ajith|first20 = P. |last21=Allen |first21=B. |last22=Allen |first22=G. |last23=Allocca |first23=A. |last24=Altin |first24=P. A. |last25=Amato |first25=A. |last26=Ananyeva |first26=A. |last27=Anderson |first27=S. B. |last28=Anderson |first28=W. G. |last29=Angelova |first29=S. V.|last30 = Antier|first30 = S. |display-authors=29 |bibcode=2017ApJ...848L..12A |arxiv=1710.05833 |s2cid=217162243 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1126/science.aar2149 |title=Merging neutron stars generate gravitational waves and a celestial light show |journal=Science |year=2017 |last1=Cho |first1=Adrian}}</ref> Mu chaka cha 2019, kukolerana kwa charu chose kwa [[Telesikopu ya m'mbali mwa dindi]] kukalongora chithuzi chakwamba cha [[chizongwe chafifi]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=20 April 2019 |title=Media Advisory: First Results from the Event Horizon Telescope to be Presented on April 10th |publisher=Event Horizon Telescope |url=https://eventhorizontelescope.org/blog/media-advisory-first-results-event-horizon-telescope-be-presented-april-10th |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190420135254/https://eventhorizontelescope.org/blog/media-advisory-first-results-event-horizon-telescope-be-presented-april-10th |archive-date=20 April 2019 |access-date=21 September 2021}}</ref> == Mirazi == {{Main|Branches of science}} Umanyi wa mazuŵa gano ukugaŵika mu [[Mirazi ya umanyi|mirazi]] yikuru yitatu: [[umanyi wa chilengiwa]], [[umanyi wa kakhaliro ka ŵanthu]], na [[umanyi wa ndondomeko]].<ref name="Cohen2021" /> Chigaŵa chilichose mwa vigaŵa ivi chili na masambiro ghake agho nyengo zinyake ghakusazgikana ndipo ghali na [[maina gha luso]] na umanyi wake.<ref>{{cite magazine |url=http://seedmagazine.com/content/article/scientific_method_relationships_among_scientific_paradigms/ |title=Scientific Method: Relationships Among Scientific Paradigms |date=7 March 2007 |magazine=Seed Magazine |access-date=4 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161101001155/http://seedmagazine.com/content/article/scientific_method_relationships_among_scientific_paradigms/ |archive-date=1 November 2016}}</ref> Umanyi wa chilengiwa na wa kakhaliro ka ŵanthu ghose ni [[umanyi wa kuyezgelera]],<ref>{{cite book |title=Philosophy of Science: From Problem to Theory |url=https://archive.org/details/philosophyofscie0001bung |last=Bunge |first=Mario Augusto |year=1998 |publisher=Transaction |isbn=978-0-7658-0413-6 |page=[https://archive.org/details/philosophyofscie0001bung/page/24 24]}}</ref> pakuti umanyi wawo wukuzikira pa [[ukaboni wa maso]] ndipo ungayezgeka na ŵasanduzi ŵanyake awo ŵakugwira ntchito mu mikhalidwe yakuyana.<ref name="Popper2002">{{cite book |last=Popper |first=Karl R. |year=2002a |chapter=A survey of some fundamental problems |title=The Logic of Scientific Discovery |url=https://archive.org/details/logicscientificd00popp_574 |url-access=limited |orig-date=1959 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/logicscientificd00popp_574/page/n133 3]–26 |publisher=Routledge |location=New York |isbn=978-0-415-27844-7}}</ref>{{rp|pp=3-26}} === Chilengiwa === [[Natural science|Umanyi wa chilengiwa]] ni kusambira vya charu icho tikuwona. Ukugaŵika mu vigaŵa viŵiri: [[umanyi wa vyamoyo]] na [[umanyi wa vinthu vyambura umoyo]]. Mirazi iyi yingasazgirika mu vigaŵa vinyake vya luso. Chiyelezgero, umanyi wa vinthu vyambura umoyo ungagaŵika mu physics, [[chemistry]], [[umanyi wa mlengalenga]], na [[umanyi wa charu pasi]]. Umanyi wa chilengiwa wa mazuŵa gano uli kufuma ku [[fundo za chilengiwa]] izo zikambira ku [[Greece yakale]]. [[Galileo]], [[Descartes]], [[Francis Bacon|Bacon]], na [[Isaac Newton|Newton]] ŵakadumbiskananga uwemi wa kugwiliskira ntchito nthowa za [[physics wa masamu]] na kuyezgelera mu nthowa yakudunjika. Kweni, kaghanaliro ka vinthu na [[maghanoghano gha mu mutu]] vikuŵa vyakukhumbikwa ni m'paka lero mu umanyi wa chilengiwa.<ref>{{cite book |last=Gauch |first=Hugh G. Jr. |chapter=Science in perspective |title=Scientific Method in Practice |publisher=Cambridge University Press |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iVkugqNG9dAC&pg=PA71 |pages=21–73 |isbn=978-0-521-01708-4 |year=2003 |access-date=3 September 2018}}</ref> Kusonkhanitsa uthenga mu nthowa yakukhazikika kukatora malo gha [[mbiri ya chilengiwa]], iyo ikawoneka mu vyaka vya m'ma 1500 pakulongosora na kugaŵa vyakumera, vinyama, malibwe, na vinthu vinyake vyamoyo.<ref>{{cite book |last=Oglivie |first=Brian W. |year=2008 |chapter=Introduction |title=The Science of Describing: Natural History in Renaissance Europe |url=https://archive.org/details/scienceofdescrib0000ogil |pages=[https://archive.org/details/scienceofdescrib0000ogil/page/1 1]–24 |edition=Paperback |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-62088-6}}</ref> Lero, "mbiri ya chilengiwa" yikuyowoya chomene za malongosolero gha vinthu ivyo vikuwoneka na maso ku ŵanthu bweka.<ref>{{cite dictionary |title=Natural History |url=http://wordnetweb.princeton.edu/perl/webwn?s=natural+history |dictionary=Princeton University WordNet |access-date=21 October 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120303173506/http://wordnetweb.princeton.edu/perl/webwn?s=natural+history |archive-date=3 March 2012}}</ref> === Kakhaliro ka ŵanthu === [[File:Supply-demand-equilibrium.svg|thumb|[[Kuguliska na kukhumba]] mu vyachuma, kukumana pa malo ghawemi|alt=Mizere yiŵiri yakusatuka, kupanga chizindikiro cha X]] [[Social science|Umanyi wa kakhaliro ka ŵanthu]] ni kusambira kakhaliro ka ŵanthu na umo magulu gha ŵanthu ghakwendera.<ref name="Colander2019" /><ref name="Nisbet2020" /> Uli na masambiro ghanandi nga ni [[anthropoloji]], vyachuma, mbiri, [[geografe ya ŵanthu]], [[umanyi wa ndyali]], sayikoloji, na sosiyoloji.<ref name="Colander2019" /> Mu umanyi wa kakhaliro ka ŵanthu, muli maghanoghano ghanandi ghakupambana agho ghakusazgirika mu [[mapulogilamu gha kafukufuku]] ghakupambana.<ref name="Colander2019" /> Chifukwa cha kusuzga kuchita kuyezgelera kwa ŵanthu ŵanandi panji pa nkhani zakusuzga, ŵasanduzi ŵa kakhaliro ka ŵanthu ŵangagwiliskira ntchito nthowa zinyake nga ni [[nthowa ya mbiri]], [[kusambira chinthu chimoza]], na [[kusambira mitheto yakupambana]]. Kweniso, usange uthenga wa manambala ulipo, ŵasanduzi ŵangagwiliskira ntchito nthowa za masamu kuti ŵapulikiske makora kakhaliro na mendero gha ŵanthu.<ref name="Colander2019" /> === Ndondomeko === [[Formal science|Umanyi wa ndondomeko]] ni chigaŵa cha masambiro icho chikupanga umanyi pakugwiliskira ntchito [[ndondomeko zakukhazikika]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://my.wlu.edu/the-sciences-at-wandl/formal-sciences |title=Formal Sciences: Washington and Lee University |website=Washington and Lee University |access-date=14 May 2021 |quote=A "formal science" is an area of study that uses formal systems to generate knowledge such as in Mathematics and Computer Science. Formal sciences are important subjects because all of quantitative science depends on them. |archive-date=14 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210514125428/https://my.wlu.edu/the-sciences-at-wandl/formal-sciences |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Löwe2002">{{cite journal |last=Löwe |first=Benedikt |author-link=Benedikt Löwe |year=2002 |title=The formal sciences: their scope, their foundations, and their unity |journal=Synthese |volume=133 |issue=1/2 |pages=5–11 |doi=10.1023/A:1020887832028 |issn=0039-7857 |s2cid=9272212}}</ref><ref name="Rucker2019">{{cite book |last=Rucker |first=Rudy |author-link=Rudy Rucker |url=http://www.rudyrucker.com/infinityandthemind/#calibre_link-328 |title=Infinity and the Mind: The Science and Philosophy of the Infinite |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2019 |isbn=978-0-691-19138-6 |edition=Reprint |pages=157–188 |chapter=Robots and souls |access-date=11 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210226212447/http://www.rudyrucker.com/infinityandthemind/#calibre_link-328 |archive-date=26 February 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref> Ndondomeko yakukhazikika ni [[kakhaliro ka vinthu mu mutu]] ako kakugwiliskira ntchito [[fundo zakusimikizga]] kufuma pa [[fundo zakwamba]] kuyana na malango. Ukusazgapo masamu,<ref>{{cite book |last=Tomalin |first=Marcus |year=2006 |title=Linguistics and the Formal Sciences}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |title=The Formal Sciences: Their Scope, Their Foundations, and Their Unity |journal=Synthese |volume=133 |pages=5–11 |doi=10.1023/a:1020887832028 |year=2002 |last1=Löwe |first1=Benedikt |issue=1/2 |s2cid=9272212}}</ref> [[fundo ya ndondomeko]], na [[umanyi wa kompyuta]]. Umanyi wa ndondomeko wuli na kukozgana na mirazi yinyake yiŵiri pakugomezga kusambira vinthu mu nthowa yakudunjika na yakutowa. Kweni upambana na umanyi wa kuyezgelera chifukwa ukugomezga chomene kaghanaliro ka mu mutu kwambura kukhumbikwa kwa ukaboni wa maso kuti usimikizge vinthu.<ref name="Fetzer2013" /><ref>{{cite book |first=Thompson |last=Bill |title=The Nature of Statistical Evidence |chapter=2.4 Formal Science and Applied Mathematics |publisher=Springer |series=Lecture Notes in Statistics |volume=189 |year=2007 |page=15}}</ref><ref name="Popper2002" /> Pa chifukwa ichi, pali kupambana maghanoghano usange umanyi uwu ni umanyi nadi.<ref name="Kluwer" /><ref>{{cite book |last1=Bunge |first1=Mario |title=Philosophy of Science: Volume 1, From Problem to Theory |year=1998 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-7658-0413-6 |edition=revised |volume=1 |location=New York |pages=3–50 |chapter=The Scientific Approach}}</ref> Ndipouli, umanyi wa ndondomeko uli na ntchito yikuru mu umanyi wa kuyezgelera. Chiyelezgero, [[Calculus]] wakambiska kuti munthu apulikiske [[mendero]] mu physics.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Mujumdar |first1=Anshu Gupta |last2=Singh |first2=Tejinder |year=2016 |chapter=Cognitive science and the connection between physics and mathematics |title=Trick or Truth?: The Mysterious Connection Between Physics and Mathematics |url=https://archive.org/details/trickortruthmyst0000unse |editor-first1=Anthony |editor-last1=Aguirre |editor-first2=Brendan |editor-last2=Foster |series=The Frontiers Collection |pages=[https://archive.org/details/trickortruthmyst0000unse/page/201 201]–218 |location=Switzerland |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-319-27494-2}}</ref> Umanyi wa chilengiwa na wa kakhaliro ka ŵanthu uwo ukugomezga chomene masamu ukusazgapo [[physics wa masamu]],<ref>{{cite web |title=About the Journal |url=http://jmp.aip.org/jmp/staff.jsp |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061003233339/http://jmp.aip.org/jmp/staff.jsp |archive-date=3 October 2006 |access-date=3 October 2006 |website=[[Journal of Mathematical Physics]]}}</ref> [[chemistry wa masamu]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Restrepo |first=G. |chapter=Mathematical chemistry, a new discipline |title=Essays in the philosophy of chemistry |editor-last1=Scerri |editor-first1=E. |editor-last2=Fisher |editor-first2=G. |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=New York |year=2016 |pages=332–351 |isbn=978-0-19-049459-9 |url=https://global.oup.com/academic/product/essays-in-the-philosophy-of-chemistry-9780190494599?cc=de&lang=en& |archive-date=10 June 2021 |access-date=31 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210610130352/https://global.oup.com/academic/product/essays-in-the-philosophy-of-chemistry-9780190494599?cc=de&lang=en& |url-status=live}}</ref> [[bioloji wa masamu]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=What is mathematical biology |publisher=Centre for Mathematical Biology, University of Bath |url=http://www.bath.ac.uk/cmb/mathBiology/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180923070442/http://www.bath.ac.uk/cmb/mathBiology/ |archive-date=23 September 2018 |access-date=7 June 2018}}</ref> [[vyachuma vya masamu]],<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Johnson |first=Tim |date=1 September 2009 |title=What is financial mathematics? |url=https://plus.maths.org/content/what-financial-mathematics |access-date=1 March 2021 |magazine=+Plus Magazine |archive-date=8 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220408231344/https://plus.maths.org/content/what-financial-mathematics |url-status=live}}</ref> na [[ekonomiki ya masamu]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Varian |first=Hal |author-link=Hal Varian |year=1997 |chapter=What Use Is Economic Theory? |editor-last1=D'Autume |editor-first1=A. |editor-last2=Cartelier |editor-first2=J. |title=Is Economics Becoming a Hard Science? |publisher=Edward Elgar}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20060625062619/http://www.sims.berkeley.edu/~hal/Papers/theory.pdf Pre-publication]. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060625062619/http://www.sims.berkeley.edu/~hal/Papers/theory.pdf |date=25 June 2006 }}. Retrieved 1 April 2008.</ref> === Kugwiliskira Ntchito === [[Applied science|Umanyi wakugwiliskira ntchito]] ni kukhazikika kwa [[nthowa za umanyi]] na kumanya vinthu kuti ufikepo pa ivyo ukukhumba mu umoyo wa zuŵa na zuŵa, ndipo ukusazgapo vigaŵa nga ni unjinariya na munkhwala.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Abraham |first=Reem Rachel |year=2004 |title=Clinically oriented physiology teaching: strategy for developing critical-thinking skills in undergraduate medical students |journal=Advances in Physiology Education |volume=28 |issue=3 |pages=102–104 |doi=10.1152/advan.00001.2004 |pmid=15319191 |s2cid=21610124}}</ref><ref name="Bunge1966" /> Unjinariya ni kugwiliskira ntchito fundo za umanyi pakupanga, kuzenga mashini, na luso linyake.<ref>{{cite dictionary |url=https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/engineering |title=Engineering |dictionary=Cambridge Dictionary |publisher=Cambridge University Press |access-date=25 March 2021 |archive-date=19 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190819030859/https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/engineering |url-status=live}}</ref> Umanyi ungawovya pakupanga luso liphya.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Brooks |first=Harvey |date=1 September 1994 |title=The relationship between science and technology |url=https://www.belfercenter.org/sites/default/files/files/publication/sciencetechnology.pdf |journal=Research Policy |series=Special Issue in Honor of Nathan Rosenberg |volume=23 |issue=5 |pages=477–486 |doi=10.1016/0048-7333(94)01001-3 |issn=0048-7333 |access-date=14 October 2022 |archive-date=30 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221230224402/https://www.belfercenter.org/sites/default/files/files/publication/sciencetechnology.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref> Munkhwala ni ntchito ya kupwelelerera ŵalwari mwa kusunga na kuwezgerapo umoyo kwizira mu [[kuvilekeska (munkhwala)|kuvilekeska]], [[kumanya nthenda]], na [[chovwiro|kuchizga]] nthenda panji kupwetekeka.<ref>{{cite book |last=Firth |first=John |title=Oxford textbook of medicine |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2020 |isbn=978-0-19-874669-0 |chapter=Science in medicine: when, how, and what}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Saunders |first=J. |date=June 2000 |title=The practice of clinical medicine as an art and as a science |journal=Med Humanit |volume=26 |issue=1 |pages=18–22 |doi=10.1136/mh.26.1.18 |pmid=12484313 |doi-access=free |s2cid=73306806 |pmc=1071282}}</ref> === Yakwamba === Umanyi wakugwiliskira ntchito kanandi ukupambaniskika na [[umanyi wakwamba]], uwo ukulaŵiska chomene pa kusazgirako fundo na malango gha umanyi agho ghakulongosora na kuyowoyerathu ivyo vikuchitika mu chilengiwa.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Davis |first1=Bernard D. |date=March 2000 |title=Limited scope of science |journal=Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews |volume=64 |issue=1 |pages=1–12 |doi=10.1128/MMBR.64.1.1-12.2000 |pmc=98983 |pmid=10704471 |postscript=none}} & "Technology" in {{cite journal |first=Bernard |last=Davis |author-link1=Bernard Davis (biologist) |date=Mar 2000 |title=The scientist's world |journal=[[Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews]] |volume=64 |issue=1 |pages=1–12 |doi=10.1128/MMBR.64.1.1-12.2000 |pmc=98983 |pmid=10704471}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |first=James |last=McCormick |year=2001 |title=Scientific medicine—fact of fiction? The contribution of science to medicine |journal=Occasional Paper (Royal College of General Practitioners) |pages=3–6 |pmc=2560978 |pmid=19790950 |number=80}}</ref> === Kafukufuku wa mlengalenga === {{Excerpt|Blue skies research|paragraphs=1|only=paragraphs|hat=no}} === Pakugwiliskira ntchito makina === [[Computational science|Umanyi wa makina]] ukugwiliskira ntchito [[kuyezgelera kwa pakompyuta]] mu umanyi, icho chikupangiska kupulikiska makora masuzgo gha umanyi kuluska umo masamu pera ghangachitira. Kugwiliskira ntchito [[makina ghakusambira pande]] na [[luso lwakupangika na munthu mu makina]] kukuzgoka chigaŵa chikuru cha wovwiri wa makina mu umanyi, chiyelezgero mu [[vyachuma vyakusanda na makina]], [[makuni ghakupambana gha masamu]], [[kapangiro ka mitu ya nkhani]] na nthowa zinandi zakuyowoyerathu ivyo vichitikenge. Kweni, makina pa ghaŵo ghekha nyengo zinandi ghangasazgirako yayi umanyi chifukwa ghakukhumbikira mulongozgi wa munthu na nkhongono ya kughanaghanira; ndipo ghangasazgirako sankho pa magulu gha ŵanthu panji nyengo zinyake kugwira ntchito pasi pa nkhongono ya munthu.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Breznau |first1=Nate |year=2022 |title=Integrating Computer Prediction Methods in Social Science: A Comment on Hofman et al. (2021) |journal=Social Science Computer Review |volume=40 |issue=3 |pages=844–853 |doi=10.1177/08944393211049776 |doi-access=free |s2cid=248334446 |url=[suspicious link removed] |access-date=16 August 2023 |archive-date=29 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240429040922/https://osf.io/adxb3/download |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hofman |first1=Jake M. |last2=Watts |first2=Duncan J. |author2-link=Duncan J. Watts |last3=Athey |first3=Susan |author3-link=Susan Athey |last4=Garip |first4=Filiz |last5=Griffiths |first5=Thomas L. |author5-link=Tom Griffiths (cognitive scientist) |last6=Kleinberg |first6=Jon |author6-link=Jon Kleinberg |last7=Margetts |first7=Helen |author7-link=Helen Margetts |last8=Mullainathan |first8=Sendhil |author8-link=Sendhil Mullainathan |last9=Salganik |first9=Matthew J. |author9-link=Matthew J. Salganik |last10=Vazire |first10=Simine |author10-link=Simine Vazire |last11=Vespignani |first11=Alessandro |author11-link=Alessandro Vespignani |date=July 2021 |title=Integrating explanation and prediction in computational social science |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-021-03659-0 |url-status=live |journal=Nature |volume=595 |issue=7866 |pages=181–188 |bibcode=2021Natur.595..181H |doi=10.1038/s41586-021-03659-0 |issn=1476-4687 |pmid=34194044 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210925074416/https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-021-03659-0 |archive-date=25 September 2021 |access-date=25 September 2021 |s2cid=235697917}}</ref> === Kusazga masambiro === [[Interdisciplinary science|Umanyi wakusazga masambiro]] ukusazgapo kusazga masambiro ghaŵiri panji kujumpha kuŵa limoza,<ref>{{cite journal |last=Nissani |first=M. |year=1995 |title=Fruits, Salads, and Smoothies: A Working definition of Interdisciplinarity |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-educational-thought_1995-08_29_2/page/121 |journal=The Journal of Educational Thought |volume=29 |issue=2 |pages=121–128 |doi=10.55016/ojs/jet.v29i2.52385 |jstor=23767672}}</ref> nga ni [[bioinformatics]], kusazgika kwa bioloji na umanyi wa kompyuta<ref>{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/digitalcodeoflif0000mood |title=Digital Code of Life: How Bioinformatics is Revolutionizing Science, Medicine, and Business |last=Moody |first=G. |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-471-32788-2 |url-access=registration |page=vii |publisher=John Wiley & Sons}}</ref> panji [[umanyi wa kaghanaliro]]. Fundo iyi yaŵako kwamba mu nyengo ya Greece yakale ndipo ikambaso kumanyikwa mu vyaka chitanda cha 20.<ref>{{cite book |last=Ausburg |first=Tanya |title=Becoming Interdisciplinary: An Introduction to Interdisciplinary Studies |url=https://archive.org/details/becominginterdis0000augs |publisher=Kendall/Hunt Publishing |year=2006 |edition=2nd |location=New York}}</ref> == Kafukufuku == Kafukufuku wa umanyi ungathyakika kuŵa kafukufuku wakwamba panji kafukufuku wakugwiliskira ntchito. [[Basic research|Kafukufuku wakwamba]] ni kupenja umanyi ndipo [[applied research|kafukufuku wakugwiliskira ntchito]] ni kupenja nthowa zamazgu ku masuzgo ghakuwoneka pakugwiliskira ntchito umanyi uwu. Kupulikiska vinandi kukufuma mu kafukufuku wakwamba, nangauli nyengo zinyake kafukufuku wakugwiliskira ntchito ukulazga ku masuzgo ghachindunji. Ichi chikupangiska kukura kwa luso ilo pakwamba likaŵa lakusuzga kughanaghanira.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://richarddawkins.net/articles/91 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120119113522/http://richarddawkins.net/articles/91 |archive-date=19 January 2012 |title=To Live at All Is Miracle Enough |first=Richard |last=Dawkins |publisher=RichardDawkins.net |date=10 May 2006 |access-date=5 February 2012}}</ref> === Nthowa za umanyi === [[File:The Scientific Method.svg|thumb|Chithuzi chakulongora nthowa za umanyi nga ni [[Scientific method#Elements of the scientific method|ndondomeko yakulutilira]]|alt=Vigaŵa 6 vya nthowa za umanyi mu kamuzingizgi]] Shutterstock Kafukufuku wa umanyi ukusazgapo kugwiliskira ntchito [[scientific method|nthowa za umanyi]], izo zikupenja kulongosora vyakuchitika vya [[chilengiwa]] kwambura sankho mu nthowa iyo [[kuyezgeka so|ingachitika so]].<ref name="di Francia1976">{{cite book |last=di Francia |first=Giuliano Toraldo |chapter=The method of physics |title=The Investigation of the Physical World |url=https://archive.org/details/investigationofp0000tora |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1976 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/investigationofp0000tora/page/1 1]–52 |isbn=978-0-521-29925-1 |quote=The amazing point is that for the first time since the discovery of mathematics, a method has been introduced, the results of which have an intersubjective value!}}</ref> Ŵasanduzi kanandi ŵakupokelera fundo zinyake zakwamba izo zikukhumbikwa kuti nthowa za umanyi ziŵe zakwenelera: pali [[unenesko uwo ulipo]] uwo uliupange kwa ŵasanduzi wose; unenesko uwu ukulongozgeka na [[malango gha chilengiwa]]; malango agha ghakasangika kwizira mu [[kuwonelera]] kwakukhazikika na kuyezgelera.<ref name="Heilbron2003" /> Masamu ngakukhumbikwa chomene mu kupanga [[maghanoghano ghakuyezezgeka]], [[fundo za umanyi]], na malango, chifukwa ghakugwiliskira ntchito chomene mu kupanga vipangizgo, kuwonelera, na kusonkhanitsa [[milingo]].<ref name=Popper2002 />{{rp|pp=3-26}} Masamu gha dongo ghakugwiliskira ntchito pakudumura na kusanda uthenga, icho chikuzomerezga ŵasanduzi kupima kugomezgeka kwa ivyo vyasangika mu kuyezgelera.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Diggle |first1=Peter J. |author-link=Peter Diggle |title=Statistics and Scientific Method: An Introduction for Students and Researchers |url=https://archive.org/details/statisticsscient0000digg |last2=Chetwynd |first2=Amanda G. |author2-link=Amanda Chetwynd |year=2011 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-954318-2 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/statisticsscient0000digg/page/1 1]–2}}</ref> Mu nthowa za umanyi, [[kuyezgelera mu mutu]] panji maghanoghano ghakuyezezgeka ghakuŵikika nga ni malongosolero pakugwiliskira ntchito [[fundo yakudumura vinthu]] ndipo ghakulindilirika kupenja [[kukolerana]] – kuyana na unenesko unyake wakuzomerezgeka wakukhwaskana na ivyo vikuwoneka panji fumbo la umanyi.<ref>{{cite book |last=Wilson |first=Edward |title=Consilience: The Unity of Knowledge |url=https://archive.org/details/consilienceunity0000wils |publisher=Vintage |location=New York |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-679-76867-8}}</ref> Malongosolero agha ghakugwiliskira ntchito pakupanga vinthu ivyo [[vingasangika kuti mbutesi]], ivyo kanandi vikuŵikika pakweru pambere vindayezgeke na kuyezgelera. Kutondeka kwa ivyo vikayowoyerathu mbukaboni wa kukura kwa umanyi.<ref name="di Francia1976" />{{Rp|pages=4–5}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Fara |first=Patricia |author-link=Patricia Fara |year=2009 |chapter=Decisions |title=Science: A Four Thousand Year History |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-922689-4 |page=[https://archive.org/details/sciencefourthous00fara/page/408 408] |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/sciencefourthous00fara/page/306}}</ref> Kuyezgelera nkhwakukhumbikwa chomene mu umanyi kuti kukhozge [[kukolerana kwa vyakuchitika]] kugega [[upusikizgi wa kukozgana kwa vinthu]], nangauli mu umanyi unyake nga ni wa mlengalenga panji wa malibwe, kuwonelera ivyo vikayowoyerathu kungaŵa kwakwenelera chomene.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Aldrich |first=John |journal=Statistical Science |volume=10 |year=1995 |pages=364–376 |title=Correlations Genuine and Spurious in Pearson and Yule |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_statistical-science_1995-11_10_4/page/364 |jstor=2246135 |doi=10.1214/ss/1177009870 |issue=4 |bibcode=1995StaSc..1009870A |doi-access=free}}</ref> Usange maghanoghano ghakuyezezgeka ghasangika kuti ngakukhorweska yayi, ghakusinthika panji kutayika. Usange maghanoghano agha ghapona pa kuyezgelera, ghangapokelereka mu ndondomeko ya [[scientific theory|fundo ya umanyi]], iyo ni chakuwonelerapo chakukhazikika chakulongosora kakhaliro ka vyakuchitika vinyake vya chilengiwa. Fundo ya umanyi kanandi yikulongosora kakhaliro ka vinthu vinandi chomene kuluska maghanoghano ghakuyezezgeka; kanandi, maghanoghano ghanandi ghangakolerana pamoza na fundo yimoza ya umanyi. Ntheura, fundo ya umanyi ni maghanoghano ghakulongosora maghanoghano ghanyake ghanandi. Mu nthowa yimoza iyi, fundo za umanyi zikupangika kuyana na malango gha umanyi ghakuyana na gha maghanoghano ghakuyezezgeka. Ŵasanduzi ŵangapanga [[Scientific modelling|chakuwonelerapo]], kuyezga kulongosora panji kuwoneska ivyo vikuwoneka mu nthowa ya masamu panji ya thupi, na kupanga maghanoghano ghaphya agho ghangayezgeka na kuyezgelera.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Nola |first1=Robert |last2=Irzik |first2=Gürol |year=2005 |title=Philosophy, science, education and culture |volume=28 |series=Science & technology education library |isbn=978-1-4020-3769-6 |publisher=Springer |pages=207–230}}</ref> Pachita kuyezgelera kuti ŵayezge maghanoghano, ŵasanduzi ŵangaŵa na kakhumbiro ka kuti chinthu chimoza chichitike kuluska chinyake.<ref>{{cite web |last=van Gelder |first=Tim |year=1999 |url=http://www.philosophy.unimelb.edu.au/tgelder/papers/HeadsIWin.pdf |title="Heads I win, tails you lose": A Foray Into the Psychology of Philosophy |publisher=University of Melbourne |access-date=28 March 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080409054240/http://www.philosophy.unimelb.edu.au/tgelder/papers/HeadsIWin.pdf |archive-date=9 April 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Pease |first=Craig |date=6 September 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100619154617/http://law-and-science.net/Science4BLJ/Scientific_Method/Deliberate.bias/Text.htm |archive-date=19 June 2010 |title=Chapter 23. Deliberate bias: Conflict creates bad science |website=Science for Business, Law and Journalism |publisher=Vermont Law School |url=http://law-and-science.net/Science4BLJ/Scientific_Method/Deliberate.bias/Text.htm}}</ref> Kuwuskapo sankho kungaoneka kwizira mu kachitiro kakweru, [[kapangiro kawemi ka kuyezgelera]], na nthowa ya [[kusanda kwa ŵasanduzi ŵanyake]] pa ivyo vyasangika. Pamanyuma pa kupharazga ivyo vyasangika, ni kakhaliro kakwenelera kuti ŵasanduzi ŵanyake ŵazakaŵereso umo kafukufuku ukayendera, na kuchita kuyezgelera kwakuyana kuti ŵawone usange ivyo vyasangika vingagomezgeka.<ref>{{cite book |first1=Ruth Ellen |last1=Bulger |year=2002 |last2=Heitman |first2=Elizabeth |last3=Reiser |first3=Stanley Joel |title=The Ethical Dimensions of the Biological and Health Sciences |edition=2nd |isbn=978-0-521-00886-0 |publisher=Cambridge University Press}}</ref> Pakuwona kose, nthowa za umanyi zikuzomerezga kumazga masuzgo mu nthowa ya luso uku zikuchepeska sankho na [[kukhozgera maghanoghano gha munthu]]. [[Kusimikizga kwa ŵanthu ŵanandi]], nkhongono ya kufika pa kukolerana na kupangika so kwa ivyo vyasangika, nkhwakukhumbikwa chomene pa kupanga umanyi wose wa umanyi.<ref>{{cite book |last=Ziman |first=John |title=Reliable knowledge: An exploration of the grounds for belief in science |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1978c |isbn=978-0-521-22087-3 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/reliableknowledg00john/page/42 42–76] |chapter=Common observation |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/reliableknowledg00john/page/42}}</ref> === Mabuku === {{Main|Scientific literature|Lists of important publications in science}} [[File:Nature cover, November 4, 1869.jpg|thumb|Chifupi cha nkhani yakwamba ya ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]'', 4 Novemba 1869|alt=Lilembo la "NATURE" pakati, na malemba gha umanyi kusi]] Kafukufuku wa umanyi ukupharazgika mu mabuku ghanandi.<ref>{{cite journal |author-link=John Ziman |last=Ziman |first=J. M. |journal=Science |title=The proliferation of scientific literature: a natural process |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_1980-04-25_208_4442/page/369 |year=1980 |volume=208 |issue=4442 |pages=369–371 |doi=10.1126/science.7367863 |pmid=7367863 |bibcode=1980Sci...208..369Z}}</ref> [[Scientific journal|Mabuku gha umanyi]] ghakupharazga na kusunga ivyo vyasangika mu kafukufuku uwo ukuchitika mu maunivesite na malo gha kafukufuku, kuŵa nga ni nkhokwe ya umanyi. Mabuku ghakwamba gha umanyi, {{lang|fr|[[Journal des sçavans]]}} kulondezgana na ''[[Philosophical Transactions]]'', ghakamba kupharazgika mu chaka cha 1665. Kufuma nyengo iyo, unandi wa mabuku agha wakulutilira kukura. Mu chaka cha 1981, unandi wa mabuku gha umanyi na luso ukaŵa pafupifupi 11,500.<ref>{{cite book |first1=Krishna |last1=Subramanyam |last2=Subramanyam |first2=Bhadriraju |year=1981 |title=Scientific and Technical Information Resources |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=978-0-8247-8297-9}}</ref> Mabuku ghanandi gha umanyi ghakuyowoya za chigaŵa chimoza cha umanyi; kafukufuku kanandi wakuŵikika mu nthowa ya [[nkhani ya umanyi]]. Umanyi wazara chomene mu magulu gha ŵanthu mazuŵa gano mwakuti nkhwakukhumbikwa kupharazga ivyo vyachitika, uthenga, na makhumbiro gha ŵasanduzi kwa ŵanthu ŵanandi.<ref name="Bush1945">{{cite web |last=Bush |first=Vannevar |date=July 1945 |title=Science the Endless Frontier |url=https://www.nsf.gov/od/lpa/nsf50/vbush1945.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161107221306/https://www.nsf.gov/od/lpa/nsf50/vbush1945.htm |archive-date=7 November 2016 |access-date=4 November 2016 |publisher=National Science Foundation}}</ref> == Fundo za kaghanaliro == {{anchor|ConjectureAndRefutation}} [[File:Epicycle and deferent.svg|thumb|Kwayana na [[Thomas Kuhn|Kuhn]], kusazgirako [[maghanoghano gha mizere]] mu umanyi wa Ptolemy kukaŵa "umanyi wa bweka" mu ndondomeko yimoza, uku [[The Structure of Scientific Revolutions#Copernican Revolution|Kusintha kwa Copernicus]] kukaŵa kusintha kukuru kwa ndondomeko.|alt=Chithuzi cha mizere ya kuzingilira, apo polaneti yikuzingilira mu nthambo yikuru]] Pali magulu gha kaghanaliro ghakupambana mu [[philosophy of science|fundo za kaghanaliro ka umanyi]]. Kaghanaliro kamanyikwa chomene ni [[empiricism]], ako kakusambizga kuti umanyi ukupangika kwizira mu kuwonelera; fundo za umanyi zikusazga ivyo vikuwonelereka.<ref name=pGS2003 />{{rp|pp=39-56}} Empiricism kanandi yikusazgapo [[inductivism]], iyo yikulongosora umo fundo zikuru zingapangikira kufuma pa ukaboni wa maso uchoko uwo ulipo. Pali nthowa zinandi za empiricism, izo zikumanyikwa chomene ni [[Bayesianism]] na [[hypothetico-deductive method]].<ref name=pGS2003 />{{rp|pp=219-232}} Empiricism yakhala yakupambana na [[rationalism]], kaghanaliro ako pakwamba kakavikilirika na [[Descartes]], ako kakusambizga kuti umanyi ukupangika na nzeru ya munthu, osati na kuwonelera.<ref name=pGS2003 >{{cite book |last=Godfrey-Smith |first=Peter |url=https://archive.org/details/theoryrealityint00godf |title=Theory and Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Science |publisher=University of Chicago |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-226-30062-7 }}</ref>{{rp|pp=19-38}} [[Critical rationalism]] ni nthowa yakupambana ya vyaka chitanda cha 20, iyo yikambika na wakughanaghanira wa ku Austria-Britain [[Karl Popper]]. Popper wakakana nthowa iyo empiricism yikulongosolera kukolerana pakati pa fundo na kuwonelera. Iye wakati fundo zikupangika na kuwonelera yayi, kweni kuwonelera kukuchitika chifukwa cha fundo, ndipo nthowa yekha iyo fundo A yingakhwaskika na kuwonelera ni ''pamanyuma'' pakuti fundo A yagalukira kuwonelera, kweni fundo B yapona pa kuwonelera uko.<ref name=pGS2003/>{{rp|pp=57-74}} Popper wakayowoya kuti malo ghakusimikizga vinthu ghaŵe [[falsifiability]] (kusangika kuŵa utesi) nga ni chimanyikwiro cha fundo za umanyi, kusintha nthowa ya kusanda na nthowa ya kusanga utesi nga ni nthowa ya kafukufuku. Popper wakayowoyaso kuti kuli nthowa yimoza pera pa charu chose, osati ya umanyi pera: nthowa ya kususka, [[kuyezga na kutondeka]], ikusazgapo vyose ivyo nzeru ya munthu yapanga, kusazgapo umanyi, masamu, kaghanaliro, na luso.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Popper |first=Karl |title=Objective Knowledge |url=https://archive.org/details/objectiveknowled0000karl |year=1972}}</ref> Nthowa yinyake, [[instrumentalism]], yikulongora uwemi wa fundo nga ni vipangizgo vyakulongosolera na kuyowoyerathu vyakuchitika. Yikuwona fundo za umanyi nga ni mabokosi ghafifi, apo ivyo vikuŵikikamo (mikhalidwe yakwamba) na ivyo vikufumamo (ivyo vikayowoyerathu) ndivyo ni vyakukhumbikwa. Ivyo vikuchitika, vigaŵa vya fundo, na kapangiro ka maghanoghano vikuyowoyeka kuti ni vinthu ivyo vikwenera kulekeka.<ref>{{cite book |last=Newton-Smith |first=W. H. |url=https://archive.org/details/rationalityofsci0000newt |title=The Rationality of Science |publisher=Routledge |year=1994 |isbn=978-0-7100-0913-5 |location=London |page=[https://archive.org/details/rationalityofsci0000newt/page/30 30] |url-access=registration}}</ref> Pafupi na instrumentalism pali [[constructive empiricism]], kuyana na iyo chimanyikwiro chikuru cha kupambana kwa fundo ya umanyi ni usange icho yikuyowoya pa vinthu ivyo vikuwoneka ni unenesko.<ref>{{cite thesis |last=Votsis |first=I. |year=2004 |title=The Epistemological Status of Scientific Theories: An Investigation of the Structural Realist Account |publisher=University of London, London School of Economics |degree=PhD |page=39}}</ref> [[Thomas Kuhn]] wakayowoya kuti ndondomeko ya kuwonelera na kupima ikuchitika mkati mwa ndondomeko yakukhazikika ya kaghanaliro (paradigm), "chithuzi" cha charu icho chikukolerana na kuwonelera uko kukuchitika. Iye wakati ''umanyi wa bweka'' ni ndondomeko ya kuwonelera na "kumazga fumbo", icho chikuchitika mkati mwa ndondomeko iyo, apo ''umanyi wakusintha vinthu'' ukuchitika apo ndondomeko yimoza yikuwira yinyake mu [[paradigm shift|kusintha kwa kaghanaliro]].<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |last=Bird |first=Alexander |year=2013 |editor1-last=Zalta |editor1-first=Edward N. |title=Thomas Kuhn |url=http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2013/entries/thomas-kuhn/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200715191833/https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2013/entries/thomas-kuhn/ |archive-date=15 July 2020 |access-date=26 October 2015 |encyclopedia=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy}}</ref> Ndondomeko yiliyose ili na mafumbo ghake, makhumbiro, na malongosolero ghake. Kusankha pakati pa ndondomeko kuli nga nkhuyelezgera "vithuzi" viŵiri panji kujumpha pa charu na kusankha icho chikuwoneka kuti nchakugomezgeka chomene. Kusintha kwa kaghanaliro kukuchitika apo masuzgo ghanandi ghakuwoneka mu ndondomeko yakale ndipo ndondomeko yiphya yikulongosora makora. Ntheura, kusankha ndondomeko yiphya kukuzikira pa kuwonelera, nangauli kuwonelera uko kukuchitika mu chithuzi cha ndondomeko yakale. Kwa Kuhn, kupokelera panji kukana ndondomeko ni kakhaliro ka ŵanthu kukuluka kakhaliro ka maghanoghano. Kweni kaghanaliro ka Kuhn si kaghanaliro ka [[relativism]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kuhn |first=Thomas S. |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/KUHTSO-2 |title=The Structure of Scientific Revolutions |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=1970 |isbn=978-0-226-45804-5 |edition=2nd |page=206 |access-date=30 May 2022 |archive-date=19 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211019102817/https://philpapers.org/rec/KUHTSO-2 |url-status=live}}</ref> Nthowa yinyake iyo yikuzunulika chomene mu kudumbiskana kwa [[scientific scepticism|kukayikira umanyi]] kususka magulu nga ni "[[creation science|umanyi wa chilengiwa]]" ni [[methodological naturalism]]. Ŵasanduzi ŵa kaghanaliro aka ŵakusimikizga kuti mphaukaboni uŵepo pakati pa chilengiwa na vyamizimu, ndipo umanyi ukwenera kuŵa pa malongosolero gha chilengiwa pera.<ref name=pGS2003 />{{rp|pp=149-162}} Methodological naturalism yikusambizga kuti umanyi ukukhumbikira kulondezga chomene kafukufuku wa [[empirical|ukaboni wa maso]] na kusimikizga kwambura kuthemba chinthu chinyake.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Brugger |first=E. Christian |year=2004 |title=Casebeer, William D. Natural Ethical Facts: Evolution, Connectionism, and Moral Cognition |journal=The Review of Metaphysics |volume=58 |issue=2}}</ref> == Gulu == [[Scientific community|Gulu la umanyi]] ni nthambo ya kukolerana kwa ŵasanduzi awo ŵakuchita kafukufuku wa umanyi. Gulu ili lili na magulu ghachoko awo ŵakugwira ntchito mu vigaŵa vya umanyi. Pakuŵa na [[peer review|kusanda kwa ŵasanduzi ŵanyake]], kwizira mu kudumbiskana mu mabuku na misonkhano, ŵasanduzi ŵakusunga mukhaliro wa nthowa za kafukufuku na kuleka sankho pakulongosora ivyo vyasangika.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kornfeld |first1=W. |last2=Hewitt |first2=C. E. |year=1981 |title=The Scientific Community Metaphor |url=http://dspace.mit.edu/bitstream/handle/1721.1/5693/AIM-641.pdf?sequence=2 |journal=IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=24–33 |doi=10.1109/TSMC.1981.4308575 |bibcode=1981ITSMC..11...24K |hdl-access=free |hdl=1721.1/5693 |s2cid=1322857 |access-date=26 May 2022 |archive-date=8 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160408100757/http://dspace.mit.edu/bitstream/handle/1721.1/5693/AIM-641.pdf?sequence=2 |url-status=live}}</ref> === Ŵasanduzi === [[File:Marie Curie c. 1920s.jpg|thumb|upright=.8|[[Marie Curie]] wakaŵa muntu wakwamba kupokera vyawanangwa viŵiri vya Nobel: [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Physics]] mu chaka cha 1903 na [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Chemistry]] mu chaka cha 1911.<ref name="Estreicher1938" />|alt=Chithuzi cha mwanakazi mulara]] Ŵasanduzi ni ŵanthu awo ŵakuchita kafukufuku wa umanyi kuti ŵasazgireko umanyi mu chigaŵa chakukhumbikwa.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://eowilsonfoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/the-big-read-eusocial-climbers.pdf |title=Eusocial climbers |publisher=E. O. Wilson Foundation |access-date=3 September 2018 |quote=But he's not a scientist, he's never done scientific research. My definition of a scientist is that you can complete the following sentence: 'he or she has shown that...'," Wilson says. |archive-date=27 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190427085753/https://eowilsonfoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/the-big-read-eusocial-climbers.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://sciencecouncil.org/about-science/our-definition-of-a-scientist/ |title=Our definition of a scientist |publisher=Science Council |access-date=7 September 2018 |quote=A scientist is someone who systematically gathers and uses research and evidence, making a hypothesis and testing it, to gain and share understanding and knowledge. |archive-date=23 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190823135636/https://sciencecouncil.org/about-science/our-definition-of-a-scientist/ |url-status=live}}</ref> Ŵasanduzi ŵangaŵa na khumbiro likuru lakumanya unenesko na kakhumbiro ka kugwiliskira ntchito umanyi wa umanyi kuti ŵawovye umoyo wa ŵanthu, vyaru, vyakuzingilizga, panji mafakitale; vifukwa vinyake ni kumanyikwa na ŵasanduzi ŵanyake na uchindami.<ref name=leeEtal2007/> Mu nyengo zino, ŵasanduzi ŵanandi ŵakusambira vigaŵa vinyake mu [[academic institution|malo gha masambiro ghapachanya]], kanandi ŵakupokera [[terminal degree|madigiri ghapachanya]] mu nthowa iyi.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cyranoski |first1=David |last2=Gilbert |first2=Natasha |last3=Ledford |first3=Heidi |last4=Nayar |first4=Anjali |author4-link=Anjali Nayar |last5=Yahia |first5=Mohammed |year=2011 |title=Education: The PhD factory |journal=Nature |volume=472 |issue=7343 |pages=276–279 |doi=10.1038/472276a |pmid=21512548 |bibcode=2011Natur.472..276C |doi-access=free}}</ref> Ŵasanduzi ŵanandi ŵakuchita ntchito mu vigaŵa vyakupambana nga ni mu maunivesite, mafakitale, boma, na magulu ghambura kupanga phindu.<ref name=kwok2017>{{cite journal |last1=Kwok |first1=Roberta |title=Flexible working: Science in the gig economy |journal=Nature |volume=550 |pages=419–421 |doi=10.1038/nj7677-549a |year=2017 |issue=7677 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name=woolston2024 >{{cite journal |year=2024 |title=How researchers in remote regions handle the isolation |journal=Nature |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-024-01523-5 |last1=Woolston |first1=Chris |volume=629 |issue=8014 |pages=1193–1195 |doi=10.1038/d41586-024-01523-5 |pmid=38789626 |bibcode=2024Natur.629.1193W }}</ref><ref name=leeEtal2007>{{cite journal |last1=Lee |first1=Adrian |last2=Dennis |first2=Carina |last3=Campbell |first3=Phillip |year=2007 |title=Nature's guide for mentors |journal=Nature |volume=447 |issue=7677 |pages=791–797 |doi=10.1038/447791a |doi-access=free |pmid=17568738 |bibcode=2007Natur.447..791L }}</ref> Umanyi mwa mbiri waŵa chigaŵa chakuŵalamulika na ŵanalume, nangauli pakaŵa ŵanakazi ŵanyake ŵakuzirwa. Ŵanakazi ŵakumana na sankho likuru mu umanyi, nga umo viliri mu vigaŵa vinyake vya magulu gha ŵanthu ghakulamulika na ŵanalume. Chiyelezgero, ŵanakazi kanandi ŵakaŵanyimanga mwaŵi wa ntchito na kuleka kupika uchindami pa ntchito yawo.<ref>{{cite book |last=Whaley |first=Leigh Ann |title=Women's History as Scientists |url=https://archive.org/details/womenshistoryass0000whal |location=Santa Barbara, CA |publisher=ABC-CLIO |year=2003}}</ref> Ivyo [[women in science|ŵanakazi mu umanyi]] ŵafika navyo vyayowoyeka kuti ni chifukwa cha kukana kukhala mu kakhaliro kaŵo ka mbiri nga mbanchito ŵa pa nyumba.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Spanier |first=Bonnie |title=Im/partial Science: Gender Identity in Molecular Biology |url=https://archive.org/details/impartialscience0000span |publisher=Indiana University Press |year=1995 |isbn=978-0-253-20968-9 |chapter=From Molecules to Brains, Normal Science Supports Sexist Beliefs about Difference}}</ref> === Mawungano gha ŵanthu ŵa vinjeru === [[File:200 y Anniversary of Berlin Academy 1900.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|Ŵasayansi pa kukwaniska vilimika 200 vya [[Prussian Academy of Sciences]], 1900|left]] [[Learned societies|Mawungano gha ŵanthu ŵa vinjeru]] ghakukolerana na kutandazga maghanoghano gha vinjeru vya chilengiwa na kuyezga vinthu ghaliko kufuma mu nyengo ya kuwuka kwa vinjeru.<ref>{{cite web |last=Parrott |first=Jim |date=9 August 2007 |url=http://www.scholarly-societies.org/1599andearlier.html |title=Chronicle for Societies Founded from 1323 to 1599 |publisher=Scholarly Societies Project |access-date=11 September 2007 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140106185404/http://www.scholarly-societies.org/1599andearlier.html |archive-date=6 January 2014}}</ref> Ŵasayansi ŵanandi ŵali mu mawungano gha ŵanthu ŵa vinjeru agho ghakovwira pa nkhani ya luso lwawo, [[profession|mulimo wawo]], panji magulu gha maluso ghakuyana.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.esac.ca/about/what-is-a-learned-society/ |title=The Environmental Studies Association of Canada – What is a Learned Society? |access-date=10 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130529163615/http://www.esac.ca/about/what-is-a-learned-society/ |archive-date=29 May 2013}}</ref> Kuŵa chiŵaro kungaŵa kwa waliyose, panji kukukhumbikwa kuŵa na maukaboni gha vinjeru, panji kusankhika na ŵanthu ŵanji.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.britishcouncil.org/science-uk-organisations-learned-societies.htm |title=Learned societies & academies |access-date=10 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140603140851/http://www.britishcouncil.org/science-uk-organisations-learned-societies.htm |archive-date=3 June 2014}}</ref> Mawungano ghanandi gha vinjeru ni mawupu ghamasambiro agho ghakupenja phindu yayi,<ref>{{Cite web |date=24 June 2019 |title=Learned Societies, the key to realising an open access future? |url=https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/impactofsocialsciences/2019/06/24/learned-societies-the-key-to-realising-an-open-access-future/ |access-date=22 January 2023 |website=Impact of Social Sciences |publisher=London School of Economics |archive-date=5 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230205140831/https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/impactofsocialsciences/2019/06/24/learned-societies-the-key-to-realising-an-open-access-future/ |url-status=live}}</ref> ndipo ghanandi ni [[professional association|mawungano gha ŵanthu ŵa maluso]]. Milimo yawo kanandi yikusazgapo kuchita [[academic conference|maungano]] ghakukhazikika ghakupeleka na kudumbiskana vinthu viphanya ivyo vasangika pakufufuza, na kusindikiza panji kovwira [[academic journal|mabuku gha maluso]] pa luso lwawo. Mawungano ghanji ghakugwira ntchito nga ni [[professional bodies|mawupu gha maluso]], ghakulongozga milimo ya viŵaro vyawo kuti ŵanthu wose panji viŵaro vose visange chandulo. Kuzgora sayansi kuŵa mulimo wa luso kukayamba mu vilimika vya m'ma 1800, ndipo chovwiro chikuru chikafuma mu kulengeka kwa mawupu ghakumanyikwa gha m'charu chose gha [[academy of sciences|nyumba za vinjeru]] nga ni Italian {{lang|it|[[Accademia dei Lincei]]}} mu 1603,<ref>{{cite web |year=2006 |url=http://positivamente.lincei.it/ |title=Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei |language=it |access-date=11 September 2007 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100228005402/http://positivamente.lincei.it/ |archive-date=28 February 2010}}</ref> British [[Royal Society]] mu 1660,<ref>{{cite web |date=7 July 2004 |title=Prince of Wales opens Royal Society's refurbished building |url=http://royalsociety.org/News.aspx?id=973&terms=prince+of+wales |access-date=7 December 2009 |publisher=The Royal Society |archive-date=9 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150409010143/https://royalsociety.org/News.aspx?id=973&terms=prince+of+wales |url-status=live}}</ref> the [[French Academy of Sciences]] mu 1666,<ref>{{cite web |first=G. G. |last=Meynell |url=http://www.haven.u-net.com/6text_7B2.htm#Appendix%202 |title=The French Academy of Sciences, 1666–91: A reassessment of the French Académie royale des sciences under Colbert (1666–83) and Louvois (1683–91) |access-date=13 October 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120118174108/http://www.haven.u-net.com/6text_7B2.htm#Appendix%202 |archive-date=18 January 2012}}</ref> American [[National Academy of Sciences]] mu 1863,<ref>{{cite web |title=Founding of the National Academy of Sciences |url=http://www7.nationalacademies.org/archives/nasfounding.html |access-date=12 March 2012 |publisher=.nationalacademies.org |archive-date=3 February 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130203154802/http://www7.nationalacademies.org/archives/nasfounding.html |url-status=live}}</ref> German [[Kaiser Wilhelm Society]] mu 1911,<ref>{{Cite web |title=The founding of the Kaiser Wilhelm Society (1911) |url=https://www.mpg.de/946619/5_event2-1911 |access-date=30 May 2022 |publisher=Max-Planck-Gesellschaft |archive-date=2 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220302052520/https://www.mpg.de/946619/5_event2-1911 |url-status=live}}</ref> na [[Chinese Academy of Sciences]] mu 1949.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Introduction |url=https://english.cas.cn/about_us/introduction/201501/t20150114_135284.shtml |access-date=31 May 2022 |website=Chinese Academy of Sciences |archive-date=31 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220331215338/https://english.cas.cn/about_us/introduction/201501/t20150114_135284.shtml |url-status=live}}</ref> Mawupu gha sayansi gha m'charu chose, nga ni [[International Science Council|Wupu wa Vinjeru wa mu Vyaru Vyose]], ghakuyezgayezga pa nkhani ya [[international cooperation|kukolerana kwa vyaru vyose]] kuti vinjeru vilute panthazi.<ref>{{Cite web |date=5 July 2018 |title=Two main Science Councils merge to address complex global challenges |url=https://en.unesco.org/news/two-main-science-councils-merge-address-complex-global-challenges |access-date=21 October 2018 |publisher=UNESCO |archive-date=12 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210712044005/https://en.unesco.org/news/two-main-science-councils-merge-address-complex-global-challenges |url-status=live}}</ref> === Vyawanangwa === [[Lists of science and technology awards|Vyawanangwa vya vinjeru]] kanandi vikupelekeka kwa ŵanthu panji mawupu agho ghachita vinthu vikulu mu luso lwawo. Kanandi vikupelekeka na mawupu ghakumanyikwa; ntheura, chikuŵa chinthu cha ulemu ukulu kwa wasayansi uyo wapokera. Kufuma mu nyengo ya kuwuka kwa vinjeru, ŵasayansi kanandi ŵakumanyikwa na vyawanangwa vya mendulo, ndalama, na mazina gha ulemu. Chawanangwa cha Nobel, icho chikumanyikwa chomene m'charu chose, chikupelekeka chaka chilichose kwa awo ŵachita vinjeru viphanya mu vigaŵa vya munkhwala, vya makhaliro gha vinthu, na [[chemistry|luso lwa mankhwala]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Stockton |first=Nick |date=7 October 2014 |title=How did the Nobel Prize become the biggest award on Earth? |newspaper=Wired |url=https://www.wired.com/2014/10/whats-nobel-prize-become-biggest-award-planet |url-status=live |access-date=3 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190619044702/https://www.wired.com/2014/10/whats-nobel-prize-become-biggest-award-planet/ |archive-date=19 June 2019}}</ref> == Banthu na kukhala kwawo == {{Redirect-distinguish|Science and society|Science & Society|Sociology of scientific knowledge}} === Chovwiro na malango === [[File:NASA-Budget-Federal.svg|thumb|upright=1.4|[[Budget of NASA]] nga ni chiŵerengero cha [[United States federal budget]], apo chikafika pa 4.4% mu 1966 ndipo chayamba kukhira kufuma nyengo iyo|alt=see caption]] [[Funding of science|Chovwiro cha ndalama mu vinjeru]] kanandi chikuchitika mu nthowa ya kuphalizgana umo milimo ya kufufuza yikuwunikika ndipo iyo njakovwira chomene ndiyo yikupokera ndalama. Nthowa izi, izo zikulongozgeka na boma, makampani, panji mawupu ghakupeleka chovwiro, zikugaŵa ndalama zichoko izo ziliko. Chovwiro chose cha kufufuza mu vyaru ivyo [[developed countries|vyatukuka kale]] chili pakati pa 1.5% na 3% ya usambazi wose wa charu.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/49/45/24236156.pdf |title=Main Science and Technology Indicators – 2008-1 |publisher=[[OECD]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100215172528/http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/49/45/24236156.pdf |archive-date=15 February 2010}}</ref> Mu mawupu gha [[OECD]], pafupifupi vigaŵa viŵiri pa vitatu vya [[research and development|kufufuza na kutukuska]] mu vigaŵa vya vinjeru na maluso chikuchitika na makampani, ndipo 20% na 10% chikuchitika na mayunivesite na boma. Chovwiro cha boma mu vigaŵa vinyake ntchikulu chomene, ndipo chikuluska mu kufufuza kwa nkhani za ŵanthu na [[humanities|maluso gha kukhala kwa ŵanthu]]. Mu vyaru ivyo vindatukuke chomene, boma ndilo likupeleka chovwiro chikuru pa nkhani za kufufuza kwa vinjeru vyakwamba.<ref>{{Cite book |url=http://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/science-and-technology/oecd-science-technology-and-industry-scoreboard-2015_sti_scoreboard-2015-en |title=OECD Science, Technology and Industry Scoreboard 2015: Innovation for growth and society |publisher=OECD |year=2015 |isbn=978-92-64-23978-4 |page=156 |doi=10.1787/sti_scoreboard-2015-en |via=oecd-ilibrary.org |access-date=28 May 2022 |archive-date=25 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220525063455/https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/science-and-technology/oecd-science-technology-and-industry-scoreboard-2015_sti_scoreboard-2015-en |url-status=live}}</ref> Maboma ghanandi ghali na mawupu ghake ghakovwira pakufufuza vinjeru, nga ni [[National Science Foundation]] ku United States,<ref>{{cite journal |last=Kevles |first=Daniel |year=1977 |title=The National Science Foundation and the Debate over Postwar Research Policy, 1942–1945 |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_isis_1977-03_68_241/page/n5 |journal=Isis |volume=68 |issue=241 |pages=4–26 |doi=10.1086/351711 |pmid=320157 |s2cid=32956693}}</ref> [[National Scientific and Technical Research Council]] ku Argentina,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Argentina, National Scientific and Technological Research Council (CONICET) |url=https://council.science/member/argentina-national-scientific-and-technological-research-council-conicet/ |access-date=31 May 2022 |website=International Science Council |archive-date=16 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220516220311/https://council.science/member/argentina-national-scientific-and-technological-research-council-conicet/ |url-status=live}}</ref> [[Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation]] ku Australia,<ref>{{Cite news |last=Innis |first=Michelle |date=17 May 2016 |title=Australia to Lay Off Leading Scientist on Sea Levels |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/05/18/world/australia/australia-to-lay-off-leading-scientist-on-sea-levels.html |url-status=live |url-access=limited |access-date=31 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210507080237/https://www.nytimes.com/2016/05/18/world/australia/australia-to-lay-off-leading-scientist-on-sea-levels.html |archive-date=7 May 2021 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref> [[National Centre for Scientific Research]] ku France,<ref>{{Cite web |date=20 October 2021 |title=Le CNRS recherche 10.000 passionnés du blob |url=https://www.lefigaro.fr/flash-actu/le-cnrs-recherche-10-000-passionnes-du-blob-20211020 |access-date=31 May 2022 |website=[[Le Figaro]] |language=fr |archive-date=27 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220427225305/https://www.lefigaro.fr/flash-actu/le-cnrs-recherche-10-000-passionnes-du-blob-20211020 |url-status=live}}</ref> the [[Max Planck Society]] ku Germany,<ref>{{Cite news |last=Bredow |first=Rafaela von |date=18 December 2021 |title=How a Prestigious Scientific Organization Came Under Suspicion of Treating Women Unequally |work=Der Spiegel |url=https://www.spiegel.de/international/germany/how-a-prestigious-scientific-organization-came-under-suspicion-of-treating-women-unequally-a-96da63b5-19af-4fde-b044-445f9cfd6159 |access-date=31 May 2022 |issn=2195-1349 |archive-date=29 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220529004707/https://www.spiegel.de/international/germany/how-a-prestigious-scientific-organization-came-under-suspicion-of-treating-women-unequally-a-96da63b5-19af-4fde-b044-445f9cfd6159 |url-status=live}}</ref> na [[Spanish National Research Council|National Research Council]] ku Spain.<ref>{{Cite web |date=12 May 2022 |title=En espera de una "revolucionaria" noticia sobre Sagitario A*, el agujero negro supermasivo en el corazón de nuestra galaxia |url=https://www.elmundo.es/ciencia-y-salud/ciencia/2022/05/12/627cca26fdddff17068b4590.html |access-date=31 May 2022 |website=ELMUNDO |language=es |archive-date=13 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220513185034/https://www.elmundo.es/ciencia-y-salud/ciencia/2022/05/12/627cca26fdddff17068b4590.html |url-status=live}}</ref> Mu milimo ya bizinesi ya kutukuska na kufufuza, makampani ghanandi ghakufwilirapo chomene pa vinthu ivyo vingaguliskika mwaluŵiro kuluska kufufuza uko kuli na chilato cha kumanya waka vinthu. <ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Fletcher |first1=Anthony C. |last2=Bourne |first2=Philip E. |date=27 September 2012 |title=Ten Simple Rules To Commercialize Scientific Research |journal=PLOS Computational Biology |volume=8 |issue=9 |article-number=e1002712 |doi=10.1371/journal.pcbi.1002712 |issn=1553-734X |pmc=3459878 |pmid=23028299 |bibcode=2012PLSCB...8E2712F |doi-access=free}}</ref> [[Science policy|Ndondomeko ya vinjeru]] yikukhwaskana na malango agho ghakukhwaska makhaliro gha ntchito ya vinjeru, kusazgapo [[research funding|chovwiro cha kufufuza]], kanandi pakuya pa vilato vinyake vya boma nga ni kulenga vinthu viphanya vya luso kuti vitukuske katundu wa bizinesi, kulenga vilwero, chovwiro cha vya chipatala, na kulaŵilira chilengiwa. Ndondomeko ya vinjeru nyengo zinyake yikung'anamura nchito ya kugwiliskira ntchito vinjeru vya chilengiwa na kukolerana kwa maghanoghano pa nkhani ya kulenga malango gha boma. Pakuti malango gha boma ghakulaŵilira makhaliro ghawemi gha ŵanthu, chilato cha ndondomeko ya vinjeru nkhuwona umo vinjeru na luso vingawovwilira ŵanthu m'nthowa yiwemi chomene.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Marburger |first=John Harmen III |title=Science policy up close |url=https://archive.org/details/sciencepolicyupc0000marb |date=10 February 2015 |others=Crease, Robert P. |isbn=978-0-674-41709-0 |location=Cambridge, MA |publisher=Harvard University Press}}</ref> Malango gha boma ghangaŵa na nkhongono pa chovwiro cha [[capital equipment|vithandizgo vikulu]] na vinthu vya vinjeru pakufufuza kwa makampani mwa kupeleka mwaŵi wa kukhizga msonkho kwa mawupu agho ghakovwira pakufufuza.<ref name="Bush1945" /> === Kusambizga na kumanyiska === {{Main|2 = Public awareness of science|3 = Science journalism}} [[File:Dinosaur exhibit - Houston Museum of Natural Science - DSC01881.JPG|thumb|upright=1.13|Chiwonetsero cha Dinosaulo pa [[Houston Museum of Natural Science]]]] [[Science education|Masambiro gha vinjeru]] kwa ŵanthu wose ghali mu ndondomeko ya masambiro gha pa sukulu, ndipo ghakusazgirika na [[YouTube in education|vinthu vya masambiro pa Intaneti]] (chiyelezgero, YouTube na Khan Academy), nyumba zakusungiramo vinthu vyakale (museums), na mabuku gha vinjeru. Mawupu ghakulu gha [[scientist|ŵasayansi]] nga ni American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) ghakuwona vinjeru vya chilengiwa nga ni chigaŵa cha masambiro gha maluso ghakuyana na mahala (philosophy) na mbiri (history).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gauch |first1=Hugh G. |title=Scientific Method in Brief |year=2012 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=New York |isbn=978-1-107-66672-6 |pages=7–10}}</ref> Kumanya vya vinjeru kuli na chilato cha kupulikiska [[scientific method|nthowa zakufufuzira]], vithandizgo na nthowa za [[measurement|kupima]], [[empiricism|kugwiliskira ntchito ukaboni wakuwoneka]], kupulikiska vigaŵa vya manambala ([[correlations|kukolerana kwa vinthu]], [[Qualitative research|kawonekero]] na [[Quantitative research|chiŵerengero]]), na kupulikiska vigaŵa vyakwamba vya vinjeru nga ni makhaliro gha vinthu, [[chemistry|luso lwa mankhwala]], [[biology|vinjeru vya vyamoyo]], makhaliro gha chilengiwa, vya malibwe, na [[computation|kugwiliskira ntchito makompyuta]]. Apo mwana akuluta panthazi mu [[formal education|masambiro gha pa sukulu]], ndondomeko yikufika pakuzikira chomene. Masambiro agho ghakumanyikwa chomene mu sukulu ni vinjeru vya chilengiwa na vinjeru vya manambala, nangauli mazuŵa ghano ghakusazgapo vinjeru vya kukhala kwa ŵanthu na vinjeru vyakugwiliskira ntchito luso. <ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Benneworth |first1=Paul |last2=Jongbloed |first2=Ben W. |date=31 July 2009 |title=Who matters to universities? A stakeholder perspective on humanities, arts and social sciences valorisation |journal=Higher Education |volume=59 |issue=5 |pages=567–588 |doi=10.1007/s10734-009-9265-2 |issn=0018-1560 |doi-access=free |url=https://ris.utwente.nl/ws/files/47901538/Benneworth2010Who.pdf |access-date=16 August 2023 |archive-date=24 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231024214150/https://ris.utwente.nl/ws/files/47901538/Benneworth2010Who.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref> Manyuzipepara na mawayilesi ghali na masuzgo agho ghangatondeska kulongora makora unenesko wa vinjeru ivyo vikupambana mwakuyana na umo ŵasayansi ŵanandi ŵakuvipulikira. Kusankha unenesko uwo uli na nkhongono chomene pa [[scientific debate|kudumbiskana kwa vinjeru]] kungakhumbikwa luso lukulu pa nkhani iyo.<ref>{{cite web |last=Dickson |first=David |date=11 October 2004 |title=Science journalism must keep a critical edge |url=http://www.scidev.net/en/editorials/science-journalism-must-keep-a-critical-edge.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100621053624/http://www.scidev.net/en/editorials/science-journalism-must-keep-a-critical-edge.html |archive-date=21 June 2010 |publisher=Science and Development Network}}</ref> Mbachoko chomene ŵatola nkhani awo ŵali na vinjeru vya sayansi veneko, ndipo nanga ŵangeŵa [[beat reporter|ŵatola nkhani]] awo ŵakumanya nkhani zinyake za vinjeru, ŵangaŵa kuti ŵakumanya yayi nkhani zinyake za vinjeru izo ŵapempheka kuti ŵazilembe mwadzidzi.<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Mooney |first=Chris |date=Nov–Dec 2004 |title=Blinded By Science, How 'Balanced' Coverage Lets the Scientific Fringe Hijack Reality |url=http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/intersection/2010/01/15/blinded-by-science-how-balanced-coverage-lets-the-scientific-fringe-hijack-reality/ |url-status=live |magazine=Columbia Journalism Review |volume=43 |issue=4 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100117181240/http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/intersection/2010/01/15/blinded-by-science-how-balanced-coverage-lets-the-scientific-fringe-hijack-reality/ |archive-date=17 January 2010 |access-date=20 February 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=McIlwaine |first1=S. |last2=Nguyen |first2=D. A. |year=2005 |title=Are Journalism Students Equipped to Write About Science? |url=http://espace.library.uq.edu.au/view/UQ:8064 |url-status=live |journal=Australian Studies in Journalism |volume=14 |pages=41–60 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080801163322/http://espace.library.uq.edu.au/view/UQ:8064 |archive-date=1 August 2008 |access-date=20 February 2008}}</ref> [[Science magazines|Mabuku gha vinjeru]] nga ni ''[[New Scientist]]'', ''[[Science & Vie]]'', na ''[[Scientific American]]'' ghakovwira ŵanthu ŵanandi chomene na kupeleka mwakudumura nkhani za kufufuza m'nthowa yipusu, kusazgapo ivyo vasangika viphanya na kukura kwa vinjeru mu vigaŵa vinyake vya kufufuza.<ref>{{cite journal |author-last=Webb |author-first=Sarah |title=Popular science: Get the word out |journal=Nature |volume=504 |issue=7478 |pages=177–179 |date=December 2013 |pmid=24312943 |doi=10.1038/nj7478-177a |doi-access=free}}</ref> Nkhani za m'maghanoghano (science fiction), chomenechomene [[speculative fiction|nkhani za vyam'tsogolo]], zingatandazga maghanoghano na nthowa za vinjeru kwa ŵanthu wose.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Wilde |first=Fran |author-link=Fran Wilde (author) |date=21 January 2016 |title=How Do You Like Your Science Fiction? Ten Authors Weigh In On 'Hard' vs. 'Soft' SF |url=https://www.tor.com/2016/01/21/how-do-you-like-your-science-fiction-ten-authors-weigh-in-on-hard-vs-soft-sf/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190404025029/https://www.tor.com/2016/01/21/how-do-you-like-your-science-fiction-ten-authors-weigh-in-on-hard-vs-soft-sf/ |archive-date=4 April 2019 |access-date=4 April 2019 |website=Tor.com}}</ref> Kuyezgayezga kwa mazuŵa ghano kwa kukoleraniska vinjeru vya chilengiwa na maluso ghanyake, nga ni mabuku panji ndakatulo, kukusazgapo chinthu cha ''Creative Writing Science'' icho chikapangika kwizira mu [[Royal Literary Fund]].<ref>{{cite web |first=Mario |last=Petrucci |url=http://writeideas.org.uk/creativescience/index.htm |title=Creative Writing – Science |access-date=27 April 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090106015539/http://writeideas.org.uk/creativescience/index.htm |archive-date=6 January 2009}}</ref> === Maghanoghano ghakususka vinjeru vya chilengiwa === {{Main|Antiscience}} Nangauli nthowa ya vinjeru yakalika mwa ŵasayansi, vigaŵa vinyake vya ŵanthu vikukana maghanoghano gha vinjeru vinyake panji vikuŵa na kukayika pa nkhani ya vinjeru. Viyelezgero ni maghanoghano ghakumanyikwa akuti [[COVID-19]] ni nthenda yakofya yayi ku US (maghanoghano agha ghakaŵa na 39% ya ŵanthu ŵa ku America mu mwezi wa Ogasiti 2021)<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Tyson |first1=Alec |last2=Funk |first2=Cary |last3=Kennedy |first3=Brian |last4=Johnson |first4=Courtney |date=15 September 2021 |title=Majority in U.S. Says Public Health Benefits of COVID-19 Restrictions Worth the Costs, Even as Large Shares Also See Downsides |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/science/2021/09/15/majority-in-u-s-says-public-health-benefits-of-covid-19-restrictions-worth-the-costs-even-as-large-shares-also-see-downsides/ |access-date=4 August 2022 |website=Pew Research Center Science & Society |archive-date=9 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220809114234/https://www.pewresearch.org/science/2021/09/15/majority-in-u-s-says-public-health-benefits-of-covid-19-restrictions-worth-the-costs-even-as-large-shares-also-see-downsides/ |url-status=live}}</ref> panji chipulikano chakuti [[climate change|kusinthika kwa nyengo]] nkhwakofya yayi ku US (maghanoghano agho ghakaŵa na 40% ya ŵanthu ŵa ku America, kuumaliro kwa 2019 na kukwambira kwa 2020).<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kennedy |first=Brian |title=U.S. concern about climate change is rising, but mainly among Democrats |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2020/04/16/u-s-concern-about-climate-change-is-rising-but-mainly-among-democrats/ |access-date=4 August 2022 |website=Pew Research Center |date=16 April 2020 |archive-date=3 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220803101033/https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2020/04/16/u-s-concern-about-climate-change-is-rising-but-mainly-among-democrats/ |url-status=live}}</ref> Ŵasayansi ŵa vya maghanoghano (psychologists) ŵalongora vinthu vinyake ivyo vikuchitiska kukana ivyo vinjeru vasanga:<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Philipp-Muller |first1=Aviva |last2=Lee |first2=Spike W. S. |last3=Petty |first3=Richard E. |date=26 July 2022 |title=Why are people antiscience, and what can we do about it? |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=119 |issue=30 |article-number=e2120755119 |doi=10.1073/pnas.2120755119 |doi-access=free |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=9335320 |pmid=35858405 |bibcode=2022PNAS..11920755P}}</ref> Ŵanthu ŵa mazaza mu vinjeru nyengo zinyake ŵakuwoneka nga mbambura luso, ŵambura kugomezgeka, panji [[academic bias|ŵali na chitemwano]]. Magulu ghanji gha ŵanthu agho [[marginalised|ghatondeka kuŵa na mazaza]] ghali na maghanoghano ghakususka vinjeru, chifukwa chakuti magulu agha nyengo zinandi ghakanyengetereka mu [[Unethical human experimentation|vilingo vyambura ulemu]].<ref>{{cite journal |title=A Test of Three Theories of Anti-Science Attitudes |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_sociological-focus_2008-11_41_4/page/337 |year=2008 |doi=10.1080/00380237.2008.10571338 |last1=Gauchat |first1=Gordon William |journal=Sociological Focus |volume=41 |issue=4 |pages=337–357 |s2cid=144645723}}</ref> Uthenga wakufuma kwa ŵasayansi ungasuska vigomezgo panji makhaliro gha ulemu agho ŵanthu ŵali nawo. Maghanoghano ghakususka vinjeru kanandi ghakuwoneka kuti ghakuchitika chifukwa cha kopa kukanika mu magulu gha ŵanthu. Chiyelezgero, kusinthika kwa nyengo kukuwoneka nga nkhwakofya na 22% ya ŵanthu ŵa ku America awo ŵali ku mbali ya malango ghakale (right side), kweni na 85% ya awo ŵali ku mbali ya malango phanya (left).<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Poushter |first1=Jacob |last2=Fagan |first2=Moira |last3=Gubbala |first3=Sneha |date=31 August 2022 |title=Climate Change Remains Top Global Threat Across 19-Country Survey |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/global/2022/08/31/climate-change-remains-top-global-threat-across-19-country-survey/ |access-date=5 September 2022 |website=Pew Research Center's Global Attitudes Project |archive-date=31 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220831225832/https://www.pewresearch.org/global/2022/08/31/climate-change-remains-top-global-threat-across-19-country-survey/ |url-status=live}}</ref> Ndiposo, usange m'modzi wa ku mbali ya malango phanya wakuleka kuwona kusinthika kwa nyengo nga nkhwakofya, munthu uyu wanganyoŵeka na kukanika mu gulu ilo. Unenesko ngwakuti, ŵanthu ŵangazomera kukana unenesko wa vinjeru kuluska kutaya panji kuŵika pa ngozi makhaliro ghawo mu gulu lawo.<ref>{{Cite book |last=McRaney |first=David |title=How Minds Change: The Surprising Science of Belief, Opinion, and Persuasion |url=https://archive.org/details/howmindschangesu0000davi |publisher=Portfolio/Penguin |year=2022 |isbn=978-0-593-19029-6 |location=New York}}</ref> === Vyandyale === {{See also|Politicization of science}} [[File:2021 Survey on existence of global warming and responsibility for climate change - bar chart.svg|alt=Result in bar graph of two questions ("Is global warming occurring?" and "Are oil/gas companies responsible?"), showing large discrepancies between American Democrats and Republicans|thumb|[[Public opinion on global warming#United States|Maghanoghano gha ŵanthu pa kuthukira kwa charu mu United States]] kuyana na magulu gha vyandyale<ref>{{cite news |last1=McGreal |first1=Chris |date=26 October 2021 |title=Revealed: 60% of Americans say oil firms are to blame for the climate crisis |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/oct/26/climate-change-poll-oil-gas-companies-environment |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211026122356/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/oct/26/climate-change-poll-oil-gas-companies-environment |archive-date=26 October 2021 |quote=Source: Guardian/Vice/CCN/YouGov poll. Note: ±4% margin of error.}}</ref>|upright=1.4]] Maghanoghano pa nkhani ya vinjeru kanandi ghakusankhika na maghanoghano gha vyandyale na vilato. Boma, bizinesi na [[advocacy group|magulu gha vyakukhumba]] ŵakumanyikwa kuti ŵakugwiliskira ntchito malango na ndalama kuti ŵakhwaske ŵafufuzi ŵa vinjeru. Vinthu vinandi vingachitika nga ni vigaŵa vya [[politicisation of science|vinjeru vyakuŵikika mu vyandyale]] nga ni [[anti-intellectualism|kukana ŵanthu ŵa vinjeru]], kuwona nga vigomezgo vya chisopa vili pa ngozi, na kopa kwa bizinesi.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Goldberg |first1=Jeanne |year=2017 |title=The Politicization of Scientific Issues: Looking through Galileo's Lens or through the Imaginary Looking Glass |url=https://www.csicop.org/si/show/politicization_of_scientific_issues |journal=[[Skeptical Inquirer]] |volume=41 |issue=5 |pages=34–39 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180816182350/https://www.csicop.org/si/show/politicization_of_scientific_issues |archive-date=16 August 2018 |access-date=16 August 2018}}</ref> Vinjeru vyakuŵikika mu vyandyale kanandi vikuchitika usange uthenga wa vinjeru ukupelekeka mu nthowa iyo yikulongora kukayika uko kuli pa [[scientific evidence|ukaboni wa vinjeru]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bolsen |first1=Toby |last2=Druckman |first2=James N. |author2-link=James N. Druckman |year=2015 |title=Counteracting the Politicization of Science |journal=Journal of Communication |issue=65 |page=746}}</ref> Nthowa nga ni kusintha nkhani, kutondeka kuzomera unenesko, na kugwiliskira ntchito kukayika pa [[scientific consensus|kukolerana kwa ŵasayansi]] zikugwiliskirika ntchito kuti ŵapokere chitemwa pa maghanoghano agho ghali kukanika kale na ukaboni wa vinjeru.<ref name="Freudenberg2008">{{cite journal |last1=Freudenberg |first1=William F. |last2=Gramling |first2=Robert |last3=Davidson |first3=Debra J. |year=2008 |title=Scientific Certainty Argumentation Methods (SCAMs): Science and the Politics of Doubt |url=http://sciencepolicy.colorado.edu/students/envs_5720/freudenberg_etal_2008.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Sociological Inquiry |volume=78 |issue=1 |pages=2–38 |doi=10.1111/j.1475-682X.2008.00219.x |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201126214329/http://sciencepolicy.colorado.edu/students/envs_5720/freudenberg_etal_2008.pdf |archive-date=26 November 2020 |access-date=12 April 2020 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Viyelezgero vya nkhani izo zikukhwaska vinjeru vyakuŵikika mu vyandyale ni [[global warming controversy|kudumbiskana kwa kuthukira kwa charu]], [[health effects of pesticides|uheni wa mankhwala gha vinkhumbira pa umoyo]], na [[health effects of tobacco|uheni wa hona pa umoyo]].<ref name="Freudenberg2008" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=van der Linden |first1=Sander |last2=Leiserowitz |first2=Anthony |last3=Rosenthal |first3=Seth |last4=Maibach |first4=Edward |year=2017 |title=Inoculating the Public against Misinformation about Climate Change |url=https://www.repository.cam.ac.uk/bitstream/1810/270860/1/global%20challenges.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Global Challenges |volume=1 |issue=2 |page=1 |doi=10.1002/gch2.201600008 |pmc=6607159 |pmid=31565263 |bibcode=2017GloCh...100008V |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200404185312/https://www.repository.cam.ac.uk/bitstream/handle/1810/270860/global%20challenges.pdf?sequence=1 |archive-date=4 April 2020 |access-date=25 August 2019}}</ref> === Masuzgo === {{See also|Criticism of science|Academic bias}} [[replication crisis|Suzgo la kutondeka kuwirizga]] ni suzgo ilo lichilipo mu [[methodological|nthowa zakufufuzira]] ilo likukhwaska vigaŵa vya vinjeru vya [[social science|kukhala kwa ŵanthu]] na [[life science|vinjeru vya vyamoyo]]. Mu kufufuza kwinyake, ivyo vasangika mu masambiro ghanandi gha vinjeru vyalongoreka kuti [[reproducibility|vingawirizgika yayi]].<ref>{{Cite journal |doi=10.1038/515009a |title=Metascience could rescue the 'replication crisis' |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_nature_2014-11-06_515_7525/page/n19 |journal=Nature |volume=515 |issue=7525 |page=9 |year=2014 |last1=Schooler |first1=J. W. |pmid=25373639 |bibcode=2014Natur.515....9S |doi-access=free}}</ref> Suzgo ili lili na misisi yakale; lizina ili likapelekeka kukwambira kwa vilimika vya m'ma 2010<ref>{{Cite journal |doi=10.1177/1745691612465253 |title=Editors' Introduction to the Special Section on Replicability in Psychological Science: A Crisis of Confidence? |journal=Perspectives on Psychological Science |volume=7 |issue=6 |pages=528–530 |year=2012 |last1=Pashler |first1=Harold |last2=Wagenmakers |first2=Eric Jan |pmid=26168108 |s2cid=26361121 |doi-access=free}}</ref> nga ni chigaŵa cha kumanya kukuru kwa suzgo ili. Suzgo la kutondeka kuwirizga likulongora chigaŵa chakuzirwa cha kufufuza mu [[metascience|vinjeru vya vinjeru]], icho chili na chilato cha kunozga makhaliro gha kufufuza kose kwa vinjeru kwinaku chikukhizga kusakaza. <ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ioannidis |first1=John P. A. |last2=Fanelli |first2=Daniele |last3=Dunne |first3=Debbie Drake |last4=Goodman |first4=Steven N. |date=2 October 2015 |title=Meta-research: Evaluation and Improvement of Research Methods and Practices |journal=PLOS Biology |volume=13 |issue=10 |pages=–1002264 |doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.1002264 |pmid=26431313 |pmc=4592065 |issn=1545-7885 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Mazgu ghakuti [[scientific misconduct|makhaliro ghaheni mu vinjeru]] ghakung'anamura nyengo izo ŵafufuzi ŵakugolozga unenesko wa ivyo ŵasangapo mwadala, panji kupeleka ulemu wa chinthu icho chasangika kwa munthu uyo wandachichite mwakukhumba.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Coping with fraud |journal=The COPE Report 1999 |pages=11–18 |url=http://www.publicationethics.org.uk/reports/1999/1999pdf3.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928151119/http://www.publicationethics.org.uk/reports/1999/1999pdf3.pdf |quote=It is 10 years, to the month, since Stephen Lock ... Reproduced with kind permission of the Editor, The Lancet. |archive-date=28 September 2007 |url-status=usurped |access-date=21 July 2011}}</ref> Chigaŵa cha masambiro panji maghanoghano agho ghakujizgora kuŵa nga ni vinjeru vya chilengiwa kuti ghawoneke nga ngaunenesko kweni ndimo ghaliri yayi, nyengo zinyake ghakuchemeka kuti [[pseudoscience|vinjeru vyautesi]], [[fringe science|vinjeru vya m'mbali]], panji [[junk science|vinjeru vyambura ntchito]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2021/entries/pseudo-science |title=Science and Pseudoscience |at=Section 2: The "science" of pseudoscience |encyclopedia=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |first1=Sven Ove |last1=Hansson |editor-last=Zalta |editor-first=Edward N. |date=3 September 2008 |access-date=28 May 2022 |archive-date=29 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211029205141/https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2021/entries/pseudo-science/ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Shermer |first=Michael |author-link=Michael Shermer |year=1997 |title=Why people believe weird things: pseudoscience, superstition, and other confusions of our time |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780965594875 |url-access=registration |location=New York |publisher=W. H. Freeman & Co. |isbn=978-0-7167-3090-3 |page=17}}</ref> Wasayansi [[Richard Feynman]] wakapanga chizina chakuti "[[cargo cult science|vinjeru vyakuyezgera waka]]" pa nkhani izo ŵafufuzi ŵakugomezga, ndipo pakuŵala ŵakuwoneka nga ŵakuchita sayansi, kweni ŵalije unenesko wakuti ivyo ŵasangapo viwunnikike makora na ŵanji.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://neurotheory.columbia.edu/~ken/cargo_cult.html |title=Cargo Cult Science |last=Feynman |first=Richard |year=1974 |website=Center for Theoretical Neuroscience |publisher=Columbia University |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050304032544/http://neurotheory.columbia.edu/~ken/cargo_cult.html |archive-date=4 March 2005 |access-date=4 November 2016}}</ref> Nthowa zakupambanapambana zakusatsira malonda, kufuma pa kukulisha nkhani kufika pa uuryezi, zingaŵa mu vigaŵa ivi. Vinjeru vya chilengiwa vyalongosoreka nga ni "chiŵiya chakuzirwa chomene" pakupatula unenesko ku utesi.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Novella |first=Steven |title=The Skeptics' Guide to the Universe: How to Know What's Really Real in a World Increasingly Full of Fake |title-link=The Skeptics' Guide to the Universe (book) |publisher=Hodder & Stoughton |year=2018 |isbn=978-1-4736-9641-9 |page=[https://archive.org/details/skepticsguidetou0000nove/page/162 162] |author-link=Steven Novella}}</ref> Nyengo zinyake, kufufuza kungaŵa na chilato chiwemi kweni kungaŵa kwakubudika, kwachikale, kwambura kukwana, panji kulongosora vinjeru m'nthowa yipusu chomene yakujumpha muyero. Paliso chigaŵa cha [[political bias|kutemwera vya ndale]] panji maghanoghano ghakuŵa ku mbali yimoza mu vinjeru. Ŵasayansi mu vyaru vinyake ŵasangika kuti ŵali na chitemwano pa nkhani ya [[political party|vipani vya ndale]] pakuyaniska na ŵanthu bweka.<ref name="y499">{{cite journal | last1=Duarte | first1=José L. | last2=Crawford | first2=Jarret T. | last3=Stern | first3=Charlotta | last4=Haidt | first4=Jonathan | last5=Jussim | first5=Lee | last6=Tetlock | first6=Philip E. | title=Political diversity will improve social psychological science | journal=Behavioral and Brain Sciences | volume=38 | date=2015 | issn=0140-525X | doi=10.1017/S0140525X14000430 | url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0140525X14000430/type/journal_article | access-date=2026-02-12 | page=}}</ref> == Wonaniso ivi == [[List of scientific occupations|Mndandanda wa milimo ya sayansi]] [[List of years in science|Mndandanda wa vilimika mu sayansi]] [[v:Science|Vinjeru vya Chilengiwa]] (Wikiversity) [[Scientific integrity|Unenesko mu vinjeru]] == Mazgu ghanyake == {{notelist}} == Ukaboni == {{Reflist}} == Mahamba ghakuwaro == {{Wiktionary|science}} {{Philosophy of science}} {{Science and the public}} {{Glossaries of science and engineering}} {{Science and technology studies}} {{Subject bar|auto=1|portal1=Science}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Vinjeru vya Chilengiwa| ]] [[Category:Kulaŵiska na Kuwona]] [[Category:Nkhani zikulu]] [[Category:Kufumbilira]] [[Category:Milimo ya ŵanthu]] 52bfihfksq6vhlj4p2hxd7s0ii55wte 0 36400 119338 111976 2026-08-13T23:23:07Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260813sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 119338 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Nkhani iwemi}} {{Infobox officeholder | name = Houari Boumédiène<br/>{{lang|ar|{{big|هواري بومدين}}}} | image = Houari Boumediene's Portrait.jpg | order = [[List of heads of state of Algeria|2nd]] | office = President of Algeria | term_start = 10 December 1976 | term_end = 27 December 1978 | predecessor = Himself {{small|(''as Chairman of the Revolutionary Council'')}} | successor = [[Chadli Bendjedid]] | order2 = Chairman of the [[Revolutionary Council (Algeria)|Revolutionary Council]] | term_start2 = 19 June 1965 | term_end2 = 10 December 1976 | predecessor2 = [[Ahmed Ben Bella]] {{small|(''as President'')}} | successor2 = Himself {{small|(''as President'')}} | order3 = 4th [[Non-Aligned Movement#Chair|Secretary General of Non-Aligned Movement]] | term_start3 = 5 September 1973 | term_end3 = 16 August 1976 | predecessor3 = [[Kenneth Kaunda]] | successor3 = [[William Gopallawa]] | order4 = 6th [[organisation of African Unity#Chairperson|Chairperson of the Organisation of African Unity]] | term_start4 = 13 September 1968 | term_end4 = 6 September 1969 | predecessor4 = [[Mobutu Sese Seko]] | successor4 = [[Ahmadou Ahidjo]] | birth_name = Mohamed Ben Brahim Boukherouba | birth_date = {{birth date|df=yes|1932|8|23}} | birth_place = [[Guelma]], [[Algeria]] | death_date = {{death date and age|df=yes|1978|12|27|1932|8|23}} | death_place = [[Algiers]], [[Algeria]] | spouse = Anissa al-Mansali | party = [[National Liberation Front (Algeria)|National Liberation Front]] | nickname = Houari Boumédiène | allegiance = [[Algeria]] | branch = {{unbulleted list |[[National Liberation Army (Algeria)|National Liberation Army]] |[[Algerian People's National Army|People's National Army]]}} | serviceyears = {{unbulleted list |1955–1962 {{small|(ALN)}} |1962–1976 {{small|(PNP)}}}} | rank = [[Colonel]] | unit = | commands = | battles = [[Algerian War]]<br>[[Sand War]] | awards = }} '''Houari Boumédiène'''{{efn|Also transcribed '''Boumediene''' and '''Boumedienne'''}} ({{lang-ar|هواري بومدين}}&nbsp;; [[Arabic transcription|ALA-LC]]: ''Hawwārī Būmadyan''; '''Mohammed Ben Brahim Boukherouba''' wakababika ku Algeria pa 23 August 1932 ndipo wakafwa pa 27 December 1978. Wakaŵa mulongozgi wa chalo cha [[Algeria]] ndipo wakaŵa mulongozgi wa [[Revolutionary Council of Algeria]] kufuma pa 19 June 1965 mpaka 12 December 1976. Wakababikira ku Guelma, ndipo wakasambira ku Islamic Institute ku Constantine. Mu 1955, wakajibatika ku gulu la National Liberation Front ndipo wakalemba zina lakuti Houari Boumediene. Wakaŵa mulara wa ŵasilikari ndipo mu 1960 wakaŵa mulongozgi wa gulu la ŵasilikari la FLN. Mu 1961, pulezidenti [[Ahmed Ben Bella]] wakamwimika kuŵa nduna ya vya kuvikilira caru. Iyo wakakolerana yayi na ivyo Ben Bella wakacita, ndipo pamanyuma pake wakamuwuskapo mu Juni 1965 na kumuŵika mu jele. Wakalekeska malango gha boma na nyumba ya malango, ndipo iyo wakaŵa mulaŵiliri wa wupu wa Revolutionary Council, uwo ukaŵa na ŵanthu 27. Ŵabali ŵanandi awo ŵakaŵa mu wupu uwu ŵakaŵa ŵasilikari. Pakwamba wakaŵa na mazaza ghanandi yayi, kweni mu 1967, ŵasilikari ŵanyake ŵakayezga kumugalukira. Mu 1971, makampani gha mafuta ghakaŵa gha boma. Kwambira mu ma 1970, boma la Algeria likamba kuwezgerapo ndyali. Ndondomeko iyi yikamara mu 1976 apo ŵakazomera dango liphya la boma. Mubali Boumediene wakambaso kuwusa ndipo wakapokera mavoti 99.46 peresenti. Wakalondezganga fundo za wupu wa Socialist na Pan-Arabist. Wakasuskanga comene Israyeli ndipo wakapeleka wovwiri ku ŵanthu awo ŵakasuskanga boma la Roma na awo ŵakalweranga wanangwa mu vyaru vya ku Arabia na ku Africa. Kwamba mu 1978, Boumediene wakawonekanga pachanya pa ŵanthu bweka yayi. Wakafwa pa Disembala 27, 1978, wati watondeka kupokera munkhwala wa Waldenström's macroglobulinemia. Pa nyifwa yake pakaŵa ŵanthu mamiliyoni ghaŵiri.<ref name=":0">{{Cite news |title=Algerians Mourn Death of Boumediene |language=en-US |newspaper=Washington Post |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1978/12/28/algerians-mourn-death-of-boumediene/8dde9acb-74af-4b47-a862-08f5569062ae/ |access-date=2023-03-28 |issn=0190-8286}}</ref> Chadli Bendjedid ndiyo wakamusintha kuŵa pulezidenti, pakuŵa nthowa yakumazgira mphindano pakati pa ŵasilikari ŵakumanjiliro na kumalyero. == Umoyo wake na Nkhondo ya Kujiyimira == [[File:The house where the late Algerian President Houari Boumediene was born (Guelma peovince).jpg|thumb|left|The house where Boumediene was born in douar beni aadi]] [[File:Houari Boumediène - War of Independence.jpg|thumb|left|Boumediène during the [[Algerian War of Independence]]]] Tikumanya vinandi yayi vya umoyo wa Boumédiène. Malo agho wakababikira ghakalembeka kuti Guelma, mu muzi wa Clauzel kufupi na Guelma, panji Héliopolis, ndipo wakababika pa Ogasiti 16, 1925, Ogasiti 23, 1927, panji mu 1932. Adada ŵake ŵakayowoya mu 1965 kuti wakababika pa 23 August 1932. Zina lake la kubabikira likaŵa Mohammed Ben Brahim Boukherouba, ndipo awiske ŵakaŵa mulimi wa tirigu wambura ndalama ndipo ŵakaŵa Musulumani uyo wakayowoyanga Cifurenchi yayi. Kuyana na buku la Encyclopaedia of Islam, mbumba yake yikuyowoya Ciarabu. Wakasambira pa sukulu ya Quranic ku Guelma mpaka apo wakaŵa na vilimika 14, pamanyuma pake ku sukulu ya Arabic ku Constantine.<ref name="Smith">{{cite news|last1=Smith|first1=J. Y.|title=Houari Boumediene: Ideologue and Pragmatist|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/local/1978/12/28/houari-boumediene-ideologue-and-pragmatist/9a4d7b8c-b241-4a9f-a691-94278062ce68/|newspaper=The Washington Post|date=28 December 1978}}</ref><ref name="Horne2012">{{cite book |author=Alistair Horne |title=A Savage War of Peace: Algeria 1954–1962 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f4-UHiZTlpMC&pg=PR29|date=9 August 2012|publisher=Pan Macmillan|isbn=978-1-4472-3343-5|page=29}}</ref><ref name="Leonard2013">{{cite book|author=Thomas M. Leonard|title=Encyclopedia of the Developing World|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=We-OAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA191|date=18 October 2013|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1-135-20515-7|page=191}}</ref> Mu 1952, apo caru ca France cikaciskanga ŵanthu ŵa ku Algeria kuti ŵarwe nkhondo ya ku Indochina, Boumédiène wakaluta ku Cairo, uko wakasambira pa yunivesite ya Al-Azhar. Apa ndipo wakakumana na Ahmed Ben Bella. Wakaluta ku gulu la National Liberation Front (FLN) mu Nkhondo ya ku Algeria mu 1955, wakatora Houari Boumédiène kuŵa zina lake la nkhondo (kufumira ku Sidi Boumediène, zina la mutuŵa wa tawuni ya Tlemcen kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Algeria, uko wakateŵeteranga nga ni mulara wa ŵasilikari mu nyengo ya nkhondo, na Sidi El Houari, mutuŵa wa tawuni ya Oran iyo yikaŵa pafupi). Wakafika pa udindo wa colonel, uyo wakaŵa wapachanya chomene mu gulu la FLN, ndipo kwamba mu 1960 wakaŵa mulara wa ALN, gulu la ŵasilikari la FLN. Wakaŵa wakutengwa kwa Anissa al-Mansali. == Pamanyuma pa ufulu == [[File:Ben bella and Boumediene.jpg|left|thumb|230x230px|Boumediene with Ahmed Ben Bella in 1962.]] Mu 1961, Algeria yikati yapokera wanangwa wa kujisankhira, yikapharazga kuti njakujiyimira pawekha. Boumédiène na Ahmed Ben Bella ŵakawuskapo boma la Benyoucef Benkhedda na wovwiri wa ALN mu 1962. Boumédiène wakalongozganga gulu lankhongono la ŵasilikari mukati mwa boma ndipo wakapika udindo wa nduna ya vya kuvikilira na pulezidenti wa Algeria Ahmed Ben Bella, uyo wakamovwira kuti wafike pa mazaza nga ni mulara wa ŵasilikari. Boumédiène wakasankhika kuŵa wachiŵiri kwa pulezidenti wa Algeria mu Seputembala 1963. Wakaleka kugomezga muwuso wa Ben Bella na maghanoghano ghake, ndipo mu Juni 1965, Boumédiène wakathereska boma. Dango la caru na mabungwe gha ndyali vikalekeka, ndipo wakawusa kwizira mu wupu wa Revolutionary Council uwo ukaŵa na ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakakolerananga nayo. Ŵanandi mwa ŵanthu aŵa ŵakaŵa ŵabwezi ŵake mu nyengo ya nkhondo, apo wakaŵa kufupi na tawuni ya Oujda ku mphaka na Morocco. Munthu munyake wakuzirwa mu gulu ili wakaŵa Abdelaziz Bouteflika, uyo wakaŵa nduna ya vyaru vinyake ya Boumédiène kufuma mu 1999 m'paka mu 2019. Pakwamba, ŵanthu ŵakamuwonanga kuti ni mulongozgi wambura nkhongono. Wakalutilira kuŵa mulongozgi wa caru ca Algeria mpaka apo wakafwira mu 1978. Pakaŵavya masuzgo ghakuru agho ghakambira mu boma pamanyuma pa kuwukira boma mu 1967. Pamanyuma pa kuwukira boma, wakakhumbanga kuti ŵanthu wose ŵawusange.<ref>{{cite journal | last=John | first=Peter St. | title=Independent Algeria from Ben Bella to Boumédienne: I. The Counter-Revolution and Its Consequences | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_world-today_1968-07_24_7/page/290 | journal=The World Today | publisher=Royal Institute of International Affairs | volume=24 | issue=7 | year=1968 | jstor=40394141 | pages=290–296}}</ref>[[File:Houari-Boumediene-standing-in-a-row-with-the-other-politicians-391852507172.jpg|left|thumb|Houari Boumediene wakimilira pamoza na ŵandyali ŵanyake, 1965.]] == Ndondomeko ya mukati == [[File:Algerian Economy 1972.ogv|thumb|Nkhani ya 1972 yakuyowoya za Algeria mu muwuso wa Boumédiène]] Pa nkhani ya vyachuma, Boumédiène wakaleka kughanaghanira chomene vya vyalo vya ku Algeria na ivyo Ben Bella wakachitanga. M'malo mwake, wakasankha pulogiramu yakwendeskeka na boma. Pa nyengo iyo, caru ca Algeria cikaŵa na vyakurya vinandi yayi, kweni mu 1971, Boumédiène wakawoneseska kuti mafuta gha mu Algeria ghafuma ku vyaru vinyake. Kufuma apo, wakawoneseska kuti mafuta na gasi ivyo vikaŵa mu charu ichi, ivyo vikakwera comene cifukwa ca suzgo la mafuta mu 1973 vikwambiska vyakumera vikuruvikuru. Mu vyaka ivyo wakaŵa na mazaza, vinthu vikenda makora comene, kweni wakati wafwa mu ma 1980, mafuta ghakakhira chomene ndipo makampani gha boma ghakaleka kugwira makora ntchito. Boumédiène wakaŵika cisopa ca ciarabu kuŵa cisopa ca boma ndipo wakapharazga kuti cisopa caciarabu ni cisopa ca boma.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Salih |first=M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dY-_AAAAQBAJ&pg=PA7 |title=Interpreting Islamic Political Parties |date=2009-09-28 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-0-230-10077-0 |pages= |language=en}}</ref> Wakaŵa wakugomezgeka chomene pa nkhani ya kuzgora charu cha Algeria kuŵa chiarabu, chomenechomene pakati pa 1970 na 1977. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1970, pamoza na kusazgikira kwa vyamalonda vya boma na kukanizga mafuta, Boumédiène wakapharazga vyaru vyakupambanapambana, ndipo wakakhwimiska gulu la ŵamazere mu boma lake. Ivi vikapangiska kuti ŵaŵe paubwezi na gulu la Algeria Communist Party (PAGS), ilo ŵanthu ŵake ŵakakhalanga mu boma. Ku Algeria kukaŵa chipani chimoza pera. Ndipouli, vinthu vikaŵa makora yayi pa nkhani za ndyali. Pakuŵa mulaŵiliri wa wupu wa Revolutionary Command Council, Boumédiène na ŵabwezi ŵake ŵakalongozganga mwa dango. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1970, boma likambaso kulamulira ŵanthu mwakuyana na malango gha boma. Ŵakaŵikapo mtima kuti ŵambeso kugwira ntchito mu FLN, ndipo maofesi gha boma ghakambaso kwambaso, kwambira ku maungano gha mu vigaŵa na kuluta ku maungano gha chigaŵa na ku maungano gha pa caru cose. Ndondomeko iyi yikamara na kukhazikiska dango la ndyali (1976) ilo likalongosora umo charu cha Algeria chiliri. Pambere ivi vindachitike, pakaŵa kudumbiskana mwakufwatuka pa fundo iyo boma likakhazikiska. Dango ili likakhazikiskaso udindo wa pulezidenti, uwo Boumédiène wakachita pamanyuma pa kuvota mu 1978. [[File:BENZAZA BOUMEDIENE CASTRO.jpg|thumb|207x207px|Boumediene with Cuban communist leader Fidel Castro in 1972.]] Pa nyengo iyo wakafwira, mu caka ici, ndyali na malango gha mu Algeria vikaŵa vya FLN. Ndondomeko iyi yikasintha yayi m'paka kuumaliro wa m'ma 1980, apo ŵandyali ŵakamba kusankhana mitundu ndipo FLN yikaleka kuŵa chipani chimoza. (Vinthu vinandi ivyo vikaŵa mu ndondomeko iyi na mu dango la Boumédiène vichalipo.) Ndipouli, mu nyengo yose ya Boumédiène, ŵasilikari ndiwo ŵakalutilira kuŵa na mazaza pa ndyali, ndipo ŵasilikari ŵakakhwaskanga maboma nga ni FLN, nyumba ya malango na boma. Ŵasilikari na ŵandyali ŵakalutilira kulimbana pa nkhani ya ndalama, ndipo Boumédiène wakaŵavikilira kuti ŵaleke kunanga boma. Mu nyengo ya muwuso wake, charu cha Algeria chikamba kukura chomene pa nkhani ya vyachuma. Pakati pa 1962 na 1982, ŵanthu ŵa ku Algeria ŵakakwera kufuma pa 10 kufika pa 20 miliyoni, ndipo ŵanthu 45 pa 100 ŵaliwose ŵakakhalanga mu matawuni. Pa munthu yumoza, ndalama izo munthu wakapokeranga pa cilimika zikajumpha 2,000 FRF mu 1962, ndipo pasono ni 11,000 FRF. Ndipouli, likulutilira kuŵa na chipani cimoza ndipo likuŵikapo mtima comene pa vyakumera.<ref>L'Algérie, Claudine Rulleau and Paul Balta, 2000</ref> == Ndondomeko ya vyaru vinyake == Boumédiène wakacitanga vinthu mwakuyana waka, wakalutilira kuŵa paubwezi uwemi na maboma gha Cikomyunizimu na vyaru vya ŵandyali. Mu wupu wa United Nations, wakacema kuti ŵaŵe ŵakukolerana cifukwa ca umoza uwo ulipo pakati pa vyaru vya ku mafumiro gha dazi na vyaru ivyo vikaŵa pasi pa maboma ghakulongozgeka na ŵasilikari. Wakakhumbanga kuzenga caru cacitatu ca nkhongono kwizira mu gulu la ŵanthu ŵambura kukolerana. Wakakhozgera awo ŵakalweranga wanangwa, urunji, na kuyana. Wakapeleka wovwiri ku maboma gha ku Africa na vyaru vya ma Arab, kusazgapo PLO, ANC, SWAPO na vyaru vinyake.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Howe|first=Marvine |date=1977-12-06|title=Hard‐Line Arab Bloc Is Formed at Tripoli|language=en-US|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1977/12/06/archives/hardline-arab-bloc-is-formed-at-tripoli-apparently-at-syrias-behest.html |access-date=2020-09-15|issn=0362-4331}}</ref> Charu cha Algeria chikalutilira kulimbana na Israyeli ndipo chikaŵa na mtima wa kukhumba kovwira ŵanthu ŵa ku Palestina. Kukwambilira kwa ma 1970, Boumédiène wakayowoya kuti: "Tili na Ŵapalestina, kwali mbakutambuzgika panji ŵakusuzga. Algeria yikakhozga ŵasilikari ŵa vyaru vya ma Arab na ŵasilikari ŵa ku mphepo kwimikana na Israyeli mu Nkhondo ya Mazuŵa 6 mu 1967, ndipo yikatumizga gulu la ŵasilikari ŵakukwana 150 mu Nkhondo ya Yom Kippur mu 1973, apo ndege za nkhondo za ku Algeria zikagwirako nchito pamoza na Ŵaegupto na Ŵairaqi. Kweniso likapeleka madola 200 miliyoni ku Soviet Union kuti lipeleke ndalama zakugulira vilwero ku Eguputo na Siriya. Pakuzgora wovwiri wa United States ku Israyeli mu Nkhondo ya Mazuŵa Ghatatu, Algeria wakadumura ubwezi wake na United States. Likatora cigaŵa mu kulekeska mafuta mu 1973 pamanyuma pakuti US yikovwira Israyeli mu Nkhondo ya Yom Kippur. Pakuzgora kuyana na umo Eguputo wakacitira na Israyeli, Algeria pamoza na vyaru vinyake vya Ŵaarabu ŵakasuska Anwar Sadat na kumazga ubwezi wawo na Eguputo mu 1977. Charu cha Algeria chikaguranga vilwero vinandi ku Soviet Union. Cinthu cakuzirwa comene ico cikacitika mu caru ici cikaŵa phangano lake la mu 1975 lakuti wawovwirenge ŵanthu ŵa ku Western Sahara kuti ŵajiyimire ŵekha, ndipo wakazomerezga ŵanthu ŵakucimbira ku Sahara na gulu la Polisario kuti ŵanjire mu caru ca Algeria. Ici cikapangiska kuti vinthu vileke kwenda makora na Morocco, nangauli pa nyengo yakwamba iyo wakaŵa na mazaza, vinthu vikaŵa makora yayi. Nkhondo ya pakati pa Morocco na Algeria na nkhani ya ku Western Sahara iyo yindamalizgike, yikaŵa vyakuzirwa comene mu ndyali ya Algeria.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Karakira |first=Ahmad |date=2022-07-04 |title=Algeria: 60 years of endless support for the Palestinian cause |url=https://english.almayadeen.net/news/politics/algeria:-60-years-of-endless-support-for-the-palestinian-cau |access-date=2023-03-28 |website=Al Mayadeen English |language=en-EN}}</ref><gallery widths="200" heights="200"> File:Houari Boumediene.jpg|Boumédiène mu 1972 File:1975 Algiers Agreement.jpg|Phangano la ku Algiers la mu 1975 likasainika na Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, muwusi wa Iran, Boumédiène, na Saddam Hussein, muwusi wa Iraq File:Gaddafi-Boumedienne-Assad-1977-Tripolis.jpg|alt=|Mulongozgi wa ku Libya Muammar Gaddafi, Boumediene na Pulezidenti wa ku Syria Hafez al-Assad ku Tripoli, 1977 </gallery> == Kufwa == Mu 1978, wakawonekeranga viŵi yayi. Wakati wakhala mazuŵa 39, wakafwa ku Algiers cifukwa ca nthenda ya ndopa yakucemeka Waldenström's macroglobulinemia. Nyengo zinyake mu ndyali za ku Algeria mukaŵa mphindano za umo ŵakamukomera panji kumutimba, comenecomene pamanyuma pakuti ŵanthu ŵaŵiri awo ŵakacitako vinthu ivyo vikacitika mu 1975 ku Algiers, Shah na nduna yake Asadollah Alam, nawo ŵakafwa na nthenda iyi. Nyifwa ya Boumédiène yikapangiska kuti mu Algeria muŵe mphepo ya nkhongono iyo yikaŵa yakusuzga kuyizura. Boumédiène wakasungika mu msumba wa Algiers pa Disembala 29, 1978. Ŵanthu ŵakukwana mamiliyoni ghaŵiri ŵakiza, ndipo ŵakajara misewu. Boma la Algeria likalayizga kuti lizamulutizga kusinthiska vinthu ndipo likapharazga kuti ŵanthu ŵaŵenge na citima kwa mazuŵa 90. Nangauli pakaŵa mphindano pa nkhani ya ivyo ŵakakolerana ku Camp David, kweni pulezidenti wa ku Eguputo, Anwar Sadat, wakawonga Boumédiène ndipo wakati wakapokera makani gha nyifwa yake "na citima cikuru" ndipo wakatuma ŵimiliri kuti ŵize ku nyifwa yake. Mulongozgi wa PLO Yasser Arafat wakaluta ku dindi pamoza na mulongozgi waciŵiri wa gulu lake la Fatah, Abu Iyad, uyo wakaŵa na ubwezi wakukhora na Boumédiène. Pulezidenti wa ku United States, Jimmy Carter, wakayowoya kuti Boumédiène "wakacita mulimo wakuzirwa comene pa nkhondo ya kujithemba ya ku Algeria. Munthu waliyose wakumanya kuti wakaŵa wakujipeleka pa mulimo wake ndiposo kuti wakacitanga vinthu vinandi pakuŵa munthu wa boma. Kweni ŵanthu ŵazamumukumbuka comene cifukwa ca kufwilirapo kwake kuti waŵe na caru ca ku Algeria ico nchakujiyimira paco". Pa ungano uwu pakaŵaso ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku United States, kusazgapo Muhammad Ali. Ŵapharazgi ŵa Soviet ŵakalumba Boumédiène kuti ni "mubwezi wa Soviet Union" ndipo "wakawovwira comene kuti vinthu vyende makora mu caru ca Algeria".<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1">{{Cite news |last=Times |first=James M. Markham Special to The New York |date=1978-12-29 |title=Algerians Mourn at Boumediene's Bier |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1978/12/29/archives/algerians-mourn-at-boumedienes-bier-arafat-and-alde-attend-muhammad.html |access-date=2023-03-28 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=ALGERIA: ABOUT ONE MILLION MOURNERS DISRUPT FUNERAL OF LATE PRESIDENT HOUARI BOUMEDIENNE. |url=https://www.britishpathe.com/asset/ |access-date=2023-03-28 |website=British Pathé |language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20080506091059/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,920107,00.html?iid=chix-sphere "New Leader"] ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'', February 12, 1979</ref> == Wonaniso == {{Portal|Biography|Politics}} *[[Houari Boumediene Airport]], an airport near Algiers named after him. *[[Houari Boumédienne District]], a [[Districts of Algeria|district]] in his native [[Guelma Province]] named after him. *[[El Mouradia Palace]] == Malongosolelo gha vyakulemba vinyake == {{noteslist}} == Mazgo ghakuyowoyeka == <references /> == Mabuku == * Balta, Paul, and Claudine Roulleau, ''La Stratégie de Boumédiène'', Simbad, 1978 * Francos, Ania, and Jean-Pierre Séréni, ''Un Algérien nommé Boumédiène'', Stock, coll. Les Grands Leaders, 1976 * Minces, Juliette, ''L'Algérie de Boumediène'', Presses de la Cité, 1978 == Vigaŵa vya kuwalo == {{Commons category|Houari Boumediene}} {{Wikiquote}} * {{in lang|cap=yes|fr}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20091228085529/http://www.elwatan.com/Le-regne-de-Houari-Boumediene Le règne de Houari Boumediène], ''El Watan'', 27 décembre 2008 * {{in lang|cap=yes|ar}} [http://www.dailymotion.com/avectoisegolene/video/xv3dy_houari-boumediene Video clip of a speech by Houari Boumédiène] {{S-start}} {{s-off}} {{Succession box|title=[[President of Algeria]]|before=[[Ahmed Ben Bella]]|after=[[Rabah Bitat]]<br>{{small|Interim}}|years=1965–1978}} {{S-end}} {{Rulers of Algeria}} {{AlgerianPres}} {{African Union chairpersons}} {{NAMSecretary-General}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Boumediene, Houari}} [[Category:1932 births]] [[Category:1978 deaths]] [[Category:Algerian nationalists]] [[Category:Algerian military personnel]] [[Category:Algerian Muslims]] [[Category:Algerian revolutionaries]] [[Category:Vice presidents of Algeria]] [[Category:Deaths from blood cancer]] [[Category:Members of the National Liberation Front (Algeria)]] [[Category:National Liberation Front (Algeria) politicians]] [[Category:People from Guelma Province]] [[Category:People from Guelma]] [[Category:Presidents of Algeria]] [[Category:Defense ministers of Algeria]] [[Category:Secretaries-General of the Non-Aligned Movement]] [[Category:Leaders who took power by coup]] [[Category:Articles containing video clips]] [[Category:Directors of intelligence agencies]] [[Category:Algerian Arab nationalists]] 740bar46hrxmvatnlwyv1o7keqnpv3l 0 36797 119336 118805 2026-08-13T23:21:31Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Add 4 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260813sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 119336 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Use dmy dates|date=April 2019}} {{Nkhaniiwemi}} {{History of Italy}} {{Culture of Italy}} Ŵanthu ŵakukhala mu caru ca [[Italy]] ico cili ku [[Europe]] kwa vilimika pafupifupi 850,000 ivyo vyajumpha. Kwambira kale chomene, ŵanthu ŵa ku Italy ŵakakhalanga mu chigaŵa ichi. Kale, caru ca Italy cikaŵa cikaya ca Ŵaroma ndiposo msumba ukuru wa vigaŵa vya Ufumu wa [[Rome|Roma]].<ref>{{cite book | url=https://archive.org/details/hannibalswarmili00laze | url-access=registration | page=[https://archive.org/details/hannibalswarmili00laze/page/29 29] |quote=Italy homeland of the Romans. | title=Hannibal's War: A Military History of the Second Punic War| publisher=University of Oklahoma Press | isbn=9780806130040| last1=Lazenby| first1=John Francis| year=1998}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ItsTDAAAQBAJ&q=italy+metropole+roman+empire&pg=PA45 |title=Contours of the World Economy 1-2030 AD: Essays in Macro-Economic History |isbn=9780199227211 |last1=Maddison |first1=Angus |date=20 September 2007}}</ref> Ufumu wa Romu ukaŵako mu 753 B.C.E. ndipo ukazgoka charu cha Romu mu 509 B.C.E., apo ufumu wa Romu ukathereskeka. Kufuma apo, boma la Romu likasazga Italy na ŵanthu ŵa ku Etruria, Celt, na Greece awo ŵakakhalanga mu chigaŵa ichi. Ŵaroma ŵakalongozganga Socii, gulu la ŵanthu ŵakuyowoya Chiitaliki, ndipo pamasinda, Ŵaroma ŵakamba kulamulira ku Western Europe, North Africa, na Near East. Ufumu wa Roma ukamara apo Julius Caesar wakakomeka. Ufumu wa Roma ndiwo ukalongozga vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Europe na Mediterranean kwa vyaka vinandi, ndipo ukawovwira chomene kuti ŵanthu ŵa kumanjiliro gha dazi ŵasambire vinjeru, sayansi, na luso. Pamanyuma pakuti Roma wabwangandulika mu 476 C.E., Italy yikagaŵikana mu vigaŵa vinandi, m'paka mu 1871 apo charu chikaŵa pamoza. Vyaru vya ku nyanja, comenecomene Venice na Genoa, vikaŵa na cuma cikuru comene cifukwa ca ulendo wa pa nyanja, malonda, na mabanki.<ref>{{cite web|last= Sée|first= Henri|title= Modern Capitalism Its Origin and Evolution|url= http://www.efm.bris.ac.uk/het/see/ModernCapitalism.pdf|work= University of Rennes|publisher= Batoche Books|access-date= 29 August 2013|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20131007010542/http://www.efm.bris.ac.uk/het/see/ModernCapitalism.pdf|archive-date= 2013-10-07|url-status= dead | quote = The origin and development of capitalism in Italy are illustrated by the economic life of the great city of Florence.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Sée|first=Henri|title=Modern Capitalism Its Origin and Evolution|url=http://www.efm.bris.ac.uk/het/see/ModernCapitalism.pdf|work=University of Rennes|publisher=Batoche Books|access-date=29 August 2013|archive-date=7 October 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131007010542/http://www.efm.bris.ac.uk/het/see/ModernCapitalism.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> Chigaŵa chapakati cha Italy chikalutilira kulamulirika na Ŵapapa, apo chigaŵa cha kumwera kwa Italy chikalutilira kulamulirika na ŵasilikari ŵa Byzantine, Arab, Norman, Spanish, na Bourbon.<ref name=macSmith70>{{cite book|authorlink=Denis Mack Smith|last=Smith |first=D. Mack |title=Storia della Sicilia medioevale e moderna|year=1970 |publisher=Laterza |location=Bari |language=it|pages=27, 39, 45, 50–51, 98–108, 190–201}}</ref><ref name="natgeo">{{cite book|last1=Jepson|first1=Tim|title=National Geographic Traveler: Italy|date=2012|publisher=National Geographic Books|isbn=9781426208614|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f2jihJ0bq4EC&q=trade+routes+italy+new+world&pg=PA28}}</ref> Nyengo ya kuwelera ku Italy yikathandazgikira mu vyaru vinyake vya ku Europe, ndipo ŵanthu ŵakamba kutemwa chomene vya ŵanthu, sayansi, kusanda vinthu, na luso. Ŵalendo ŵa ku Italy (mwakuyana na Marco Polo, Christopher Columbus, na Amerigo Vespucci) ŵakasanga nthowa ziphya zakulutira ku Far East na ku New World, ndipo ŵakambiska nyengo ya Discovery. Mu vyaka vinandi ivyo vyajumpha, caru ca Italy cikaŵa na ŵanthu ŵanandi comene nga ni Dante Alighieri, Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, Niccolò Machiavelli, Galileo Galilei na Raphael. Pakati pa vyaka vya m'ma 1800, Giuseppe Garibaldi wakawovwira kuti Italy wakolerane na ufumu wa Sardinia. Ufumu uphya wa Italy, uwo ukakhazikiskika mu 1861, ukasintha vinthu mwaluŵiro na kuzenga ufumu wa vyaru vinyake. Pa nyengo yeneyiyo pera, kumwera kwa Italy kukaŵa ku mizi ndipo kukaŵa ukavu. Mu Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Caru Cose, Italy wakamalizga kuwungana mwa kupoka Trento na Trieste, ndipo wakapokera mpando wakukhalilira mu wupu wa League of Nations. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Italy ŵakawonanga kuti Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Caru Cose njawakawaka cifukwa cakuti caru ca Italy cikaŵa na vigaŵa vyose yayi ivyo vikalayizgika na phangano la ku London (1915). Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Caru Cose yikati yacitika pamoza na Nazi Germany na Ufumu wa Japan, ŵasilikari ŵakathereskeka, Mussolini wakakakika na kucimbira, ndipo nkhondo ya mukati mu Italy yikamba. Pamanyuma pakuti Italy wafwatuka, Social Republic wawa, ndipo Benito Mussolini wakomeka na gulu la Resistance, mu 1946 ŵanthu ŵakakanizga boma la Italy kuti liŵe lacifumu, ndipo likazgoka republiki. Chikulutilira kuŵa na nkhongono pa nkhani ya vya cuma, mitheto, nkhondo, na ndyali mu vilimika vya m'ma 2000.<ref>{{cite book|title=Canada Among Nations, 2004: Setting Priorities Straight|date=17 January 2005|publisher=McGill-Queen's Press – MQUP|isbn=978-0-7735-2836-9|page=85|url={{Google books|nTKBdY5HBeUC|page=|keywords=Canada%20Among%20Nations%2C%202004%3A%20Setting%20Priorities Straight|text=|plainurl=yes}}|access-date=13 June 2016|quote=The United States is the sole world's superpower. France, Italy, Germany and the United Kingdom are great powers.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Sterio|first1=Milena|title=The Right to Self-Determination Under International Law: "Selfistans", Secession, and the Rule of the Great Powers|date=2013|publisher=Routledge|location=Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon|isbn=978-0-415-66818-7|page=xii (preface)|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-QuI6n_OVMYC&q=The%20Right%20to%20Self-determination%20Under%20International%20Law%3A%20%22selfistans%22%2C%20Secession%20and%20the%20Rule%20of%20the%20Great%20Powers|access-date=13 June 2016|quote=The great powers are super-sovereign states: an exclusive club of the most powerful states economically, militarily, politically and strategically. These states include veto-wielding members of the United Nations Security Council (United States, United Kingdom, France, China, and Russia), as well as economic powerhouses such as Germany, Italy and Japan.}}</ref> ==Mbili yakwambilila== {{Main|Prehistoric Italy}} [[File:Antropomorfi detti astronauti (a) - R 1 - Area di Zurla - Nadro (ph Luca Giarelli).jpg|thumb|Petroglyph ku Valcamonica, Lombardy, ni malo ghakurughakuru chomene pa charu chapasi agho pali ma petroglyph ghakale chomene (cha m'ma 1000 B.C.E.).]] Ŵanthu ŵakwambilira ŵakafika ku Monte Poggiolo vyaka 850,000 ivyo vyajumpha. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Neanderthal ŵali kusangika ku malo agho ghakusangika kufupi na Roma na Verona vyaka pafupifupi 50,000 ivyo vyajumpha. Ŵanthu ŵakwambilira awo ŵakaŵako mu nyengo ya Paleolithiki ŵakaŵa ŵanthu ŵakwambilira awo ŵakaŵako vyaka 48,000 ivyo vyajumpha. Mu Novembala 2011, ku Oxford Radiocarbon Accelerator Unit ku England, ŵakachita kafukufuku pa ivyo ŵanthu ŵakaghanaghananga kuti ni mino gha mwana wa munthu wa ku Neanderthal. Vinthu ivyo vikakhalapo mu nyengo ya ŵanthu awo ŵakaŵako kale vikusangika mu Lombardy (malibwe agho ghakaŵa mu msumba wa Valcamonica) na mu Sardinia (nuraghe). Cinyake ico cikumanyikwa comene ni ca Ötzi the Iceman, cikozgo ca munthu uyo wakacimbiranga nyama mu mapiri ico cikasangika mu Similaun glacier ku South Tyrol, ca m'ma c. 3400-3100 B.C.E.<ref name="nytimes.com">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/11/03/science/fossil-teeth-put-humans-in-europe-earlier-than-thought.html |work=The New York Times |title=Fossil Teeth Put Humans in Europe Earlier Than Thought |date=2 November 2011}}</ref> [[File:Matera from Piazzetta Pascoli-2930.jpg|thumb|left|Ŵanthu ŵakugomezga kuti nyumba za mu mphanji za ku Sassi ku Matera ndizo zikaŵa zakwamba mu Italy.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.amusingplanet.com/2016/04/sassi-di-matera-oldest-continuously.html?m=1 |title=Sassi di Matera |publisher=AmusingPlanet}}</ref>]] [[File:Dolmenmontebubbonia.jpg|left|thumb|Dolmen of Monte Bubbonia, Sicily]] Mu nyengo ya mkuwa, ŵanthu ŵa ku Indo-Europe ŵakaluta ku Italy. Ŵanthu aŵa ŵakwiza mu vigaŵa pafupifupi vinayi kufuma kumpoto m'paka ku Alps. Ŵanthu ŵakwamba kufuma ku Indo-Europe ŵakaluta ku malo ghanyake m'ma 2000 B.C.E., kufuma ku ŵanthu awo ŵakizanga na vinthu vya mkuwa. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Remedello ndiwo ŵakamba kulamulira chigaŵa cha Po. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakasamukira ku malo agha mu nyengo ya Bronze, kwamba m'ma 2000 C.E. m'paka m'ma 2000 C.E. Ŵanthu aŵa ŵakakhalanga mu chigaŵa cha Padan Plain, Tuscany, na mumphepete mwa nyanja za Sardinia na Sicily. Pakati pa vyaka vya m'ma 2000 B.C.E., kukaŵa chimphepo chachitatu icho chikamba kwiza, icho chikakolerana na ŵanthu ŵa ku Apennine na ŵanthu ŵa ku Terramare. Ivyo ŵanthu ŵa ku Terramare ŵakachitanga pakuyaniska na ivyo ŵakachitanga mu nyengo ya Neolithic vingawoneka kuti vikaŵa vyaunenesko. Ŵakaŵa ŵachali ŵalovi, kweni ŵakaŵa na viŵeto vyakukhora. Ŵakaŵa ŵaluso comene pakupanga visulo, ŵakapanganga mkuŵa mu malibwe na dongo. Kweniso ŵakaŵa ŵalimi, ŵakaliskanga mphoza, mpheska, tirigu, na linoni.<ref name="EB1911">{{EB1911|inline=y|wstitle=Terramara|volume=26|pages=658–659|first=John Malcolm|last=Mitchell}}</ref>[[File:Otzi-Quinson.jpg|thumbnail|''[[Ötzi]]'', a natural mummy discovered in the southern Alps (region of [[Trentino-Alto Adige]]) dating from the 4th millennium BC.]] Mu nyengo ya Bronze, kufuma kuumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 2000 m'paka kuuyambiro wa vyaka vya m'ma 2000 B.C.E., ŵanthu ŵakamba kugwiliskira ntchito visulo mu Italy. Chikhalidwe cha Proto-Villanova chinali mbali ya chikhalidwe cha Urnfield cha ku Ulaya. Vinthu ivi vikuyana waka na vigaŵa vya Bavaria-Upper Austria na Middle-Danube. Kweni ŵanyake ŵakughanaghana kuti chikafuma ku ŵanthu ŵa ku Terramare awo ŵakakhalanga mu Dambo la Po. Ŵanthu ŵanyake nga ni Marija Gimbutas, ŵakayaniska mitheto iyi na umo ŵanthu ŵa ku Italy ŵakafikira mu caru ici. Ku Sicily, ŵasanga tumalundi tunyake twa m'ma 2000 B.C.E., uto tukuyana waka na uto tikusanga ku Spain, Balearic Islands, Sardinia, na Apulia. Munthu uyo wakabowozga cikaya ici (uyo wakacicema mu Sicily kuti "Dolmens Culture") wakayaniska cikaya ici na nyengo iyo cikaya ici cikizira ku Sicily.<ref>Salvatore Piccolo, ''cit.'', pp.30-31</ref> ===Nuragic civilization=== {{Main|Nuragic civilization|Torrean civilization}} [[File:Nuraghe Su Nuraxi - Barumini - Sardinia - Italy - 01.jpg|thumb|''[[Su Nuraxi]]'' [[nuraghe]], [[Sardinia]], [[Italy]], 2nd millennium BC.]] Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Nuraghe ŵakababikira ku Sardinia na kumwera kwa Corsica. Zina lawo likufuma ku vigongwe vya Nuragic, ivyo vikapangika kufuma ku vikumba vya megalithic ivyo vikazengeka kale. Mazuŵa ghano, ku Sardinia kuli nyumba zakuzengeka na ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 7,000. Palije maukaboni agho ghakulongora kuti ŵanthu aŵa ŵakaŵako kale, padera pa maukaboni ghachoko waka agho ghakalembeka mu nyengo ya Nuragic. Nkhani izo zili kulembeka zikufuma ku mabuku gha Ŵagiriki na Ŵaroma, ndipo zikuwoneka nga ni nthano. Chiyowoyero icho ŵanthu ŵakayowoyanga ku Sardinia mu nyengo ya Bronze chikumanyikwa yayi chifukwa palije malemba gha nyengo iyi, nangauli kafukufuku uyo wachitika sonosono apa wakulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Nuragic ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito alifabeti yakuyana na iyo ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito ku Euboea. Eduardo Blasco Ferrer wakati chiyowoyero cha Paleo-Sardinian chikaŵa chakuyana waka na chiyowoyero cha Proto-Basque na Chiiberiya chakale. Ŵasayansi ŵanyake ŵakughanaghana kuti mu Nuragic Sardinia mukaŵa vigaŵa viŵiri panji kujumpha apa.<ref name="Ugas_2005">{{cite book |last=Ugas |first=Giovanni |title=L'Alba dei Nuraghi |publisher=Fabula editrice |year=2005 |isbn=978-88-89661-00-0 |location=Cagliari}}</ref>{{rp|241–254}}{{Gallery|align=center |width=160 |lines=5 |File:Monte D'Accoddi 03.JPG|[[Monte d'Accoddi]], 4th millennium BCE. |File:Età nuragica, giganti di monte prama, xiii-ix secolo ac ca., da cabras, guerriero 05, 01.jpg|[[Giants of Mont'e Prama]] |File:Nuragic Bronze statuette.jpg|Bronze sculpture of a Nuragic chief from [[Uta, Sardinia|Uta]]. }} ==Iron Age== {{Main|Iron Age Italy}} Mu vyaka vya m'ma 700 B.C.E., ŵanthu ŵakamba kulemba vilembo vya Chifenike. ===Etruscan civilization=== {{Main|Etruscan civilization}} [[File:Etruscan civilization map.png|thumb|left|Map of Etruscan civilisation.]] Ŵanthu ŵa ku Etruscan ŵakamba kukhala mu chigaŵa chapakati cha Italy mu 800 B.C.E. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Etruria ŵakamba kumanyikwa mu nyengo yakale. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakugomezga kuti ŵanthu aŵa ŵakafuma ku Villanova. Kafukufuku wakukhwaskana na DNA ya mitochondrial uyo wakachitika mu 2013, wakulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Etruscan ndiwo ŵakakhalanga ku malo agha. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakugomezga kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Etruscan ŵakayowoyanga chiyowoyero chinyake. Vinthu vinyake ivyo vili kulembeka mu ciyowoyero ici vyazunulika pa cirwa ca Lemnos mu nyanja ya Aegean. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Etruria ŵakagonanga ŵekha. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Etruria ŵakaŵa na boma ilo likaŵa na visambizgo vya ŵalongozgi ŵa mafuko. Chisopa cha Etruscan chikaŵa cha ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakasopanga ŵachiuta ŵatesi, ndipo vinthu vyose ivyo vikuwoneka ŵakaviwonanga kuti ni nkhongono za Chiuta.[[File:Etruscan Painting 1.jpg|thumbnail|[[Etruscan art|Etruscan fresco]] in the [[Tomb of the Leopards]], [[Monterozzi necropolis]], 5th century BC.]] Ŵanthu ŵa ku Etruscan ŵakamba kuthandazgika chomene mu mapiri gha Apenine. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 500 B.C.E., matawuni ghanyake ghachoko waka ghakazimwa. Ndipouli, palije kukayika kuti ndyali za ku Etruscan zikayananga na za ku Magna Graecia kumwera. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Etruria ŵakasambazga comene cifukwa ca kunozga na kuguliska visulo, comenecomene mkuŵa na cisulo. Pa nyengo iyi, Ŵagiriki ŵakasuzgikanga chomene na ŵanthu ŵa ku Greece, comenecomene mu vyaka vya m'ma 500 B.C.E., apo ŵanthu ŵa ku Phocean ku Italy ŵakakhazikiskanga vikaya mumphepete mwa nyanja za France, Catalonia, na Corsica. Ici cikapangiska kuti ŵa Etruscans ŵanjire mu mtende na ŵa Carthage, awo ŵakasuskananga na Ŵagiriki.<ref name="historyone">{{cite book|first=Larissa|last=Bonfante|title=Etruscan Life and Afterlife: A Handbook of Etruscan Studies|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4QaXZky58FIC&pg=PA58|year=1986|publisher=Wayne State University Press|isbn=0-8143-1813-4|page=58}}</ref><ref name="historytwo">{{cite book|first=John|last=Franklin Hall|title=Etruscan Italy: Etruscan Influences on the Civilizations of Italy from Antiquity to the Modern Era|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bUhT7i7XhOAC&pg=PA198|year=1996|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=0-8425-2334-0|page=198}}</ref> Mu 540 B.C.E., Nkhondo ya ku Alalia yikapangiska kuti mazaza gha ŵanthu ghagaŵikane mu vigaŵa vya kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Nyanja ya Meditereniyani. Nangauli nkhondo iyi yikaŵavya uyo wakathereskeka, kweni Carthage wakalutilira kuthandazga ufumu wake pa Ŵagiriki. Kwambira mu hafu yakwamba ya 5 C.E., vinthu vikasintha pa charu chose. Mu 480 B.C.E., Carthage uyo wakaŵa mubwezi wa Etruria, wakathereskeka na ŵasilikari ŵa Magna Graecia awo ŵakalongozgekanga na Syracuse. Pakati pajumpha vyaka vichoko waka, mu 474 B.C.E., Hiero, fumu yankhongono ya ku Syracuse, yikatonda Ŵaetruska pa Nkhondo ya Cumae. Nkhongono ya Etruria pa misumba ya Latium na Campania yikamba kucepa, ndipo yikaŵa mu mawoko gha Ŵaroma na ŵa Samnites. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 300 C.E., ŵanthu ŵa ku Gallic ŵakiza ku Etruria kuti ŵathereske ŵanthu ŵa mu dambo la Po na mumphepete mwa nyanja ya Adriatic. Pa nyengo iyi, Ŵaroma ŵakamba kupoka misumba ya ku Etruria. Ici cikapangiska kuti ŵaleke kukhala mu vigaŵa vya kumpoto. Mu 500 B.C.E., charu cha Etruria chikapokeka na Ŵaroma.<ref name="historyone" /><ref name="historytwo" />{{Gallery|align=center |width=160 |lines=5 |File:Tomba dei Rilievi (Banditaccia).jpg|Necropolis of Banditaccia located in [[Cerveteri]] in [[Lazio]] |File:Chimera d'arezzo, fi, 03.JPG|[[Chimera of Arezzo]] |File:Perugia, Museo archeologico Nazionale dell'Umbria, cippo di Perugia.jpg|[[Cippus Perusinus]] }} === Italic peoples === {{Main|Italic peoples}} [[File:Samnite theater of Pietrabbondante.JPG|thumb|[[Samnites|Samnite]] sanctuary complex at [[Pietrabbondante]].]] [[File:Femmes peucètes dansant, fresque.jpg|thumb|Fresco of dancing [[Peucetians|Peucetian]] women in the [[Tomb of the Dancers]] in [[Ruvo di Puglia]], 4th–5th century BC]] Ŵanthu awo ŵakayowoyanga Chiitaliki ŵakaŵa ŵanthu ŵa viyowoyero vyakupambanapambana. Ŵanthu awo ŵakayowoyanga Chiitaliki ŵakaŵa Osci, Veneti, Samnites, Latins, na Umbri. Ku chigaŵa cha kumwera kwa Tiber (Latium Vetus), ŵanthu ŵa ku Latin ŵakamba kukhala ku Latial, ndipo kumpoto kwa chigaŵa ichi, ŵanthu ŵa ku Veneti ŵakamba kukhala ku Este. Mu nyengo yeneyiyi, kufuma ku chigaŵa chawo chapakati ku Italy (mu chigaŵa cha Umbria na Sabina mazuŵa ghano), ŵanthu ŵa ku Osco-Umbria ŵakamba kusama mu vigaŵa vyakupambanapambana, kwizira mu ndondomeko ya Ver sacrum, kusazgirako vyaru vinyake, kumwera kwa Latium, Molise na hafu yose ya kumwera kwa chirwa ichi. Ivi vikukolerana na umo ŵanthu ŵa ku Terni ŵakaŵirako, awo ŵakaŵa ŵakuyana chomene na ŵanthu ŵa ku Hallstatt na La Tène. Malo ghakusungirako ŵakufwa gha ku Umbria ku Terni, agho ghakaŵako mu vyaka vya m'ma 1000 B.C.E., ghakaŵa ghakuyana waka na malo ghakusungirako ŵakufwa gha ku Golasecca. Pambere Ŵagiriki na Ŵafoinike ŵandafike, ŵanthu ŵa ku Sicily ŵakakhalanga kale pa chirwa ichi. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Sicily ndiwo ŵakambiska zina lakuti Sicily. Ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga kumpoto kwa Italy mu nyengo ya chisulo ŵakaŵa ŵa Ligure. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakugomezga kuti cha m'ma 2000 B.C.E., ŵanthu aŵa ŵakakhalanga mu chigaŵa chikuru cha Italy, kusazgapo chigaŵa chikuru cha kumpoto cha Italy na chigaŵa chose cha Tuscany (chigaŵa icho chili kumpoto kwa mlonga wa Arno). Pakuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuwona kuti chiyowoyero cha ŵanthu aŵa chikafuma mu nyengo ya Indo-Europe, kanandi ŵakuchiwona kuti ntcha ku malo yayi. Kuzakafika pakati pa vyaka vya m'ma 1000 B.C.E., ŵanthu ŵa ku Roma ŵakamba kuŵa na nkhongono. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Latin ŵakati ŵajiwombora ku wuzga wa Etruscan, ŵakamba kulamulira mafuko gha ku Italy. Kufuma apo, pakaŵaso nkhondo pakati pa mafuko gha ŵanthu ŵa ku Italy. Nkhondo izo zikalembeka makora comene ni izo zikacitika pakati pa Ŵalatini na Ŵasameni.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Catherine Mason |first=Carl Waldman |title=Encyclopedia of European Peoples |publisher=Infobase Publishing |pages=452–459}}</ref> Paumaliro, ŵanthu ŵa ku Latin ŵakakolerana na ŵanthu ŵa ku Italy. Ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakasambiranga Chilatini yayi ŵakamba kusambira Chilatini ndipo ŵakazgoka Ŵaroma. Kukwambilira kwa vyaka vya m'ma 100 B.C.E., mafuko ghanandi gha ku Italy, chomenechomene Marsi na Samnites, ghakagalukira Ŵaroma. Nkhondo iyi yikumanyikwa kuti Nkhondo ya pa Caru. Ŵaroma ŵakati ŵathereska Ŵaroma, ŵanthu wose ŵa ku Italy ŵakapika wanangwa wa kuŵa ŵenekaya ŵa caru ca Roma, kupaturako Ŵacelt ŵa mu Dambo la Po. Mu vyaka vyakulondezgapo, ŵanthu ŵa mu mafuko gha Chilatini ŵakamba kuyowoya Chilatini.<ref name=":0"/> ===Magna Graecia=== {{Main|Magna Graecia}} [[File:Magna Graecia ancient colonies and dialects-en.svg|thumb|left|Ancient Greek colonies and their [[:w:Ancient Greek dialects|dialect]] groupings in Southern Italy.<ref>{{Cite book |first=Roger D. |last=Woodard |chapter=Greek dialects |title=The Ancient Languages of Europe |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2008 |page=[https://archive.org/details/ancientlanguages00roge/page/51 51] |isbn=978-0-521-68495-8 |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/ancientlanguages00roge/page/51}}</ref> {{legend|#cea980|NW Greek}} {{legend|#b5ad96|Achaean}} {{legend|#eacd85|Doric}} {{legend|#bebada|Ionian}}]] Mu vyaka vya m'ma 800 na 700 B.C.E., ŵanthu ŵa ku Greece ŵakamba kukhala ku Southern Italy chifukwa cha masuzgo gha ŵanthu (njara, unandi wa ŵanthu, na vinyake). 14–18). Kweniso mu nyengo iyi, Ŵagiriki ŵakakhazikiskanga vikaya vyawo ku malo agho ghakaŵa kutali chomene nga ni kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Nyanja Yiswesi, kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Libya, na Massalia (Marseille) ku Gaul. Ŵakaŵa na ŵanthu ŵa ku Sicily na kumwera kwa Italy. Ŵaroma ŵakacemanga cigaŵa ca Sicily na Italy kuti Magna Graecia (Cilatini, "Greece Mukuru"), cifukwa cikaŵa na ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Greece. Ŵanthu awo ŵakasanda malo ŵakale ŵakakolerananga yayi pa nkhani yakuti lizgu ili likung'anamura Sicily panji Apulia, Campania na Calabria. Cifukwa ca ukoloni uwu, cikaya ca Cigiriki cikatolekera ku Italy, mu viyowoyero vya Cigiriki, maluso gha cisopa, na mitheto ya boma lakujiyimira. Nyengo yichoko waka, ŵanthu ŵa ku Greece ŵakamba kukhala ku malo agha. Chiyowoyero chakuzirwa chomene chikaŵa cha Chigiriki cha Chalcidean/Cumaean, icho chikalembeka na ŵanthu ŵa ku Etruscan.[[File:Selinunte - Templi Orientali (Temple E) 18.JPG|thumb|Greek temple of [[Hera]], [[Selinunte]], Sicily.]] Misumba yinandi ya ku Greece yikaŵa yisambazi kweniso yankhongono, nga ni Neapolis (Νεάπολις, Naples, "Msumba Uphya"), Syracuse, Acragas, na Sybaris (Σύβαρις). Matawuni ghanyake gha ku Magna Graecia ghakaŵa Tarentum (Τάρας), Epizephyrian Locri (Λοκροί) Rhegium, Croton, Thurii, Elea, Nola, Ancona, Syessa, Bari, na ghanyake. Pyrrhus wa ku Epirus wakati watondeka kulekeska ufumu wa Ŵaroma mu 282 B.C.E., kumwera kwa charu ichi kukaŵa pasi pa Ŵaroma ndipo ŵakalutilira kuwukira Ŵaroma. Ufumu wa Byzantium ndiwo ukawusanga pamanyuma pakuti Romu wawira kumanjiliro gha dazi ndipo nanga ni ŵa Lombard ŵakatondeka kuwukhozga, nangauli msumba wa kumwera ukaŵa wawo kufuma apo Zotto wakawusanga mu cigaŵa caumaliro ca vyaka vya m'ma 400 C.E.. ==Roman period== {{Main|Ancient Rome}} ===Roman Kingdom=== {{Main|Founding of Rome|Roman Kingdom}} [[File:Capitoline she-wolf Musei Capitolini MC1181.jpg|thumb|left|The ''[[Capitoline Wolf]]'' sculpture in the [[Capitoline Museums]]. According to legend, [[founding of Rome|Rome was founded]] in 753 BC by [[Romulus and Remus]], who were raised by a [[She-wolf (Roman mythology)|she-wolf]].]] Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakumanya vinandi yayi vyakukhwaskana na Ufumu wa Roma, chifukwa palije mabuku agho ghakalembeka pa nyengo iyo. Ndipouli, mdauko wa Ufumu wa Roma ukamba na kukhazikiskika kwa msumba uwu, uwo ukambira mu 753 B.C.E. ndipo ukaŵa na ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga pa Phiri la Palatine mumphepete mwa Mlonga wa Tiber ku Italy. Pa malo agha pakaŵa msewu unyake uwo ŵanthu ŵakambukiranga Mlonga wa Tiber. Phiri la Palatine na tumapiri tunyake uto tukazingilizga phiri ili, vikaŵa vyambura kusuzga kuvikilira. Vinthu vyose ivi vikawovwira kuti msumba uwu ukure makora. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakugomezga kuti mu vyaka vya m'ma 100 C.E., mu ufumu wa Romu mukaŵa mafumu 7. Ŵakaŵa na vyaka 243 pa nyengo iyo ŵakalamuliranga, ndipo kufuma waka apo Barthold Georg Niebuhr wakalemberanga Baibolo, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuŵamanya yayi.[[File:Veduta degli scavi coi fori neolitici di capanne sul palatino, 02.jpg|thumbnail|Iron Age hut foundations on the [[Palatine Hill]] considered to be the ''[[Casa Romuli]]'', the reputed dwelling-place of [[Romulus]].]] Ŵagali ŵakaparanya vinthu vinandi ivyo vikalembeka mu mbiri ya Roma apo ŵakapoka msumba uwu mu 390 B.C.E. (Varronian, kuyana na Polybius nkhondo iyi yikachitika mu 387/6) ndipo ivyo vikakhalako vikamara mu nyengo panji kwiba. Pakuti palije ukaboni wakuti ufumu uwu ukaŵako mu nyengo yira, tikwenera kusanda mwakupwelelera nkhani zose za mafumu agha. Kuyana na nthano ya Roma, msumba uwu ukazengeka pa Epulero 21, 753 B.C.E. na ŵabali ŵaŵiri, Romulus na Remus, awo ŵakaŵa ŵazukuru ŵa Aeneas, fumu ya ku Troya.<ref>Adkins, 1998. page 3.</ref> ===Roman Republic=== {{Main|Roman Republic}} {{Further|Roman conquest of Italy}} [[File:Roman Republic Empire map.gif|thumb|left|Animation showing the growth and division of [[Ancient Rome]], years CE]] Kuyana na ivyo ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakulemba nga ni Livy ŵakalemba, charu cha Romu chikamba kuwusa mu 509 B.C.E., apo themba laumaliro pa mathemba 7 gha Romu, Tarquin the Proud, likathereskeka na Lucius Junius Brutus. Ndondomeko ya malango yikalongozganga kuti vinthu vileke kwenda makora, kweniso kuti mazaza gha ŵanthu ghapatukane. Ŵeruzgi ŵakuzirwa comene ŵakaŵa ŵalara ŵa boma ŵaŵiri, awo pamoza ŵakaŵa na mazaza ghakulongozga ŵasilikari. Ŵalongozgi aŵa ŵakateŵeteranga lumoza na ŵalara ŵa boma, awo pakwamba ŵakaŵa ŵalara ŵa boma, kweni ŵakakura chomene. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 400 B.C.E., Ŵagalileya ŵakamba kuwukira charu cha Romu. Ŵaroma ŵakakora vilwero na kucimbizga Ŵagali, awo ŵakalongozgekanga na Camillus. Pachoko na pachoko, Ŵaroma ŵakamba kuwusa ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵa ku Italy, kusazgapo Ŵaeturu. Cinthu caumaliro ico cikapangiska kuti Ŵaroma ŵambe kulamulira caru ca Italy cikaŵa apo Tarentum, msumba ukuru wa ku Greece, wakacema Pyrrhus wa ku Epirus kuti wamovwire mu 281 B.C.E., kweni vyose ivi vikacitika yayi. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 200 B.C.E., Ŵaroma ŵakakumana na mulwani wakofya chomene. Mu Nkhondo zitatu za ku Punic, msumba wa Carthage ukaparanyika ndipo Ŵaroma ŵakamba kuwusa Hispania, Sicily, na North Africa. Ŵaroma ŵakati ŵathereska ufumu wa Makedoniya na wa Seleucid mu vyaka vya m'ma 100 B.C.E., ndiwo ŵakaŵa na mazaza pa nyanja ya Meditereniyani. Cifukwa ca kuthereska maufumu gha Ŵagiriki, Ŵaroma na Ŵagiriki ŵakasazgikana, ndipo ŵanthu ŵa ku Romu ŵakamba kukhala mu vyaru vya mizi. Pa nyengo iyi, ufumu wa Roma ukaŵa wankhongono comene ndipo ukaŵa na ŵalwani ŵanandi yayi.[[File:Retrato de Julio César (26724093101) (cropped).jpg|thumb|The [[Tusculum portrait]], possibly the only surviving sculpture of [[Julius Caesar]] made during his lifetime. Archaeological Museum, [[Turin]], [[Italy]].]] Malo ghamoza agho ghakaŵa na nthenda iyi ni Spain. Ŵasilikari ŵa Romu ŵakanjira mu Spain kukwambilira kwa vyaka vya m'ma 200 B.C.E., kweni ŵakasuzgika chomene m'paka apo Augusto wakaŵira themba. Msumba wa Numantia uwo ukaŵa wa ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Celtiberian ndiwo ukaŵa pakwamba apo ŵanthu ŵa ku Spain ŵakasuskanga Ŵaroma mu vyaka vya m'ma 140 na 130 B.C.E. Numantia wakawa na kubwangandulika mu 133 B.C.E. Mu 105 B.C.E., Ŵaceltiberi ŵakalutilira kuŵa ŵankhongono na ŵakofya mwakuti ŵakachimbizga Cimbri na Teutones kumpoto kwa Spain, nangauli Ŵaroma ŵakathereska ŵasilikari ŵa Ŵaroma ku Gaul kumwera, ndipo ŵasilikari ŵa Ŵaroma awo ŵakaŵasuskanga ŵakafwa 80,000. Kupoka Hispania kukamara mu 19 B.C.E., kweni pakaŵa masuzgo ghanandi.<ref>{{cite book |title=Between Republic and Empire: Interpretations of Augustus and His Principate |year=1993 |url=https://archive.org/details/betweenrepublice0000unse_f2l2 |publisher=University of California Press |page=[https://archive.org/details/betweenrepublice0000unse_f2l2/page/400 400]}}</ref> [[File:Tavares.Forum.Romanum.redux.jpg|thumb|The [[Roman Forum]], the commercial, cultural, and political centre of the city and the Republic which housed the various offices and meeting places of the government.]] Kuumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 200 B.C.E., mafuko ghanandi gha Cijeremani ghakasamukira ku vyaru vinyake, ndipo Cimbri na Teuton ndiwo ŵakalongozganga. Ŵanthu ŵa mafuko agha ŵakathereskanga ŵanthu wose awo ŵakakumananga nawo, ndipo ŵakatimbanizganga comene caru ca Italy. Pa Nkhondo ya ku Aquae Sextiae na Vercellae, Ŵajeremani wose ŵakakomeka. Mu nkhondo ziŵiri izi, ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Teuton na Ambrones ŵakataya ŵanalume 290,000 (ŵanalume 200,000 ŵakakomeka ndipo 90,000 ŵakakoleka); ndipo ŵa mtundu wa Cimbri ŵakataya ŵanalume 220,000 (ŵanalume 160,000 ŵakakomeka ndipo 60,000 ŵakakoleka).<ref>Livy Ep. 68</ref> Pakati pa vyaka vya m'ma 100 B.C.E., charu ichi chikaŵa mu nyengo ya masuzgo gha ndyali. Mu nyengo iyi, Julius Caesar ndiyo wakaŵa wakuzirwa comene. Caesar wakakolerana na ŵanalume ŵaŵiri awo ŵakaŵa na mazaza comene mu Roma: Marcus Licinius Crassus, uyo wakaŵa movwiri wake, na Pompey, uyo wakaŵa mulwani wa Crassus. Crassus, mwanalume musambazi comene mu Romu, wakaŵa musambazi comene; Pompey wakaŵa na mazaza ghanandi mu wupu wa Senate; ndipo Kesare wakaŵa kazembe na mulongozgi wa ŵasilikari mu Gaul.<ref name=Scullard2>Scullard 1982, chapters VI-VII</ref> Mu 53 B.C.E., ufumu wa Crassus ukamara. Crassus wakaŵa muphemaniski pakati pa Caesar na Pompey, ndipo kwambura iyo, ŵasilikari ŵaŵiri aŵa ŵakamba kulimbana kuti ŵatore mazaza. Caesar wakati watonda Nkhondo za ku Gallia, ndipo ŵasilikari ŵakamulumba na kumuchindika, Pompey wakawona kuti ni munthu muwemi yayi. Kuti ivi vileke kucitika, Kesare wakambuka Mlonga wa Rubicon na kuwukira Roma mu 49 B.C.E., ndipo mwaluŵiro wakatonda Pompey. Cifukwa cakuti Kesare ndiyo wakaŵa na mazaza pa ufumu wa Roma, wakayamba kuŵa na mauteŵeti ghanandi, ndipo pamasinda wakazgoka muwusi wankhongono. Wakakomeka mu 44 B.C.E., pa nyengo ya Ides of March, na ŵanthu awo ŵakakhumbanga kumufwatura. Pakuti Kesare wakakomeka, pakaŵa masuzgo gha ndyali na gha ŵanthu mu Romu. Octavian (mwana wakulera wa Kesare), pamoza na Mark Antony na Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, mubwezi wa Kesare, ŵakambiska ufumu waciŵiri. Mu 36 B.C.E., Lepidus wakafumapo pa udindo wake wati wapusika Octavian ku Sicily. Antony wakakhalanga ku Eguputo na wakutemweka wake, Cleopatra VII. Ŵanthu ŵakawonanga kuti Mark Antony na Cleopatra ŵakaŵa ŵakwendera mphiska cifukwa cakuti wakaŵa fumukazi ya caru cinyake ndipo Antony wakaŵa na umoyo wakukondweska comene. Pamanyuma pakuti Antony wapeleka vyawanangwa ku Alekizandiriya, Cleopatra wakapika zina lakuti "Fumukazi ya Mathemba", ndipo ŵana ŵawo ŵakapika mazina gha ufumu ku vyaru vya kumafumiro gha dazi ivyo vikaŵa kuti vyatoleka waka. Octavian wakaparanya ŵasilikari ŵa Eguputo mu Nkhondo ya Actium mu 31 B.C.E. Marko Antony na Cleopatra ŵakajikoma, ndipo Octavian ndiyo wakaŵa yekha mulongozgi wa caru. Pamanyuma pa Nkhondo ya ku Actium, nyengo ya nkhondo zikuruzikuru za pa nyanja yikamara ndipo Ŵaroma ŵakaŵa na mazaza pa nyanja mu Nyanja ya North Sea, Atlantic, Mediterranean, Red Sea, na Black Sea mpaka apo ŵasilikari ŵa ku North Sea ŵakamba kutinkhana na Ŵafrank na Ŵasaxon, kweniso ŵa Borani, Herules na Goths mu Nyanja ya Black Sea.<ref>[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Antony*.html#ref57] Plutarch, ''Parallel Lives'', ''Life of Antony'', LXXI, 3–5.</ref> ===Roman Empire=== {{Further|Roman Empire|Roman Italy}} [[File:Augustus of Prima Porta (inv. 2290).jpg|thumb|upright|left|The [[Augustus of Prima Porta]], 1st century AD, depicting [[Augustus]], the first [[Roman emperor]]]] Mu 27 B.C.E., Octavian ndiyo wakaŵa mulongozgi yekha wa Ŵaroma. Pakuŵa mulongozgi wa Ŵaroma, vinthu vikamba kwenda makora chomene mu ufumu wa Ŵaroma, uwo ukatora vyaka 40. Mu caka ici, wakamba kumanyikwa na zina lakuti Augusto. Ŵanthu ŵakulemba mdauko ŵakuwona kuti nyengo iyi ndiyo Ufumu wa Roma ukambira. Nangauli boma likaŵa la boma la Republican, kweni Augusto ndiyo wakaŵa na mazaza ghose. Wupu wa Senate ukamupa udindo wapadera wa Proconsular imperium, uwo ukamupa mazaza pa ŵalongozgi wose ŵa ŵasilikari. Vigaŵa ivyo vikaŵa pafupi na mphaka, uko ŵasilikari ŵanandi ŵakaŵa, vikaŵa pasi pa muwuso wa Augusto. Vigaŵa ivi vikachemekanga vigaŵa vya ufumu. Vigaŵa vyamtende ivyo vikaŵa pasi pa ŵalara ŵa boma vikaŵa pasi pa mazaza gha ŵalara ŵa boma. Ŵasilikari ŵa Romu ŵakaŵa ŵanandi comene (ŵakaŵa pafupifupi 50) cifukwa ca nkhondo za mukati mwa caru. Apo vigaŵa vikapangikanga mu Meditereniyani yose, ufumu wa Roma ukaŵa na mazaza ghakupambanapambana, ndipo ukaŵa na mazaza ghakulongozga vigaŵa ("Domina Provinciarum", kung'anamura kuti "muwusi wa vigaŵa", kung'anamura vigaŵa vyose ivyo vikaŵa kuwaro kwa Italy), kweniso mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800 C.E., ufumu wa Roma ukaŵa na mazaza pa charu chose chapasi.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hb6OAQAAQBAJ&dq=Rectrix+mundi+omnium+terrarum+parens&pg=PA97|title= Altri nomi e appellativi relazionati allo status dell'Italia in epoca romana|date= 20 November 2013|publisher= Bloomsbury|isbn= 9781472519801|access-date=20 November 2021|language=it}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.abebooks.it/servlet/BookDetailsPL?bi=22910180903&searchurl=sortby%3D20%26tn%3Ditalia%2Bomnium%2Bterrarum%2Bparens&cm_sp=snippet-_-srp1-_-title1|title=Antico appellativo dell'Italia romana: ''Italia Omnium Terrarum Parens''|access-date=20 November 2021|language=it}}</ref> Chifukwa cha udindo uwu, mu nyengo ya mtende, ŵalara ŵa boma la Roma ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito mazaza gha ŵapolisi (Imperium domi) m'malo mwa ŵasilikari (Imperium militiae). Ŵanthu ŵa ku Italy ŵakaŵa na wanangwa wa kusopa kweniso ndalama.[[File:Colosseo 2020.jpg|thumb|The [[Colosseum]] in [[Rome]], built in the 1st century]] Mu muwuso wa Augusto, mabuku gha Ŵaroma ghakakura chomene. Ŵanthu nga ni Vergil, Horace, Ovid, na Rufus ŵakalemba mabuku ghanandi, ndipo ŵakaŵa ŵabwezi ŵa Augusto. Pamoza na Maecenas, wakawovwira ŵanthu kuti ŵaŵe na mtima wa kutemwa caru, nga ni buku la Virgil lakuti Aeneid, kweniso wakawovwira ŵanthu kuti ŵaŵe na mtima wa kutemwa caru. Mabuku agho ghakalembeka mu nyengo iyi ghakaŵako mu nyengo ya Ŵaroma, ndipo ghakaŵa ghakale chomene. Augustus nayo wakalutilira kusintha kalendara iyo Kesare wakakhumbanga, ndipo mwezi wa Ogasiti ukuchemeka na zina lake. Ufumu wa Ŵaroma ukaŵa pa mtende kwa vyaka 200, ndipo vinthu vikendanga makora.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/447447/Pax-Romana |title=Pax Romana |publisher=Britannica Online Encyclopedia}}</ref> [[File:Roman Empire Trajan 117AD.png|thumb|{{legend|#b23938|The [[Roman Empire]] at its greatest extent under [[Trajan]] in AD 117}}]] Nangauli ufumu uwu ukaŵa wankhongono, kweni ukalimbikira yayi kuti usanuzge ufumu wake. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 100 na 200, ŵasilikari ŵa Romu ŵakalwanga nkhondo na mafuko gha Chijeremani agho ghakaŵa kumpoto na Ufumu wa Parthiya uwo ukaŵa kumafumiro gha dazi. Pa nyengo yeneyira, ŵanthu ŵakugaluka (nga ni Ŵahebere ku Yudeya) (70) na nkhondo za paŵekha (nga ni mu 68 C.E., mu chaka cha mathemba ghanayi) ŵakakhumbanga kuti ŵasilikari ŵaŵawovwire. Nkhondo za vilimika 70 za Ŵayuda na Ŵaroma izo zikacitika mu hafu yaciŵiri ya vilimika vya mu handiredi lakwamba na hafu yakwamba ya vilimika vya mu handiredi laciŵiri, zikaŵa zakusuzga comene. Ŵayuda 1,356,460 ŵakakomeka pa Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Ŵayuda. Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Ŵayuda (115-117), yikakoma Ŵayuda ŵakujumpha 200,000. Ndipo Nkhondo Yachitatu ya Ŵayuda (132-136), yikakoma Ŵayuda ŵakujumpha 580,000. Ŵayuda ŵakaweleramo yayi ku suzgo lawo m'paka apo boma la Israyeli likapangikira mu 1948. Themba Theodosius I likati lafwa (395 C.E.), Ufumu wa Roma ukagaŵikana. Ku chigaŵa cha kumanjiliro gha dazi kukaŵa masuzgo gha vyachuma na ndyali, kweniso ŵasilikari ŵa Ŵabarabiya ŵakizanga kanandi waka, ntheura msumba wa Mediolanum ukasamukira ku Ravenna. Mu 476, Odoacer wakathereska Romulus Augustulus, themba laumaliro la ku Western. Kwa vyaka vichoko waka, Italy yikalutilira kulamulirika na Odoacer. Pakati pajumpha nyengo yicoko waka kufuma apo Ŵalombardi ŵakanjilira mu caru ici, ndipo pati pajumpha vilimika 1,300, caru ca Italy cikaŵa pasi pa muwusi yumoza.<ref>{{cite book |title=War and Religion: An Encyclopedia of Faith and Conflict [3 volumes] |date=2017 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |page=113}}</ref> ==Middle Ages== {{Main|Italy in the Middle Ages|Italian city-states}} [[File:Iron Crown.JPG|thumb|The [[Iron Crown of Lombardy]], for centuries a symbol of the [[King of Italy|Kings of Italy]]]] Muwuso wa Odoacer ukamara apo Ŵagoth ŵakugalukira caru ca Italy. Pakati pajumpha vyaka vinandi, ŵasilikari ŵa Justinian ŵakanjira mu Italy kuti ŵambeso kulamulira Ŵaroma. Ivi vikawovwira kuti fuko linyake la Cijeremani, la Lombard, liŵe na mazaza pa vigaŵa vikuruvikuru vya Italy. Mu 751 Ŵalombardi ŵakathereska Ravenna, na kumazga muwuso wa Byzantine kumpoto kwa Italy. Pakuwona kuti ŵa Lombard ŵambaso kuwukira, Papa wakapempha wovwiri ku ŵa Frank.<ref>Cristina La Rocca, ed. ''Italy in the Early Middle Ages: 476-1000'' (2002).</ref> [[File:BattagliaLegnano.jpg|thumbnail|left|The defense of the [[Carroccio]] during the [[battle of Legnano]] (by [[Amos Cassioli]], 1860).]] Mu 756 ŵasilikari ŵa Frank ŵakathereska Ŵalombardi ndipo ŵakazomerezga kuti Ŵapapa ndiwo ŵalongozgenge chigaŵa chikuru cha Italy. Mu 800, Papa wakaphakazga Charlemagne kuŵa fumu ya Ufumu wa Roma mu tchalitchi la St. Peter. Charlemagne wakati wafwa (814), ufumu uphya ukaparanyika. Ici cikapangiska kuti mu Italy muŵe suzgo la mazaza. Ivi vikachitika pamoza na kuwuka kwa cisopa ca Ciisilamu mu caru ca Arabia, kumpoto kwa Africa, na ku Middle East. Kumwera, ufumu wa Umayyad na wa Abbasid ndiwo ukambukira. Ku mpoto, boma likamba kuŵa na nkhongono. Mu 852 C.E., Ŵasarayeni ŵakatora msumba wa Bari na kuzenga ufumu. Mu 902 C.E., Ŵasilamu ŵakamba kulamulira Sicily, ndipo ŵakalutilira kulamulira chilumba ichi kufuma mu 965 m'paka mu 1061. Mu vyaka ivi, boma la Italy likamba kujilongozga. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1000 C.E., malonda ghakamba kuweleramo. Ŵapapa ŵakaŵaso na mazaza ndipo ŵakamba kulimbana na Ufumu wa Ŵaroma. Mphindano iyi yikamara mu 1122 apo ŵakalemba chikalata chakuchemeka Concordat of Worms, nangauli mu vyaru vinandi vya ku Europe masuzgo ghakaŵako m'paka kuumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1500. Ku mpoto, ŵa Lombard ŵakayezgayezga kuti ŵaŵe ŵakujiyimira paŵekha kufuma ku Ufumu wa Ŵaroma. Kumwera, Ŵanormani ŵakatora vigaŵa vya Ŵalombardi na Ŵabyzantine, ndipo ŵakawuskapo maboma ghaŵiri agha pa chirwa ichi.<ref>Holger Berwinkel, "Legnano, Battle of (1176)." in Gordon Martel ed ''The Encyclopedia of War'' (2011) ch 27.</ref>[[File:Tranquillo da cremona, Marco Polo alla Corte del Gran Khan, 1863.PNG|thumb|upright=1.3|[[Marco Polo]] at the court of [[Kublai Khan]] (painting by [[Tranquillo Cremona]], 1863).]] Kweniso misumba yinyake iyo yikaŵa yakujiyimira yekha yikathereskeka. Mu nyengo yeneyiyi, Ŵanormani nawo ŵakamazga muwuso wa Ŵasilamu mu Sicily. Mu 1130, Roger II wa ku Sicily wakamba kuwusa Ufumu wa Sicily. Roger II ndiyo wakaŵa fumu yakwamba ya Sicily ndipo wakawovwira kuti vinthu vyose ivyo vikathereskeka na Ŵanormani mu Southern Italy viŵe ufumu umoza. Mu 1155, Fumu Manuel Komnenos yikayezga kuwukira kumwera kwa Italy, kweni yikathera yayi. Ufumu wa Sicily uwo ukaŵa wa ŵanthu ŵa ku Normandy ukakhala m'paka mu 1194 apo ufumu wa Hohenstaufen ukamba kulamulira Sicily. Ufumu wa Sicily ukaŵa pasi pa mafumu ghakupambanapambana m'paka mu ma 1800. [[File:Le Repubbliche Marinare.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Map and coats of arms of the [[Maritime republics]]]] Pakati pa vyaka vya m'ma 1200 na 1300, charu cha Italy chikaŵa na ndyali zapadera chomene. Pakuti mu vyaru vinyake vya ku Europe mukaŵavya maboma agho ghakaŵa na mazaza pa ŵanthu, boma likamba kulamulira mu misumba. Pakuti tchalitchi likaŵa na mazaza pa ŵanthu wose kweniso ufumu ukaŵa kutali chomene, misumba yinandi iyo yikaŵa yakujiyimira payekha yikamba kwenda makora chifukwa cha malonda. Vikawonekanga nga kuti misumba ya ku Italy yikasintha na kwamba kuchita malonda. Nanga ni misumba na vyaru vya kumpoto vikaŵa na ŵamalonda ŵanandi, comenecomene ŵa ku Venice. Pakuyaniska na maufumu gha ŵamazaza, maboma gha ku Italy ghakaŵa na wanangwa wa ndyali, ndipo ivi vikawovwira kuti sayansi na luso visinthe. Mu nyengo iyi, misumba yinandi ya ku Italy yikaŵa na maboma nga ni Florence, Lucca, Genoa, Venice, na Siena. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1300 na 1400, misumba iyi yikazgoka malo ghakurughakuru gha vyamalonda na gha ndalama mu Europe.<ref>{{Cite book|last=de Sismondi|first=Simonde|title=Storia delle Repubbliche Italiane nel Medioevo.|publisher=Avanzini e Torraca Editori|year=1968|language=it}}</ref>[[File:Castello di reggio calabria, esterno 01.jpg|thumb|[[Aragonese Castle (Reggio Calabria)|Aragonese Castle]] in [[Reggio Calabria]]]] Chifukwa chakuti misumba ya ku Italy nga ni Venice yikaŵa pakati pa vyaru vya kumafumiro gha dazi na vya kumanjiliro gha dazi, yikazgoka malo ghakwendeskera malonda gha pa caru cose na gha banki. Milan, Florence, na Venice, pamoza na misumba yinyake yinandi ya ku Italy, yikawovwira comene pa nkhani ya ndalama. Mu nyengo yeneyiyo pera, mu Italy mukaŵa vyaru vya ku nyanja nga ni Venice, Genoa, Pisa, Amalfi, Ragusa, Ancona, Gaeta na Noli. Kwambira mu 10 m'paka mu 13 C.E., misumba iyi yikazenga ngalaŵa zinandi kuti zijivikilire kweniso kuti zikagwiliskirenge ntchito malonda mu Meditereniyani. Vyaru vya ku nyanja, chomenechomene vya Venice na Genoa, vikazgoka vipata vikuru vya ku Europe vyakwendera malonda na vyaru vya kumafumiro gha dazi. Mu vyaka vyapakati, chigaŵa cha Savoy chikakura na kunjilira mu chigaŵa ichi, ndipo Florence wakazgoka msumba wa malonda na ndalama..<ref>Armando Lodolini ''Le repubbliche del mare'', Roma, Biblioteca di storia patria, 1967.</ref>{{Gallery|align=center |width=160 |lines=5 |File:Italy Lothar II.svg|Italian [[Kingdom of the Lombards|Lombard kingdom]] (781–1014). |File:Aghlabids Dynasty 800 - 909 (AD).svg|[[Emirate of Sicily]] (831–1072). |File:Republik Venedig Handelswege01.png|Trade routes and colonies of the [[Genoese colonies|Genoese]] <small>(red)</small> and [[Stato da Màr|Venetian]] <small>(green)</small> empires }} == Kuwukaso == {{Main|Italian Renaissance}} [[File:'David' by Michelangelo Fir JBU005.jpg|thumb|left|150px|[[Michelangelo's David]], one of the symbols of Italian Renaissance.]] Ku Italy ndiko kukaŵa ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakakhalanga mu nyengo ya Renaissance. Kuumaliro wa vyaka vyapakati pa 500 na 1500 C.E., chigaŵa chapakati na kumwera kwa Italy, icho kale chikaŵa pakati pa Ufumu wa Roma na Magna Graecia, chikaŵa chikavu chomene kuluska kumpoto. Msumba wa Romu ukaŵa wakubwanganduka, ndipo boma la Papal States likaŵa na malango ghacoko. Cifukwa cimoza nchakuti Papa wakasamira ku Avignon, France. Naples, Sicily, na Sardinia vikaŵa pasi pa muwuso wa ŵeneco kwa nyengo yitali. Njira za malonda za ku Italy izo zikendanga pa nyanja ya Meditereniyani na kunyake, zikaŵa zikuru comene pakwendeska vinthu. Mu nyengo iyi, misumba iyo yikaŵa mu Italy yikakura chomene ndipo yikaŵa na mazaza ghanandi mwakuti yikaŵa yakujiyimira pawekha. Mu 1348, ku Italy kukaŵa nthenda ya Black Death iyo yikakoma ŵanthu pafupifupi pa ŵanthu ŵatatu. Kuwelera kwa ŵanthu na suzgo la vyachuma kukapangiska kuti misumba, malonda, na vyachuma viwelerepo, ndipo ivi vikakhozga chomene nyengo ya Humanism na Renaissance (Vyaka vya m'ma 15-16 C.E.) apo Italy yikaŵaso likuru la ŵanthu ŵa ku Western.[[File:Da Vinci Vitruve Luc Viatour.jpg|thumb|''The [[Vitruvian man]]'' by [[Leonardo da Vinci]], representing the ideal human proportions as described by Roman architect [[Vitruvius]], is a quintessential masterpiece of the Renaissance.]] [[File:Florence Duomo from Michelangelo hill.jpg|thumb|The [[Santa Maria del Fiore]] cathedral in [[Florence]], which has the biggest brick dome in the world,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tripleman.com/index.php?showimage=737 |title=The Duomo of Florence &#124; Tripleman |publisher=tripleman.com |access-date=25 March 2010 |archive-date=6 December 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091206202243/http://www.tripleman.com/index.php?showimage=737 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.brunelleschisdome.com/ |title=Brunelleschi's Dome |publisher=Brunelleschi's Dome.com |access-date=25 March 2010}}</ref> and is considered a masterpiece of Italian architecture and world architecture.]] [[File:La nascita di Venere (Botticelli).jpg|thumb|Botticelli's [[The Birth of Venus (Botticelli)|''The Birth of Venus'']], ca. 1482–85.]] Nyengo iyi yikumanyikwa kuti Renaissance cifukwa cakuti yikaŵa nyengo ya "kuweleramo" mu vinthu vya cuma na vya ku misumba, kweniso ya luso na sayansi. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakuti vinthu vikasintha chomene chifukwa cha mabuku ghakale agho ŵanthu ŵa ku vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi ŵakaluwa kwa vyaka vinandi. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakasamira ku Italy kufuma ku Ufumu wa Roma. Nyengo ya kuwelera ku Italy yikamba ku Tuscany, mu msumba wa Florence. Kufuma apo, ukafika kumwera, ndipo ukakhwaska chomene msumba wa Romu, uwo ukazengekaso na ŵapositole. Mutaliyana wakamba kuwuka mu vyaka vya m'ma 1500. Vinthu ivyo ŵanthu ŵakagomezganga mu nyengo ya Renaissance vikafuma ku Florence na kuluta ku vyaru vyapafupi nga ni Siena na Lucca. Mulimo wa kuzenga na kupenta wa ŵanthu ŵa ku Tuscany ukaŵa wakovwira chomene ku misumba yose ya kumpoto na pakati pa Italy. Nyengo ya kuwelera ku Italy yikaŵa yakukondweska comene pa nkhani ya vya cuma. Venice na Genoa ndiwo ŵakamba kuchita malonda agha, pakwamba ŵakaŵa vyaru vya ku nyanja ndipo pamanyuma ŵakamba kuchita malonda agha mu vigaŵa vinyake. Vifukwa vinyake ivyo vikapangiska kuti vinthu ivi viŵeko ni umo nyanja za ku Venice zikaŵira zakukhora pa nkhondo, unandi wa ŵanthu, na umo mabungwe ghakapangikira. Republic of Venice ndiyo yikaŵa msumba wakwamba wa vya ndalama pa caru cose, uwo ukayamba kuzengeka pakati pa vyaka vya m'ma 900 na 1400. Mabondi ghakusinthika ghakaŵako mu nyengo ya ku Italy (nga ni Venice na Genoa) mu nyengo ya kuumaliro wa vyaka vyapakati na kuuyambiro wa nyengo ya Renaissance.<ref name=Coispeau2016>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Yor4DAAAQBAJ |title=Finance Masters: A Brief History of International Financial Centers in the Last Millennium|last=Coispeau|first=Olivier|date=2016-08-10|publisher=World Scientific|isbn=9789813108844|language=en}}</ref> ===Literature, philosophy, and science=== Nkhani za mabuku gha mu nyengo ya Renaissance zikwamba na Petrarch (uyo wakumanyikwa chomene chifukwa cha soneti ya Il Canzoniere kweniso chifukwa cha buku ilo wakalemba) kweniso mubwezi wake Giovanni Boccaccio (uyo wakalemba buku la The Decameron). Ŵaluso ŵanyake awo ŵakamanyikwa comene mu vyaka vya m'ma 1500, ŵakaŵa Luigi Pulci (Morgante), Matteo Maria Boiardo (Orlando Innamorato), na Ludovico Ariosto (Orlando Furioso). Ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵakasambira vya nyengo ya kuwuka kwa Yesu, nga ni Niccolò de' Niccoli na Poggio Bracciolini, ŵakapenja mabuku gha ŵanthu awo ŵakalemba mabuku nga ni Plato, Cicero, na Vitruvius. Mu nyengo ya Ŵakhristu ŵakwambilira, mabuku gha Ŵagiriki na Ŵagiriki (nga ni Plato, Aristotle, Euclid, na Ptolemy) kweniso gha ŵasayansi Ŵachihelamu ghakasangika mu vyaru vya Cikhristu. Ŵasambizgi ŵanyake ŵa Chigiriki ŵa mu nyengo iyi ŵakaŵa ŵasembe ŵaŵiri ŵa ku Seminara ku Calabria. Ŵakaŵa Barlaam wa ku Seminara na msambiri wake Leonzio Pilato wa ku Seminara. Barlaam wakamanyanga comene Cigiriki ndipo ndiyo wakasambizganga Petrarch na Giovanni Boccaccio. Leonzio Pilato wakang'anamulira Giovanni Boccaccio mabuku gha Homer mu Cilatini. Kuuyambiro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1500, Baldassare Castiglione wakalemba buku lakuti The Book of the Courtier, ilo likulongosora umo munthu wakuwonekera, apo Niccolò Machiavelli wakalemba buku lakuti The Prince. Kweniso likakolerananga yayi na visambizgo vya Chikatolika na visambizgo vya ŵanthu awo ŵakasambizganga vya ndyali.<ref name=counter>{{Harvcoltxt|Bireley|1990}}</ref>{{#tag:ref|Although he makes many references to classical sources, these references do not include the customary deference to [[Aristotle]] which was to some extent approved by the church in his time. {{Harvcoltxt|Strauss|1958|p=222}} says that "Machiavelli indicates his fundamental disagreement with Aristotle's doctrine of the whole by substituting "[[Chance (Ancient Greek concept)|chance]]" (''caso'') for "[[Nature (philosophy)|nature]]" in the only context in which he speaks of "the beginning of the world." Strauss gives evidence that Machiavelli was knowingly influenced by [[Democritus]], whose philosophy of nature was, like that of [[modern science]], [[materialism|materialist]]."|group=nb}} ===Architecture, sculpture, and painting=== Pa nyengo iyi, ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe ŵakamba kutemwana chomene na ŵanthu nga ni Giotto di Bondone, Masaccio, Piero della Francesca, Domenico Ghirlandaio, Perugino, Michelangelo, Raphael, Botticelli, Leonardo da Vinci, na Titian. Ndimo viliriso na vyakuzenga, nga ni Brunelleschi, Leone Alberti, Andrea Palladio, na Bramante. Ŵakalemba vya tchalitchi la Florence Cathedral, St. Ku Rome kuli Tchalitchi la Petrosi, ndipo ku Rimini kuli Tempio Malatestiano. Paumaliro, kampani ya Aldine Press, iyo yikapangika na Aldo Manuzio, iyo yikachitanga ntchito yake ku Venice, yikamba kulemba mabuku mu Chigiriki chakale. Kweni nangauli ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakasuzgikanga na vinthu vya ku malo agha, kweni ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵakusanda mdauko ŵakuwona kuti nyengo iyi yikaŵa yakwamba kuti vinthu vyendenge makora mu Italy (chifukwa cha kujura nthowa zakwendakwenda za ku Atlantic na kuwukira vyaru vinyake) kweniso kuti pakaŵavya vinandi ivyo vikachitika pa nkhani ya sayansi. ===Age of Discovery=== [[File:Italian explorers.jpg|thumb|Italian explorers and navigators from the dominant maritime republics played a key role in ushering the [[Age of Discovery]] and the [[European colonization of the Americas]]. Clockwise from top left: [[Christopher Columbus]], [[John Cabot]], [[Amerigo Vespucci]], and [[Giovanni da Verrazzano]]]] Kuwa kwa msumba wa Constantinople kukapangiska kuti ŵasayansi na mabuku gha Cigiriki ghasamire ku Italy, ndipo ici cikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵa Cigiriki na Ciroma ŵambeso kusopa. Ŵalongozgi awo ŵakalongozganga ŵanthu nga ni Federico da Montefeltro na Papa Pius II, ŵakakhumbanga kukhazikiska misumba yiwemi iyo munthu ndiyo wakweruzgira vinthu vyose. Pico della Mirandola wakalemba buku lakuti Oration on the Dignity of Man, ilo likuwoneka kuti ndilo likawovwira kuti ŵanthu ŵaŵe na wanangwa wakusankha. Leonardo Bruni wakaŵa wakwamba kugaŵa mdauko wa ŵanthu mu vigaŵa vitatu: Kale, mu vyaka vyapakati na mazuŵa ghano. Cinthu caciŵiri ico cikacitika cifukwa ca kuwa kwa msumba wa Constantinople cikaŵa kwamba kwa nyengo iyo ŵanthu ŵakamanyanga vinandi. Ŵalendo ŵa ku Italy ŵakakhumbanga kusanga nthowa yinyake yakuyira ku India kuti ŵajumphe Ufumu wa Ottoman. Ŵanthu ŵakumanyikwa chomene ŵakaŵa: Christopher Columbus (Cristoforo Colombo), uyo wakambiska vyaru vinyake mu Spain, ndipo wakamanya kuti charu cha New World chilipo ndipo ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe ŵakamba kuchisanga. John Cabot (Giovanni Caboto), uyo wakaluta ku England, ndiyo wakaŵa munthu wakwamba wa ku Europe kukendera charu cha North America mu 1497. Amerigo Vespucci, uyo wakaluta ku Portugal, wakalongora mu 1501 kuti charu chiphya (mwakudumura Brazil) chikaŵa cha ku Asia yayi nga umo ŵanthu ŵakaghanaghaniranga pakwamba.<ref>{{Cite book |url={{Google books|1qsuAAAAYAAJ |page=PA13 |keywords= |text= |plainurl=yes}} |title=The Life and Voyages of Verrazzano |last=Greene |first=George Washington |publisher=Folsom, Wells, and Thurston |year=1837 |location=Cambridge University |page=13 |author-link=George Washington Greene |access-date=18 August 2017 |via=Google Books}}</ref> ===Incessant warfare=== [[File:Italy in 1499.png|thumb|left|The Italian Peninsula in 1499.]] Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1400, kumpoto kwa Italy na kumpoto kwa Italy vikagaŵikana mu misumba yinandi iyo yikaŵa pa nkhondo, yikuru chomene yikaŵa Milan, Florence, Pisa, Siena, Genoa, Ferrara, Mantua, Verona, na Venice. Mu nyengo ya ŵapositole, kumpoto kwa Italy kukagaŵikana cifukwa ca kulimbana kwa nyengo yitali pakati pa ŵasilikari ŵa Papa na ŵa Ufumu wa Roma. Msumba uliwose ukaŵa ku chigaŵa chimoza panji chinyake, kweni ukagaŵikana pakati pa ŵasilikari ŵaŵiri, ŵa Guelph na Ghibellines. Nkhondo pakati pa vyaru vikaŵa vyacilendo yayi, ndipo ŵalwani ŵakufuma ku vyaru vinyake ŵakalutanga waka ku caru ca Italy. Ndyali za mu nyengo ya Renaissance zikamba kufuma mu nyengo iyi. Kwambira mu ma 1300, ŵasilikari awo ŵakateŵeteranga ŵasilikari ŵakuguliskika ŵakaŵanga ŵanthu ŵachoko chomene. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1500, misumba iyo yikaŵa na mazaza chomene yikamba kulamulira misumba yinyake iyo yikaŵa pafupi nayo. Florence wakathereska Pisa mu 1406, Venice wakathereska Padua na Verona, ndipo Duchy of Milan yikathereska vigaŵa vinyake ivyo vikaŵa kufupi, kusazgapo Pavia na Parma.<ref>Jensen 1992, p. 64.</ref>[[File:Uccello Battle of San Romano Uffizi.jpg|thumb|''[[The Battle of San Romano]]'' by [[Paolo Uccello]] (ca. 1438–40).]] Mu nyengo yakwambilira ya muwuso wa Renaissance, ŵanthu ŵakarwanga nkhondo pa mtunda na pa nyanja. Pa caru capasi, nkhondo izi zikacitikanga na ŵasilikari ŵakucemeka condottieri, ŵasilikari awo ŵakafuma mu vyaru vya ku Europe, comenecomene ku Germany na Switzerland. Ŵasilikari aŵa ŵakakhumbanga yayi kuŵika umoyo wawo pangozi, ntheura nkhondo yikamba kuŵa yakuzingilizga, ndipo ŵakachitanga waka vinthu vinyake. Kweniso ŵasilikari awo ŵakagwiranga nchito pa vigaŵa vyose viŵiri ŵakakhumbanga kuti nkhondo yileke kumara. Kweniso ŵantchito awo ŵakagwiranga nchito na ŵasilikari ŵakaŵasuzganga comene. Para vyawoneka kuti boma ndakuthemba comene pa ŵasilikari ŵa nkhondo, ŵasilikari aŵa ŵakayezgekanga comene kuti ŵacitenge ŵekha vinthu. Ku nyanja, misumba ya ku Italy yikatumanga ŵasilikari ŵanandi ku nkhondo. Ŵalwani ŵakwamba ŵakaŵa Pisa, Genoa, na Venice, kweni ŵati ŵambana kwa nyengo yitali, Ŵagenuwa ŵakamazga nkhondo iyi. Venesia wakaŵa mulwani wankhongono comene, ndipo apo ufumu wa Genoese ukakhiranga mu vyaka vya m'ma 1500, msumba uwu ukaŵa na mazaza pa nyanja. Pakuzgora ku kofya kufuma ku vigaŵa vyakutali, kwamba kuuyambiro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1500, Venice wakamba kukhumba chomene kuwusa malo agha apo nyengo ya kuwuka kwa Ŵ Venetian yikambanga. Pa caru capasi, Florence, Milan, na Venice ndiwo ŵakaŵa ŵankhongono comene pa nkhondo izo zikacitika kwa vyaka vinandi, ndipo maufumu ghatatu agha ghakaleka mphindano zawo na kuzomerezga Mtende wa Lodi mu 1454. Mtende uwu ukatora vilimika 40, ndipo cifukwa cakuti Venice ndiyo yikaŵa na mazaza pa nyanja, mu vilimika vyose vya m'ma 1500, kukaŵa mtende. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1400, ŵanthu ŵakwendakwenda nga ni Niccolò Da Conti (1395-1469) ŵakaluta ku vyaru vya kumwera kwa Asia na kuwerako. ===Italian Wars=== [[File:Habsburg Map 1547.jpg|thumbnail|Italy and the [[Habsburg Empire]] in 1547.]] Nkhondo za ku Italy zikamba mu 1494 apo charu cha France chikapoka charu cha Italy. Nkhondo iyi yikamba chifukwa cha mphindano pakati pa ufumu wa Milan na Ufumu wa Naples. Themba la Ufumu wa Roma, Charles V, likathereska Ŵaciroma pa Nkhondo ya ku Pavia (1525) kweniso pa Nkhondo ya Cognac (1526-30). Paumaliro, pamasinda pa nkhondo zinandi izo zikaŵa zambura umaliro, mu 1559, ku Cateau-Cambrésis, France likapangana kuti lileke kukolerana na ivyo likayowoyanga. Mu 1499, Ŵaturuki ŵakaparanya chigaŵa chikuru cha Venice (kweni msumba wura yayi), ndipo mu 1509 ŵa League of Cambrai ŵakambaso kuwukira na kupoka vinthu. Mu 1528, misumba yinandi ya Apulia na Abbruzzi yikaŵa kuti yapokeka. Cinthu ciheni comene ico cikacitika pa Meyi 6, 1527, apo ŵasilikari ŵa ku Germany ŵakacimbizga msumba wa Roma. Nyengo yitali iyo Florence yikazingilizgika (1529-1530) yikapangiska kuti mizi iyo yikaŵa kufupi na msumba uwu yiparanyike, malonda ghake ghakutumizga vyakurya ku vyaru vinyake ghatimbanizgike, ndipo ŵanthu ŵakayora chuma chawo. Ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga mu matawuni gha ku Italy ŵakakhira na hafu. Makampani agho ghakapanganga weya na silika mu Lombardy ghakawa apo ŵasilikari ŵaheni ŵakaparanya vyakulimira vyawo. Ŵasilikari aŵa ŵakakwiya comene cifukwa cakuti ŵakawotcha caru.<ref>John Julius Norwich, ''The Italians: History, Art and the Genius of a People'' (1983) p 165-66.</ref> == Kufuma ku Nkhondo ya ku Kananizgako Chikhristu Mpaka ku Nkhondo ya Napoleon == {{Main|History of Italy (1559–1814)}} [[File:Doktorschnabel 430px.jpg|thumb|upright|150px|[[Plague doctor]] attire for protection from the Black death, Rome, 1656.]] Mdauko wa Italy pamanyuma pa mtende wa Cateau-Cambrésis ukaŵa wa ŵanthu ŵakufuma ku vyaru vinyake. Kumpoto kukaŵa ufumu wa Austrian Habsburgs, ndipo kumwera kukaŵa ufumu wa Spain. Pamanyuma pa nkhondo za ku Europe za m'ma 1700, kumwera kukaŵa kwa ŵa Bourbon ŵa ku Spain ndipo kumpoto kukaŵa kwa nyumba ya Habsburg-Lorraine. Mu nyengo ya Napoleon, caru ca Italy cikapokeka na caru ca France ndipo cikagaŵikana mu vyaru vinandi. Pa ungano wa ku Vienna (1814), vinthu vikaŵa nga umo vikaŵira kuumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1800, kweni vikasinthika mwaluŵiro chifukwa cha umoza wa Italy. Chuma cha ku Italy chikamba kunangika mu vyaka vya m'ma 1600 na 1700. Pakati pajumpha vyaka 1600, vinthu vikamba kunangika mu Italy. Mu 1600, cigaŵa ca kumpoto na ca pakati pa Italy cikaŵa cimoza mwa vigaŵa vya ku Europe ivyo vikaŵa na mafakitale ghanandi. Ŵanthu ŵakakhalanga makora chomene. Kuzakafika mu 1870, caru ca Italy cikaŵa cakulopwa comene pa nkhani ya vya cuma. Nkhondo, kugaŵikana kwa ndyali, unandi wa ndalama izo ŵanthu ŵakugwiliskira nchito, na kusintha kwa malonda gha caru cose kuya ku mpoto ca kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Europe na America, vikaŵa vyakuzirwa comene.<ref>Carlo M. Cipolla, “The Decline of Italy: The Case of a Fully Matured Economy.” abFZxxxx ''Economic History Review'' 5#2 1952, pp. 178–187. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2591055 online]</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Baten, Jörg |title=A History of the Global Economy. From 1500 to the Present.|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781107507180 |date=2016|publisher=Cambridge University Press|page=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781107507180/page/45 45]|isbn=9781107507180}}</ref> ===17th century=== [[File:Piazza Mercatello durante la peste del 1656 - Spadaro.jpg|thumb|230px|left|Contemporary engraving of Naples during the [[Naples Plague]] in 1656]] Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1700, vinthu vikasintha comene mu Italy. Vinthu ivi vikaŵa nga ni nkhongono za Papa izo zikasazgikira mu caru ici ndiposo umo Tchalitchi la Katolika likacitira pa nyengo iyo pakaŵa kusintha kwa visopa. Nangauli ku Italy kukaŵa vinthu vinandi ivyo ŵanthu ŵakumanya vya sayansi na luso, nga ni ivyo Galileo wakabowozga pa nkhani ya sayansi ya vya mu mlengalenga na sayansi ya vinthu vyakuthupi. Nangauli ku Italy kukafuma ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakasanda malo nga ni Christopher Columbus, Amerigo Vespucci, na Giovanni da Verrazzano, kweni ŵanthu ŵakasanga malo ghanyake ghapachanya chomene mu charu ichi. Kweniso, cifukwa cakuti Spain yikacitako Nkhondo ya Vyaka Makumi Ghatatu (1618-48), iyo yikagwiliskirika nchito na misonkho iyo yikaŵa pa malo ghake gha ku Italy, yikapangiska kuti malonda na vyakurya vya ku Italy vileke kwenda makora. Nthenda iyi yikathandazgaso mu Italy. Nthenda ya muliri iyo yikawira kumpoto kwa Italy mu 1630, chomenechomene ku Milan na Venice, yikakoma ŵanthu pafupifupi 1 miliyoni. Nthenda ya muliri ya mu 1656 yikakoma ŵanthu pafupifupi 43 peresenti mu Ufumu wa Naples. Ŵanthu ŵakumanya mdauko ŵakugomezga kuti kuchepa kwa unandi wa ŵanthu mu misumba ya ku Italy ndiko kukachitiska kuti caru ici cileke kuŵa malo ghakurughakuru gha malonda na ndyali. Kuyana na umo ŵanthu ŵakughanaghanira, mu 1500 GDP ya Italy yikaŵa 106% ya GDP ya France, kweni mu 1700 yikaŵa 75% pera.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Maddison|first1=Angus|title=Contours of the World Economy, 1–2030 AD: Essays in Macro-Economic History|url=https://archive.org/details/contoursworldeco00madd|url-access=limited|date=2007|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|isbn=978-0-19-922720-4|page=[https://archive.org/details/contoursworldeco00madd/page/n393 379], table A.4|edition=1st}}</ref> ===18th century=== [[File:Battle of Bitonto by Giovanni Luigi Rocco.jpg|thumb|The [[Battle of Bitonto]] by Giovanni Luigi Rocco]] Nkhondo ya ku Spain (1701-1714) yikamba cifukwa ca nyifwa ya fumu yaumaliro ya ku Spain, Charles II, uyo wakapeleka chiharo chose ku fumu ya ku Spain, Philip, Duke of Anjou. Pakuwona kuti caru ca France cili na mazaza pa vyaru vinandi vya ku Europe, ku The Hague kukalembeka phangano la Grand Alliance pakati pa Austria, England, Republic of the Netherlands, na vyaru vinyake ivyo vikaŵa na mazaza ghacoko. Wupu uwu ukathereska "Party of the Two Crowns" ya ku France na Spain, ndipo pa phangano la Utrecht na Rastatt, caru ca Italy (Milan, Naples na Sardinia) cikapelekeka ku Austria kufuma ku Spain. Ndipouli, Spain wakayezgaso kutora malo mu Italy na kupoka ufumu wa France mu Nkhondo ya Quadruple Alliance (1718-1720), kweni wakathereskeka. Chifukwa cha phangano la Hague, Spain wakazomera kuleka ivyo Italy yikakhumbanga, apo Duke Victor Amadeus II wa ku Savoy wakazomera kusinthiska Sicily na Austria, na kutorako cirwa ca Sardinia, ndipo pamanyuma pake wakacemeka Themba la Sardinia. Ŵasilikari ŵa ku Spain ŵakapoka Naples na Sicily pamanyuma pa Nkhondo ya Bitonto mu 1738. ===Age of Napoleon=== [[File:Italia 1796-en.svg|thumb|left|Italy before the Napoleonic invasion (1796).]] {{Further|Italian campaigns of the French Revolutionary Wars}} At the end of the 18th century, Italy was almost in the same political conditions as in the 16th century; the main differences were that [[Austria]] had replaced Spain as the dominant foreign power after the [[War of Spanish Succession]] (though the [[War of the Polish Succession]] resulted in the re-installment of the Spanish in the south, as the [[House of Bourbon-Two Sicilies]]), and that the dukes of [[Savoy]] (a mountainous region between Italy and France) had become kings of [[Sardinia]] by increasing their Italian possessions, which now included Sardinia and the north-western region of [[Piedmont]]. This situation was shaken in 1796, when the French [[Army of Italy (France)|Army of Italy]] under [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon]] invaded Italy, with the aims of forcing the [[First Coalition]] to abandon [[Sardinia]] (still in the hands of the Coalition [[Kingdom of Sardinia (1720–1861)|Kingdom of Sardinia]]) and forcing Austria to withdraw from Italy. The first battles came on 9 April, between the French and the Piedmontese, and within only two weeks [[Victor Amadeus III of Sardinia]] was forced to sign an armistice. On 15 May the French general then entered Milan, where he was welcomed as a liberator. Subsequently, beating off Austrian counterattacks and continuing to advance, he arrived in the [[Veneto]] in 1797. Here occurred the [[Veronese Easters]], an act of rebellion against French oppression, that tied down Napoleon for about a week. [[File:Manin's abdication.jpg|thumb|A portrait painting the [[fall of the Republic of Venice]] (1797): the abdication of the last [[Doge of Venice|Doge]], [[Ludovico Manin]]]] Napoleon wakathereska vigaŵa vinandi vya Italy mu zina la French Revolution mu 1797-99. Wakasazgirako maboma ghakale na kugaŵira maboma gha Austria. Wakambiska vyaru vinyake ivyo vikaŵa na malango ghaphya na kuwuskapo wanangwa wa ŵanthu. Ufumu wa Cisalpine wa Napoleon ukaŵa ku Milan. Msumba wa Genoa ukazgoka charu cha Jamhuri, ndipo chigaŵa chake chikazgoka charu cha Liguria. Boma la Romu likapangika kufuma pa vinthu ivyo vikaŵa vya papa apo papa wakatumika ku France. Boma la Naples likaŵa pafupi na Naples, kweni likakhalako myezi yinkhondi pera pambere ŵasilikari ŵa vyaru vinyake ŵandaliwukire. Mu 1805, wakambiska ufumu wa Italy, ndipo iyo wakaŵa fumu ndipo mwana wake waciŵiri wakaŵa mwimiliri. Kweniso, caru ca France cikapangiska kuti caru ca Netherlands ciŵe ca Batavian Republic, ndipo ca Switzerland cikazgoka ca Helvetic Republic. Vyaru vyose ivi vikaŵa vyakulongozgeka na France, ndipo vikeneranga kupeleka ndalama zinandi ku Paris, kweniso kovwira nkhondo za Napoleon. Ndyali na maboma gha mu vyaru ivi ghakaŵa ghaphya, ndipo ŵakamba kugwiliskira ntchito nthowa ya metric. Ŵayuda ŵakaleka kukhala mu misasa ya ŵanthu awo ŵakasopanga ŵangoza. Belgium na Piedmont vikazgoka vigaŵa vya France.<ref>Alexander Grab, ''Napoleon and the Transformation of Europe'' (2003) pp 62–65, 78–79, 88–96, 115–17, 154–59</ref> [[File:Italy c 1810.png|thumb|left|Political map of Italy in the years around 1810]] Mu 1805, pamanyuma pakuti France yawina nkhondo ya Third Coalition na kukolerana na boma la Pressburg, Napoléon wakapoka malo gha Veneto na Dalmatia, ndipo wakaghaŵika mu ufumu wa Italy. Mu chaka chenechicho, boma laciŵiri, la Ligurian Republic (ilo likaŵa laciŵiri kwa Republic of Genoa), likakanizgika kuti lijibatane na France. Mu 1806, wakathereska ufumu wa Naples na kuwupeleka kwa munung'una wake ndipo kufuma apo (kufuma mu 1808) kwa Joachim Murat, pamoza na kutolera ŵadumbu ŵake Elisa na Paolina ku ŵakaronga ŵa Massa-Carrara na Guastalla. Mu 1808, wakasazgirako Marche na Tuscany ku Ufumu wa Italy. Mu 1809, Bonaparte wakawukira Rome, cifukwa ca mphindano na papa, uyo wakamufumiska mu mpingo, ndiposo kuti wasungilire boma lake, wakathemba Papa wakwamba ku Savona ndipo pamanyuma ku France. Pamanyuma pa Russia, vyaru vinyake vya ku Europe vikakolerana na kuthereska Napoleon pa Nkhondo ya ku Leipzig, ndipo pamanyuma pake vyaru vya Italy ivyo vikaŵa ŵabwezi ŵake, pamoza na Murat, vikamuleka kuti waŵe mubwezi wa Austria. Pakuti wakathereskeka pa nkhondo ya ku Paris pa Epulero 6, 1814, Napoléon wakaleka ufumu wake ndipo wakatumika ku Elba. Pa ungano wa ku Vienna (1814), vinthu vikaŵa nga umo vikaŵira mu 1795, ndipo Italy yikagaŵikana pakati pa Austria (ku mpoto ca kumafumiro gha dazi na Lombardy), Ufumu wa Sardinia, Ufumu wa Sicily (ku mpoto na Sicily), na Tuscany, Papal States na vyaru vinyake vichoko. Ndipouli, maufumu ghakale nga ni Venice na Genoa ghakaŵavya, Venice ghakaŵa gha Austria, ndipo Genoa ghakaŵa gha Ufumu wa Sardinia.[[File:Flag of Repubblica Cispadana1.jpg|thumb|upright|Flag of the [[Cispadane Republic]], which was the first [[Flag of Italy|Italian tricolour]] adopted by a sovereign Italian state (1797)]] Apo Napoléon wakacimbira na kuwelera ku France (mazuŵa 100), wakapokaso wovwiri wa Murat, kweni Murat wakatondeka kukhorweska Ŵataliyani kuti ŵarwe na Napoléon. Ntheura maufumu gha ku Italy ghakawa, ndipo nyengo ya kuwuskako ufumu wa Italy yikamba. Piedmont, Genoa, na Nice vikaŵa pamoza, nga ni Sardinia (iyo yikapangiska Savoy), apo Lombardy, Veneto, Istria, na Dalmatia vikaŵaso ku Austria. Ŵaduki ŵa ku Parma na Modena ŵakambaso kuwusa, ndipo Ufumu wa Papal na wa Naples ukawelera ku ufumu wa Bourbon. Vinthu vya ndyali na vyakuthupi ivyo vikacitika mu nyengo ya kuwuskako ufumu wa Italy (1815-1835) vikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵambuke mu caru cose ca Italy. Vyose ivi vikapangiska kuti Ufumu uphya wa Italy uŵeko. Frederick Artz wakadidimizgapo uwemi uwo Ŵaitaliya ŵakasanga cifukwa ca Nkhondo ya ku France: :Kwa vilimika pafupifupi makumi ghaŵiri, ŵanthu ŵa ku Italy ŵakaŵa na malango ghawemi comene, msonkho wakwenelera, vinthu vikaŵayenderanga makora pa vya cuma, kweniso ŵakaŵa ŵakupulikira comene pa nkhani za cisopa na vinjeru.... Ku vigaŵa vyose, mphindano zauzimu, za cuma, na zauzimu zikaŵa kuti zalekeka ndipo Ŵacitaliya ŵakamanya kuti ŵali na caru cimoza..<ref>Frederick B. Artz, ''Reaction and Revolution: 1814–1832 '' (1934) pp 142–43</ref> Mu nyengo ya Napoleon, mu 1797, boma la Italy la Cispadane, ilo likaŵa na mazaza pa caru cose, likamba kutolera ndembera ya ku Italy. Zuŵa ili likucemeka kuti Zuŵa la Tricolour. Mu 1789, ŵakalembapo maluŵa gha ku Italy agho ghakaŵa na mitundu yitatu.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Tarozzi|first1=Fiorenza|last2=Vecchio|first2=Giorgio |title=Gli italiani e il tricolore|year=1999|publisher=Il Mulino|language=it|isbn=88-15-07163-6|pages=67–68}}</ref> ==Unification (1814–1861)== {{Main|Italian unification}} [[File:Italian-unification.gif|thumb|Animated map of the Italian unification from 1829 to 1871]] The ''[[Risorgimento]]'' was the political and social process that unified different states of the [[Italian peninsula]] into the single nation of Italy. It is difficult to pin down exact dates for the beginning and end of Italian reunification, but most scholars agree that it began with the end of [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleonic]] rule and the [[Congress of Vienna]] in 1815, and approximately ended with the [[Franco-Prussian War]] in 1871, though the last [[irredentism|"città irredente"]] did not join the [[Kingdom of Italy]] until the Italian victory in [[World War I]]. As Napoleon's reign began to fail, other national monarchs he had installed tried to keep their thrones by feeding those nationalistic sentiments, setting the stage for the revolutions to come. Among these monarchs was the viceroy of Italy, [[Eugène de Beauharnais]], who tried to get Austrian approval for his succession to the Kingdom of Italy, and [[Joachim Murat]], who called for Italian patriots' help for the unification of Italy under his rule.<ref>{{cite web |year=1815 |title=Proclamation of Rimini |url=http://www.regione.piemonte.it/cultura/risorgimento/immagine/00402.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080126164906/http://www.regione.piemonte.it/cultura/risorgimento/immagine/00402.htm |archive-date=26 January 2008 |access-date=21 February 2008}}</ref> Following the defeat of Napoleonic France, the [[Congress of Vienna]] (1815) was convened to redraw the European continent. In Italy, the Congress restored the pre-Napoleonic patchwork of independent governments, either directly ruled or strongly influenced by the prevailing European powers, particularly Austria. [[File:Garibaldi (1866).jpg|150px|thumb|left|[[Giuseppe Garibaldi]], celebrated as one of the greatest generals of modern times<ref name="scholar and patriot">{{cite web |url={{Google books|iWK7AAAAIAAJ |page=PA133 |keywords=Garibaldi+one+of+the+greatest+generals+of+modern+time |text= |plainurl=yes}}|title=Scholar and Patriot|publisher=Manchester University Press|via=Google Books}}</ref> and as the "Hero of the Two Worlds",<ref name="Garibaldi on Encyclopædia Britannica">{{cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/225978/Giuseppe-Garibaldi |title=Giuseppe Garibaldi (Italian revolutionary) |access-date=6 March 2014 | url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140226091529/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/225978/Giuseppe-Garibaldi |archive-date=26 February 2014 }}</ref> who commanded and fought in many military campaigns that led to Italian unification.]] [[File:Giuseppe Mazzini.jpg|thumb|150px|left|[[Giuseppe Mazzini]], highly influential leader of the Italian revolutionary movement.]] Mu 1820, ŵanthu ŵa ku Spain ŵakagaluka cifukwa ca kususkana na boma lawo. Pakulongozgeka na ŵa Spain (awo mu 1812, ŵakapanga dango lawo), gulu la ŵasilikari ŵa Ufumu wa Sicily ŵaŵiri, ilo likalongozgekanga na Guglielmo Pepe, Carbonaro (munthu wa mu gulu lakubisika la Republican), likagaluka, ndipo likathereska chigaŵa cha Sicily. Themba Ferdinand I likazomera kuti paŵe dango liphya. Ndipouli, ŵanthu ŵakakolerana nawo yayi ndipo ŵasilikari ŵa Austria ŵakathereskeka. Ferdinand wakawuskapo dango la boma ndipo wakamba kutambuzga ŵanthu awo ŵakamanyikwanga kuti ŵakugaluka. Mu vyaka vyakulondezgapo, ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakakolerana na kusintha kwa vinthu ku Sicily, kusazgapo msambiri Michele Amari, ŵakacimbizgika. Mulongozgi wa gulu la ku Piedmont ilo likawukira boma la Italy mu 1821, wakaŵa Santorre di Santarosa, uyo wakakhumbanga kuwuskapo Ŵaciotiriya na kuwunganya Italy pasi pa nyumba ya Savoy. Nkhondo ya ku Piedmont yikambira ku Alessandria, uko ŵasilikari ŵakamba kuvwara vikhuni vyakututuŵa, vyambura kufipirwa, na vyakututuŵa. Themba Charles Albert, ilo likaŵa mulara wa ŵasilikari, likakhazikiska dango liphya kuti likondweske ŵasilikari. Kweni themba likati lawerako, likakana dango ili ndipo likapempha wovwiri ku wupu wa Holy Alliance. Ŵasilikari ŵa Di Santarosa ŵakathereskeka, ndipo munthu uyo wakakhumbanga kuzgoka wasinthusi wakacimbilira ku Paris. Pa nyengo iyo, ŵanthu ŵakaghanaghananga kuti nkhondo ya kuwunganya caru ca Italy yikaŵa yakwimikana comene na Ufumu wa Austria na mbumba ya Habsburgs, cifukwa ŵakalongozganga kumpoto kwa Italy uko ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakayowoyanga Citaliyana. Ufumu wa Austria ukakanizga mtima wa kutemwera caru uwo ukakuranga mu caru ca Italy, kweniso mu vigaŵa vinyake vya ufumu wa Habsburg. Franz Metternich, uyo wakaŵa mulara wa boma la Austria, ndipo wakaŵa na mazaza pa ungano wa ku Vienna, wakayowoya kuti zina lakuti Italy ni "mazgu ghakung'anamura malo". Kweniso ŵanthu ŵakamba kutemwana chomene na mtundu wawo, ndipo panji ntchito yakumanyikwa chomene iyo ŵanthu ŵakutemwa chomene mtundu wawo ni I Promessi Sposi ya Alessandro Manzoni. Ŵanyake ŵakuwona kuti buku ili likususka waka muwuso wa Austria. Buku ili likalembeka mu 1827, ndipo mu vyaka vyakulondezgapo likasintha chomene. Mu Baibolo la 1840 la I Promessi Sposi, ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito chiyowoyero cha Tuscan, icho chikaŵa chiyowoyero icho mulembi wakakhumbanga kuti ŵanthu ŵasambire. Awo ŵakakolerana na umoza uwu ŵakasuskika na Tchalitchi la Katolika, chomenechomene ŵakati ŵayezgayezga kuti ŵaŵe mu wupu wa Papal States. Pa nyengo iyo, papa Pius IX wakafipanga mtima kuti para waleka mazaza ghake mu cigaŵa ici, Ŵakatolika ŵa ku Italy ŵazamutambuzgika. Nanga ni awo ŵakakhumbanga kuti caru cose ciŵe cimoza, ŵakakolerana yayi umo boma ili licitirenge. Vincenzo Gioberti, wasembe wa ku Piedmont, wakakhumbanga kuti caru cose ca Italy ciŵe pasi pa muwuso wa Papa. Buku lake lakuti, Of the Moral and Civil Primacy of the Italians, likafuma mu 1843. Ŵalongozgi ŵanandi ŵakakhumbanga kuti mu Italy muŵe boma la ŵanthu wose, kweni paumaliro, themba na nduna yikuru ndiyo ŵakaŵa na mazaza ghakukolerana na ŵamazaza ŵa mu Italy.[[File:Image-Inno di Mameli 2.jpg|thumb|[[Holograph]]ic copy of 1847 of ''[[Il Canto degli Italiani]]'', the Italian [[national anthem]] since 1946]] Gulu linyake la ŵanthu awo ŵakakhumbanga kusintha vinthu likaŵa la Carbonari (awo ŵakawotchanga makala), gulu lakubisika ilo likapangika kumwera kwa Italy kukwambilira kwa m'ma 1800. Gulu ili likafuma mu gulu la ŵanthu ŵakufuma mu magulu gha pakati na ŵavinjeru. Pamanyuma pakuti ungano wa ku Vienna wagaŵa chigaŵa cha Italy pakati pa maufumu gha ku Europe, gulu la Carbonari likasazgikira mu caru ca Papal States, Ufumu wa Sardinia, Grand Duchy of Tuscany, Duchy of Modena, na Ufumu wa Lombardy-Venetia. Ŵalwani aŵa ŵakaŵawopanga comene mwakuti ŵamazaza ŵakapeleka dango lakuti waliyose uyo wakwiza ku maungano gha Carbonari wakomeke. Ndipouli, wupu uwu ukalutilira kuŵako ndipo ndiwo ukambiska masuzgo ghanandi gha ndyali mu Italy kwambira mu 1820 m'paka apo caru cikaŵa pamoza. Gulu la Carbonari likadumura kuti Napoleon III wakomeke cifukwa ca kutondeka kukolerana na Italy, ndipo likakhala pacoko kuti limukome mu 1858. Ŵalongozgi ŵanandi ŵa gulu ili ŵakaŵa mu gulu ili. (Manyani kuti: Apo wakaŵa muwukirano, Napoleon III wakarwanga ku chigaŵa cha 'Carbonari.') Pa nyengo iyi, mu 1847, sumu ya Il Canto degli Italiani, iyo yikaŵa sumu ya fuko la Italy kwambira mu 1946, yikamba kwimbika pa wumba. Il Canto degli Italiani, yakulembeka na Goffredo Mameli na kwimbika na Michele Novaro, yikumanyikwaso na zina lakuti Inno di Mameli, kufuma pa mazgu gha uyo wakalemba sumu iyi, panji Fratelli d'Italia, kufuma pa mazgu ghakwamba.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Maiorino |first1=Tarquinio|last2=Marchetti Tricamo|first2=Giuseppe |last3=Zagami |first3=Andrea |title=Il tricolore degli italiani. Storia avventurosa della nostra bandiera|year=2002 |publisher=Arnoldo Mondadori Editore|language=it|isbn=978-88-04-50946-2|page=18}}</ref>[[File:Statuto fondamentale del regno.pdf|page=27|thumb|left|[[Victor Emmanuel II of Italy|Victor Emmanuel II]] assumes the title of [[king of Italy]] with the [[Proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy|law n. 4671 of 17 March 1861 of the Kingdom of Sardinia]], that sanctioned the birth of the unified [[Kingdom of Italy]]]] Ŵanthu ŵaŵiri ŵakumanyikwa comene awo ŵakacitanga vinthu mwakutalulira mu gulu ili ŵakaŵa Giuseppe Mazzini na Giuseppe Garibaldi. Ŵanthu awo ŵakalondezganga fundo za boma lakwamba ŵakaŵa Count of Cavour na Victor Emmanuel II, uyo pamasinda wakaŵa fumu yakwamba ya Italy. Mazzini wakajalirika mu jele chifukwa cha ivyo wakacitanga. Apo wakaŵa mu jere, wakawona kuti caru ca Italy cingaŵa cakukolerana ndipo wakalemba pulogiramu yake ya kukhazikiska caru cakufwatuka, cakukolerana na boma la Roma. Mazzini wakati wafuma mu jele mu 1831, wakaluta ku Marseille, uko wakambiska gulu liphya la ndyali lakucemeka La Giovine Italia. Gulu liphya ili likaŵa na mazgu ghakuti "Chiuta na Ŵanthu", ndipo likakhumbanga kuti Italy wakoleranenge. Ufumu wa Italy ukaŵako cifukwa ca kuyezgayezga kwa ŵanthu ŵa ku Italy awo ŵakakolerananga na nyumba ya Savoy. Ufumu wa Sardinia ukaŵa wa vyamalonda kwambira mu 1830. Dango lakwamba, la Statuto Albertino, likapelekeka mu 1848, mu chaka icho kukaŵa viwawa. Pa nyengo yeneyira, ŵasilikari ŵa Austria nawo ŵakamba nkhondo yakwamba ya ku Italy. Nkhondo iyi yikati yamara, vinthu vikasintha ndipo ufumu wa Sardinia ukathera. Garibaldi, uyo wakababikira mu msumba wa Nice (uyo panyengo iyo ukaŵa ku Ufumu wa Sardinia), wakacitako chigaluka mu Piedmont mu 1834, ndipo wakeruzgika kuti wakomeke. Wakakhalako vyaka 14, ndipo wakachitako nkhondo zinandi. Pamanyuma pa Nkhondo za 1848, mulongozgi wa gulu ilo likakhumbanga kuti caru ca Italy ciŵe cimoza wakaŵa Giuseppe Garibaldi. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Italy ŵakamutemwanga comene. Garibaldi ndiyo wakalongozganga gulu la ku Italy ilo likakhumbanga kuti caru cose ciŵe cimoza, kweni ufumu wa kumpoto kwa Italy wa nyumba ya Savoy mu ufumu wa Piedmont-Sardinia uwo ukalongozgekanga na Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour, nawo ŵakakhumbanga kukhazikiska boma la Italy. Nangauli ufumu uwu ukaŵa kuti ulije kukolerana na ufumu wa Roma (uwo ukaŵa msumba ukuru wa Italy), kweni ukalimbana na Austria mu Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya ku Italy. Kuyana na phangano la Plombières, ufumu wa Sardinia ukapeleka Savoy na Nice ku France, ndipo ici cikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Niçard ŵafumemo mu caru cawo. Ufumu uwu ukaŵa na mabungwe ghakuzirwa agho ghakawovwira kuti Italy wambe kukolerana, nga ni Britain na France mu Nkhondo ya ku Crimea. Mu 1871, Giuseppe Garibaldi wakasankhika kuŵa mulara wa boma ku Nice, uko wakayezga kukhozgera kuti msumba wake uŵe chigaŵa cha Italy, kweni ŵakamukanira kuyowoya. Cifukwa ca kukana, pakati pa 1871 na 1872 kukaŵa vivulupi mu msumba wa Nice, ivyo vikaciskika na Garibaldini ndipo vikacemekanga "Niçard Vespers", ivyo vikakhumbanga kuti msumba uwu na vigaŵa vyake viŵikike mu Italy. Ŵanthu 15 ŵa ku Nice awo ŵakacitako cigaluka ici ŵakeruzgika.<ref>Giuseppe André, ''Nizza negli ultimi quattro anni'', Nice, Editore Gilletta, 1875, pp. 334-335 (In Italian).</ref> ===Southern question and Italian diaspora=== {{See also|Brigandage in Southern Italy after 1861|Italian diaspora}} [[File:Carmine Crocco1.jpg|thumb|150px|[[Carmine Crocco]]]] Kumwera kwa charu ichi (Mezzogiorno) vinthu vikenda makora yayi. Mulimo wa kuwunganya na kusinthiska vinthu ukapangiska kuti kumpoto na kumwera kwa Italy kuŵe kugaŵikana. Ŵanthu ŵakasuskanga vyaru vya kumwera kuti ni "vyakukhalira kumanyuma" ndiposo vyautesi, kweni nadi, pakuyaniska na vyaru vya kumpoto kwa Italy, "uko kukaŵa kukhalira kumanyuma, nyengo zose kukaŵanga vinthu vinyake ivyo vikawovwiranga". Mbunenesko kuti pakeneranga kuŵa vifukwa vyakupulikikwa vyakupatulira kumwera nga umo vikaŵira na Italy. Chigaŵa chose cha kumwera kwa Naples chikaŵa na masuzgo ghanandi gha vyachuma na gha ŵanthu. Ndipouli, masuzgo ghanandi gha ndyali gha ku South na lumbiri lwake lwa kuŵa "wakukhazikika" panji wauleŵi (kuyana na ndyali) ghakaŵako cifukwa ca boma liphya (ilo likababika cifukwa ca kukhumba kuti caru ca Italy ciŵe cakukhora) ilo likapatuska ŵanthu ŵa ku South na kuŵakanizga kuyowoyapo pa nkhani zakuzirwa. Ndipouli, vinthu vikaŵa vyakusuzga, dongo likaŵa lambura vipambi vinandi, nkhorongo yikakhalanga makora yayi, makampani ghanandi ghakakhalanga waka pa malo ghake chifukwa cha msonkho ukuru, malo ghakuru ghakaŵa ghambura kulongozgeka makora, ŵalimi ŵanandi ŵakaŵa na malo ghacoko comene, kweniso kukaŵa ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵambura nchito kweniso ucigeŵenga.<ref name="Roland Sarti 2004 pp 567">Roland Sarti, ''Italy: A Reference Guide from the Renaissance to the Present'' (2004) pp 567–568</ref> [[File:Map of the Italian Diaspora in the World.svg|thumb|left|upright=1.4|Map of the [[Italian diaspora]] in the world]] [[File:Émigration italienne par régions 1876-1915.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.4|Emigration of Italians from 1876 to 1915]] Cavour wakaghanaghana kuti suzgo likuru likaŵa boma liheni, ndipo wakagomezganga kuti lingamazgikaso para malango gha ku Piedmont ghangalondezga. Ici cikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵambe kunanga vinthu, ndipo ici cikapangiska kuti paŵe nkhondo iyo yikatora vilimika pafupifupi 10. Nkhondo iyi yikafika paheni comene comene ku Basilicata na kumpoto kwa Apulia, ndipo yikalongozgekanga na Carmine Crocco na Michele Caruso. Nkhondo ya ku South America yikati yamara, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Italy ŵakaluta ku United States na South America. Ŵanyake ŵakasamira ku misumba ya kumpoto ya vyamalonda nga ni Genoa, Milan, na Turin, ndipo ŵakatumizga ndalama kukwawo. Ŵanthu ŵakwambilira ŵa ku Italy awo ŵakasamira ku vyaru vinyake ŵakamba kuzingilizga charu cha Italy mu 1880, vyaka 20 pamanyuma pakuti charu ichi chazakaŵa pamoza. Ukavu ukaŵa cifukwa cikuru ico ŵanthu ŵakasamukiranga ku vyaru vinyake, comenecomene cifukwa ca kusoŵerwa kwa malo. Mu chigaŵa cha kumwera kwa Italy vinthu vikaŵa makora yayi. M'paka m'ma 1860 m'paka m'ma 1950, chigaŵa chikuru cha Italy chikaŵa ku mizi ndipo chikaŵa na matawuni ghachoko waka. Cinthu cinyake ico cikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakhalenge mu vigaŵa vya kumwera kwa Italy, nchakuti vinthu vikamba kwenda makora pa umoyo wa ŵanthu. Ici cikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵambe kusama ndipo cikapangiska kuti miwiro yiphya yisame mu vyaru vinandi kuumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1800 na kukwambilira kwa vyaka vya m'ma 1900, comenecomene ku America. Kusama kwa ndalama kukapangiska kuti pa caru cose paŵe nchito zinandi za ŵanthu ŵambura maluso ndipo kukacitiska kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Italy ŵasamire mu vyaru vinyake kuti ŵagure "ganyu na cingwa".<ref>{{cite book| last1=Pozzetta|first1=George E.|title=Pane e Lavoro: The Italian American Working Class|date=1980| publisher=Multicultural History Society of Ontorio|location=Toronto}}</ref>[[File:2016 - Vittoriano (Rome) 07.jpg|thumb|upright|One of the two braziers that burn perpetually on the sides of the [[Tomb of the Unknown Soldier (Italy)|tomb of the Italian Unknown Soldier]] at [[Altare della Patria]] in [[Rome]]. At their base there is a plaque bearing the inscription ''Gli italiani all'estero alla Madre Patria'' ("Italians abroad to the Motherland")''.'']] Mu nyengo ya ku Italy, charu ichi chikaŵa na ŵasilikari ŵanandi chomene. Ndipouli, cifukwa ca kupasuka kwa muwuso wa ŵasilikari na kugaŵa malo, ŵalimi ŵacokoŵacoko ŵa kumwera ŵakeneranga yayi kuŵa na malo ghawo panji malo agho ŵangagwirako nchito na kusangapo candulo. Ŵanandi ŵakaŵavya malo, ndipo malo ghakaŵa ghacoko na ghacoko, ndipo ghakaŵa ghambura kupambika makora, cifukwa caru cikagaŵikanga pakati pa ŵahaliri. Pakati pa 1860 na Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Caru Cose, ŵanthu 9 miliyoni ŵa ku Italy ŵakafumapo pa ŵanthu 16 miliyoni awo ŵakaluta ku caru cinyake, ndipo ŵanandi ŵakaluta ku North panji South America. Kafukufuku munyake wakulongora kuti kufuma mu 1876 m'paka 1914, ŵanthu aŵa ŵakakwana 14 miliyoni. Pa ciŵelengero ca ŵanthu awo ŵakafumanga mu caru cawo mu 1876 m'paka 1900, ŵanthu pafupifupi 220,000 ŵakafumanga mu caru ici. Pambere chaka cha 1900 chindafike, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Italy ŵakafumanga kumpoto na pakati pa Italy. Pa ŵanthu wose awo ŵakafuma mu Italy pakati pa 1870 na 1914, ŵanthu ŵaŵiri pa ŵatatu ŵakaŵa ŵanalume awo ŵakaŵa na maluso ghakupambanapambana. Ŵalimi ndiwo ŵakaŵa hafu ya ŵanthu wose awo ŵakafumanga mu vyaru vinyake pambere chaka cha 1896 chindafike. Ŵalendo ŵakalutilira kukhozga ubwezi wawo na caru cawo nanga ni para ŵafuma. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Italy awo ŵakafuma mu vyaru vinyake ŵakapeleka vyawanangwa kuti ŵakazenge Altare della Patria (1885~1935), chigaŵa cha chikumbusko cha Themba Victor Emmanuel II la ku Italy. Ng'anamuro la ntharika ya moto uwo ukubuka kwamuyirayira likukolerana na vimanyikwiro vya moto uwu. Moto uwo ukubuka kwamuyirayira ukulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Italy ŵakukumbuka sembe ya msilikari wambura kumanyikwa na kukolerana na caru cawo.<ref name="fiamma">{{cite web |title=Il mito della "lampada perenne" |url=http://www.toscanaoggi.it/Cultura-Societa/Il-mito-della-lampada-perenne |access-date=12 February 2018 |language=it}}</ref> ==Liberal period (1861–1922)== {{Main|Kingdom of Italy}} {{multiple image | align = left | image1 = VictorEmmanuel2.jpg | width1 = 139 | alt1 = | caption1 = | image2 = Tuminello, Lodovico (1824-1907) - Cavour cropped.jpg | width2 = 158 | alt2 = | caption2 = | footer = [[Victor Emmanuel II of Italy|Victor Emmanuel II]] and [[Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour]], leading figures in the Italian unification, became respectively the [[King of Italy|1st king]] and [[Prime Minister of Italy|1st Prime Minister]] of unified Italy }} Pa 17 Malichi, 1861, caru ca Italy cikazgoka boma la ŵanthu, apo vyaru vinandi vya pa cigaŵa ici vikaŵa pasi pa muwuso wa fumu Victor Emmanuel II wa nyumba ya Savoy, uyo wakalamuliranga Piedmont. Ŵanthu awo ŵakambiska kuti caru ca Italy ciŵe cimoza ŵakaŵa Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour, nduna yikuru ya boma la Victor Emmanuel, na Giuseppe Garibaldi, mulara wa ŵasilikari na munthu wakuzirwa comene. Mu 1866, Otto von Bismarck, nduna yikuru ya ku Prussia, wakaphalira Victor Emmanuel II kuti waŵe mubwezi wa Ufumu wa Prussia. Pakuwezgera, Prussia wakazomerezga Italy kuti wapoke Venice. Themba Emmanuel likazomera ndipo Nkhondo Yachitatu ya ku Italy yikamba. Cifukwa ca kutonda ku Austria, caru ca Italy cikapoka Venice. Cinthu cimoza ico cikapangiska kuti caru ca Italy cileke kukolerana cikaŵa Roma. Mu 1870, caru ca France cikamba nkhondo ya ku France na Prussia ndipo cikawezga ŵasilikari ŵake ku Rome, uko ŵakaleka kuti papa waŵe na mazaza. Italy wakawukira boma la Papa. Ŵakazomerezga kuti caru ca Italy ciŵe cimoza, ndipo msumba ukuru wa caru ici ukafumako ku Florence kuya ku Roma. Vinyake mwa vyaru ivyo vikaŵa vyakuti vinganjira mu ufumu wa Italy (terre irredente), nga ni Trentino-Alto Adige na Julian March, vikaŵamo yayi mu ufumu uwu m'paka mu 1918 apo Italy yikathereska Austria-Hungary mu Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Caru Cose. Pa cifukwa ici, nyengo zinyake awo ŵakulemba mdauko ŵakuyowoya kuti nyengo ya kuwungana yikamara mu 1871, kusazgapo ivyo vikacitika kuumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1800 na Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Caru Cose (1915-1918), ndipo yikamara na phangano la nkhondo la Villa Giusti pa Novembala 4, 1918. Fundo iyi yikulongosoreka makora chomene pa nyengo ya kuwungana kwa Roma.<ref>Arnaldi, Girolamo. ''Italy and Its Invaders.'' Harvard University Press, 2005. p. 194. {{ISBN|0-674-01870-2}}.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.risorgimento.it/index.php?section=museo|title=Museo Centrale del Risorgimento di Roma|website=Istituto per la storia del Risorgimento italiano|access-date=6 July 2018|language=it}}</ref>[[File:Marco Minghetti.jpg|thumb|150px|[[Marco Minghetti]]]] Ku Northern Italy, mulimo wa kupanga vinthu na kuzgora vinthu vinyake kuŵa viphya ukamba kuumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1800. Pa nyengo yeneyira, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakakhalanga ku mizi ya kumwera, ndipo ŵanthu mamiliyoni ghanandi ŵakachimbilira ku vyaru vinyake kukapenja umoyo uwemi. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakuti ŵanthu pafupifupi 1 miliyoni ŵa ku Italy ŵakasamukira ku vyaru vinyake vya ku Europe nga ni France, Switzerland, Germany, Belgium, na Luxembourg, kweniso ku America. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800, boma laparamendi likakura comene. Dango la ku Sardinia ilo likalembeka mu 1848, likapelekaso wanangwa ku ŵanthu wose ŵa mu Ufumu wa Italy mu 1861. Ndyali za ku Italy zikagaŵikana pakati pa magulu ghakupambanapambana gha kumalyero na kumalyero, ivyo vikapangiska kuti maboma ghaŵe mu suzgo. Mu 1876, Minghetti wakataya mazaza ndipo wakasinthika na Agostino Depretis, uyo wakamba kulamulira mu 1880s, kweni wakalutilira kuyezga kukhozga ŵakususka kuti ŵalutilire kuŵa na mazaza. ===Depretis=== [[File:Agostino Depretis.jpg|thumb|right|150px|[[Agostino Depretis]].]] Depretis wakamba uteŵeti wake pakuŵa nduna yikuru mwa kwamba kughanaghana vya ndyali, zina lake Trasformismo. Fundo ya Trasformismo yikaŵa yakuti boma likwenera kusankha ŵandyali ŵakuzika na ŵakwenelera kufuma mu vigaŵa vyambura kupindikana. Depretis wakapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵa mu vigaŵa vyake ŵamuvotere usange ŵakukhumba kuti Depretis waŵawovwire. Mu 1876, pakaŵa ŵimiliri ŵanayi pera awo ŵakasankhika kufuma ku chigaŵa chakumanjiliro. Ŵanthu ŵakugomezga kuti Depretis wakathereskeka cifukwa ca nkharo yake ya nkhaza. Depretis wakathereska ŵanthu ŵankhaza, nga nkhukanizga maungano gha pa wumba, kupeleka ŵanthu "ŵakofya" ku vigaŵa vyakutali mu Italy, na kwendera ndyali. Depretis wakapangiska malango agho ghakaŵa na mphindano pa nyengo iyo, nga nkhulekeska kukakika chifukwa cha ngongoli, kuŵika sukulu ya pulayimale kuti yiŵe yaulere kweniso yakukhumbikwa. Boma lakwamba la Depretis likamara mu 1877 apo wakafumiskanga nduna yake ya mukati. Boma laciŵiri la Depretis likamba mu 1881. Mu 1882, Depretis wakakhumbanga kusazgirako wanangwa wa ŵanthu ŵa ku Italy wa kusankha, kusazgirako misonkho iyo ŵanthu ŵa ku Italy ŵakeneranga kupeleka. Mu 1887, Depretis wakafumiskika pa udindo wake pamanyuma pa vilimika vinandi vya kutondeka kwa ndyali. ===Crispi=== [[File:Francesco Crispi crop.jpg|thumb|150px|left|[[Francesco Crispi]]]] [[Francesco Crispi]] (1818–1901) was Prime Minister for a total of six years, from 1887 until 1891 and again from 1893 until 1896. Historian R.J.B. Bosworth says of his foreign policy that Crispi:<blockquote>Pursued policies whose openly aggressive character would not be equaled until the days of the Fascist regime. Crispi increased military expenditure, talked cheerfully of a European conflagration, and alarmed his German or British friends with his suggestions of preventative attacks on his enemies. His policies were ruinous, both for Italy's trade with France, and, more humiliatingly, for colonial ambitions in East Africa. Crispi's lust for territory there was thwarted when on 1 March 1896, the armies of Ethiopian Emperor Menelik routed Italian forces at Adowa, ... In what has been defined as an unparalleled disaster for a modern army. Crispi, whose private life (he was perhaps a trigamist) and personal finances...were objects of perennial scandal, went into dishonorable retirement.<ref>{{cite book|first=R.J.B.|last=Bosworth|title=Italy and the Wider World: 1860–1960|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VL1vjYQRR-0C&pg=PA29|year=2013|publisher=Routledge|page=29|isbn=978-1-134-78088-4}}</ref></blockquote> [[File:Poster FIAT by Giovanni Carpanetto.png|thumb|140px|1899 [[Fiat|FIAT]] advertisement]] Crispi wakaŵa mu nduna ya Depretis ndipo nyengo yinyake wakaŵa wa Garibaldi. Mu 1887 m'paka 1891, Crispi wakafipiranga mtima chomene kuvikilira Italy ku Austria-Hungary. Crispi wakalimbikiranga ntchito ya kuzenga Italy kuŵa ufumu wankhongono wa pa caru cose kwizira mu kunjizga ndarama za nkhondo, kukhozgera kutandazgika kwa caru, na kuyezga kuti Germany yikondwe nayo nangauli wakajibatika ku Triple Alliance iyo yikaŵa na Germany na Austria-Hungary mu 1882. Apo wakawovwiranga Italy kuti waŵe wakukhora, wakalutilira kusintha vinthu ndipo wakaŵa na mazaza, nyengo yinyake wakakhumbanga kuti boma liŵike dango lakukanizga vyaru vinyake. Nangauli Crispi wakaŵa wankhongono, kweni wakasintha vinthu vinyake nga ni Dango la vya Umoyo wa Ŵanthu la mu 1888 na kukhazikiska makhoti kuti boma liwezge masuzgo. Ŵanthu ŵa viŵeto awo ŵakakhumbikwiranga wovwiri ŵakakhuŵara comene cifukwa ca kuŵika mtima comene pa ndyali. Ŵalongozgi ŵa ndyali na ŵa visopa vinyake ŵakakhumbanga kuti boma lisande umo lingawovwilira vyakurya mu Italy. Kafukufuku uyo wakamba mu 1877 ndipo wakafumiskika pakati pajumpha vilimika vinkhondi na viŵiri, wakalongora kuti vyakurya vikendanga makora yayi, kuti ŵeneco ŵa malo ŵakarya ndalama izo ŵakasanganga pa malo ghawo ndipo ŵakovwira comene yayi kuti malo ghawo ghamere makora. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Italy awo ŵakakhalanga mu vigaŵa vya pasi ŵakakwiya comene cifukwa ca kugaŵikana kwa malo agho ghakaŵa gha ŵanthu wose. Ŵanandi awo ŵakagwiranga nchito mu minda iyi ŵakaŵa ŵalimi yayi, kweni ŵantchito ŵacoko waka awo ŵakagwiranga nchito kwa cilimika cimoza. Ŵalimi ŵambura ndalama ŵakakhalanga na vyakurya vichoko waka, matenda ghakathandazgikanga mwaluŵiro, ndipo kukaŵa nthenda zakwambukira, kusazgapo nthenda yikuru ya kolera iyo yikakoma ŵanthu pafupifupi 55,000. Boma la Italy likatondeka kumazga makora suzgo ili cifukwa ca ndalama zinandi izo boma la Depretis likagwiliskiranga nchito. Charu cha Italy nacho chikasuzgika comene cifukwa cakuti mu ma 1870 na ma 1880, ŵakapanganga mpheska zinandi comene. Pa nyengo iyi, caru ca Italy cikaŵa cakuluska comene pa vyakurya vyose mu Europe, kweni cifukwa ca kuwelera kwa vyakurya ku France mu 1888, kumwera kwa Italy kukaŵa na vyakurya vinandi comene.{{sfn|Smith|1997|page=139}}[[File:Giovanni Giolitti 2.jpg|thumb|150px|[[Giovanni Giolitti]].]] [[File:Vittoriano Altare della Patria 2013-09-16.jpg|thumb|The [[Victor Emmanuel II Monument]] in Rome, a national symbol of Italy celebrating the first king of the unified country, and resting place of the [[Tomb of the Unknown Soldier (Italy)|Italian Unknown Soldier]] since the end of World War I. It was inaugurated in 1911, on the occasion of the 50th [[anniversary of the unification of Italy]]]] ===Giolitti=== Kufuma mu 1901 m'paka 1914, Giovanni Giolitti ndiyo wakalamuliranga ndyali na mbiri ya Italy. Pakwamba, wakasangana na ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakakondwa yayi na ivyo Crispi wakacita. Ndipo pa nyengo yakwamba iyi apo ŵakuru na ŵasungwana ŵakakumananga, Giolitti wakawovwira kuti vinthu viŵe viphya mu ndyali pakati pa vyaka vya m'ma 1800 na 1900. Kulekerathu kukanizga ŵanthu, kweni kuzomerezga kuti ŵanthu ŵacite viyezgo, ndiposo kuti ŵaleke kugwira nchito, kweni kuti ŵaleke kuŵa ŵankhaza panji ŵa ndyali. Ivyo Giolitti wakacita vikakhwaska comene umoyo wa ŵanthu na nchito, ŵanalume wose ŵakaŵa na wanangwa wa kusankha, njanji na makampani gha inshuwalansi vikaŵa vya caru cose, ngongoli ya boma yikakhira, vinthu vyapasi vikamba kwenda makora, ndipo makampani ghakamba kupanga vinthu. Mu vyaru vinyake, ŵanthu ŵakamba kufumako ku Germany na Austria na Hungary na kwamba kukolerana na France, Great Britain, na Russia. Kwambira mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800 C.E., caru ca Italy cikaŵa na ufumu wake. Likatora ufumu wa Somalia. Boma la Ethiopia likathera yayi pa Nkhondo Yakwamba ya ku Italy na Ethiopia mu 1895-1896. Mu 1911, boma la Giolitti likatuma ŵasilikari ŵake kuti ŵakakome Libya. Pakati pajumpha nyengo yichoko waka, charu cha Italy chikapoka charu cha Libya (chenechicho chikaŵa ku Tripolitania na Cyrenaica) na virwa vya Dodecanese. Ŵalongozgi ŵa visopa ŵakakhumbanga kuti caru ca Italy ciŵe na mazaza pa Nyanja ya Meditereniyani mwa kutora caru ca Greece na dera la Dalmatia ilo lili mumphepete mwa nyanja ya Adriatic, kweni ŵakaŵikapo mtima yayi. Mu Juni 1914, boma likakanaso ŵanthu ŵakumanjilira kumalyero ŵati ŵakoma ŵanthu ŵatatu awo ŵakasuskanga ŵasilikari. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakumanjiliro ŵakasuska ndipo chipani cha Italian Socialist Party chikapharazga kuti ŵanthu wose mu Italy ŵali mu viwawa. Ŵanthu ŵakamba kusuzgika chomene na vinthu vyambura urunji ivyo vikachitikanga mu misumba yikuruyikuru na mizi yichoko. Ndipouli, pati pajumpha mazuŵa ghaŵiri pera, ungano uwu ukaleka, nangauli nkhondo yikalutilira.{{sfn|Bosworth|2005|page=49}} === World War I and failure of the liberal state=== {{See also|Italian entry into World War I|Italian Front (World War I)|Military history of Italy during World War I|Italian Campaign (World War I)}} [[File:Trento 3 novembre 1918.jpg|thumb|left|Italian cavalry in [[Trento]] on 3 November 1918, after the victorious [[Battle of Vittorio Veneto]]. The Italian victory in this battle<ref name="victory">{{cite book |last=Burgwyn |first=H. James |title=Italian foreign policy in the interwar period, 1918–1940 |url=https://archive.org/details/italianforeignpo0000burg |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |year=1997 |page=[https://archive.org/details/italianforeignpo0000burg/page/8 4] |isbn=0-275-94877-3}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Schindler |first=John R. |title=Isonzo: The Forgotten Sacrifice of the Great War |url=https://archive.org/details/isonzoforgottens0000schi |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |year=2001 |page=[https://archive.org/details/isonzoforgottens0000schi/page/303 303] |isbn=0-275-97204-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Mack Smith |first=Denis |title=Mussolini |publisher=Knopf |year=1982 |page=[https://archive.org/details/mussolini0000mack/page/31 31] |isbn=0-394-50694-4 |url=https://archive.org/details/mussolini0000mack/page/31 }}</ref> marked the [[Armistice of Villa Giusti|end of the war on the Italian Front]], secured the dissolution of the [[Austro-Hungarian Empire]] and contributed to the [[Armistice with Germany|end of the World War I]] just one week later.<ref name=Luden>{{cite book |quote=...&nbsp;[[Erich Ludendorff|Ludendorff]] wrote: ''In Vittorio Veneto, Austria did not lose a battle, but lose the war and itself, dragging Germany in its fall. Without the destructive battle of Vittorio Veneto, we would have been able, in a military union with the Austro-Hungarian monarchy, to continue the desperate resistance through the whole winter, in order to obtain a less harsh peace, because the Allies were very fatigued. |last=Paoletti |first=Ciro |title=A Military History of Italy |url=https://archive.org/details/militaryhistoryo0000paol |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |year=2008 |page=[https://archive.org/details/militaryhistoryo0000paol/page/150 150] |isbn=978-0-275-98505-9}}</ref>]] Italy yikanjira mu Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Caru Cose mu 1915 na cilato ca kumalizga umoza wa chalo: pa cifukwa ici, kunjilirapo kwa Italy mu Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Caru Cose kukuwonekaso nga ni Nkhondo Yacinayi ya ku Italiya ya Kujiyimira paŵekha, mu kawonekero ka historiographical ako kakulongora kuti nkondo iyi yikaŵa umaliro wa kuwungana kwa Italy, uko kukacitika nkhondo ya nkhondo iyo yikayamba mu 1848 na Nkhondo Yakwamba ya ku Italiya. Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Caru Cose (1914-1918) yikaŵa cakucitika cambura kunozgekera ico cikapangiska kuti ŵambe kusopa pamoza na Germany na Austria. Kwa myezi yinkhondi na umoza, caru ca Italy cikaŵa cambura kuvikilira, cifukwa cakuti ŵasilikari ŵa Triple Alliance ŵakaŵanga na mulimo wa kuvikilira caru. Mu 1915, ŵanthu ŵa ku Italy ŵakanjira mu nkhondo iyi nangauli ŵakakhumbanga yayi kunjilirapo. Charu cha Italy chikaŵa chikuru kweniso chikaŵa mukavu. Wupu wa Triple Alliance ukaŵa wakuzirwa viŵi yayi ku Italy panji ku Austria. Ŵanalume ŵaŵiri, nduna yikuru Antonio Salandra na nduna ya vyaru vinyake Sidney Sonnino ndiwo ŵakasankhanga vinthu vyose, nga ni umo vikaŵira mu ndyali za ku Italy. Ŵakacitanga vinthu mwakubisilizga, ndipo pamasinda ŵakalembeska themba, kweni ŵasilikari na ŵalongozgi ŵa ndyali ŵakamanyanga yayi. Ŵakapangana na vigaŵa vyose viŵiri kuti ŵasangane ndalama zinandi, ndipo ŵakasanga ndalama kufuma ku ŵasilikari ŵa Entente, awo ŵakakhumbanga kuŵalayizga vigaŵa vikuruvikuru vya Ufumu wa Austria-Hungary, kusazgapo Tyrol na Trieste, kweniso kuti Albania waŵe chigaŵa chakutetezgeka. Russia wakakana kupeleka Dalmatia ku Italy. Britain yikaŵa yakunozgeka kupeleka wovwiri na ngongoli kuti yikope ŵanthu 36 miliyoni ŵa ku Italy kuŵa ŵabwezi ŵaphya awo ŵakasuzganga Austria kumwera.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lowe |first1=C.J. |year=1969 |title=Britain and Italian Intervention 1914–1915 |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_historical-journal_1969_12_3/page/533 |journal=Historical Journal |volume=12 |issue=3|pages=533–548 |doi=10.1017/s0018246x00007275|s2cid=162738142 }}</ref>[[File:Liberazione di Trieste.jpg|thumb|Italian troops landing in [[Trieste]], 3 November 1918]] Mu Meyi 1915, pakapharazgika phangano la ku London. Salandra wakafumapo pa udindo wake, kweni pakaŵavya munthu uyo wakawovwira kuti paŵe ŵanthu ŵanandi. Ŵanandi ŵa ndyali, kweniso ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Italy, ŵakasuskanga nkhondo, kusazgapo Ŵakatolika ŵanandi. Malipoti agho ghakafuma ku Italy ghakulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵakawopanga nkhondo, ndipo ŵakakondwanga yayi na malo. Ŵanthu ŵa ku mizi ŵakawonanga nkhondo kuŵa soka, nga ni chilangalanga, njara, panji nthenda yakofya. Ŵamalonda ŵanandi ŵakasuskanga, cifukwa ŵakawopanga kuti boma lingaŵakanizga kuguliska vinthu na misonkho yinandi, kweniso kuti ŵangaluza malonda ghawo. Vikaŵa nga vingachitika yayi kuti ŵasintheso ivyo ŵakadumura, cifukwa ŵasilikari ŵa Triple Alliance ŵakakhumbanga yayi kuti Italy wawelere, ndipo ufumu wa themba ukaŵa pangozi. Ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakakolerana na nkhondo ŵakafuma mu misewu, ŵakachemerezganga kuti: "Tiyeni, tiyeni, tiyeni!" Benito Mussolini, uyo wakaŵa mulembi wa Socialist Party, wakaŵa mulongozgi, kweni ŵakamucimbizga mu chipani ndipo ŵanthu ŵacoko waka ndiwo ŵakamulondezga. Padera pa caru ca Russia, ici cikaŵa cipani cimoza pera ku Europe ico cikasuskanga nkhondo. Nkhondo iyi yikaŵa yankhaza comene cifukwa ca ndyali, kutondeka, kukhuŵara, na ucindere wa ŵamazaza.<ref>Martin Clark, ''Modern Italy: 1871–1995'' (1996) pp 180–85</ref><ref>Denis Mack Smith, ''Italy: A Modern History'' (1969) pp 292–305.</ref> [[File:Sacrario militare di Redipuglia agosto 2014.JPG|thumb|The [[Redipuglia War Memorial]] of [[Fogliano Redipuglia|Redipuglia]], with the tomb of [[Prince Emanuele Filiberto, Duke of Aosta (1869–1931)|Prince Emanuele Filiberto, Duke of Aosta]] in the foreground, nicknamed the ''Undefeated Duke'' for having reported numerous victories in the [[First World War]] without ever being defeated on the battlefield.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/savoia-aosta-emanuele-filiberto-di-duca-d-aosta_%28Dizionario-Biografico%29/|title=SAVOIA AOSTA, Emanuele Filiberto di, duca d'Aosta|access-date=23 November 2021|language=it}}</ref> This War Memorial is the resting place of 100,187 Italian soldiers killed between 1915 and 1917 in the [[Battles of the Isonzo|eleven battles]] fought on the Karst and [[Isonzo front]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.turismofvg.it/Monumenti-e-Siti-Storici/Sacrario-Militare-di-Redipuglia|title=Il più grande Sacrario Militare Italiano}}</ref>]] Italy wakanjira mu nkhondo na ŵasilikari ŵakukwana 875,000, kweni ŵasilikari aŵa ŵakaŵa ŵambura kulongozgeka makora ndipo ŵakaŵavya vilwero vikuru vya nkhondo. Ŵasilikari ŵa ku Italy ŵakatondeka kumazga nkhondo iyi, cifukwa ŵasilikari ŵa ku Austria ndiwo ŵakaŵa na mazaza pa nkhondo iyi. Mu 1916, caru ca Italy cikapharazga nkhondo ku Germany, ndipo ici cikapeleka wovwiri ukuru ku Ŵaustria. Ŵasilikari ŵa Italy ŵakukwana 650,000 ŵakafwa ndipo 950,000 ŵakapwetekeka, apo chuma chikakhumbikwiranga wovwiri wa ŵasilikari ŵa vyaru vinyake kuti chileke kunangika. Pambere nkhondo yindambe, boma likaŵikako mahara yayi ku nkhani za ŵantchito, kweni sono likakhumbikwiranga kunjilirapo kuti liŵawovwire. Pakuti chipani chikuru cha Socialist chikakhumbanga yayi kovwira nkhondo, ŵanthu ŵakachitanga viwawa kanandi waka ndipo ŵakakolerananga viŵi yayi, comenecomene mu vigaŵa vya Piedmont na Lombardy. Boma likakhazikiska malipiro ghapachanya, ndipo likaŵikapo mtima kuti ŵantchito ŵagwirenge lumoza ntchito. Makampani ghakurughakuru ghakakura comene. Ŵantchito ŵa Ansaldo ŵakakwera kufuma pa 6,000 kufika pa 110,000, ndipo ŵakapanga vilwero 10,900, ndege za nkhondo 3,800, ngaraŵa za nkhondo 95, na mabomba 10 miliyoni. Pa kampani ya Fiat, ŵantchito ŵakakwera kufuma pa 4,000 kufika pa 40,000. Chifukwa cha kukwera kwa ndalama, ndalama zikakwera chomene. Malipiro gha ŵantchito ghakakwera, kweni gha ŵalimi ghakakwera yayi. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakakondwa yayi na ivyo vikachitikanga ku mizi, cifukwa cakuti ŵanalume ŵanandi ŵakagwiranga nchito, nchito mu mafakitale zikaŵavya, malipiro ghakakweranga pacoko, ndipo kusinthasintha kwa vinthu kukaŵa kuheni comene. Nkhondo iyi yikaŵa yakumalizga nkhondo ya ku Italy, yikapangiska kuti Ufumu wa Austria na Hungary uparanyike, ndipo yikawovwira kuti Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Caru Cose yimare pakati pajumpha masabata ghaŵiri. Ŵasilikari ŵakujumpha 651,000 ŵa ku Italy ŵakafwa pa nkhondo ya pa caru cose. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Italy awo ŵakafwa cifukwa ca kusoŵa cakurya ŵakakwana 589,000. Nkhondo yikati yamara, Vittorio Emanuele Orlando, nduna yikuru ya Italy, wakakumana na David Lloyd George, nduna yikuru ya Britain, Georges Clemenceau, nduna yikuru ya France, na Woodrow Wilson, nduna yikuru ya United States, ku Versailles, kuti ŵadumbiskane umo mphaka za ku Europe zikwenera kuŵikikira mwakuti nkhondo ya ku Europe yileke kucitika.[[File:Promised Borders of the Tready of London.png|thumb|right|Territories promised to Italy by the [[Treaty of London (1915)]], i.e. [[Trentino-Alto Adige]], [[Julian March]] and [[Dalmatia]] (tan), and the [[Snežnik (plateau)|Snežnik Plateau]] area (green)]] Pa nyengo iyi, Wilson wakalayizga kuti mitundu yose ya ku Europe yizamuŵa na wanangwa wa kupanga vyaru vyawo. Pa cifukwa ici, phangano la Versailles likapeleka yayi Dalmatia na Albania ku Italy nga umo phangano la London likayowoyera. Kweniso, Britain na France ŵakaghanaghana kuti ŵagaŵane vyaru ivyo vikaŵa pasi pa boma la Germany. Charu cha Italy chikapokako yayi malo kufuma apo Ufumu wa Ottoman ukaparanyikira, nangauli boma la United Kingdom na France likapeleka ulongozgi ku Italy pa nyengo ya nkhondo, kweni vyaru ivi vikagaŵikana pakati pawo. Nangauli vikaŵa nthena, kweni Orlando wakazomera kusaina phangano la Versailles, ilo likakwiyiska boma lake. Phangano la Saint-Germain-en-Laye (1919) na la Rapallo (1920) likapeleka mwaŵi wakuti Trentino Alto-Adige, Julian March, Istria, Kvarner kweniso msumba wa Zara mu Dalmatia, viŵikike mu ufumu wa Italy. [[File:The celebration of the birthday of the Italian King Vittorio Emanuele III on November 11, 1918.jpg|thumb|Residents of [[Fiume]] cheering D'Annunzio and his ''Legionari'' in September 1919, when Fiume had 22,488 (62% of the population) Italians in a total population of 35,839 inhabitants]] Cifukwa ca kukwiya comene na mtende uwu, Gabriele D'Annunzio, mulembi wa sumu wa ku Italy, wakalongozga ŵasilikari ŵambura kukondwa na nkhondo na ŵanthu ŵakutemwa caru cawo kuti ŵapange boma la Fiume mu Seputembala 1919. Cifukwa cakuti ŵanthu ŵakamutemwanga comene, ŵakamuthya kuti Il Duce ("Mulongozgi"), ndipo wakagwiliskira nchito ŵasilikari awo ŵakaŵa na malaya ghamdima apo wakawukiranga Fiume. Muwuso wa Duce na yunifomu ya ŵasilikari ŵa malaya ghaswesi vikapokelereka pamanyuma na gulu la Fascist la Benito Mussolini. Ivyo boma la Italy likakhumbanga vikafika ku vigaŵa vyose vya ndyali, kusazgapo Ŵafarisi ŵa Mussolini. Ivyo D'Annunzio wakayowoyanga vikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Croatia ŵambe kumutemwa. Pamasinda, phangano la Rome (1924) likapangiska kuti msumba wa Fiume uŵe wa Italy. Charu cha Italy chikapokera yayi vigaŵa vinyake ivyo chikalayizgika na phangano la ku London (1915), nga ni Dalmatia, ntheura ŵanthu ŵakatenge chigaŵa ichi chikaŵa chakupwetekeka. Benito Mussolini ndiyo wakambiska chisopa cha Chiitaliya icho chikachemekanga Fascism. Ŵakumanya vya mdauko ŵakuwona kuti kutonda uku ni "nthoto ya ndyali", iyo yikugwiliskirika nchito na ŵasilikari ŵa Fashisti kuti ŵakhozge ufumu wa Italy na kubisa ivyo boma la Italy likacita pamanyuma pa Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Caru Cose. Italy nayo wakaŵa na malo ghakukhazikika mu wupu wa League of Nations.<ref>G.Sabbatucci, ''La vittoria mutilata'', in AA.VV., ''Miti e storia dell'Italia unita'', Il Mulino, Bologna 1999, pp.101-106</ref> ==Fascist regime, World War II, and Civil War (1922–1946)== ===Rise of Fascism into power=== {{Main|Italian Fascism}} [[File:Mussolini mezzobusto.jpg|thumb|left|upright|[[Benito Mussolini]], who titled himself [[Duce]] and [[Fascist Italy (1922–1943)|ruled the country from 1922 to 1943]]]] Mu 1914, Benito Mussolini wakacimbizgika mu chipani ca Italian Socialist Party cifukwa cakuti wakacema Italy kuti wanjire mu nkhondo na Austria-Hungary. Pambere Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Caru Cose yindambe, Mussolini wakasuskanga kujilemba usilikari, wakasuskanga umo Italy wakawuskiranga Libya, ndipo wakaŵa mulembi wa nyuzipepara ya Socialist Party, Avanti!, kweni pamanyuma pake wakacemerezga kuti paŵe kusintha kwambura kuzunura nkhondo ya magulu. Mu 1914, Mussolini wakasanga ndalama ku Ansaldo (kampani yakupanga vilwero) na makampani ghanyake kuti wapange nyuzipepara yake, Il Popolo d'Italia. Ŵasilikari ŵa vyaru vinyake ŵakakhumbanga kuti Italy wanjire mu nkhondo. Pamanyuma, nkhondo yikati yamara, buku ili likazgoka nyuzipepara yakuzomerezgeka na boma. Mu nyengo ya nkhondo, Mussolini wakateŵetera mu ŵasilikari ndipo wakapwetekeka kamoza. Nkhondo yikati yamara na phangano la Versailles mu 1919, Mussolini wakambiska wupu wakuchemeka Combat League. Pakwamba, ŵanthu awo ŵakalondezganga fundo za chipani cha Socialist Party ŵakasuskanga fundo za chipani ichi. Mu nyengo yakwambilira, gulu ili likaŵa na pulogiramu yakutemwera kumazere, ilo likayowoyerathu kuti kuzamuŵa kusintha kwa ndyali, ŵanakazi ŵazamunjira mu maungano, kuzamuŵa wanangwa wa kusankha (kanyengo kanyake mu 1925) kweniso kuti katundu wa ŵanthu wose wazamupambana. Ŵakapambanaso na Ŵasilikari ŵaciŵiri aŵa cifukwa ŵakasuskanga boma lakuyuzga ŵanthu. Mussolini wakati "tikutemwa wanangwa wa waliyose, nanga ni wa ŵalwani ŵithu". Pa 15 Epulero, 1919, Ŵafarisi ŵakamba nkhaza za ndyali apo gulu la ŵanthu ŵa mu gulu la Fasci di Combattimento likapoka ofesi ya Avanti!.[[File:Kingdom of Italy 1924 map.svg|thumbnail|The Kingdom of Italy in 1924.]] Pa nyengo yeneyiyo, nyengo iyo yikamanyikwanga kuti Biennio Rosso (vyaka viŵiri vyakuthwa) yikacitika mu vilimika viŵiri vyati vyalondezga Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Caru Cose mu nyengo ya suzgo la vya cuma, kusoŵa nchito kwa ŵanthu ŵanandi, na kuleka kukhazikika kwa ndyali. Mu 1919-1920, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakamba kulimbana na ŵamalonda, ŵantchito ŵakachitanga viyezgelero, kweniso ŵakachitanga viyezgo kuti ŵajikorenge. Ku Turin na Milan, mabungwe gha ŵantchito ghakaŵako ndipo ŵantchito ŵanandi ŵakagwira nchito mu mafakitale. Kuwukira uku kukasazgikira ku vigaŵa vya minda ya mu Padan ndipo kukaŵa na viwawa vya ŵanthu ŵa ku mizi, viwawa vya ku mizi, na nkhondo za ŵasilikari pakati pa ŵasilikari ŵa ku mphepo na ŵa ku mphepo. Kufuma nyengo yira, gulu la Fasci di Combattimento la Benito Mussolini likagwiliskira nchito makora fundo za ŵanthu ŵa ku Italy na kukhumba kuti vinthu viŵe makora mu caru. Mu 1920, nduna yikuru Giolitti yikasankhikaso kuti yiwovwirepo pa suzgo ilo likaŵa mu Italy, kweni nduna yake yikaŵa yambura nkhongono ndipo yikaŵa pangozi chifukwa cha ŵakususka ŵa chipani cha Socialist. Giolitti wakagomezganga kuti Ŵachifasita ŵangakanizgika ndipo ŵangaŵawovwira kuvikilira ufumu ku ŵasilikari. Mu 1921, Ŵafarisi ŵakatonda yayi, kweni boma la Giolitti likathera yayi kuwunganya ŵanthu ŵanandi kuti ŵalongozge. Ŵasilikari ŵa Fascist ŵakakana ivyo Giolitti wakaŵaphalira ndipo ŵakakolerana na ŵasilikari ŵanyake kuti ŵathereske boma lake.{{sfn|Bosworth|2005|page=112}}[[File:March on Rome.jpg|thumb|left|[[Benito Mussolini]] during the [[March on Rome]] in 1922.]] Mu Okutobala 1922, Mussolini wakapharazga kuti boma la Italy lipelekenge mazaza ku chipani cha Fascist. Nangauli pakaŵavya uyo wakazomera, kweni gulu la ŵanthu 30,000 ŵakamba ulendo utali kujumpha mu Italy kuluta ku Roma (March on Rome). Ŵafarisi ŵakakhumbanga kuti Luigi Facta, uyo wakaŵa nduna yikuru wa boma ili, wafumeko pa udindo wake. Nangauli ŵasilikari ŵa Italy ŵakaŵa na vilwero viwemi comene kuluska ŵasilikari ŵa Fascist, kweni boma la Italy na Themba Victor Emmanuel III ŵakaŵa mu suzgo yikuru. Themba likakhumbikwiranga kusankhapo gulu limoza pakati pa magulu ghaŵiri agho ghakaŵa pa mphindano mu Italy ilo likate lilongozgenge boma. Wakasankha Ŵafasisi.[[File:Giacomo Matteotti crop.jpg|thumb|150px|Socialist leader [[Giacomo Matteotti]] was murdered a few days after he openly denounced Fascist violence during the 1924 elections.]] Wakati waŵa na mazaza, Mussolini wakakolerana na ŵanthu ŵakutemwa caru na ŵakutemwa vya wanangwa. Mu 1923, muwuso wa Mussolini ukazomerezga dango la Acerbo, ilo likapeleka vigaŵa viŵiri pa vigaŵa vitatu vya mipando ku chipani icho chikapokera mavoti 25. Chipani cha Fascist chikagwiliskira ntchito nkhaza na kofya ŵanthu kuti chiŵe na mazaza pa maungano gha mu 1924. Mubali Giacomo Matteotti, uyo wakaŵa mu chipani cha Socialist, wakakomeka wati wapempha kuti mavoti ghaleke kuchitika cifukwa ca vinthu vyambura kwenelera. Ŵalongozgi ŵa chipani ichi ŵakakolerana na ivyo vikachitika. Mu vilimika vinayi vyakulondezgapo, Mussolini wakawuskapo vinthu vyose ivyo vikakanizganga mazaza ghake. Pa Disembala 24, 1925, wakalemba dango ilo likati ndiyo yekha wakeneranga kulongozga mu nyumba ya ufumu. Maboma gha vigaŵa ghakalekeka, ndipo ŵalara ŵa boma (awo ŵakachemekanga kuti "Podestà") ŵakamba kulamulira m'malo mwa ŵeneco. Mu 1928, magulu ghose gha ndyali ghakakanizgika, ndipo maungano gha boma ghakasintha na maungano gha ŵanthu wose. Christopher Duggan, wakugwiliskira nchito mabuku ghake na makalata, kweniso maofesi gha ŵapolisi, ndipo wakuti Mussolini wakaŵa na ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakamovwira. Mussolini wakawuska ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakamususka mu Italy, ndipo wakalutilira kutchuka nangauli ŵasilikari ŵakamususka mu 1940. Duggan wakati muwuso wake ukagwiliskira ntchito makora mazaza gha Mussolini ndipo ukapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵaŵe na nkharo yiwemi.<ref>Christopher Duggan, ''Fascist Voices: An Intimate History of Mussolini's Italy'' (2012) [https://www.amazon.co.uk/Fascist-Voices-Intimate-History-Mussolinis/dp/1847921035/ excerpt]</ref> In summary, historian [[Stanley G. Payne]] says that Fascism in Italy was: :A primarily political dictatorship. The Fascist Party itself had become almost completely bureaucratized and subservient to, not dominant over, the state itself. Big business, industry, and finance retained extensive autonomy, particularly in the early years. The armed forces also enjoyed considerable autonomy. ... The Fascist militia was placed under military control. The judicial system was left largely intact and relatively autonomous as well. The police continued to be directed by state officials and were not taken over by party leaders, nor was a major new police elite created. There was never any question of bringing the Church under overall subservience. Sizable sectors of Italian cultural life retained extensive autonomy, and no major state propaganda-and-culture ministry existed. The Mussolini regime was neither especially sanguinary nor particularly repressive.<ref>{{cite book|first=Stanley G.|last=Payne|title=A History of Fascism, 1914–1945|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x_MeR06xqXAC&pg=PA122|year=1996|publisher=U of Wisconsin Press|page=122|isbn=978-0-299-14873-7}}</ref> ===End of the Roman question=== [[File:Group of Vatican and Italian government notables posing at the Lateran Palace before the signing of the treaty.jpg|thumb|Vatican and Italian delegations prior to signing the [[Lateran Treaty]]]] Wakati waŵa na mazaza, Mussolini wakakolerana na ŵanthu ŵakutemwa caru na ŵakutemwa vya wanangwa. Mu 1923, muwuso wa Mussolini ukazomerezga dango la Acerbo, ilo likapeleka vigaŵa viŵiri pa vigaŵa vitatu vya mipando ku chipani icho chikapokera mavoti 25. Chipani cha Fascist chikagwiliskira ntchito nkhaza na kofya ŵanthu kuti chiŵe na mazaza pa maungano gha mu 1924. Mubali Giacomo Matteotti, uyo wakaŵa mu chipani cha Socialist, wakakomeka wati wapempha kuti mavoti ghaleke kuchitika cifukwa ca vinthu vyambura kwenelera. Ŵalongozgi ŵa chipani ichi ŵakakolerana na ivyo vikachitika. Mu vilimika vinayi vyakulondezgapo, Mussolini wakawuskapo vinthu vyose ivyo vikakanizganga mazaza ghake. Pa Disembala 24, 1925, wakalemba dango ilo likati ndiyo yekha wakeneranga kulongozga mu nyumba ya ufumu. Maboma gha vigaŵa ghakalekeka, ndipo ŵalara ŵa boma (awo ŵakachemekanga kuti "Podestà") ŵakamba kulamulira m'malo mwa ŵeneco. Mu 1928, magulu ghose gha ndyali ghakakanizgika, ndipo maungano gha boma ghakasintha na maungano gha ŵanthu wose. Christopher Duggan, wakugwiliskira nchito mabuku ghake na makalata, kweniso maofesi gha ŵapolisi, ndipo wakuti Mussolini wakaŵa na ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakamovwira. Mussolini wakawuska ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakamususka mu Italy, ndipo wakalutilira kutchuka nangauli ŵasilikari ŵakamususka mu 1940. Duggan wakati muwuso wake ukagwiliskira ntchito makora mazaza gha Mussolini ndipo ukapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵaŵe na nkharo yiwemi.<ref>{{cite book|title=A History of Western Society|year=2010|url=https://archive.org/details/sourcesofwestern0000unse|url-access=registration|publisher=Bedford/St. Martin's|page=900|edition=Tenth}}</ref> ===Foreign politics=== {{Further|Italian Empire|Italian irredentism}} [[File:RegioniIrredenteItalia.jpg|thumb|left|Italian ethnic regions claimed by the [[Italian irredentism]] in the 1930s: * Green: [[Italian irredentism in Nice|Nice]], [[Italian irredentism in Switzerland|Ticino]] and [[Italian irredentism in Dalmatia|Dalmatia]] * Red: [[Italian irredentism in Malta|Malta]] * Violet: [[Italian irredentism in Corsica|Corsica]] * [[Italian irredentism in Savoy|Savoy]] and [[Corfiot Italians#Corfiot Italians and the Risorgimento|Corfu]] were later claimed]] Lee wakalongosora fundo zikuruzikuru zitatu za Mussolini. Cakwamba cikaŵa kulondezga fundo za ndyali za boma la Liberal. Ku Italy kukaŵa ŵanthu awo ŵakakhumbanga kuti vinthu viŵe makora mu vyaru vya Balkan na kumpoto kwa Africa. Kufuma waka apo ŵakathereskekera ku Ethiopia mu 1896, ŵanthu ŵakakhumbanga kuti ŵatore charu ichi. Caciŵiri nchakuti ŵakakhuŵara comene cifukwa ca nyifwa ya ŵanthu ŵanandi mu Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Caru Cose. Vyaru vinyake, comenecomene Poland na Yugoslavia, vikapokera vinandi comene, ndipo Italy yikajiwona kuti yacita upusikizgi. Cacitatu, Mussolini wakalayizga kuti wawezgerengepo ufumu wakale wa Roma. Chisopa cha ku Italy icho chikuchemeka Fascism chikukolerana na chisopa cha ku Italy ndipo chikukhumba kumalizga mulimo wa Risorgimento. Ku chigaŵa cha kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Italy, Ŵafarisi ŵakatenge Dalmatia ni charu cha ŵanthu ŵa ku Italy, ndipo ŵanthu ŵa ku Italy, kusazgapo awo ŵakaŵa ŵa ku South Slavic, ŵakachimbizgika mu Dalmatia na kuluta ku wuzga ku Italy. Mussolini wakamanya kuti Dalmatia wakaŵa na mitheto ya ku Italy kwa vyaka vinandi, nga umo vikaŵira na Istria, kwizira mu Ufumu wa Roma na Republic of Venice. Kumwera kwa Italy, Ŵasilikari ŵa Fashisti ŵakatenge caru ca Malta, ico cikaŵa ca Britain, na Corfu, ico cikaŵa ca Greece, kumpoto ŵakatenge ni Switzerland, ndipo kumanjiliro gha dazi ŵakatenge ni Corsica, Nice na Savoy, ivyo vikaŵa vya France. Boma la Fascist likalemba mabuku ghakulongosora vya caru ca Corsica. Boma la Nazi likalemba mabuku ghakulongosora vya msumba wa Nice, agho ghakalongosoranga kuti msumba uwu ukaŵa wa ku Italy cifukwa ca mbiri yake, mtundu wake, na ciyowoyero cake.<ref name="Davide Rodogno 2006. P. 88">Davide Rodogno. ''Fascism's European Empire: Italian Occupation during the Second World War''. Cambridge, England, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2006. P. 88.</ref>[[File:Italy aims Europe 1936.png|thumb|Ambitions of fascist Italy in Europe in 1936.<br/>Legend:{{Legend|#073A09|Metropolitan Italy and dependent territories;}}{{Legend|#0F7612|[[Client state]]s;}}{{Legend|#083A39|Claimed territories to be annexed;}}{{Legend|#107776|Territories to be transformed into client states.}} [[Albania]], which was a client state, was considered a territory to be annexed.]] Mussolini wakalayizga kuti wazamuwezgerapo ufumu wa Italy kuŵa wankhongono comene mu Europe, kuzengaso "Ufumu wa Ŵaroma" na kuwusa pa Nyanja ya Meditereniyani. Pakupharazga, Ŵafarisi ŵakagwiliskiranga nchito mazgu gha Ŵaroma ghakuti "Mare Nostrum" (Cilatini, "Nyanja Yithu") pakulongosora nyanja ya Mediterranean. Pa cifukwa ici, muwuso wa Ŵafasisi ukacitanga ndyali za ku Europe. Mu 1923, caru ca Greece ca Corfu cikapokeka na Italy pamanyuma pakuti Tellini wakomeka. Mu 1925, Albania wakakhwaskika comene na caru ca Italy cifukwa ca phangano la Tirana. Kweni vinthu vikaŵa makora yayi ku France. Boma la Nazi likakhumbanga kuwina vigaŵa vya France ivyo vikaŵa na ŵanthu ŵa ku Italy. Apo muwuso wa Nazi ukakuranga, boma la Italy likamba kufipa mtima comene na umo boma la Germany lingakhwaskira caru ici. Cifukwa ca kwenjerwa cifukwa ca kupanikizgika kwa caru ca Germany, caru ca Italy cikakolerana na France na United Kingdom mu Stresa Front, iyo yikaŵako mu 1935 m'paka 1936. Boma la Nazi likalutilira kukhumba Dalmatia, ntheura likalutilira kutinkha Yugoslavia. Mu nyengo ya Nkhondo ya Caru na Caru ya ku Spain, iyo yikacitika pakati pa ŵasilikari ŵa chipani ca Socialist Republicans na Nationalists awo ŵakalongozgekanga na Francisco Franco, caru ca Italy cikatuma vilwero na ŵasilikari ŵakujumpha 60,000 kuti ŵawovwire ŵasilikari ŵa chipani ici. Ivi vikawovwira kuti ŵasilikari ŵa ku Italy ŵanjire mu virwa vya ku Spain. Gulu la ŵasilikari ŵa ku Italy likaponyapo sitima za nkhondo na vyakuponyera maji 91. Kweniso, ŵasilikari ŵa ku Spain ŵakatimba ngalaŵa za Republican 48 na 44 za ŵamalonda ŵakufuma ku vyaru vinyake.<ref>Clodfelter 2017: 338</ref> During all the 1930s, Italy strongly pursued a policy of naval rearmament; by 1940, the [[Regia Marina]] was the fourth largest navy in the world. [[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-R69173, Münchener Abkommen, Staatschefs.jpg|thumb|left|alt=[[Neville Chamberlain|Chamberlain]], [[Édouard Daladier|Daladier]], [[Adolf Hitler|Hitler]], Mussolini, and Italian Foreign Minister Count Ciano, as they prepared to sign the Munich Agreement|From left to right, Chamberlain, Daladier, Hitler, Mussolini and Italian Foreign Minister [[Count Ciano]] at the signing of [[Munich Agreement]].]] Mussolini na Adolf Hitler ŵakakumana kakwamba mu Juni 1934, apo nkhani ya kujiyimira paŵekha ya Austria yikaŵa mu suzgo. Mussolini wakakhumbanga kuti Nazi Germany yileke kuŵa na mazaza pa caru ca Europe. Kuti ivi vichitike, wakalimbana na ivyo boma la Germany likakhumbanga kuchita kuti likore charu cha Austria pamanyuma pa kukoma Engelbert Dollfuss. Nyengo zose ŵanthu ŵakalongoranga kuti Mussolini na Hitler ŵakaŵa paubwezi wakukhora, kweniso kuti visopa vyautesi vya ku Italy vikaŵa vyakuyana na vya ku Germany. Nangauli visambizgo vyose viŵiri vikaŵa vyakuyana, kweni wose ŵakakanizgana, ndipo ŵalongozgi wose ŵaŵiri ŵakakwesananga kuti ŵaŵe na mazaza pa caru cose. Mu 1935, Mussolini wakakhumbanga kuwukira Ethiopia; Ŵaitaliya 2,313 na Ŵaetiyopiya 275,000 ŵakafwa. Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya ku Italy na Ethiopia yikapangiska kuti caru ca Italy ciŵe cambura kukolerana na vyaru vinyake, cifukwa cakuti France na Britain vikathera luŵiro kwa Mussolini. Boma la Nazi likaŵa ilo likawovwira Italy. Pamasinda pakuti wupu wa League of Nations wamususka, Italy wakafumamo mu wupu uwu pa Disembala 11, 1937, ndipo Mussolini wakati wupu uwu ni "malo ghakusoperapo". Pa nyengo iyi, Mussolini wakaŵa na mwaŵi yayi wa kwendera lumoza na Hitler pa nkhani za ndyali, ntheura wakaleka kukhozgera boma la Austria. Mu 1938, Hitler wakambiska nkhondo yakucemeka Anschluss. Nyengo yikati yajumphapo, Mussolini wakakhozgera fundo za ku Germany pa nkhani ya Sudetenland, cigaŵa ca Czechoslovakia ico cikakhalanga ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Germany. Mu 1938, Mussolini wakawovwira kuti mu Italy ŵaŵike malango ghakususkana na Ŵayuda. Mu Malichi 1939, Germany yikati yapoka Czechoslovakia, Mussolini wakawukira Albania cifukwa cakuti wakawopanga kuti ŵanthu ŵamuwonenge nga ni muwuso waciŵiri wa ŵasilikari ŵa Axis. Pa Epulero 7, 1939, Italy yikawukira Albania na kuzgora charu ichi kuŵa chigaŵa cha Italy.[[File:Hitler and Mussolini June 1940.jpg|thumb|Mussolini and Hitler in June 1940.]] As war approached in 1939, the Fascist regime stepped up an aggressive press campaign against France claiming that Italian people were suffering in France. This was important to the alliance as both regimes mutually had claims on France, Germany on German-populated Alsace-Lorraine and Italy on the mixed Italian and French populated Nice and Corsica. In May 1939, a formal alliance with Germany was signed, known as the Pact of Steel. Mussolini felt obliged to sign the pact in spite of his own concerns that Italy could not fight a war in the near future. This obligation grew from his promises to Italians that he would build an empire for them and from his personal desire to not allow Hitler to become the dominant leader in Europe. Mussolini was repulsed by the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact agreement where Germany and the Soviet Union agreed to partition the Second Polish Republic into German and Soviet zones for an impending invasion. The Fascist government saw this as a betrayal of the Anti-Comintern Pact, but decided to remain officially silent.{{sfn|Smith|1997|page=401}} ===World War II and fall of Fascism=== {{Main|Military history of Italy during World War II|Fall of the Fascist regime in Italy}} [[File:ProgettoImperoItaliano.jpg|thumb|left|Map of ''Great Italy'' according to the 1940 fascist project in case Italy had won the [[Second World War]] (the orange line delimits metropolitan Italy, the green line the borders of the enlarged [[Italian Empire]])]] Apo boma la Germany likapoka Poland pa Seputembala 1, 1939, ndipo Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Caru Cose yikamba, Mussolini wakasankha kuleka kurwa nkhondo, nangauli wakayowoya kuti wakovwira Hitler. Pakunozga vyakuti ŵarwe nkhondo, Mussolini na boma la Fascist ŵakaghanaghana kuti caru ca Italy ciŵe na vigaŵa vikuruvikuru vya Africa na Middle East kuti viŵe mu ufumu wawo. Themba na mulongozgi wa ŵasilikari, Pietro Badoglio, ŵakalutilira kukayikira, ndipo ŵakachenjezga Mussolini kuti caru ca Italy cilije magaleta ghakurughakuru, vilwero vya nkhondo, na ndege zakukwana nkhondo yitali. Mussolini na boma la Nazi ŵakalondezga ulongozgi uwu, ndipo ŵakalindilira mpaka apo Germany yikawukira France mu Juni 1940 (Nkhondo ya ku France) pambere ŵandambe kunjilirapo. Cifukwa cakuti kutondeka kwa caru ca France kukaŵa kwakuwonekerathu, Italy wakanjira mu nkhondo pa Juni 10, 1940, kufiska ivyo wakalayizga ku Wupu wa Steel. Mussolini wakaghanaghana kuti wapoke luŵiro Savoy, Nice, Corsica, na vyaru vya ku Africa nga ni Tunisia na Algeria ku Ŵafulentshi, kweni Germany wakalembapo phangano la kuleka nkhondo (22 June: Second Armistice at Compiègne) na Marshal Philippe Pétain. Ici cikakwiyiska boma la Nazi. Mu cihanya ca 1940, Mussolini wakalangura kuti ŵaponye mabomba pa caru ca Palestina na kupoka caru ca British Somaliland. Mu Seputembala, wakalangura kuti ŵanjire mu Eguputo; nangauli pakwamba vinthu vikenda makora, kweni ŵasilikari ŵa ku Italy ŵakachimbizgika na Ŵanandi (wonani Operation Compass). Hitler wakeneranga kunjilirapo na kutuma ŵasilikari ŵa Afrika Corps ŵa Jenerale Erwin Rommel, awo ŵakaŵa na mazaza pa nkhondo ya ku North Africa. Pa Okutobala 28, Mussolini wakawukira Greece kwambura kufumba Hitler, uyo wakapulika vya nkhondo ya ku Greece na Italy cifukwa ca kuŵazga mu nyuzipepara ya mulenji. Mussolini wakayezga kukhozga mubwezi wake mwa kuyowoya kuti waŵenge ku Athens mu masabata ghaŵiri kufuma apo Greece yikaparanyikira. Ndipouli, ŵasilikari ŵa Royal Air Force ŵakakanizga ŵasilikari ŵa Italy kuti ŵanjire mu Albania.[[File:Impero_italiano.svg|thumb|The [[Italian Empire]] (red) before World War II. Pink areas were annexed/occupied for various periods between 1940 and 1943 (the [[Italian Concession of Tientsin|Tientsin concession]] in China is not shown).]] Hitler wakawovwira Mussolini apo wakawukira Ŵagiriki kufuma ku Balkan. Nkhondo ya ku Balkans iyo yikapangiska kuti Yugoslavia yidumulike na kuthereskeka kwa Greece. Pa nyengo iyi, Italy wakapoka vyaru vya kumwera kwa Slovenia, Dalmatia, Montenegro, na kukhazikiska vyaru vya Croatia na Greece. Kuzakafika mu 1942, caru ici cikaŵa pa ngozi cifukwa cakuti cuma cake cikaleka kusintha cifukwa ca nkhondo, ndipo misumba ya ku Italy yikaponyekanga mabomba na ŵasilikari ŵa ŵasilikari awo ŵakakolerananga nawo. Kweniso, nangauli Rommel wakacitanga vinthu vinandi, kweni nkhondo ya ku North Africa yikamba kutondeka kuumaliro wa 1942. Ŵakati ŵathereskeka pa nkhondo ya El Alamein, caru cikamara. Kuzakafika mu 1943, caru ca Italy cikaŵa kuti cikutondeka pa vigaŵa vyose. Mu Janyuwale wa chaka chenechicho, hafu ya ŵasilikari ŵa ku Italy awo ŵakarwanga nkhondo mu Soviet Union ŵakakomeka, nkhondo ya ku Africa yikatondeka, caru ca Balkan cikalutilira kuŵa cambura kukhazikika, ndipo Ŵataliyana ŵakakhumbanga kuti nkhondo yimare. Mu Julayi 1943, ŵasilikari ŵa vyaru vinyake ŵakanjira mu Sicily kuti ŵathereske Italy ku nkhondo. Pa Julayi 25, Mussolini wakathereskeka na wupu wa Great Council of Fascism ndipo wakakakika na themba Victor Emmanuel III, uyo wakasora Jenerale Pietro Badoglio kuŵa nduna yikuru. Badoglio wakawuskapo vigaŵa vyaumaliro vya muwuso wa Fascist mwa kukanizga chipani cha National Fascist Party, ndipo wakalemba phangano la kuleka nkhondo na ŵasilikari ŵa ŵasilikari.{{sfn|Smith|1997|pages=412–413}}[[File:El Alamein Italian prisoners 1942.jpg|thumb|left|Italian prisoners in El Alamein, November 1942.]] Donald Detwiler notes that "Italy's entrance into the war showed very early that her military strength was only a hollow shell. Italy's military failures against France, Greece, Yugoslavia and in the African Theatres of war shook Italy's new prestige mightily."<ref>{{cite book|first1=Donald S.|last1=Detwiler|first2=Charles B.|last2=Burdick|first3=Jürgen|last3=Rohwer|title=World War II German Military Studies |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2XfzAAAAMAAJ|year=1979|page=96|isbn=978-0-8240-4313-1}}</ref> Historians have long debated why Italy's military and its Fascist regime were so remarkably ineffective at an activity – war – that was central to their identity. MacGregor Knox says the explanation, "was first and foremost a failure of Italy's military culture and military institutions."<ref>{{cite book|first=MacGregor|last=Knox|title=Hitler's Italian Allies: Royal Armed Forces, Fascist Regime, and the War of 1940–1943|url=https://archive.org/details/hitlersitalianal00knox|url-access=registration|year=2000|publisher=Cambridge UP|page=[https://archive.org/details/hitlersitalianal00knox/page/10 10]|isbn=978-1-139-43203-0}}</ref> Norman Polmar and Thomas B. Allen argue that "the Regia Aeronautica failed to perform effectively in modern conflict. Although the Italian Air Force had been in action in the conquest of Ethiopia and the Spanish Civil War, it was totally unprepared for combat...in June 1940. At the time Italy had about 2,500 military aircraft in service. Only 11,000 more were produced during the next three years, far fewer than any of the other major belligerents."<ref>{{cite book|first1=Norman|last1=Polmar|first2=Thomas B.|last2=Allen|title=World War II: the Encyclopedia of the War Years, 1941–1945|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=30gRAGjXrIIC&pg=PA421|year=2012|page=421|isbn=978-0-486-47962-0}}</ref> James Sadkovich gives the most charitable interpretation of Italian failures, blaming inferior equipment, overextension, and inter-service rivalries. Its forces had "more than their share of handicaps."<ref>James J. Sadkovich, "Understanding Defeat: Reappraising Italy's Role in World War II," ''Journal of Contemporary History'' (1989) 24#1 pp. 27–61 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/260699 online].</ref> [[File:Croatia-41-45.gif|thumb|upright=1.3|Division of Yugoslavia after its invasion by the [[Axis powers]]. {{legend|#339966|Areas annexed by Italy: the area constituting the [[province of Ljubljana]], the area merged with the [[province of Fiume]] and the areas making up the [[Governorate of Dalmatia]]}} {{legend|#ff0000|[[Independent State of Croatia]]}} {{legend|#0000ff|Area occupied by [[Nazi Germany]]}} {{legend|#996666|Areas occupied by [[Kingdom of Hungary (1920-1946)|Kingdom of Hungary]]}}]] About Italian troops in El Alamein, Italian Defence ministry chief of staff [[Luigi Binelli Mantelli]] said: "The spirit of service and cohesion are fundamental elements for the operational capacity of the armed forces ... The ([[185th Paratroopers Division Folgore|Folgore]]) Paratroopers have always shown this. El Alamein was a battle that was lost with great honour, facing up to overwhelmingly superior firepower with poor weapons but with great spirit and capacity to resist and to hold up high the honour of Italy".<ref name="Alamein">{{cite web|url=http://www.ansa.it/english/news/politics/2014/10/31/el-alamein-lost-with-great-honour_a6aedfe0-da47-45c6-b8c9-07bd0d1c6203.html |website= ANSA.it|title=El Alamein 'lost with great honour'|date= 31 October 2014}}</ref> British historian John Bierman said that the Italian tank regiment "fought with great audacity, just as the [[Ariete]] artillery regiment did". According to American historian John W. Gordon, the British special forces were so impressed by the methods and tactics of the Italian desert corps "that they actually copied them".<ref name="Alamein"/> German General [[Erwin Rommel]] praised the Italians on several occasions, describing their as "extraordinary, courageous, disciplined, but badly commanded and equipped."<ref>Arrigo Petacco, ''[[iarchive:larmataneldesert0000peta|L'armata nel deserto. Il segreto di El Alamein]]'', Mondadori, 2002, {{ISBN|88-04-50824-8}}</ref> Writing about the fighting at the First Battle of El Alamein, he stated: "The Italians were willing, unselfish and good comrades in the frontline. There can be no disputing that the achievement of all the Italian units, especially the motorised elements, far outstripped any action of the Italian Army for 100 years. Many Italian generals and officers earned our respect as men as well as soldiers".<ref>Rommel & Pimlott (1994), p. 128</ref> During the Second Battle of El Alamein the 7th Bersaglieri Regiment exhibited a strong regimental spirit in the fight for Hill 28 that impressed Rommel to comment positively.<ref>Jon E. Lewis (1999), The Mammoth Book of True War Stories, p. 318</ref> On a plaque dedicated to the Bersaglieri that fought at Mersa Matruh and Alamein, Rommel wrote: "The German soldier has impressed the world; the Italian [[Bersagliere]] has impressed the German soldier."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ardito2000.it/ELALAMEIN2.html|title=El Alamein 2|publisher=Ardito2000 website|language=it|access-date=19 July 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722023911/http://www.ardito2000.it/ELALAMEIN2.html|archive-date=22 July 2011|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref> ===Civil War, Allied advance, and Liberation=== {{Further|Italian Civil War|Liberation of Italy}} [[File:Quattrogiornate.jpg|thumb|left|Insurgents celebrating the liberation of Naples after the [[Four days of Naples]] (27–30 September 1943).]] Although other European countries such as [[Norway]], the [[Netherlands]], and [[France]] also had partisan movements and [[Wartime collaborationism|collaborationist]] governments with [[Nazi Germany]], armed confrontation between compatriots was most intense in Italy, making the Italian case unique.<ref>{{cite book|first=Renzo|last=De Felice|title=Rosso e Nero |url=https://archive.org/details/rossoenero0000defe|trans-title=Red and Black |year=1995|publisher=Baldini & Castoldi|isbn=88-85987-95-8|language=it|page=[https://archive.org/details/rossoenero0000defe/page/22 22]}}</ref> In 1965, the definition of "civil war" was used for the first time by fascist politician and historian [[Giorgio Pisanò]] in his books,<ref>[http://www.istitutobiggini.it/storia_pisano.pdf Storia della guerra civile in Italia]</ref><ref>See the books from Italian historian [[Giorgio Pisanò]] ''Storia della guerra civile in Italia'', 1943–1945, 3 voll., Milano, FPE, 1965 and the book ''L'Italia della guerra civile'' ("Italy of civil war"), published in 1983 by the Italian writer and journalist [[Indro Montanelli]] as the fifteen volume of the ''Storia d'Italia'' ("History of Italy") by the same author.</ref> while [[Claudio Pavone]]'s book ''Una guerra civile. Saggio storico sulla moralità della Resistenza'' (''A Civil War. Historical Essay On the Morality Of the Resistance''), published in 1991, led to the term "[[Italian Civil War]]" being used more frequently by Italian{{#tag:ref|See as examples [[Renzo De Felice]] and [[Gianni Oliva]].|group=nb}} and international<ref>See as examples the [http://www.societasalutediritti.com/rassegnastampa/20052507MILZAPIERRE.htm interview] to French historian [[Pierre Milza]] on the ''Corriere della Sera'' of 14 July 2005 (in Italian) and the [https://archive.today/20120904173354/http://www.ifz-muenchen.de/index.php?id=280&type=1&L=3class=l lessons] of historian [[Thomas Schlemmer]] at the University of Munchen (in German).</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Payne |first=Stanley G. |title=Civil War in Europe, 1905-1949 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=2011|isbn=9781139499644 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zP4ikZ_o3V8C|page=202}}</ref> historiography. [[File:01 partigiani a milano1.jpg|thumb|[[Italian resistance movement|Italian anti-fascist partisans]] in Milan during the [[Italian Civil War]], April 1945]] Soon after being ousted, Mussolini was rescued by a German commando in [[Gran Sasso raid|Operation Eiche]] ("Oak"). The Germans brought Mussolini to northern Italy where he set up a Fascist puppet state, the [[Italian Social Republic]] (RSI). Meanwhile, the Allies advanced in southern Italy. In September 1943, [[Four days of Naples|Naples]] rose against the occupying German forces. The Allies organized some royalist Italian troops into the [[Italian Co-Belligerent Army]], while other troops continued to fight alongside Nazi Germany in the ''Esercito Nazionale Repubblicano'', the [[National Republican Army]]. In addition, a large [[Italian resistance movement]] started a long [[guerrilla warfare|guerrilla war]] against the German and Fascist forces. As a consequence, the country descended into [[Italian Civil War|civil war]], with the Italian Co-belligerent Army and the resistance movement, supported by the Allies, contended the Social Republic's forces and its German allies. The Germans, often helped by Fascists, committed several [[War crimes of the Wehrmacht|atrocities]] against Italian civilians in occupied zones, such as the [[Ardeatine massacre]] and the [[Sant'Anna di Stazzema massacre]]. The Kingdom of Italy declared war on Nazi Germany on 13 October 1943;<ref name=italyswitchesstayinwar>{{cite news|url=https://learning.blogs.nytimes.com/2011/10/13/oct-13-1943-italy-switches-sides-in-world-war-ii/|title=Oct. 13, 1943 {{!}} Italy Switches Sides in World War II|work=[[The New York Times]]|date=13 October 2011|access-date=29 August 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/italy-declares-war-on-germany|title=Italy declares war on Germany|publisher=History.com|access-date=30 August 2021}}</ref> tensions between the Axis Powers and the Italian military were rising following the failure to defend Sicily, with New York Times correspondent Milton Bracker noting that "Italian hatred of the Germans unquestionably grew as the fighting spirit waned, and episodes between German and Italian soldiers and civilians before and after the armistice have shown pretty clearly a complete and incontrovertible end of all sympathy between the former Axis partners."<ref name=italyswitchesstayinwar /> On 16 October, the Rastenburg Protocol was signed with Nazi Germany. In accordance with this protocol, the RSI was allowed to raise [[Division (military)|division]]-sized military formations. This allowed Graziani to raise four RSI divisions totalling 52,000 men. In July 1944, the first of these divisions completed training and was sent to the front. Recruiting military forces was difficult for the RSI, as most of the Italian army had been interned by German forces in 1943, many Italians had been [[Italian military internees|conscripted into forced labour in Germany]] and few wanted to fight on Nazi Germany's side after 8 September 1943. The RSI became so desperate for soldiers that it granted convicts freedom if they would join the army and the sentence of death was imposed on anyone who opposed being conscripted.{{sfn|Smith|1983|p=308}} Autonomous military forces in the RSI also fought against the Allies including the notorious ''[[Decima Flottiglia MAS]]'' under command of Prince [[Junio Valerio Borghese]]. Borghese held no allegiance to Mussolini and even suggested that he would take him prisoner if he could.{{sfn|Smith|1983|p=308}} On 4 June 1944, the German occupation of Rome came to an end as the Allies advanced. As the Allies advanced north, they encountered increasingly difficult terrain, as mountains offered excellent defensive positions to Axis forces. The final Allied victory over the Axis in Italy did not come until the spring offensive of 1945, after Allied troops had breached the [[Gothic Line]], leading to the surrender of German and Fascist forces in Italy on 2 May shortly before Germany finally surrendered ending World War II in Europe on 8 May. It is estimated that between September 1943 and April 1945, some 60,000 Allied and 50,000 German soldiers died in Italy.{{#tag:ref|In ''Alexander's Generals'' Blaxland quotes 59,151 Allied deaths between 3 September 1943 and 2 May 1945 as recorded at AFHQ and gives the breakdown between 20 nationalities: United States 20,442; United Kingdom, 18,737; France, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Senegal and Belgium 5,241; Canada, 4,798; India, Pakistan, Nepal 4,078; Poland 2,028; New Zealand 1,688; Italy (excluding irregulars) 917; South Africa 800; Brazil 275; Greece 115; [[Jewish Brigade|Jewish volunteers]] from the [[Mandatory Palestine|British Mandate in Palestine]] 32. In addition, 35 soldiers were killed by enemy action while serving with pioneer units from Botswana, Lesotho, Swaziland, Seychelles, Mauritius, Sri Lanka, Lebanon, Cyprus and the West Indies<ref name="Blax11">Blaxland (1979), p. 11</ref>|group=nb}} [[File:Litorale 1.png|thumb|upright=1.3|Changes to the Italian eastern border from 1920 to 1975. {{legend|#ffff00|The [[Austrian Littoral]], later renamed [[Julian March]], which was assigned to Italy in 1920 with the [[Treaty of Rapallo (1920)|Treaty of Rapallo]] (with adjustments of its border in 1924 after the [[Treaty of Rome (1924)|Treaty of Rome]]) and which was then ceded to Yugoslavia in 1947 with the [[Paris Peace Treaties, 1947|Treaty of Paris]]}} {{legend|#10FF20|Areas annexed to Italy in 1920 and remained Italian even after 1947}} {{legend|#00fa9a|Areas annexed to Italy in 1920, passed to the [[Free Territory of Trieste]] in 1947 with the Paris treaties and definitively assigned to Italy in 1975 with the [[Treaty of Osimo]]}} {{legend|#eee8aa|Areas annexed to Italy in 1920, passed to the Free Territory of Trieste in 1947 with the Paris treaties and definitively assigned to Yugoslavia in 1975 with the Osimo treaty}}]] During World War II, [[Italian war crimes]] included [[extrajudicial killing]]s and [[ethnic cleansing]]<ref name="JamesBurgwyn_2004">James H. Burgwyn (2004). [http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/routledg/rmis/2004/00000009/00000003/art00005 General Roatta's war against the partisans in Yugoslavia: 1942] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130921054155/http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/routledg/rmis/2004/00000009/00000003/art00005 |date=21 September 2013}}, Journal of Modern Italian Studies, Volume 9, Number 3, pp. 314–329(16)</ref> by the deportation of about 25,000 people, mainly Jews, Croats, and Slovenians, to the [[List of Italian concentration camps|Italian concentration camps]], such as [[Rab concentration camp|Rab]], [[Gonars concentration camp|Gonars]], [[Monigo]], [[Renicci di Anghiari]] and elsewhere. [[Yugoslav Partisans]] perpetrated their own crimes against the local ethnic Italian population ([[Istrian Italians]] and [[Dalmatian Italians]]) during and after the war, including the [[foibe massacres]]. In Italy and Yugoslavia, unlike in Germany, few war crimes were prosecuted.<ref name="RoryCarroll_2001">[https://web.archive.org/web/20130716012326/http://www.guardian.co.uk/education/2001/jun/25/artsandhumanities.highereducation Italy's bloody secret] (archived by [[WebCite]]), written by [[Rory Carroll]], Education, [[The Guardian]], June 2001</ref><ref name="Pedaliu_JContHistory">[[Effie Pedaliu]] (2004) {{JSTOR|4141408?}} Britain and the 'Hand-over' of Italian War Criminals to Yugoslavia, 1945–48. Journal of Contemporary History. Vol. 39, No. 4, Special Issue: Collective Memory, pp. 503–529</ref><ref name="oliva06">[[Gianni Oliva|Oliva, Gianni]] (2006) [https://web.archive.org/web/20110720023109/http://www.libreriauniversitaria.it/si-ammazza-troppo-poco-crimini/libro/9788804551294 ''«Si ammazza troppo poco». I crimini di guerra italiani. 1940–43''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720023109/http://www.libreriauniversitaria.it/si-ammazza-troppo-poco-crimini/libro/9788804551294|date=20 July 2011}}, Mondadori, {{ISBN|88-04-55129-1}}</ref><ref name="blpp2004">Baldissara, Luca & Pezzino, Paolo (2004). ''Crimini e memorie di guerra: violenze contro le popolazioni e politiche del ricordo'', L'Ancora del Mediterraneo. {{ISBN|978-88-8325-135-1}}</ref> On 25 April 1945 the [[National Liberation Committee for Northern Italy]] proclaimed a general insurrection in all the territories still occupied by the Nazi-fascists, indicating to all the partisan forces active in Northern Italy that were part of the Volunteer Corps of Freedom to attack the fascist and German garrisons by imposing the surrender, days before the arrival of the Allied troops; at the same time, the National Liberation Committee for Northern Italy personally issued legislative decrees,<ref>There are three fundamental decrees that seal the legislative work, already active since 1944: ''All powers to CLNAI''; ''Decree for the administration of justice''; ''Of socialization''.</ref> assuming power "in the name of the Italian people and as a delegate of the Italian Government", establishing among other things the death sentence for all fascist hierarchs,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.associazioni.milano.it/isec/ita/cronologia/crono25apr.htm|title=Fondazione ISEC - cronologia dell'insurrezione a Milano - 25 aprile|access-date=14 February 2022|language=it}}</ref> "Surrender or die!" was the rallying call of the partisans that day and those immediately following. Today the event is commemorated in [[Italy]] every 25 April by the [[Liberation Day (Italy)|Liberation Day]], [[National Day]] introduced on 22 April 1946, which celebrates the liberation of the country from [[fascism]].<ref>{{cite web |url =http://www.gazzettaufficiale.it/atto/serie_generale/caricaDettaglioAtto/originario?atto.dataPubblicazioneGazzetta=1946-04-24&atto.codiceRedazionale=046U0185&elenco30giorni=false |title =DECRETO LEGISLATIVO LUOGOTENENZIALE 22 aprile 1946, n. 185|access-date =28 April 2015| language=Italian}}</ref> Mussolini was captured on 27 April 1945, by [[Partito Comunista Italiano|communist]] [[Italian partisans]] near the [[Switzerland|Swiss]] border as he tried to escape Italy. On the next day, he was executed for high treason, as sentenced in absentia by a tribunal of the [[National Liberation Committee|CLN]]. Afterwards, the bodies of Mussolini, his mistress, and about fifteen other Fascists were taken to [[Milan]] where they were displayed to the public. Days later on 2 May 1945, the German forces in Italy surrendered. The government of Badoglio had remained in being for some nine months. On 9 June 1944, he was replaced as Prime Minister by the 70-year-old anti-fascist leader [[Ivanoe Bonomi]]. In June 1945 Bonomi was in turn replaced by [[Ferruccio Parri]], who in turn gave way to [[Alcide de Gasperi]] on 4 December 1945. Finally, De Gasperi supervised the transition to a Republic following the abdication of Vittorio Emanuele III on 9 May 1946, the one-month-long reign of his son [[Umberto II of Italy|Umberto II]] ("King of May") and the [[Italian constitutional referendum, 1946|Constitutional Referendum]] that abolished the monarchy; De Gasperi briefly became acting Head of State as well as Prime Minister on 18 June 1946, but ceded the former role to Provisional President [[Enrico de Nicola]] ten days later. ===Anti-fascism against Mussolini's regime=== {{see also|Anti-fascism}} [[File:Flag of the Arditi del Popolo Battalion.svg|thumb|left|Flag of ''[[Arditi del Popolo]]'', an axe cutting a ''[[fasces]]''. ''Arditi del Popolo'' was a militant [[Anti-fascism|anti-fascist]] group founded in 1921]] In Italy, Mussolini's [[Italian Fascism|Fascist]] regime used the term ''[[Anti-fascism|anti-fascist]]'' to describe its opponents. Mussolini's [[secret police]] was officially known as the [[Organization for Vigilance and Repression of Anti-Fascism]]. During the 1920s in the [[Kingdom of Italy]], anti-fascists, many of them from the [[labor movement]], fought against the violent [[Blackshirts]] and against the rise of the fascist leader Benito Mussolini. After the [[Italian Socialist Party]] (PSI) signed a [[Pact of Pacification|pacification pact]] with Mussolini and his [[Fasci Italiani di Combattimento|Fasces of Combat]] on 3 August 1921,<ref>Charles F. Delzell, edit., ''Mediterranean Fascism 1919-1945'', New York, NY, Walker and Company, 1971, p. 26</ref> and trade unions adopted a legalist and pacified strategy, members of the workers' movement who disagreed with this strategy formed ''[[Arditi del Popolo]]''.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://library.fes.de/libalt/journals/swetsfulltext/17283245.pdf |title=Working Class Defence Organization, Anti-Fascist Resistance and the Arditi Del Popolo in Turin, 1919-22 |access-date=23 September 2021 |archive-date=19 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220319044401/https://library.fes.de/libalt/journals/swetsfulltext/17283245.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> The [[Italian General Confederation of Labour]] (CGL) and the PSI refused to officially recognize the anti-fascist militia and maintained a non-violent, legalist strategy, while the [[Communist Party of Italy]] (PCd'I) ordered its members to quit the organization. The PCd'I organized some militant groups, but their actions were relatively minor.<ref>[https://library.fes.de/libalt/journals/swetsfulltext/17283245.pdf Working Class Defence Organization, Anti-Fascist Resistance and the Arditi Del Popolo in Turin, 1919-22] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220319044401/https://library.fes.de/libalt/journals/swetsfulltext/17283245.pdf|date=19 March 2022}}, Antonio Sonnessa, in the ''[[European History Quarterly]]'', Vol. 33, No. 2, 183-218 (2003)</ref> The Italian anarchist [[Severino Di Giovanni]], who exiled himself to Argentina following the 1922 [[March on Rome]], organized several bombings against the Italian fascist community.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://anarchist_century.tripod.com/timeline.html |title=Anarchist Century |publisher=Anarchist_century.tripod.com |access-date=7 April 2014}}</ref> The Italian liberal anti-fascist [[Benedetto Croce]] wrote his ''[[Manifesto of the Anti-Fascist Intellectuals]]'', which was published in 1925.<ref>David Ward ''Antifascisms: Cultural Politics in Italy, 1943–1946''</ref>{{page needed|date=June 2020}} Other notable Italian liberal anti-fascists around that time were [[Piero Gobetti]] and [[Carlo Rosselli]].<ref>James Martin, 'Piero Gobetti's Agonistic Liberalism', ''History of European Ideas'', '''32''', (2006), pp. 205–222.</ref> [[File:Concentrazione_di_azione_antifascista.jpg|thumb|1931 badge of a member of [[Concentrazione Antifascista Italiana]]]] [[Concentrazione Antifascista Italiana]] ({{lang-en|Italian Anti-Fascist Concentration}}), officially known as Concentrazione d'Azione Antifascista (Anti-Fascist Action Concentration), was an Italian coalition of Anti-Fascist groups which existed from 1927 to 1934. Founded in [[Nérac]], France, by expatriate Italians, the CAI was an alliance of non-communist anti-fascist forces (republican, socialist, nationalist) trying to promote and to coordinate expatriate actions to fight fascism in Italy; they published a propaganda paper entitled ''La Libertà''.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Pugliese |first1=Stanislao G. |last2=Pugliese |first2=Stanislao |title=Fascism, Anti-fascism, and the Resistance in Italy: 1919 to the Present |date=2004 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=978-0-7425-3123-9 |page=10 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sDyqHO2LVosC&pg=PA10 |access-date=11 June 2020 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Tollardo |first1=Elisabetta |title=Fascist Italy and the League of Nations, 1922-1935 |date=2016 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-349-95028-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A6JlDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA152 |page=152 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Scala |first1=Spencer M. Di |title=Renewing Italian Socialism: Nenni to Craxi |date=1988 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-536396-8 |pages=6–8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c8gGaCQDLUsC&pg=PA6 |access-date=11 June 2020 |language=en}}</ref> [[File:Flag of Giustizia e Liberta.svg|thumb|Flag of [[Giustizia e Libertà]], anti-fascist movement active from 1929 to 1945]] [[Giustizia e Libertà]] ({{lang-en|Justice and Freedom}}) was an Italian [[anti-fascist]] [[resistance movement]], active from 1929 to 1945.<ref name=jam>James D. Wilkinson (1981). ''The Intellectual Resistance Movement in Europe''. Harvard University Press. p. 224.</ref> The movement was cofounded by [[Carlo Rosselli]],<ref name=jam/> [[Ferruccio Parri]], who later became [[Prime Minister of Italy]], and [[Sandro Pertini]], who became [[President of Italy]], were among the movement's leaders.<ref>Stanislao G. Pugliese (1999). ''Carlo Rosselli: socialist heretic and antifascist exile''. Harvard University Press. p. 51.</ref> The movement's members held various political beliefs but shared a belief in active, effective opposition to fascism, compared to the older Italian anti-fascist parties. ''Giustizia e Libertà'' also made the international community aware of the realities of fascism in Italy, thanks to the work of [[Gaetano Salvemini]]. Many Italian anti-fascists participated in the [[Spanish Civil War]] with the hope of setting an example of armed resistance to [[Francisco Franco|Franco]]'s dictatorship against Mussolini's regime; hence their motto: "Today in Spain, tomorrow in Italy".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.collettiva.it/rubriche/buona-memoria/2023/05/07/news/_oggi_in_spagna_domani_in_italia_-2984121/|title="Oggi in Spagna, domani in Italia"|access-date=12 May 2023|language=it}}</ref> Between 1920 and 1943, several anti-fascist movements were active among the [[Slovenes]] and [[Croats]] in the territories annexed to Italy after [[World War I]], known as the [[Julian March]].<ref>[[Milica Kacin Wohinz]], [[Jože Pirjevec]], ''Storia degli sloveni in Italia : 1866–1998'' (Venice: Marsilio, 1998)</ref><ref>Milica Kacin Wohinz, ''Narodnoobrambno gibanje primorskih Slovencev : 1921–1928'' (Trieste: Založništvo tržaškega tiska, 1977)</ref> The most influential was the militant insurgent organization [[TIGR]], which carried out numerous sabotages, as well as attacks on representatives of the Fascist Party and the military.<ref>[[Milica Kacin Wohinz]], ''Prvi antifašizem v Evropi'' (Koper: Lipa, 1990)</ref><ref>Mira Cenčič, ''TIGR : Slovenci pod Italijo in TIGR na okopih v boju za narodni obstoj'' (Ljubljana: Mladinska knjiga, 1997)</ref> Most of the underground structure of the organization was discovered and dismantled by the [[Organization for Vigilance and Repression of Anti-Fascism]] (OVRA) in 1940 and 1941,<ref>Vid Vremec, Pinko Tomažič in drugi tržaški proces 1941 (Trieste: Založništvo tržaškega tiska, 1989)</ref> and after June 1941 most of its former activists joined the [[Slovene Partisans]]. During [[World War II]], many members of the [[Italian resistance]] left their homes and went to live in the mountains, fighting against Italian fascists and [[Nazi Germany|German Nazi]] soldiers during the [[Italian Civil War]]. Many cities in Italy, including [[Turin]], [[Naples]] and [[Milan]], were freed by anti-fascist uprisings.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://darbysrangers.tripod.com/id102.htm |title=Intelligence and Operational Support for the Anti-Nazi Resistance |publisher=Darbysrangers.tripod.com}}</ref> ==Republican era (1946–present)== {{Main|History of the Italian Republic}} ===Birth of the Republic=== {{Main|1946 Italian institutional referendum}} [[File:Umberto II, 1944.jpg|thumb|left|150px|[[Umberto II]], the last [[King of Italy]], was exiled to Portugal.]] Much like [[Japan]] and [[Germany]], the aftermath of World War II left Italy with a destroyed economy, a divided society, and anger against the monarchy for its endorsement of the Fascist regime for the previous twenty years. These frustrations contributed to a revival of the Italian republican movement.<ref>{{Citation|year=1970|title=Italia|encyclopedia=Dizionario enciclopedico italiano|volume=VI|page=456|publisher=[[Treccani]]|language=it}}</ref> Following Victor Emmanuel III's abdication, his son, the new king [[Umberto II of Italy|Umberto II]], was pressured by the threat of another civil war to call a [[Italian constitutional referendum, 1946|Constitutional Referendum]] to decide whether Italy should remain a monarchy or become a republic. On 2 June 1946, the republican side won 54% of the vote and Italy officially became a republic. All male members of the [[House of Savoy]] were barred from entering Italy, a ban which was only repealed in 2002. Under the [[Treaty of Peace with Italy, 1947]], [[Istria]], [[Kvarner Gulf|Kvarner]], most of the [[Julian March]] as well as the [[Dalmatia]]n city of [[Zadar|Zara]] was annexed by [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]] causing the [[Istrian-Dalmatian exodus]], which led to the emigration of between 230,000 and 350,000 local ethnic [[Italians]] ([[Istrian Italians]] and [[Dalmatian Italians]]), the others being ethnic Slovenians, ethnic Croatians, and ethnic [[Istro-Romanians]], choosing to maintain Italian citizenship.<ref>{{cite web |first=Benedetta |last=Tobagi |url=http://www.treccani.it/scuola/lezioni/storia/la_repubblica_italiana.html |title=La Repubblica italiana &#124; Treccani, il portale del sapere |publisher=Treccani.it |access-date=28 January 2015}}</ref> [[File:Alcide de Gasperi 2.jpg|thumb|150px|[[Alcide De Gasperi]], [[List of Prime Ministers of Italy|first]] republican [[Prime Minister of Italy]] and one of the [[Founding fathers of the European Union|Founding Fathers of the European Union]]]] Later, the [[Free Territory of Trieste]] was divided between the two states. Italy also lost all of its colonial possessions, formally ending the [[Italian Empire]]. In 1950, [[Italian Somaliland]] was made a [[Trust Territory of Somaliland|United Nations Trust Territory]] under Italian administration until 1 July 1960. The Italian border that applies today has existed since 1975, when [[Trieste]] was formally re-annexed to Italy. The [[Italian general election, 1946|General Elections of 1946]], held at the same time as the Constitutional Referendum, elected 556 members of a [[Constituent Assembly of Italy|Constituent Assembly]], of which 207 were [[Democrazia Cristiana|Christian Democrats]], 115 [[Partito Socialista Italiano|Socialists]] and 104 [[Partito Comunista Italiano|Communists]]. A [[Italian Constitution|new constitution]] was approved, setting up a [[parliamentary system|parliamentary]] democracy. In 1947, under American pressure, the communists were expelled from the government. The [[Italian general election, 1948]] saw a landslide victory for Christian Democrats, that dominated the system for the following forty years. ====Marshall Plan aid from the United States==== [[File:Римський договір.jpg|thumb|left|The signing ceremony of the [[Treaty of Rome]] on 25 March 1957, creating the [[European Economic Community|EEC]], forerunner of the present-day [[European Union|EU]].]] Italy joined the [[Marshall Plan]] (ERP) and [[NATO]]. By 1950, the economy had largely stabilized and started booming.<ref>Christopher Duggan, '' Force of Destiny: A History of Italy Since 1796'' (2008) ch 27</ref> In 1957, Italy was a founding member of the [[European Economic Community]], which later transformed into the European Union (EU). The Marshall Plan's long-term legacy was to help modernize Italy's economy. How Italian society built mechanisms to adapt, translate, resist, and domesticate this challenge had a lasting effect on the nation's development over the subsequent decades.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Ellwood | first1 = David W. | year = 2003 | title = The Propaganda of the Marshall Plan in Italy in a Cold War Context | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_intelligence-national-security_summer-2003_18_2/page/225 | journal = Intelligence and National Security | volume = 18 | issue = 2| pages = 225–236 | doi = 10.1080/02684520412331306820 | s2cid = 153463824}}</ref> After Fascism's failure, the United States offered a vision of modernization that was unprecedented in its power, internationalism, and invitation to emulation. However Stalinism was a powerful political force. The ERP was one of the main ways that this modernization was operationalized. The old prevailing vision of the country's industrial prospects had been rooted in traditional ideas of craftsmanship, frugality and thrift, which stood in contrast to the dynamism seen in automobiles and fashion, anxious to leave behind the protectionism of the Fascist era and take advantage of the opportunities offered by rapidly expanding world trade. By 1953, industrial production had doubled compared with 1938 and the annual rate of productivity increase was 6.4%, twice the British rate. At [[Fiat Automobiles|Fiat]], automobile production per employee quadrupled between 1948 and 1955, the fruit of an intense, Marshall Plan-aided application of American technology (as well as much more intense discipline on the factory-floor). Vittorio Valletta, Fiat's general manager, helped by trade barriers that blocked French and German cars, focused on technological innovations as well as an aggressive export strategy. He successfully bet on serving the more dynamic foreign markets from modern plants built with the help of Marshall Plan funds. From this export base he later sold into a growing domestic market, where Fiat was without serious competition. Fiat managed to remain at the cutting edge of car manufacturing technology, enabling it to expand production, foreign sales, and profits.<ref>Francesca Fauri, "The Role of Fiat in the Development of the Italian Car Industry in the 1950s" ''Business History Review'' 1996 70(2): 167–206. [https://www.jstor.org/pss/3116880 in Jstor]</ref> ===Economic miracle=== [[File:Roma 1998 08 14 Fiat 600.jpg|thumb|left|[[Fiat 600]], iconic middle-class dream car and status symbol of the 1950-60s.]] {{Main|Italian economic miracle}} In the 1950s and 1960s the country enjoyed prolonged economic boom, which was accompanied by a dramatic rise in the standard of living of ordinary Italians.<ref>Modern Italy 1871–1995 by Martin Clark</ref> The so-called [[Italian economic miracle]] lasted almost uninterruptedly until the "[[Hot Autumn]]'s" massive strikes and social unrest of 1969–70, that combined with the later [[1973 oil crisis]], gradually cooled the economy, that has never returned to its heady post-war growth rates. It has been calculated that the Italian economy experienced an average rate of growth of GDP of 5.8% per year between 1951 and 1963, and 5.0% per year between 1964 and 1973.<ref>{{Cite book| first1=Nicholas |last1=Crafts |first2=Gianni |last2=Toniolo | title = Economic growth in Europe since 1945| url=https://archive.org/details/economicgrowtheu1945craf_729| url-access=limited| publisher=Cambridge University Press| year= 1996| page = [https://archive.org/details/economicgrowtheu1945craf_729/page/n452 428]| isbn = 0-521-49627-6}}</ref> Italian rates of growth were second only, but very close, to the [[West Germany|German]] rates, in Europe, and among the [[OEEC]] countries only Japan had been doing better.<ref>{{Cite book| first=Ennio |last=Di Nolfo| title = Power in Europe? II: Great Britain, France, Germany, and Italy, and the Origins of the EEC 1952–57| publisher=de Gruyter| year= 1992| location = Berlin| page = 198| isbn = 3-11-012158-1}}</ref> Between 1955 and 1971, around 9 million people are estimated to have been involved in inter-regional migrations in Italy, uprooting entire communities.<ref>{{Cite book| first=Paul| last=Ginsborg| title = A history of contemporary Italy| url=https://archive.org/details/historyofcontemp0000gins| publisher=Palgrave Macmillan| year= 2003| location = New York| page = [https://archive.org/details/historyofcontemp0000gins/page/219 219]| isbn = 1-4039-6153-0}}</ref> Emigration was especially directed to the factories of the so-called "industrial triangle", a region encompassed between the major manufacturing centres of [[Milan]] and [[Turin]] and the seaport of [[Genoa]]. The needs of a modernizing economy demanded new transport and energy infrastructures. Thousands of kilometres of railways and highways were completed in record times to connect the main urban areas, while dams and power plants were built all over Italy, often without regard for geological and environmental conditions. Strong urban growth led to uncontrolled urban sprawl. The natural environment was constantly under threat by wild industrial expansion, leading to ecological disasters like the [[Vajont Dam]] inundation and the [[Seveso disaster|Seveso]] chemical accident. The boom had also a huge impact on Italian society and culture. The pervasive [[influence of mass media]] and [[consumerism]] on society has often been fiercely criticized by intellectuals like [[Pier Paolo Pasolini]] and film directors like [[Dino Risi]], [[Vittorio De Sica]] and [[Ettore Scola]], that stigmatized selfishness and immorality that characterized miracle's years. ===Years of Lead=== {{Main|Years of lead (Italy)}} [[File:Stragedibologna-2.jpg|thumb|right|[[Bologna massacre|Attack]] of the far-right terrorist group [[Nuclei Armati Rivoluzionari|NAR]] at the [[Bologna]] railway station on 2 August 1980, which caused the death of 85 people.]] During the 1970s, Italy saw an unexpected escalation of political violence. From 1969 to 1980, repeated neofascist outrages were launched such as the [[Piazza Fontana bombing]] in 1969. Red Brigades and many other groups decided on armed attacks as a revolutionary strategy. They carried out urban riots, as in Rome and Bologna in 1977. Known as the [[History of Italy (1970s-1980s)|Years of Lead]], this period was characterised by widespread social conflicts and terrorist acts carried out by extra-parliamentary movements. The assassination of the leader of the [[Christian Democracy (Italy)|Christian Democracy]] (DC), [[Aldo Moro]], led to the end of a "[[historic compromise]]" between the DC and the [[Italian Communist Party|Communist Party]] (PCI). In the 1980s, for the first time, two governments were managed by a Republican ([[Giovanni Spadolini]] 1981–82) and a Socialist ([[Bettino Craxi]] 1983–87) rather than by a Christian Democrat.<ref>Alessandra Diazzi and Alvise Sforza Tarabochia, ''The Years of Alienation in Italy: Factory and Asylum Between the Economic Miracle and the Years of Lead'' (2019), pp 1-40.</ref><ref>Richard Drake, "Italy in the 1960s: A Legacy of Terrorism and Liberation." ''South central review'' 16 (1999): 62-76. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/3190077 online]</ref> At the end of the Lead years, the PCI gradually increased their votes thanks to [[Enrico Berlinguer]]. The [[Italian Socialist Party|Socialist Party]] (PSI), led by [[Bettino Craxi]], became more and more critical of the Communists and of the [[Soviet Union]]; Craxi himself pushed in favour of US President [[Ronald Reagan]]'s positioning of [[Pershing II]] missiles in Italy. ===Second Republic (1992–present)=== Italy faced several terror attacks between 1992 and 1993, perpetrated by the [[Sicilian Mafia]] as a consequence of several life sentences pronounced during the "[[Maxi Trial]]", and of the new anti-mafia measures launched by the government. In 1992, two major dynamite attacks killed the judges [[Giovanni Falcone]] (23 May in the [[Capaci bombing]]) and [[Paolo Borsellino]] (19 July in the [[Via D'Amelio bombing]]).<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.corriere.it/International/english/articoli/2012/03/08/borsellino.shtml |title=New Arrests for Via D'Amelio Bomb Attack |publisher=corriere.it |date=8 March 2012}}</ref> One year later (May–July 1993), tourist spots were attacked, such as the [[Via dei Georgofili bombing|Via dei Georgofili]] in Florence, [[Via Palestro massacre|Via Palestro]] in Milan, and the Piazza [[San Giovanni in Laterano]] and Via San Teodoro in Rome, leaving 10 dead and 93 injured and causing severe damage to cultural heritage such as the [[Uffizi Gallery]]. The Catholic Church openly condemned the Mafia, and two churches were bombed and an anti-Mafia priest shot dead in Rome.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.ipezzimancanti.it/download/Tagliavia%20sentenza.pdf|title=Sentenza del processo di 1º grado a Francesco Tagliavia per le stragi del 1993}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.parlamento.it/application/xmanager/projects/parlamento/Reso.steno.26.3.2012Int..pdf|title=Audizione del procuratore Sergio Lari dinanzi alla Commissione Parlamentare Antimafia – XVI LEGISLATURA (PDF).}}</ref> [[File:Echadas_de_Monedas.jpg|thumb|left|[[Bettino Craxi]], viewed by many as the symbol of [[Tangentopoli]], Leader of the [[Italian Socialist Party|Socialist Party]] and Prime Minister from 1983 to 1987, is greeted by a salvo of coins as a sign of loathing by protesters.]] From 1992 to 1997, Italy faced significant challenges as voters disenchanted with political paralysis, massive government debt, extensive corruption, and organised crime's considerable influence collectively called the political system [[Tangentopoli]]. As Tangentopoli was under a set of judicial investigations by the name of [[Mani pulite]] (Italian for "clean hands"), voters demanded political, economic, and ethical reforms. The Tangentopoli scandals involved all major parties, but especially those in the government coalition: between 1992-94 the [[Christian Democracy (Italy)|DC]] underwent a severe crisis and was dissolved, splitting up into several pieces, among whom the [[Italian People's Party (1994–2002)|Italian People's Party]] and the [[Christian Democratic Center]]. The [[Italian Socialist Party|PSI]] (along with other minor governing parties) completely dissolved.<ref>Sarah Waters, "'Tangentopoli' and the emergence of a new political order in Italy." ''West European Politics'' (1994): 17#1 pp:169–182.</ref><ref>Donald Sassoon, "Tangentopoli or the democratization of corruption: Considerations on the end of Italy's first republic." ''Journal of Modern Italian Studies'' (1995) 1#1 pp: 124–143.</ref> The [[Italian general election, 1994|1994 general election]] also swept media magnate [[Silvio Berlusconi]] (Leader of "[[Pole of Freedoms]]" coalition) into office as Prime Minister. Berlusconi, however, was forced to step down in December 1994 when his [[Lega Nord]] partners withdrew support. The Berlusconi government was succeeded by a [[technical government]] headed by Prime Minister [[Lamberto Dini]], which left office in early-1996. At the [[Italian general election, 1996|1996 general election]], [[Romano Prodi]] led a centre-left coalition to victory. Prodi's first government became the third-longest to stay in power before he narrowly lost a vote of confidence, by three votes, in October 1998. A new government was formed by [[Democrats of the Left]] leader and former Communist [[Massimo D'Alema]], but in April 2000, following poor performance by his coalition in regional elections, D'Alema resigned. The succeeding centre-left government, including most of the same parties, was headed by [[Giuliano Amato]] (social-democratic), who previously served as Prime Minister from 1992 to 1993 and again from April 2000 until June 2001. That same year, a centre-right coalition [[Italian general election, 2001|formed the government]] and [[Silvio Berlusconi]] was able to regain power and keep it for a complete five-year mandate; becoming the longest-serving government in post-war Italy. Berlusconi participated in the US-led [[multinational coalition in Iraq]]. {{multiple image |align=right|direction=horizontal | image1 = Romano Prodi 1999 (cropped).jpg | width1 = 122 | image2 = Silvio Berlusconi 1996.jpg | width2 = 131 | caption1 = [[Romano Prodi]], Prime Minister from 1996 to 1998 and from 2006 to 2008, and long-time leader of the [[Centre-left coalition (Italy)|centre-left coalition]] | caption2 = [[Silvio Berlusconi]], Prime Minister from 1994 to 1995, from 2001 to 2006 and from 2008 to 2011, and long-time leader of the [[Centre-right coalition (Italy)|centre-right coalition]] }} The [[Italian general election, 2006|2006 general election]] returned Prodi to government, leading an all-encompassing centre-left coalition of 11 parties ([[The Union (political coalition)|The Union]]). Prodi won with only a narrow majority in the Senate, also due to the new proportional [[electoral law]] introduced by Berlusconi and [[Roberto Calderoli|Calderoli]] in 2005. In the first year of his government, Prodi followed a cautious policy of economic liberalisation and reduction of public debt. His government, in loss of popularity, was anyway sacked by the end of support from centrist MPs led by [[Clemente Mastella]]. Berlusconi won the [[Italian general election, 2008|2008 general election]], with the [[People of Freedom]] party (fusion of his previous [[Forza Italia]] party and of Fini's [[National Alliance (Italy)|National Alliance]]) against [[Walter Veltroni]] of the [[Democratic Party (Italy)|Democratic Party]]. Italy was among the countries hit hardest by the [[Great Recession]] of 2008–09 and the subsequent [[European debt crisis]]. The national economy shrunk by 6.76% during the whole period, totalling seven quarters of recession.<ref name="OECD">{{cite web |url=http://stats.oecd.org/index.aspx?queryid=350 |title=Quarterly Growth Rates of real GDP, change over previous quarter |publisher=[[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development|OECD]] |access-date=8 February 2015}}</ref> In 2010, Berlusconi's party saw the splintering of [[Gianfranco Fini]]'s new faction, which formed a parliamentary group and voted against him in a no-confidence vote on 14 December 2010. Berlusconi's government was able to avoid no-confidence thanks to support from sparse MPs, but has lost a consistent majority in the lower Chamber. In November 2011, the Italian bond yield was 6.74 per cent for 10-year bonds, nearing a 7% level where Italy is thought to lose access to financial markets.<ref>{{cite news|first1=Barry|last1=Moody|first2=James|last2=Mackenzie|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-italy-idUSTRE7A72NG20111108|title=Berlusconi to resign after parliamentary setback|date=8 November 2011|work=[[Reuters]]|access-date=8 February 2015|archive-date=18 September 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120918220156/http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/11/08/us-italy-idUSTRE7A72NG20111108|url-status=live}}</ref> On 12 November 2011, Berlusconi eventually resigned, and the famous economist [[Mario Monti]] was sworn in as Prime Minister at the head of a [[technocracy|technocratic]] government. As a shock therapy to avoid the debt crisis and kick-start economic growth, Monti's [[national unity government]] launched a massive programme of [[austerity measures]]; that reduced the deficit but precipitated the country in a [[double-dip recession]] in 2012 and 2013, receiving criticism from numerous economists.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Krugman|first1=Paul|title=Austerity, Italian-Style|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/02/25/opinion/krugman-austerity-italian-style.html|access-date=26 November 2017|work=The New York Times|date=24 February 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Orsi|first1=Roberto|title=The Demise of Italy and the Rise of Chaos|date=8 October 2013 |url=http://blogs.lse.ac.uk/eurocrisispress/2013/10/08/the-demise-of-italy-and-the-rise-of-chaos/|publisher=[[London School of Economics]]|access-date=26 November 2017}}</ref> [[File:2015 sicily.jpg|thumb|left|Asylum seekers arrive in [[Sicily]], 2015. The [[Arab Spring]] and the [[Syrian Civil War|Syrian War]] created factors that led to a [[European migrant crisis|migrant crisis]] that saw hundreds of thousands of boat-dwellers seeking refuge in Italy and other Mediterranean countries.]] On 24 and 25 February 2013, a [[Italian general election, 2013|general election]] was held; a centre-left coalition led [[Pier Luigi Bersani]], Leader of the [[Democratic Party (Italy)|Democratic Party]], won a slight majority in the Chamber of Deputies but did not control the Senate. The election was characterised by the surprise success of the [[anti-establishment]] [[Five Star Movement]], founded by former comedian [[Beppe Grillo]], which came second with 25.5% of votes. On 24 April, President Napolitano gave to the Vice-Secretary of the Democratic Party, [[Enrico Letta]], the task of forming a government, having determined that Bersani could not form a government. Letta formed a short-lived [[Grand coalition (Italy)|grand coalition]] government, supported also by [[The People of Freedom]] of [[Silvio Berlusconi]] and [[Civic Choice]] of [[Mario Monti]]. Letta's cabinet lasted until 22 February 2014 (for a total of 300 days), as the government fell apart after the Democratic Party retired its support of Letta in favour of [[Matteo Renzi]], the 39-year-old mayor of Florence and nicknamed "''Il Rottamatore''" (The scrapper), who formed a new [[Renzi Cabinet|government]] with the support of some centrist parties. The Cabinet was the youngest government of Italy up to date, with an average age of 47 years and the first in which the number of female ministers was equal to the number of male ministers. The government implemented numerous reforms, including changes to the [[Italian electoral law|electoral system]], a relaxation of labour and employment laws with the intention of boosting economic growth, a thorough reformation of the [[public administration]] and the introduction of [[Civil union|same-sex civil union]]s.<ref>{{cite web|url= https://www.bloomberg.com/news/videos/2015-09-29/italy-prime-minister-matteo-renzi-on-senate-reform|title= Italy Prime Minister Mattro Renzi on Senate Reform|publisher= [[Bloomberg L.P.|Bloomberg]]|access-date= 29 September 2015}}</ref> However, Renzi resigned after losing a [[Italian constitutional referendum, 2016|constitutional referendum]] in December 2016, and was succeeded by [[Paolo Gentiloni]]. The centre-left Cabinets were plagued by the aftermath of the [[European debt crisis]] and the [[European migrant crisis]], which fuelled support for populist and right-wing parties.<ref>{{cite news |title=Fear of migrants feeds growth of Italy's far-right |url=https://www.irishtimes.com/news/world/europe/fear-of-migrants-feeds-growth-of-italy-s-far-right-1.3393398 |access-date=10 June 2021 |publisher=[[The Irish Times]] |date=17 February 2018}}</ref> [[File:Covid-19 San Salvatore 09.jpg|thumb|Exhausted nurse takes a break in an Italian hospital during the [[COVID-19 pandemic in Italy|COVID-19 emergency]].]] The [[Italian general election, 2018|2018 general election]] resulted in a [[hung parliament]] once again, which led to an unlikely [[Conte I Cabinet|populist government]] between the anti-establishment Five Star Movement and Salvini's [[Lega (political party)|Lega]], led by [[Giuseppe Conte]].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/05/24/opinion/populists-rome-five-star-movement.html |title=Opinion – The Populists Take Rome |work=The New York Times |date=24 May 2018 |access-date=2 June 2018 |via=NYTimes.com}}</ref> However, after only fourteen months, the League withdrew its support to Conte, who subsequently allied with the Democratic Party and other smaller left-wing parties to form a new Cabinet.<ref>{{cite news |title=Italy's Conte forms coalition of bitter rivals, booting far-right from power |url=https://www.france24.com/en/20190905-italy-coalition-conte-five-star-populists-democrats |access-date=9 September 2019 |work=France 24 |date=5 September 2019 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=New Italian government formed, allying M5S and the centre-left {{!}} DW {{!}} 4 September 2019 |url=https://www.dw.com/en/new-italian-government-formed-allying-m5s-and-the-center-left/a-50287864 |access-date=9 September 2019 |work=Deutsche Welle |date=4 September 2019}}</ref> In 2020, Italy was severely hit by the [[COVID-19 pandemic in Italy|COVID-19 pandemic]].<ref>[http://www.salute.gov.it/nuovocoronavirus Nuovo coronavirus], ''Minsitero della Salute''</ref> From March to May 2020, Conte's government imposed a [[2020 Italy coronavirus lockdown|national lockdown]] as a measure to limit the spread of COVID-19.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-51810673 |title=Italy extends emergency measures nationwide}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last1=Beaumont |first1=Peter |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/mar/10/from-confidence-to-quarantine-how-coronavirus-swept-italy |title=From confidence to quarantine: how coronavirus swept Italy |date=10 March 2020 |work=The Guardian|access-date=12 March 2020 |last2=Sample |first2=Ian |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077}}</ref> The measures, despite being widely approved by public opinion,<ref>{{cite web |last1=De Feo |first1=Gianluca |title=Sondaggio Demos: gradimento per Conte alle stelle |url=https://www.youtrend.it/2020/03/20/sondaggio-demos-gradimento-per-conte-alle-stelle/ |website=YouTrend |access-date=22 March 2020 |language=it-IT |date=20 March 2020}}</ref> were also described as the largest suppression of [[constitutional right]]s in the history of the republic.<ref>{{cite news |title=Blog {{!}} Coronavirus, la sospensione delle libertà costituzionali è realtà. Ma per me ce la stiamo cavando bene |url=https://www.ilfattoquotidiano.it/2020/03/18/coronavirus-la-sospensione-delle-liberta-costituzionali-e-realta-ma-per-me-ce-la-stiamo-cavando-bene/5739296/ |access-date=22 March 2020 |work=Il Fatto Quotidiano |date=18 March 2020 |language=it-IT}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Un uomo solo è al comando dell'Italia, e nessuno ha niente da ridire |url=https://www.linkiesta.it/2020/03/italia-coronavirus-conte-uomo-solo-al-comando/ |access-date=4 March 2020 |work=Linkiesta |date=24 March 2020 |language=it-IT}}</ref> With more than 100,000 confirmed fatalities, Italy was one of the countries with the highest total number of deaths in the [[COVID-19 pandemic|worldwide coronavirus pandemic]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Italy mourns its 100,000 dead as third wave builds |url=https://www.rte.ie/news/coronavirus/2021/0318/1204668-corovirus-global/ |access-date=10 June 2021 |agency=[[Raidió Teilifís Éireann]] |date=18 Mar 2021}}</ref> The pandemic caused also a [[Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic|severe economic disruption]], which resulted in Italy being one of the most affected countries.<ref>[https://www.agi.it/economia/news/2020-04-14/coronavirus-fmi-crisi-economica-8331041/ L'Italia pagherà il conto più salato della crisi post-epidemia], AGI</ref> In February 2021, these extraordinary circumstances brought to the formation of a [[Draghi Cabinet|national coalition government]] led by former President of the European Central Bank [[Mario Draghi]]. On 13 February 2021, he was sworn in as Prime Minister. The [[Draghi Cabinet|Draghi cabinet]] had support across the broad political spectrum.<ref>{{cite news |title=Mario Draghi sworn in as Italy's new prime minister |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-56049115 |work=BBC News |date=13 February 2021}}</ref> In January 2022, President [[Sergio Mattarella]] was re-elected to serve a second consecutive seven-year term.<ref>{{cite news |title=Sergio Mattarella: At 80, Italy president re-elected on amid successor row |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-60183929 |work=BBC News |date=29 January 2022}}</ref> On 21 July 2022, following a [[2022 Italian government crisis|government crisis]] which ended with FI, League and the M5S deciding to withdraw their support to the government, Prime Minister Draghi resigned. President [[Sergio Mattarella]] consequently dissolved the Parliament<ref>{{cite web | url=https://apnews.com/article/elections-legislature-italy-802d6ab0965feebf4e3f7bda1659df42 | title=Italy heads to early election after Draghi's coalition fails | website=[[Associated Press]] | date=21 July 2022 }}</ref> and called a [[2022 Italian general election|snap election]], which resulted in the [[Centre-right coalition (Italy)|centre-right coalition]] gaining an absolute majority of seats.<ref>{{cite news|date=27 September 2022|title=Italy's far-right Meloni begins tricky government talks|url=https://www.france24.com/en/live-news/20220927-italy-s-far-right-meloni-begins-tricky-government-talks |access-date=2 October 2022|work=France 24|publisher=Agence France-Press}}</ref> On 22 October 2022, [[Giorgia Meloni]] was sworn in as Italy's first female prime minister. Her [[Brothers of Italy]] party formed a right-wing government with the far-right [[Lega (political party)|League]] and centre-right of ex-prime minister [[Silvio Berlusconi|Silvio Berlusconi's]] party.<ref>{{cite news |title=Who is Giorgia Meloni? The rise to power of Italy's new far-right PM |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-63351655 |work=BBC News |date=21 October 2022}}</ref> ==See also== {{div col|colwidth=22em}} * [[Duchy of Urbino]] * [[Genetic history of Italy]] * [[History of Capri]] * [[History of Naples]] * [[History of Rome]] * [[History of Sardinia]] * [[History of Sicily]] * [[History of the Republic of Venice]] * [[History of Trentino]] * [[History of Tuscany]] * [[History of Verona]] * [[Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia]] * [[List of consorts of Montferrat]] * [[List of consorts of Naples]] * [[List of consorts of Savoy]] * [[List of consorts of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies]] * [[List of consorts of Tuscany]] * [[List of Italian queens]] * [[List of Italian inventions and discoveries]] * [[List of kings of the Lombards]] * [[List of Milanese consorts]] * [[List of Modenese consorts]] * [[List of monarchs of Naples]] * [[List of monarchs of Sardinia]] * [[List of monarchs of Sicily]] * [[List of monarchs of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies]] * [[List of Parmese consorts]] * [[List of presidents of Italy]] * [[List of prime ministers of Italy]] * [[List of queens of the Lombards]] * [[List of Roman and Byzantine Empresses]] * [[List of rulers of Tuscany]] * [[List of Sardinian consorts]] * [[List of Sicilian consorts]] * [[List of State Archives of Italy]] * [[List of viceroys of Naples]] * [[List of viceroys of Sicily]] * [[Milan]] * [[Military history of Italy]] * [[Politics of Italy]] {{div col end}} ==Vyakulemba== {{Reflist|group=nb}} ==Ukaboni== {{Reflist|colwidth=30em}} == Vyakulemba vinyake == ===Surveys=== * Coppa, Frank J. ed. ''Dictionary of Modern Italian History'' (1985) * Di Scala, Spencer M. ''Italy: From Revolution to Republic, 1700 to the Present.'' (1998) 436pp [https://www.questia.com/read/98920663 online edition] * Domenico, Roy. ''The Regions of Italy: A Reference Guide to History and Culture'' (2002) [https://web.archive.org/web/20110605071013/http://www.questia.com/read/102135404?title=The%20Regions%20of%20Italy:%20A%20Reference%20Guide%20to%20History%20and%20Culture online edition] * Duggan, Christopher. ''The Force of Destiny: A History of Italy Since 1796'' (2008) [https://www.amazon.com/dp/0618353674 excerpt and text search] * Hearder, Henry, and D. P. Waley; ''A Short History of Italy: From Classical Times to the Present Day'' (1963) [https://web.archive.org/web/20080621180349/http://www.questia.com/read/1149043 online edition] * Holmes, George. ''The Oxford Illustrated History of Italy'' (2001) [https://www.amazon.com/dp/0192854445 excerpt and text search] * Killinger; Charles L. ''The History of Italy'' (2002) [https://www.questia.com/read/101544720 online edition] * Smith, Denis Mack. ''Modern Italy: A Political History'' (1997) * {{cite book |last1=Smith |first1=Denis Mack |title=Mussolini: A Biography |url=https://archive.org/details/mussolini0000mack_m0l4 |date=1983 |publisher=Vintage Books |location=New York |isbn=978-0394716589}} ===Geography and environment=== * Armiero, Marco, and Marcus Hall, eds. ''Nature and History in Modern Italy'' (Ecology and History Series) (Ohio University Press, 2010) 295 pp.&nbsp;{{ISBN|978-0-8214-1916-8}} [https://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=31962 online review] * [[Lorenzo Arnone Sipari|Arnone Sipari, Lorenzo]], ed. ''Scritti scelti di Erminio Sipari sul Parco Nazionale d'Abruzzo (1922–1933)'' (Nature and Parks series) (Trento, 2011) 349 pp.&nbsp;{{ISBN|978-88-97372-05-9}} * Delano-Smith, Catherine. ''Western Mediterranean Europe: A Historical Geography of Italy, Spain, and Southern France Since the Neolithic'' (1980) ===Ancient=== * Cary, M. and H. H. Scullard. ''A History of Rome: Down to the Reign of Constantine'' (3rd ed. 1996), 690pp * Forsythe, Gary. ''A Critical History of Early Rome'' (2005) 400pp * Grant, Michael. ''History of Rome'' (1997) * Heather, Peter. ''The Fall of the Roman Empire: A New History of Rome and the Barbarians'' (2006) 572pp * Scullard, H. H. ''A History of the Roman World 753–146 BC'' (5th ed. 2002), 596pp * Zuppardo, Emanuele and Piccolo, Salvatore (Günther Hölbl preface). ''Terra Mater: Sulle Sponde del Gela greco'', Gela, Betania (2005), 175pp ===Medieval=== * Abulafia, David. ''Italy in the Central Middle Ages: 1000–1300'' (Short Oxford History of Italy) (2004) [https://www.amazon.com/dp/0199247048 excerpt and text search] * Bullough, Donald A. ''Italy and Her Invaders'' (1968) * Herlihy, David, Robert S. Lopez, and Vsevolod Slessarev, eds., ''Economy, Society and Government in Medieval Italy'' (1969) * Hyde, J. K. ''Society and Politics in Medieval Italy'' (1973) * La Rocca, Cristina. ''Italy in the Early Middle Ages: 476–1000'' (Short Oxford History of Italy) (2002) [https://www.amazon.com/dp/0198700482 excerpt and text search] * Smith, Denis Mack. ''Medieval Sicily, 800–1713'' (1968) * Tobacco, Giovanni. ''The Struggle for Power in Medieval Italy: Structures of Political Power'' (1989) * Wickham, Chris. ''Early Medieval Italy: Central Power and Local Society, 400–1000'' (1981) ===Renaissance=== * {{cite book |first=John Rigby |last=Hale |author-link=John Rigby Hale |year=1981 |title=A concise encyclopaedia of the Italian Renaissance |publisher=Thames & Hudson |location=London |oclc=636355191}}. * Kohl, Benjamin G. and Allison Andrews Smith, eds. ''Major Problems in the History of the Italian Renaissance'' (1995). * Najemy, John M. ''Italy in the Age of the Renaissance: 1300–1550'' (The Short Oxford History of Italy) (2005) [https://www.amazon.com/dp/0198700407 excerpt and text search] * White, John. ''Art and Architecture in Italy, 1250–1400'' (1993) ===Early modern=== * Cochrane, Eric. ''Italy, 1530–1630'' (1988) [https://web.archive.org/web/20110605071133/http://www.questia.com/read/52710416?title=Italy%201530-1630 online edition] * Carpanetto, Dino, and Giuseppe Ricuperati. ''Italy in the Age of Reason, 1685–1789'' (1987) [https://web.archive.org/web/20110605071159/http://www.questia.com/read/55015369?title=Italy%20in%20the%20Age%20of%20Reason,%201685-1789 online edition] * Marino, John A. ''Early Modern Italy: 1550–1796'' (Short Oxford History of Italy) (2002) [https://www.amazon.com/dp/0198700423 excerpt and text search] * Roberts, J.M. "Italy, 1793–1830" in C.W. Crawley, ed. ''The New Cambridge Modern History: IX. War and Peace in an age of upheaval 1793–1830'' (Cambridge University Press, 1965) pp 439–461. [https://archive.org/details/newcambridgemode0009unse online] * Venturi, Franco. ''Italy and the Enlightenment'' (1972) * Woolf, Stuart. ''A History of Italy, 1700–1860'' (1988) ===Risorgimento=== * Beales. D.. and E. Biagini, ''The Risorgimento and the Unification of Italy'' (2002) * Clark, Martin. ''The Italian Risorgimento'' (Routledge, 2014) * Collier, Martin, ''Italian Unification, 1820–71'' (Heinemann, 2003); textbook, 156 pages * {{cite book | title = Italy in the nineteenth century: 1796–1900 | editor-last = Davis | editor-first = John A. | year = 2000 | publisher = Oxford University Press | location = London | url = https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=115250399}} * Farmer, Alan. "How was Italy Unified?", ''History Review'' 54, March 2006 * Hearder, Harry. ''Italy in the Age of the Risorgimento 1790–1870'' (1983) [https://www.amazon.com/Italy-Age-Risorgimento-1790-Longman/dp/0582491460 excerpt] * Holt, Edgar. ''The Making of Italy 1815–1870,'' (1971). * Laven, David. ''Restoration and Risorgimento: Italy 1796–1870'' (2012) * Pearce, Robert, and Andrina Stiles. ''Access to History: The Unification of Italy 1789–1896'' (4th rf., Hodder Education, 2015), textbook. [https://books.google.com/books?id=IFiGCgAAQBAJ&pg=PT3 excerpt] * Riall, Lucy. ''Risorgimento: The History of Italy from Napoleon to Nation State'' (2009) * Riall, Lucy. ''The Italian Risorgimento: State, Society, and National Unification'' (Routledge, 1994) [https://www.questia.com/library/103783059/the-italian-risorgimento-state-society-and-national online] * Riall, Lucy. ''Garibaldi: Invention of a hero'' (Yale UP, 2008). * {{cite journal | last1 = Riall | first1 = Lucy | year = 1998 | title = Hero, saint or revolutionary? Nineteenth-century politics and the cult of Garibaldi | journal = Modern Italy | volume = 3 | issue = 2| pages = 191–204 | doi=10.1080/13532949808454803| s2cid = 143746713 }} * Ridley, Jasper. ''Garibaldi'' (1974), a standard biography. * Smith, Denis Mack. ''Cavour'' (1985) * Smith, Denis Mack. ''Victor Emanuel, Cavour, and the Risorgimento'' (Oxford UP, 1971) * Stiles, A. ''The Unification of Italy 1815–70'' (2nd edition, 2001) * {{cite book|last=Thayer |first=William Roscoe |title=The Life and Times of Cavour vol 1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zfwNAQAAMAAJ |year=1911}} old interpretations but useful on details; vol 1 goes to 1859; [https://books.google.com/books?id=sK_CnX3-ZMQC volume 2 online covers 1859–62] ===Since 1860=== {{Further|Economic history of Italy#Further reading}} * Alexander, J. ''The hunchback's tailor: Giovanni Giolitti and liberal Italy from the challenge of mass politics to the rise of fascism, 1882-1922'' (Greenwood, 2001). * {{cite book|last=Bosworth |first=Richard J. B. |title=Mussolini's Italy |year=2005}} * Burgwyn, H. James. ''Italian foreign policy in the interwar period, 1918-1940'' (Greenwood, 1997), * Cannistraro, Philip V. ed. ''Historical Dictionary of Fascist Italy'' (1982) * Chabod, Federico. ''Italian Foreign Policy: The Statecraft of the Founders, 1870-1896'' (Princeton UP, 2014). * Clark, Martin. ''Modern Italy: 1871–1982'' (1984, 3rd edn 2008) * {{cite book |last=Clodfelter |first=M. |title=Warfare and Armed Conflicts: A Statistical Encyclopedia of Casualty and Other Figures, 1492-2015 |publisher=McFarland |location=Jefferson, North Carolina |year=2017 |edition=4th |isbn=978-0786474707 }} * De Grand, Alexander. ''Giovanni Giolitti and Liberal Italy from the Challenge of Mass Politics to the Rise of Fascism, 1882–1922'' (2001) * De Grand, Alexander. ''Italian Fascism: Its Origins and Development'' (1989) * ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' (12th ed. 1922) comprises the 11th edition plus three new volumes 30-31-32 that cover events 1911–1922 with very thorough coverage of the war as well as every country and colony. Included also in 13th edition (1926) [[s:1922 Encyclopædia Britannica|partly online]] ** [https://books.google.com/books?id=CMYUAAAAQAAJ full text of vol 30 ABBE to ENGLISH HISTORY online free] * Gilmour, David.''The Pursuit of Italy: A History of a Land, Its Regions, and Their Peoples'' (2011). [https://www.amazon.com/Pursuit-Italy-History-Regions-Peoples/dp/0374533601/ excerpt] * Ginsborg, Paul. ''A History of Contemporary Italy, 1943–1988'' (2003). [https://www.amazon.com/dp/1403961530 excerpt and text search] * Lyttelton, Adrian. ''Liberal and Fascist Italy: 1900–1945'' (Short Oxford History of Italy) (2002) [https://www.amazon.com/dp/0198731981 excerpt and text search] * McCarthy, Patrick ed. ''Italy since 1945'' (2000). * Overy, Richard. ''The road to war'' (4th ed. 1999, {{ISBN|978-0-14-028530-7}}), covers 1930s; pp 191–244. * {{cite book|last=Smith |first=D. Mack |title=Modern Italy: A Political History |year=1997 |publisher=The University of Michigan Press |location=Ann Arbor |isbn=0-472-10895-6}} * Toniolo, Gianni. ''An Economic History of Liberal Italy, 1850–1918'' (1990) * Toniolo, Gianni, ed. ''The Oxford Handbook of the Italian Economy since Unification'' (Oxford University Press, 2013) 785 pp. [https://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=43490 online review]; [http://eh.net/?s=Toniolo another online review] * Williams, Isobel. ''Allies and Italians under Occupation: Sicily and Southern Italy, 1943–45'' (Palgrave Macmillan, 2013). xiv + 308 pp. [https://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=43968 online review] * Zamagni, Vera. ''The Economic History of Italy, 1860–1990'' (1993) 413 pp.&nbsp;{{ISBN|0-19-828773-9}}. === Kulemba mbiri === * {{cite journal | last1 = Azzi | first1 = Stephen Corrado | date = 11 February 2009 | title = The Historiography of Fascist Foreign Policy | journal = Historical Journal | volume = 36 | issue = 1| pages = 187–203 | jstor=2639522 | doi=10.1017/s0018246x00016174| s2cid = 159720673 }} * {{cite journal | last1 = Bernhard | first1 = Patrick | year = 2014 | title = Renarrating Italian Fascism: New Directions in the Historiography of a European Dictatorship | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_contemporary-european-history_2014-02_23_1/page/151 | journal = Contemporary European History | volume = 23 | issue = 1| pages = 151–163 | doi=10.1017/s0960777313000556| s2cid = 145319131 }} * Boardman, Jonathan. ''Umbria: A Cultural History'' (Signal Books; 2012). Charts a complex history of literature, religion, art, migration, and industry. * {{cite journal | last1 = Dipper | first1 = Christof | year = 2015 | title = Italian Contemporary Historiography. A Snapshot | journal = Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte | volume = 63 | issue = 3| page = 351 | doi=10.1515/vfzg-2015-0021| s2cid = 147390477}} * {{cite journal | last1 = Ferrari | first1 = Paolo | year = 2015 | title = The memory and historiography of the First World War in Italy | journal = Comillas Journal of International Relations | volume = 2 | issue = 2| pages = 117–126 | doi = 10.14422/cir.i02.y2015.009 | doi-access = free}} * Foot, John. ''Italy's Divided Memory'' (Palgrave Macmillan; 262 pages; 2010). Describes regional, political, and other divisions in Italian public memory of history. * {{cite journal | last1 = Musi | first1 = Aurelio | year = 2013 | title = Modern Italy in French, English and American historiography | journal = Nuova Rivista Storica | volume = 97 | issue = 3| pages = 909–952}} * Pasquino, Gianfranco. "Political History in Italy," ''Journal of Policy History'' (2009) 21#3 pp 282–97, on 20th century historians; covers Italian politics after World War II, and works of Silvio Lanaro, Aurelio Lepre, and Nicola Tranfaglia. Also discusses rise of the Italian Communist party, the role of the Christian Democrats in Italian society, and the development of the Italian parliamentary Republic. [https://muse.jhu.edu/article/315859/summary summary] * {{cite journal|last=Ramm |first=Agatha |title=The Risorgimento in Sicily: Recent Literature |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_english-historical-review_1972-10_87_345/page/795 |journal=English Historical Review |date=1972 |volume=87 |issue=345 |pages=795–811 |doi=10.1093/ehr/lxxxvii.cccxlv.795|jstor=562204}} * Rao, Anna Maria. "Napoleonic Italy: Old and New Trends in Historiography." in Ute Planert, ed., ''Napoleon's Empire'' (Palgrave Macmillan UK, 2016). pp 84–97. == Vigaŵa vya kuwalo == * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110722042803/http://www.miol.it/stagniweb/foto6.asp?File=mappe_va&Tipo=index&Righe=50&Col=4 Detailed Maps of the History of Italy] * [http://eudocs.lib.byu.edu/index.php/History_of_Italy:_Primary_Documents History of Italy: Primary Documents] * [http://www.italyrevisited.org/ Italy Revisited (historical photo archives)] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20240708092045/https://exchange.umma.umich.edu/resources/23766 Collection: Italy in 19th Century Photography] from the [[University of Michigan Museum of Art]] * [https://www.worldhistory.org/article/1148/the-dolmens-of-sicily Salvatore Piccolo, The Dolmens of Sicily] from the [[World History Encyclopedia]] {{Italy topics}} {{Former monarchies Italian peninsula}} {{History of Europe}} {{European history by country}} {{Former monarchies Italian peninsula}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:History of Italy| ]] h84ekwina7zvjjmu1e1dv15dxfsd9nd 0 37320 119270 108057 2026-08-13T13:10:40Z Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi 11606 /* growthexperiments-addlink-summary-summary:2|0|0 */ 119270 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox person | honorific_prefix = | name = Maxim Ivanchuk | honorific_suffix = | image = Dr. Maxim Ivanchuk.jpg | image_upright = | landscape = <!-- yes, if wide image, otherwise leave blank --> | alt = <!-- descriptive text for use by speech synthesis (text-to-speech) software --> | caption = | native_name = | native_name_lang = | pronunciation = | birth_name = <!-- only use if different from name --> | birth_date = {{Birth year and age|1983|01}} | birth_place = | baptised = <!-- will not display if birth_date is entered --> | disappeared_date = <!-- {{Disappeared date and age|YYYY|MM|DD|YYYY|MM|DD}} (disappeared date then birth date) --> | disappeared_place = | disappeared_status = | death_date = <!-- {{Death date and age|YYYY|MM|DD|YYYY|MM|DD}} (enter DEATH date then BIRTH date (e.g., ...|1967|8|31|1908|2|28}} use both this parameter and |birth_date to display the person's date of birth, date of death, and age at death) --> | death_place = | death_cause = <!-- should only be included when the cause of death has significance for the subject's notability --> | body_discovered = | resting_place = | resting_place_coordinates = <!-- {{coord|LAT|LONG|type:landmark|display=inline}} --> | burial_place = <!-- may be used instead of resting_place and resting_place_coordinates (displays "Burial place" as label) --> | burial_coordinates = <!-- {{coord|LAT|LONG|type:landmark|display=inline}} --> | monuments = | nationality = Ukrainian | other_names = | siglum = | citizenship = [[Ukraine]] | education = | alma_mater = {{ubl|Kyiv Medical University|Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University}} | occupation = {{ubl|Aesthetic Plastic Surgeon|[[Entrepreneurship|Entrepreneur]]|Medical Influencer}} | years_active = | era = | employer = | organization = Ivanchuk's Plastic Surgery Clinic (founder) | agent = <!-- discouraged in most cases, specifically when promotional, and requiring a reliable source --> | known_for = | notable_works = <!-- produces label "Notable work"; may be overridden by |credits=, which produces label "Notable credit(s)"; or by |works=, which produces label "Works"; or by |label_name=, which produces label "Label(s)" --> | style = | height = <!-- "X cm", "X m" or "X ft Y in" plus optional reference (conversions are automatic) --> | television = | title = <!-- formal/awarded/job title. The parameter |office=may be used as an alternative when the label is better rendered as "Office" (e.g. public office or appointments) --> | term = | predecessor = | successor = | party = | otherparty = | movement = | opponents = | boards = | criminal_charges = <!-- criminality parameters should be supported with citations from reliable sources --> | criminal_penalty = | criminal_status = | spouse = <!-- use article title or common name --> | partner = <!-- (unmarried long-term partner) --> | children = | parents = <!-- overrides mother and father parameters --> | mother = <!-- may be used (optionally with father parameter) in place of parents parameter (displays "Parent(s)" as label) --> | father = <!-- may be used (optionally with mother parameter) in place of parents parameter (displays "Parent(s)" as label) --> | relatives = | family = | callsign = <!-- amateur radio, use if relevant --> | awards = | website = {{URL|ivanchuk.com}} | module = | module2 = | module3 = | module4 = | module5 = | module6 = | signature = | signature_type = | signature_size = | signature_alt = | footnotes = }} '''Maxim Ivanchuk''' (wakababika mu Janyuwale 1983) ni dokotala wakumanyikwa wa vya ku [[Ukraine]], wamalonda, kweniso wakovwira ŵanthu.<ref>{{cite web |title=Maxim Ivanchuk |url=https://www.imdb.com/name/nm14668182/?ref_=fn_al_nm_1 |website=IMDb |accessdate=2 June 2023}}</ref> Wakumanyikwa comene pa nkhani ya opareshoni, comenecomene cifukwa ca nthowa zake izo wakucita yekha.<ref>{{cite web |title=Zuzana Plačková konečne bez filtrov: Takto vyzerá po 30-tisícovej operácii! {{!}} SlovakWoman.sk |url=https://www.slovakwoman.sk/zuzana-plackova-konecne-bez-filtrov-takto-vyzera-po-30-tisicovej-operacii/ |website=slovakwoman.sk |accessdate=2 June 2023 |language=sk-SK |date=30 December 2020}}</ref> Dr. Ivanchuk wasintha umoyo wa ŵanthu ŵanandi, kuŵawovwira kuti ŵafiske vilato vyawo vya kutowa ndiposo kuŵawovwira kuti ŵaŵe na cigomezgo.<ref>{{cite web |title=ĎALŠIA TAJNÁ PLASTIKA na Ukrajine: Po Dare a Plačkovej sa nechal prerobiť aj Čaputovej kaderník |url=https://www1.pluska.sk/soubiznis/domaci-soubiznis/dalsia-tajna-plastika-ukrajine-dare-plackovej-nechal-prerobit-aj-caputovej-kadernik |website=www1.pluska.sk |accessdate=2 June 2023 |language=sk |date=29 October 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Plačková po plastike na Ukrajine: Vyzerá ako Miss Universe. Ale na seba sa nepodobá |url=https://plus7dni.pluska.sk/ludia/plackova-plastike-ukrajine-vyzera-ako-miss-universe-ale-seba-nepodoba |website=plus7dni.pluska.sk |accessdate=2 June 2023 |language=sk |date=30 October 2020}}</ref> Iyo ni mweneko wa malo ghakucemeka Ivanchuk's Plastic Surgery Clinic. Wakateŵeterapo pa mauteŵeti ghanandi, kusazgapo kuŵa pulezidenti wa Ukraine Society for Surgery of the Hand, International Society of Reconstructive Microsurgery, na Ukraine Association of Plastic Surgery. Upharazgi wake ukaŵa wakuzirwa comene cifukwa wakaŵa pulofesa wa vyakucita pa Stanford University na pa University of [[California]]. Maluso gha Ivanchuk na ivyo wakachita vikakondweska ŵanthu ŵanandi. Ivyo wakacita pakucita opareshoni ya mapulasitiki na kufwilirapo kuti ŵalwari ŵakhorwenge navyo, vikamovwira kuti waŵe na nkharo yiwemi.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Jain |first1=Deepak |title=Leading names to watch out for in the Middle East |url=https://www.khaleejtimes.com/kt-network/leading-names-to-watch-out-for-in-the-middle-east |website=Khaleej Times |accessdate=2 June 2023 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Максим Иванчук: Пластическая хирургия – это не только про эстетику, это еще про здоровье и гармонию с собой |url=https://www.rbc.ua/rus/lite/wellness/maksim-ivanchuk-plasticheskaya-hirurgiya-1636460854.html/amp |website=РБК-Украина |accessdate=2 June 2023 |language=uk}}</ref> == Umoyo Wakwambilira na Masambiro == Ivanchuk wakababikira na kukulira ku Ukraine, ndipo wakamba kutemwa vyakurya na opareshoni kufuma waka pa wanichi. Apo wakaŵa na vyaka 12, wakamba kuwona umo ŵanthu ŵakuchitira opareshoni. Wakasambira vya munkhwala pa Yunivesite ya Kyiv Medical ndipo wakaluta ku Yunivesite ya Chiremba ya Pirogov ku [[Russia]]. ==Ntchito== Ivanchuk wali na nchito yiwemi comene pakucita opareshoni ya majeremusi, ndipo waŵa na nkharo yiwemi comene. Iyo wali kovwira ŵalwari ŵakujumpha 5,000, ndipo wawovwira ŵanthu ŵanandi kuti ŵamanye uwemi wawo.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Staff |first1=In Touch |title=How Surgeon Maxim Ivanchuk Can Make Your Face Look 12 Years Younger |url=https://www.intouchweekly.com/posts/how-surgeon-maxim-ivanchuk-can-make-your-face-look-12-years-younger/ |website=In Touch Weekly |accessdate=2 June 2023 |date=16 February 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Nabilla : son séjour en Ukraine pour une intervention chir... - Télé Star |url=https://www.telestar.fr/people/nabilla-son-sejour-en-ukraine-pour-une-intervention-chirurgicale-553208 |website=www.telestar.fr |accessdate=2 June 2023 |language=fr |date=16 November 2020}}</ref> Ivanchuk wakumanyikwa comene cifukwa ca kulemba buku lake la "Pioneer Procedures", ilo lili na nthowa zakupambanapambana zakucitira opareshoni. Nakuti palije dokotala munyake pa charu chose uyo wakuchita opareshoni iyi. Wakagwiliskiranga ntchito nthowa zakupambanapambana, nga ni kubenekelera chiŵegha, kuwuskamo mphonje za Venus, kuwuskamo mphonje mu singo, na kusona. Ivanchuk ndiyo wakambiska ndipo ni mweneko wa Ivanchuk's Plastic Surgery Clinic, iyo yikugwira nchito mu malo ghaŵiri ghakuzirwa mu [[Kyiv]], Ukraine, na [[Dubai]], [[UAE]]. Pa malo agha, Dr. Ivanchuk wakulongozga gulu la ŵanthu ŵaluso ndipo wakulaŵilira milimo yakupambanapambana ya maso na thupi. Iyo wali na maopareshoni ghakujumpha 60, ndipo wakumanya makora umo wangachitira na malema agho munthu wali kubabika nagho kweniso agho munthu wakuŵa nagho. Ivanchuk wakuŵawovwira ŵalwari kuti ŵaŵeso ŵawukirano ndiposo kuti ŵaŵe na cigomezgo mwa iwoŵene kwizira mu ndondomeko ya munkhwala na luso lwapadera lwa opareshoni. Ŵanthu ŵakumanyikwa nga ni Zuzana Plačkova, Dara Rollins, Courteney Cox, Nela Pocisková, na Megan Fox, ŵali kupempha Ivanchuk kuti waŵawovwire kusintha vinthu.<ref>{{cite web |title=Obdivujeme fake? Celebritný plastický chirurg otvorene - tieto zákroky sú u žien najpopulárnejšie |url=https://diva.aktuality.sk/clanok/61833/obdivujeme-fake-celebritny-plasticky-chirurg-otvorene-tieto-zakroky-su-aktualne-najpopularnejsie/ |website=Diva.sk |accessdate=2 June 2023 |language=sk}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Martins |first1=Samantha |title=Nabilla : elle a donné naissance à son deuxième enfant |url=https://www.officielles.fr/people/tele-realite/nabilla-elle-a-donne-naissance-a-son-deuxieme-enfant/ |website=Officielles |accessdate=2 June 2023 |language=fr |date=6 June 2022}}</ref> Padera pa mulimo wake, Ivanchuk wakucitako comene kafukufuku wa [[sayansi]], wakulemba mabuku ghakulongosora nkhani zakupambanapambana na kulongosora ivyo wasanga pa maungano ghakumanyikwa comene. Kweniso wakujikuzga comene cifukwa ca kulongozga na kukhuŵilizga ŵasayansi ŵa miwiro yakunthazi. Ivyo Maxim Ivanchuk wachita vyazomerezgeka na ŵanthu ŵanandi. Ntchito yake yakuzirwa comene pa nkhani ya opareshoni ya mapulasitiki yikalongoreka mu manyuzipepara ghakupambanapambana, kusazgapo nkhani izo wakawoneleranga pa E! Mtanda. Maluso ghake ghakumanyikwa mu mabuku nga ni [[USA Today]], Khaleej Times, Vogue, na International Business Times.<ref>{{cite web |title=Plačková tri mesiace po pôrode na tetovaní: Sledujte, ako teraz vyzerá jej tvár |url=https://plus7dni.pluska.sk/ludia/plackova-tri-mesiace-porode-tetovani-sledujte-ako-teraz-vyzera-jej-tvar |website=plus7dni.pluska.sk |accessdate=2 June 2023 |language=sk |date=15 December 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Plačková má po plastike za 30 tisíc celkom inú tvár, na kritiku odpovedá opäť svojsky |url=https://diva.aktuality.sk/clanok/62211/zuzana-plackova-plackova-po-plastike-odpoveda-na-kritiku-fanusikov/ |website=Diva.sk |accessdate=2 June 2023 |language=sk |date=30 October 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Пластический хирург Максим Иванчук: что дарят хирургу благодарные пациенты |url=https://news.liga.net/lifestyle/news/plasticheskiy-hirurg-maksim-ivanchuk-chto-daryat-hirurgu-blagodarnye-patsienty |website=LIGA |accessdate=2 June 2023 |language=ru |date=20 July 2020}}</ref> ==Umoyo == Mu nyengo yake yakufwatuka, Ivanchuk wakutemwa kwenda mu mapiri, kuwona chilengiwa, na kuluta ku vyaru vinyake pamoza na gulu lake. Kweniso wakuwona kuti ntchiwemi kuchezga na mbumba yake, ndipo wakutemwa chomene magalimoto ghakurya luŵiro. ==Mu vinyake== ==Ukaboni== {{reflist}} == Vigaŵa vya kuwalo == [[Category:1983 births]] n769vk52i2rvtooq5ih9pbxzwqyvcqi 0 37585 119317 93909 2026-08-13T22:40:45Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Add 5 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260813sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 119317 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Other uses}} {{Use dmy dates|date=September 2014}} [[Image:Mwata Kazembe at Mtomboko 2017 01.webp|thumb|right|Mwata Kazembe pa Mtomboko ceremony 2017]] '''Kazembe''' ni ufumu uwo uli ku [[Zambia]], kumwera kwa [[Congo]]. Kwa vyaka vyakujumpha 250, Kazembe wakaŵa ufumu wa ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa [[Kiluba-Chibemba]], awo ŵakayowoyanga chiyowoyero cha ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Eastern Luba-Lunda ŵa kumwera kwa [[Africa]]. Malo agha ghakaŵa pa misewu ya malonda, ndipo ghakaŵa na maji ghanandi, vyakumera vinandi, na ŵanthu ŵanandi. Ŵakumanyikwa na zina lakuti Mwata panji Mulopwe, ilo likung'anamura kuti 'Mulongozgi Mulara,' ndipo pa chiphikiro cha Mutomboko icho chikuchitika chaka chilichose, ŵanthu ŵakumanyikwa chomene mu Luapula Valley na mu [[Nyanja ya Mweru]] mu Zambia.<ref name="Gordon" /><ref name="Gordon">{{cite journal|doi=10.1017/S0021853705001283|author=David M. Gordon|title=History on the Luapula Retold: Landscape, Memory and Identity in the Kazembe Kingdom|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-african-history_2006_47_1/page/21|journal=The Journal of African History|volume=47|pages=21|year=2006}}</ref> ==Mbili<ref name="Livingstone">[[David Livingstone]] and [[Horace Waller (activist)|Horace Waller]] (ed.) (1874) ''The Last Journals of David Livingstone in Central Africa from 1865 to his Death''. Two volumes, John Murray.</ref>== === Mbiri ya Chikoloni === ==== Umo Ŵanthu ŵa ku Luba-Lunda-Kazembe Ŵakafuma ==== {| align="right" style="margin:1em" | align="center" colspan="2" style="background:#efefef;"|'''Mndandanda wa Mafumu gha Mwata Kazembe''' |- style="background:#efefef;" |align="center" colspan="2" |''Italics indicate approx dates'' |- style="background:#ffdead;" |''1740–5''||I Ng'anga Bilonda |- style="background:#ffdead;" | ''1745–60''||II Kanyembo Mpemba |- style="background:#efefef;" | align="center" colspan="2" |''Continued below in the section'' |- style="background:#efefef;" | align="center" colspan="2" |''to which their rule relates'' |} Around 1740 the first Mwata, Ng'anga Bilonda of the [[Kingdom of Luba|Luba]]-[[Kingdom of Lunda|Lunda Kingdom]] Wakalongozgeka na Mwata Yamvo (panji 'Mwaant Yav') makilomita 300 kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Luapula mu DR Congo, wakaluta na gulu la ŵalondezgi ŵake kukaskera kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Mutanda uyo wakakoma wiske Chinyanta na asibweni ŵake mwa kuŵabira mu Mlonga wa Mukelweji. 'Mwata' pakwamba wakaŵa mutu wakuyana na 'General'. Ŵakati ŵamara kuthereska Mutanda, gulu ili likalutilira kusama kumanjiliro gha dazi pasi pa Mwata Kazembe II Kanyembo Mpemba, ŵakambuka Mlonga wa Luapula ku Matanda, ŵakathereska ŵanthu ŵakwambilira awo ŵakamanyikwanga kuti Ŵashila mu Dambo la Luapula, ndipo ŵakimika ŵanthu ŵakuchemeka Luba panji Lunda kuŵa ŵalongozgi ŵawo. Nangauli Lunda na Luba ŵakiza na mitheto na mitheto yawo (nga umo ŵakacitiranga na ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Luba), kweni ŵakamba kuyowoya ciyowoyero ca Ŵemba, awo nawo ŵakafuma ku Congo. Ufumu uwu ukafuma ku nyanja ya Mweru na Mofwe Lagoon, kweniso ku vinthu vyakuthupi, kusazgapo mkuwa ku Katanga, kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Luapula. Ŵapwitikizi ŵakatenge Mwata Kazembe wakaŵa na ŵasilikari 20,000, ndipo malo ghake ghakaŵa kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Mlonga wa Lualaba (mphepete mwa ufumu wa Mwata Yamvo wa kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Luba-Lunda na maufumu ghanyake gha Luba kumpoto kwake) na kumafumiro gha dazi kwa charu cha Luba-Bemba. (Wonani mapu.)<ref name="Gordonc">David Gordon (2000) “Decentralized Despots or Contingent Chiefs: Comparing Colonial Chiefs in Northern Rhodesia and the Belgian Congo.” KwaZulu-Natal History and African Studies Seminar, University of Natal, Durban.</ref><ref name="Gordon" /> ==== Maulendo gha ku Portugal ==== {| align="right" style="margin:1em" |- style="background:#ffdead;" |''1760–1805''||III Lukwesa Ilunga |- style="background:#ffdead;" |1805–1850||IV Kanyembo Keleka Mayi |- style="background:#ffdead;" |1850–1854||V Kapumba Mwongo Mfwama |} Padera pa malonda, Ŵapwitikizi ŵakagomezganga kuti ŵapangenge nthowa yakujumphira mu charu ichi, iyo yikayaniskenge vigaŵa vyawo vya Angola kumanjiliro gha dazi na Mozambique kumafumiro gha dazi.<ref name="Gordonb">{{cite journal|author=David M. Gordon|title=Review of Giacomo Macola. The Kingdom of Kazembe: History and Politics in North-Eastern Zambia and Katanga to 1950|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_african-studies-review_2004-12_47_3/page/216|jstor=1514960|journal=African Studies Review|date=December 2004|volume= 47|issue=3 |pages=216–218 }}</ref> [[Image:Kazembe Kingdom 433x455.JPG|right|thumb|Ufumu wa Kazembe ukaŵa wakutowa comene mu hafu yakwamba ya 19th Century.]] Maulendo agha ghakaŵa:<ref name="EB">{{cite EB1911|wstitle=Cazembe}}</ref> * 1796 Manuel Caetano Pereira, wamalonda. * Mu 1798 Francisco José de Lacerda e Almeida uyo wakiza kwizira ku Tete wakafwa pakati pajumpha masabata ghacoko waka wati wafika ku Kazembe, uku wachali kulindilira kuti ŵambe kudumbiskana vya malonda. Wakaleka magazini yakuzirwa comene, ndipo wasembe wake, Father Pinto, ndiyo wakayegha ku Tete. * Mu 1802 Pedro João Baptista na Amaro José, ŵakaŵa ŵamalonda ŵa ŵazga. * Mu 1831, Mulara wa chigaŵa ichi wakatuma José Monteiro na António Gamito, pamoza na ŵasilikari 20 na ŵazga 120. Kweniso wakalemba mu buku lake kuti: "Tikawonanga yayi kuti ŵanthu ŵa mu chigaŵa ichi ŵakuchita vinthu vyapadera nthena".<ref name="Simbao"/> Kweni vyose ivi vikaŵa vyambura ntchito. Mwata Kazembe III Lukwesa Ilunga na IV Kanyembo Keleka Mayi ŵakakana ivyo Ŵapwitikizi ŵakakhumbanga kuchita kuti ŵambiske mubungwe uwo ukaŵa na mazaza pa msewu wa Atlantic na Indian Ocean. (Nyengo yikati yajumphapo, Fumu ya Zanzibar na Msiri yikamba kulamulira nthowa iyi, ndipo Msiri ndiyo yikaŵa pakwamba.<ref name="EB"/><ref>{{cite journal|author=Ian Cunnison|title=Kazembe and the Portuguese 1798–1832|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-african-history_2009_50_1/page/61|journal=The Journal of African History|volume=2|pages=61|doi=10.1017/S0021853700002140 |year=2009}}</ref> ==== Ulendo wa David Livingstone ==== Mu 1867, munthu munyake uyo wakendanga mu Africa, zina lake David Livingstone, wakaluta kukawona chigaŵa chakumwera kwa Nile. Kufuma ku 'Nyasaland' (Malawi) na kujumpha kumwera kwa Nyanja ya Tanganyika, wakenda mu vyaru ivyo ŵanthu ŵakaguliskanga ŵazga. Wakalutilira kulazga kumwera kufupi na kumafumiro gha dazi kwa nyanja. Mwata Kazembe VII wakaphalirika kuti wafika ndipo wakamupokelera ku msumba wake wa Kanyembo kufupi na mphepete ya kumpoto kwa Mofwe Lagoon:<ref name="Livingstone"/> <blockquote> "Nyumba ya m'malo ya Casembe - ŵanyake ŵangayichema kuti nyumba yachifumu - ni malo ghakukwana mamita 300 na mamita 200. Yili pafupi na chivundikiro cha mathipa gha msinkhu ukuru. Mkati mwake, uko Casembe wakanipa ntchindi zikuru, muli nyumba yikuru ya Casembe, na nyumba zinandi za ŵateŵeti ŵa pa nyumba. Nyumba ya Fumukazi yili kuseri kwa nyumba ya mulara, ndipo muli nyumba zinandi. Kasembe wakakhala panthazi pa nyumba yake pa mpando wakulingana wakukhala pa makuni gha nkhalamu na nkharamu. Wakavwara salu ya buluu na yituŵa ya Manchester yakupatulika na mphonje zakuzura na maluŵa ghaswesi, ndipo wakanozgekera mu makuni ghakuru mwakuti wawoneke nga ni crinoline pa chigaŵa chakupambanapambana. —kufuma mu buku la ''The Last Journals of David Livingstone'' ku Central Africa kufuma 1865mpaka kufwakwake.<ref name="Livingstone"/></blockquote> {| align="right" style="margin:1em" |- style="background:#ffdead;" |1854–1862||VI Chinyanta Munona |- style="background:#ffdead;" |1862–70|| VII Mwonga Nsemba |} Livingstone wakalemba kuti muwuso wa Mwata Kazembe VII ukaŵa wankhongono comene. Cifukwa ca nkhaza izi, cikaŵa cakusuzga kuti waŵe na ŵanalume 1,000. Iyo wakawona kuti ufumu uwu ukaŵa wakukondwa yayi nga umo Ŵapwitikizi ŵakayowoyera. Chaka chakulondezgapo wakizaso kwa Mwata, ndipo ndiyo wakamba kumuphalira kuti Chambeshi, Lake Bangweulu, Luapula, Lake Mweru, na Luvua-Lualaba ni maji ghamoza. Ivi vikapangiska kuti Livingstone walute ku Bangweulu, kufuma apo ku Lualaba uko wakaghanaghananga kuti kunganjira mu Mlonga wa Nayelo, na ku Tanganyika, kufuma apo wakawelera ku Bangweulu na kufwa pakati pajumpha vyaka vinkhondi.<ref name="Livingstone"/> ==== Ŵamalonda ŵa ku Arabia na Swahili ==== {| align="right" style="margin:1em" |- style="background:#ffdead;" |1870–72|| VIII Chinkonkole Kafuti |- style="background:#ffdead;" |1872–83 & 1885–86||IX Lukwesa Mpanga |- style="background:#ffdead;" |1883–85 & 1886–1904||X Kanyembo Ntemena |} Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1700 na 1800, ŵamalonda ŵa ku Arabia na Swahili ŵakalutanga ku Mwata Kazembe kukaguliska mkuwa, njovu, na ŵazga. Ŵanthu ŵakendanga mu misewu ya malonda nga ni iyo yikafumanga ku Zanzibar kwizira ku Ujiji pa Nyanja ya Tanganyika. Livingstone wakakhalanga kumwera ca kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Nyanja ya Tanganyika cifukwa ca nkhondo pakati pa Tippu Tip (Ahmed bin Mohamed, uyo Livingstone wakamuchemanga kuti Tipo Tipo) na mulongozgi wa cigaŵa ici. Wakati wafika ku nyumba ya Mwata Kazembe wakasanga munthu munyake zina lake Mohamad Bogharib uyo wakaŵa kuti wiza mazuŵa ghachoko waka kumasinda kuzakapenja njovu, kweniso Mohamad bin Saleh (uyo wakachemekangaso Mpamari), uyo wakaŵa kuti wakhalako vyaka 10, chifukwa Mwata wakakana kumuzomerezga kuti wafumeko. Nangauli ŵakaguliskanga ŵazga, kweni Livingstone wakendanga nawo ndipo ŵakamovwiranga. Kufuma mu ma 1860, ufumu uwu ukamba kunangika, chifukwa Msiri uyo wakaŵa mu Garanganza (Katanga) ndiyo wakambiska malonda gha mkuwa na zovu. M'paka apo wakafwira mu 1890, Msiri wakanjilirapo pa muwuso wa Mwata Kazembe.<ref name="Gordon"/> === Mbiri ya Chikoloni === ==== Division between British and Belgian territories ==== Msiri wakati wafwa, mu 1894 cigaŵa ca Luapula cikagaŵikana pakati pa Britain. Nkhorongo ya kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Luapula na Nyanja ya Mweru yikazgoka cigaŵa ca kumpoto kwa kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Rhodesia. Ŵalaraŵalara ŵa boma ku Belgium ŵakati ŵakoma Msiri, ŵakasoŵa cakucita. Ŵakasora ŵakaronga, awo ŵakasankhika kufuma pa ŵalongozgi ŵa Msiri yayi (awo pakwamba ŵakaŵa pasi pa Mwata Kazembe) kweni kufuma pa awo Ŵaluba-Lunda ŵakaŵachemanga kuti 'ŵenecho wa charu' awo ŵakaŵa panthazi pawo. Ŵalongozgi ŵa boma la Belgium ku Mweru-Luapula ŵakajibisa na vifukwa vya maluso. Ichi chikasazgapo “kuzenga” fuko kufuma ku fuko la Bena Ngoma. Ŵalongozgi ŵa ku Belgium ŵakati ŵamba kulamulira kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Luapula, Mwata Kazembe wakaŵaso na mazaza pa charu chose, kweni ku chigaŵa cha kumafumiro gha dazi pera.<ref name="Gordonc" /> ==== Ufumu wa Britain ukapangiska ŵanthu kuti ŵambe kulamulira ==== Nangauli Mwata Kazembe X wakasayina phangano la BSAC lakukhwaskana na migodi na phangano la Britain ilo Alfred Sharpe wakamupa mu 1890, ndipo wakazomerezga kuti Dan Crawford uyo wakaŵa mishonale wa ku Britain wize kuzakamuwona, kweni apo Blair Watson uyo wakaŵa wakusonkheska msonkho wa BSAC wakakhalanga pa Mlonga wa Kalungwishi mu 1897, Mwata Kazembe wakakana kuzomerezga kuti ndembera ya Britain yikwambike pa caru cake panji kuti ŵanthu ŵake ŵapokere msonkho. Pa nyengo iyi Sharpe wakaŵa kazembe wa British Central Africa Protectorate (Nyasaland), mtunda wa makilomita 1000. Iyo ndiyo wakatondeka kupoka ufumu wa Msiri wa Garanganza kuŵa British Protectorate mwa kudumbiskana, ndipo pamasinda wakawona kuti ukatoleka ku British na CFS mwa nkongono. Mu 1899, pamoza na Robert Codrington, uyo wakaŵa mulara wa boma la BSAC ku North-Eastern Rhodesia, Sharpe wakatuma ŵasilikari ŵa ku Britain pamoza na ŵasilikari ŵa Sikh na Nyasaland awo ŵakawotcha msumba wa Mwata Kazembe, ndipo ŵakakoma ŵanthu ŵake ŵanandi. Mwata Kazembe X wakaluta kumwera na kwambukira ku sirya linyake la mlonga kuti wakabisame mu nyumba ya Johnston Falls Mission iyo yikendeskeka na Mr. na Mrs. Anderson ŵa gulu la ŵamishonale la Dan Crawford. (Cakuzizika nchakuti, vyaka viŵiri kumasinda, Mwata Kazembe X wakayezga kuti waŵe na mubali wa Anderson uyo wakaŵa mubali wakwambilira pa Mambilima, H. J. Wakayama Pomeroy, wakakomeka, kweni wakatondeka.) Dan Crawford na Alfred Sharpe ŵakaŵa mu suzgo yakuyana waka mu 1890-91 na Msiri (wonani nkhani iyi). Pa nyengo iyi, Charles Swan, uyo wakaŵa mulara wa Crawford, wakaciska Msiri kuti waleke kukolerana na ivyo Sharpe wakayowoya. Pakati pajumpha cilimika cimoza, Msiri wakakomeka na ŵa ku Belgium, ndipo cigaŵa ici cikaŵa mu suzgo yikuru. Mbumba ya Anderson yikacita mwakupambana na Swan. Apo Mr. Anderson wakasunganga ŵanalume ŵa Mwata Kazembe pa Mambilima, Mrs. Anderson wakaluta na Mwata Kazembe yekha ku ŵasilikari ŵa Britain ku msumba wake ukuru uwo ukawotcheka, wakati "mumucitire lusungu". Ŵanalume ŵa ku Britain ŵakakondwa comene na ivyo Mwata wakacita na kuzomera kuwusa kwawo. Mwata Kazembe X wakazengaso msumba wake wa Mwansabombwe. Ŵasilikari ŵa ku Britain ŵakatora vinthu vinandi vyakale na vyakuzirwa vya ŵanthu ŵa ku Luba kufuma ku nyumba ya themba. Mu 1920, ŵahaliri ŵake ŵakaviŵika ku National Museum of Southern Rhodesia ku Bulawayo, mtunda wa makilomita 1000, uko vikalembeka kuti 'Codrington Collection'. Ŵalipo. Pamanyuma pa nkhondo iyi, Mwata Kazembe X na awo ŵakamulondezganga ŵakagwiranga lumoza nchito na BSAC na awo ŵakamulondezganga, awo ŵakaŵa British District Commissioners, ndipo mu nthowa yinyake ŵakathaska muwuso wake. Mu nyengo ya ufumu wa Britain, ŵanthu ŵa mu mbumba ya Mwata Kazembes ŵakaŵa na mazaza chifukwa boma la Britain likalongozganga ŵanthu kwizira mu ŵalongozgi.<ref name="Gordonc"/><ref name="NRJV3N6">{{cite journal|url=http://www.nrzam.org.uk/Site%20Resources/NRJ/V3N1/044.jpg |journal=Northern Rhodesia Journal|title=Robert Edward Codrington 1869–1908|volume= 3 |issue=6|year=1956}}</ref><ref>Neville Jones (1930s). ''The Codrington Collection in the National Museum of Southern Rhodesia and the Bembesi Industry.'' ''Occasional Papers of National Museum of Southern Rhodesia.''</ref> ====The coming of missionaries==== Cifukwa ca wovwiri wa Dan Crawford, Mwata Kazembe X wakazomera kufumiska ŵamishonale mu dambo ili, comenecomene ŵa Christian Missions in Many Lands na London Missionary Society (LMS) awo ŵakatuma Livingstone ku Africa. Mu 1900, LMS Mbereshi Mission yikaŵa pa mtunda wa makilomita 10 kufuma ku Mwansabombwe. Pa malo agha, ŵakazenga masukulu, tchalitchi, na chipatala, kweniso ŵakasambizganga ŵanthu kupanga njerwa na kuzenga. Ŵaprotesitanti na Ŵakatolika ŵanyake ŵakazenga masukulu na vipatala mu Luapula Valley na mumphepete mwa nyanja iyi. Nangauli pakati pa vyaka vya m'ma 1900, ufumu wa Mwata Kazembe ukaŵa kuti wabisika na migodi ya mkuwa ya ku Elisabethville (Lubumbashi) na Copperbelt, kweni ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa mtundu wa Luba-Lunda-Kazembe ŵakamanyikwa mu misumba iyi na Lusaka.<ref name="Chuba">Bwalya S Chuba (2000) ''Mbeleshi in a history of the London Missionary Society'', Pula Press.</ref> ====Structure of the kingdom==== {| align="right" style="margin:1em" |- style="background:#ffdead;" |1904–19|| XI Mwonga Kapakata |- style="background:#ffdead;" |1919–36|| XII Chinyanta Kasasa |- style="background:#ffdead;" |1936–41||XIII Chinkonkole |} Pakuyana na ufumu wa Luba, Mwata Kazembe ni fumu ndipo wakuŵa na ŵalongozgi ŵalara na ŵalongozgi ŵa vigaŵa. Ŵalongozgi ŵalara ni Lukwesa, Kashiba, Kambwali na Kanyembo. Mwata wakwimika ŵalongozgi aŵa kufuma mu mbumba yake ndipo para wafwa, yumoza wa ŵalongozgi aŵa wangakwezgeka. Ŵalongozgi ŵa vigaŵa vinyake ŵakuchindika Mwata Kazembe. Kweniso mwakuyana na kaluso ka Luba, Mwata Kazembe wakalamuliranga kwizira mu wupu uwo mu nyengo ya ukoloni ukazgoka 'Superior Native Authority' (Ulamuliro Wapachanya wa Ŵanthu ŵa ku Lunda). Gulu la LNA ndilo likaŵa lankhongono comene mu Luapula-Mweru. Ntchito yake yikeneranga kuphalirika ku ŵalara ŵa boma la Britain awo ŵakakhumbanga kuti ŵakhalenge ku Kawambwa uko kukaŵa chimphepo kweniso malo ghakutowa. Pakakhumbikwanga zuŵa lose kuti ŵalute ku malo agha mwaluŵiro.<ref name="Gordonc"/> ====Functions of the kingdom==== Mu vyaru vinandi, mauteŵeti gha ufumu uwu ghali mu mawupu gha boma, ndipo ŵanthu ŵa ku Kazembe ŵakukhala kulikose uko ŵakukhala. Mwata na wupu wake ŵakuŵika malango mu vigaŵa ivyo vikukolerana yayi na malango gha boma panji gha vigaŵa, nga ni malo na vinthu vinyake, vyakuzenga, ntchito, malonda, utozi, umoyo uwemi, na mitheto. Mwata wali na mathenga na ŵalinda awo ŵakulondezga malango, ndipo wakuŵa na khoti lakweruzgira awo ŵakuswa malango. ==== Kusintha ufumu ==== {| align="right" style="margin:1em" |- style="background:#ffdead;" |1941–50||XIV Shadreck Chinyanta Nankula |- style="background:#ffdead;" |1950–57||XV Brown Ngombe |- style="background:#ffdead;" |1957–61||XVI Kanyembo Kapema |} Msumba wa Elisabethville, uwo ukaŵa ku Belgian Congo, uwo ukaŵa na migodi ya mkuwa, ukakura luŵiro chomene kuluska msumba wa Copperbelt ku Northern Rhodesia. Chigaŵa cha Luapula chikaŵa kutali na Mlonga wa Congo, ndipo boma la Northern Rhodesia likachiwonanga nga ntchigaŵa icho chikaŵa kutali chomene mu vyaka vya m'ma 1900, ntheura pakwamba, msumba wa Elisabethville ndiwo ukaŵa wakufikako chomene ku Kazembe. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakasamukira ku caru ca Belgium kufuma ku caru ca Britain. Kuti mumanye vinandi, wonani nkhani ya Congo Pedicle na Congo Pedicle road. Mwata Kazembe XIV Shadreck Chinyanta Nankula mu ma 1940 wakacita vinandi kuti wasinthe vinthu. Wakazenga ufumu na chigaŵa, ndipo wakucemeka Mwata wakwamba "wakunozga". Wakasambira na kugwira nchito ku Elizabethville ndipo wakayowoyanga makora Cifurenci na Cingelezi. Wakakhozga LNA, wakasintha zina lake kuŵa Lunda National Association, ndipo wakasankha ŵanthu awo ŵakaŵa na nkhongono za kusintha na kukura nga ndiyo. Mulara wa chigaŵa wakafipanga mtima kuti ŵanji mwa ŵanthu aŵa, nga ni Dauti Yamba, ŵakaŵa ŵakutemwa caru ndipo ŵangambiska masuzgo ku boma la ŵakoloni. Mwata Kazembe XIV wakaciska kuti ku Mwansabombwe kuŵe masukulu na macipatala kweniso kuti kuŵe maofesi ghanyake nga ni Mbereshi. Wakalemba nkhani yakulongosora vya ŵalongozgi awo ŵakalongozgekanga na Edouard Labreque, uyo wakaŵa mishonale wa ku White Father, ndipo paumaliro wakalemba mu Chibemba kuti Ifikolwe Fyandi na Bantu Bandi. Kuuyambiro wa m'ma 1950, masuzgo ghakaŵako mu Luapula apo ŵanthu ŵa ku Luba-Lunda ŵakawona kuti makhoti gha Mwata Kazembe ghakapelekanga urunji mwakuyana na umo iwo ŵakukhumbira kuluska ŵa ku Belgium na ŵalongozgi ŵawo. Kweni wakakana. Ufumu ukaŵa wakukondwa comene cifukwa ca msewu wa Pedicle uwo ukakolerananga cigaŵa ca Luapula na Copperbelt.<ref name="Gordonc" /> === Kujiyimira pawekha mpaka lero === {| align="right" style="margin:1em" |- style="background:#ffdead;" |1961–83||XVII Paul Kanyembo Lutaba |- style="background:#ffdead;" |1983–98||XVIII Munona Chinyanta |- style="background:#ffdead;" |1998– ||XIX Paul Mpemba Kanyembo Kapale Mpalume |} Mu 1964, Northern Rhodesia yikazgoka Zambia. Kwa nyengo yicoko waka, ŵalongozgi ŵakawona kuti mazaza ghawo ghakumara cifukwa ca ndyali za vipani na maboma, nangauli mu 1985 Mwata Kazembe XVIII wakasankhika kuŵa Commissioner wa District mu Kawambwa ndipo pamanyuma, Secretary wa Political Secretary. Vinthu vikamba kunangika pakati pa vyaka vya m'ma 1940, 1950, na 1960, ndipo pakati pa vyaka vya m'ma 1970, vinthu vikamba kunangika. Ndipouli, mu ma 1960, ŵakazenga msewu wakuchemeka 'Zambia Way,' uwo ukakolerananga Mansa na Nchelenge-Kashikishi kwizira mu Mwansabombwe. Ŵalongozgi ŵa Mwata Kazembe ŵalutilira kuŵa na mazaza, ndipo nangauli ŵakamba nkhondo ndipo ŵali kuzingilizgika na vyaru ivyo vyakumanapo na nkhondo zinandi, kweni ŵalutilira kuŵa na mtende mumphepete mwa Luapula na Nyanja ya Mweru kwa vyaka vyakujumpha 100.<ref name="Cancel">{{cite journal|author=Robert Cancel|title=Asserting/inventing traditions on the Luapula: the Mutomboko Festival|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_african-arts_autumn-2006_39_3/page/12|journal=African Arts|volume=39|issue=3|pages=12|doi=10.1162/afar.2006.39.3.12|year=2006}}</ref> ==Mutomboko Festival== [[File:Mwata Kazembe at Mtomboko 2017 02.webp|thumb|300x300px|Mwata Kazembe at Mtomboko 2017]] In the last two decades the Mwata Kazembe chieftainship has experienced something of a cultural if not an administrative or economic resurgence, through the Mutomboko Festival, now the second largest of its kind in Zambia and a model for the strengthening of indigenous culture.<ref name="Simbao">{{cite journal|author=Ruth Kerkham Simbao|title=A crown on the move: stylistic integration of the Luba-Lunda complex in Kazembe performance|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_african-arts_autumn-2006_39_3/page/26|journal=African Arts|volume=39|issue=3|pages=26|doi=10.1162/afar.2006.39.3.26|year=2006}}</ref><ref name="Cancel"/> It is held at the end of July and may attract 20,000 visitors, including the president of Zambia.<ref name="Cancel"/> Drawing on previous ceremonies and traditions, it was started in its present form in 1971 to mark the tenth anniversary of the instalment of Mwata Kazembe XVII Paul Kanyembo Lutaba<ref name="Simbao"/> (whose photograph appears at the top of the page). It includes dances symbolising the migration of the Luba-Lunda and the conquest of the Luapula valley by the first chiefs.<ref name="Simbao"/><ref name="Cancel"/> ==Wonaniso== *[[Luapula River]] *[[Alfred Sharpe]] *[[David Livingstone]] *[[Mwansabombwe]] *[[Lunda Kingdom]] *[[Luba Kingdom]] *[[Bemba people]] ==Ukaboni== {{reflist}} [[Category:History of Zambia]] [[Category:Zambian culture]] [[Category:Traditional rulers in Zambia]] [[Category:Former countries in Africa]] dbn62otwd51l6g6qqlkjcmwm8ffzas1 0 37781 119327 118662 2026-08-13T22:57:28Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260813sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 119327 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Country on the west coast of Southern Africa}} {{about|the modern country since 1992|the former country from 1975 to 1992|People's Republic of Angola}} {{About|the country}} {{Pp-move}} {{Use dmy dates|date=August 2020}} {{Infobox country | conventional_long_name = Charu cha Angola | common_name = Angola | native_name = {{native name|pt|República de Angola}}<br> | image_flag = Flag of Angola.svg<!-- DO NOT ADD the proposed flag; you WILL be reverted and warned! --> | image_coat = Emblem of Angola.svg | symbol_type = Emblem | national_motto = {{vunblist|{{native phrase|la|Virtus Unita Fortior|italics=on|nolink=on}}|({{lang-en|"Virtue is stronger when united"}})}} | national_anthem = "[[Angola Avante]]"<br />({{Lang-en|"Onwards Angola"}}) | image_map = {{Switcher|[[File:Angola (orthographic projection).svg|frameless]]|Show globe|[[File:Location Angola AU Africa.svg|upright=1.15|frameless]]|Show map of Africa|[[File:Angola - Location Map (2013) - AGO - UNOCHA.svg|frameless]]|Show map of Angola|default=1}} | map_caption = | capital = [[Luanda]] | religion = {{ublist |item_style=white-space:nowrap; |92.9% [[Christianity]] |—53.9% [[Catholic Church in Angola|Roman Catholic]] |—27.4% [[Protestant]] |—11.6% Other [[List of Christian denominations|Christian]] |5.1% [[African Traditional Religion|Traditional faiths]] |1.1% [[Islam]] |0.9% [[Religion in Angola|Other]] / [[Irreligion|None]] }} | religion_year = 2020 | religion_ref = <ref>{{Cite web |title=Angola: Major World Religions (1900 - 2050) |url=https://www.thearda.com/world-religion/national-profiles?u=7c |access-date=2022-10-08 |website=[[The Association of Religion Data Archives]]}}</ref> | coordinates = {{Coord|8|50|S|13|20|E|type:city}} | largest_city = capital | languages = [[Angolan Portuguese|Portuguese]] | languages_type = Official language | languages2_type = National languages | languages2 = {{unbulleted list | [[Kimbundu]] | [[Umbundu]] | [[Chokwe language|Chokwe]] | [[Kongo language|Kikongo]] }} | ethnic_groups = {{unbulleted list | 37% [[Ovimbundu]] | 25% [[Ambundu]] | 13% [[Kongo people|Bakongo]] | 21% Other African | 2% [[Mestiço]] (mixed European and African) | 1% [[Overseas Chinese|Chinese]] | 1% [[White Africans of European ancestry|European]]}} | ethnic_groups_ref = <ref>{{cite web|title=Main ethnic groups in Angola 2021 |url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/1202261/share-of-ethnic-groups-in-angola/|website=Statista}}</ref> | ethnic_groups_year = 2021 | demonym = {{unbulleted list |[[Demographics of Angola|Angolan]]}} | government_type = [[Unitary state|Unitary]] [[Dominant-party system|dominant-party]] [[Presidential system|presidential]] [[republic]] | leader_title1 = [[President of Angola|President]] | leader_name1 = [[João Lourenço]] | leader_title2 = [[Vice President of Angola|Vice President]] | leader_name2 = [[Esperança da Costa]]<ref name="RNA 15-9-22">[https://rna.ao/rna.ao/2022/09/15/investidura-do-presidente-da-republica/ Investidura do Presidente da República]. Rádio Nacional de Angola. 15 September 2022.</ref> | legislature = [[National Assembly (Angola)|National Assembly]] | sovereignty_type = [[History of Angola|Formation]] | established_event1 = [[Angolan War of Independence|Independence]] from [[Portugal]], under [[People's Republic of Angola|Communist rule]] | established_date1 = 11 November 1975 | established_event2 = [[United Nations]] [[United Nations Security Council Resolution 397|full membership]] | established_date2 = 22 November 1976 | established_event3 = [[Constitution of Angola|Current constitution]] | established_date3 = 21 January 2010 | p1 = People's Republic of Angola | flag_p1 = Flag of Angola.svg | area_km2 = 1246700 | area_rank = 22nd | area_sq_mi = 481354 | percent_water = negligible | population_estimate = 34,795,287<ref>{{Cite CIA World Factbook|country=Angola|access-date=24 September 2022|year=2022}}</ref> | population_census = 25,789,024<ref name="INE Angola">{{Citation |title=Resultados Definitivos do Recenseamento Geral da População e da Habitação de Angola 2014 |date=March 2016 |url=http://aiangola.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/03/Publica%C3%A7%C3%A3o-Resultados-Definitivos-Censo-Geral-2014_Vers%C3%A3o-22032016_DEFINITIVA-18H17.pdf |trans-title=Final Results of the General Census of Population and Housing of Angola 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160506013702/http://aiangola.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/03/Publica%C3%A7%C3%A3o-Resultados-Definitivos-Censo-Geral-2014_Vers%C3%A3o-22032016_DEFINITIVA-18H17.pdf |publisher=Instituto Nacional de Estatística |language=pt |archive-date=6 May 2016 |url-status=dead}}</ref> | population_estimate_year = 2022 | population_estimate_rank = 42nd | population_census_year = 2014 | population_density_km2 = 24.97 | population_density_sq_mi = 64.65 | population_density_rank = 157th | GDP_PPP = {{increase}}$245.44&nbsp;billion<ref name="imf2">{{cite web|url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2022/October|title=World Economic Outlook Database, October 2022|date=October 2022|website=IMF.org|publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]]|access-date= October 11, 2022}}</ref> | GDP_PPP_year = 2022 | GDP_PPP_rank = 62nd | GDP_PPP_per_capita = {{increase}}$7,455<ref name=imf2/> | GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 129th | GDP_nominal ={{increase}} $124.79 billion<ref name=imf2/> | GDP_nominal_year = 2022 | GDP_nominal_rank = 61st | GDP_nominal_per_capita = {{increase}}$3,791<ref name=imf2/> | GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 125th | Gini = 51.3 | Gini_year = 2018 | Gini_ref = <ref name="wb-gini">{{cite web |title=GINI index (World Bank estimate) - Angola |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI?locations=AO |website=data.worldbank.org |publisher=World Bank |access-date=22 March 2020 |archive-date=7 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190607003448/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI%3Flocations%3DAO |url-status=live }}</ref> | HDI = 0.588<!-- number only --> | HDI_year = 2021<!-- Please use the year to which the data refers, not the publication year --> | HDI_change = increase<!-- increase/decrease/steady --> | HDI_ref = <ref name="UNHDR">{{cite web|url=https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2021-22pdf_1.pdf|title=Human Development Report 2021/2022|language=en|publisher=[[United Nations Development Programme]]|date=8 September 2022|access-date=8 September 2022}}</ref> | HDI_rank = 146th | currency = [[Angolan kwanza]] | currency_code = AOA | time_zone = [[West Africa Time|WAT]] | utc_offset = +1 | date_format = dd/mm/yyyy | drives_on = Right | calling_code = [[Telephone numbers in Angola|+244]] | cctld = [[.ao]] }} '''Angola''' ({{IPAc-en|audio=En-Angola-pronunciation.ogg|æ|n|ˈ|ɡ|oʊ|l|ə}}; {{IPA-pt|ɐ̃ˈɡɔlɐ|lang}}; {{lang-kg|Ngola}}, {{IPA-kg|ŋɔla|pron}}), mwaboma, '''Charu cha Angola''' ({{lang-pt|República de Angola}}),ni chalo icho chili ku mpoto kwa [[Africa]]. Ni caru caciŵiri pa vyaru vyose ivyo vikuyowoya [[Ciphwitikizi]] pa caru cose ndiposo pa unandi wa ŵanthu. Charu ichi chili kumafumiro gha dazi na [[Namibia]], kumpoto na [[Democratic Republic of Congo]], kumafumiro gha dazi na [[Zambia]], ndipo kumanjiliro gha dazi na [[Atlantic Ocean]]. Angola wali na chigaŵa chakuchemeka [[Cabinda]], icho chili mumphepete mwa charu cha [[Democratic Republic of Congo|Congo]] na Democratic Republic of Congo. Msumba ukuru wa charu ichi ni [[Luanda]]. Ŵanthu ŵakakhalanga mu charu ichi kwamba mu [[nyengo ya Paleolitiki]]. Charu ichi chikamba kuwumbika na Ŵapwitikizi mu ma 1500 C.E. Ŵakapanga mizi mumphepete mwa nyanja. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800, ŵanthu ŵa ku [[Europe]] ŵakamba kukhala mu malo agha. Charu cha [[Portugal]] icho chikazgoka Angola, chikaŵa na mphaka zake yayi m'paka mu vyaka vya m'ma 1900, chifukwa cha ŵanthu ŵa ku chigaŵa ichi nga mba [[Cuamato]], Kwanyama, na [[Mbunda]]. Pambuyo pa nkhondo ya nyengo yitali, Angola yikatora wanangwa mu 1975 nga ni Republic ya Marxist-Leninist. Charu ichi chikamba nkhondo ya boma chaka chimoza, pakati pa People's Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA), iyo yikaŵa na wovwiri wa [[Soviet Union]] na [[Cuba]], [[National Union for the Total Independence of Angola]], iyo yikaŵa ya Maoist ndipo pamanyuma yikakanizga chikomyunizimu iyo yikaŵa nayo boma la [[United States]] na South Africa, na gulu la National Liberation Front of Angola, ilo likaŵa na wovwirapo wa [[Zaire]]. Angola yili na vyakununkhira vinandi na mafuta, ndipo caru ici cili pakati pa vyakununkha comene pa caru cose, comenecomene kufuma apo nkhondo ya mukati yikamalira.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|date=13 April 2010|title=Transparency and Accountability in Angola|url=https://www.hrw.org/report/2010/04/13/transparency-and-accountability-angola|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151006051053/http://www.hrw.org/report/2010/04/13/transparency-and-accountability-angola|archive-date=6 October 2015|access-date=1 April 2016|website=Human Rights Watch}}</ref> Ŵanthu ŵanandi ku Angola ŵakukhala umoyo wambura kukhumbikwa. Kwambira mu 2017, boma la João Lourenço laŵika mtima pa kulimbana na vimbundi. Nangauli ŵalongozgi ŵa vyaru vinyake ŵakumanya kuti mulimo uwu ngwakuzomerezgeka, kweni ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakususka ŵakuwona kuti ni vyakucitika vya ndyali.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.voanews.com/africa/angolas-anti-corruption-drive-real-or-cosmetic|title=Is Angola's Anti-Corruption Drive Real or Cosmetic?|website=VOA News|date=10 January 2020|access-date=24 June 2021|archive-date=28 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210628000708/https://www.voanews.com/africa/angolas-anti-corruption-drive-real-or-cosmetic|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.angop.ao/en/noticias/politica/diplomata-reconhece-esforcos-na-luta-contra-corrupcao/|title=Diplomat recognizes government's effort in fight against corruption|date=30 June 2021|access-date=5 July 2021|publisher=Agéncia Angola Press|archive-date=6 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211006061359/https://www.angop.ao/en/noticias/politica/diplomata-reconhece-esforcos-na-luta-contra-corrupcao/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{cite web|title=Life expectancy at birth|year=2014|work=World Fact Book|publisher=United States Central Intelligence Agency|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2102rank.html|access-date=4 March 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160120024054/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2102rank.html|archive-date=20 January 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref> Charu cha Angola chili mu wupu wa United Nations, OPEC, African Union, Community of Portuguese Language Countries, na Southern African Development Community. Mu 2021, ŵanthu ŵa ku Angola ŵakukwana 32.87 miliyoni. Angola ni caru ca ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yakupambanapambana. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Angola ŵakamba kuyowoya Ciphwitikizi kwa vyaka vinandi. ==Zina== Zina lakut''i Angola'' likufuma ku lizgu lakuti [[Reino de Angola]], ilo likafuma ku Chiphwitikizi, ndipo likalembeka mu chikalata cha mu 1571..<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Heywood |first1=Linda M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S42CypbRTlQC&pg=PA82 |title=Central Africans, Atlantic Creoles, and the Foundation of the Americas, 1585-1660 |last2=Thornton |first2=John K. |date=2007 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0521770651 |page=82 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150320074507/http://books.google.com/books?id=S42CypbRTlQC&pg=PA82 |archive-date=20 March 2015}}</ref> Ŵanthu ŵa ku Portugal ndiwo ŵakalemba zina ili kufuma ku zina lakuti ngola. Ndongo mu vigaŵa vya mapiri, pakati pa milonga ya Kwanza na Lucala, yikaŵa chigaŵa cha Ufumu wa Kongo, kweni mu vyaka vya m'ma 1500, yikakhumbanga kujithemba.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.sahistory.org.za/article/kingdom-kongo-1390-1914 |title=Kingdom of Kongo 1390–1914 |last=Leander |date=18 May 2016 |website=South African History Online |access-date=25 February 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190223184815/https://www.sahistory.org.za/article/kingdom-kongo-1390-1914 |archive-date=23 February 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref> ==Mbili== {{Main|History of Angola}} === Kusamukira ku vyaru vinyake na magulu gha ndyali === [[File:Jean_Roy_de_Congo.jpg|thumb|upright|left|[[João I of Kongo|King João I]], [[Manikongo]] of the [[Kingdom of Kongo]]]] Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Angola ŵakaŵa ŵa mtundu wa Khoi na San pambere ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Bantu ŵandambe kusama. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Khoi na San ŵakaliskanga viŵeto yayi panji kulima, kweni ŵakaliskanga na kuvuna. Ŵanthu aŵa ŵakafumako ku chigaŵa ichi mu vyaka vya m'ma 1000 B.C.E. Ŵanandi mwa ŵanthu aŵa ŵakafuma ku chigaŵa icho sono chikuchemeka Nigeria. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Bantu ndiwo ŵakamba kulima banane na taro, kweniso viŵeto vikuruvikuru mu chigaŵa chapakati cha Angola. Pakaŵa maboma ghanandi agho ghakakhazikiskika. Ghakumanyikwa chomene ni Ufumu wa Kongo, uwo ukaŵa ku Angola. Chikatora nthowa zakwendakwenda na maboma ghanyake na ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga mu vigaŵa vya kumwera na kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Africa, kweniso na charu cha Great Zimbabwe na Mutapa. Kumwera kwake kukaŵa Ufumu wa Ndongo, uwo nyengo zinyake ukachemekanga Dongo.<ref name=EB1878>{{cite EB9 |mode=cs2 |wstitle=Angola |volume=2 |page=45 }}</ref> === Chikoloni cha Ŵapwitikizi === {{Main|Colonial history of Angola|Portuguese Angola}} [[File:Coat of Arms of the Kingdom of Kongo.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Coat of arms granted to King [[Afonso I of Kongo]] by King [[Manuel I of Portugal]]]] Munthu munyake wa ku Portugal zina lake Diogo Cão wakafika mu chigaŵa ichi mu 1484.<ref name=EB1878/> Chaka chamara, Ŵapwitikizi ŵakamba kukolerana na charu cha Kongo, icho pa nyengo iyo chikaŵa kufuma ku Gabon, kumpoto, m'paka ku Mlonga wa Kwanza, kumwera. Ŵapwitikizi ŵakakhazikiska msika wawo ku Soyo, uwo sono ni msumba wa kumpoto comene mu Angola padera pa Cabinda. Mu 1575, Paulo Dias de Novais wakazenga msumba wa São Paulo de Loanda (Luanda) pamoza na mbumba 100 na ŵasilikari 400. Mu 1587, msumba wa Benguela ukaŵa na malinga ndipo mu 1617 ukazgoka tawuni. Ŵapwitikizi ŵakakhazikiska malo ghanyake ghakukhalamo, vigongwe, na malo ghakuguliskirako vinthu mumphepete mwa nyanja ya Angola. Ŵamalonda ŵa ku malo agha ndiwo ŵakapelekanga ŵazga ŵanandi ku ufumu wa Portugal, ndipo kanandi ŵakaguliskanga vinthu ku Europe.<ref>{{cite book|title=Angola in the Eighteenth Century: Slave trading in the 1700s|url=https://archive.org/details/angolapresidentj0000usai|work=Angola President Jose Eduardo Dos Santos Handbook|author=Global Investment and Business Center|publisher=Int'l Business Publications|date=1 January 2006|page=[https://archive.org/details/angolapresidentj0000usai/page/153 153]|isbn=0739716069}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|access-date=14 May 2016|page=27|url= http://siteresources.worldbank.org/AFRICAEXT/Resources/africa-brazil-bridging-chapter2.pdf |title=The History of Brazil–Africa Relations|author=World Bank|work=Bridging the Atlantic|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160530153221/http://siteresources.worldbank.org/AFRICAEXT/Resources/africa-brazil-bridging-chapter2.pdf |archive-date=30 May 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> Chigaŵa ichi cha malonda gha ŵazga mu nyanja ya Atlantic chikalutilira m'paka apo charu cha Brazil chikapokera wanangwa mu 1820. Nangauli charu cha Portugal chikaŵa na mazaza pa charu cha Angola, kweni chikaŵa na mazaza ghachoko waka pa vigaŵa vinandi vya charu ichi. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1500, charu cha Portugal chikamba kulamulira mumphepete mwa nyanja iyi. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe awo ŵakakhalanga mu vyaru ivi ŵakasuzgikanga ndipo vinthu vikendanga makora yayi. John Iliffe wakati: "Mazgu gha ku Portugal agho ghakalembeka mu vyaka vya m'ma 1500, ghakulongora kuti njara yikuru yikaŵanga mu vigaŵa vyose vya charu cha Angola, ndipo para njara iyi yachitika, yikatenge yikomenge ŵanthu ŵakukwana hafu ya ŵanthu wose.<ref>Iliffe, John (2007) [https://books.google.com/books?id=bNGN2URP_rUC ''Africans: the history of a continent''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160610211914/https://books.google.com/books?id=bNGN2URP_rUC |date=10 June 2016 }}. Cambridge University Press. p. 68. {{ISBN|0-521-68297-5}}. For valuable complements for the 16th and 17th centuries see Beatrix Heintze, ''Studien zur Geschichte Angolas im 16. und 17. Jahrhundert'', Colónia/Alemanha: Köppe, 1996</ref> Pa nyengo ya Nkhondo ya ku Portugal, kampani ya Dutch West India Company yikawukira msumba wa Luanda mu 1641. Mu 1648, ŵasilikari ŵa Salvador de Sá ŵakatora Luanda. Mu 1649, pakalembeka mapangano ghaphya na charu cha Kongo. Kupoka msumba wa Pungo Andongo mu 1671 kukaŵa kwaumaliro kwa Ŵapwitikizi kufuma ku Luanda, cifukwa ŵakayezga kuti ŵanjire mu Congo mu 1670 na Matamba mu 1681 kweni ŵakatondeka. Malo agho ŵakakolerananga nagho ghakathandazgikiranga kufuma ku Benguela, kweni m'paka kuumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1800, malo agho ŵakakolerananga nagho ghakaŵa ghachoko chomene. Cifukwa ca masuzgo gha ndyali mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800, caru ca Portugal cikachedwa comene kupoka caru ca Angola.<ref name="Handbook">{{Cite book |title=Angola, a Country Study |publisher=Department of the Army, [[American University]] |year=1991 |isbn=978-0160308444 |editor-last=Collelo |editor-first=Thomas |edition=Third |series=Area Handbook Series |location=Washington, D.C. |pages=14–26}}</ref> [[File:Cadornega.jpg|thumb|right|upright|''History of Angola''; written in Luanda in 1680.]] Mu 1836, malonda gha ŵazga ghakalekeka mu Angola, ndipo mu 1854 boma la ku Angola likafwatura ŵazga wose. Pakati pajumpha vilimika vinayi, boma la Portugal likamazga wuzga. <ref name="Handbook" />Ndipouli, malango agha ghakaŵa ghambura kufiskika, ndipo Ŵapwitikizi ŵakathembanga ŵasilikari ŵa ku Britain kuti ŵaŵawovwire kukanizga malonda gha ŵazga. Ici cikacitika pa nyengo iyo ŵasilikari ŵakambiraso ulendo wawo wa ku nkhorongo.<ref name="Handbook" /> Kuzakafika pakati pa vyaka vya m'ma 1800, caru ca Portugal cikaŵa kuti capanga ufumu wake kumpoto m'paka ku Mlonga wa Congo na kumwera m'paka ku Mossâmedes. Kuzakafika kuumaliro wa ma 1880, Portugal yikaghanaghananga vya kukolerana na Angola na Mozambique, kweni ŵanthu ŵa ku Britain na Belgium ŵakakana. Mu nyengo iyi, Ŵapwitikizi ŵakakumana na mitundu yakupambanapambana ya ŵanthu ŵakugaluka mu Angola.<ref>See René Pélissier, ''Les guerres grises: Résistance et revoltes en Angola, (1845-1941)'', Éditions Pélissier, Montamets, 78630 Orgeval (France), 1977</ref> Ungano wa ku Berlin mu 1884-1885 ukaŵa na mphaka za charu ichi, ndipo ukalongosora mphaka za Ŵapwitikizi ku Angola.<ref>See René Pélissier, ''La colonie du Minotaure. Nationalismes et révoltes en Angola (1926–1961)'', éditions Pélissier, Montamets, 78630 Orgeval (France), 1979</ref> Malonda pakati pa Portugal na vyaru vya ku Africa ghakasazgikira comene cifukwa ca msonkho wa msonkho uwo ukapangiska kuti caru ciŵe na vinthu vinandi, kweniso cifukwa ca ŵeneco ŵa ku Portugal awo ŵakaluta ku caru ici.<ref name="Corrado">{{cite book |last=Corrado |first=Jacopo |title=The Creole Elite and the Rise of Angolan Protonationalism: 1870–1920 |date=2008 |publisher=Cambria Press |isbn=978-1604975291 |location=Amherst, New York |pages=11–13}}</ref> Pakati pa 1939 na 1943, ŵasilikari ŵa ku Portugal ŵakacitiska nkhondo ŵanthu ŵa ku Mucubal, awo ŵakasuskikanga kuti ŵakugaluka. Awo ŵakapona ŵakakakika mu misasa yakuyuzgirako ŵanthu, ŵakatumika ku misasa yakuyuzgirako ŵanthu, uko ŵanandi ŵakafwa cifukwa ca nkhaza za ŵantchito, kusoŵa cakurya cakukwana, na kukomeka.<ref>Rafael Coca de Campos ''Kakombola. O genocídio dos Mucubais na Angola colonial, 1930-1943'', Ponta Grossa, 2021.</ref> === Kujiyimira kwa Angola === {{Main|Angolan War of Independence|Portuguese Colonial War}} [[File:Luanda,desfilemilitar (cropped).jpg|thumb|left|[[Portuguese Armed Forces]] marching in Luanda during the [[Portuguese Colonial War]]s (1961–74).]] Kuyana na dango la ku Angola, ŵanthu ŵafipa ŵakazomerezgekanga yayi kunjilirapo pa ndyali panji kuzenga mabungwe. Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Charu Chose yikati yamara, ŵanthu ŵakamba kusankhana mitundu. Kukwambilira kwa m'ma 1960, wupu unyake uwo ukacitanga milimo yakovwira ŵanthu ŵa ku mizi ukaŵawovwira. Chifukwa chakuti Portugal yikakana kupulikira ivyo ŵanthu ŵa ku Angola ŵakakhumbanga, nkhondo yikamba mu 1961 apo ŵanthu ŵa ku Baixa de Cassanje ŵakagaluka. Mu nyengo yose ya nkhondo iyi, magulu ghatatu ghakwimikana na ŵasilikari ghakafuma mu nkhondo pakati pa boma la Portugal na ŵasilikari ŵa ku malo agha.<ref name="Chabal">{{cite book |last=Chabal |first=Patrick |title=A History of Postcolonial Lusophone Africa |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofpostcol0000chab |date=2002 |publisher=Indiana University Press |isbn=978-0253215659 |location=Bloomington |page=[https://archive.org/details/historyofpostcol0000chab/page/142 142]}}</ref> Gulu la National Front for the Liberation of Angola (FNLA) likulemba ŵanthu ŵakuchimbira ku Bakongo mu Zaire. Pakuwona umo vinthu vikaŵira mu msumba wa Léopoldville, kweniso mphaka iyo yikaŵa na Zaire, ŵanthu ŵa ku Angola awo ŵakakoleka ŵakaŵa na mazaza pa ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakafumanga mu vyaru vinyake. Ŵanthu ŵa ku vigaŵa vyose viŵiri vya mphaka ŵakayowoyanga viyowoyero vyakupambanapambana ndipo ŵakakondwanga na ufumu wa Kongo. Nangauli ŵanthu ŵakufuma ku vyaru vinyake awo ŵakaŵa na maluso ghapachanya ŵakatondekanga kusanga nchito mu boma la Mobutu Sese Seko, kweni ŵanyake ŵakasanganga nchito ya kuŵa ŵimiliri ŵa ŵeneco ŵa makampani ghakupambanapambana. Ŵalendo aŵa ŵakambiska gulu la FNLA na cilato cakuti para ŵafika ku Angola ŵasangire mazaza.<ref name="Chabal"/>[[File:FNLA1973.jpg|thumb|upright|Ŵabali ŵa National Liberation Front of Angola ŵakasambira mu 1973.]] Mu 1966 gulu la Ovimbundu ilo likakanizganga Ŵapwitikizi ku Angola likalongozgeka na Jonas Savimbi na National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA). Ŵakaŵa na masuzgo ghanandi cifukwa cakuti ŵakaŵa kutali na vigaŵa vya ŵabwezi ŵawo, ŵanthu ŵa ku Ovimbundu ŵakaŵa ŵakupambana mitundu, kweniso ŵalimi ŵa ku Europe ŵakaŵa ŵekha pa malo agho ŵakakhalanga.<ref name="Chabal"/> Paumaliro wa 1950, gulu la Marxist-Leninist Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA) likamba kuwusa kumpoto kwa Luanda. Gulu ili likapangika na chipani cha Angolan Communist Party, ndipo ŵalongozgi ŵa gulu ili ŵakaŵa Ambundu. Nangauli MPLA na ŵalwani ŵake ŵakapokeleranga wovwiri wa vinthu vyakufuma ku Soviet Union panji ku China, kweni MPLA yikaŵa na maghanoghano ghakwimikana na boma la Britain ndipo yikadandawuranga comene boma la United States na wovwiri wake ku Portugal. Ivi vikamovwira kuti waŵe na mwaŵi wa kukolerana na maboma gha ku Morocco, Ghana, Guinea, Mali, na United Arab Republic. MPLA yikayezga kusamuska ofesi yake yikuru kufuma ku Conakry kuya ku Léopoldville mu Okutobala 1961, ndipo yikambaso kulimbikira kupanga gulu limoza na FNLA, ilo likamanyikwanga na zina lakuti Union of Angolan Peoples (UPA) na mulongozgi wake Holden Roberto. Roberto wakakana. Apo MPLA yikayezga kunjizga ŵasilikari ŵake mu Angola, ŵasilikari ŵa UPA ŵakaŵawukira na kuŵakoma.<ref name="Cornwell">{{cite web |last=Cornwell |first=Richard |date=1 November 2000 |title=The War of Independence |url=http://www.issafrica.org/pubs/books/Angola/4cornwell.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150221015144/http://www.issafrica.org/pubs/books/Angola/4cornwell.pdf |archive-date=21 February 2015 |access-date=20 February 2015 |publisher=Institute for Security Studies |location=Pretoria}}</ref> === Nkhondo Yachiŵeniŵeni ya ku Angola === {{Main|Angolan Civil War}} [[File:President MPLA, heer Neto door Den Uyl ontvangen premier Den Uyl en A Neto (r), Bestanddeelnr 927-8518 (cropped).jpg|thumb|left|upright|[[Agostinho Neto]], pulezidenti wakwamba wa Angola.]] Mu nyengo yose ya nkhondo iyi, magulu ghatatu agha ghakatimbanizgikanga cifukwa ca kupambana kwa ndyali na ŵasilikari, kweniso cifukwa ca kutondeka kukolerana pakulimbana na Ŵapwitikizi. Pakati pa 1961 na 1975, MPLA, UNITA, na FNLA ŵakakwesananga kuti ŵaŵe na mazaza pa ŵanthu ŵa ku Angola na pa caru cose. Boma la Soviet Union na la Cuba likakolerana chomene na MPLA ndipo likapeleka vilwero, vilwero, ndalama, na masukulu. Ŵakawovwiraso ŵasilikari ŵa UNITA m'paka apo vikawonekeranga kuti ŵasilikari aŵa ŵakususkana na MPLA. Boma la ku Portugal la Estado Novo likati lamara mu 1974, ŵasilikari ŵa ku Portugal ŵakaleka kugwira ntchito mu Africa. Pakukhwimiskika na wupu wa African Unity, Holden Roberto, Jonas Savimbi, na mulongozgi wa MPLA Agostinho Neto ŵakakumana ku Mombasa kukwambilira kwa mwezi wa Janyuwale 1975 ndipo ŵakakolerana kupanga boma la wupu wakukolerana. Paumaliro wa mwezi wenewura, phangano la Alvor likazomerezga kuti paŵe maungano gha boma ndipo likati paŵe maungano gha boma. Ndipouli, magulu ghose ghatatu ghakapulikira phangano la kuleka kuwukira, ndipo ghakawovwira Ŵapwitikizi kuti ŵatore malo ghakupambanapambana, kusanga vilwero vinandi, na kusazgirako ŵasilikari ŵawo. Nkhondo yikalutilira kukura cifukwa cakuti ŵasilikari ŵa vyaru vinyake, comenecomene ŵa Soviet Union na United States, ŵakizanga na vilwero vinandi. Na wovwiri wa ku America na Zaire, FNLA yikamba kuwunganya ŵasilikari ŵanandi kumpoto kwa Angola kuti ŵalutilire kuŵa ŵankhongono. Nyengo yeneyiyo, MPLA yikamba kuwusa Luanda, malo ghakusungirako ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Ambundu. Ku Luanda kukaŵa vivulupi vinandi mu myezi yakulondezgapo, pamanyuma pakuti gulu la FNLA lawira ŵasilikari ŵa MPLA mu Malichi 1975. Nkhondo yikasazgikira na mbembe za mu misewu mu Epulero na Meyi, ndipo UNITA yikakhwaskika pamanyuma pakuti ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 200 ŵakakomeka na MPLA mu Juni. Nkhondo iyi yikati yafika paheni chomene, boma la Soviet Union likamba kupeleka vilwero ku gulu la MPLA. Mu Ogasiti 1975, MPLA yikapempha wovwiri kufuma ku Soviet Union mu nthowa ya ŵasilikari ŵa pa mtunda. Ŵasilikari ŵa ku Soviet ŵakakana, ndipo ŵakakhumbanga kutuma ŵanthu kuti ŵaŵawovwire, kweni ŵasilikari yayi. Ndipouli, ku Cuba ŵakakhumbanga chomene kovwira ndipo kuumaliro wa Seputembala ŵakatuma ŵasilikari pafupifupi 500 ku Angola pamoza na vilwero na vinthu vinyake vyakukhumbikwa. Apo boma la Cuba likamba kujiyimira palekha, pakaŵa ŵasilikari ŵakujumpha 1,000. Ŵakaŵa na ndege zinandi za ku Soviet Union izo zikaŵawovwiranga. Wovwiri wa ŵasilikari ŵa ku Cuba na Soviet ukovwira kuti MPLA yifumiske ŵalwani ŵake mu Luanda na kulekeska ŵasilikari ŵa ku Zaire na ŵa ku South Africa awo ŵakakhumbanga kovwira FNLA na UNITA. Gulu la FNLA likaparanyika comene pamanyuma pa Nkhondo ya Quifangondo, nangauli UNITA yikakwaniska kufumiska ŵasilikari na ŵasilikari ŵake mu Luanda na kupenja malo ghakubisamamo mu vigaŵa vya kumwera. Kufuma apo, Savimbi wakalutilira kulimbana na MPLA.<ref name="Vanneman">{{cite book |last=Vanneman |first=Peter |url=https://archive.org/details/sovietstrategyin00vann |title=Soviet Strategy in Southern Africa: Gorbachev's Pragmatic Approach |date=1990 |publisher=Hoover Institution Press |isbn=978-0817989026 |location=Stanford |pages=[https://archive.org/details/sovietstrategyin00vann/page/48 48–49] |url-access=registration}}</ref>[[File:Cuban PT-76 Angola.JPG|thumb|210px|Kasinja ya ku Cuba mu Luanda pa nyengo ya kucitako vinthu mu Angola, 1976]] Pakati pa 1975 na 1991, MPLA yikagwiliskira nchito ndondomeko ya vya cuma na ndyali yakujintha pa fundo za sayansi ya wupu wakucemeka socialism. Wakapanga ndondomeko yikuru ya kupanikizgira ŵanthu vinthu vyawo, ndipo nchito ya ŵeneco mu caru ici yikamara. Makampani agho ghakaŵa gha ŵanthu ŵekha ghakaŵa gha boma ndipo ghakaŵa mu gulu limoza lakuchemeka Unidades Económicas Estatais (UEE). Mu nyengo ya MPLA, Angola yikaŵa mu vyaru ivyo vikaŵa na makuni ghanandi. Ndipouli, vimbundi na vimbundi vikasazgikiraso, ndipo ŵanthu ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito makora yayi ndalama za boma. Chipani chakulongozga chikapona ku chiyezgo cha kuwukira boma na Maoist-oriented Communist Organisation of Angola (OCA) mu 1977, icho chikakanizgika pamanyuma pa viyezgo vya ndyali ivyo vikakoma ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakakolerana na OCA. Nkhondo ya ku Cuito Cuanavale mu 1987-1988 yikaŵa nkhondo yikuru comene ya nkhondo ya cikaya, iyo yikacitika pakati pa boma la MPLA ilo likawovwirika na Cuba na UNITA iyo yikawovwirika na South Africa. Nkhondo iyi yikamara mu December 1988, ndipo ŵasilikari wose ŵa ku Cuba na South Africa ŵakafumamo mu Angola. MPLA yikasida maghanoghano ghake ghakale gha Marxist pa ungano wake wacitatu wa chipani mu 1990, ndipo yikati social democracy ndiyo yikaŵa pulatifomu yake yiphya. Pamanyuma, Angola wakazgoka ciŵaro ca wupu wa International Monetary Fund. Mu Meyi 1991, ŵakafika pa phangano la mtende na UNITA, la Bicesse Accords. Apo MPLA yikapokera vitumbiko vikuru pa vipharazgo, UNITA yikasuska ivyo vikacitika pa mavoti gha pulezidenti na gha wupu wakulongozga, ndipo yikambaso nkhondo. Pambuyo pa chisankhochi, kuphana kwa Halloween kunachitika kuyambira pa Okutobala 30 mpaka Novembala 1, pomwe magulu a MPLA adapha zikwizikwi za othandizira a UNITA.<ref>{{cite book|last=W. James|first=Martin|year=2004|title=Historical Dictionary of Angola|url=https://archive.org/details/historicaldictio0000jame|pages=[https://archive.org/details/historicaldictio0000jame/page/161 161]–162|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=978-1538111239}}</ref> ===21st century=== [[File:Porto de Luanda - Angola 2015.jpg|thumb|right|Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1900, mu msumba wa Luanda muli vinthu vinandi ivyo vikovwira kuti ŵanthu ŵakhalenge makora.]] {{Main|2000s in Angola}} Pa February 22, 2002, Jonas Savimbi wakakomeka pa nkhondo na ŵasilikari ŵa boma. UNITA na MPLA ŵakamazga nkhondo. Gulu la UNITA likathera ku gulu lake la nkhondo na kwamba kuŵa chipani chikuru chakususka. Nangauli vinthu vikamba kwenda makora mu charu ichi, kweni pakaŵavya ndondomeko ya demokilase m'paka apo kukaŵa mavoti mu Angola mu 2008 na 2012 kweniso apo pakaŵa dango liphya mu 2010. <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.dw.com/en/who-is-angolas-new-president-joao-lourenco/a-40218458|title=Who is Angola's new president Joao Lourenco? &#124; DW &#124; 26.09.2017|website=DW.COM|access-date=26 February 2021|archive-date=3 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210203010533/https://www.dw.com/en/who-is-angolas-new-president-joao-lourenco/a-40218458|url-status=live}}</ref> Angola wali mu suzgo yikuru ya ŵanthu; cifukwa ca nkhondo iyo yikatora nyengo yitali, mabomba ghanandi gha migodi, ndiposo cifukwa ca kulimbikira kwa ndyali kuti kaboni wa boma la Cabinda waŵe wakujiyimira yekha. Nangauli ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵali kufumamo mu vikaya vyawo sono ŵakukhala mu tawuni yikuru ya Angola, kweni ŵanthu ŵa mu vikaya ivi ŵakusuzgika.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Angola - Human Rights Tracker |url=https://rightstracker.org/ |access-date=2023-04-30 |website=rightstracker.org |language=en}}</ref> Chilangalanga mu 2016 chikapangiska suzgo likuru comene la vyakurya mu vyaru vya kumwera kwa Africa mu vyaka 25, ndipo ŵanthu 1.4 miliyoni ŵakakhwaskika mu vigaŵa 7 pa vigaŵa 18 vya Angola. Mtengo wa vyakurya ukakwera ndipo unandi wa ŵana awo ŵakalwara nthenda iyi ukakwera kaŵiri. Bungwe la Human Rights Measurement Initiative likusanga kuti Angola likucita 51.8% ya ivyo vikwenera kucitika pa mlingo wake wa ndalama kuti liŵe na wanangwa wa kurya cakurya cakukwana. José Eduardo dos Santos wakafumapo pa udindo wake wa purezidenti wa Angola pamanyuma pa vilimika 38 mu 2017, ndipo wakatora malo gha João Lourenço, mwenecho wa Santos. Nyengo yikati yajumphapo, ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵa mu mbumba ya Dos Santos ŵakamanyikwa kuti ŵakaŵa ŵaryarya. Mu Julayi 2022, pulezidenti wakale José Eduardo dos Santos wakafwa ku Spain. Mu Ogasiti 2022, chipani cha MPLA, chikapokera chiŵelengero chikuru chomene ndipo Pulezidenti Lourenço wakapokera nyengo yachiŵiri ya vyaka vinkhondi. Ndipouli, maungano agha ghakaŵa ghakusuzga comene kuluska maungano ghanyake ghose mu Angola.<ref>{{cite news |title=Angola's MPLA ruling party wins elections and presidency |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/8/29/angola-ruling-party-wins-vote-and-president-a-second-term |work=www.aljazeera.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=José Eduardo dos Santos: State funeral for Angola ex-president |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-62705492 |work=BBC News |date=28 August 2022}}</ref> ==Makhalilo== {{Main|Geography of Angola}} [[File:Angola Topography.png|thumb|upright|Topography of Angola.]] Ku Angola kuli vigaŵa vyakujumpha 1,246,700 km2, ndipo ni caru ca nambara 24 pa vyaru vyose pa caru capasi. Malo agha ghali pakati pa latitude 4° na 18°S, kweniso longitude 12° na 24°E. Charu cha Angola chili kumafumiro gha dazi na Namibia, kumafumiro gha dazi na Zambia, kumpoto na kumafumiro gha dazi na Democratic Republic of Congo, ndipo kumanjiliro gha dazi na South Atlantic Ocean. Chigaŵa cha mumphepete mwa nyanja cha Cabinda, kumpoto, chili na mphaka na charu cha Democratic Republic of Congo, kumpoto, na kumwera. [Pakukhumbika ukaboni apa] Msumba ukuru wa Angola, Luanda, uli mumphepete mwa nyanja ya Atlantic kumpoto ca kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa caru ici. Angola wakaŵa na nambala ya 8.35/10 pa 2018 Forest Landscape Integrity Index.<ref name="FLII-Supplementary">{{cite journal|last1=Grantham|first1=H. S.|last2=Duncan|first2=A.|last3=Evans|first3=T. D.|last4=Jones|first4=K. R.|last5=Beyer|first5=H. L.|last6=Schuster|first6=R.|last7=Walston|first7=J.|last8=Ray|first8=J. C.|last9=Robinson|first9=J. G.|last10=Callow|first10=M.|last11=Clements|first11=T.|last12=Costa|first12=H. M.|last13=DeGemmis|first13=A.|last14=Elsen|first14=P. R.|last15=Ervin|first15=J.|last16=Franco|first16=P.|last17=Goldman|first17=E.|last18=Goetz|first18=S.|last19=Hansen|first19=A.|last20=Hofsvang|first20=E.|last21=Jantz|first21=P.|last22=Jupiter|first22=S.|last23=Kang|first23=A.|last24=Langhammer|first24=P.|last25=Laurance|first25=W. F.|last26=Lieberman|first26=S.|last27=Linkie|first27=M.|last28=Malhi|first28=Y.|last29=Maxwell|first29=S.|last30=Mendez|first30=M.|last31=Mittermeier|first31=R.|last32=Murray|first32=N. J.|last33=Possingham|first33=H.|last34=Radachowsky|first34=J.|last35=Saatchi|first35=S.|last36=Samper|first36=C.|last37=Silverman|first37=J.|last38=Shapiro|first38=A.|last39=Strassburg|first39=B.|last40=Stevens|first40=T.|last41=Stokes|first41=E.|last42=Taylor|first42=R.|last43=Tear|first43=T.|last44=Tizard|first44=R.|last45=Venter|first45=O.|last46=Visconti|first46=P.|last47=Wang|first47=S.|last48=Watson|first48=J. E. M.|title=Anthropogenic modification of forests means only 40% of remaining forests have high ecosystem integrity - Supplementary Material|journal=Nature Communications|volume=11|issue=1|year=2020|page=5978|issn=2041-1723|doi=10.1038/s41467-020-19493-3|pmid=33293507|pmc=7723057|bibcode=2020NatCo..11.5978G |doi-access=free}}</ref> ===Nyengo=== {{Main|Climate of Angola}} [[File:Angola map of Köppen climate classification.svg|thumb|300px|Mapu gha Angola gha umo vinthu viliri ku Köppen.]] Nga ni vyaru vinyake vya mu Africa, Angola nayo wali na nyengo zakupambanapambana za vula na chilangalanga. Ku chigaŵa cha kumpoto, nyengo ya vula yinganjira myezi 7 - kanandi kufuma mu Seputembala m'paka Epulero. Kumwera, nyengo ya vula yikwamba mu Novembala ndipo yikulutilira m'paka mu Febuluwale. Nyengo ya chilangalanga (cacimbo) kanandi yikuŵa na chiwuvi chikuru mulenji. Kanandi maji ghakukhira chomene kumpoto, kweni mu vigaŵa vinyake vya charu, ghakukhira chomene kuluska mumphepete mwa nyanja. Para munthu wali kutali na equator kweniso para wali pachanya pa mtunda, matenthe ghakukhira, ndipo para wafika kufupi na nyanja ya Atlantic, ghakuwuka. Ntheura, ku Soyo, pa mulomo wa Mlonga wa Congo, pa cilimika cilicose ŵakuzizima comene ŵakuzizima comene. Mwezi wakuzizima chomene ni Julayi na Ogasiti (pakati pa nyengo ya chiwuvi), apo nyengo zinyake kukuŵa chiwuvi.<ref name=":1">{{citation-attribution|{{cite encyclopedia|title=Angola: a country study|publisher=[[Federal Research Division]], [[Library of Congress]]|location=Washington, D.C.|url=https://www.loc.gov/item/90003244/|date=1989|editor-last=Collelo|editor-first=Thomas|pages=57–61|language=English|isbn=|oclc=44357178|access-date=19 June 2022|archive-date=8 April 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220408100132/https://www.loc.gov/item/90003244/|url-status=live}}}}</ref> === Kugawikana kwa boma === {{Main|Provinces of Angola|Municipalities of Angola|Communes of Angola}} [[File:Angola Provinces numbered 300px.png|thumb|upright|Map of Angola with the provinces numbered]] [[File:Huambo, Palácio do Governador (cropped).jpg|thumb|right|[[Huambo Province|Provincial Government of Huambo]].]] Mu Malichi 2016, charu cha Angola chili na vigaŵa 18 (provincias) na matawuni 162. Ŵakumanyikwa na mazina agha ŵali kugaŵika mu vikaya 559.<ref name="acd">{{Citation|title=Resultados Definitivos do Recenseamento Geral da População e da Habitação de Angola 2014|date=March 2016|url=http://aiangola.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/03/Publica%C3%A7%C3%A3o-Resultados-Definitivos-Censo-Geral-2014_Vers%C3%A3o-22032016_DEFINITIVA-18H17.pdf|page=27|trans-title=Final Results of the General Census of Population and Housing of Angola 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160506013702/http://aiangola.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/03/Publica%C3%A7%C3%A3o-Resultados-Definitivos-Censo-Geral-2014_Vers%C3%A3o-22032016_DEFINITIVA-18H17.pdf|publisher=Instituto Nacional de Estatística|language=pt|archive-date=6 May 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref> Vigaŵa ivi ni: {| class="wikitable sortable" |+ |- bgcolor="#ACE1AF" !Nambala !Chigaŵa !Msumba waboma !Usani (km²)<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.geohive.com/cntry/angola.aspx |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160930004212/http://www.geohive.com/cntry/angola.aspx|archive-date=2016-09-30 |title=Angola General Information |website=geohive.com |access-date=3 March 2022}}</ref> !Ŵanthu<br /> (2014 Census)<ref name="Censo2014s">{{cite web|title=Resultados Definitivos Recenseamento Geral da População e Habitação - 2014|url=https://www.ine.gov.ao/images/Populacao_Sociedade/Estudos_tematicos/PUBLICACAO_RESULTADOS_DEFINITIVOS_DO_CENSO_2014.pdf|access-date=3 May 2020|website=Instituto Nacional de Estatística, República de Angola|archive-date=14 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191214215245/https://www.ine.gov.ao/images/Populacao_Sociedade/Estudos_tematicos/PUBLICACAO_RESULTADOS_DEFINITIVOS_DO_CENSO_2014.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> |- |1 |[[Bengo Province|Bengo]] |[[Caxito]] | align="right" |31,371 | align="right" |356,641 |- |2 |[[Benguela Province|Benguela]] |[[Benguela]] | align="right" |39,826 | align="right" |2,231,385 |- |3 |[[Bié Province|Bié]] |[[Cuíto]] | align="right" |70,314 | align="right" |1,455,255 |- |4 |[[Cabinda Province|Cabinda]] |[[Cabinda (city)|Cabinda]] | align="right" |7,270 | align="right" |716,076 |- |5 |[[Cuando Cubango Province|Cuando Cubango]] |[[Menongue]] | align="right" |199,049 | align="right" |534,002 |- |6 |[[Cuanza Norte Province|Cuanza Norte]] |[[N'dalatando]] | align="right" |24,110 | align="right" |443,386 |- |7 |[[Cuanza Sul Province|Cuanza Sul]] |[[Sumbe]] | align="right" |55,600 | align="right" |1,881,873 |- |8 |[[Cunene Province|Cunene]] |[[Ondjiva]] | align="right" |87,342 | align="right" |990,087 |- |9 |[[Huambo Province|Huambo]] |[[Huambo]] | align="right" |34,270 | align="right" |2,019,555 |- |10 |[[Huíla Province|Huíla]] |[[Lubango]] | align="right" |79,023 | align="right" |2,497,422 |- |11 |[[Luanda Province|Luanda]] |[[Luanda]] | align="right" |2,417 | align="right" |6,945,386 |- |12 |[[Lunda Norte Province|Lunda Norte]] |[[Dundo]] | align="right" |103,760 | align="right" |862,566 |- |13 |[[Lunda Sul Province|Lunda Sul]] |[[Saurimo]] | align="right" |77,637 | align="right" |537,587 |- |14 |[[Malanje Province|Malanje]] |[[Malanje]] | align="right" |97,602 | align="right" |986,363 |- |15 |[[Moxico Province|Moxico]] |[[Luena, Moxico Province|Luena]] | align="right" |223,023 | align="right" |758,568 |- |16 |[[Namibe Province|Namibe]] |[[Moçâmedes]] | align="right" |57,091 | align="right" |495,326 |- |17 |[[Uíge Province|Uíge]] |[[Uíge]] | align="right" |58,698 | align="right" |1,483,118 |- |18 |[[Zaire Province|Zaire]] |[[M'banza-Kongo]] | align="right" |40,130 | align="right" |594,428 |} === Chigaŵa cha Cabinda === {{Main|Cabinda Province}} [[File:Governo Provincial do Namibe (19543179475) (cropped).jpg|thumb|right|[[Namibe Province|Provincial Government of Namibe]].]] Chigaŵa cha kumpoto kwa Angola cha Cabinda chili na malo ghakujumpha 7,283 sq km. Chigaŵa ichi chikupambana na chigaŵa chinyake cha charu cha Democratic Republic of Congo icho chili pa mtunda wa makilomita 60 kufupi na Mlonga wa Congo. Cabinda wakukhala ku mpoto na kumpoto na kumpoto kwa mpoto kwa Congo na DRC kumafumiro na kumwera. Msumba wa Cabinda ndiwo uli na ŵanthu ŵanandi chomene. Kuyana na kalembera uyo wakacitika mu 1995, ku Cabinda kukaŵa ŵanthu pafupifupi 600,000, ndipo pafupifupi 400,000 mwa ŵanthu aŵa mba ku vyaru vinyake. Ndipouli, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakugomezga yayi ivyo ŵakuyowoya. Mu chigaŵa ichi muli makuni ghanandi, khofi, kakawo, ghamkuyu, na mafuta. Ndipouli, caru ici nchakumanyikwa comene cifukwa ca mafuta agho ghakupambika. Pafupifupi hafu ya mafuta ghose agho Angola ghakupanga, ghali kufuma ku mafuta agho ghakusangika ku Cabinda.<ref>{{cite news|date=22 December 2013|title=Angola profile|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-13036732|url-status=live|access-date=21 June 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180624084435/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-13036732|archive-date=24 June 2018}}</ref> Mafuta ghanandi agho ghakaŵa mumphepete mwa nyanja iyi ghakasangika na kampani yakuchemeka Cabinda Gulf Oil Company (CABGOC) kufuma mu 1968 m'paka sono. Kufuma waka apo Portugal yikapelekera mazaza gha chigaŵa chakwake cha Angola ku magulu ghakujiyimira pawekha (MPLA, UNITA na FNLA), chigaŵa cha Cabinda chaŵa malo ghakukanizgikira ku boma la Angola. Chipani cha Front for the Liberation of the Enclave of Cabinda- Armed Forces of Cabinda (FLEC-FAC) chikapharazga kuti boma la Federal Republic of Cabinda lizamuŵa pasi pa muwuso wa N'Zita Henriques Tiago. Cimoza mwa vinthu ivyo vikulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵa mu Cabindan ŵakukhumba kujikora nchakuti nyengo zose ŵakugaŵikana. == Boma na ndale == {{Main|Politics of Angola}} {{See also|Elections in Angola|List of political parties in Angola}} [[File:National Assembly Building (19898889148).jpg|thumb|left|Nyumba ya Malango ya Angola.]] Boma la Angola lili na maofesi ghatatu: wupu wakulongozga, wa malango na wa vyeruzgo. Wupu wakulongozga wa boma uli na pulezidenti, mavice-president na Council of Minister. Wupu wakulongozga uli na mipando 220, wupu wakulongozga wa wupu umoza, wupu wa National Assembly of Angola, uwo ukusankhika kufuma mu vigaŵa vinandi vya chigaŵa na vyaru vyose. Kwa vyaka vinandi, mazaza gha ndyali ghakaŵa mu mawoko gha pulezidenti. Pamanyuma pa vilimika 38 vya kuwusa, mu 2017 President dos Santos wakafumapo pa umanyi wa MPLA. Mulongozgi wa chipani icho chizamutonda pa mavoti gha pa nyumba ya malango mu Ogasiti 2017 ndiyo wazamuŵa pulezidenti wakulondezgapo wa Angola. MPLA yikasankha nduna yakale ya vya vimbundi João Lourenço kuŵa wakunjira mu malo mwa Santos. Pa ŵaliska 32, 12 ŵakaŵa ŵanakazi. Mu ivyo vikulongosoreka kuti ni kuyuzga ndyali kuti waŵike nkhongono zake na kuchepeska mazaza gha mbumba ya Dos Santos, Lourenço wakafumiska mulara wa ŵapolisi, Ambrósio de Lemos, na mulara wa ŵapolisi, Apolinário José Pereira. Wose ŵaŵiri ŵakuwoneka kuti ŵakaŵa ŵabwezi ŵa pulezidenti Dos Santos. Kweniso wakawuskapo Isabel Dos Santos, mwana wa pulezidenti wakale, pakuŵa mulara wa kampani ya mafuta ya Sonangol. Mu Ogasiti 2020, José Filomeno dos Santos, mwana wa pulezidenti wakale wa Angola, wakalangika vyaka vinkhondi mu jele cifukwa ca upusikizgi na vimbundi.<ref>{{cite news |title=José Filomeno dos Santos: Son of Angola's ex-leader jailed for five years |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-53774288 |work=BBC News |date=14 August 2020 |access-date=7 June 2022 |archive-date=7 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220607203552/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-53774288 |url-status=live }}</ref> ===Malango=== [[File:Vladimir Putin and João Lourenço, 26 july 2018 (3) (cropped).jpg|thumb|right|[[João Lourenço]], [[President of Angola]]]] {{main|Constitution of Angola}} Ndondomeko ya boma ya mu 2010 yikulongosora makora umo boma likwendeskekera kweniso ivyo ŵanthu ŵakwenera kuchita. Boma la Portugal lili na malango ghakukhwaskana na malango gha chiyowoyero na malango gha mitheto. Nkhondo ya pawenenawene yikati yamara, boma la Iran likakhwaskika na ŵanthu ŵa mu charu na ŵamitundu kuti liŵe la demokilase. Likasintha vinthu vinyake kwambura kusintha chomene. Ndondomeko yiphya ya malango, iyo yikamba kugwira ntchito mu 2010, yikasintha kuti paŵavye mavoti gha pulezidenti. Mwaunenesko panji yayi, pulezidenti ndiyo wakulongozga vinthu vinyake vyose mu boma, ntheura palije kugaŵikana kwa mazaza. Kuyana na malango gha boma, boma ili lili na mazaza ghakulongozga''.''<ref>{{Cite book|title=Angola Party Politics: Into the African Trend|last=Amundsen|first=Inge|publisher=Chr. Michelsen Institute (CMI) and Centro de Estudos e Investigação Científica (CEIC)|year=2011|type=PDF}}</ref><ref>Péclard, Didier (ed.) (2008) ''L'Angola dans la paix: Autoritarisme et reconversions'', special issue of ''Politique africains'' (Paris), p. 110.</ref><ref>Miranda, Jorge (2010) "A Constituição de Angola de 2010", ''O Direito'' (Lisbon), vol. 142.</ref> === Wankhondo === {{Main|Angolan Armed Forces}} [[File:Luanda - Angola (6276460346) (cropped).jpg|thumb|left|Ŵasilikari ŵa ŵasilikari ŵa Angola awo ŵakaŵa na yunifomu.]] Gulu la ŵasilikari la Angola (Forças Armadas Angolanas, FAA) likulongozgeka na Chief of Staff uyo wakuphalira nduna yakuvikilira chalo. Pali maboma ghatatu: Army (Exército), Navy (Marinha de Guerra, MGA) na National Air Force (Força Aérea Nacional, FAN). Ŵandu ŵakwana 107,000, kusazgapo ŵasilikari 10,000 (kuyana na 2015).<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Hutchinson Unabridged Encyclopedia with Atlas and Weather guide|publisher=Helicon|year=2018|isbn=978-1-84972-716-7|location=Abington, UK}}</ref> Vinthu vyake vikusazgapo vilwero vya nkhondo vya ku Russia, mabomba na ndege zakwendeskera vinthu. Paliso ndege za EMB-312 Tucanos za ku Brazil, za L-39 za ku Czech, na za ku Western, nga ni C-212\Aviocar, Sud Aviation Alouette III, na vinyake. Ŵanthu ŵacoko waka ŵa FAA ŵali mu Democratic Republic of Congo (Kinshasa) ndipo ŵanyake 500 ŵakatumika mu Malichi 2023 cifukwa ca kuwuka kwa M23. Wupu wa FAA nawo uli kuchitako mulimo wa mtende wa Southern African Development Community (SADC) ku Cabo Delgado, Mozambique.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Angola to join SADC military mission to Mozambique - Xinhua {{!}} English.news.cn |url=http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/africa/2021-07/28/c_1310092087.htm |access-date=2022-05-10 |website=www.xinhuanet.com |archive-date=25 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211025093503/http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/africa/2021-07/28/c_1310092087.htm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Gomes |first=Miguel |last2=Rolley |first2=Sonia |date=17 March 2023 |title=Angola to deploy troops in Congo's rebel-hit east |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/angola-deploy-troops-congos-rebel-hit-east-2023-03-17/ |access-date=15 April 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=AfricaNews |date=2020-07-06 |title=DRC: Angolan soldier killed in Kasai |url=https://www.africanews.com/2020/07/06/drc-angolan-soldier-killed-in-kasai/ |access-date=2022-05-10 |website=Africanews |language=en |archive-date=10 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220510124820/https://www.africanews.com/2020/07/06/drc-angolan-soldier-killed-in-kasai/ |url-status=live }}</ref> === Ŵapolisi === {{Main|Law enforcement in Angola}} [[File:Angola transito (cropped).jpg|thumb|right|Ŵapolisi ŵa ku Angola.]] Maofesi gha ŵapolisi ni Public Order, Criminal Investigation, Traffic and Transport, Investigation and Inspection of Economic Activities, Taxation and Frontier Supervision, Riot Police na Rapid Intervention Police. Ŵapolisi ŵakuzenga viŵiya vya nkhondo kuti viwovwire ŵasilikari. Ŵapolisi ŵa ku caru cose ŵakukuzga maofesi ghawo ghakutozga milandu. Wupu uwu uli na ŵasilikari 6,000, ŵapolisi 2,500 ŵakuwona vya misonkho, ŵapolisi 182 ŵakuwona vya vigeŵenga, ŵapolisi 100 ŵakuwona vya vigeŵenga vya ndalama, kweniso ŵapolisi pafupifupi 90 ŵakuwona vya vyachuma. Ŵapolisi ŵa boma ŵali kwambiska ndondomeko ya kusinthiska na kusambizga ŵanthu kuti ŵacite makora milimo yawo. Padera pa kunozga vinthu mu boma, mapulojekiti ghakusintha vinthu ghakusazgapo kugura magalimoto ghaphya, ndege na vinthu vinyake, kuzenga maofesi gha ŵapolisi na ma laboratory gha vya malango, kunozga masukulu gha kusambizga ŵanthu, na kusinthiska futi za AKM na za Uzi za 9 mm ku ŵasilikari ŵa mu matawuni. ===Chilungamo=== Khoti Likuru Chomene ndilo likuchita apilu. Khoti la malango ni wupu wapachanya wa malango, ilo likakhazikiskika na dango la nambara 2/08, la 17 Juni  ️ Dango la malango la khoti la malango na la nambara 3/08, la 17 Juni ️ Dango la malango la malango. Ndondomeko ya malango yili kuyana na malango gha ku Portugal na malango gha cikaya. Mu caru ici muli makhoti 12 mu vigaŵa vyakujumpha 140. Mulimo wake wakwamba ukaŵa wa kuwoneseska kuti ŵandyali ŵaŵikapo mtima pa maungano gha chigaŵa gha pa Seputembala 5, 2008. Pasono pali ŵeruzgi 7 awo ŵakupeleka ulongozgi, ŵanalume ŵanayi na ŵanakazi ŵatatu. Mu 2014, dango liphya la vigeŵenga likamba kugwira ntchito mu Angola. Dango liphya ili likulongora kuti kusesa ndalama nkhwananga..<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20141215075205/http://www.noticiasaominuto.com/mundo/280463/angola-com-novo-codigo-penal-ainda-este-ano Angola com novo Código Penal ainda este ano] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141215075205/http://www.noticiasaominuto.com/mundo/280463/angola-com-novo-codigo-penal-ainda-este-ano |date=15 December 2014 }}, Notícias ao Minuto, 24 September 2014</ref> ===Ubale na vyaru vinyake=== {{Main|Foreign relations of Angola|List of diplomatic missions of Angola}} [[File:Secretary Pompeo Meets With Angolan Foreign Minister Augusto (48578221376) (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright|Nduna ya vyaru vyakuwaro ya Angola Manuel Domingos Augusto.]] Boma la Angola ndilo likambiska wupu wa Community of Portuguese Language Countries (CPLP). Pa Okutobala 16, 2014, Angola wakasankhika kachiŵiri kuŵa mubali wambura kukhazikika mu wupu wa United Nations Security Council, na mavoti 190. Mulimo wake ukamba pa 1 Janyuwale 2015 ndipo ukamalira pa 31 Disembala 2016. Kwambira mu Janyuwale 2014, charu cha Angola chikulongozga ungano wa chigaŵa cha Great Lakes (CIRGL). [80] Mu 2015, Secretary Executive wa CIRGL Ntumba Luaba wakayowoya kuti Angola ni chiyelezgero icho mamembala gha wupu uwu ghakwenera kulondezga, chifukwa cha ivyo vyachitika mu vyaka 12 vya mtende, chomenechomene pa nkhani ya umoyo wa chalo na chuma kweniso ndyali.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://expansao.co.ao/Artigo/Geral/52550|title=Angola deve servir de exemplo para os países da CIRGL – Ntumba Luaba|access-date=14 June 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305110419/http://expansao.co.ao/artigo/geral/52550|archive-date=5 March 2016|url-status=live}} Expansion, 8 January 2015</ref> === Wanangwa wa Munthu === {{see also|Human rights in Angola|LGBT rights in Angola}} Bungwe la Freedom House likati Angola ni 'themba lambura wanangwa' mu lipoti la 2014 Freedom in the World. Lipoti ili likati pa maungano gha pa caru cose gha Ogasiti 2012, apo gulu lakulamulira la Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola likapokera mavoti ghakujumpha 70%, pakaŵa maubudi ghakuru, kusazgapo mavoti ghakale ndiposo ghambura kwenelera. Kuvota kukakhira kufuma pa 80% mu 2008 kufika pa 60%. Lipoti la mu 2012 la U.S. Dipatimenti yakuwona vya wanangwa wa ŵanthu ku United States yikati: "Vinthu vitatu ivyo ŵanthu ŵakachitanga [mu 2012] ivyo vikususkana na wanangwa wa ŵanthu ni vimbundi na kuleka kulangika; kukanizga wanangwa wa kuwungana, kuwungana, kuyowoya, na kulemba nkhani; kweniso kulanga ŵanthu mwankhaza kweniso mwakujumphizga. Boma la Angola lili pa malo gha 42 pa maiko 48 gha ku sub-Sahara Africa pa index ya 2007 ya African Governance list ndipo lili pa malo ghachepa pa Ibrahim Index ya 2013 ya African Governance.:8 Likasangika pa malo 39 pa maiko 52 gha ku sub-Sahara Africa, ndipo lili na malo ghaheni chomene pa vigaŵa vya chiŵaro na wanangwa wa ŵanthu, mwaŵi wa vyachuma na chitukuko cha ŵanthu. Ibrahim Index yikugwiliskira nchito vimanyikwiro vyakupambanapambana pakusanga ndondomeko iyo yikulongora umo vinthu viliri mu Africa. Mu 2019, ŵanthu ŵakutorana na ŵanalume panji ŵanakazi ŵekhaŵekha ŵakazomerezgeka ku Angola, ndipo boma likakanizga kusankhana chifukwa cha kugonana. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakazomera: 155 ŵakakolerana, yumoza wakususka, ndipo 7 ŵakakana.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Williams |first=Sophie |date=24 January 2019 |title=Angola decriminalises homosexuality and bans discrimination based on sexual orientation |work=The Evening Standard |url=https://www.standard.co.uk/news/world/angola-decriminalises-homosexuality-and-bans-discrimination-based-on-sexual-orientation-a4047871.html |url-status=live |access-date=25 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190124231409/https://www.standard.co.uk/news/world/angola-decriminalises-homosexuality-and-bans-discrimination-based-on-sexual-orientation-a4047871.html |archive-date=24 January 2019}}</ref> ==Chuma== {{Main|Economy of Angola}} [[File:Angola Product Exports (2019).svg|upright=1.3|thumb|Chiŵelengero cha vyakurya ivyo Angola wakuguliska, 2019]] [[File:GDP per capita development of Angola.svg|thumb|GDP pa munthu yumoza 1950 mpaka 2018]] Angola wali na malibwe gha dayimani, mafuta, golide, mkuŵa na vyamoyo vinandi (ivyo vikamara mu nyengo ya nkhondo), nkhorongo na mafuta. Kufuma waka apo charu chikapokera wanangwa, mafuta na malibwe gha dayamondi ndivyo vikovwira comene pa vya cuma. Mu nyengo ya Nkhondo ya Caru na Caru ya ku Angola, mulimi mucoko na mulimi uyo wakalimanga viŵeto wakakhira comene, kweni wakamba kuwuka mu 2002. Mu vyaka vyasonosono apa, chuma cha charu cha Angola chasintha kufuma ku nkhondo iyo yikatora nyengo yitali, ndipo sono ndicho chikukura mwaluŵiro chomene mu Africa na mu vyaru vinyake. Mu nyengo ya 2001-10, Angola ndiyo yikaŵa na ciŵelengero cikuru comene ca GDP pa caru cose, pa 11.1%. Mu 2004, Exim Bank of China yikazomerezga ngongoli ya madola mabiliyoni ghaŵiri ku Angola, kuti yizakaŵawovwire kuzengaso vinthu vya mu charu ichi, kweniso kuti yikanizge mazaza gha International Monetary Fund. Charu cha China ndicho ntchigaŵa chikuru cha Angola pakuguliska na kutumizga vyakurya. Mu 2011, malonda gha vyaru viŵiri agha ghakafika pa $27.67 biliyoni, ndipo ghakwera na 11.5% pa caka. Vinthu ivyo China likaguliska ku Angola, comenecomene mafuta na dayamondi, vikakwera na 9.1% kufika pa $24.89 biliyoni. Pakuti mafuta ghakaŵa ghanandi chomene, mafuta ghambura kulongozga ghakaŵa na mtengo wa mapaundi 0.37 pa galoni. Chuma cha Angola chikakura na 18% mu 2005, 26% mu 2006 na 17.6% mu 2007. Chifukwa cha suzgo la vyachuma pa charu chose, mu 2009 chuma chikakhira na -0.3%. Vinthu vya mtende ivyo vikachitika mu 2002 vyawovwira kuti ŵanthu 4 miliyoni awo ŵakacimbizgika ŵakhalenge mu vyaru vinyake. Boma la Angola likukhazga kuti likura na 3.9 peresenti mu 2014 kuyana na International Monetary Fund (IMF), kukwera kwa ndalama mu vyalo vyambura mafuta, comenecomene cifukwa ca milimo yiwemi comene mu vigaŵa vya vyalo vya ulimi, kukukhazga kuti kukhuŵazgenge kuchepa kwa nyengo yicoko mu vyalo vya mafuta.<ref>[http://en.starafrica.com/news/angolas-economy-to-grow-by-3-9-percent-imf.html Angola's economy to grow by 3.9 percent-IMF] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150713173958/http://en.starafrica.com/news/angolas-economy-to-grow-by-3-9-percent-imf.html |date=13 July 2015 }} StarAfrica, 4 September 2014</ref>[[File:Banco Nacional de Angola in Luanda - Angola 2015.jpg|thumb|right|Banki Ikulu ya Charu ya Angola.]] Boma la Angola likwendeskeka na Banki ya ku Angola. Kuyana na kafukufuku uyo Deloitte wakachita pa nkhani ya banki, ndalama izo banki ya Angola, Banco Nacional de Angola (BNA), yikendeskanga zikapangiska kuti unandi wa ndalama ukhale pa 7.96% mu Disembala 2013. Malipoti agho banki yikuru ya Angola yikapeleka ghakulongora kuti mu vyaka vinayi vyakunthazi, chuma cha charu ichi chikwenera kukura pa ciŵelengero ca 5% pa caka.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20171201041824/https://af.reuters.com/article/investingNews/idAFKCN0HV1EN20141006 Angola seen growing average 5 percent: Central Bank] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171201041824/https://af.reuters.com/article/investingNews/idAFKCN0HV1EN20141006 |date=1 December 2017 }}, Reuters (Africa), 10 June 2014</ref> Nangauli chuma cha charu ichi chakura comene kufuma waka apo boma la Angola likakhazikiskikira mu 2002, comenecomene cifukwa ca ndalama izo likusanga mu vyakununkhira, kweni likulimbana na masuzgo ghakuru. Vinthu ivi vikucitika cifukwa ca nkhondo izo zikacitika kwambira mu 1961, nangauli ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakaparanyika na kusuzgika comene mu vyaru vinyake. Ndipouli, ukavu ukuru ndiposo kusowa kwa wanangwa wa ŵanthu vikucitika cifukwa cakuti ŵanthu ŵakulutilira kuŵa ŵankhongono, "ŵakujikuzga" pa vigaŵa vyose vya ndyali, maboma, ŵasilikari, na vya cuma, kweniso cifukwa ca vimbundi. Awo ŵakusanga candulo cikuru ni awo ŵali na mazaza pa ndyali, ndyali, na ŵasilikari, awo ŵasanga (ndipo ŵakulutilira kusanga) usambazi unandi.<ref>This process is well analyzed by authors like [[Christine Messiant]], Tony Hodges and others. For an eloquent illustration, see the Angolan magazine ''Infra-Estruturas África'' 7/2010.</ref><ref>Anti-corruption watchdog [[Transparency International]] rates Angola one of the 10 most corrupt countries in the world.</ref><ref>Dolan, Kerry A. (23 January 2013). [https://www.forbes.com/sites/kerryadolan/2013/01/23/isabel-dos-santos-daughter-of-angolas-president-is-africas-first-woman-billionaire/ "Isabel Dos Santos, Daughter Of Angola's President, Is Africa's First Woman Billionaire"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170815004333/https://www.forbes.com/sites/kerryadolan/2013/01/23/isabel-dos-santos-daughter-of-angolas-president-is-africas-first-woman-billionaire/ |date=15 August 2017 }}. ''Forbes''.</ref> [[File:Cidade Financeira de Luanda 2 (cropped).jpg|thumb|left|Luanda Financial City.]] "Ŵanthu ŵaciŵiri awo ŵakusanga candulo" ni ŵanthu ŵaciŵiri awo ŵali pafupi kuŵa ŵanthu ŵaciŵiri. Ndipouli, pafupifupi hafu ya ŵanthu aŵa mbakavu, ndipo pali mphambano yikuru pakati pa ŵanthu ŵa ku mizi na ŵa mu matawuni. Kafukufuku uyo wakachitika mu 2008 na wupu wa ku Angola wakuwona vya ndyali, wakalongora kuti mu vigaŵa vya ku mizi, ŵanthu 58 pa 100 ŵaliwose ndiwo mbakavu kuyana na malango gha wupu wa UN. Kweni mu misumba, ŵanthu 19 pera ndiwo mbakavu. Mu matawuni, mbumba zinandi, kusazgapo izo zikucemeka ŵakavu, zikwenera kucita vinthu vyakupambanapambana kuti zileke kufwa. Ku malo gha matawuni ndiko ŵanthu ŵakuŵa ŵakupambana comene, ndipo ku Luanda ndiko ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuŵa ŵakupambana comene. Pa index ya chitukuko cha ŵanthu, Angola wakukhala pasi comene.<ref>The HDI 2010 lists Angola in the 146th position among 169 countries—one position below that of Haiti. MLP l [https://web.archive.org/web/20110428201043/http://www.undp.org/publications/hdr2010/en/HDR_2010_EN_Table1.pdf ''Human Development Index and its components.''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110428201043/http://www.undp.org/publications/hdr2010/en/HDR_2010_EN_Table1.pdf|date=28 April 2011}}</ref>[[File:Hotel in Lobito.JPG|thumb|right|Ulendo wa ku Angola wakukura pamoza na chuma na kukhazikika kwa caru ici.]] Mu Janyuwale 2020, chikalata cha boma icho chikamanyikwa kuti Luanda Leaks chikulongora kuti makampani gha ku America nga ni Boston Consulting Group, McKinsey & Company, na PricewaterhouseCoopers ghakawovwira ŵabali ŵa pulezidenti wakale José Eduardo dos Santos (makamaka mwana wake mwanakazi Isabel dos Santos) kuti ŵachitenge vimbundi pa Sonangol kuti ŵasangepo phindu. Pamanyuma pa kuvumbura vinandi mu Pandora Papers, ŵakaronga ŵakale Dias na do Nascimento na awo ŵakateŵeterangapo pulezidenti nawo ŵakasuskika kuti ŵakananga ndalama zinandi za boma. Vinthu vikupambana comene pakati pa vigaŵa ivi, ndipo ivi vikupangiska kuti vinthu viŵe makora yayi mu charu cha Angola. Cimoza mwa vinthu ivyo vikucitika cifukwa ca kupambana kwa vinthu pa umoyo wa ŵanthu na vigaŵa ni unandi wa ndalama izo ŵanthu ŵa ku Angola ŵakugwiliskira nchito mu vyaru vinyake. Ŵanthu ŵachoko waka awo ŵakukhala mu Angola, awo ŵakusangika na katundu munandi, ŵakukhumba kuti vinthu viŵayendere makora. Pa nyengo yasono, ndalama zinandi izo ŵanthu ŵa ku Angola ŵakugwiliskira nchito zikuŵa mu Portugal, uko ŵanthu ŵa ku Angola (nga ni mbumba ya pulezidenti wa boma) ŵalipo mu mabanki kweniso mu vyalo vya magesi, kwendera mawoko, na vyakupharazga.<ref>"A força do kwanza", ''Visão'' (Lisbon), 993, 15 May 2012, pp. 50–54</ref>[[File:Rua Kwame Nkrumah Luanda 05.JPG|thumb|left|Corporate headquarters in Luanda]] Boma la Angola lasintha vinthu vinyake vyakukhumbikwa pa umoyo wa ŵanthu. Lipoti linyake likuti, pakati pajumpha vilimika 10 kufuma apo nkhondo ya pawenenawene yikamalira, umoyo wa ŵanthu ku Angola waŵa uwemi comene. Mu 2002, ŵanthu ŵakakhalanga vyaka 46, kweni mu 2011 ŵakakhala vyaka 51. Kufwa kwa ŵana kukakhira kufuma pa 25 peresenti mu 2001 kufika pa 19 peresenti mu 2010 ndipo chiŵelengero cha ŵana ŵa sukulu awo ŵakusambira pulayimale chakwera katatu kufuma mu 2001. Ndipouli, nyengo yeneyiyo, suzgo la kusankhana mitundu mu vyaru ivyo vili na ŵanthu ŵakupambanapambana na umo vinthu viliri sono, lindamare. Ku Angola kuli ndalama zakukwana Kz 70 biliyoni (US$6.8 biliyoni). Kuyana na nduna ya vya cuma ya ku Angola, Abraão Gourgel, msika wa vya ndalama wa mu caru ici ukakura comene kwambira mu 2002 ndipo pasono uli pa malo ghacitatu mu vyaru vya ku Africa. Pa Disembala 19, 2014, ŵakajura msika wa Angola. Bungwe la Angola Stock Exchange and Derivatives (BODIVA) ndilo likaŵa na msika wa ngongoli za boma, ndipo likaghanaghananga kuti lizamwamba kuguliska ngongoli za makampani mu 2015.<ref>[http://www.portalangop.co.ao/angola/en_us/noticias/economia/2014/11/51/Angola-CMC-prepares-launch-debt-secondary-market,54877cb4-fc83-4047-8752-a27150a365dc.html CMC prepares launch of debt secondary market] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150318222717/http://www.portalangop.co.ao/angola/en_us/noticias/economia/2014/11/51/Angola-CMC-prepares-launch-debt-secondary-market,54877cb4-fc83-4047-8752-a27150a365dc.html |date=18 March 2015 }} Angola Press Agency, 16 December 2014</ref> ===Natural resources=== [[File:Offshore platform on move to final destination, Ilha de Luanda (cropped).JPG|thumb|right|Malo ghakujimira mafuta mumphepete mwa nyanja ku Angola]] Mu 2008, magazini ya The Economist yikati malibwe gha dayamondi na mafuta ndivyo vikupangiska kuti ku Angola kuŵe ndalama zinandi. Kukura uku kwacitika cifukwa ca kukwera kwa mafuta agho ghakapangika, agho ghakajumpha malita 1.4 pa zuŵa (220,000 m3/d) kuumaliro wa 2005, ndipo ghakeneranga kukwera kufika pa malita 2 pa zuŵa (320,000 m3/d) mu 2007. Boma la Angola ndilo likulongozga makampani gha mafuta. Mu Disembala 2006, charu cha Angola chikaŵa mu gulu la OPEC. Kuyana na Heritage Foundation, wupu wa ku America, uwo ukuwona kuti mafuta gha mu Angola ghakusazgikira comene mwakuti sono Angola ndiyo yikupanga mafuta ghanandi ku China. "China yapeleka ngongoli zitatu za madola mabiliyoni ghanandi ku boma la Angola; ngongoli ziŵiri za madola mabiliyoni ghaŵiri kufuma ku China Exim Bank, yimoza mu 2004, yachiŵiri mu 2007, kweniso ngongoli yimoza mu 2005 ya madola mabiliyoni 2.9 kufuma ku China International Fund Ltd". Kweniso ndalama izo ŵanthu ŵakasanganga chifukwa cha mafuta zikapangiska kuti paŵe vimbundi. Kweniso, Sonangol, kampani ya boma ya mafuta, yikulongozga 51% ya mafuta gha mu Cabinda. Cifukwa ca kuwusa kwa msika uwu, kampani iyi yikumalizga na kupangiska boma kupokera candulo na kulipira misonkho. Wupu wa vyaru vya kuwaro ukuti Banki ya Caru Cose yikayowoya kuti Sonangol wakupeleka msonkho, wakucita milimo ya msonkho, wakugwiliskira nchito ndalama za boma, ndipo pakuŵa munthu uyo wakupeleka wanangwa, wakuŵa na mazaza pa nkhani iyi. Ndondomeko iyi yikupangiska kuti paŵe mphindano pakati pa Sonangol na boma, ndipo yikupangiska kuti ndondomeko ya bajeti yileke kwenda makora kweniso kuti boma lileke kumanya makora ndalama izo likupeleka". Mu 2002, charu cha Angola chikapempha kuti ŵapeleke malipiro gha mafuta agho ghakafuma mu maji gha charu ichi. Ntchito zake mu migodi ya dayamondi zikusazgapo ubwezi pakati pa kampani ya Endiama iyo yikwendeskeka na boma na makampani gha migodi nga ni ALROSA agho ghakugwira nchito mu Angola. Ku Angola ŵanthu ŵakugwiliskira nchito vinthu vyakuthupi vinandi kuluska umo viliri pa caru cose. Mu 2016, charu cha Angola chikaŵa na malo ghakukwana mahekitala 1.9 pa munthu yumoza pa charu chose, ndipo malo agha ghakukwana mahekitala 1.6 pa munthu yumoza pa charu chose. Mu 2016, charu cha Angola chikagwiliskira ntchito malo ghakukwana mahekitala 1.01 pa munthu yumoza. Ichi chikung'anamura kuti ŵakugwiliskira nchito pafupifupi hafu ya nkhongono izo Angola wali nazo. Pa cifukwa ici, Angola wakugwiliskira nchito malo ghakusungirako vyamoyo.<ref name="footprintdata">{{cite web |title=Country Trends |url=http://data.footprintnetwork.org/#/countryTrends?cn=7&type=BCpc,EFCpc |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170808050235/http://data.footprintnetwork.org/#/countryTrends?cn=7&type=BCpc,EFCpc |archive-date=8 August 2017 |access-date=2 June 2020 |publisher=Global Footprint Network}}</ref> ===Agriculture=== [[File:HPP "CAPANDA".jpg|thumb|left|[[Capanda Dam]] on the [[Cuanza River|Cuanza]]]] {{Main|Agriculture in Angola}} Vyaru na makuni ni vyaru ivyo vili na mwaŵi ukuru. Wupu unyake (African Economic Outlook) ukuti: "Caka cilicose Angola wakukhumbikwira tirigu wakukwana matani 4.5 miliyoni, kweni wakupambika waka 55% ya mbuto, 20% ya mpunga, na 5% ya tirigu". Kweniso, World Bank yikati "pa caru cose ca Angola, malo ghambura kukwana 3 pa 100 gha malo ghakupambika makora ghakulimika, ndipo vyakurya vinandi ivyo vikusangika mu makuni vikugwiriskirika nchito yayi". Pambere charu cha Angola chindaŵe na wanangwa mu 1975, chikaŵa na vyakurya vinandi chomene kumwera kwa Africa ndipo chikaguliskanga banane, khofi, na sisal. Kweni nkhondo iyo yikacitika kwa vyaka 30 (1975-2002) yikananga malo ghakutowa gha ku mizi, ndipo ŵanthu mamiliyoni ghanandi ŵakanjira mu misumba. Pasono caru ici cikuthemba comene pa vyakurya vyakuzirwa ivyo vikufuma ku vyaru vinyake, comenecomene ku South Africa na Portugal. Ŵalimi ŵachokoŵacoko ŵanandi ŵa ku Angola ŵali mu ukavu.<ref>Redvers, Louise [http://ipsnews.net/africa/nota.asp?idnews=47123 POVERTY-ANGOLA: Inter Press Service News Agency – NGOs Sceptical of Govt's Rural Development Plans] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100512215958/http://ipsnews.net/africa/nota.asp?idnews=47123|date=12 May 2010}}.</ref> === Mayendelo === {{Main|Transport in Angola}} [[File:TAAG_Angola_Airlines_Boeing_737-200Adv_D2-TBD_CDG_July_1986.png|thumb|right|TAAG Angola Airlines ndiyo yikwendeska ndege mu charu ichi.]] Mtundu wa magalimoto mu Angola ni: Mitundu yitatu ya njanji yakuyana ya makilomita 2,761 * 76,626 km (47,613 mi) ya misewu yikuru (highway) mwa iyo 19,156 km (11,903 mi) njakukhora * 1,295 misewu ya mu nyanja * virwa vikuruvikuru vinkhondi * Malo gha ndege 243, ndipo 32 mwa malo agha ghali na misewu. Boma la Angola likwendeska malonda ghake mu virwa vikuruvikuru vinkhondi: Namibe, Lobito, Soyo, Cabinda na Luanda. Luanda ni dowoko likuru comene pa dowoko lose ili, kweniso ni limoza mwa dowoko lakutangwanika comene mu Africa.<ref name="africanbusinesscentral.com">{{Cite web|url=https://www.africanbusinesscentral.com/2015/06/20/the-top-eight-busiest-ports-in-africa-photos-and-infographic/|title=The top eight busiest ports in Africa (Photos and Infographic)|website=African Business Central|access-date=4 February 2020|archive-date=4 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200204061717/https://www.africanbusinesscentral.com/2015/06/20/the-top-eight-busiest-ports-in-africa-photos-and-infographic/|url-status=dead}}</ref>[[File:Catumbela River Bridge (19478241049).jpg|thumb|left|[[Catumbela]] Bridge ku [[Benguela Province|Benguela]].]] Kanandi awo ŵalije magalimoto gha vigaŵa vinayi (four by four) ŵakukondwa yayi kwenda mu misewu iyo yili kuwaro kwa matawuni gha ku Angola. Nangauli mu Angola muli misewu yiwemi, kweni nyengo na nkhondo vyapangiska kuti misewu yinandi yiŵe yakubinkha. Mu vigaŵa vinandi, awo ŵakwendeska magalimoto ŵakwendera nthowa zinyake kuti ŵaleke kwenda mu malo agho ghakusangika mabomba ghakofya chomene. Boma la Angola lili kupangana na boma kuti liwezge misewu yinandi mu charu ichi. Mwaciyelezgero, msewu wa pakati pa Lubango na Namibe, uwo uli kuzengeka sonosono apa na ndalama za wupu wa European Union, uli nga ni misewu yinandi yikuru ya ku Europe. Vingachitika kuti mulimo wa kuzenga misewu uwu utore vyaka vinandi.<ref>ec.europa.eu: [https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/IP_92_314 1992] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210526205205/https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/IP_92_314 |date=26 May 2021 }}</ref> ===Nthowa zakuyowoyeskelana=== [[File:Porto do Lobito - Angola 2015 (cropped).jpg|thumb|right|Ku Lobito kuli dowoko likuru.]] [[File:Marginal Avenida 4 de Fevreiro Luanda March 2013 13 (cropped).JPG|thumb|right|Kuzenga kwa Luanda kukucitika cifukwa ca mafuta na dayamondi.]] Makampani ghakucitira tumafoni ghakuwoneka kuti ndigho ghakukhumbikwa comene mu Angola.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.anip.co.ao/index.php?pag=conteudos&id=6|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130411062215/http://www.anip.co.ao/index.php?pag=conteudos&id=6|url-status=dead|archive-date=11 April 2013|title=Sectores Económicos Prioritários|publisher=ANIP|language=pt }}</ref> {{For|additional|Telephone numbers in Angola}} Mu Okutobala 2014, ŵakapharazga kuti ŵakuzenga chingwe chakwenda pasi pa maji. Ntchito iyi yikukhumba kuti charu cha Angola chiŵe na Intaneti yiwemi chomene. Pa Malichi 11, 2015, ungano wakwamba wa pa Angola wa vya mawupu na vya umanyi ukacitikira mu Luanda. Kafukufuku wa chigaŵa ichi, wakulongosoreka pa ungano uwu, wakati Angola ndiyo wakaŵa wakwamba ku Africa kuyezga LTE ¥ na vithuzi vyakukwana 400 Mbit/s ¥ na kugwiliskira nchito mafoni pafupifupi 75%; pali mafoni pafupifupi 3.5 miliyoni mu msika wa Angola; pali makilomita pafupifupi 25,000 (16,000 miles) gha fibre ya optical agho ghali kukhazikiskika mu chalo. Satelayiti yakwamba ya ku Angola, AngoSat-1, yikaponyeka mu mlengalenga pa Disembala 26, 2017. Wakafuma pa malo ghakuchemeka Baikonur, ku Kazakhstan, ndipo wakaluta pa roketi lakuchemeka Zenit 3F. Satelayiti iyi yikapangika na kampani ya Russia yakuchemeka RSC Energia. Satellite iyi yikapelekeka na Airbus Defence & Space. Pa 27 Disembala, RSC Energia yikati yapulika kuti yikasoŵa mawoko gha munthavi chifukwa cha suzgo la magesi. Nangauli ŵakayezgayezga kuti ŵambeso kuyowoyeskana na satellite iyi, kweni yikamalizga kutumizga mauthenga ndipo RSC Energia yikati AngoSat-1 njambura ntchito. AngoSat-1 yikapelekeka kuti yiwovwire kuti pa caru cose paŵe mauthenga. Aristides Safeca, Secretary of State for Telecommunications, wakayowoya kuti munthavi uwu ukwenera kupeleka mauthenga gha pa foni, TV, Intaneti, na boma la pa Intaneti. Satayiti yinyake yakucemeka AngoSat-2 yikunozgeka ndipo yikeneranga kuzakaŵapo mu 2020. Mu Febuluwale 2021, Ango-Sat-2 yikaŵa yakunozgeka pafupifupi 60%. Ŵalaraŵalara ŵara ŵakayowoya kuti ndege iyi yizamwamba kugwira ntchito mu myezi 17, mu Julayi 2022.<ref>[{{cite web|url=https://africanews.space/angosat-2-more-than-60-per-cent-ready/|title=AngoSat-2 More Than 60 per cent Ready; Launch in 17 Months|date=February 2021|access-date=14 April 2021|archive-date=14 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414224322/https://africanews.space/angosat-2-more-than-60-per-cent-ready/|url-status=live}}</ref> === Tekinoloji === Mu 2015, boma la Portugal likapeleka malo gha ".ao" ku Angola. Ndondomeko yakukolerana ya Minisita wa vya Mafoni na Maluso gha Umoyo wa Ŵanthu José Carvalho da Rocha na Minisita wa vya Sayansi na Maluso, Maria Cândida Pereira Teixeira, yikati "mu ndondomeko ya kupanikizga" chigaŵa ichi cha Angola, "vinthu vikupangika kuti chigaŵa cha ".ao" cha ku Portugal chipelekeke ku Angola".<ref>[http://www.macauhub.com.mo/en/2014/09/16/angola-manages-its-own-internet-domain/ Angola manages its own Internet domain] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141223160657/http://www.macauhub.com.mo/en/2014/09/16/angola-manages-its-own-internet-domain/ |date=23 December 2014 }} Macauhub, 16 September 2014</ref> == Ŵanthu == {{Main|Demographics of Angola}} [[File:Angola Ethnic map 1970.svg|thumb|right|upright=1.2|Historical ethnic divisions of Angola]] Angola wali na ŵanthu ŵakukwana 24,383,301 kuyana na ivyo vikachitika mu 2014 apo pakaŵa kalembera wakwamba kufuma pa 15 Disembala 1970. Chiyowoyero ichi chili na ŵanthu ŵa mitundu ya Ovimbundu (Umbundu) 37%, Ambundu (Kimbundu) 23%, Bakongo 13%, na mitundu yinyake ya ŵanthu 32%. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Ambundu na Ovimbundu ndiwo ŵakukhala mu chigaŵa ichi. Ŵanthu awo ŵazamukhala mu charu ichi mu 2050 ŵazamuŵa ŵakujumpha 60 miliyoni. Kweni pa 23 March 2016, wupu wa National Statistics Institute (INE) ukati ŵanthu ŵa mu charu ichi ŵalipo 25,789,024. Paumaliro wa chaka cha 2007, ŵanthu 12,100 na ŵanthu 2,900 awo ŵakapempha malo ghakubisamamo ŵakaluta ku Angola. Ku Angola kukaŵa ŵanthu ŵakukwana 400,000 ŵa ku Democratic Republic of Congo, 220,000 ŵa ku Portugal, na 259,000 ŵa ku China. Kweniso ku Vietnam kuli ŵanthu 40,000. Kwambira mu 2003, ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 400,000 ŵakufuma ku Congo ŵafumako ku Angola. Pambere charu cha Angola chindambe kujiwusa chekha mu 1975, ŵanthu pafupifupi 350,000 ŵa ku Portugal ŵakakhalanga mu charu ichi. Ndipouli, mu vyaka vyasonosono apa, ŵanthu ŵa ku Portugal ŵambaso kukhala ku Angola. Pasono kuli ŵanthu pafupifupi 200,000 awo ŵali kulembeska ku maofesi agha. Ŵanthu ŵa ku China ŵalipo 258,920, ndipo ŵanandi mwa ŵanthu aŵa mba ku malo ghanyake. Kweniso ku Brazil kuli ŵanthu 5,000.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://globalvoices.org/2008/08/17/angola-brazil-a-culture-shock-divide/|title=Angola, Brazil: A culture shock divide · Global Voices|date=17 August 2008|access-date=14 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170316042333/https://globalvoices.org/2008/08/17/angola-brazil-a-culture-shock-divide/|archive-date=16 March 2017|url-status=live}}</ref>Ŵasilikari aŵa ŵakaŵafumiska ku Portugal na kuluta nawo ku Angola. Mu 2007, chiŵelengero cha ŵana awo ŵakababikanga mu Angola chikaŵa 5.54 pa mwanakazi waliyose (kuyana na ivyo vikalembeka mu 2012), ndipo chikaŵa cha nambara 11.<ref name=CIA>{{Cite CIA World Factbook|country=Angola|access-date=15 May 2007|year=2007}}</ref> === Viyowoyelo === {{Main|Languages of Angola}} {{bar box |title=Languages in Angola (2014 Census)<ref name="INE Angola" /> |titlebar=#ddd |left1=Languages |right1=percent |float=right |bars= {{bar percent|[[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]|darkgreen|71.1}} {{bar percent|[[Umbundu language|Umbundu]]|purple|23.0}} {{bar percent|[[Kikongo language|Kikongo]]|red|8.2}} {{bar percent|[[Kimbundu]]|black|7.8}} {{bar percent|[[Chokwe language|Chokwe]]|orange|6.5}} {{bar percent|[[Nyaneka language|Nyaneka]]|green|3.4}} {{bar percent|[[Ngangela language|Ngangela]]|darkblue|3.1}} {{bar percent|[[Fiote language|Fiote]]|black|2.4}} {{bar percent|[[Kwanyama language|Kwanyama]]|darkred|2.3}} {{bar percent|[[Muhumbi language|Muhumbi]]|gray|2.1}} {{bar percent|[[Luvale language|Luvale]]|tan|1.0}} {{bar percent|[[Languages of Angola|Other]]|lime|4.1}} }} Viyowoyero vya ku Angola ni viyowoyero ivyo ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yakupambanapambana ŵakayowoyanga. Viyowoyero ivyo ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuyowoya ni Umbundu, Kimbundu, na Kikongo. Chiphwitikizi ndicho chikuyowoyeka mu charu ichi. Nangauli chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu awo ŵakuyowoya makora Chiphwitikizi panji awo ŵakuyowoya chiphwitikizi nga ni chiyowoyero chawo chakwamba chikumanyikwa yayi, kweni kafukufuku munyake uyo wakachitika mu 2012 wakalongora kuti ŵanthu 39 pa 100 ŵaliwose mu charu ichi ŵakuyowoya Chiphwitikizi. Mu 2014, lipoti la ku Angola ilo likapelekeka na wupu wa Instituto Nacional de Estatística likati pa ŵanthu pafupifupi 25.8 miliyoni awo ŵakukhala mu charu ichi, ŵanthu pafupifupi 18.3 miliyoni ŵakuyowoya Chiphwitikizi. Kuyana na kalembera wa mu 2014, Ciphwitikizi chikuyowoyeka na 71.1% ya ŵanthu ŵa ku Angola, Umbundu 23%, Kikongo 8.2%, Kimbundu 7.8%, Chokwe 6.5%, Nyaneka 3.4%, Ngangela 3.1%, Fiote 2.4%, Kwanyama 2.3%, Muhumbi 2.1%, Luvale 1%, na viyowoyero vinyake 4.1%.<ref name =Censo2014>{{cite web |url=https://www.ine.gov.ao/images/Populacao_Sociedade/Estudos_tematicos/PUBLICACAO_RESULTADOS_DEFINITIVOS_DO_CENSO_2014.pdf |title=Resultados Definitivos Recenseamento Geral da População e Habitação - 2014 |access-date=3 May 2020 |website=Instituto Nacional de Estatística, República de Angola |archive-date=14 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191214215245/https://www.ine.gov.ao/images/Populacao_Sociedade/Estudos_tematicos/PUBLICACAO_RESULTADOS_DEFINITIVOS_DO_CENSO_2014.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> === Chisopa === {{Main|Religion in Angola}} {{bar box |title=[[Religion in Angola]] <small>(2015)</small><ref>{{cite web| title=Angola| website=Association of Religion Data Archives| date=2012-11-16| url=https://www.thearda.com/internationalData/countries/Country_7_1.asp| access-date=11 October 2020| archive-date=30 October 2020| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201030191322/https://thearda.com/internationalData/Countries/Country_7_1.asp| url-status=live}}</ref> |float=right |titlebar=#ddd |left1=Religion |right1=Percent |bars= {{bar percent|[[Roman Catholicism]]|purple|56.4}} {{bar percent|[[Protestantism]]|blue|23.4}} {{bar percent|Other [[Christianity|Christian]]|skyblue|13.6}} {{bar percent|[[Traditional African religions|Traditional faiths]]|gray|4.5}} {{bar percent|[[Irreligion]]|Grey|1.0}} {{bar percent|Others|green|1.1}} }}Ku Angola kuli visopa pafupifupi 1,000, vinandi vyawo ni vya Cikhristu. Nangauli palije maukaboni ghakugomezgeka, kweni ŵanthu ŵakujumpha hafu ya ŵanthu aŵa Mbakatolika, ndipo pafupifupi chigaŵa chimoza pa vigaŵa vinayi ŵakulondezga matchalitchi gha Chiprotesitanti agho ghakaŵako mu nyengo ya ufumu wa Roma.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Schubert |first=Benedict |title=Der Krieg und die Kirchen: Angola 1961–1991 |publisher=Exodus |year=1997 |location=Luzern, Switzerland}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Henderson |first=Lawrence W. |title=The Church in Angola: A river of many currents |date=1989 |publisher=Pilgrim Press |location=Cleveland}}</ref> Mu Luanda na mu cigaŵa ici muli ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Tocoists ndipo kumpoto na kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa caru ici kuli ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Kimbangu. Kufuma apo charu chikapokera wanangwa, mipingo yinandi ya Ŵapentekoste na yinyake yakuyana nayo yili kuwoneka mu misumba, ndipo sono ŵanthu pafupifupi 50% ndiwo ŵakukhala mu misumba iyi. [[File:Igreja Matriz - panoramio - Rogério Melo (2).jpg|left|thumb|Tchalitchi la Katolika la Uaco Cungo.]] Kuzakafika mu 2008, ku United States Dipatimenti Yakuwona vya Vyaru ya ku Angola yikusacizga kuti Ŵasilamu ŵalipo 80,000, pacoko waka pa 1% ya ŵanthu wose. Ŵasilamu ŵanandi ŵakufuma ku vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Africa na Middle East (makamaka ku Lebanon).<ref name="customs">Oyebade, Adebayo O. ''Culture And Customs of Angola'', 2006. pp. 45–46.</ref> Boma la Angola likuzomerezga yayi mawupu gha Cisilamu ndipo kanandi likujara masisiteri panji kukanizga kuzenga.<ref name="IRFR2012">{{Citation |title=Angola 2012 International Religious Freedom Report |url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/documents/organization/208328.pdf |publisher=United States Department of State |access-date=24 June 2017 |archive-date=28 March 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170328162456/https://2009-2017.state.gov/documents/organization/208328.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Mu kafukufuku uyo wakawoneseska kuti mu vyaru muli malango ghakukhwaskana na visopa na kutambuzgika, Angola wakapokera mapointi 0.8 pa nkhani ya dango la boma lakukhwaskana na chisopa, 4.0 pa nkhani ya malango gha boma ghakukhwaskana na chisopa, 0 pa nkhani ya kusankhana mitundu, na 0 pa nkhani ya kutambuzgika.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20100411043322/http://www.thearda.com/internationalData/countries/Country_7_3.asp Angola: Religious Freedom Profile at the Association of Religion Data Archives] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100411043322/http://www.thearda.com/internationalData/countries/Country_7_3.asp |date=11 April 2010 }} Brian J Grim and Roger Finke. "International Religion Indexes: Government Regulation, Government Favoritism and Social Regulation of Religion". Interdisciplinary Journal of Research on Religion. 2 (2006) Article 1: www.religjournal.com.</ref> Ŵamishonale ŵakufuma ku vyaru vinyake ŵakacitanga milimo yinandi pambere charu chindaŵe na wanangwa mu 1975, nangauli kufuma waka apo nkhondo ya kulekeska wanangwa wa ŵanthu yikambira mu 1961, boma la Portugal likachimbizga ŵamishonale ŵanandi ŵa Chipulotesitanti na kujara maofesi ghawo. Ŵamishonale ŵakawelera mu charu ichi kwamba mu vyaka vya m'ma 1990, nangauli ŵakaŵavya mtende chifukwa cha nkhondo ya pawenenawene.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2001/5511.htm|title=International Religious Freedom Report – Angola|publisher=U.S. Department of State|date=1 January 2004|access-date=27 June 2010|archive-date=31 January 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200131002030/https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2001/5511.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> Tchalitchi la Katolika na visopa vikuruvikuru vinyake vya Chiprotesitanti vikujipatura, ndipo "Tchalitchi Liphya" likucitako yayi. Ŵakatolika na matchalitchi ghanyake ghakurughakuru gha Chiprotesitanti ŵakovwira ŵakavu na mbuto, viŵeto, munkhwala, na masambiro.<ref name="books.google.com">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DeVqVy21g9sC&pg=PA40|title=Culture and customs of Angola|publisher=Greenwood Press|location=Westport, Connecticut|isbn=978-0-313-33147-3|page=40|year=2007|access-date=11 May 2020|archive-date=26 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200726053929/https://books.google.com/books?id=DeVqVy21g9sC&pg=PA40|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pcusa.org/hunger/downloads/2005intgrants.pdf|title=International Grants 2005|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081113131805/http://www.pcusa.org/hunger/downloads/2005intgrants.pdf|archive-date=13 November 2008}}</ref> === Misumba === {{Largest cities | country = Angola | stat_ref = According to the 2014 Census<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://citypopulation.de/en/angola/cities/|title=Angola: Provinces, Major Cities, Urban Localities & Urban Agglomerations - Population Statistics, Maps, Charts, Weather and Web Information|access-date=7 December 2021|archive-date=22 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210822084153/https://www.citypopulation.de/en/angola/cities/|url-status=live}}</ref> | div_name = Province | city_1 = Luanda | div_1 = Luanda Province{{!}}Luanda | pop_1 = 6,759,313 | img_1 = Luanda Bay 5 - panoramio (cropped) (cropped).jpg | city_2 = Lubango |div_2 = Huíla Province{{!}}Huíla | pop_2 = 600,751 | img_2 = Lubango sight (cropped).jpg | city_3 = Huambo | div_3 = Huambo Province{{!}}Huambo | pop_3 = 595,304 | img_3 = Huambo Jardim da Cultura (cropped).jpg | city_4 = Benguela | div_4 = Benguela Province{{!}}Benguela | pop_4 = 555,124 | img_4 = Praia de Benguela (cropped).jpg | city_5 = Cabinda (city){{!}}Cabinda | div_5 = Cabinda Province{{!}}Cabinda | pop_5 = 550,000 | city_6 = Malanje | div_6 = Malanje Province{{!}}Malanje | pop_6 = 455,000 | city_7 = Saurimo | div_7 = Lunda Sul Province{{!}}Lunda Sul | pop_7 = 393,000 | city_8 = Lobito | div_8 = Benguela Province{{!}}Benguela | pop_8 = 357,950 | city_9 = Cuíto | div_9 = Bié Province{{!}}Bié | pop_9 = 355,423 | city_10 = Uíge | div_10 = Uíge Province{{!}}Uíge | pop_10 = 322,531 }} === Umoyo === {{Main|Health in Angola}} [[File:Maternidade Lucrécia Paím - panoramio - Rogério Melo (cropped).jpg|thumb|right|Lucrécia Paím Maternity Hospital.]] Matenda gha kolera, maleriya, na maleriya nga ni maleriya gha ku Marburg, ni matenda ghakumanyikwa mu vigaŵa vinandi vya caru ici. Mu vigaŵa vinandi mu caru ici, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakulwara maleriya na HIV. Matenda ghanyake agho ghakuthandazgika mu chigaŵa ichi nga ni nthenda ya dengue, filariasis, leishmaniasis, na onchocerciasis. Charu cha Angola chili na ŵana ŵanandi chomene awo ŵakufwa pa nthumbo, ndipo ŵanthu awo ŵakulindilira umoyo utali chomene. Kafukufuku munyake uyo wakachitika mu 2007, wakalongora kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ku Angola ŵalije niacin.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seal |first1=Andrew J. |last2=Creeke |first2=Paul I |last3=Dibari |first3=Filippo |last4=Cheung |first4=Edith |last5=Kyroussis |first5=Eustace |last6=Semedo |first6=Paulina |last7=van den Briel |first7=Tina |display-authors=3 |date=2007 |title=Low and deficient niacin status and pellagra are endemic in postwar Angola |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-journal-of-clinical-nutrition_2007-01_85_1/page/218 |journal=The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition |volume=85 |issue=1 |pages=218–224 |doi=10.1093/ajcn/85.1.218 |pmid=17209199 |hdl-access=free |hdl=10144/125625}}</ref> Pa nyengo yasono, wupu wa Demographic and Health Surveys ukucita maujandizgo ghanandi mu Angola pa nkhani ya maleriya, nkhaza za mu mbumba na vinyake.<ref name="Angola Surveys">[http://www.measuredhs.com/countries/metadata.cfm?surv_id=344&ctry_id=76&SrvyTp=ctry&cn=Angola Angola Surveys] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101127021228/http://measuredhs.com/countries/metadata.cfm?surv_id=344&ctry_id=76&SrvyTp=ctry&cn=Angola |date=27 November 2010 }}, measuredhs.com</ref> Mu Seputembala 2014, wupu wa Angola Institute for Cancer Control (IACC) ukapangika na dango la pulezidenti, ndipo uzamunjira mu wupu wa National Health Service mu Angola. Chilato cha wupu uphya uwu nkhupeleka wovwiri wa munkhwala ku ŵanthu awo ŵakusuzgika na nthenda ya kansa, kufiska ndondomeko za munkhwala uwu, mapulogiramu na mapulani ghakovwira kuti nthenda iyi yileke kwiza. Wupu uwu uzamuŵa na udindo wa kulongozga mu vigaŵa vyapakati na kumwera kwa Africa.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20150318052307/http://www.noticiasaominuto.com/mundo/273191/novo-instituto-oncologico-de-angola-quer-ser-referencia-em-africa Novo instituto oncológico de Angola quer ser referência em África] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150318052307/http://www.noticiasaominuto.com/mundo/273191/novo-instituto-oncologico-de-angola-quer-ser-referencia-em-africa |date=18 March 2015 }}, Notícias ao Minuto (Source: Lusa Agency), 9 September 2014</ref> Mu 2014, charu cha Angola chikamba katemera wa nthenda ya nthomba, ndipo mwana waliyose wa vyaka 10 na kuchepera apa wakapokera katemera. Ndondomeko iyi yili mu pulani ya kulekeska nthenda ya nthomba ya 2014-2020 iyo yikapangika na Unduna wa vyaumoyo wa Angola, iyo yikusazgapo kukhozga katemera wa nyengo zose, kumazga makora nthenda ya nthomba, makampeni gha pa caru cose, kwambiska katemera waciŵiri mu ndondomeko ya katemera wa nyengo zose wa pa caru cose ndiposo kulondezga ndondomeko ya nthenda ya nthomba. Ntchito iyi yikachitika pamoza na katemera wa poliyo na vitamini A. Mu Disembala 2015, kukabuka nthenda ya yellow fever, iyo yikaŵa yakofya chomene mu charu ichi kwa vyaka 30. Kuzakafika mu Ogasiti 2016, apo nthenda iyi yikamba kumara, ŵanthu pafupifupi 4,000 ŵakaghanaghananga kuti ŵali na nthenda iyi. Ŵanyake ŵakukwana 369 ŵali kufwa. Nthenda iyi yikamba mu msumba wa Luanda ndipo yikathandazgikira mu vigaŵa 16 pa vigaŵa 18.<ref>{{Cite web |title=WHO: Yellow fever outbreak is 'serious and of great concern' |url=http://edition.cnn.com/2016/05/19/health/yellow-fever-who/index.html# |last=Goldschmidt |first=Debra |date=19 May 2016 |website=CNN |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160529102132/http://edition.cnn.com/2016/05/19/health/yellow-fever-who/index.html |archive-date=29 May 2016 |access-date=29 May 2016}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=18 September 2014 |title=Angola lança vacinação nacional contra sarampo |language=pt |trans-title=Angola launches national measles vaccination |work=Notícias ao Minuto |agency=Lusa |url=https://www.noticiasaominuto.com/mundo/277391/angola-lanca-vacinacao-nacional-contra-sarampo |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006103202/http://www.noticiasaominuto.com/mundo/277391/angola-lanca-vacinacao-nacional-contra-sarampo |archive-date=6 October 2014}}</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20141006134912/http://www.verangola.net/Artigos/Novo-instituto-oncologico-angolano-quer-ser-instituicao-de-referencia-no-continente=004333 Novo instituto oncológico angolano quer ser instituição de referência no continente] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006134912/http://www.verangola.net/Artigos/Novo-instituto-oncologico-angolano-quer-ser-instituicao-de-referencia-no-continente=004333 |date=6 October 2014 }}, Ver Angola, 11 September 2014</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20160303221827/http://diariodigital.sapo.pt/news.asp?id_news=728577 Novo instituto oncológico de Angola quer ser referência em África] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303221827/http://diariodigital.sapo.pt/news.asp?id_news=728577|date=3 March 2016 }}, Diário Digital (Source: Lusa Agency), 9 September 2014</ref><ref>[http://allafrica.com/stories/201410010149.html Angola: Over 30,000 Children Vaccinated Against Measles in Huila] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006085310/http://allafrica.com/stories/201410010149.html |date=6 October 2014 }}, All Africa, 30 September 2014</ref> === Masambilo === {{Main|Education in Angola}} [[File:New campus (6177681401) (cropped).jpg|thumb|left|[[Agostinho Neto University]].]] Nangauli dango likuti ŵana ŵa sukulu mu Angola ŵasambirenge kwaulere kwa vyaka 8, kweni boma likuyowoya kuti ŵana ŵanyake ŵakusangika yayi pa sukulu chifukwa cha kusoŵerwa kwa nyumba na ŵasambizgi. Kanandi ŵana ŵa sukulu ndiwo ŵakulipira ndalama zakusazgikira za sukulu, kusazgapo mabuku na vinthu vinyake.<ref name="ilab">"Botswana". [https://web.archive.org/web/20140109071239/http://www.dol.gov/ilab/media/reports/iclp/tda2005/tda2005.pdf ''2005 Findings on the Worst Forms of Child Labor'']. [[Bureau of International Labor Affairs]], [[U.S. Department of Labor]] (2006). ''This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the [[public domain]].''</ref> Mu 1999, chiŵelengero cha ŵana awo ŵakalembeskanga masambiro gha ku pulayimale chikaŵa 74 peresenti, ndipo mu 1998, chaka chaumaliro icho pali maukaboni, chiŵelengero cha ŵana awo ŵakalembeskanga masambiro gha ku pulayimale chikaŵa 61 peresenti. Chiŵelengero cha ŵana ŵa sukulu awo ŵakunjira sukulu iyi chikukolerana na chiŵelengero cha ŵana ŵa sukulu awo ŵakunjira sukulu iyi. <ref name="ilab" />Pali mphambano yikuru comene pakati pa ŵanthu awo ŵakunjira sukulu ku mizi na awo ŵakunjira mu misumba. Mu 1995, ŵana 71.2% ŵa vyaka 7 m'paka 14 ŵakasambiranga sukulu. Malipoti ghakulongora kuti ŵana ŵanalume ŵanandi ŵakuluta ku sukulu kuluska ŵasungwana. Pa nyengo ya nkhondo ya pawenenawene ya ku Angola (1975-2002), pafupifupi hafu ya masukulu ghose ghakapokeka na kubwangandulika.<ref name=ilab/>[[File:Waku Kungo, Angola - panoramio (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright|Sukulu ya pulayimale mu chigaŵa cha Cuanza Sul]] Mu 2005, Unduna wa vya Masambiro ukalembapo ŵasambizgi 20,000 ndipo ukalutilira kusambizga ŵasambizgi. Ŵasambizgi ŵakulipika ndalama zichoko, ŵakusambizgika makora yayi, kweniso ŵakutangwanika chomene (nyengo zinyake ŵakusambizga pa ma shift ghaŵiri panji ghatatu pa zuŵa). Ŵasambizgi ŵanyake ŵakukhumba kuti ŵana ŵawo ŵaŵapenge ndalama panji vimbundi. Vinthu vinyake, nga ni mabomba ghakubisika, kusoŵa ndalama na vikalata vyakulongolera munthu, kweniso umoyo uheni vikutondeska ŵana kuluta ku sukulu nyengo zose. Nangauli mu 2004 ndalama izo boma likapeleka ku masukulu zikakwera, kweni visambizgo vya ku Angola vikulutilira kupeleŵera. Wupu wa UNESCO (Institute for Statistics) ukati mu 2011, ŵanthu ŵakumanya kulemba na kulemba ŵakaŵa 70.4%. Kuzakafika mu 2015, chiŵelengero ichi chikakwera kufika pa 71.1%. Mu 2001, ŵanalume 82.9% na ŵanakazi 54.2% ndiwo ŵakumanya kuŵazga na kulemba. Kufuma waka apo charu cha Angola chikapokera wanangwa kufuma ku Portugal mu 1975, ŵana ŵa sukulu ŵa ku Angola ŵakulutilira kunjira sukulu za sekondare, za polytechnic, na za pa yunivesite mu Portugal na Brazil.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://data.uis.unesco.org/Index.aspx?DataSetCode=EDULIT_DS&popupcustomise=true&lang=en#|title=Education|last=UIS|website=data.uis.unesco.org|access-date=22 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170905185501/http://data.uis.unesco.org/Index.aspx?DataSetCode=EDULIT_DS&popupcustomise=true&lang=en|archive-date=5 September 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="ilab" /><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unicef.org/infobycountry/angola_statistics.html|title=Angola – Statistics|website=[[UNICEF]]|access-date=27 June 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100613004722/http://www.unicef.org/infobycountry/angola_statistics.html|archive-date=13 June 2010|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="unescolit">{{cite web|title=National adult literacy rates (15+), youth literacy rates (15–24) and elderly literacy rates (65+)|url=http://stats.uis.unesco.org/unesco/TableViewer/tableView.aspx?ReportId=210|publisher=UNESCO Institute for Statistics|access-date=27 July 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029183908/http://stats.uis.unesco.org/unesco/TableViewer/tableView.aspx?ReportId=210|archive-date=29 October 2013|url-status=live}}</ref>[[File:Lyceum Salvador Correia in Luanda, Angola (cropped).jpg|thumb|left|[[:pt:Magistério Mutu-ya-Kevela|Mutu-ya Kevela Prep. School]]]] Mu Seputembala 2014, Unduna wa Vya masambiro ku Angola ukati uzamwendeska ndalama zakukwana 16 miliyoni mu makompyuta gha masukulu ghakujumpha 300 mu charu chose. Ntchito iyi yikusazgapo kusambizga ŵasambizgi pa caru cose, "mwakuti ŵasambizge na kugwiliskira nchito vinthu viphya vya sayansi ya vinthu mu masukulu gha pulayimale, na kusazgirako masambiro". Mu 2010, boma la Angola likamba kuzenga Angolan Media Libraries Network, ilo likusangika mu vigaŵa vinandi vya charu ichi kuti ŵanthu ŵasange makora uthenga na kumanya vinthu. Malo ghose agha ghali na mabuku, vinthu vinandi, na makompyuta agho ghali na Intaneti. Ndondomeko iyi yikulayizga kuti mu 2017 mu vigaŵa vyose vya Angola muŵengeko layibulare yimoza. Ntchito iyi yikusazgapo kuzenga mabuku ghanandi ghakulongosolera nkhani kuti ŵanthu awo ŵali kutali chomene na ŵanthu ŵa mu charu ichi ŵamanye ivyo vili mu mabuku agha. Pa nyengo yasono, malaibulale gha mafoni ghakugwira nchito kale mu vigaŵa vya Luanda, Malanje, Uíge, Cabinda na Lunda South. Pa nkhani ya REMA, vigaŵa vya Luanda, Benguela, Lubango na Soyo vili na mabuku gha nkhani.<ref>[http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20150209181727/http%3A//m.ja.sapo.ao/regioes/malanje/mediateca_movel_aberta_ao_publico Mediateca móvel aberta ao público] {{webarchive|url=http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20150209181727/http%3A//m.ja.sapo.ao/regioes/malanje/mediateca_movel_aberta_ao_publico|date=9 February 2015}} Jornal de Angola, 9 January 2015</ref><ref>[http://www.portalangop.co.ao/angola/en_us/noticias/educacao/2015/0/2/Government-open-digital-libraries-every-province,744c2f6f-7d66-49cf-8e56-85c0d6969725.html Government to open digital libraries in every province] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150318222038/http://www.portalangop.co.ao/angola/en_us/noticias/educacao/2015/0/2/Government-open-digital-libraries-every-province,744c2f6f-7d66-49cf-8e56-85c0d6969725.html |date=18 March 2015 }} Angola Press Agency, 8 January 2015</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Sumário Executivo do Plano Director da ReMA |date=May 2013 |url=http://mediatecas.ao/wp-content/uploads/2013/11/Plano_Director_Maio_2013.pdf |trans-title=Executive Summary of the ReMA Master Plan |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161212180948/http://mediatecas.ao/wp-content/uploads/2013/11/Plano_Director_Maio_2013.pdf |publisher=Rede de Mediatecas de Angola |language=pt |archive-date=2016-12-12}}</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20141007000209/http://www.ionline.pt/artigos/mundo/angola-investe-16-milhoes-na-informatizacao-300-salas-aula-todo-pais Angola investe 16 milhões na informatização de 300 salas de aula em todo o país] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141007000209/http://www.ionline.pt/artigos/mundo/angola-investe-16-milhoes-na-informatizacao-300-salas-aula-todo-pais |date=7 October 2014 }}, jornal i (28 September 2014)</ref> ==Nyengo== {{Main|Culture of Angola}} {{see also|Music of Angola|Angolan cuisine}} [[File:Memorial_Antonio_Agostinho_Neto_(19882325368).jpg|thumb|upright|Agostinho Neto National Memorial ku Luanda.]] Chikhalidwe cha ku Angola chakhudzidwa kwambiri ndi chikhalidwe cha Chipwitikizi, makamaka chilankhulo ndi chipembedzo, ndi chikhalidwe cha mafuko a ku Angola, makamaka chikhalidwe cha Bantu. Ŵanthu ŵa mafuko ghakupambanapambana - Ovimbundu, Ambundu, Bakongo, Chokwe, Mbunda na ŵanthu ŵanyake - ŵakukhala mu vigaŵa vyakupambanapambana, kweni mu misumba, umo ŵanthu ŵakujumpha hafu ŵakukhala, ŵanthu ŵa mafuko ghakupambanapambana ŵakufuma mu nyengo iyo ŵanthu ŵakakhalanga mu vyaru vinyake. Mu mizi iyi, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakufuma ku Portugal. Sumu na kuvina ivyo vikuchitika mu charu ichi vikulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa ŵakutemwa chomene Chiphwitikizi. Ivi vikulongosoreka makora mu mabuku gha ku Angola, chomenechomene mu mabuku gha ŵanthu ŵa ku Angola. Mu 2014, Angola yikambaso ungano wa National Festival of Angolan Culture pamanyuma pa vilimika 25. Ungano uwu ukachitika mu misumba yikuru yose ya vigaŵa ndipo ukenda mazuŵa 20, ndipo mutu wake ukaŵa wakuti "Vikaya ni Vinthu Vyakovwira Kuti Paŵe Mtende na Kukura".<ref>[http://www.portalangop.co.ao/angola/en_us/noticias/lazer-e-cultura/2014/11/51/Retrospect2014-Fenacult-marks-cultural-year,58a0fcae-b594-4edd-bc8b-1d7e2e798f14.html Retrospect2014: Fenacult marks cultural year] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141231184839/http://www.portalangop.co.ao/angola/en_us/noticias/lazer-e-cultura/2014/11/51/Retrospect2014-Fenacult-marks-cultural-year,58a0fcae-b594-4edd-bc8b-1d7e2e798f14.html |date=31 December 2014 }} Angola Press Agency, 18 December 2014</ref> === Cinema === {{Main|Cinema of Angola}} Mu 1972, filimu yakwamba ya ku Angola, ya Sarah Maldoror yakuchemeka Sambizanga, yikayowoyeka pa Carthage Film Festival ndipo yikapokelereka makora chomene.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Dovey|first1=Lindiwe|title=Curating Africa in the Age of Film Festivals|date=11 March 2015|publisher=[[Palgrave MacMillan]]|location=New York, NY|isbn=978-1137404145|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H7u_BwAAQBAJ|access-date=15 September 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180915225644/https://books.google.com.ph/books?id=H7u_BwAAQBAJ|archive-date=15 September 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> === Maseŵera === [[File:Estádio Nacional de Ombaka (19151153514) (cropped).jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.15|Stediyamu ku Benguela.]] Mu Angola, maseŵero gha basketball ndigho ngakutchuka comene. Gulu lake la mafuko lakhala likutonda Africa Basket 11 ndipo lili na mbiri ya ŵanthu ŵanandi chomene. Monga timu yayikulu kwambiri ku Africa, imagwira nawo ntchito pa Masewera a Olimpiki a Chilimwe ndi FIBA World Cup. Ku Angola ndiko kukaŵa timu yakwamba ku Africa.<ref>{{cite news |first=Lee |last=Nxumalo |title=Basketball's next frontier is Africa |url=https://www.newframe.com/basketballs-next-frontier-is-africa/ |access-date=11 January 2021 |work=New Frame |date=20 December 2020 |archive-date=16 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210116062357/https://www.newframe.com/basketballs-next-frontier-is-africa/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Mu mpira, charu cha Angola chikapokelera nkhonya ya Africa ya 2010. Gulu la mpira wa ku Angola likafika ku mpikisano wa FIFA World Cup wa chaka cha 2006. Ŵakaŵa kuti ŵafumapo waka mu magulu ghaŵiri. Ŵakatora viphalizgano vitatu vya COSAFA Cup ndipo ŵakaŵa ŵaciŵiri pa 2011 African Nations Championship. Kwa vyaka vinandi, charu cha Angola chikuchitako maseŵero gha ku charu chose gha maseŵero gha ku mawoko gha ŵanakazi. Charu ichi chilipo pa maseŵero gha Olympic kwa vyaka vinkhondi na viŵiri ndipo nyengo zose chikuchitako maseŵero agha. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakugomezga kuti charu cha Angola chili na mizu mu maluso gha nkhondo gha "Capoeira Angola" na "Batuque".<ref>{{cite book|last1=Poncianinho |first1= Mestre|last2=Almeida |first2= Ponciano|title=Capoeira: The Essential Guide to Mastering the Art|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fKKGUCJ5PAwC&pg=PA18|year=2007|publisher=New Holland Publishers|isbn=978-1-84537-761-8|pages=18–|access-date=14 October 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150320053304/http://books.google.com/books?id=fKKGUCJ5PAwC&pg=PA18|archive-date=20 March 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> ==Wonaniso== {{portal|Africa|Countries}} *[[Outline of Angola]] *[[Index of Angola-related articles]] {{clear}} ==Ukaboni== {{Reflist}} ==Wonani vinandi== * {{cite EB1911 |mode=cs2 |wstitle=Angola |volume=2 |ref = {{harvid|EB|1911}} |pages=38–40 }} * Birmingham, David (2006) ''Empire in Africa: Angola and its Neighbors'', Ohio University Press: Athens, Ohio. * Bösl, Anton (2008) ''Angola's Parliamentary Elections in 2008. A Country on its Way to One-Party-Democracy'', KAS Auslandsinformationen 10/2008. [http://www.kas.de/wf/de/33.15186/ Die Parlamentswahlen in Angola 2008] * Cilliers, Jackie and Christian Dietrich, Eds. (2000). ''Angola's War Economy: The Role of Oil and Diamonds''. Pretoria, South Africa, Institute for Security Studies. * Global Witness (1999). ''A Crude Awakening,'' The Role of Oil and Banking Industries in Angola's Civil War and the Plundering of State Assets. London, UK, Global Witness. [https://web.archive.org/web/20100902225001/http://www.globalwitness.org/media_library_detail.php/93/en/a_crude_awakening A Crude Awakening] * Hodges, Tony (2001). ''Angola from Afro-Stalinism to Petro-Diamond Capitalism''. Oxford: James Currey. * Hodges, Tony (2004). ''Angola: The Anatomy of an Oil State''. Oxford, UK and Indianapolis, US, The Fridtjol Nansen Institute & The International African Institute in association with James Currey and Indiana University Press. * Human Rights Watch (2004). Some Transparency, No Accountability: The Use of Oil Revenues in Angola and Its Impact on Human Rights. New York, Human Rights Watch. [https://www.hrw.org/reports/2004/angola0104/ Some Transparency, No Accountability: The Use of Oil Revenue in Angola and Its Impact on Human Rights (Human Rights Watch Report, January 2004)] * Human Rights Watch (2005). Coming Home, Return and Reintegration in Angola. New York, Human Rights Watch. [http://hrw.org/reports/2005/angola0305/ Coming Home: Return and Reintegration in Angola] * James, Walter (1992). A political history of the civil war in Angola, 1964–1990. New Brunswick, Transaction Publishers. * [[Ryszard Kapuściński|Kapuściński, Ryszard]]. Another Day of Life, Penguin, 1975. {{ISBN|978-0-14-118678-8}}. A Polish journalist's account of Portuguese withdrawal from Angola and the beginning of the civil war. * Kevlihan, R. (2003). "Sanctions and humanitarian concerns: Ireland and Angola, 2001-2". Irish Studies in International Affairs 14: 95–106. * Lari, A. (2004). [https://web.archive.org/web/20120305023754/http://www.iss.co.za/pubs/papers/85/Paper85.pdf Returning home to a normal life? The plight of displaced Angolans]. Pretoria, South Africa, Institute for Security Studies. * Lari, A. and R. Kevlihan (2004). [https://web.archive.org/web/20120305023828/http://www.iss.co.za/pubs/ASR/13No4/FLari.pdf "International Human Rights Protection in Situations of Conflict and Post-Conflict, A Case Study of Angola".] African Security Review 13(4): 29–41. * Le Billon, Philippe (2005) ''Aid in the Midst of Plenty: Oil Wealth, Misery and Advocacy in Angola'', Disasters 29(1): 1–25. * Le Billon, Philippe (2001). "Angola's Political Economy of War: The Role of Oil and Diamonds". African Affairs (100): 55–80. * {{cite book|last=Le Billon|first=P.|title=Fuelling War: Natural Resources and Armed Conflicts|url=https://archive.org/details/fuellingwarnatur0000lebi|date=March 2006|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=978-0-415-37970-0}} * MacQueen, Norrie ''An Ill Wind? Rethinking the Angolan Crisis and the Portuguese Revolution, 1974–1976'', ''Itinerario: European Journal of Overseas History, 26/2, 2000, pp.&nbsp;22–44'' * Médecins Sans Frontières (2002). [https://web.archive.org/web/20130723154858/http://www.doctorswithoutborders.org/publications/reports/2002/angola1_10-2002.pdf Angola: Sacrifice of a People]. Luanda, Angola, MSF. * Mwakikagile, Godfrey ''Nyerere and Africa: End of an Era'', Third Edition, Pretoria, South Africa, 2006, on Angola in Chapter 11, "American Involvement in Angola and Southern Africa: Nyerere's Response", pp.&nbsp;324–346, {{ISBN|978-0-9802534-1-2}}. * Pearce, Justin (2004). "War, Peace and Diamonds in Angola: Popular perceptions of the diamond industry in the Lundas". African Security Review 13 (2), pp 51–64. [https://web.archive.org/web/20120305023855/http://www.iss.co.za/pubs/ASR/13No2/AW.pdf Wayback Machine] * Porto, João Gomes (2003). [https://web.archive.org/web/20100821083212/http://www.iss.co.za/pubs/papers/77/Paper77.html Cabinda: Notes on a soon to be forgotten war]. Pretoria, South Africa, Institute for Security Studies. * Tvedten, Inge (1997). Angola, Struggle for Peace and Reconstruction. Boulder, Colorado, Westview Press. * Vines, Alex (1999). Angola Unravels: The Rise and Fall of the Lusaka Peace Process. New York and London, UK, Human Rights Watch. == Vigaŵa vya kuwalo == {{Wikibooks|Wikijunior:Countries A-Z|Angola}} {{Sister project links|voy=Angola|d=Q916|Angola}} *{{Official website|http://www.governo.gov.ao/}} {{in lang|pt}} *[https://web.archive.org/web/20210111204444/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/angola Angola]. ''[[The World Factbook]]''. [[Central Intelligence Agency]]. *{{curlie|Regional/Africa/Angola}} *[https://web.archive.org/web/20080704131403/http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/angola.htm Angola] from ''UCB Libraries GovPubs''. *[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-13036732 Angola profile] from the [[BBC News]]. *{{Wikiatlas|Angola}} *{{Osmrelation}} *[http://www.ifs.du.edu/ifs/frm_CountryProfile.aspx?Country=AO Key Development Forecasts for Angola] from [[International Futures]]. *[https://web.archive.org/web/20120401150404/http://www.bti-project.org/country-reports/esa/ago/ Bertelsmann Transformation Index 2012 – Angola Country Report] *Markus Weimer, "[https://web.archive.org/web/20120801221204/http://www.chathamhouse.org/sites/default/files/public/Research/Africa/0312pp_weimer.pdf The Peace Dividend: Analysis of a Decade of Angolan Indicators, 2002–2012]". *[https://www.academia.edu/12759680/The_participation_of_Hungarian_soldiers_in_UN_peacekeeping_operations_in_Angola The participation of Hungarian soldiers in UN peacekeeping operations in Angola] {{Angola topics}} {{Navboxes |list = {{Countries of Africa}} {{Southern African Development Community}} {{African Union}} {{Community of Portuguese Language Countries|collapsed}} }} {{Authority control}} {{Coord|12|30|S|18|30|E|display=title}} [[Category:Angola| ]] [[Category:1975 establishments in Angola]] [[Category:Central African countries]] [[Category:Countries in Africa]] [[Category:Former Portuguese colonies]] [[Category:Least developed countries]] [[Category:Member states of OPEC]] [[Category:Member states of the African Union]] [[Category:Member states of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries]] [[Category:Member states of the United Nations]] [[Category:Countries and territories where Portuguese is an official language]] [[Category:Republics]] [[Category:Southern African countries]] [[Category:States and territories established in 1975]] hlcdb58kzose01slggu7puaphzofwr0 0 38046 119284 118877 2026-08-13T21:48:31Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Add 4 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260813sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 119284 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|President of Zimbabwe from 1987 to 2017}} {{Redirect|Mugabe}} {{pp-move-indef}} {{Pp|small=yes}} {{Use dmy dates|date=April 2023}} {{good article}} {{Infobox officeholder | image = <!-- Do not change this image without first presenting your preferred replacement on the talk page. -->Robert Mugabe Official Portrait.jpg | alt = Photograph of Robert Mugabe | caption = | order = 2nd | office = President of Zimbabwe | primeminister = [[Morgan Tsvangirai]] {{nowrap|(2009–2013)}} | 1blankname = [[Vice-President of Zimbabwe|First Vice-president]] | 1namedata = {{Unbulleted list|[[Simon Muzenda]]|[[Joice Mujuru]]|Emmerson Mnangagwa}} | 2blankname = Second Vice-president | 2namedata = {{Unbulleted list|[[Joshua Nkomo]]|[[Joseph Msika]]|[[John Nkomo]]|[[Phelekezela Mphoko]]}} | term_start = 31 December 1987 | term_end = 21 November 2017 | predecessor = [[Canaan Banana]] | successor = [[Emmerson Mnangagwa]] | order1 = 1st | office1 = Prime Minister of Zimbabwe | president1 = Canaan Banana | deputy1 = Simon Muzenda | term_start1 = 18 April 1980 | term_end1 = 31 December 1987 | predecessor1 = [[Abel Muzorewa]] ([[Prime Minister of Zimbabwe Rhodesia|Zimbabwe Rhodesia]]) | successor1 = Morgan Tsvangirai (2009) | office2 = Leader and First Secretary of [[ZANU–PF]]<br />{{nobold |[[ZANU]] (1975–1987)}} | 1blankname2 = Chairman | 1namedata2 = {{Unbulleted list|Joseph Msika|John Nkomo|[[Oppah Muchinguri]]|[[Simon Khaya Moyo]]}} | 2blankname2 = Second Secretary | 2namedata2 = {{Unbulleted list|Joseph Msika|John Nkomo|Joice Mujuru|Emmerson Mnangagwa}} | term_start2 = 18 March 1975 | term_end2 = 19 November 2017 | predecessor2 = [[Herbert Chitepo]] | successor2 = Emmerson Mnangagwa | order3 = 13th | office3 = Chairperson of the African Union | leader3 = [[Nkosazana Dlamini-Zuma]] | term_start3 = 30 January 2015 | term_end3 = 30 January 2016 | predecessor3 = [[Mohamed Ould Abdel Aziz]] | successor3 = [[Idriss Déby]] | order4 = 10th | office4 = Secretary-General of the Non-Aligned Movement{{!}}Secretary-General of the {{nowrap|Non-Aligned Movement}} | term_start4 = 6 September 1986 | term_end4 = 7 September 1989 | predecessor4 = [[Zail Singh]] | successor4 = [[Janez Drnovšek]] | birth_name = Robert Gabriel Mugabe | birth_date = {{birth date|1924|2|21|df=yes}} | birth_place = [[Kutama, Zimbabwe|Kutama]], [[Southern Rhodesia]] (now Zimbabwe) | death_date = {{nowrap|{{Death date and age|2019|9|6|1924|2|21|df=yes}}}} | death_place = [[Gleneagles Hospital|Gleneagles]], Singapore | resting_place = Kutama, Zimbabwe | party = {{plainlist| * [[African National Congress Youth League|ANCYL]] (1949–1952) * [[National Democratic Party (Southern Rhodesia)|NDP]] (1960–1961) * [[Zimbabwe African People's Union|ZAPU]] (1961–1963) * [[Zimbabwe African National Union|ZANU]] (1963–1987) * [[ZANU–PF]] (1987–2017) }} | spouse = {{plainlist| * {{marriage|[[Sally Mugabe|Sally Hayfron]]|1961|1992|end=died}} * {{marriage|[[Grace Mugabe|Grace Marufu]]<br />|1996}} }} | children = 4, including [[Bona Mugabe|Bona]] and [[Robert Mugabe Jr|Robert&nbsp;Jr]] | alma_mater = {{ubli|[[University of Fort Hare]]|[[University of South Africa]]|[[University of London International Programmes]]}} | signature = Signature of Robert Mugabe clear.svg }} '''Robert Gabriel Mugabe'''<ref>{{cite Merriam-Webster|Mugabe}}</ref> ( {{IPA-sn|muɡaɓe|lang}};21 February 1924 - 6 September 2019) wakaŵa munthu wakuwukira chalo cha [[Zimbabwe]] ndipo wakaŵa nduna yikuru ya chalo ichi kufuma mu 1980 mpaka 1987 ndipo pamanyuma wakaŵa purezidenti kufuma mu 1987 mpaka 2017. Wakaŵa mulongozgi wa [[Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU)]] kwambira 1975 mpaka 1980 ndipo wakalongozga chipani chakulondezgapo, ZANU                                                                                                                                                                                                                                 Kuyana na maghanoghano gha ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa, mu vyaka vya m'ma 1970 na 1980, wakajiwonanga kuti ni Marxist-Leninist, ndipo mu vyaka vya m'ma 1990 wakaŵa Socialist. Mugabe wakababika mu mbumba ya ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Shona ku Kutama, Southern Rhodesia. Wakasambira pa sukulu ya Kutama College na University of Fort Hare, ndipo wakagwiranga nchito ya kusambizga sukulu ku Southern Rhodesia, Northern Rhodesia, na Ghana. Cifukwa ca kukwiya cifukwa ca muwuso wa ŵanthu ŵazungu mu caru cake ico cikaŵa pasi pa Ufumu wa Britain, Mugabe wakazomera visambizgo vya Marx ndipo wakajibatika ku ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa awo ŵakaciskanga kuti paŵe boma lakujiyimira palekha ilo likulongozgeka na ŵanthu ŵafipa. Wakati wayowoya mazgu ghakwimikana na boma, ŵakamusanga na mulandu wa kuwukira boma ndipo ŵakamujalira mu jele kwambira mu 1964 m'paka 1974. Wakati wafumiskika, wakachimbilira ku Mozambique, wakambiska gulu la ZANU, ndipo wakalaŵiliranga mulimo wake mu Nkhondo ya Rhodesian Bush, kulimbana na boma la Ian Smith. Wakakhumba yayi kunjilirapo pa nkhani za mtende mu United Kingdom izo zikapangiska kuti paŵe phangano la Lancaster House, ilo likamazga nkhondo. Mu 1980 pa mavoti gha wose, Mugabe wakalongozga ZANU-PF ku chigonjetso, ndipo wakazgoka nduna yikuru apo chalo ichi, ico sono cikucemeka Zimbabwe, cikapokera wanangwa wa caru cose mu chaka ceneci. Boma la Mugabe likasazgirako wovwiri wa vyaumoyo na masambiro ndipo nangauli likayowoya kuti likukhumba kuti paŵe wupu wa socialist, kweni likalutilira kulondezga fundo za boma. Mubali Mugabe wakatondeka kumazga suzgo la ŵanthu ŵazungu awo ŵakafumanga mu vyaru vinyake, ndipo ubwezi wake na chipani cha Joshua Nkomo cha Zimbabwe African People's Union (ZAPU) nawo ukatimbanizgika. Mu nkhondo ya Gukurahundi ya 1982-1987, Gulu la Cinkhondi la Mugabe likathereska ŵakususka ŵa ZAPU mu Matabeleland mu kampeni iyo yikakoma ŵanthu 20,000, comenecomene ŵanthu ŵa Ndebele. Pa charu chose, wakatuma ŵasilikari ku Nkhondo yaciŵiri ya Congo ndipo wakadangilira gulu la wupu wa Non-Aligned Movement (1986-89), Organisation of African Unity (1997-98), na African Union (2015-16). Pakukhumba kuti ŵanthu ŵaleke kukhala mu vyaru vinyake, Mugabe wakadidimizgapo comene pa kugaŵa malo agho ŵalimi ŵazungu ŵakagwiliskiranga nchito ku ŵanthu ŵafipa awo ŵakaŵavya malo. Wakakhuŵara cifukwa ca kucepa kwa kugaŵa vyakurya, ndipo kwamba mu 2000, wakaciska ŵanthu ŵacibara ŵa ku Zimbabwe kuti ŵatore minda ya ŵazungu. Vyakurya vikakhwaskika comene, ndipo ici cikapangiska kuti paŵe njara, kusuzgika kwa cuma, ndiposo kuti ŵasilikari ŵa vyaru vinyake ŵambiske vivulupi. Ŵanthu ŵakamba kumususka chomene Mugabe, kweni wakasankhikaso mu 2002, 2008, na 2013 chifukwa cha vivulupi, upusikizgi, na kutemwera ŵanthu ŵa ku mizi ya ku Shona. Mu 2017, mamembala a chipani chake adamuchotsa pampando, ndikumuyika m'malo mwa wachiwiri kwa purezidenti wakale Emmerson Mnangagwa. Pakuti Mugabe wakaŵa na mazaza pa ndyali mu Zimbabwe kwa vyaka pafupifupi 40, ŵanthu ŵakamususkanga comene. Ŵanthu ŵakamulumba kuti ni munthu uyo wakawovwira kuti Zimbabwe yifume mu mawoko gha ŵasilikari ŵa Britain, ŵamazaza, na ŵanthu ŵatuŵa. Awo ŵakususka boma la Mugabe ŵakamupa mulandu wakuti ni munthu wankhaza uyo wakwendeska makora yayi vinthu vyachuma kweniso wakuchitiska vimbundi na kuswa wanangwa wa ŵanthu. ==Umoyo wakwambilila== ===Umwana: 1924–1945=== Robert Gabriel Mugabe wakababika pa 21 February 1924 mu muzi wa Kutama Mission mu chigaŵa cha Zvimba ku Southern Rhodesia.{{sfnm|1a1=Blair|1y=2002|1p=17|2a1=Meredith|2y=2002|2p=19}} Awiske, a Gabriel Matibiri, ŵakaŵa kalipentala ndipo amama ŵawo a Bona ŵakaŵa ŵasambizgi ŵa visopa vyautesi.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1a2=Simpson|1y=1981|1p=11|2a1=Blair|2y=2002|2p=17|3a1=Meredith|3y=2002|3pp=19, 21|4a1=Norman|4y=2008|4p=15}} Ŵakaŵa kuti ŵasambizgika nchito iyi na ŵa Jesuit, gulu la cisopa la Katolika ilo likambiska nchito iyi. Bona na Gabriel ŵakaŵa na ŵana ŵankhondi na yumoza: Miteri (Michael), Raphael, Robert, Dhonandhe (Donald), Sabina, na Bridgette. Ŵakaŵa ŵa fuko la Zezuru, limoza mwa mafuko ghacoko comene gha fuko la Shona. Sekuru wa Mugabe wakaŵa Chief Constantine Karigamombe, wakumanyikwa na zina lakuti "Matibiri", munthu wankhongono uyo wakateŵeteranga Themba Lobengula mu virimika vya m'ma 1800. Kwizira mwa adada ŵake, wakakhumbanga kuŵa mu mbumba ya ŵalongozgi awo ŵakulongozga kwa miwiro yinandi. Ŵalongozgi ŵa cisopo ca Jesuit ŵakaŵa ŵankhongono comene ndipo ŵakamovwira kuti wajikore, kweniso wakaŵa Mukatolika wakugomezgeka. Mubali Mugabe wakacitanga makora comene pa sukulu, cifukwa wakaŵa mwana wakujibisa ndipo wakatemwanga kuŵazga m'malo mwa maseŵero panji kucezga na ŵana ŵanyake. Ŵana ŵanyake ŵakamusekanga cifukwa cakuti wakaŵa mwanalume wacitima.{{sfn|Holland|2008|pp=6–7}} Pafupifupi mu 1930, Gabriel wakasuskana na yumoza wa ŵa Jesuit, ndipo cifukwa ca ici, mulongozgi wawo wa ku France, Dada Jean-Baptiste Loubière, wakacimbizga mbumba ya Mugabe mu muzi wa ŵamishonale. Mbumba iyi yikakhala mu muzi uwo ukaŵa pa mtunda wa makilomita 11. Ŵana ŵakazomerezgekanga kukhala ku sukulu ya pulayimale, ŵakakhalanga na ŵabali ŵawo ku Kutama pa nyengo ya masambiro na kuwelera ku nyumba ya ŵapapi ŵawo pa Sabata.{{sfn|Blair|2002|p=18}} Pa nyengo yeneyira, mukuru wa Robert, Raphael, wakafwa na nthenda ya kusulura. Kukwambilira kwa 1934, mukuru wa Robert, Michael, nayo wakafwa cifukwa ca kurya mpholozi. Pakati pajumpha nyengo, Gabriel wakafumapo pa nyumba yake na kuluta ku Bulawayo kukapenja nchito. Pamanyuma pake wakaleka Bona na ŵana ŵake ŵankhondi na yumoza na kutolera mwanakazi munyake, ndipo wakababa ŵana ŵanyake ŵatatu. Loubière wakafwa nyengo yicoko waka, ndipo wakaloŵeskeka mu malo na Father Jerome O'Hea wa ku Ireland, uyo wakazomera kuti mbumba ya Mugabe yiwelere ku Kutama.{{sfn|Blair|2002|p=18}} Mwakupambana na kusankhana mitundu uko kukaŵa mu vyaru vya kumwera kwa Rhodesia, pa nyengo iyo O'Hea wakalongozganga, Gulu la Kutama likapharazganga kuti ŵanthu wose mbakuyana waka. O'Hea ndiyo wakasambizganga Mugabe; pambere wandafwe mu 1970, wakayowoya kuti wakaŵa na "mtima na maghanoghano ghapadera". O'Hea wakamovwira kuti wasambire vya Chikhristu, kweniso wakamuphalira vya Nkhondo ya Kujiyimira paŵekha ya ku Ireland. Wakati wasambira vyaka vinkhondi na cimoza, mu 1941 Mugabe wakapika malo pa sukulu ya kusambizga ŵasambizgi ku Kutama College. Amama ŵa Mugabe ŵakatondekanga kulipira ndalama za masambiro, izo zikapelekekanga na abuya ŵake kweniso O'Hea. Pakuŵa cigaŵa ca masambiro agha, Mugabe wakamba kusambizga pa sukulu yake yakale, ndipo wakapokeranga mapaundi ghaŵiri pa mwezi. Mu 1944, Gabriel wakawelera ku Kutama pamoza na ŵana ŵake ŵatatu, kweni wakafwa nyengo yicoko waka, ndipo Robert ndiyo wakaŵa na udindo wa kupwelelera mbumba yake.{{sfnm|1a1=Blair|1y=2002|1p=18|2a1=Norman|2y=2008|2p=16}} Having attained a teaching diploma, Mugabe left Kutama in 1945.{{sfn|Meredith|2002|p=22}} === Masambiro gha pa yunivesite na uteŵeti wa kusambizga: 1945-1960 === Mu vyaka vyakulondezgapo, Mugabe wakasambizganga mu masukulu ghakupambanapambana gha ku Southern Rhodesia, kusazgapo sukulu ya Dadaya Mission ku Shabani.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1a2=Simpson|1y=1981|1p=16|2a1=Norman|2y=2008|2pp=16–17}} Palije ukaboni wakuti pa nyengo iyo, Mugabe wakacitangako vinthu vya ndyali, ndipo wakacitako yayi viwawa ivyo vikacitika mu 1948. Mu 1949, wakapokera mwaŵi wakusambira pa yunivesite ya Fort Hare ku Eastern Cape, South Africa. Apo wakaŵa ku South Africa, wakanjira gulu la ŵawukirano la African National Congress (ANCYL) ndipo wakaluta ku maungano gha ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa uko wakakumana na Ŵayuda ŵanyake ŵa ku South Africa awo ŵakamovwira kumanya fundo za Marx. Pamanyuma, wakayowoya kuti nangauli wakasambira vya Marx, kweni ivyo wakachita pakukhumba kujithemba vikamovwira chomene. Mu 1952, wakafumapo pa yunivesite iyi na digiri ya Bachelor of Arts mu mbiri na mabuku gha Chingelezi. Pakati pajumpha vilimika, wakati nyengo iyo wakakhala ku Fort Hare ndiyo yikaŵa "nyengo yakupambanapambana" mu umoyo wake.{{sfn|Smith|Simpson|1981|p=17}} [[File:Kwame Nkrumah (JFKWHP-AR6409-A).jpg|thumb|upright|Mubali Mugabe wakaciskika na ciyelezgero ca [[Kwame Nkrumah]] wa ku [[Ghana]].]] Mu 1952, Mugabe wakawelera ku Southern Rhodesia, ndipo pamanyuma pake wakati wakaŵa "wakususka comene muwuso wa [ŵakoloni]".{{sfn|Meredith|2002|p=23}} Apa, nchito yake yakwamba yikaŵa ya kusambizga pa sukulu ya Driefontein Roman Catholic Mission School kufupi na Umvuma. Mu 1953 wakasamukira ku Highfield Government School ku Harari mu tawuni ya Salisbury ndipo mu 1954 wakasamukira ku Mambo Township Government School ku Gwelo. Nyengo yeneyiyo, wakasanga digiri ya Bachelor of Education kufuma ku University of South Africa, ndipo wakalangura mabuku ghanandi gha Marxist - pakati pa agha pakaŵa Karl Marx's Capital na Friedrich Engels' The Condition of the Working Class in England - kufuma ku kampani ya ku London. Nangauli wakatemwanga chomene ndyali, kweni wakachitangako yayi ndyali. Wakaŵa mu gulu la ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yakupambanapambana, nga ni Capricorn Africa Society, uko wakasangananga na ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yose. Guy Clutton-Brock, uyo wakamumanyanga makora Mugabe kwizira mu gulu ili, pamasinda wakati wakaŵa "msepuka wakuzizwiska" uyo nyengo zinyake "wakakhalanga waka chete" kweni "wakayowoyanga vya Elvis Presley panji Bing Crosby mwakufwatuka nga umo wakuyowoyera vya ndyali".{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1a2=Simpson|1y=1981|1p=19|2a1=Blair|2y=2002|2pp=18–19}} Kufuma mu 1955 mpaka 1958, Mugabe wakakhalanga ku Northern Rhodesia uko wakagwiranga nchito ku Chalimbana Teacher Training College ku Lusaka.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2002|1p=23|2a1=Norman|2y=2008|2p=17}} Wakalutizga masambiro ghake apo wakasambiranga digiri yaciŵiri, pa nyengo iyi wakaŵa na digiri ya Bachelor of Administration kufuma ku University of London International Programmes. Ku Northern Rhodesia, wakatoleka kwa nyengo yicoko waka na mbumba ya Emmerson Mnangagwa, mweneuyo Mugabe wakamuciskanga kuti wanjire mu gulu la wanangwa ndipo pamasinda wakaŵa purezidenti wa Zimbabwe. Mu 1958, Mugabe wakasamukira ku Ghana kukagwira ntchito ku St Mary's Teacher Training College ku Takoradi. Wakasambizganga ku Apowa Secondary School, kweniso ku Takoradi, wati wapokera satifiketi yake ku Achimota College (1958-1960), uko wakakumana na muwoli wake wakwamba, Sally Hayfron. Mubali Mugabe wakati: "Nkhaluta [ku Ghana] nga ni munthu uyo wakutemwa vyakusanguluska. Nkhakhumbanga kuwona umo vinthu vizamuŵira mu caru ca ku Africa". Ghana yikaŵa boma lakwamba mu Africa kuti liŵe lakujiyimira palokha ndipo pasi pa muwuso wa Kwame Nkrumah likachita vinthu vinandi vyakukondweska ŵanthu ŵa mu Africa. Mwakusazgirapo pa kusambizga, Mugabe wakasambirako ku Kwame Nkrumah Ideological Institute ku Winneba. Nyengo yikati yajumphapo, Mugabe wakayowoya kuti ku Ghana ndiko wakazomera visambizgo vya Marx. Wakamba kutemwana na Hayfron uyo wakagwiranga nchito ku koleji ndipo nayo wakatemwanga ndyali.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1a2=Simpson|1y=1981|1p=22|2a1=Meredith|2y=2002|2p=24|3a1=Holland|3y=2008|3pp=11–12|4a1=Norman|4y=2008|4p=17}} == Ntchito ya Kuwukila == ===Early political career: 1960–1963=== Apo Mugabe wakasambizganga ku vyaru vinyake, gulu la ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa ilo likakhumbanga kuti ŵanthu ŵaleke kukolerana nalo likambiska kuti ku Southern Rhodesia kuŵe gulu la ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yinyake. Pakwamba, Joshua Nkomo ndiyo wakadangiliranga gulu la Southern Rhodesia African National Congress, ilo likakhazikiskika mu Seputembala 1957 ndipo boma likakanizga mu Febuluwale 1959. Gulu la SRANC likasinthika na chipani cha National Democratic Party (NDP), icho chikapangika mu Janyuwale 1960. Mu Meyi 1960, Mugabe wakawelera ku Southern Rhodesia, wakatora Hayfron. Banja ili likaghanaghana kuti ulendo wawo uŵenge wa nyengo yicoko waka, kweni mubwezi wa Mugabe, Leopold Takawira, uyo ni munthu wa ku Africa, wakaŵachiska kuti ŵakhalepo.{{sfn|Meredith|2002|p=26}} [[File:Joshua Nkomo (1978).jpg|thumb|left|upright|Joshua Nkomo wakaŵa yumoza wa ŵanthu ŵakumanyikwa awo ŵakasuskanga muwuso wa ŵanthu ŵatuŵa ku Southern Rhodesia.]] Mu Julayi 1960, Takawira na ŵantchito ŵanyake ŵa NDP ŵakakakika; pakususka, Mugabe wakajibatika ku ŵanthu 7,000 awo ŵakakhumbanga kwenda kufuma ku Highfield kuya ku ofesi ya Prime Minister ku Salisbury. Ŵapolisi ŵakakanizga ungano uwu kuwaro kwa holo ya Stoddart mu tawuni ya Harare. Zuŵa lakulondezgapo, ŵanthu ŵakakwana 40,000, ndipo pakaŵa pulatifomu iyo ŵakanozgekera kuyowoya nkhani. Pakuŵa munthu wakucindikika comene cifukwa ca nchito yake, madigiri ghake ghatatu, na maulendo ghake gha ku caru cinyake, Mugabe wakaŵa yumoza wa awo ŵakacemeka kuti ŵayowoye ku wumba.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1a2=Simpson|1y=1981|1p=27|2a1=Meredith|2y=2002|2p=26|3a1=Holland|3y=2008|3p=13}} Pamanyuma pa cakucitika ici, Mugabe wakasankha kujipeleka nyengo zose ku mulimo wa kusambizga, wakaleka nchito yake ya kusambizga mu Ghana (wakati wacita vilimika viŵiri vya phangano la kusambizga la vilimika vinayi). Wakalongozga ungano wakwamba wa NDP, uwo ukacitika mu Okutobala 1960, ndipo wakawovwirika na Chitepo pa nkhani za ndondomeko. Mubali Mugabe wakasankhika kuŵa mulembi wa chipani ichi. Mugabe wakapangiska kuti chipani cha NDP chiŵe na mtima wa kusankhana mitundu mu Africa, ndipo wakakhumbanga kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakhozgeke. Wakawovwira kuti paŵe gulu la ŵawukirano la NDP ndipo wakachiska kuti pa maungano ghake paŵeso malurombo gha ŵasekuru, vyakuvwara vyawo, na sumu za ŵanakazi. Mu Febuluwale 1961, wakatora Hayfron mu ukwati wa Katolika ku Salisbury.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1a2=Simpson|1y=1981|1p=38|2a1=Blair|2y=2002|2p=20|3a1=Meredith|3y=2002|3p=27|4a1=Holland|4y=2008|4p=13|5a1=Norman|5y=2008|5p=44}} Mu 1961, boma la Britain likachita ungano wa ku Salisbury kuti liwone umo vinthu vizamuŵira ku Southern Rhodesia. Nkomo wakalongozganga wupu wa NDP, uwo ukagomezganga kuti Ŵanung'una ŵazamukhozgera boma lakujiyimira palekha ilo lizamuwusika na ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yinyake. Awo ŵakimiranga ŵaciŵelengero cikuru ca ŵanthu ŵatuŵa mu caru ici, awo pa nyengo iyo ŵakalongozganga boma la Southern Rhodesia, ŵakasuskanga fundo iyi.{{sfn|Meredith|2002|pp=27–28}} Pamanyuma pa kudumbiskana, Nkomo wakazomera fundo iyo yikapelekanga mwaŵi ku ŵanthu ŵafipa kuti ŵaŵe na mipando 15 pa mipando 65 ya mu nyumba ya malango. Mugabe na ŵanji mu chipani cha NDP ŵakakwiya comene na ivyo Nkomo wakayowoya. Pamanyuma pa ungano uwu, ŵanthu ŵa ku Southern Rhodesia ŵakamba kusuzgika. Mugabe wakayowoyapo pa maungano ghanandi gha NDP pambere boma lindakanizge chipani ichi mu Disembala 1961. Ŵanandi mwa mamembara agha ŵakambaso kuwungana mu Zimbabwe African People's Union (ZAPU) mazuŵa ghachoko waka pamanyuma, ndipo Mugabe wakasankhika kuŵa mulembi wa vyaumoyo wa ZAPU.{{sfn|Norman|2008|p=44}} Mu charu ichi mukaŵa vivulupi vinandi chomene chifukwa cha kusankhana mitundu.{{sfn|Meredith|2002|p=29}} Mubali Mugabe wakawona kuti nkhondo iyi yikaŵa yakukhumbikwa kuti ŵathereske ufumu wa Britain. Ivi vikapambana na ivyo Nkomo wakayowoya kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa awo ŵakutemwa chomene charu chawo ŵakwenera kuŵikapo mtima pa nkhani za ndyali kuti boma la Britain liŵape ivyo ŵakukhumba. Pakati pajumpha myezi 9, boma likakanizga gulu la ZAPU, ndipo mu Seputembala 1962, Mugabe na ŵalaraŵalara ŵanyake ŵa chipani ŵakakakika. Mubali Mugabe na muwoli wake ŵakaŵa na suzgo na dango; ŵakamupa mulandu wa kuyowoya mazgu ghakwambiska viwawa pa wumba. Hayfron wakeruzgika kukhala mu jele vyaka viŵiri, kweni wakakhalako myezi 15 cifukwa ca kuyowoya kuti Fumukazi Elizabeth II "yingaluta ku helo".{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1a2=Simpson|1y=1981|1pp=45–46|2a1=Meredith|2y=2002|2p=31}} {{Quote box|width=25em|align=right|quote=Ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe ŵakwenera kumanya kuti usange ŵakumanya yayi ivyo ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa ŵakukhumba, mbwenu nkhondo ya mitundu yizamuŵako. | salign=right |source=— Mugabe, early 1960s{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1a2=Simpson|1y=1981|1p=42|2a1=Norman|2y=2008|2p=44}} }} Kuwuka kwa mtundu wa ku Africa kukapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵatuŵa ŵakanjirenge mu Southern Rhodesia, ndipo chipani cha Rhodesian Front chikatonda pa mavoti gha mu Disembala 1962. Boma liphya likakhumbanga kusungilira muwuso wa ŵanthu ŵatuŵa mwa kukhozga bata na kujikora ku boma la Britain. Mubali Mugabe wakakumana na ŵanyake ku nyumba yake mu cigaŵa ca Highbury mu Salisbury, uko wakayowoya kuti cifukwa cakuti vipharazgo vya ndyali vikaŵa vyakukanizgika, nyengo yikakwana yakuti ŵambe kucitako nkhondo. Iyo pamoza na ŵanji ŵakakana fundo ya Nkomo yakuti ŵaŵike boma lakucimbira mu Dar es Salaam. Iyo na Hayfron ŵakajivikilira yayi kuti ŵalute ku ungano wa ZAPU ku Tanganyikan. Kwenekura, ŵalongozgi ŵa chipani ŵakakumana na pulezidenti wa Tanganyika, Julius Nyerere, uyo nayo wakakanaso fundo ya boma lakunjilira mu caru cinyake ndipo wakaciska ZAPU kuti ŵanozge nkani yawo yakwimikana na muwuso wa ŵanthu ŵacokoŵacoko ŵaŵituŵa mu Southern Rhodesia. Mu Ogasiti, Hayfron wakababa mwana mwanalume wa Mugabe, uyo ŵakamuthya Nhamodzenyika, lizgu la Chishona ilo likung'anamura "charu icho chikusuzgika". Mubali Mugabe wakakhumbanga kuti muwoli wake wawelere ku Ghana, kweni iyo wakawelera ku Southern Rhodesia. Kwenekura, ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa awo ŵakasuskanga Nkomo ŵakambiska chipani chiphya, Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU), mu Ogasiti; Ndabaningi Sithole wakazgoka pulezidenti wa gulu ili, apo wakasankha Mugabe kuŵa mulembi mukuru wa gulu ili kwambura iyo. Nkomo wakazgora mwa kupanga gulu lake, la People's Caretaker Council, ilo likamanyikwanga na zina lakuti "ZAPU". ZAPU na ZANU ŵakasuskananga comene ndipo mwaluŵiro pakawuka nkhondo ya vigeŵenga. <ref name="struggleforzimbabwe7071">{{cite book|title=The Struggle for Zimbabwe|url=https://archive.org/details/struggleforzimba0000mart|last1=Martin|first1=David|last2=Johnson|first2=Phyllis|date=July 1981|edition=First |publisher=[[Faber and Faber]]|isbn=978-0-571-11066-7|pages=[https://archive.org/details/struggleforzimba0000mart/page/70 70]–71}}</ref> === Wakajalirika mu jele: 1963-1975 === Mubali Mugabe wakakakika apo wakaweleranga ku Southern Rhodesia mu Disembala 1963. Khoti likadumura mulandu wake kwamba mu Janyuwale m'paka mu Malichi 1964, ndipo wakakana kuwuskamo ivyo wakayowoya. Mu Malichi 1964, ŵakamujalira mu jele myezi 21. Muwuso wa Mugabe ukati wafika ku Wha Wha ndipo pamanyuma ku Sikombela ku Que Que. Ku jele ili, wakaŵasambizganga kuŵazga na kulemba, masamu, na Cingelezi. Ŵalinda ŵaciganga awo ŵakaŵa ŵalusungu ŵakaswanga mauthenga kufuma kwa Mugabe na mamembala ghanyake gha wupu wa ZANU ku ŵanthu awo ŵakacitanga vinthu vinyake kuwaro kwa jele. Pakulongozgeka na boma, Herbert Chitepo, uyo wakaŵa wakuvikilira ZANU, wakambiska gulu la ŵasilikari ku Lusaka. Mu Epulero 1966, gulu ili likayezga kunanga mizati ya magesi mu msumba wa Sinoia, ndipo pamanyuma pake likapoka munda unyake wa ŵazungu kufupi na msumba wa Hartley. Boma likazgora mwa kuwezgera mamembala gha ZANU, kusazgapo Mugabe, ku jele la Salisbury mu 1966. Mu jele ili, ŵakayidi 40 ŵakagaŵika mu maselo ghanayi, ndipo ŵanandi ŵakagonanga pasi chifukwa cha unandi wa ŵanthu. Wakakhalako vilimika vinkhondi na vinayi, ndipo wakatangwanika comene na kuŵazga na kusambira.{{sfn|Meredith|2002|p=34}} Wakakhalako vilimika vinkhondi na vinayi, ndipo wakatangwanika comene na kuŵazga na kusambira. Mu nyengo iyi wakasanga madigiri ghanyake pa Yunivesite ya London: digiri ya masters mu vya cuma, digiri ya bachelor mu vya boma, na madigiri ghaŵiri gha malango.{{sfnm|1a1=Blair|1y=2002|1p=22|2a1=Meredith|2y=2002|2p=34}} [[File:Ian Smith 1975.jpg|alt=|thumb|265x265px|Apo Mugabe wakaŵa mu jere, [[Ian Smith]] wakaŵa mulongozgi wa Rhodesia.]] Apo wakaŵa mu jere, Mugabe wakapulika kuti mwana wake wafwa na nthenda ya mu wongo apo wakaŵa na vilimika vitatu. Mubali Mugabe wakaŵa na citima comene ndipo wakapempha kuti wafumeko pa nyumba kuti wakacezge na muwoli wake ku Ghana. Wakaŵagowokera yayi ŵalara ŵa jele cifukwa ca kukana. Ŵanthu awo ŵakamumanyanga nyengo yira ŵakayowoyanga kuti apo wakaŵa mu jele, ŵakamuyuzganga. Dada Emmanuel Ribeiro, uyo wakaŵa wasembe wa Mugabe apo wakaŵa mu jele, wakati: "Chifukwa chimoza nchakuti wakaŵa wakukhora mwauzimu". Apo Mugabe wakaŵa mu jere, mu Ogasiti 1964, boma la Rhodesian Front - ilo sono likulongozgeka na Ian Smith - likakanizga ZANU na ZAPU na kukora ŵalongozgi wose ŵa gulu la African nationalist mu caru ici. Boma la Smith likapharazga kuti lijiyimire palekha kufuma ku Britain mu Novembala 1965, ndipo likasintha zina la Southern Rhodesia kuŵa Rhodesia. Mu 1972, ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa ŵakamba kurwa nkhondo na boma la Smith. Ŵalwani ŵa boma ŵakachemanga kuti Chimurenga wachiŵiri. Magulu gha ŵasilikari ghakaŵa mu vyaru vyapafupi nga ni Tanzania na Zambia. Ŵasilikari ŵawo ŵanandi ŵakaŵa na vilwero vyakukwana yayi. Gulu la nkhondo la ZANU, Zimbabwe African National Liberation Army (ZANLA), likaŵa na ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa mtundu wa Shona. Gulu ili likaŵa ku Mozambique, ndipo likapokera ndalama kufuma ku China. Gulu la nkhondo la ZAPU, la Zimbabwe People's Revolutionary Army (ZIPRA), likagwiliskirika nchito na boma la Soviet Union. Mugabe na mamembala ghanyake gha ZANU ŵakaŵa na kukayika pa umo Sithole wakwendeskera, ndipo ŵakamuwonanga kuti wakukwiya comene ndiposo wakucita vinthu mwambura kwenelera. Mu Okutobala 1968, Sithole wakayezga kunjizga uthenga kufuma mu jele uwo ukalangura ŵanthu ŵa ZANU kuti ŵakome Smith. Ŵakamanya ivyo wakakhumbanga kucita ndipo ŵakamupeleka ku khoti mu Janyuwale 1969. Mugabe wakachenya Sithole chifukwa cha "kusesa" pakukana ivyo ZANU yikakhumbanga, ndipo boma likamuwuskapo pa udindo wake pakuvota kuti waleke kugomezgeka.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1a2=Simpson|1y=1981|1p=68|2a1=Blair|2y=2002|2p=22|3a1=Norman|3y=2008|3p=56}} Mu Novembala 1974, wupu wa ZANU ukazomerezga kuti Sithole waleke kuŵa mu wupu uwu. Pakopa kuti nkhondo ya ŵasilikari yingathandazgikira kumwera, boma la South Africa likapangiska kuti Rhodesia yambe kukolerana na maboma gha ŵazungu gha Zambia na Tanzania. Pakucita viyezgo ivi, boma la Smith likazomera kufwatura ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵafipa awo ŵakaŵa mu jele. Mu Novembala 1974, pamanyuma pa kukhala mu jele vyaka pafupifupi 11, Mugabe wakafumiskika.{{sfnm|1a1=Blair|1y=2002|1p=22|2a1=Meredith|2y=2002|2p=37|3a1=Norman|3y=2008|3p=59}} Wakasamira ku nyumba ya mudumbu wake Sabina ku Highfield. Wakakhumbanga kunjira mu gulu la ZANU na kurwa nkhondo ya chipani, pakumanya kuti kuti waŵe na mazaza pa ZANU, wakeneranga kuwusa ZANLA. Ivi vikaŵa vyakusuzga cifukwa ca nkhaza izo zikacitikanga mu gulu la ŵasilikari, comenecomene pakati pa ŵanthu ŵa mitundu ya Manyika na Karange.{{sfn|Smith|Simpson|1981|pp=76–78}} ===Nkhondo ya chiona wona: 1975–1979=== [[File:Flag of ZANU-PF.svg|thumb|Mbendera ya Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU)]] Mu Malichi 1975, Mugabe wakafumako ku Rhodesia kuya ku Mozambique, wakakhumbanga kuwusa gulu la ZANU. Munyake, Maurice Nyagumbo, wakati wakoleka, wakafipanga mtima kuti nayo ndimo vicitirenge. Ribeiro na sisiteri munyake ŵakamovwira iyo na Edgar Tekere kuti ŵanjire mwakubisilizga mu Mozambique. Mubali Mugabe wakakhala mu caru ici vyaka viŵiri. Pulezidenti wa Mozambique, Samora Machel, wakaŵa wakukayikira za maluso gha Mugabe ndipo wakamanya yayi usange wangamuwona nga ni mulongozgi wa ZANU. Machel wakamupa nyumba mu Quelimane ndipo wakamuŵika mu jele, ndipo Mugabe wakakhumbanga kuzomerezgeka kwenda. Pakatora pafupifupi chaka kuti Machel wazomerezge kuti Mugabe ndiyo walongozge ZANU.{{sfn|Blair|2002|p=23}} Mugabe wakaluta ku misasa yakupambanapambana ya ZANLA mu Mozambique kuti wakhozge ŵasilikari ŵake. Pakati pa chaka cha 1976, wakaŵa kuti wasanga wovwiri wa ŵasilikari ŵa ZANLA ndipo wakaŵa mulongozgi wakumanyikwa comene wa gulu la ŵasilikari awo ŵakarwanga na muwuso wa Smith. Mu Ogasiti 1977, wakapharazgika kuti ni purezidenti wa ZANU pa ungano wa komiti yikuru ya chipani uwo ukacitikira ku Chimoio. Mu nyengo ya nkhondo, Mugabe wakalutilira kukayikira ŵalongozgi ŵanandi ŵa ZANLA ndipo wakakaka ŵanandi ŵa iwo. Mu 1977, wakakaka mulara wake munyake, Wilfred Mhanda, cifukwa cakuti ŵakamuyowoyera kuti ngwakugomezgeka yayi. Josiah Tongogara wakati wafwa pa ngozi ya galimoto mu 1979, ŵanthu ŵakayowoya kuti Mugabe wakwenera kuti wakacitako. Mugabe wakakhara kutali na milimo ya zuŵa na zuŵa ya ZANLA, iyo wakapeleka kwa Tongogara. Mu Janyuwale 1976, ZANLA yikamba kunjira mu charu ichi kufuma ku Mozambique, ndipo ŵasilikari pafupifupi 1,000 ŵakambuka mphaka kuti ŵakawukire minda na mashopu gha ŵatuŵa. Pakuzgora, boma la Smith likalemba ŵanalume wose ŵa vyaka vyakukwana 35 kuti ŵanjire usilikari. Ŵazungu ŵanandi ŵakaleka minda yawo chifukwa cha kugaluka kwa ZANLA. Ŵachikuda ŵanandi awo ŵakaŵa ŵambura nchito ŵakamba kugwira nchito na ZANLA. Kuzakafika mu 1979, ZANLA yikaŵa kuti yaluta ku misumba yinandi ya ku Rhodesia. Pa nkhondo iyi, ŵanthu 30,000 ŵakakomeka. Ŵazungu ndiwo ŵakafwa comene, ndipo kuumaliro wa vyaka ivi, ŵasilikari ŵakamba kutonda.{{sfn|Smith|Simpson|1981|p=109}}[[File:Robert Mugabe & Nicolae Ceaușescu, Romania 1976.jpg|thumb|left|Mugabe pa ungano na mulongozgi wa cikomyunizimu wa ku Romania Nicolae Ceaușescu mu 1976]] Mubali Mugabe wakadodoliskanga comene pa nkhondo yakupharazga, ndipo nyengo zose wakayowoyanga pa wayilesi. Mu mabuku agha, wakajiwonanga nga ni Marxist-Leninist, ndipo wakayowoya makora chomene vya ŵanthu awo ŵakakhumbanga kusintha vinthu nga ni Vladimir Lenin, Joseph Stalin, na Fidel Castro. Nangauli wakaŵa na vigomezgo vya Marx, kweni maungano gha Mugabe na ŵimiliri ŵa Soviet ghakaŵavya candulo, cifukwa ŵakakhumbanga kuti Nkomo ndiyo walongozgenge nkhondo. Ubwezi wake na China ukaŵa wakukhora comene, cifukwa boma la China likapeleka vilwero ku ZANLA kwambura vinthu vinyake. Kweniso wakapenja wovwiri ku vyaru vya ku Western, wakaluta ku ma ambassy gha ku Western ku Mozambique, ndipo wakaluta ku vyaru vya ku Western nga ni Italy na Switzerland na vyaru vya Marxist nga ni Soviet Union, China, North Korea, Vietnam, na Cuba. Mubali Mugabe wakacema kuti boma la Rhodesia ilo likaŵa na ŵanthu ŵazungu likomeke, Smith na gulu lake la vigeŵenga ŵakomeke, caru ca ŵanthu ŵazungu cikanjire mu mawoko gha ŵanthu ŵazungu, ndipo Rhodesia yisinthe kuŵa boma la chipani cimoza. Kanandi waka wakaciskanga ŵanthu ŵa ku Rhodesia kuti ŵacitire nkhaza ŵazungu awo ŵakaŵa mu caru ici, ndipo wakaŵachemanga kuti "ŵakusuzga ŵanthu", "ŵakukoma ŵanthu", ndiposo "ŵakusankhana mitundu". Mwaciyelezgero, mu 1978, mu upharazgi wa pa wayilesi, Mugabe wakati: "Tiyeni tiŵathereske [Ŵazungu]. Tiyeni tiparanye msumba wake. Tileke kumupa nyengo yakuti wapumure. Tiyeni timupenje mu ngodya yiliyose. Tiyeni tiwuskemo ciŵanda ici mu nyumba yithu". Kwa Mugabe, kulimbana na ŵasilikari kukaŵa kwakuzirwa comene pakukhazikiska boma liphya. Mwakupambana na ŵalongozgi ŵanyake ŵa ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yinyake nga ni Nkomo, Mugabe wakasuskanga fundo yakuti boma la Smith limare kukolerana. Mu Okutobala 1976 ZANU yikakhazikiska gulu limoza na ZAPU lakucemeka Patriotic Front. Mu Seputembala 1978, Mugabe wakakumana na Nkomo ku Lusaka. Wakakwiya cifukwa ca kuyezga kwa Smith kuti wadumbiskane na mulongozgi wa Cikomyunizimu Nicolae Ceaușescu mu 1976.{{sfn|Smith|Simpson|1981|p=112}} === Phangano la Nyumba ya Lancaster: 1979 === Mubali Smith wakamba kuwona kuti vinthu vyamba kwenda makora apo B. J. Wakayama Vorster wakamanya kuti muwuso wa ŵanthu ŵatuŵa ukaŵa wambura kovwira mu caru ico mukaŵa ŵanthu ŵabuluu ŵanandi kuluska ŵatuŵa. Smith wakazomera kuti muwuso wa ŵanthu ŵatuŵa ungalutilira yayi kwamuyirayira. Wakalongozga pa mavoti gha 1979 agho ghakapangiska kuti Abel Muzorewa, bishopu wakufipa mtima, wasankhike kuŵa nduna yikuru ya Zimbabwe Rhodesia. Wupu wa ZANU na ZAPU wose ŵakakananga mavoti agha, kweni charu chose chikapokelera yayi. Pa ungano wa ŵalara ŵa boma wa mu 1979, uwo ukacitikira ku Lusaka, Margaret Thatcher, nduna yikuru ya Britain, wakazizika ŵapositole apo wakapharazga kuti caru ca Britain cizamumanya kuti nchakujiyimira pawekha usange cizamunjira mu boma la ŵanthu ŵanandi.{{sfn|Smith|Simpson|1981|pp=118–120}} [[File:Lancaster House (5880536589).jpg|thumb|Nyumba ya Lancaster mu cigaŵa ca St. James mu [[London]]]] Maungano agha ghakacitikira mu nyumba ya Lancaster House mu msumba wa London, ndipo wakadangiliranga ni Peter Carington wa mu chipani cha Conservative. Mubali Mugabe wakakana kuluta ku maungano agha, chifukwa wakatinkhanga fundo yakuti nkhondo ya ku Rhodesia yimalenge pa mtende. Machel wakadandawura kuti wakwenera kucita nthena, ndipo wakawofya kuti walekeskenge wovwiri wa Mozambique ku ZANU-PF usange waleka kucita nthena. Mu September 1979, Mugabe wakafika ku London. Kwenekura, iyo na Nkomo ŵakajiphara nga ni gulu la "Patriotic Front" kweni ŵakakhazikiska ofesi yawo mu msumba uwu. Pa ungano uwu ŵaŵiri aŵa ŵakaŵa na maghanoghano ghakupambana; Nkomo wakakhumbanga kujilongora nga ni munthu wakujiyuyura apo Mugabe wakayezga kujilongora nga ni munthu wakugaluka wa Marxist, ndipo Carington wakagwiliskira nchito kugaŵikana uku. Mu nyengo yose iyo ŵakadumbiskananga, Mugabe wakagomezganga Ŵanung'una yayi ndipo wakagomezganga kuti ŵakwendeska vinthu kuti ŵasangepo candulo. Phangano la Lancaster House likati wose awo ŵakanjilirapo pa Nkhondo ya ku Rhodesia ŵavomerezgane kuti paŵe mtende, ndipo kazembe wa ku Britain, Christopher Soames, wakiza ku Rhodesia kuzakawona ivyo vikachitika. Likayowoya kuti charu cha Rhodesia chichemekengeso Zimbabwe, zina ilo lili kufuma ku malo ghakuchemeka Great Zimbabwe. Phangano ili likawoneseskaso kuti ŵanthu ŵazungu ŵa mu caru ici ŵasungilire wanangwa wawo wa vya cuma na ndyali. Pakuyowoya kuti boma la ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yose likwenera kuŵa la ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yose, Carington wakaciska Mugabe kuti wacitepo kanthu pa nkhani yinyake yikuru ya ungano uwu, ya malo. Mugabe wakazomera kuvikilira katundu wa ŵanthu ŵatuŵa pa fundo yakuti maboma gha Britain na United States ghaŵawovwire ndalama mwakuti boma la Zimbabwe ligure malo ghanandi kuti ghagaŵike ku ŵanthu ŵafipa. Mugabe wakasuska fundo yakuti paŵe mtende, kweni Machel wakamuchichizga kuti wazomere. Mugabe wakalemba phangano ili, kweni wakajiwonanga kuti wapusikika, ndipo wakakhuŵara cifukwa cakuti wakatondeka kutonda ŵasilikari ŵa Rhodesia.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2002|1p=235|2a1=Tendi|2y=2011|2p=313}} === Kamupeni wa chisankho: 1980 === Apo wakaweleranga ku Salisbury mu Janyuwale 1980, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakamupokelera. Wakakhalanga mu nyumba yinyake ku Mount Pleasant, mu tawuni iyo mukaŵa ŵazungu ŵanandi. Machel wakachenjezga Mugabe kuti waleke kutinkha ŵazungu ŵa ku Rhodesia, kumucenjezga kuti para ŵazungu ŵafumako ku caru cawo para pajumpha mavoti, vingananga cuma nga umo vikaŵira ku Mozambique. Ntheura, pa nyengo ya kampeni yake ya kuvota, Mugabe wakaleka kuyowoya mazgu gha Marx na gha chipani. Mugabe wakadikhira kuti pa chisankho, ZANU yizamwimilira nga chipani chakupambana na ZAPU, ndipo wakakana pempho la Nkomo la ungano. Wakapangiska chipani cha ZANU, icho chikamanyikwanga na zina lakuti Zimbabwe African National Union Patriotic Front (ZANUPF). Ŵanthu ŵakayowoyerathu kuti ZANU-PF ndiyo yizamutonda pa vipani ivyo vikupambana mitundu. Mubali Mugabe wakaŵa wa mtundu wa Shona, uwo ukaŵa na ŵanthu 70 pa 100 wose mu charu ichi. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Britain na ŵa ku Britain ŵakaghanaghananga kuti ivi vichitikenge cifukwa ca vigomezgo vya Mugabe vya Marx na mazgu ghake ghakwimikana na ŵanthu ŵazungu.{{sfn|Blair|2002|p=11}} Mu nyengo ya kampeni, Mugabe wakapona ku ŵanthu ŵaŵiri awo ŵakakhumbanga kumukoma. Mu nyengo yakwamba, iyo yikacitika pa Febuluwale 6, bomba likaponyeka pa nyumba yake ya Mount Pleasant, apo likaphulika pa cimati ca munda. Pa 10 February, bomba la mumphepete mwa msewu likaphulika pafupi na galimoto yake apo wakafumanga ku Fort Victoria. Mubali Mugabe nayo wakapwetekeka yayi. Mubali Mugabe wakati ŵasilikari ŵa ku Rhodesia ndiwo ŵakapangiska vinthu ivi. Kuti ŵaleke kughanaghana kuti ŵasilikari ŵa ku Rhodesia ŵachitenge vimbundi, Mugabe wakakumana na Peter Walls, mulongozgi wa ŵasilikari ŵa ku Rhodesia, ndipo wakamupempha kuti wakhalilire pa udindo wake usange ZANU-PF yingatonda. Pa nyengo iyo, Viliŵa vikakana.{{sfn|Meredith|2002|p=12}} Nkhondo iyi yikakhwaskika na ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakachitiranga wofi ŵanthu awo ŵakavotanga, awo ŵakaŵa ZAPU ya Nkomo, United African National Council (UANC) ya Abel Muzorewa, na ZANU-PF ya Mugabe. Pakulongosora za milimo ya ZANU-PF ku mafumiro gha dazi kwa Rhodesia, Nkomo wakadandawura kuti "mazgu ghakuti kutenthemeska ngapusu. Ŵanthu ŵakopa ŵanthu. Ni wofi". Pakuwona kuti ZANU-PF yikopa ŵanthu, Mugabe wakachemeka ku nyumba ya boma. Mugabe wakawona kuti ungano uwu ukaŵa wa ku Britain kuti watimbanizge kampeni yake. Kuyana na ndondomeko ya kudumbiskana, Soames wakaŵa na mazaza gha kulekeska chipani cilicose ico cikopa ŵanthu. Wupu wakuvikilira chalo cha Rhodesia, Nkomo, Muzorewa, na ŵanyake awo ŵakamupa ulongozgi wose ŵakapempha Soames kuti waleke kunjizga ZANU-PF. Pamanyuma pa kudumbiskana, Soames wakazomera yayi, wakugomezga kuti ZANU-PF yikwenera kutonda pa chisankho ndipo kuti kuŵatondeska kungapangiska kuti ŵaleke kuŵa na mwaŵi wa kusintha mazaza. Pa mavoti gha mu February, ZANU-PF yikasanga mavoti 63% pa mavoti gha mu chalo chose, ndipo yikasanga vithuzithuzi 57 pa vithuzithuzi 80 ivyo vikaŵa vya maboma gha ŵanthu ŵaŵisi. ZAPU yikasanga vithuzithuzi 20, ndipo UANC yikasanga vithuzithuzi vitatu. Mugabe wakasankhika kuŵa mp ku chigaŵa cha Salisbury ku Highfield. Pakuyezga kukhozga wofi na kukanizga ŵanthu ŵazungu kuti ŵaleke kucimbira, Mugabe wakawonekera pa wayilesi na kucemera kuti paŵe umoza wa caru cose, kukhazikika, na dango na ndondomeko.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2002|1p=13|2a1=Holland|2y=2008|2p=xiii|3a1=Norman|3y=2008|3p=74}} == Nduna Yakwamba ya Zimbabwe: 1980-1987 == [[File:Heroes Acre Monument, Harare, Zimbabwe.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Vithuzithuzi vya pa dindi la msilikari wambura kumanyikwa ku Heroes' Acre; cikumbusko ici cikapangika na ŵanthu ŵa ku North Korea awo ŵakaphaliranga Mugabe.{{sfn|Holland|2008|p=194}}]] Charu cha Southern Rhodesia chikamba kujiyimira paŵekha pa April 18, 1980. Mubali Mugabe wakalapa kuŵa nduna yikuru ya caru ciphya ici pakati pa usiku.{{sfn|Blair|2002|p=9}}Wakayowoya pa Rufaro Stadium ku Salisbury, ndipo wakapharazga kuti charu cha Rhodesia chichemekenge "Zimbabwe". Soames wakawovwira Mugabe kuti wasinthe makora mazaza; ndipo Mugabe wakalutilira kumuwonga. Mugabe wakakhumba yayi kuti Soames wakhale mu Zimbabwe kwa virimika vinandi, ndipo wakatondeka kukhuŵilizga Britain kuti waŵe na "mulimo wakulongozga" wa vyaka viŵiri mu boma lake cifukwa ŵa ZANU-PF ŵanandi ŵakaŵa ŵambura kumanya vinandi vya muwuso. Pakuti ZANU-PF yikaŵa na wanangwa wa kuwusa yekha, kweni Mugabe wakambiska boma la umoza mwa kuchemera ŵanthu ŵa ku vipani vinyake kuti ŵanjire mu nduna zake. Mubali Mugabe wakasamira ku nyumba ya nduna yikuru ya boma ku Salisbury, iyo wakayizingilizga mwakuyana waka na umo Smith wakayizingilizgira.{{sfn|Meredith|2002|p=41}} [[File:President Ronald Reagan meeting Prime Minister Mugabe of Zimbabwe in the Oval Office - DPLA - 7ca02b080ed105da1103b26b9ee646bc.jpg|thumb|right|Mugabe na pulezidenti wa ku [[United States]] [[Ronald Reagan]] mu 1983]] Mu caru cose, ŵakawuskamo vikozgo vya Cecil Rhodes, ndipo malo na misewu ivyo vikacemekanga na mazina gha ŵanthu ŵakumanyikwa ŵa mu nyengo ya makoloni vikacemeka na mazina gha ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yinyake. Mu 1982, msumba wa Salisbury ukacemeka Harare. Mubali Mugabe wakagwiliska nchito ŵanthu ŵa ku North Korea kuti ŵanozge nyumba ya Heroes' Acre, cikumbusko na malo ghakukondwelera ŵanthu awo ŵakasuzgikanga cifukwa ca muwuso wa ŵanthu ŵachoko. Charu cha Zimbabwe chikapokeraso wovwiri ukuru kufuma ku vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi. Boma la United States likapeleka ndalama zakukwana madola 25 miliyoni ku Zimbabwe kwa vilimika vitatu. Boma la United Kingdom likapeleka ndalama zakwendeskera ndondomeko ya kunozga malo, ndipo likapeleka ulongozgi wa ŵasilikari kuti ŵawovwire kuti ŵasilikari ŵa ku Rhodesia na ŵasilikari ŵa ku Rhodesia ŵanjire mu gulu liphya la ŵasilikari ŵa ku Zimbabwe. Ŵalongozgi ŵa ZANLA na ZIPRA ŵakakanjira usilikari, kweni pakaŵa mphindano pakati pa magulu ghaŵiri agha. Pakuŵa Nduna Yikuru, Mugabe wakasunga Walls kuŵa mulongozgi wa ŵasilikari. Boma la Mugabe likalutilira kuyowoyapo za kusintha Zimbabwe kuŵa wupu wa socialist, kweni likachitapo kanthu yayi. Mwakupambana na umo Mugabe wakayowoyeranga vya socialism, ndondomeko za boma lake za bajeti zikaŵa zakusungilira vinthu, zikagwiranga nchito mu ndondomeko ya capitalist ndipo zikayowoyanga comene za kukhumbikwa kwa ndalama zakufuma ku vyaru vinyake. Apo wakaŵa pa udindo wake, Mugabe wakakhumbanga kusintha vinthu pachokopachoko kuti vileke kuŵa nga umo vikaŵira pakwamba. Kufuma mu 1980 m'paka mu 1990, chuma cha caru ici cikakura na 2.7% pa caka, kweni cikakura cifukwa ca unandi wa ŵanthu ndipo ndalama izo ŵanthu ŵakasanganga zikakhira. Unandi wa ŵambura nchito ukakwera, ndipo mu 1990 ukafika pa 26%. Boma likaŵa na suzgo la ndalama pa ciŵelengero ca 10% ca GDP. Mu nyengo ya muwuso wa Mugabe, ndalama izo ŵanthu ŵakagwiliskiranga nchito pa masambiro na vya cipatala zikakura comene. Mu 1980, ku Zimbabwe kukaŵa masukulu gha sekondare 177 pera. Pa nyengo iyi, chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu ŵakumanya kulemba na kulemba chikakwera kufuma pa 62% kufika pa 82%. Ŵana ŵanandi ŵakakoleka munkhwala wa HIV kufuma pa 25% kufika pa 92%.{{sfn|Blair|2002|p=37}} Ŵakapanga gulu liphya la ŵalongozgi, ndipo kanandi ŵakagulanga nyumba zikuruzikuru na magalimoto ghakudura, ŵakatumanga ŵana ŵawo ku masukulu ghapadera, kweniso ŵakachitanga bizinesi. Kuti ŵaleke kuchita vinthu mwakutalulira, mu 1984 Mugabe wakalemba "ndondomeko ya ŵalongozgi" iyo yikakanizganga ŵanthu ŵalara-lara kupokera malipiro ghakujumpha limoza panji kuŵa na malo ghakujumpha maekali 50. Pakaŵaso vinyake ivyo vikachitika, ndipo Mugabe wakazomerezga Jenerale Solomon Mujuru kusazgirako bizinesi yake, ndipo wakazgoka munthu musambazi comene mu Zimbabwe. Vimbundi ivyo vikachitikanga pakati pa ŵanthu ŵamazaza vikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵaleke kugomezgeka.{{sfn|Meredith|2002|p=83}} [[File:Robert Mugabe September 1983, DF-SC-84-10031.jpg|thumb|left|Mugabe departing [[Andrews Air Force Base]] after a state visit to the United States in 1983]] ZANU-PF nayo yikamba kupanga bizinesi yake, yikayambiska M&S Syndicate mu 1980 na Zidoo Holdings mu 1981. Kufika mu 1992, chipani ichi chikaŵa na katundu na bizinesi yakujumpha madola 500 miliyoni (US$75 miliyoni). Mu 1980, ZANU-PF yikagwiliskira nchito ndarama za ku Nigeria kuti yikhazikiske wupu wa Mass Media Trust, uwo ukagura kampani ya ku South Africa iyo yikaŵa na manyuzipepara ghanandi gha ku Zimbabwe. Ŵazungu awo ŵakang'anamuliranga manyuzipepara agha ŵakaŵafumiskanga mu maofesi ghawo ndipo ŵakaŵikamo ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵakimikika na boma. Nyengo yikati yajumphapo, manyuzipepara agha ghakazgoka malo ghakupharazgira vya chipani. Apo charu cha Zimbabwe chikapokera wanangwa wake, vyaru 39% vikaŵa vya ŵanthu ŵambura kutchuka awo ŵakaŵa na minda yikuruyikuru ya ŵanthu ŵatuŵa pafupifupi 6,000, apo 4% vikaŵa vya ŵanthu ŵachiswesi awo ŵakaŵa na minda yichokoyikuru, ndipo 41% vikaŵa vyaru vya ŵanthu wose. Phangano la Lancaster House likati m'paka mu 1990, malo ghakuguliskika ghangaŵa waka "ghakunozgeka kuguliskika". Kweni ŵakazomerezganga yayi usange malo agha "ghakugwiliskirika nchito mwambura kwenelera" panji ghakukhumbikwa pa mulimo unyake. Ici cikang'anamuranga kuti boma la Mugabe likaguliskanga waka malo ghambura kwenelera. Chilato chake chikaŵa chakuti mu vyaka vitatu, mbumba za ŵanthu ŵabuluu 18,000 zizakakhale pa malo gha mahekita 2.5 miliyoni gha ŵanthu ŵatuŵa. Ivi vikeneranga kukhumba ndalama zakukwana mapaundi 30 miliyoni (US$60 million), ndipo hafu ya ndalama izi boma la United Kingdom likeneranga kupeleka kuyana na ivyo vikaŵa mu phangano la Lancaster House. Mu 1986, Mugabe wakazgoka mulongozgi wa gulu la Non-Aligned Movement (NAM), udindo uwo wakasunga mpaka mu 1989. Pakuŵa mulongozgi wa boma la Front Line States, ilo lili pafupi na charu cha South Africa icho chikaŵa pasi pa apartheid, wakaŵa wakugomezgeka comene mu gulu la ŵanthu awo ŵakasuskanga apartheid.{{sfn|Meredith|2002|p=85}} === Umo ŵanthu ŵakupambana mitundu === {{Quote box|width=25em|align=right|quote=Sono tikwenera kugowokera na kuluwa zakwananga izo tikacita kumanyuma. Usange tikughanaghanira ivyo vikacitika kumasinda, tiyeni ticitenge nthena cifukwa ca sambiro ilo tili kusambira, lakuti kusuzgika na kusankhana mitundu ni vinthu vyambura kwenelera ivyo vingazomerezgeka yayi kuti viŵeko mu ndyali na mu umoyo withu. Cingaŵa cifukwa ciwemi yayi kuyowoya kuti cifukwa cakuti ŵatuŵa ŵakatisuzga apo ŵakaŵa na mazaza, ŵafipa ŵakwenera kuŵasuzga lero cifukwa cakuti ŵali na mazaza. Uheni ukulutilira kuŵa uheni, kwali ni mzungu uyo wakulimbana na muzungu panji muzungu uyo wakulimbana na muzungu.|salign=right |source=— Mugabe's speech after his 1980 victory{{sfn|Meredith|2002|p=15}} }} Pakwamba, Mugabe wakakhumbanga kuti ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yinyake ŵambeso kukolerana, ndipo wakakhumbanga kuŵa paubwezi uwemi na ŵazungu ŵa ku Zimbabwe. Wakakhumbanga kuti ŵazungu ŵaleke kufumamo mu charu chawo, ndipo wakawoneseskanga kuti ŵanthu ŵaleke kopa kuti waŵasuzgenge kuti ŵaguliske katundu wawo. Wakimika ŵantchito ŵaŵiri ŵatuŵa - David Smith na Denis Norman - mu boma lake, wakakumana na ŵalongozgi ŵatuŵa mu vyakurya, makampani, migodi, na malonda, ndipo wakakondweska ŵalara ŵa boma nga ni Smith na Ken Flower na mtima wake wose. Nkhondo yikati yamara, mafuta ghakaŵa ghacilendo, ndipo vinthu vikamba kwenda makora ku Zimbabwe. Mu nyengo iyo vinthu vikendanga makora mu caru ici, ŵanthu ŵacoko waka awo ŵakaŵa ŵazungu, awo ŵakaŵa na katundu munandi ndiposo ŵakendeskanga malonda, mafakitale, na mabanki, ndiwo ŵakatumbikika comene. Ndipouli, Ŵazungu ŵanandi ŵa ku Zimbabwe ŵakadandawura kuti ŵakaŵasankhiranga. Ŵazungu ŵanandi ŵakakwenyelera cifukwa ca kukhala mu boma la ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yinyake ndipo ŵakafipanga mtima kuti ŵana ŵawo ŵasangenge nchito yayi. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakaluta ku South Africa, ndipo mu 1980, ŵazungu pafupifupi 17,000 (pafupifupi ciŵelengero cimoza pa viŵelengero 10 vya ŵanthu wose ŵa ku Zimbabwe) ŵakaluta ku caru cinyake. Boma la Mugabe likalayizga kuti lizamovwira African National Congress na ŵasilikari ŵanyake awo ŵakasuskanga apartheid mu South Africa, kweni likaŵazomerezga yayi kuti ŵagwiliskirenge ntchito Zimbabwe pakuchita nkhondo. Pakulimbana na nkhaza za katangale na muwuso wa ŵanthu ŵatuŵa mu South Africa, boma la Mugabe likakanizga Zimbabwe kuti yileke kuchitako maseŵero gha ku South Africa. Kweniso caru ca South Africa cikayezga kutimbanizga Zimbabwe mwa kujara nthowa za malonda na kovwira ŵanthu awo ŵakususka Mugabe.{{sfnm|1a1=Meredith|1y=2002|1p=51|2a1=Holland|2y=2008|2pp=36–37|3a1=Norman|3y=2008|2p=76}}[[File:Persconferentie Robert Magabe , president Zimbabwe, op Schiphol na driedaags bez, Bestanddeelnr 932-1957.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Mugabe ku [[Netherlands]], 1982]] Mu Disembala 1981, bomba likaphulika pa ofesi yikuru ya ZANU-PF, ndipo ŵanthu 7 ŵakafwa ndipo 124 ŵakapwetekeka. Mugabe wakapa mulandu ŵasilikari ŵazungu awo ŵakovwirika na South Africa. Wakasuska "ŵanthu ŵakususka na awo ŵakususka kusintha kwa vinthu" mu muzi wa ŵazungu, ndipo wakati nangauli ŵakasuskika yayi cifukwa ca ivyo ŵakacita kumanyuma, kweni ŵakukana kuwezgerapo mtende pakati pa ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yinyake ndipo "ŵakucita vinthu mwakukolerana na ŵa ku South Africa kuti ŵatipweteke, kutimbanizge umoza withu, kutimbanizga chuma cithu, na kuwuskapo boma ilo ine nkhulongozga". Wakasuskanga ŵasilikari pera yayi kweni ŵazungu wose cifukwa ca kuŵa na mazaza pa "nkhongono za cuma za Zimbabwe". Ndimo ŵaminisitala ŵanandi ŵa boma na ŵapharazgi ŵa nkhani ŵakawoneranga. Yumoza wa ŵaliska aŵa, Tekere, wakacitako cinthu cinyake apo iyo pamoza na ŵanalume ŵankhondi na ŵaŵiri awo ŵakaŵa na vilwero ŵakanjira mu famu iyo yikaŵa ya ŵazungu, ndipo ŵakakoma mulimi munyake mucekuru. Tekere ŵakamusanga na mulandu wa kukoma munthu, kweni Mugabe wakamufumiska mu ofesi yake. Ŵanthu ŵakalutilira kutinkhana. Mu Disembala 1981, Wally Stuttaford, mulara wa ku mphala ya malango ya ku South Africa, ŵakamupa mulandu wa kuŵa muzga wa South Africa, ŵakamukora na kumusuzga, ndipo ici cikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵazungu ŵakwiyike. Mu Julayi 1982, ŵasilikari ŵazungu awo ŵakakhozgekanga na South Africa ŵakaparanya ndege 13 pa Thornhill. Ŵazungu ŵanandi awo ŵakaŵa ŵasilikari ŵakakakika na kutambuzgika. Ŵakaŵeruzga, kweni ŵeruzgi ŵakaŵaphalira kuti ŵalije mulandu. Nkhani yawo yikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵa mu vyaru vinandi ŵayowoyepo viheni, kweni Mugabe wakati nkhani iyi yikupangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵamanye vinandi cifukwa cakuti ŵakayidi ŵakaŵa ŵazungu. Kuvikilira kwake nthambuzgo na kuyuyura ndondomeko za malango vikapweteka mbiri yake pa caru cose. Ŵazungu ŵakalutilira kucimbilira ku caru cinyake, ndipo mu vilimika vitatu kufuma apo Mugabe wakambira kuwusa, hafu ya ŵanthu wose ŵazungu ŵa ku Zimbabwe ŵakaluta ku caru cinyake. Mu 1985 pa mavoti, chipani cha Smith cha Conservative Alliance of Zimbabwe chikapokera vithuzithuzi 15 pa vithuzithuzi 20 ivyo vikapelekeka ku ŵazungu. Mugabe wakakwiya chomene na ivyo vikachitika, ndipo wakachenya ŵanthu ŵatuŵa ŵa ku Zimbabwe cifukwa ca kuleka kupera "mu nthowa yiliyose" apo ŵakalutilira kovwira Smith na ŵandyali ŵanyake ŵatuŵa awo ŵakacita "vinthu vyakofya ku ŵanthu ŵa ku Zimbabwe".{{sfn|Meredith|2002|p=56}} === Ubale na ZAPU na Gukurahundi === {{Main|Gukurahundi}} [[File:Zimbabwe African People's Union flag.svg|thumb|Mbendera ya ZAPU, iyo yikamara na ZANU-PF mu chigaŵa cha Gukurahundi]] Kuyana na dango liphya la charu ichi, udindo wa pulezidenti wa Zimbabwe ukaŵa wa pa mwambo pera. Mubali Mugabe wakaŵa kuti wapeleka uteŵeti uwu kwa Nkomo, kweni Nkomo wakakana. Apo ŵakateŵeteranga lumoza, pakaŵa ukali pakati pa Mugabe na Nkomo. Mugabe wakapeleka mipando yinayi ku ZAPU, kweni Nkomo wakapempha zinandi. Mwakupambana na ivi, ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵa ZANU-PF ŵakayowoya kuti ZAPU yikwenera yayi kuŵa na mipando mu boma, ndipo ŵakayowoya kuti Zimbabwe yiŵe boma la chipani chimoza. Tekere na Enos Nkala ŵakaŵa ŵakusimikizga kuti palije suzgo na ZAPU. Pamanyuma pakuti Nkala wacemerezga kuti ZAPU yikomeke mwankhaza pa ungano wa ŵanthu ku Entumbane, ku malo agha kukawuka mbembe.{{sfnm|1a1=Blair|1y=2002|1p=30|2a1=Meredith|2y=2002|2p=61|3a1=Norman|3y=2008|3p=76}} Mu Janyuwale 1981, Mugabe wakawuskapo Nkomo pa udindo wake mu nduna zake; iyo wakachenjezga kuti ichi chikukwiyiska awo ŵakakolerana na ZAPU. Mu February, nkhaza pakati pa ŵakukhozgera ZAPU na ZANU-PF zikawuka pakati pa gulu ilo likaŵa ku Ntabazinduna. Kufuma apo, ŵakasanga vilwero vinandi ivyo vikaŵa na mabomba na mabomba ghakwimikana na ndege pa famu ya Ascot, iyo Nkomo wakaŵa nayo. Mugabe wakayowoya kuti uwu ukaŵa ukaboni wakuti ZAPU yikunozgekera kuti yikome boma, kweni Nkomo wakakana. Pakuyaniska Nkomo na "njoka ya mu nyumba", Mugabe wakamulekeska nchito mu boma, ndipo mabizinesi, minda, na katundu wa ZAPU vikatoleka. Ŵanalume ŵa ZANLA na ZIPRA ŵakaleka milimo yawo na kwamba kunjilirapo pa vigeŵenga. Ku Matabeleland, ŵanthu awo ŵakagalukira gulu la ZIPRA awo ŵakamanyikwanga kuti "ŵakupambana maghanoghano" ŵakachitanga unkhungu, kwiba mabasi, na kuwukira nyumba za ŵalimi. Ŵalwani aŵa ŵakapokera wovwiri kufuma ku South Africa kwizira mu gulu la ku Africa lakucemeka Operation Mute, ilo likagomezganga kuti lingapangiska kuti caru ca Zimbabwe cileke kukhazikika. Boma kanandi likayaniskanga ZIPRA na awo ŵakususka, nangauli Nkomo wakasuskanga awo ŵakususka na awo ŵakuŵawovwira. Mubali Mugabe wakazomerezga ŵapolisi na ŵasilikari kuti ŵakome ŵanthu awo ŵakususkana na boma ku Matabeleland. Mu 1982 wakambiska Gulu la Cinkhondi, gulu la ŵasilikari ilo likasambizgika na ŵanthu ŵa ku North Korea. Mu Janyuwale 1983, ŵasilikari ŵa Fifth Brigade ŵakatumika ku chigaŵa ichi, ndipo ŵakalongozga ntchito ya kutimbana, kotcha ŵanthu, kukoma ŵanthu pa wumba, na kukoma ŵanthu awo ŵakatenge ŵakukolerana na ŵakususka. Nkhondo iyi yikaŵa yikuru comene kuluska iyo yikacitika mu caru ca Rhodesia. Ŵakazenga malo ghakuponerako ŵanthu. Mubali Mugabe wakazomerezga kuti ŵanthu ŵazamusuzgika cifukwa ca vivulupi ivi, wakati "tingamanya yayi uyo ni wakususka panji yayi". Ivyo vikacitika pamanyuma pake vikamanyikwa kuti "Gukurahundi", lizgu la Cishona ilo likung'anamura "mphepo iyo yikuseŵa duru pambere vula yindize".{{sfn|Blair|2002|p=31}}[[File:Matabeleland.svg|thumb|left|upright|Gukurahundi yikachitikira mu vigaŵa vya kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Zimbabwe, ku Matabeleland.]] Mu 1984, Gukurahundi wakambukira ku Matabeleland South, malo agho ghakaŵa na chilangalanga kwa vyaka vitatu. Gulu la Cinkhondi likajara mashopu ghose, likakanizga kupeleka vinthu, ndipo likakanizga ŵanthu kwenda, ndipo ivi vikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵaŵe na njara kwa myezi yiŵiri. Bishopu wa Bulawayo wakamunena Mugabe kuti wakulongozga ndondomeko ya njara. Apo ŵimiliri ŵa Katolika ŵakapeleka kwa Mugabe buku ilo likulongosora uheni uwo gulu la Fifth Brigade likacita, Mugabe wakakana ivyo likayowoya ndipo wakati ŵalongozgi ŵa visopa ŵakuleka kugomezgeka ku Zimbabwe. Wakacitiska kuti wupu wa Katolika wakuwona vya urunji na mtende mu Zimbabwe uleke kugwira nchito. Mu 1985, lipoti la wupu wa Amnesty International lakukhwaskana na Gukurahundi likakanika na Mugabe kuti ni "utesi". Mu vilimika vinayi, ŵanthu pafupifupi 10,000 ŵakakomeka, ndipo ŵanandi ŵakatimbika na kutambuzgika. Genocide Watch yikalongosora kuti ŵanthu pafupifupi 20,000 ŵakakomeka. Boma la Britain la Margaret Thatcher likamanyanga za kukoma ŵanthu kweni likakhala chete pa nkhani iyi, kuti lileke kukwiyiska Mugabe na kutimbanizga umoyo wa ŵazungu ŵa ku Zimbabwe. Kweniso boma la United States likakana yayi, ndipo mu Seputembala 1983, pulezidenti Ronald Reagan wakapokelera Mugabe ku White House. Mu Okutobala 1983, Mugabe wakaluta ku ungano wa ŵalara ŵa boma la Commonwealth ku New Delhi, uko kukaŵavya boma ilo likayowoyapo vya Gukurahundi. Mu 2000, Mugabe wakazomera kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakakomeka, ndipo wakati "ni ucindere... ukaŵa uheni ndipo vigaŵa vyose viŵiri vikaŵa na mulandu". Martin Meredith, uyo wakalemba mbiri ya umoyo wa Mugabe, wakati Mugabe na ZANU-PF ndiwo ŵekha ŵakapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵakomeke. Ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakulemba mbiri ya Mugabe ŵakuwona kuti Gukurahundi wakaŵa chiyezgo cha kulekeska ZAPU na ŵanthu awo ŵakamovwiranga. Pakaŵaso nkhaza zinandi pambere mavoti gha 1985 ghandambe, ndipo ŵanthu awo ŵakakolerananga na ZAPU ŵakasuzgikanga na magulu gha ZANU-PF Youth League. Nangauli ŵakamuwofyanga, kweni ZAPU yikapokera vithuzithuzi vyose 15 mu Nyumba ya Malamulo ya Matabeleland. Kufuma apo, Mugabe wakasora Enos Nkala kuŵa mulongozgi wa ŵapolisi. Pamanyuma pake, Nkala wakakaka ŵalongozgi ŵakujumpha 100 ŵa ZAPU, kusazgapo mamembala ghankhondi na meya wa Bulawayo, wakakanizga chipani ici kucita maungano, kujara maofesi ghawo ghose, na kusisita maboma ghose agho ghakaŵa pasi pa mazaza ghawo. Kuti ŵaleke kwambaso vivulupi, mu Disembala 1987 Nkomo wakalembeska phangano la umoza umo ZAPU yikaparanyikira ndipo ŵalongozgi ŵake ŵakanjira mu ZANU-PF. Kuphatikizika kwa zipani ziŵiri izi kukasilira ZANU-PF na vithuzi 99 pa vithuzi 100 mu pharalamende, ndipo vikapangiska Zimbabwe kuŵa boma la chipani chimoza.{{sfn|Blair|2002|p=34}} == Pulezidenti wa Zimbabwe == === Kusintha kwa malango na vya cuma: 1987-1995 === Kuumaliro wa 1987, Nyumba ya Malango ya ku Zimbabwe yikasintha malango gha boma. Pa Disembala 30, boma likati Mugabe ndiyo ni pulezidenti wa boma, udindo uphya uwo ukasazga maudindo gha mulongozgi wa boma, mulongozgi wa boma, na mulongozgi wa ŵasilikari. Wakaŵa na mazaza ghakupatura nyumba ya malango, kuŵika dango la nkhondo, na kwimilira mu mavoti nyengo yitali. Kuyana na Meredith, sono Mugabe wakaŵa "na mazaza pa boma ndipo wakaŵa na mwaŵi wakuwovwira ŵanthu". Pa nyengo yeneyira, ŵakafumiskapo mipando 20 iyo yikaŵa ya ŵanthu ŵatuŵa. Mu nyengo ya mavoti gha 1990, maparamende ghakawovwira kuti paŵe maparamendi 120. Ndondomeko iyi yikapangiska kuti viŵe vyakusuzga kuti ŵanthu wose awo ŵakususka Mugabe ŵasange mazaza mu nyumba ya malango.{{sfn|Meredith|2002|p=89}}Chipani chikuru cha opposition mu chisankho ichi chikaŵa Zimbabwe Unity Movement (ZUM), icho chikambiska mu April 1989 na Tekere; nangauli wakaŵa mubwezi wa nyengo yitali wa Mugabe, Tekere wakamususka kuti wakwendera mphiska chipani cha Zimbabwe na kukhazikiska muwuso wa ukali. Ŵanthu ŵa ZANU-PF ŵakakhumbanga kuti ŵanthu awo ŵakukhumba kuvota ŵaŵe ku ZUM. Cinyake nchakuti tivotere ZUM. Lekani kujikoma, vota ZANU-PF ndipo ukhale wamoyo". Mu mavoti agha, Mugabe wakasankhikaso kuŵa purezidenti na mavoti pafupifupi 80%, apo ZANU-PF yikapokera vithuzithuzi 116 pa vithuzithuzi 119 ivyo vikaŵapo. Mubali Mugabe wakakhumbanga kuti charu cha Zimbabwe chiŵe na chipani chimoza, kweni mu 1990, wakaleka nadi ivyo wakakhumbanga chifukwa cha kusintha kwa Mozambique na vyaru vinyake vya ku Eastern Bloc. Pamanyuma pakuti boma la Marxist-Leninist likatimbanizgika mu Soviet Union na Eastern Bloc, mu 1991 ZANU-PF yikawuskamo mazgu ghakuti "Marxism-Leninism" na "scientific socialism" mu mabuku ghake. Mu chaka chenechicho, Mugabe wakajipeleka kuti wacitenge vinthu mwakuyana na ndondomeko ya msika ndipo wakazomera ndondomeko ya kusintha vinthu ya International Monetary Fund (IMF). Boma la Zimbabwe likakhumbanga kuti vinthu vya boma viŵe vya boma na kuchepeskako misonkho. Vinthu ivi vikapangiska ŵantchito kuchepeska malipiro ghawo, ndipo ŵakamba kususkika na wupu wa Zimbabwe Congress of Trade Unions. Kuzakafika mu 1990, mbumba za ŵanthu ŵafipa 52,000 zikaŵa kuti zakhazikika pa malo ghakukwana mahekita 6.5 miliyoni. Ivi vikaŵa vyakukwana yayi kuti ŵamazge suzgo la ŵanthu ŵanandi mu caru ici, cifukwa ca unandi wa ŵanthu ŵafipa. Mu caka ici, nyumba ya malango ya ku Zimbabwe yikapokelera dango ilo likazomerezganga boma kupoka malo pa mtengo wakukwana uku likuleka kupeleka wanangwa ku awo ŵali na malo. Boma likagomezganga kuti para licitenge nthena, lizamukhazikiska mbumba 110,000 za ŵanthu ŵafipa pa malo ghakukwana maekala 13 miliyoni. Wupu wa Commercial Farmers Union wa ku Zimbabwe ukati ndondomeko iyi yingananga cuma ca caru ici, ndipo ukaciska boma kuti lizakakhazikiske ŵanthu ŵafipa awo ŵalije caru pa malo ghakukwana hafu ya miliyoni ya mahekita agho ghakaŵa ghambura kupambika panji ghakaŵa gha boma.{{sfn|Meredith|2002|pp=122–123}} Boma la United Kingdom, la United States, na la Catholic Commission for Justice and Peace (Khomishoni ya Katolika ya Urunji na Mtende) likadandawura na ivyo likayowoya. Boma la United States, United Kingdom, International Monetary Fund, na World Bank ŵakawofya kuti usange Zimbabwe yingafiska dango ili, mbwenu yizamuleka kupeleka wovwiri ku vyaru vinyake. Pakususka fundo iyi, boma likawuskamo dango lakuti ŵanthu ŵaleke kupempha ku khoti. Mu vilimika vicoko waka vyakulondezgapo, malo ghanandi gha ŵazungu ghakapokeka. Mu Epulero 1994, nyuzipepara yinyake yikati yasanda vinthu ivi, yikasanga kuti vyose ivi vikapelekeka yayi ku ŵanthu ŵafipa awo ŵakaŵa ŵambura malo. Pakuzgora mulandu uwu, mu 1994 boma la United Kingdom, ilo likapeleka ndalama zakukwana mapaundi 44 miliyoni kuti lipeleke malo, likakanizga kupeleka ndalama. Mu Janyuwale 1992, muwoli wa Mugabe wakafwa. Mu Epulero 1995, magazini ya Horizon yikavumbura kuti Mugabe wakaŵa na chibwezi na mulembi wake Grace Marufu kwambira mu 1987 ndipo wakababa mwana mwanalume na mwanakazi. Ŵanthu 12,000 ŵakacemeka ku ukwati uwu mu Ogasiti 1996, uwo ukacitikira ku Kutama ndipo ukacitikanga na Patrick Chakaipa, uyo wakaŵa mutu wa bishopu mulara wa Katolika ku Harare. Ciphikiro ici cikaŵa cakukwesana comene pakati pa Ŵakatolika cifukwa ca uleŵi wa Mugabe na Marufu. Kuti mbumba yake yikhalenge makora, Mugabe wakazenga nyumba yikuru ku Borrowdale. Pa mavoti gha 1995 agho ghakaŵa ghacoko comene, ZANU-PF yikasanga vithuzithuzi 147. Pambuyo pa chisankho, Mugabe wakasazgirako nduna zake kufuma pa 29 kufika pa 42 apo boma likakhozga malipiro gha mamembala gha Nyumba ya Malamulo na 133%.{{sfn|Meredith|2002|p=127}} === Kuchepa kwa chuma: 1995~2000 === {{Quote box|width=25em|align=right|quote=Kuzakafika pakati pa ma 1990, Mugabe wakaŵa kuti wazgoka munthu wankhaza na wankhaza, wakususka yayi ŵanthu, wakuyuyura dango na wanangwa wa ŵanthu, wakuzingilizgika na ŵaliska ŵambura kwenelera ndipo wakuŵikako mahara yayi ku ukazuzi na vimbundi ivyo vikaŵa pafupi nayo. Wakaŵa na nkharo yiheni comene pa nkhani ya ndalama. Iyo wakatondeka kufiska ivyo ŵanthu ŵakakhumbanga pa nkhani ya masambiro, umoyo, malo, na ntchito. Ndipo wakawuskapo ŵanthu wose ŵatuŵa. Kweni nyengo yose iyi, Mugabe wakalutilira kugomezga ukuru wake. Wakaŵa kutali na ŵanthu wose, wakaŵavya ŵabwezi, kweniso wakaŵa na maghanoghano ghaheni. Iyo wakati masuzgo agho ghakaŵapo ghakaŵa gha ŵalwani ŵake ŵakale, Britain, vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi, na ŵa Rhodesia.|salign=right |source=— Mugabe biographer [[Martin Meredith]]{{sfn|Meredith|2002|p=131}} }} Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1990, chuma cha Zimbabwe chikalutilira kunangika. Kuzakafika mu 2000, umoyo wa ŵanthu ukakhira comene kuluska umo ukaŵira mu 1980; umoyo wa ŵanthu ukakhira, malipiro ghakaŵa ghacoko, ndipo unandi wa ŵanthu ŵambura nchito ukakwera comene. Kuzakafika mu 1998, unandi wa ŵambura nchito ukaŵa pafupifupi 50%. Kuzakafika mu 2009, ŵanthu ŵa ku Zimbabwe ŵakujumpha 3 panji 4 miliyoni, awo ŵakaŵa na maluso ghanandi, ŵakafumamo mu charu ichi. Mu 1997, ŵanthu awo ŵakarwa nkhondo ya kuwukira boma ŵakamba kukhumba ndalama za penshoni, ndipo mu Ogasiti 1997, Mugabe wakanozga ndondomeko ya ndalama za penshoni izo zikeneranga kukwana madola 4.2 biliyoni. Kuti ŵapeleke ndalama za penshoni iyi, boma la Mugabe likapeleka misonkho yiphya, kweni mu Disembala 1997 ŵakacita sitiroko yikuru; pamasinda pa nkani ya ZANU-PF, boma la Mugabe likamazga misonkho. Mu Janyuwale 1998, mu Harare mukawuka vivulupi cifukwa ca kusoŵa cakurya; ŵasilikari ŵakatumika kuti ŵawuskepo mtende, ndipo ŵanthu 10 ŵakafwa ndipo ŵanyake ŵanandi ŵakapwetekeka. Mubali Mugabe wakamba kuyowoya kuti masuzgo gha vyachuma gha mu charu ichi ghali kufuma ku vyaru vya ku Western kweniso ku ŵanthu ŵachoko waka ŵa ku Zimbabwe awo ŵakaŵa na malonda, migodi, na mafakitale. Wakacema ŵalondezgi ŵake kuti "ŵawopenge ŵazungu, awo ni ŵalwani ŵithu", ndipo wakaŵapa mulandu awo ŵakasuskanga ŵazungu. Nangauli boma likamususkanga, kweni wakalutilira kuwusa. Wakambaso kuyowoya mazgu ghacigaluka ndipo wakayezga kulongora kuti wakaŵa mulongozgi wakuzirwa wa cigaluka.{{sfn|Onslow|Redding|2009|p=68}} Mugabe wakalutilira kutemwa comene kugonana kwa ŵanalume panji ŵanakazi pera, ndipo wakawona kuti ni "vya ku Africa yayi". Wakalongosora kuti ŵanthu awo ŵakutemwa kugonana na ŵanalume panji ŵanakazi ŵanyawo "ŵali na nkharo yiheni chomene kuluska ya ŵanthu", kweniso "mbakuheni chomene kuluska ntcheŵe na nkhumba". Vingaŵa kuti maghanoghano agha ghakafumira ku fundo zake zakukhora, kweni ghakakhozga comene cifukwa cakuti ŵateŵeti ŵanandi ŵa boma la Britain ŵakaŵa ŵakugonana ŵanalume panji ŵanakazi ŵanyawo. Mubali Mugabe wakamba kugomezga kuti pakaŵa "mafia gha ŵakugonana ŵanalume panji ŵanakazi pera" ndipo wose awo ŵakamususkanga ŵakaŵa ŵakugonana ŵanalume panji ŵanakazi pera. Awo ŵakususka boma la Zimbabwe ŵakasuskaso Mugabe kuti wakugwiliskira nchito ŵanthu awo ŵakutemwa kugonana na ŵanalume ŵekhaŵekha kuti watimbanizge masuzgo gha caru. Mu Ogasiti 1995, wakeneranga kujura Zimbabwe International Book Fair ku Harare, kweni wakakana mpaka apo gulu la Gays and Lesbians of Zimbabwe likafumiskira malo agha. Mu 1996, Mugabe wakasankhika kuŵa mulongozgi wa wupu wakuvikilira chalo cha Southern African Development Community (SADC). Kwambura kudumbiskana na pharalamende, mu Ogasiti 1998 wakalangura ŵasilikari ŵa Zimbabwe kuti ŵanjire mu Democratic Republic of Congo kuti ŵateŵetere pamoza na President Laurent Kabila mu Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Congo. Pakwamba, wakaŵika ŵasilikari 3,000 pa nkhondo iyi, ndipo pamasinda ŵakakwera kufika pa 11,000. Kweniso wakaciska Angola na Namibia kuti ŵatumizge ŵasilikari ŵawo ku nkhondo. Nkhondo iyi yikapangiska kuti charu cha Zimbabwe chikumane na masuzgo gha vyachuma. Kafukufuku wakulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ku Zimbabwe ŵakutemwa yayi nkhani iyi. Ndipouli, mabungwe ghanandi gha ku Zimbabwe ghakasanga candulo, cifukwa boma la Kabila likaŵapa wanangwa wa kunozga migodi na makuni. Mu Janyuwale 1999, ŵasilikari 23 ŵakakakika cifukwa ca kunozgekera kuwukira Mugabe. Boma likayezga kubisa fundo iyi, kweni yikalembeka na nyuzipepara yinyake. Pamanyuma ŵasilikari ŵakakaka ŵapharazgi aŵa na kuŵatambuzga. Ivi vikakwiyiska ŵamitundu yose, ndipo ŵa EU na vyaru vinyake vinkhondi na viŵiri ivyo vikawovwirapo, ŵakalemba makalata ghakwimira. Ŵalaraŵalara ŵa boma na ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakasuska ivyo boma likachita. Pakuzgora, Mugabe wakavikilira kugwiliskira nchito kukakika na kutambuzgika kwambura dango.{{sfn|Meredith|2002|p=153}}[[File:Tony Blair 2010 (cropped).jpg|left|thumb|250x250px|Nduna Yikuru ya Britain, [[Tony Blair]], uyo Mugabe wakaŵa nayo paubwezi]] Mu 1997, Tony Blair wakasankhika kuŵa nduna yikuru ya Britain pamanyuma pa vilimika 18 vya muwuso wa ŵa Conservative. Boma la Labour likayowoya kuti likukhumba yayi kuwezgerapo malipiro gha malo agho ghakalayizgika mu phangano la Lancaster House, ndipo Clare Short wakakana fundo yakuti Britain yikwenera kupeleka ndalama zakwendeskera malo. Nkharo iyi yikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵa mu vyaru vya ku Africa ŵambe kutinkha ufumu wa Britain. Mu Okutobala 1999, Mugabe wakaluta ku Britain ndipo ku London, Peter Tatchell uyo wakuvikilira wanangwa wa ŵanthu wakayezga kumukaka. Mugabe wakagomezganga kuti boma la Britain likanozga mwadala ivyo vikacitika kuti limukhozge soni. Ivi vikakhwaska comene ubwezi pakati pa Britain na Zimbabwe, ndipo Mugabe wakadelera ivyo wakacema kuti "Blair and company". Mu Meyi 2000, boma la United Kingdom likakanizga Zimbabwe kupeleka wovwiri. Mu Disembala 1999, wupu wa IMF ukamazga kovwira Zimbabwe pa nkhani ya ndalama chifukwa cha suzgo la ndalama kweniso vimbundi. Kuti ŵakwaniriske ivyo ŵanthu ŵakakhumbanga, mu Epulero 1999, boma la Mugabe likimika komiti ya ŵanthu 400 kuti yilembe dango liphya. Bungwe la National Constitutional Assembly, gulu la ŵanthu awo ŵakukhumba kusintha malango, ilo likakhazikiskika mu 1997, likayowoya kuti komiti iyi njambura kukolerana na boma. Wupu wa NCA ukakhumbanga kuti ndondomeko ya dango likanizgike, ndipo pa ungano wa ŵanthu wose wa mu Febuluwale 2000, ŵanthu 53 pa 100 ŵakakana, 44 pa 100 ŵakakolerana. Uwu ukaŵa utesi wakwamba wa ZANU-PF mu vyaka 20. Mubali Mugabe wakakwiya comene, ndipo wakapa mulandu ŵanthu ŵacokoŵacoko ŵa ku Zimbabwe cifukwa ca kucitiska kuti wathereskeke.{{sfn|Holland|2008|p=138}} === Kuwukira caru na kususka: 2000-2008 === {{Main|Land reform in Zimbabwe}} [[File:Morgan Tsvangirai Oslo 2009 B.jpg|thumb|217x217px|[[Morgan Tsvangirai]] wakalongozga chipani cha MDC kuti chiŵe na chilato cha kulimbana na boma la Mugabe mu ma 2000 parliamentary election.]] Pa maungano gha pa caru cose agho ghakacitika mu Juni 2000, maungano agha ndigho ghakaŵa ghakuzirwa comene mu Zimbabwe kwambira mu 1980. Maphwando 16 ghakanjilirapo, ndipo Movement for Democratic Change (MDC) yakulongozgeka na Morgan Tsvangirai wakaŵa na chilato chiwemi. Pa nyengo ya kampeni ya kuvota, ŵanthu ŵa MDC ŵakaŵasuzganga kanandi waka ndipo nyengo zinyake ŵakakomekanga. Bungwe la Zimbabwe Human Rights Forum likati ŵanthu 27 ŵakakomeka, 27 ŵakakoleka, 2466 ŵakakoleka, ndipo 617 ŵakakoleka, ndipo ŵanthu 10,000 ŵakacimbizgika cifukwa ca nkhaza. Ŵanthu awo ŵakawonanga ivyo vikachitikanga ku Europe ŵakati maungano agha ghakaŵa ghapusu yayi. Kuvota kukapangiska kuti ZANU-PF yiŵe na viŵelengero vya 48% na viŵelengero vya 62 vya mu nyumba ya malango ndipo MDC yiŵe na viŵelengero vya 47% na viŵelengero vya 57. Aka kakaŵa kakwamba kuti ZANU-PF yileke kusanga vigaŵa viŵiri pa vigaŵa vitatu vya wanangwa uwo ukakhumbikwanga kuti ŵasinthenge malango. ZANU-PF yikathembanga chomene ŵanthu awo ŵakayowoyanga ChiShona mu vigaŵa vya ku mizi, ndipo yikapokelera waka chigaŵa chimoza cha mu matawuni. Mu Febuluwale 2000, ŵasilikari ŵakamba kuwukira minda ya ŵazungu. Boma likati ŵanthu awo ŵakaŵawukira ŵakaŵa "ŵalwani" kweni ŵanandi ŵakaŵa ŵawukirano ŵambura nchito. Mugabe wakayowoya kuti kuukira uku kukacitika mwangozi kwimikana na ŵeneco ŵa vyaru ŵatuŵa, nangauli boma likapeleka ndalama zakukwana Z$20 miliyoni ku gulu la Chenjerai Hunzvi's War Veterans Association kuti licitenge mulimo wa kupoka vyaru. Ŵanyake awo ŵakacitanga na Mugabe ŵakalongosora kuti nkhondo iyi yikaŵa cilango cifukwa ca umo ŵanthu ŵazungu ŵakacitiranga kuti ŵanthu ŵaleke kuvota. Mugabe wakalongosora kuti malo agha ghakapokeka na ŵanthu ŵazungu awo ŵakakhalanga mu Africa mu ma 1890. Wakalongosora kuti nkhondo iyi yikaŵa nkhondo yakwimikana na ufumu wa Britain, ndipo wakati boma la Britain likakhumbanga kuwuskapo boma lake. Mu Meyi 2000, wakafumiska dango lakuyana na Presidential Powers (Temporary Measures Act) ilo likapeleka mazaza ku boma kuti litorenge minda kwambura kulipira.{{sfn|Meredith|2002|p=184}} Mu Malichi 2000, Khoti Likuru la ku Zimbabwe likadumura kuti vinthu ivi vikaŵa vyambura kuzomerezgeka; kweni ŵakalutilira, ndipo Mugabe wakamba kususka ŵeruzgi ŵa ku Zimbabwe. Khoti Likuru Chomene nalo likati ladumura nthena, boma likapempha ŵeruzgi ŵake kuti ŵafumepo pa udindo wawo. Mubali Godfrey Chidyausiku, wa ZANU-PF, wakasankhika kuti wanjire mu malo ghake, ndipo ŵeruzgi ŵa khoti likuru ŵakasazgikira kufuma pa ŵankhondi kufika pa ŵankhondi na ŵatatu. Khoti Likuru Chomene likasintha ivyo likayowoya kale. Mu Novembala 2001, Mugabe wakafumiska dango ilo likazomerezga kuti minda yose iyo yikaŵa ya ŵazungu mu Zimbabwe yipokeke kwambura kulipira. Kanandi ŵakachitanga nkhaza chomene para ŵafumiska minda yawo. Mu 2006, ŵakapharazga kuti ŵalimi ŵazungu ŵakukwana 60 ŵakakomeka. Ŵantchito ŵawo ŵanandi ŵakawofyeka na kutambuzgika. Mafamu ghanandi agho ghakapokeka ghakaŵa ghambula munthu, ndipo ghanandi agho ghakapelekeka ku ŵalimi ŵa fuko la ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yinyake ghakatondeka kupanga vyakurya chifukwa chakuti ŵakasanganga yayi vyakurya vyakukwana.{{sfn|Howard-Hassmann|2010|p=900}} {{Quote box|width=25em|align=left|quote=The courts can do whatever they want, but no judicial decision will stand in our way&nbsp;... My own position is that we should not even be defending our position in the courts. This country is our country and this land is our land&nbsp;... They think because they are white they have a divine right to our resources. Not here. The white man is not indigenous to Africa. Africa is for Africans, Zimbabwe is for Zimbabweans.|salign=right |source=— Mugabe on the land seizures{{sfn|Meredith|2002|p=203}} }} Kuwukira minda kukakhwaska comene ulimi. Mu 2000, mu Zimbabwe mukaŵa matani ghakujumpha 2 miliyoni gha chimanga. Kweni mu 2008, chiŵelengero ichi chikakhira kufika pa 450,000. Kuzakafika mu Okutobala 2003, wupu wa Human Rights Watch ukati hafu ya ŵanthu ŵa mu caru ici ŵakaŵa ŵambura cakurya cakukwana. Kuzakafika mu 2009, 75% ya ŵanthu ŵa ku Zimbabwe ŵakathembanga wovwiri wa vyakurya, uwo ukaŵa ukuru comene kuluska caru cilicose pa nyengo iyo. Charu cha Zimbabwe chikalutilira kunangika. Mu 2000, GDP ya charu ichi yikaŵa USD 7.4 biliyoni; mu 2005 yikaŵa kuti yachepa kufika pa USD 3.4 biliyoni. Kujikuzga kwa ndalama kukapangiska kuti paŵe suzgo la vyachuma. Kuzakafika mu 2007, caru ca Zimbabwe cikaŵa na unandi wa ndalama pa caru cose, pa 7600%. Kuzakafika mu 2008, unandi wa ndalama ukajumpha 100,000% ndipo chingwa chimoza chikaŵa chakudura chomene. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Zimbabwe ŵakathembanga ndalama izo ŵabali ŵawo ŵakuŵatumira. Vinthu vikaŵaso makora yayi ku ŵanthu ŵanyake. Mu 2005, ŵanthu pafupifupi 80% mu Zimbabwe ŵakaŵa ŵambura nchito, ndipo mu 2008 ŵana 20% pera ndiwo ŵakasambiranga. Pakuti maji ghakaleka kwenda makora kweniso maji ghakututuka ghakaleka kwenda makora, mu 2008 kukabuka nthenda ya kolera. Kweniso suzgo la HIV/AIDS likakura chomene mu charu ichi. Mu 2008, ŵanthu ŵa vyaka vyapakati pa 15 na 49 ŵakaŵa na nthenda ya HIV/AIDS. Mu 2007, wupu wakuwona vya umoyo pa caru cose (World Health Organization) ukati ŵanthu ŵa ku Zimbabwe ŵakukhala vyaka vyakujumpha 34. Vinthu vyakukondweska vya ŵanthu ŵakwendakwenda vikamara, ndipo ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakamba kupenja vinyama vyakofya. Mubali Mugabe wakasazgirako suzgo ili apo wakalangura kuti njovu 100 zikomeke kuti zipelekeke nyama pa chiphikiro cha mu Epulero 2007. Mu Okutobala 2000, ŵa MP ŵa MDC ŵakayezga kumususka Mugabe, kweni ŵakakanizgika na Speaker wa House, Emmerson Mnangagwa wakugomezgeka kwa Mugabe. ZANU-PF yikamba kujilongora kuti njumoza wa ŵanthu ŵa ku Zimbabwe awo ŵakutemwa charu chawo. Chipani ichi chikayowoya kuti chili ku chigaŵa cha mdauko, apo MDC yikimiranga gulu la ŵanthu awo ŵakukhumba kutimbanizga vinthu ivyo vikachitika mu nyengo ya ZANU-PF. Mubali Mugabe wakayowoya kuti ivyo vikachitika pambere chisankho cha mu 2002 chindachitike ni "chimurenga wacitatu" ndipo viwovwirenge kuti charu cha Zimbabwe chileke kukolerana na ŵanthu ŵa mu charu ichi. Pakulindilira mavoti, boma lasintha malango gha mavoti kuti Mugabe watonde. Dango liphya lakukhwaskana na kuvikilira ŵanthu likapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵaleke kususka pulezidenti. Mulara wa ŵasilikari, Jenerale Vitalis Zvinavashe, wakayowoya kuti ŵasilikari ŵazamumanya yayi mavoti ghanyake padera pa kupambana kwa Mugabe. Wupu wa EU ukafumiska ŵalinda ŵake mu caru ici, ndipo ukati mavoti agha ghakaŵa ghambura kuzomerezgeka. Pa mavoti agha, Mugabe wakapokera 56% ya mavoti ndipo Tsvangirai wakapokera 42%. Mu nyengo ya chisankho, Mugabe wakayowoya kuti boma la Grain Marketing Board ndilo likwenera kupeleka vyakurya ku ŵanthu awo ŵakukolerana na ZANU-PF. Mu 2005, Mugabe wakambiska ntchito ya Operation Murambatsvina ("Operation Drive Out the Rubbish"), mulimo wa kufumiska ŵanthu mu vikaya vyambura ŵanthu ŵanandi. Cifukwa cakuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakasankha MDC, ŵanandi ŵakaghanaghananga kuti boma ndilo likapangiska kuti nyumba iyi yipankhike.<ref name="telegraphtatters">{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2005/06/03/wzim03.xml|title=Mugabe's raids leave townships in tatters|date=6 March 2005|work=The Daily Telegraph|location=London|access-date=22 May 2010|first=Charles|last=Moore|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080408002545/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=%2Fnews%2F2005%2F06%2F03%2Fwzim03.xml|archive-date=8 April 2008}}</ref> [[File:Mugabecloseup2008.jpg|thumb|Mugabe in 2008]] Ivyo Mugabe wakacita vikasuskika comene. Wupu wa Zimbabwe Council of Churches ukamupa mulandu wakuti wakunjizga caru mu "nkhondo" kuti walutilire kuwusa. Vyaru vinandi vya kumwera kwa Africa vikakolerana nayo pa ungano uwo ukacitikira ku Harare mu Seputembala 2001. Mu 2002, Commonwealth yikachimbizga Zimbabwe kufuma mu gulu lake; Mugabe wakapa mulandu uwu pa kusankhana mitundu kwa ŵanthu ŵaŵitima, maghanoghano agho ghakayowoyeka na Pulezidenti wa South Africa Thabo Mbeki. Mbeki wakatemwanga ndondomeko ya "kuchita vinthu mwakufwasa" pakulimbana na Mugabe, ndipo wakayezga kukanizga African Union (AU) kumupa vyeruzgo. Ungano wa ku Africa na Europe uwo ukeneranga kucitika mu Lisbon mu Epulero 2003, ukasinthika kanandi waka cifukwa cakuti ŵalongozgi ŵa ku Africa ŵakakana kwiza apo Mugabe wakakanikanga; ndipo paumaliro ukacitika mu 2007 apo Mugabe wakaŵapo. Mu 2004, EU yikakanizga Mugabe kuluta ku caru cinyake na kukanizga katundu wake. Mu 2008, boma la United States likasazgirako vyeruzgo ivi. Boma la United States na United Kingdom likapeleka fundo ku UN Security Council yakuchemera boma la Zimbabwe kuti liŵike dango lakukanizga ŵanthu kugura vilwero pamoza na kukanizga Mugabe na maboma ghanyake kwenda. Kweni boma la Russia na China likakana fundo iyi. Mu 2009, wupu wa SADC ukakhumbanga kuti vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi viwuskeko vyeruzgo ivyo vikaŵa pa Mugabe na boma lake. ZANU-PF yikayowoya kuti vyeruzgo ivi vikaŵa vyakukolerana na vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi. Carren Pindiriri wa pa Yunivesite ya Zimbabwe, wakati vyeruzgo ivi vikakhwaska yayi ntchito na ukavu mu caru ici. Nduna yikuru ya Britain, Tony Blair, yikayowoya kuti yikakhumbanga kusintha boma ku Zimbabwe mu vyaka vya m'ma 2000 apo Mugabe wakeneranga kufumapo. Mu 2007, mulara wa ŵasilikari ŵa Britain, Charles Guthrie, wakavumbura kuti iyo na Blair ŵakadumbiskana vya kuwukira Zimbabwe. Ndipouli, Guthrie wakacenjezga kuti ŵasilikari ŵaleke kuchitapo kanthu. Mu 2013, Pulezidenti wa South Africa, Thabo Mbeki, wakati Blair nayo wakachichizga charu cha South Africa kuti chichitenge nawo "vinthu vinyake, nanga vingaŵa vya usilikari". Mbeki wakakana cifukwa wakawona kuti "Mugabe ndiyo wangawovwira pa suzgo ili". Ndipouli, muyowoyeri wa Blair wakati "wakaŵaphalirapo yayi ŵanthu kuti ŵanozgekere panji kunjilirapo pa nkhondo iyi".<ref name="guardian2013-zimbabwe">{{cite news|last1=Smith|first1=David|title=Tony Blair plotted military intervention in Zimbabwe, claims Thabo Mbeki|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/nov/27/tony-blair-military-intervention-zimbabwe-claim|work=The Guardian|date=27 November 2013|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171201044629/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/nov/27/tony-blair-military-intervention-zimbabwe-claim|archive-date=1 December 2017}}</ref> === Kugaŵana mazaza na chipani chakususkana na boma cha MDC: === {{Main|2008 Zimbabwean presidential election}} Mu Malichi 2008, pakaŵa maungano gha pa caru cose na maungano gha purezidenti. Mu chigamulo chakwamba, chipani cha ZANU-PF chikapokera vithuzithuzi 97, apo cha MDC chikapokera vithuzithuzi 99, ndipo cha MDC    Ncube chikapokera vithuzithuzi 9. Mu mwezi wa Mailo, wupu wa Zimbabwe Electoral Commission ukapharazga ivyo vikachitika pa mavoti gha pulezidenti, ndipo ukati Tsvangirai wakapokera 47.9%, ndipo Mugabe wakapokera 43.2%. Pakuti palije uyo wakapokera 50%, ŵakaŵikapo ndondomeko yakuti paŵe kaumaliro. Mubali Mugabe wakawona kuti kutondeka kwake nkhukhozga soni munthu. Iyo wakawona kuti uwu ukaŵa cipambano kwa ŵanthu ŵa ku Western, comenecomene ŵa ku Britain, awo ŵakamususkanga. ZANU-PF yikati chipani cha MDC chikananga mavoti.{{sfn|Norman|2008|p=144}}. [[File:Mugabe - Flickr - Al Jazeera English.jpg|thumb|Mugabe in 2011]] Pamanyuma pa mavoti, boma la Mugabe likagwiliskira nchito "ŵankhondo awo ŵakaŵapo kale" pa nkhondo yakususkana na awo ŵakakolerana na Tsvangirai. Pakati pa Malichi na Juni 2008, ŵalondezgi ŵa MDC ŵakukwana 153 ŵakakomeka. Pakaŵa malipoti gha ŵanakazi awo ŵakakolerananga na MDC awo ŵakakoleleranga na ŵanthu awo ŵakakolerananga na Mugabe. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Zimbabwe ŵakachimbira kwawo cifukwa ca vivulupi. Ivi vikapangiska kuti boma la Mugabe lidumulike pa caru cose. Secretary-General wa UN Ban Ki-Moon wakadandawura cifukwa ca nkhaza izo zikacitika, ndipo wupu wa UN Security Council nawo ukazomera kuti ni "vyambura machitiko" kuti paŵe mavoti ghakufwatuka na ghakwenelera. Pakuzgora nkhaza izi, Tsvangirai wakafumamo mu chigaŵa chaciŵiri. Mu chigaŵa chaciŵiri, Mugabe wakapokera mavoti 85.5% ndipo nyengo yeneyiyo wakambaso kuwusa. Wupu wa SADC ndiwo ukalongozganga ndondomeko ya kugaŵikana kwa mazaza. Kuyana na phangano ili, Mugabe wakalutilira kuŵa pulezidenti apo Tsvangirai wakaŵa nduna yikuru ndipo Arthur Mutambara wa MDC wakaŵa wachiŵiri wa nduna yikuru. Boma likapambana pakati pa ŵa MDC na ZANU-PF. Nangauli vikaŵa nthena, ZANU-PF yikakhumba yayi kugaŵana mazaza, ndipo yikakhumbanga yayi kuti vinthu visinthe. Mu phangano la kugaŵikana mazaza, ŵakasintha vinthu vinyake. Kukwambilira kwa caka ca 2009, boma la Mugabe likati kuti kuti lilimbane na suzgo la kusinthasintha kwa ndalama, lizomerezge kuti madola gha ku America ndigho ghaŵe ndalama zakwendeskeka na boma. Ivi vikawovwira kuti mitengo yiŵe yakukhora. ZANU-PF yikakanizga vinandi ivyo ŵakakhumbanga kuti vichitikenge ndipo ŵakalemba dango liphya mu Malichi 2013.{{sfn|Tendi|2013|p=965}} === Vyaka vyapamasinda: 2013-2017 === [[File:Grace Mugabe with Robert Mugabe 2013-08-04 11-53.jpeg|thumb|Mugabe and his wife in 2013]] Pakulongosora kuti "wazamurwa nga ni nyama yakuŵinya" kuti waŵaso na mazaza, Mugabe wakaluta ku mavoti gha 2013 na chigomezgo kuti ghaŵenge ghaumaliro. Wakagomezganga kuti para watonda pa vipharazgo, mbwenu waŵenge wakugomezgeka, ndipo wazamutonda ŵalwani ŵake ŵa ku Western. Ŵalwani ŵakagomezganga kuti maungano agha ndigho ghangaŵawovwira kufumiska Mugabe. Ŵakamulongoranga nga ni munthu mulara uyo ŵasilikari ŵakumuphalira chakuchita. Kweni munthu munyake wakati uwu mbutesi.{{sfn|Tendi|2013|p=967}} Mwakupambana na mu 2008, pakaŵavya ŵanthu ŵakususkana na Mugabe mu ZANU-PF. Ŵalongozgi ŵa chipani ichi ŵakaghanaghana kuti ŵaleke kuchitako vivulupi ivyo vikacitika pa nyengo ya mavoti gha mu 2008 mwakuti ŵaleke kunanga cipulikano cawo, comenecomene mu maso gha SADC. Mubali Mugabe wakaciska ŵanthu kuti ŵaleke kucita nkhaza, ndipo wakacitako viphikiro vicoko comene kuluska ivyo vikacitikanga kale, cifukwa ca ucekuru wake kweniso cifukwa cakuti wakakhumbanga kuti viphikiro ivi viŵe vikuru comene. Gulu la ZANU-PF likapeleka vyawanangwa ku ŵanthu ŵanandi, kusazgapo vyakurya na vyakuvwara. ZANU-PF yikapokera 61% ya mavoti gha pulezidenti na vithuzithuzi vyakujumpha viŵiri pa vithuzithuzi vitatu mu nyumba ya malango. Pa mavoti agha pakaŵavya ŵanthu awo ŵakawonanga kuti ni ŵanangwa kweniso ŵarunji. Pa nyengo ya kampeni iyi, ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakakolerana na MDC ŵakakhala waka chete chifukwa cha kopa kuti ŵabendezgekenge. Chipani cha MDC chikakhwaskika chomene na nyengo iyo chikaŵa mu boma, chifukwa ŵanthu ŵakatenge ntchiheni nga ni ZANU-PF. ZANU-PF yikagwiliskirangaso nchito fundo za mtundu wa ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa, caru, na kufwatuka, apo MDC kanandi yikayananga na ŵalimi ŵatuŵa, vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi, na vinthu vya ku mpoto nga ni wanangwa wa ŵanthu ŵa LGBT.{{sfn|Gallagher|2015|pp=43–44}}[[File:Robert Mugabe and Shinzo Abe cropped Robert Mugabe and Shinzo Abe 20160328 2.jpg|left|thumb|upright|Mugabe wakukumana na nduna yikuru ya Japan [[Shinzo Abe]] mu 2016]] Mu February 2014, Mugabe wakachita opareshoni ya katarakiti ku Singapore; pa kuwerako wakakondwelera zuŵa lake lakubabikira la makumi ghankhondi na ghatatu ku chiŵanja cha mpira cha Marondera. Mu Disembala 2014, Mugabe wakachimbizga wachiŵiri kwa pulezidenti wake, Joice Mujuru, kumususka kuti wakakhumbanga kumuponya pasi. Mu Janyuwale 2015, Mugabe wakasankhika kuŵa Chairperson wa African Union (AU). Mu Novembala 2015, wakapharazga khumbo lake lakuti wazakasankhikeso kuŵa purezidenti wa Zimbabwe mu 2018, apo wakaŵa na vyaka 94, ndipo wakazomerezgeka kuŵa mulongozgi wa ZANU-PF. Mu Febuluwale 2016, Mugabe wakayowoya kuti walije pulani ya kufumapo ndipo waŵenge pa udindo "mpaka Ciuta wayowoye kuti 'wize.'" Mu Febuluwale 2017, pamanyuma pa zuŵa lake lakubabikira la 93, Mugabe wakayowoya kuti wafumengepo yayi panji kusora munthu wakunjira mu malo ghake, nangauli wakayowoya kuti wazomerezgenge chipani chake kusora munthu wakunjira mu malo ghake usange chawona kuti nchakwenelera. Mu Meyi 2017, Mugabe wakaluta ku Cancún, Mexico, kwa sabata yimoza kuti wakaŵepo pa ungano wa mazuŵa ghatatu wakukhwaskana na kuchepeska suzgo la masoka gha chilengiwa. Wakacita maulendo ghatatu gha ku Singapore mu 2017, ndipo Grace Mugabe wakamuchema kuti wasankhe munthu wakumuteŵetera. Mu Okutobala 2017, wupu wakuwona vya umoyo pa charu chose (WHO) ukasora Mugabe kuŵa nthumi ya chilato chiwemi; ichi chikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Zimbabwe ŵakususkana na maboma gha vyaru vyakupambanapambana chifukwa cha suzgo la umoyo ku Zimbabwe. Pakuzgora, WHO yikawuskapo mulimo wa Mugabe zuŵa lakulondezgapo. Pakuzgora, nduna ya vyaru vyakuwaro Walter Mzembi yikati ndondomeko ya United Nations yikwenera kusintha.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.iol.co.za/news/special-features/zimbabwe/harare-fumes-after-who-rescinds-mugabe-goodwill-appointment-11667175|title=Harare fumes after WHO rescinds Mugabe goodwill appointment {{!}} IOL News|access-date=23 October 2017|language=en|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171023173939/https://www.iol.co.za/news/special-features/zimbabwe/harare-fumes-after-who-rescinds-mugabe-goodwill-appointment-11667175|archive-date=23 October 2017}}</ref> === Kuwukira boma na kufumapo: 2017 === {{Main|2017 Zimbabwean coup d'état}} Pa Novembala 6, 2017, Mugabe wakachimbizga wachiŵiri kwa pulezidenti wake, Emmerson Mnangagwa. Ici cikapangiska ŵanthu kughanaghana kuti Grace ndiyo wazamunjira mu malo ghake. Grace wakatemwekanga yayi na gulu lakale la ZANU-PF. Pa 15 Novembala 2017, Gulu la Nkhondo la Zimbabwe likaŵika Mugabe mu jele ku nyumba yake ya Blue Roof nga ntchigaŵa cha ivyo likati ni vyakuchita pa "vigeŵenga" mu gulu la Mugabe.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2017/11/14/africa/zimbabwe-military-chief-treasonable-conduct/index.html|title=Zimbabwe in turmoil after apparent coup|author1=David McKenzie |author2=Brent Swails |author3=Angela Dewan|publisher=CNN|access-date=15 November 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171114223043/http://edition.cnn.com/2017/11/14/africa/zimbabwe-military-chief-treasonable-conduct/index.html|archive-date=14 November 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Zimbabwe's Robert Mugabe confined to home as army takes control |newspaper=The Guardian |date=15 November 2017 |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/live/2017/nov/15/zimbabwe-army-control-harare-coup-robert-mugabe-live |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171115032508/https://www.theguardian.com/world/live/2017/nov/15/zimbabwe-army-control-harare-coup-robert-mugabe-live |archive-date=15 November 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Stunned Zimbabweans face uncertain future without Mugabe |date=16 November 2017 |newspaper=SBS News |url=http://www.sbs.com.au/news/article/2017/11/16/stunned-zimbabweans-face-uncertain-future-without-mugabe |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171119134528/http://www.sbs.com.au/news/article/2017/11/16/stunned-zimbabweans-face-uncertain-future-without-mugabe |archive-date=19 November 2017 }}</ref> Pa Novembala 19, wakachimbizgika pakuŵa mulongozgi wa ZANU-PF, ndipo Mnangagwa wakasankhika mu malo ghake. Kweniso chipani ichi chikaphalira Mugabe kuti walekerethu ntchito yake pa zuŵa lakulondezgapo, panji ŵamuphalire kuti walekerethu. Mu nkhani iyo wakayowoya pa wayilesi usiku wenewura, Mugabe wakakana kuti walekenge ntchito. Pakuzgora, ma MP gha ZANU-PF ghakatumizga chikalata cha impeachment pa 21 November 2017, icho chikawovwirika na MDCT. Ndondomeko iyi yikati para munthu wakukhumba kufumiska pulezidenti mu maofesi, wakwenera kuzomerezgeka na ŵanthu ŵaŵiri pa ŵatatu ŵa mu Nyumba ya Malango na ya Senate. Kweni chifukwa chakuti magulu ghose ghaŵiri ghakakolerana na fundo iyi ndipo ghakaŵa na vithuzithuzi viŵiri pera mu nyumba zose za boma (viŵiri pera mu nyumba zakuwaro na vinayi pera mu nyumba zakuwaro), vikawonekanga kuti Mugabe wazamususkika. Kuyana na dango la boma, nyumba zose ziŵiri zikawungana pamoza kuti zikadumbiskane fundo iyi. Pakati pajumpha maora ghacoko waka kufuma apo nkhani yikambira, Mulara wa Nyumba ya Malango wakaŵazga kalata yakufuma kwa Mugabe, iyo yikati wafumengepo. Muwoli wa Mugabe na mfumu wake ŵakakolerana pambere wandafumeko, kuti iyo na ŵabali ŵake ŵaleke kweruzgika, malonda ghake ghaleke kunangika, ndipo wapokere ndalama zakukwana 10 miliyoni.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Zimbabwe: Robert Mugabe to get $10m payoff and immunity for his family|last=Burke|first=Jason|date=26 November 2017 |newspaper=[[The Guardian]] |language=en-GB |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/nov/25/robert-mugabe-payoff-family-immunity-zimbabwe-zanu-pf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171128003810/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/nov/25/robert-mugabe-payoff-family-immunity-zimbabwe-zanu-pf |archive-date=28 November 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Mugabe, Mphoko due for big payout |date=11 December 2017 |newspaper=Daily News |url=https://www.dailynews.co.zw/articles/2017/12/11/mugabe-mphoko-due-for-big-payout |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171213181921/https://www.dailynews.co.zw/articles/2017/12/11/mugabe-mphoko-due-for-big-payout |archive-date=13 December 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref>Mu Julayi 2018, khoti likuru ku Zimbabwe likati Mugabe wakaleka ntchito yake mwakujipeleka, nangauli pulezidenti wakale wakayowoyapo vinandi.<ref name="Voluntary">{{Cite news|date=17 July 2018 |title=Zimbabwe Court Says Mugabe Stepped Down Freely, Voluntarily |publisher=Voice of America |url=https://www.voazimbabwe.com/a/zimbabwe-mugabe-resigned-voluntarily-freely/4486081.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180718111705/https://www.voazimbabwe.com/a/zimbabwe-mugabe-resigned-voluntarily-freely/4486081.html |archive-date=18 July 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref> == Nyengo iyo wakaŵa pulezidenti == Kuumaliro kwa Disembala 2017, kuyana na kalata ya boma, Mugabe wakapika udindo wa udumura na ndalama za boma, nyumba ya vipinda vinkhondi, ŵantchito ŵakukwana 23, na magalimoto. Kweniso wakazomerezgeka kusunga malonda na usambazi unyake uwo wakasanga apo wakaŵa pa mazaza, ndipo wakapokera ndalama zakukwana madola pafupifupi 10 miliyoni. Pa 15 March 2018, mu nkhani yake yakwamba kufuma apo wakafumiskikira pa udindo, Mugabe wakadindika kuti wakawuskika mu "puts d'état" iyo yikwenera kulekeka. Wakayowoya kuti wazamugwira nchito na Mnangagwa yayi ndipo wakati muwuso wa Mnangagwa "nkhususkana na dango". Mu mulandu uwo ukaŵikika na magulu ghaŵiri gha ndyali, Liberal Democrats na Revolutionary Freedom Fighters, na ghanyake, khoti likasanga kuti kufumako kukaŵa kwalamulo, ndipo Mnangagwa, pakuŵa wachiŵiri wa pulezidenti, wakatora udindo wa pulezidenti. Ŵapharazgi ŵa boma ŵakalemba kuti Mugabe wakawovwira National Political Front, iyo yikapangika na Ambrose Mutinhiri, wandale wakuzirwa wa ZANU-PF uyo wakafumapo pakususkana na kuwuskika kwa Mugabe. Gulu la NPF likalemba chithuzi cha Mutinhiri wakujambura na Mugabe ndipo likapharazga kuti pulezidenti wakale wakawonga ivyo wakacita. Pa 29 July 2018 pa chisankho cha president, chaka chakwamba mu vyaka 38, apo wakaleka kunjilirapo, Mugabe wakachita ungano wa ŵapharazgi, apo wakayowoya kuti wazamusankhira yayi pulezidenti Mnangagwa na ZANU-PF, chipani icho wakambiska. M'malo mwake, wakakhumbanga kuvota Nelson Chamisa, uyo wakaŵa mulwani wake wa nyengo yitali, MDC.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-44998488 |title=Zimbabwe election: Mugabe turns on Mnangagwa in surprise pre-poll speech |work=BBC News |access-date=29 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180729123307/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-44998488 |archive-date=29 July 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/jul/29/robert-mugabe-zanu-pf-zimbabwe-election|title=Robert Mugabe: I won't vote for Zanu-PF in Zimbabwe election|newspaper=The Guardian|access-date=29 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180729143932/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/jul/29/robert-mugabe-zanu-pf-zimbabwe-election|archive-date=29 July 2018|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://news.sky.com/story/zimbabwes-robert-mugabe-refuses-to-back-successor-mnangagwa-in-election-11453221 |title=Zimbabwe's Robert Mugabe refuses to back successor Mnangagwa in election |publisher=Sky News |access-date=29 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180729163948/https://news.sky.com/story/zimbabwes-robert-mugabe-refuses-to-back-successor-mnangagwa-in-election-11453221 |archive-date=29 July 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2018/07/zimbabwe-mugabe-won-vote-successor-mnangagwa-180729100342113.html |title=Zimbabwe's Mugabe says he won't vote for successor Mnangagwa |last=Mohamed |first=Hamza |date=29 July 2018 |publisher=Al Jazeera |access-date=29 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180729230401/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2018/07/zimbabwe-mugabe-won-vote-successor-mnangagwa-180729100342113.html |archive-date=29 July 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref> === Ulwari, kufwa na mwambo wa nyifwa: 2019 === Mu Novembala 2018, Emmerson Mnangagwa wakayowoya kuti Mugabe wakatondekanga kwenda, ndipo wakalerekanga ku Singapore kwa myezi yiŵiri. Wakaloŵeskeka mu chipatala mu Epulero 2019, ndipo wakaŵa waumaliro pa maulendo ghanandi agho wakaluta ku charu ichi kuti wakapike wovwiri wa munkhwala, nga umo wakacitira mu nyengo yaumaliro ya umulaŵiliri wake ndiposo pamanyuma pa kufumapo kwake.<ref>{{cite web| url= https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-49604152 | title= Robert Mugabe, Zimbabwe's strongman ex-president, dies aged 95 | publisher = BBC | access-date = 8 September 2019 | date = 6 September 2019 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last1=Burke |first1=Jason |last2=Smith |first2=David |date=6 September 2019 |title=Robert Mugabe: former Zimbabwean president dies aged 95 |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/sep/06/robert-mugabe-former-zimbabwean-president-dies-aged-95 |work=The Guardian |access-date=6 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190906054505/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/sep/06/robert-mugabe-former-zimbabwean-president-dies-aged-95 |archive-date=6 September 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=6 September 2019 |title=Zimbabwe's former president Robert Mugabe dies in Singapore |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-zimbabwe-mugabe/zimbabwes-former-president-robert-mugabe-dies-in-singapore-idUSKCN1VR0FZ |work=Reuters |access-date=6 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190906053440/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-zimbabwe-mugabe/zimbabwes-former-president-robert-mugabe-dies-in-singapore-idUSKCN1VR0FZ |archive-date=6 September 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref> Wakafwira ku chipatala cha Gleneagles pa 6 September 2019 pa 10h40 m'mawa, wali na vyaka 95 (Singapore Standard Time), kuyana na mulongozgi wa Zimbabwe. Nangauli ico cikapangiska kuti wafwe cikavumbukwa yayi, kweni Mnangagwa, uyo wakamusankhira mu malo ghake, wakaphalira ŵanthu awo ŵakakolerana na ZANU-PF mu msumba wa New York kuti Mugabe wakaŵa na kansa ndipo munkhwala wake wa chemotherapy ukaleka kugwira nchito.<ref>{{cite web |title=Mnangagwa Reveals Mugabe was Being Treated for Cancer Before his Death |url=https://ewn.co.za/2019/09/23/mnangagwa-reveals-mugabe-was-being-treated-for-cancer-before-his-death |website=Eyewitness News |access-date=23 September 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Former President Mugabe cause of death revealed |url=https://www.herald.co.zw/former-president-mugabe-cause-of-death-revealed/ |website=The Herald |access-date=23 September 2019}}</ref> Pa 11 September 2019, thupi lake likatolekera ku chiŵanja cha ndege cha Harare ku Zimbabwe, uko ŵanthu 1,000 ŵakawungana kulindilira thupi na kutegherezga nkhani ya Mnangagwa. Thupi la Mugabe likatolekera ku nyumba ya mbumba yake ku Borrowdale kuti ŵakamupeleke kwayekha ku ŵabwezi na mbumba yake, kweni Mnangagwa yayi. Wupu wa Associated Press ukati pakaŵavya ŵanthu awo ŵakawungana pa nthowa, kweni ŵanthu 500 ŵakawungana ku malo agho wakababikira. Pa 13 Seputembala 2019, vikapharazgika kuti banja la Mugabe likapokelera pempho la boma la Mnangagwa lakuti Mugabe wasungike pa Heroes Acre Cemetery na kuti wasungike kwa mazuŵa 30. Mbumba ya Mugabe pakudanga yikakana ndondomeko ya boma ya kusungika kwake ndipo yikakhumbanga kuti wasungike ku Zvimba pa 16 panji 17 Seputembala, zuŵa limoza pamanyuma pa ivyo boma likakhumbanga.<ref name="crowdsoba">{{cite news|url=https://www.apnews.com/ed9ddbffc9e640a99e1dc2821f374838|title=Few turn out as Mugabe is returned to a Zimbabwe in crisis|first1=Andrew|last1=Meldrum|first2=Farai|last2=Mutsaka|work=Associated Press|date=11 September 2019|access-date=11 September 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/sep/12/robert-mugabe-family-reject-government-burial-plans-zimbabwe|title=Robert Mugabe's family rejects government burial plans|first1=Nyasha|last1=Chingono|first2=Jason|last2=Burke|work=The Guardian|date=12 September 2019|access-date=13 September 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.africanews.com/2019/09/13/govt-officials-family-fly-to-singapore-to-bring-mugabe-s-body-to-zimbabwe/|title=Family accepts to bury Mugabe at Zimbabwe Heroes' Acre|publisher=[[Africanews]]|date=13 September 2019|access-date=13 September 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/09/robert-mugabe-buried-week-village-family-190912083607386.html|title=Robert Mugabe to be buried next week in his village: Family|work=[[Al Jazeera]]|date=12 September 2019|access-date=13 September 2019}}</ref> Pa 14 Seputembala 2019, nyifwa ya Mugabe, iyo yikaŵa yakuzomerezgeka ku ŵanthu wose, yikachitikira ku National Sports Stadium, ndipo chithuzithuzi cha mu mlengalenga chikulongora kuti sitediyamu ya ŵanthu 60,000 yikazura. Pa nyifwa iyi pakaŵapo ŵalongozgi na ŵalongozgi ŵa kale ŵa vyaru vyakupambanapambana vya mu Africa, pakati pawo pakaŵa Mnangagwa, Kenneth Kaunda wa ku Zambia, Olusegun Obasanjo wa ku Nigeria, Sam Nujoma, Hifikepunye Pohamba na Hage Geingob wa ku Namibia, Joseph Kabila wa ku DR Congo, Uhuru Kenyatta wa ku Kenya na Cyril Ramaphosa wa ku South Africa. Pa 26 Seputembala 2019, Nick Mangwana wakati Mugabe wazamusungika mu tawuni yake ya Kutama "kuchindika makhumbiro gha mbumba za vinkhara ivyo vyafwa". Ŵakamusunga pa 28 Seputembala mu luŵaza lwa nyumba yake.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://edition.cnn.com/2019/09/28/africa/zimbabwe-robert-mugabe-buried-intl/index.html?no-st=1569797972|title=Zimbabwe's former President Robert Mugabe buried in his hometown|date=28 September 2019|last1=Chingono|first1=Mark|last2=Adebayo|first2=Bukola|access-date=30 September 2019|work=[[CNN]]}}</ref> == Maghanoghano == {{Quote box|width=25em|align=right|quote=Mugabeism as a form of populist reason is a multifaceted phenomenon requiring a multi-pronged approach to decipher its various meanings. At one level it represents pan-African memory and patriotism and at another level it manifests itself as a form of radical left-nationalism dedicated to resolving intractable national and agrarian questions. Yet, to others, it is nothing but a symbol of crisis, chaos and tyranny emanating from the exhaustion of nationalism.| salign=right |source=— Sabelo J. Ndlovu-Gatsheni{{sfn|Ndlovu-Gatsheni|2009|p=1154}} }} Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1960, Mugabe wakachitanga vinthu mwakukolerana na ŵanthu ŵa mu Africa. Sabelo J. Ndlovu-Gatsheni wakalongosora kuti "Mugabeism" ni gulu la ŵanthu awo "ŵali na maghanoghano ghapusu, ghawakawaka, ghambura kupulikikwa makora, kweniso ŵali na magulu ghanandi". Wakayowoyaso kuti ukaŵa mtundu wa "kutemwa caru", uwo nyengo zose ukasuskanga ufumu na ufumu. Wakayowoyaso kuti uwu ukaŵa mtundu unyake wa kusankhana mitundu, uwo ukaŵa na "chisopa cha kusankhana mitundu". Wakayowoya kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakagomezganga fundo za Marx, nga ni Stalinism na Maoism, kweniso fundo za African nationalist nga ni Nkrumaism, Ujamaa, Garveyism, Négritude, Pan-Africanism, na African neo-traditionalism. Mugabeism wakakhumbanga kumazga suzgo la kusankhana mitundu kwa ŵanthu ŵatuŵa mwa kunjilirapo mu projekiti ya kusankhana mitundu iyo yikakhumbanga kukanizga ŵanthu ŵatuŵa ŵa ku Zimbabwe kuŵa ŵenekaya mwa kuŵachema kuti "amabhunu/Boers", ntheura ŵakaŵacimbizga mu caru cawo.{{sfn|Ndlovu-Gatsheni|2009|p=1151}} ZANU-PF yikati yikakhwaskika na Marxism-Leninism; Onslow na Redding ŵakayowoya kuti mwakupambana na umo Marxists ŵakagomezgeleranga kuti proletariat wa mu matawuni ndiyo ni nkhongono yikuru ya kusintha kwa umoyo wa ŵanthu, chipani cha Mugabe chikapeleka udindo uwu ku ŵanthu ŵa ku mizi. Iwo ŵakati chifukwa cha maghanoghano agha, Mugabe na ZANU-PF ŵakamba kutinkha ŵanthu ŵa mu misumba. Claire Palley, uyo wakaŵa wasayansi wa ku England, wakakumana na Mugabe mu 1962, ndipo pamasinda wakati "wakawoneka kuti ni munthu wa nkharo ya Marx yayi kweni wakaŵa wa fuko la ku Africa". Carington wakalemba kuti nangauli Mugabe wakagwiliskiranga ntchito mazgu gha Marxist pa nyengo ya kudumbiskana na ŵa Lancaster House, "nadi, wakacitanga yayi ivyo wakapharazganga, asi nthena? Wati waŵa na mazaza, wakazgoka munthu wa ndalama". Mugabe wakayowoya kuti "chisopa chautesi chikwenera kuŵa cha Chikhristu kuluska cha ŵantchito". Nkhwantha ya ku Zimbabwe, George Shire, yikati fundo za Mugabe zikaŵa za "democracy". Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1980, Mugabe wakalongora kuti wakukhumba kusintha charu cha Zimbabwe kufuma ku chipani chimoza kuya ku chipani chimoza. Mu 1984 wakayowoya kuti "mboma ya chipani cimoza yikukolerana comene na mitheto ya ku Africa. Ici cikovwira kuti ŵanthu ŵaŵe ŵakukolerana. Likovwira kuti maghanoghano ghose gha ŵanthu ghaŵe ghamoza". Msayansi wa vya ndyali, Sue Onslow na Sean Redding, ŵakayowoya kuti vinthu vikaŵa makora yayi mu Zimbabwe, kweni "mbanthu awo ŵakaŵanga na maghanoghano ghakupambana". Mubali Mugabe wakachindikanga comene Nicolae Ceaușescu wa ku Romania, ndipo wakamulumba pambere wandathereskeke mu Disembala 1989. Ndlovu-Gatsheni wakati kwamba m'ma 1990, mazgu gha Mugabe ghakamba kulongozgeka na fundo zitatu zikuruzikuru: kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Britain ŵakakhumbanga kuti charu cha Zimbabwe chiweleremo mu mawoko gha ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yinyake. Mu nkhani zake, wakazunuranga chomene Nkhondo ya ku Rhodesia. Abiodun Alao, nkhwantha ya vya ku Africa, wakati Mugabe wakaŵikapo mtima kuti "wagwiliskirenge nchito vinthu ivyo vikacitika kumanyuma kuti wawovwire kuti caru ciŵe pa mtende". David Blair wakati "malemba agho Mugabe wakalemba ghakaŵa gha Marxism waka, ghakalembeka mu Chingelezi cha sukulu ya umishonale". Blair wakati ivyo Mugabe wakalemba vikayowoyanga vya "ndondomeko ya vyachuma iyo yikukolerana na vyaru ivyo vikususkana na boma", ndipo wakazomerezganga "maghanoghano agho ŵalongozgi wose ŵa ku Africa ŵakaŵa nagho". Mubali Mugabe wakati ŵati ŵathereska maboma gha ku Europe, vyaru vya ku Western vikalutilira kusuzga vyaru vya ku Africa cifukwa ŵakakhumbanga kuti viŵe na vinthu vinandi vya mu caru ici.{{sfn|Holland|2008|p=239}} == Umoyo wa munthu == [[File:Президент России Владимир Путин с Президентом Зимбабве Робертом Мугабе 3.jpg|thumb|Mugabe meeting Russian president [[Vladimir Putin]] in 2015]] Mubali Mugabe wakaŵa na msinkhu wa mamita 1.70 ndipo wakawonanga vinthu ivyo David Blair, uyo wakalemba mbiri ya umoyo wake, wakati ni "vyakuchita vyakukondweska". Mugabe wakacitanga mwakupwelelera comene na kawonekero kake, ndipo kanandi wakavwaranga malaya ghatatu, ndipo wakakhumbanga kuti ŵanthu ŵa mu nduna yake ŵavwarenge vyakuvwara vyakuyana waka. Apo Mugabe wakamba kuwusa mu 1980, wakavwara magalasi ghakurughakuru ndipo wakamanyikwanga na mwembe wake. Mwakupambana na ŵalongozgi ŵanyake ŵa mu Africa, Mugabe wakakhumbanga yayi kuti ubonda wake uŵe nthano. Wakaleka kukhweŵa hona na kumwa moŵa, ndipo kuyana na awo ŵakamulembera umoyo wake, David Smith na Colin Simpson, "wakatemwanga comene ŵana". Apo wakaŵa muchoko, wakachita opareshoni pa viŵaro vyake vyakubisika ivyo vikapangiska ŵanthu kuyowoya kuti wakaŵa na chiŵaro chimoza pera panji hafu ya mwendo wake. Ŵanthu ŵakususka ŵakamuyowoyeranga viheni.{{sfn|Holland|2008|p=174}} Mubali Mugabe wakayowoyanga makora Cingelezi na mazgu gha Cingelezi para wakuyowoya mazgu ghanyake. Kweniso wakatemwanga comene maseŵero gha Cingelezi gha cricket, ndipo wakati "cricket yikovwira ŵanthu kuti ŵaŵe ŵanthu ŵawemi". David Blair wakayowoya kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Britain ŵakamba kuŵa na mikhaliro iyi, ndipo ichi chikulongora kuti Mugabe wakachindikanga Britain ndipo panyake wakachindikanga. [[Heidi Holland]] wakayowoya kuti mikhaliro iyi yikamba kuwoneka mu umoyo wa mwana, apo Mugabe, uyo wakaŵa kuti wakumanya kale kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Rhodesia ŵakususkana na ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yinyake, "wakawona kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku England ndiwo ŵangaŵawovwira kuti ŵaleke kujitinkha". Blessing-Miles Tendi, uyo ni nkhwantha ya vya sayansi, wakati Mugabe "wakaŵa munthu wamahara chomene, ndipo vikamusuzga kumumanya makora". David Blair nayo wakayowoya kuti wakaŵa munthu "wakuzirwa comene". Smith na Simpson ŵakayowoya kuti mulongozgi wa Zimbabwe wakaŵa "mwanalume muwemi comene, wakutemwa kukhala yekha, wakulimbikira nchito, wakutemwa kuŵazga comene, ndipo wakacitanga vyose ivyo wangafiska. Blair wakayowoya kuti "kujikora kwa Mugabe, umanyi wake, na kukhumba kugwira nchito zinonono vikaŵa vyakuzizwiska", ndipo wakasazgirapo kuti "makhaliro ghake ghakuru" ghakaŵa "kusuzga na kuzizipizga". Blair wakayowoya kuti Mugabe wakaŵa na mikhaliro yakuyana na ya Ian Smith, ndipo wose ŵakaŵa "ŵakujikuzga, ŵakujiyuyura, ŵakugaluka, ŵankhongono, kweniso ŵakughanaghana viheni".{{sfn|Blair|2002|p=244}} {{Quote box|width=25em|align=left|quote=Pakuwona umo wakasambilira makora yayi apo wakaŵa mwana, Mugabe wakawonanga kuti para ŵanthu ŵakumuyowoyera viheni wakuŵa na suzgo. Munthu uyu wakulekelera yayi mphindano. Cifukwa cakuti wakujiwona mwambura kwenelera, wakujiwona kuti ngwapacanya kuluska ŵanji. Ŵanthu ŵali nayo panji ŵali kumususka. Kuŵa na maghanoghano ghakupambana kukupangiska kuti Mugabe wasuzgike, ndipo wangaghanaghana kuti para wazomera vinthu vinyake, wakujiyuyura.| salign=left |source=— Heidi Holland{{sfn|Holland|2008|p=52}} }} Meredith wakalongosora kuti Mugabe wakaŵa na "nthowa yakuyowoya mwakuzika,... vinjeru vikuru, na... kuyowoya makora", vyose ivi vikavumburanga kuti wakaŵa na "mtima wakukhora". Ndlovu-Gatsheni wakamuchema kuti "mumoza wa ŵalongozgi ŵa ku Africa awo ŵali na nkhongono". Jonathan Moyo, uyo wakateŵeteranga nyengo yicoko waka nga ni nduna ya vya makani ya Mugabe pambere wandapindane nayo, wakati pulezidenti "wakumanya kujilongosora makora, ndipo uwu ndiwo nkhongono zake zikuru". Tendi wakayowoya kuti Mugabe wakaŵa wavinjeru, kweni kanandi wakabisanga fundo iyi "panyuma pa kawonekero kake kawemi na kakutowa ndiposo kutemwa maluso na maluso". Heidi Holland wakayowoya kuti cifukwa ca umo wakakulira, Mugabe wakaŵa na "mtima wambura kujikora". Mwanakazi uyu wakati, Mugabe wakaŵa na "mtima wambura kukhwima", kweniso wakatinkhanga ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yinyake kweniso ŵanthu ŵakufuma ku vyaru vinyake. Kuyana na Meredith, Mugabe wakajiwonanga kuti ni "munthu wakuyowoya makora, wakughanaghana makora, ndiposo wakukolerana na ŵanji" wakati watonda pa vyaru vinyake mu 1980. Blair wakati mu nyengo iyi, Mugabe wakalongora "mtima wa kuwonga ndiposo cikanga" nangauli wakaŵa na "vifukwa vyakukhora vyakukhuŵara na kutinkhira" ŵanthu ŵa mu boma lakale. Michael Pallister, uyo wakaŵa mulara wa ofesi ya Britain yakuwona vya vyaru vinyake, wakati wawona umo wakacitira na Mugabe mu 1979, wakati: "Munthu uyu wakaŵa wankhaza comene, nyengo zinyake wakacitanga nkhaza, kweniso wakaŵa wankhaza". Peter Longworth, uyo ni muyimiliri wa boma la Britain, wakayowoya kuti paŵekha, Mugabe wakaŵa "wakutemweka comene, kweniso wakuyowoya makora. Ntchakusuzga comene kupambaniska pakati pa munthu uyo mukukumana nayo na uyo wakuyowoya viheni pa TV". Norman wakati: "Nyengo zose nkhawona kuti wakaŵa munthu muwemi kweniso wakuchindikika. Kweniso wakaŵa na nkharo yiwemi iyo nyengo zinyake nkhawonanga makora". Colin Legum, mulembi wa nyuzipepara ya The Observer, wakati Mugabe wakaŵa na "munthu wakusuzgika maghanoghano", nangauli wakasuzgikanga yayi, kweni wakachitanga vinthu mwakutalulira para wali pasi pa suzgo. Andrew Norman, uyo wakalemba mbiri ya umoyo wa Mugabe, wakayowoya kuti wakwenera kuti wakasuzgikanga na suzgo la kutinkhana. Ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakulemba mbiri ya Mugabe ŵakayowoya kuti wakajighanaghaniranga waka kuti waŵe na mazaza. Kuyana na Meredith, "mphamvu ya Mugabe yikaŵa nthowa yakufiskira cilato yayi, kweni cilato ico". Mwakupambana, Onslow na Redding ŵakayowoya kuti khumbo la Mugabe lakuti waŵe na mazaza likafuma ku "vifukwa vya mu maghanoghano na vya iyomwene" ndiposo kugomezga kuti ŵanthu awo ŵakumususkana nayo ŵalije mazaza. Denis Norman, wandale wakuyera uyo wakateŵeterapo mu nduna ya Mugabe kwa virimika vinandi, wakati "Mugabe ni munthu wakuwoneka makora yayi uyo wakwendeskeka na usambazi kweni wakukondwa na mazaza. Ivi ndivyo vikamupangiska kuti wacite nthena".{{sfn|Holland|2008|p=125}} === Nthengwa na ŵana === [[File:Sally Hayfron.jpg|thumb|upright|Mugabe's first wife, [[Sally Mugabe|Sally Hayfron]], in 1983]]{{See also|Mugabe family}} Kuyana na Holland, muwoli wakwamba wa Mugabe, Sally Hayfron, wakaŵa "mubwezi waunenesko wa Mugabe", ndipo wakaŵa "mumoza wa ŵanthu ŵacoko waka awo ŵakasuskanga maghanoghano gha Mugabe kwambura kumukwiyiska". Mwana wawo yumoza pera, Michael Nhamodzenyika Mugabe, wakababika pa 27 September 1963, wakafwa pa 26 December 1966 na maleriya ku Ghana uko Sally wakagwiranga nchito apo Mugabe wakaŵa mu jere. Sally Mugabe wakaŵa msambizgi uyo wakasambizganga makora ndipo wakalimbikiranga kuti waŵe wakujiyimira payekha. Mubali Mugabe wakaphalira ŵapharazgi kuti ŵamuchemenge muwoli wake kuti "Amai" ("Amama ŵa Charu"), nangauli ŵanthu ŵanandi ku Zimbabwe ŵakakwiya chifukwa chakuti wakaŵa mulendo. Wakimikika kuŵa mulongozgi wa gulu la ŵanakazi la ZANU-PF, ndipo wakakhwaskika na milimo yinandi ya wovwiri, ndipo ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakamuwonanga kuti ngwakwananga. Pa nyengo iyo Mugabe wakaŵa nduna yikuru, wakasuzgika na nthenda ya mphuzi, ndipo pakwamba wakeneranga kuluta ku Britain kuti ŵakamuchizgire nthenda ya dialysis. Apo wakaŵa wakutora Hayfron, mu 1987 Mugabe wakamba kutemwana na mulembi wake, Grace Marufu; wakaŵa muchoko kwa iyo na vyaka 41 ndipo pa nyengo iyi wakatengwa kwa Stanley Goreraza. Mu 1988 wakababa mwana mwanakazi zina lake Bona, ndipo mu 1990 wakababa mwana mwanalume zina lake Robert. Ubwezi uwu ukaŵa wachisisi ku ŵanthu ŵa ku Zimbabwe, ndipo Hayfron wakamanyanga. Kuyana na muzukuru wake Patricia Bekele, uyo wakaŵa pafupi comene na iyo, Hayfron wakakondwa yayi kuti Mugabe wakaŵa na chibwezi na Marufu kweni "wakacita ivyo wakaniphaliranga kuti nicite: 'Yowoyani na mutu winu usange muli na masuzgo mu nthengwa yinu. Lekani kuyuyura mfumu winu.' Wakayowoyanga mwantchindi". Hayfron wakafwa mu 1992 cifukwa ca nthenda ya munthumbo. Pamanyuma pa nyifwa ya Hayfron mu 1992, Mugabe na Marufu ŵakatorana mu ukwati ukuru wa Katolika mu Ogasiti 1996. Pakuŵa mwanakazi wakwamba wa ku Zimbabwe, Grace wakamanyikwanga kuti wakatemwanga chomene vinthu vyapachanya, chomenechomene mashopu, vyakuvwara, na majuda. Cifukwa ca kugura vinthu vinandi, ŵakamuthya kuti "Gucci Grace". Nayo wakaŵa na lumbiri luwemi lwa vimbundi. Mu 1997, Grace Mugabe wakababa mwana wacitatu, Chatunga Bellarmine. Robert Mugabe Jr. na munung'una wake, Chatunga, ŵakumanyikwa chifukwa cha kutandazga umoyo wawo wakudura pa social media, ivyo vyapangiska kuti Tendai Biti uyo ni ndyali wa chipani chakususka, waŵasuske kuti ŵakumazga ndalama za ŵanthu ŵa ku Zimbabwe.<ref name="veconomist">{{cite news|title=The offspring of Africa's strongmen are living it up|url=https://www.economist.com/news/middle-east-and-africa/21726097-scions-despots-post-pictures-their-lavish-lifestyles-social-media|newspaper=[[The Economist]]|date=10 August 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171017145651/https://www.economist.com/news/middle-east-and-africa/21726097-scions-despots-post-pictures-their-lavish-lifestyles-social-media|archive-date=17 October 2017}}</ref> == Kawonekero ka wumba na chiharo == {{Quote box|width=25em|align=right|quote=The story of Robert Mugabe is a microcosm of what bedevils African democracy and economic recovery at the beginning of the 21st century. It is a classic case of a genuine hero—the guerrilla idol who conquered the country's former leader and his white supremacist regime—turning into a peevish autocrat whose standard response to those suggesting he steps down is to tell them to get lost. It is also the story of activists who try to make a better society but bear the indelible scars of the old system. Mugabe's political education came from the autocrat Ian Smith, who had learnt his formative lessons from imperious British colonisers.| salign=right |source=— Heidi Holland{{sfn|Holland|2008|pp=xiv–xv}} }} Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1900, Mugabe wakaŵa yumoza wa ŵalongozgi awo ŵakakwesananga chomene. Kuyana na magazini ya The Black Scholar, "mwakuyana na uyo mukumupulikizga... Mugabe ni yumoza wa ŵanthu ŵankhaza comene pa caru cose, panji ni munthu wambura wofi uyo wakukwiyiska ŵanthu ŵa ku vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi". Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakumuyowoya kuti ni "munthu wankhaza", "wakuwukira", ndiposo "wakupweteka", kweniso ni yumoza wa ŵalongozgi "ŵakofya comene" mu Africa. Pa nyengo yeneyiyo, wakalutilira kuwoneka nga ni munthu wankhongono mu vyaru vinandi vya caru cacitatu ndipo wakapokelereka makora comene apo wakendanga mu vyaru vya ku Africa. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ku Southern Africa ŵakamuwonanga kuti ni "munthu mulara" uyo wakawovwira kuti ŵanthu ŵa mu Africa ŵafwatuke.{{sfn|Howard-Hassmann|2010|p=911}} Kuyana na Ndlovu-Gatsheni, mukati mwa ZANU-PF, Mugabe wakawonekanga nga ni "chiuta" uyo ŵanthu ŵakamopanga ndipo kanandi waka wakususkika. Mu gulu la ZANU, ŵanthu ŵakamba kusopa Mugabe pa nyengo ya Nkhondo ya Bush ndipo ŵakakhozga gulu ili mu 1980. Mu Zimbabwe, Mugabe wakaŵa na ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakamulondezganga, ndipo David Blair wakayowoya kuti "ni uheni kuyowoya kuti wakaŵa wambura kutemweka" mu charu ichi. Holland wakagomezganga kuti "ŵanandi" ŵa ŵanthu ŵa ku Zimbabwe ŵakamukhozganga "na mtima wose" mu vyaka 20 vyakwambilira vya muwuso wake. Malo ghake ghakukhozga ghakaŵa ku Mashonaland, Manicaland, na Masvingo uko ŵanthu ŵa ku Zimbabwe ŵakaŵa Ŵashona, kweni ŵanthu ŵa ku Matabeleland na Bulawayo awo ŵakaŵa Ŵashona yayi, kweniso ŵanthu ŵa ku Zimbabwe awo ŵakakhalanga ku vyaru vinyake, ŵakamutemwanga yayi. Pa nyengo iyo wakawovwilirapo pa vyaru vinyake mu 1980, ŵanthu ŵakamba kumuchindika chomene chifukwa cha kusintha kwa vinthu. David Blair wakayowoya kuti nangauli Mugabe wakalongora "mtende" pakati pa Malichi 1980 na Febuluwale 1982, boma lake "likalongozgekanga na kukhumba kuswa ŵalwani ŵake na kulutilira kuŵa pa udindo wake". Mu 2011, nkhwantha yinyake zina lake Blessing-Miles Tendi yikati: "Kanandi ŵanthu ŵakuyowoya kuti Mugabe ni mulongozgi wa ŵanthu wose uyo wakachita viheni chomene. Tendi wakayowoya kuti uwu ukaŵa upusikizgi cifukwa Mugabe wakalongora nkharo ya kukanizga ŵanthu kufuma waka apo wakaŵa pa udindo wake, comenecomene apo wakakananga ZAPU mu Matabeleland. Abiodun Alao wakakolerana nayo, ndipo wakayowoya kuti kaghanaghaniro ka Mugabe kakasintha yayi pa nyengo yose iyo wakaŵira mulongozgi wa caru, kweni waka kuti ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yose ŵakamba kughanaghanira comene nkhani iyi mu vilimika vya m'ma 1900. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Africa ŵakaghanaghananga kuti Mugabe wakavumbura kuti vyaru vya ku Western vikuchita vinthu mwakupambanako. Vyaru ivi vikazerezga ivyo vikacitikira ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 20,000 ŵa mtundu wa Ndebele ku Gukarakundi, kweni vikasuska comene boma la Zimbabwe apo ŵalimi ŵacoko waka ŵakafwa pa nyengo iyo ŵakajikoranga malo ghawo.{{sfn|Holland|2008|p=214}}[[File:Demonstration against Mugabe.JPG|thumb|left|Example of foreign criticism: a demonstration against Mugabe's regime next to the Zimbabwe embassy in London (mid-2006)]] Mu nyengo ya nkhondo ya vigeŵenga, Ian Smith wakacemanga Mugabe kuti "mpositole wa Satana". George Shire wakalongosora kuti mu Zimbabwe mukaŵa "ŵanthu ŵakususkana chomene" na Mugabe, ndipo kanandi ŵanthu ŵa ku vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi ŵakaŵikako mahara yayi. Mubali Mugabe nayo ŵakamupa mulandu wa kusankhana mitundu; John Sentamu, bishopu mulara wa ku York, ku United Kingdom, wakati Mubali Mugabe ni "munthu wankhaza comene", cifukwa cakuti "wakasuzganga ŵazungu cifukwa ca usambazi wawo".<ref>Sentamu, John, [https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2007/sep/16/comment.foreignpolicy Saving Zimbabwe is not colonialism, it's Britain's duty] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161128105246/https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2007/sep/16/comment.foreignpolicy |date=28 November 2016 }}, ''The Observer'' 16 September 2007. Retrieved 24 June 2008.</ref><ref name="ukanger">{{cite news|title=UK anger over Zimbabwe violence|work=BBC News|date=1 April 2000|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/politics/698175.stm|access-date=4 January 2010|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090930103546/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/politics/698175.stm|archive-date=30 September 2009}}</ref><ref name="mcgreal2007">{{cite news|first=Peter|last=McGreal|title=Corrupt, greedy and violent: Mugabe attacked by Catholic bishops after years of silence|work=The Guardian|date=2 April 2007|url=https://www.theguardian.com/zimbabwe/article/0,,2048032,00.html| location=London}}</ref><ref name="Bentley2007">{{cite news |first=Daniel |last=Bentley |title=Sentamu urges Mugabe Action |work=The Independent |date=17 September 2007 |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/sentamu-urges-mugabe-action-402591.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120906052233/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/sentamu-urges-mugabe-action-402591.html |archive-date=6 September 2012 |url-status=live |issn=0951-9467}}</ref> Desmond Tutu wakayowoya kuti Mugabe "wakamba kujiwona kuti ngwambura kuvikilirika, ndipo wakaleka. Munthu wakukhumba waka kulira. Ici nchakucitiska citima comene". Pulezidenti wa ku South Africa, Nelson Mandela, nayo wakasuska Mugabe, wakati ni munthu uyo "wakunyoza ŵanthu awo ŵakamuŵika pa mazaza ndipo wakuwona kuti ni mwaŵi ukuru kuŵa pa mazaza kwamuyirayira". Rhoda E., wakulemba nkhani mu magazini ya Human Rights Quarterly Howard-Hassmann wakati pakaŵa "ukaboni wakukwana wakuti Mugabe wakaŵa na mulandu wa kwananga ŵanthu". Mu 2009, Gregory Stanton, uyo pa nyengo iyo wakaŵa purezidenti wa International Association of Genocide Scholars, na Helen Fein, uyo pa nyengo iyo wakaŵa mulara wa Institute for the Study of Genocide, ŵakalemba kalata mu nyuzipepara ya The New York Times, iyo yikati pakaŵa ukaboni wakukwana wakuti Mugabe wakachitiska vigeŵenga. Australia na New Zealand vikaŵachiska kale mu 2005, ndipo mawupu ghanyake gha ku Zimbabwe ghakaŵachiska mu 2006. Nkhani yinyake ya mu nyuzipepara ya New American ya mu 2005 ya mutu wakuti "Democide in Zimbabwe" yikati mu vyaka vicoko waka, Mugabe wakakhoma ŵanthu mamiliyoni ghanandi mu Zimbabwe. Mu 1994, Mugabe wakapokera ulemu kufuma ku boma la Britain. Kweni boma la UK likamuwuskapo ulemu uwu mu 2008. Mubali Mugabe wakaŵa na madigiri ghanandi na madokotala kufuma ku mayunivesite gha pa caru cose, agho wakapokera mu ma 1980s; kweni madokotala ghatatu ghafumiskikapo. Mu Juni 2007, wakazgoka munthu wakwamba wa pa caru cose kulekeskeka digiri ya ku yunivesite ya ku Britain, apo Yunivesite ya Edinburgh yikaleka kumupa digiri iyo wakapokera mu 1984.<ref name="timesonline.co.uk">{{cite news|work=The Times|url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/africa/article1896047.ece|title=Mugabe stripped of degree by Edinburgh|access-date=4 July 2007|first1=Shirley|last1=English|first2=David|last2=Lister|date=7 June 2007|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081012204017/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/africa/article1896047.ece|archive-date=12 October 2008}} See also: {{cite news|work=The New York Observer|url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2007/jul/15/highereducation.internationaleducationnews|title=Edinburgh University revokes Mugabe degree|author=Paul Kelbie|date=15 July 2007|access-date=28 June 2008|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130831180901/http://www.theguardian.com/uk/2007/jul/15/highereducation.internationaleducationnews|archive-date=31 August 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/scotland/edinburgh_and_east/6724271.stm|title=Mugabe stripped of degree honour|publisher=BBC|date=6 June 2007|access-date=4 January 2010|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070912175134/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/scotland/edinburgh_and_east/6724271.stm|archive-date=12 September 2007}} See also: {{cite news |url=http://thelede.blogs.nytimes.com/2008/06/13/mugabe-loses-honorary-degree-from-umass/?hp |title=Mugabe loses Honorary Degree from UMass|work=The New York Times|access-date=28 June 2008|first=Mike|last=Nizza|date=13 June 2008|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121002081032/http://thelede.blogs.nytimes.com/2008/06/13/mugabe-loses-honorary-degree-from-umass/?hp|archive-date=2 October 2012}}</ref>Pa 12 June 2008, University of Massachusetts Amherst Board of Trustees ŵakavota kuti ŵawuskeko digiri ya vyamalango iyo Mugabe wakapika mu 1986, ndipo aka kakaŵa kakwamba kuti digiri yinyake ya ku malumbo yikwimikike. Mu mwezi umoza pamanyuma pa kufumiskika pa udindo wake, kweni pambere wandafwe, mazina gha misewu ghanandi agho ghakuyowoya za Mugabe ghakafumiskika mu malo gha ŵanthu wose.<ref>{{Cite web|last=mins|first=Murdoch Stephens Read Time: 22|title=What's left of the Mugabe way?|url=https://pantograph-punch.com//posts/mugabe-public-space,%20https://pantograph-punch.com//posts/mugabe-public-space|access-date=3 October 2020|website=Pantograph Punch}}{{Dead link|date=June 2022 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> ==Wonaniso== * ''[[Mugabe and the White African]]'' (2009 documentary) * ''[[Mugabe's Zimbabwe]]'' (2010 documentary) * ''[[The Interpreter (2005 film)|The Interpreter]]'' (2005 film featuring a fictional African president based on Mugabe) ==Ukaboni== ===Vyakulemba=== {{Reflist|20em}} ===Mabuku=== {{Refbegin|30em|indent=yes}} * {{cite book |last=Alao |first=Abiodun |year=2012 |title=Mugabe and the Politics of Security in Zimbabwe |location=Montreal and Kingston |publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press |isbn=978-0-7735-4044-6 }} * {{cite book |last=Blair |first=David |year=2002 |title=Degrees in Violence: Robert Mugabe and the Struggle for Power in Zimbabwe |location=London and New York |publisher=Continuum |isbn=978-0-8264-5974-9 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/degreesinviolenc0000blai }} * {{cite journal |last1=Chigora |first1=Percyslage |last2=Guzura |first2=Tobias |title=The Politics of the Government of National Unity (GNU) and Power Sharing in Zimbabwe: Challenges and Prospects for Democracy |journal=African Journal of History and Culture |volume=3 |number=2 |pages=20–26 |year=2011 }} * {{cite journal |last=Gallagher |first=Julia |title=The Battle for Zimbabwe in 2013: From Polarisation to Ambivalence |journal=Journal of Modern African Studies |year=2015 |volume=53 |number=1 |pages=27–49 |doi=10.1017/S0022278X14000640 |s2cid=154398977 |url=https://eprints.soas.ac.uk/26245/1/gallagher-the-battle-for-zimbabwe-in-2013.pdf }} * {{cite book |last=Holland |first=Heidi |year=2008 |title=Dinner with Mugabe: The Untold Story of a Freedom Fighter Who Became a Tyrant |url=https://archive.org/details/dinnerwithmugabe0000holl |location=London |publisher=Penguin |isbn=978-0-14-104079-0 }} * {{cite journal |last=Howard-Hassmann |first=Rhoda E. |title=Mugabe's Zimbabwe, 2000–2009: Massive Human Rights Violations and the Failure to Protect |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_human-rights-quarterly_2010-11_32_4/page/898 |journal=Human Rights Quarterly |volume=32 |number=4 |year=2010 |pages=898–920 |doi=10.1353/hrq.2010.0030 |s2cid=143046672 }} * {{cite book |last=Meredith |first=Martin |year=2002 |title=Our Votes, Our Guns: Robert Mugabe and the Tragedy of Zimbabwe |location=New York |publisher=Public Affairs |isbn=978-1-58648-186-5 }} * {{cite journal |last=Ndlovu-Gatsheni |first=Sabelo J. |year=2009 |title=Making Sense of Mugabeism in Local and Global Politics: 'So Blair, keep your England and let me keep my Zimbabwe' |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_third-world-quarterly_2009_30_6/page/1139 |journal=Third World Quarterly |volume=30 |number=6 |pages=1139–1158 |doi=10.1080/01436590903037424 |s2cid=143775424 }} * {{cite encyclopedia |last=Ndlovu-Gatsheni |first=Sabelo J. |author-mask={{long dash}} |contribution=Introduction: Mugabeism and Entanglements of History, Politics, and Power in the Making of Zimbabwe |title=Mugabeism? History, Politics, and Power in Zimbabwe |editor=Sabelo J. Ndlovu-Gatsheni |year=2015 |pages=1–25 |location=New York |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=978-1-137-54344-8 }} * {{cite book |last=Norman |first=Andrew |year=2008 |title=Mugabe: Teacher, Revolutionary, Tyrant |url=https://archive.org/details/mugabeteacherrev0000norm |location=Stroud |publisher=The History Press |isbn=978-1-86227-491-4 }} * {{cite journal |last1=Onslow |first1=Sue |last2=Redding |first2=Sean |year=2009 |title=Wasted Riches: Robert Mugabe and the Desolation of Zimbabwe |journal=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |volume=10 |number=1 |pages=63–72 |jstor=43134191 }} * {{cite journal |last=Shire |first=George |year=2007 |title=The Case for Robert Mugabe: Sinner or Sinned Against? |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_black-scholar_2007_spring_37_1/page/32 |journal=The Black Scholar |volume=37 |number=1 |pages=32–35 |jstor=41069872 |doi=10.1080/00064246.2007.11413379 |s2cid=147587061 }} * {{cite journal |last=Sithole |first=Masipula |year=2001 |title=Fighting Authoritarianism in Zimbabwe |journal=Journal of Democracy |volume=2 |number=1 |pages=160–169 |doi=10.1353/jod.2001.0015 |s2cid=144918292 }} * {{cite book |last1=Smith |first1=David |last2=Simpson |first2=Colin |year=1981 |title=Mugabe |url=https://archive.org/details/mugabe0000smit_o1z1 |location=London |publisher=Sphere Books |isbn=978-0-7221-7868-3 }} * {{cite journal |last=Tendi |first=Blessing-Miles |year=2011 |title=Robert Mugabe and Toxicity: History and Context Matter |journal=Representation |volume=47 |number=3 |pages=307–318 |doi=10.1080/00344893.2011.596439 |s2cid=154541752 }} * {{cite journal |last=Tendi |first=Blessing-Miles |author-mask={{long dash}} |year=2013 |title=Robert Mugabe's 2013 Presidential Election Campaign |journal=Journal of Southern African Studies |volume=39 |number=4 |pages=963–970 |doi=10.1080/03057070.2013.858537 |s2cid=145432632 }} {{Refend}} ==Wonani vinandi== {{Sister project links}} {{Refbegin}} * {{cite book |last=Bourne |first=Richard |year=2011 |title=Catastrophe: What Went Wrong in Zimbabwe? |url=https://archive.org/details/catastrophewhatw0000bour |publisher=Zed |isbn=978-1-84813-521-5}} * {{cite book |last=Chan |first=Stephen |year=2002 |title=Robert Mugabe: A Life of Power and Violence |url=https://archive.org/details/robertmugabelife0000step |publisher=I. B. Tauris |isbn=978-1-86064-873-1}} * {{cite book |last=Godwin |first=Peter |year=2011 |title=The Fear: The Last Days of Robert Mugabe |url=https://archive.org/details/fearlastdaysofro0000pete |location=London |publisher=Picador |isbn=978-0-330-50777-6}} * {{Cite journal |last1=Moyo |last2=Yeros |first2=P |title=The Radicalised State: Zimbabwe's Interrupted Revolution |journal=Review of African Political Economy |volume=34 |number=111 |pages=103–121 |year=2007 |jstor=20406365 |doi=10.1080/03056240701340431 |s2cid=153894802 }} * {{cite journal |last=Raftopoulos |first=Brian |title=The Zimbabwean crisis and the challenges of the Left |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-southern-african-studies_2006-06_32_2/page/5 |journal=Journal of Southern African Studies |volume=32 |number=2 |year=2006 |pages=203–219 |jstor=25065088 |doi=10.1080/03057070600655988 |bibcode=2006JSAfS..32..203R |s2cid=59371826 }} {{Refend}} {{s-start}} {{s-ppo}} {{s-bef|before=[[Herbert Chitepo]]}} {{s-ttl|title= Leader of [[Zimbabwe African National Union]]|years=1975–1987}} {{s-non|reason=Position abolished}} {{s-new|party|reason=Merger of ZANU and ZAPU}} {{s-ttl|title=Leader of [[ZANU–PF|Zimbabwe African National Union – Patriotic Front]]||years=1987–2017}} {{s-aft|after=[[Emmerson Mnangagwa]]}} {{s-off}} {{s-bef|before=[[Abel Muzorewa]]|as=[[Prime Minister of Zimbabwe Rhodesia]]}} {{s-ttl|title=[[Prime Minister of Zimbabwe]]|years=1980–1987}} {{s-vac|reason=Position suspended|next=[[Morgan Tsvangirai]]}} {{s-bef|before=[[Canaan Banana]]}} {{s-ttl|title=[[List of Presidents of Zimbabwe|President of Zimbabwe]]|years=1987–2017}} {{s-aft|after=[[Emmerson Mnangagwa]]}} {{s-dip}} {{s-bef|before=[[Zail Singh]]}} {{s-ttl|title=Secretary General of the [[Non-Aligned Movement]]|years=1986–1989}} {{s-aft|after=[[Janez Drnovšek]]}} {{s-bef|before=[[Paul Biya]]}} {{s-ttl|title=[[Chairperson of the Organisation of African Unity]]|years=1997–1998}} {{s-aft|after=[[Blaise Compaoré]]}} {{s-bef|before=[[Mohamed Ould Abdel Aziz]]}} {{s-ttl|title=[[Chairperson of the African Union]]|years=2015–2016}} {{s-aft|after=[[Idriss Déby]]}} {{s-end}} {{Robert Mugabe}} {{Navboxes|title=Related topics |titlestyle=background:#ccccff|list1= {{Zimbabwe government ministers 2000–2009}} {{2008 elections, Zimbabwe}} {{Presidents of Zimbabwe}} {{ZimbabwePMs}} {{African Union chairpersons}} {{NAMSecretary-General}} {{Members of the 1st Parliament of Zimbabwe}} }} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Mugabe, Robert Gabriel}} [[Category:Robert Mugabe| ]] [[Category:1924 births]] [[Category:2019 deaths]] [[Category:20th-century Roman Catholics]] [[Category:20th-century Zimbabwean politicians]] [[Category:21st-century Roman Catholics]] [[Category:21st-century Zimbabwean politicians]] [[Category:African revolutionaries]] [[Category:Alumni of Achimota School]] [[Category:Alumni of Kutama College]] [[Category:Alumni of the London School of Economics]] [[Category:Alumni of the University of 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Department of the Treasury sanctions]] [[Category:Zimbabwean pan-Africanists]] [[Category:Zimbabwean revolutionaries]] [[Category:Zimbabwean Roman Catholics]] [[Category:Zimbabwean socialists]] [[Category:Anti-white racism in Africa]] e010z275msgof0m8922rytrvvwmowyl 0 38129 119326 118807 2026-08-13T22:56:16Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260813sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 119326 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Country in East-central Africa}} {{Other uses}} {{pp-move}} {{pp-vandalism|small=yes}} {{Use dmy dates|date=July 2022}} {{Infobox country | conventional_long_name = Charu cha Yuganda<ref name="Republic">{{cite web|title=Uganda Constitution|url=https://statehouse.go.ug/sites/default/files/attachments/Constitution_1995.pdf|website=The State House of Uganda|access-date=9 March 2022|archive-date=12 March 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220312040325/https://statehouse.go.ug/sites/default/files/attachments/Constitution_1995.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> | common_name = Uganda | native_name = {{native name|sw|Jamhuri ya Uganda}}<br>{{Collapsible list | titlestyle = background:transparent;text-align:center;line-height:normal;font-size:84%; | title = Official Name in Local Languages{{efn| name=NativeName| Article 4(a) of the Constitution requires the state to promote public awareness through translating it into Ugandan languages and disseminating it as widely as possible<ref>{{Cite web|title=Ugandan Constitution translated in different Local Languages|url=https://www.ulrc.go.ug/content/ugandan-constitution-translated-different-local-languages|website=Uganda Law Reform Commission}}</ref>}} | {{Infobox|subbox=yes|bodystyle=font-size:77%;font-weight:normal; | rowclass1 = mergedrow | label1 = [[Luganda]]: | data1 = {{lang|lg|Lipabuliika ya Uganda}}<ref name="LugandaConstitution">{{Cite web|title=Constitution in Luganda|url=https://www.ulrc.go.ug/sites/default/files/Constitution%20in%20Luganda.pdf|website=Uganda Law Reform Commission}}</ref> | rowclass2 = mergedrow | label2 = [[Lusoga]]: | data2 = {{lang|xog|Uganda Eryetwala}}<ref name="LusogaConstitution">{{Cite web|title=Constitution in Lusoga|url=https://www.ulrc.go.ug/sites/default/files/Constitution%20in%20Lusoga.pdf|website=Uganda Law Reform Commission}}</ref> | rowclass3 = mergedrow | label3 = [[Lumasaba]]: | data3 = {{lang|myx|Linambo lya Uganda}}<ref name="LumasabaConstitution">{{Cite web|title=Constitution in Lumasaba|url=https://www.ulrc.go.ug/sites/default/files/Constitution%20in%20Lumasaba.pdf}}</ref> }} }} | image_flag = Flag of Uganda.svg | image_coat = Coat of arms of Uganda.svg | national_motto = {{nowrap|"For God and My Country"}}<br />{{nowrap|{{lang|sw|"Kwa Mungu na nchi yangu"}}}} | national_anthem = "[[Oh Uganda, Land of Beauty]]" {{parabr}}{{center|[[File:Ugandan national anthem, performed by the U.S. Navy Band.ogg]]}} | image_map = [[File:Location Uganda AU Africa.svg|frameless]] | map_caption = | image_map2 = | capital = [[Kampala]] | largest_city = capital | official_languages = {{hlist |[[English language|English]], [[Swahili language|Swahili]]<ref name="Amendment_2005">{{cite web |url=https://www.parliament.go.ug/cmis/views/87694c9d-0255-4d29-bf41-d89407bfc287%253B1.0 |title=Constitutional Amendment Act 2005 |author=Parliament of the Republic of Uganda |date=26 September 2005 |website=Parliament.go.ug |publisher=Republic of Uganda |access-date=28 August 2020 |quote=§I.3:6.(2): Swahili shall be the second official language in Uganda to be used in such circumstances as Parliament may by law prescribe. |archive-date=26 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210426210442/https://www.parliament.go.ug/cmis/views/87694c9d-0255-4d29-bf41-d89407bfc287%253B1.0 |url-status=live }}</ref>}} | languages_type = [[National language]] | languages = None at national level | languages2_type = Spoken languages | languages2 = [[Languages of Uganda|Over 70 languages]] | ethnic_groups = | ethnic_groups_year = | demonym = Ugandan<ref name=cia/> | religion = {{ublist |item_style=white-space:nowrap; |84.4% [[Christianity in Uganda|Christianity]] |—39.3% [[Catholic Church in Uganda|Catholicism]] |—32.0% [[Church of Uganda|Anglicanism]] |—13.1% Other [[Christians|Christian]] |13.7% [[Islam in Uganda|Islam]] |1.9% [[Religion in Uganda|Others]] / [[Irreligion in Uganda|None]] }} | religion_year = 2014 census | religion_ref = <ref name="census-2014">{{Cite web|url=http://www.ubos.org/onlinefiles/uploads/ubos/NPHC/2014%20National%20Census%20Main%20Report.pdf|title=Census 2014 Final Results|access-date=17 April 2018|archive-date=12 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171012091133/http://www.ubos.org/onlinefiles/uploads/ubos/NPHC/2014%20National%20Census%20Main%20Report.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> | government_type = [[Unitary state|Unitary]] [[dominant-party]] [[presidential system|presidential]] [[republic]] | leader_title1 = [[President of Uganda|President]] | leader_name1 = [[Yoweri Museveni]] | leader_title2 = [[Vice President of Uganda|Vice President]] | leader_name2 = [[Jessica Alupo]] | leader_title3 = [[Prime Minister of Uganda|Prime Minister]] | leader_name3 = [[Robinah Nabbanja]] | legislature = [[Parliament of Uganda|Parliament]] | sovereignty_type = Independence | sovereignty_note = from the [[United Kingdom]] | established_event1 = [[Uganda (1962–1963)|Dominion]] | established_date1 = 9 October 1962 | established_event2 = [[Republic]] | established_date2 = 9 October 1963 | established_event3 = Current constitution | established_date3 = 8 October 1995 | area_km2 = 241,038 | area_rank = 79th <!-- Area rank should match [[List of countries and dependencies by area]]--> | area_sq_mi = 93,065 | percent_water = 15.39 | population_estimate = {{IncreaseNeutral}} {{UN_Population|Uganda}}{{UN_Population|ref}} | population_estimate_year = {{UN_Population|Year}} | population_census = {{IncreaseNeutral}} 34,634,650<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ubos.org/onlinefiles/uploads/ubos/NPHC/NPHC%202014%20FINAL%20RESULTS%20REPORT.pdf|title=Republic of Uganda – Census 2014 – Final Report |at=Table 2.1 page 8 |access-date=19 September 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160919151139/http://www.ubos.org/onlinefiles/uploads/ubos/NPHC/NPHC%202014%20FINAL%20RESULTS%20REPORT.pdf|archive-date=19 September 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref> | population_estimate_rank = 35th | population_census_year = 2014 | population_density_km2 = 157.1 | population_density_sq_mi = 406.9 <!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]--> | population_density_rank = 75th | GDP_PPP = $129.48 billion<ref name=imf_data>{{cite web |url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2022/April/weo-report?c=746,&s=NGDPD,PPPGDP,NGDPDPC,PPPPC,LP,&sy=2022&ey=2022&ssm=0&scsm=1&scc=0&ssd=1&ssc=0&sic=0&sort=country&ds=.&br=1 |title=World Economic Outlook database: April 2022 |website=imf.org |access-date=2 May 2022 |archive-date=2 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220502092209/https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2022/April/weo-report?c=746,&s=NGDPD,PPPGDP,NGDPDPC,PPPPC,LP,&sy=2022&ey=2022&ssm=0&scsm=1&scc=0&ssd=1&ssc=0&sic=0&sort=country&ds=.&br=1 |url-status=live }}</ref> | GDP_PPP_year = 2022 | GDP_PPP_rank = 88th | GDP_PPP_per_capita = $2,960<ref name=imf_data/> | GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 172nd | GDP_nominal = {{increase}} $46.38 billion<ref name=imf_data/> | GDP_nominal_year = 2022 | GDP_nominal_rank = 90th | GDP_nominal_per_capita = {{increase}} $1,060<ref name=imf_data/> | GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 196th | Gini = 42.0 <!--number only--> | Gini_year = 2016 | Gini_change = increase<!--increase/decrease/steady--> | Gini_ref = <ref name="wb-gini">{{cite web | url=http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI?locations=UG | title=Gini index (World Bank estimate) | publisher=World Bank | access-date=14 July 2021 | archive-date=18 January 2017 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170118033920/http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI?locations=UG | url-status=live }}</ref> | Gini_rank = | HDI = 0.525 <!--number only--> | HDI_year = 2021<!-- Please use the year to which the data refers, not the publication year--> | HDI_change = increase <!--increase/decrease/steady--> | HDI_ref = <ref name="HDI">{{cite web| url=https://hdr.undp.org/data-center/specific-country-data#/countries/UGA| title=Specific country data| access-date=22 December 2022| archive-date=12 August 2022| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220812054834/https://hdr.undp.org/data-center/specific-country-data#/countries/UGA| url-status=live}}</ref> | HDI_rank = 167th | currency = [[Ugandan shilling]] | currency_code = UGX | time_zone = [[East Africa Time|EAT]] | utc_offset = +3 | drives_on = [[Right- and left-hand traffic|left]] | calling_code = [[+256]]^a | cctld = [[.ug]] | footnote_a = +006 from [[Kenya]] and [[Tanzania]]. | today = }} '''Uganda''' (''Yuganda'' mu [[Viyowoyelo vyaku Yuganda]]), mwalamulo, '''Charu cha Yuganda''', pa[[chingelezi]]: '''''Republic of Uganda''''' ({{lang-sw|Jamhuri ya Uganda}}<ref>{{cite book |title=Britannica Book of the Year 2014 |date=1 March 2014 |publisher=Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc. |isbn=978-1-62513-171-3 |page=745 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LccRAwAAQBAJ&dq=Jamhuri+ya+Uganda+swahili&pg=PA745 |access-date=2 December 2021 |language=en |archive-date=27 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230227190929/https://books.google.com/books?id=LccRAwAAQBAJ&dq=Jamhuri+ya+Uganda+swahili&pg=PA745 |url-status=live }}</ref>), ntcharu ku Mafumilo gha Dazi gha [[Africa]]. Charu ichi chili kumafumiro gha dazi na [[Kenya]], kumpoto na [[South Sudan]], kumanjiliro gha dazi na [[Democratic Republic of Congo]], kumwera na kumanjiliro gha dazi na [[Rwanda]], ndipo kumwera na [[Tanzania]]. Chigaŵa chakumwera cha charu ichi chili na chigaŵa chikuru cha [[Nyanja ya Victoria]], iyo yili pakati pa Kenya na Tanzania. Charu cha Uganda chili ku chigaŵa cha Africa uko kuli nyanja zikuruzikuru. Mu charu ichi muli ŵanthu pafupifupi 49.6 miliyoni, ndipo 8.5 miliyoni ŵakukhala mu msumba ukuru wa [[Kampala]]. Zina lakuti Uganda lili kufuma ku ufumu wa Buganda, uwo ukuzingilizga chigaŵa chikuru cha kumwera kwa charu ichi, kusazgapo msumba ukuru wa Kampala. Kwambira mu 1894, charu ichi chikaŵa pasi pa muwuso wa [[Britain]]. Charu cha Uganda chikamba kujiyimira pawekha pa 9 Okutobala 1962. Kufuma pa nyengo iyi, pa charu pakaŵa nkhondo zinandi, kusazgapo muwuso wa ŵasilikari uwo ukaŵa na mazaza kwa vyaka 8, uwo ukalongozgekanga na [[Idi Amin]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Buganda: Uganda's 1,000-year-old kingdom |url=https://www.aa.com.tr/en/world/buganda-ugandas-1-000-year-old-kingdom/99978 |access-date=2023-03-11 |website=www.aa.com.tr}}</ref> Chiyowoyero cha boma ni [[ChiZungu|Cingelezi]], nangauli Dango likuti "chiyowoyero cinyake cilicose cingaŵa cakusambizgira mu masukulu panji mu malo ghanyake gha masambiro, panji pa nkhani za malango, malango, panji vyeruzgo".<ref name="Amendment_2005" />Chiyowoyero cha Luganda chikusangika mu vigaŵa vyapakati na kumwera kwa charu ichi, ndipo ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuyowoya viyowoyero vinyake nga ni Ateso, Lango, Acholi, Runyoro, Runyankole, Rukiga, Luo, Rutooro, Samia, Jopadhola, na Lusoga. Mu 2005, chiyowoyero cha Chiswahili, icho ŵanthu ŵakuchiwona nga ntchilendo, chikapelekeka kuti chiŵe chiyowoyero chachiŵiri ku boma la Uganda, kweni boma likukana.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://theconversation.com/english-rules-in-uganda-but-local-languages-shouldnt-be-sidelined-49381 | title=English rules in Uganda, but local languages shouldn't be sidelined | date=5 November 2015 | access-date=4 October 2022 | archive-date=4 October 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221004181120/https://theconversation.com/english-rules-in-uganda-but-local-languages-shouldnt-be-sidelined-49381 | url-status=live }}</ref>Mu 2022, charu cha Uganda chikapangana kuti chiyowoyelo cha Chiswahili chiŵe mu masukulu. Pulezidenti wa sono wa Uganda ni Yoweri Kaguta Museveni, uyo wakamba kuwusa mu Janyuwale 1986 pamanyuma pa nkhondo ya ŵasilikari iyo yikatora vyaka 6. Pamanyuma pa kusintha kwa dango ilo likawuskapo nyengo ya pulezidenti, wakamanya kwimilira ndipo wakasankhika pulezidenti mu 2011, 2016 na 2021 pa mavoti gha boma.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-world/2019/uganda|title=Uganda|date=30 January 2019|website=freedomhouse.org|access-date=22 May 2019|archive-date=29 September 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190929074232/https://freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-world/2019/uganda|url-status=dead}}</ref> ==Mbili== {{main|History of Uganda}} === Uganda Iyo Pakaŵa Kale === {{main|Early history of Uganda}} [[File:Drawing showing a caesarean operation taking place in Uganda Wellcome M0001058.jpg|thumb|Mu 1879, Robert William Felkin, uyo ni mishonale wakawona ŵanthu ŵakuchizgika mu Kahura, mu Ufumu wa Kitara (uno ni Uganda).<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dunn|first=Peter M.|date=1 May 1999|title=Robert Felkin MD (1853–1926) and Caesarean delivery in Central Africa (1879)|journal=Archives of Disease in Childhood - Fetal and Neonatal Edition|language=en|volume=80|issue=3|pages=F250–F251|doi=10.1136/fn.80.3.F250|issn=1359-2998|pmid=10212095|pmc=1720922|doi-access=free}}</ref> ]] Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Uganda ŵakaŵa ŵa ciyowoyero ca Central Sudanic na Kuliak, awo ŵakayowoyanga za ŵalimi na ŵaliska ŵa viŵeto pambere ŵanthu ŵa ciyowoyero ca Bantu ŵandafike kumwera na ŵanthu ŵa ciyowoyero ca Nilotic awo ŵakayowoyanga ciyowoyero ca Nilotic kumanjiliro gha dazi. Kuzakafika mu 1500 C.E., ŵanthu aŵa ŵakamba kukhala mu vigaŵa vya kumwera kwa Phiri la Elgon, Mlonga wa Nayelo, na Nyanja ya Kyoga.<ref>{{Cite journal|url = https://www.jstor.org/stable/183030|jstor = 183030|title = We Are What We Eat: Ancient Agriculture between the Great Lakes|last1 = Schoenbrun|first1 = David L.|journal = The Journal of African History|year = 1993|volume = 34|issue = 1|pages = 1–31|doi = 10.1017/S0021853700032989|s2cid = 162660041|access-date = 28 February 2022|archive-date = 28 March 2022|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20220328154318/https://www.jstor.org/stable/183030|url-status = live}}</ref> Mwakuyana na ivyo ŵanthu ŵakuyowoya na ŵasayansi ŵakufukura vinthu vyakale ŵakuyowoya, Ufumu wa Kitara ukaŵa na vigaŵa vikuruvikuru mu chigaŵa cha nyanja zikuruzikuru, kufuma ku nyanja za Albert na Kyoga kumpoto m'paka ku nyanja za Victoria na Tanganyika kumwera. Ŵanthu ŵakuti Bunyoro-Kitara ndiyo yikaŵa ufumu wakwambilira wa mafumu gha Toro, Ankole, na Busoga. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵa mtundu wa Luo ŵakanjira mu chigaŵa cha Bunyoro na kuzomerezgana na ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Bantu, ndipo ŵakambiska ufumu wa Babiito.<ref name="babito">{{cite web |url=http://www.bunyoro-kitara.com/history2.htm |title=Origins of Bunyoro-Kitara Kings |access-date=10 December 2006 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061210003812/http://www.bunyoro-kitara.com/history2.htm#The%20Babiito |archive-date=10 December 2006}}, bunyoro-kitara.com.</ref> Ŵamalonda Ŵachiarabu ŵakanjira mu caru ici kufuma ku mphepete mwa nyanja ya Indian Ocean ku East Africa mu ma 1830 cifukwa ca malonda.<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Uganda journal|url=https://ufdc.ufl.edu/UF00080855/00026/28j|access-date=1 January 2021|website=ufdc.ufl.edu|language=en|archive-date=17 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210417220229/https://ufdc.ufl.edu/UF00080855/00026/28j|url-status=live}}</ref>Kuumaliro kwa m'ma 1860, Bunyoro ku Mid-Western Uganda wakawona kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Eguputo ŵakuwukira msumba uwu.<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Uganda journal|url=https://ufdc.ufl.edu/UF00080855/00029/9j|access-date=2 January 2021|website=ufdc.ufl.edu|language=en|archive-date=17 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210417213343/https://ufdc.ufl.edu/UF00080855/00029/9j|url-status=live}}</ref>Mwakupambana na ŵamalonda Ŵachiarabu awo ŵakendanga mumphepete mwa nyanja ku East Africa, awo ŵakakhumbanga kuchita malonda, ŵanthu aŵa ŵakakhumbanga kuti ŵanthu ŵambuke mu vyaru vinyake. Mu 1869, Khedive Ismail Pasha wa ku Eguputo, uyo wakakhumbanga kutora vigaŵa ivyo vikaŵa kumpoto kwa Nyanja ya Victoria na kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Nyanja ya Albert kweniso "kumwera kwa Gondokoro", wakatuma Samuel Baker, uyo wakaŵa mulendo wa ku Britain, kuti wakafike ku Northern Uganda. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Banyoro ŵakasuska Baker, uyo wakeneranga kurwa nkhondo yikuru kuti waŵavikilire. Baker wakawonanga kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Banyoro ŵakaŵa ŵambura kugomezgeka, ndipo wakaŵasuska mu buku lake lakuti Ismailia A Narrative Of The Expedition To Central Africa For The Suppression Of Slave Trade, Organized By Ismail, Khadive Of Egypt (1874)) ilo likaŵazgika chomene mu Britain. Nyengo yikati yajumphapo, ŵanthu ŵa ku Britain ŵakiza ku Uganda na mtima wakususkana na ufumu wa Bunyoro. Ici cikapangiska kuti Bunyoro wapokere hafu ya caru cake, ico cikapelekeka ku Buganda nga ni njombe kufuma ku Britain. Vigaŵa viŵiri ivyo vikaŵa nga ni "vigaŵa vyakubisika" vikaweleraso ku Bunyoro. Mu ma 1860, apo Ŵaarabu ŵakakhumbanga kuti ŵanthu ŵa kumpoto ŵaŵawovwire, ŵanthu ŵa ku Britain awo ŵakakhumbanga kumanya uko Nile yikambira ŵakafika ku Uganda. Ŵamishonale ŵa Anglican ŵa ku Britain ŵakiza mu ufumu wa Buganda mu 1877 ndipo ŵamishonale ŵa Katolika ŵa ku France ŵakiza mu 1879. Ivi vikapangiska kuti mu 1885 Muteesa I na ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa mu nyumba yake ŵajinthe vigomezgo vyawo ndipo mwana wake Mwanga, uyo wakatinkhanga Chikhristu, ndiyo wakimikika. Boma la Britain likagwiliskira ntchito kampani ya Imperial British East Africa Company (IBEAC) kuti yilute ku malo agha mu 1888.<ref name="Snakes">{{Cite book | title=Two Kingdoms of Uganda: Snakes and Ladders in the Scramble for Africa | last=Pulford | first=Cedric | publisher=Ituri Publications | year=2011 | location=Daventry}}</ref> Kwambira mu 1886, mu Buganda mukaŵa nkhondo za cisopa, pakwamba pakati pa Ŵasilamu na Ŵakhristu ndipo kufuma mu 1890, pakati pa Ŵaprotesitanti ŵa "ba-Ingleza" na Ŵakatolika ŵa "ba-Fransa", magulu agho ghakacemekanga na mazina gha maufumu agho ghakaŵa nawo lumoza.<ref>{{Cite journal | title=The Arms Trade in East Africa in the Late Nineteenth Century | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-african-history_1962_3_3/page/451 | last=Beachey | first=R. W. | date=1962 | journal=The Journal of African History | volume=3 | issue=3 | page=451 | doi=10.1017/s0021853700003352| s2cid=162601116 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Mamdani |first=Mahmood |date=1984 |title=Nationality Question in a Neo-Colony: A Historical Perspective |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4373383 |journal=Economic and Political Weekly |volume=19 |issue=27 |pages=1046–1054 |jstor=4373383 |issn=0012-9976}}</ref>Chifukwa cha vivulupi na masuzgo gha ndalama, IBEAC yikayowoya kuti yingatondeka kulutilira kugwira ntchito mu chigaŵa ichi. Boma la Britain likakhumbanga chomene kuvikilira nthowa ya ku Nayelo iyo ŵakendangamo, lekani mu 1894 likapoka charu cha Buganda na vyaru vinyake ivyo vikaŵa pafupi na Nayelo..<ref name="Snakes" />{{rp|3–4}}<ref>Gordon Martel, "Cabinet politics and African partition: The Uganda debate reconsidered." ''Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History'' 13.1 (1984): 5-24.</ref> === Uganda Protectorate (1894–1962) === {{main|Uganda Protectorate}} [[File:Flag of the Uganda Protectorate.svg|thumb|Ndembera ya [[Uganda Protectorate]]]] Boma la Uganda likaŵa boma la Britain kufuma mu 1894 m'paka 1962. Mu 1893, kampani ya British East Africa Company yikapeleka wanangwa wake wa kuwusa vigaŵa ivyo vikaŵa vya Ufumu wa Buganda ku boma la Britain. Bungwe la IBEAC likaleka kuwusa Uganda pamanyuma pakuti nkhondo za cisopa za mu caru ici zacitiska kuti likhale pa ngozi.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Griffiths|first=Tudor|date=2001|title=Bishop Alfred Tucker and the Establishment of a British Protectorate in Uganda 1890-94|url=https://brill.com/view/journals/jra/31/1/article-p92_4.xml|journal=Journal of Religion in Africa|volume=31|issue=1|pages=92–114|doi=10.1163/157006601X00040|issn=0022-4200|access-date=2 January 2021|archive-date=28 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220128203602/https://brill.com/view/journals/jra/31/1/article-p92_4.xml|url-status=live}}</ref> Mu 1894, boma la Uganda likakhazikiskika, ndipo chigaŵa ichi chikasazgikira kujumpha mphaka za Buganda mwa kusazga mapangano ghanandi na maufumu ghanyake (Toro mu 1900, Ankole mu 1901, na Bunyoro mu 1933) ku chigaŵa icho chikuyana waka na cha Uganda wa mazuŵa ghano. Malo agha ghakaŵa ghakupambana chomene na malo ghanyake agho ghakaŵa mu charu cha Kenya, chifukwa charu ichi chikaŵa na wanangwa wa kujilongozga. Mu ma 1890, ŵantchito 32,000 ŵakufuma ku Britain ku India ŵakaŵatumizga ku East Africa kuti ŵakazenge Uganda Railway. Ŵanandi awo ŵakapona ŵakawelera kukwawo, kweni ŵanthu 6,724 ŵakasankha kukhala ku East Africa. Pamanyuma, ŵanji ŵakazgoka ŵamalonda ndipo ŵakamba kuguliska makuni gha katoni. Kwamba mu 1900 m'paka mu 1920, nthenda ya kugona yikakoma ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 250,000 kumwera kwa Uganda, mumphepete mwa Nyanja ya Victoria. Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Caru Cose yikapangiska boma la Uganda kuti lilembe ŵasilikari 77,143 kuti ŵateŵetere mu gulu la King's African Rifles. Ŵakaŵapo pa nkhondo ya ku Western Desert, Abyssinia, Madagascar, na Burma. === Kujiyimira pawekha (1962-1965) === Charu cha Uganda chikapokera wanangwa kufuma ku Britain pa 9 Okutobala 1962 ndipo Queen Elizabeth II wakaŵa mutu wa boma na Queen of Uganda. Mu Okutobala 1963, charu cha Uganda chikazgoka charu cha demokalase kweni chikalutilira kuŵa mu wupu wa Commonwealth of Nations. Chisankho chakwamba cha ku Uganda, icho chikachitika mu 1962, chikathereskeka na chipani cha Uganda People's Congress (UPC) na Kabaka Yekka (KY). UPC na KY ŵakapangiska boma lakwamba pamanyuma pa kujithemba na Milton Obote kuŵa nduna yikuru, ndipo Buganda Kabaka (Mfumu) Edward Muteesa II wakaŵa na udindo wa purezidenti.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.parliament.go.ug/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=4&Itemid=3 |title=History of Parliament |access-date=18 April 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100220164706/http://www.parliament.go.ug/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=4&Itemid=3 |archive-date=20 February 2010}} (Website of the Parliament of Uganda)</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.buganda.com/crisis66.htm | title=Buganda Kingdom: The Uganda Crisis, 1966 | publisher=Buganda.com | access-date=3 May 2010 | archive-date=24 March 2010 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100324164117/http://www.buganda.com/crisis66.htm | url-status=live }}</ref> === Nkhaza ya Buganda (1962-1966) === {{main|Mengo Crisis}} [[File:Owen Falls Dam construction.jpg|thumb|right|Kuzenga Damu la Owen Falls ku Jinja]] Mu vyaka vyati vyamara waka kujiwusa, vinthu vikamba kwenda makora pakati pa boma na ufumu ukuru wa Buganda. Kufuma waka apo ŵa ku Britain ŵakambira kulamulira charu cha Uganda, suzgo likaŵa lakuti ŵeruzgenge wuli ufumu ukuru uwu. Ŵalongozgi ŵa vyaru vinyake ŵakatondeka kusanga nthowa yiwemi. Ivi vikaŵa vyakusuzga comene cifukwa ca umo Buganda wakacitiranga na boma. Boma la Buganda likakhumba yayi kuti liŵe na wanangwa, kweni likaŵa na wanangwa ukuru kuluska ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵakaŵa pasi pa boma ili. Ivi vikulongoreka na nkhondo iyo yikaŵako pakati pa boma la Britain na Buganda pambere ŵandaŵe na wanangwa. Mu charu cha Buganda, mukaŵa kugaŵikana pakati pa awo ŵakakhumbanga kuti Kabaka walutilire kulamulira na awo ŵakakhumbanga kuti ŵakoleranenge na charu cha Uganda kuti paŵe boma lapadera. Chigaŵa ichi chikapangiska kuti paŵe vipani viŵiri vya Buganda      Kabaka Yekka (Kabaka Only) KY, na Democratic Party (DP) ivyo vikafuma mu Tchalitchi la Katolika. Pa nyengo iyi, pakaŵa mphindano zikuru comene pakati pa magulu ghaŵiri agha, comenecomene apo maungano ghakwamba ghakaŵa pafupi kucitika. Themba ili likakondwa yayi na mulongozgi wa DP, Benedicto Kiwanuka. Kunja kwa Buganda, wandale wakufuma kumpoto kwa Uganda, Milton Obote, wakapangiska chipani cha banthu ŵa ndyali ŵambura kufuma ku Uganda kuti ŵapange Uganda People's Congress (UPC). Mu UPC mukaŵa ŵandyali ŵanandi awo ŵakakhumbanga kunozga vinthu ivyo ŵakaviwonanga kuti ni vyambura kwenelera mu vigaŵa ivyo vikawovwira kuti Buganda yiŵe na wanangwa wapadera. Ivi vikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵambe kumovwira. Ndipouli, chipani ichi chikalutilira kuŵa na vilato vinandi, kweni Obote wakalongora kuti wakaŵa waluso comene pakuŵafika pa fundo yakuyana.<ref name="Kasozi">{{cite book|last1=Kasozi|first1=A. B. K.|title=The social origins of violence in Uganda, 1964–1985|url=https://archive.org/details/socialoriginsofv0000kaso|date=1994|publisher=McGill-Queens's University Press|location=Montreal|isbn=9780773512184}}</ref>[[File:Uganda Printers Kampala 1950s.jpg|thumb|left|Nyumba yakusindikizgira mabuku ku Uganda pa Kampala Road, Kampala, Uganda]] Pa nyengo iyo charu cha Buganda chikapokera wanangwa, nkhani iyi yikamara yayi. Charu cha Uganda chikaŵa chimoza mwa vyaru vichoko waka ivyo vikafwatuka ku wuzga kwambura kuŵa na chipani icho chikaŵa na mazaza ghanandi. Mu mavoti agho ghakachitika pambere boma la Uganda lindambe kujiyimira, UPC yikathereska mavoti 37 pa mavoti 61. Chipani cha DP chikapokera vithuzi 24 kunja kwa Buganda. "Malo ghapadera" agho Buganda wakapika ghakang'anamuranga kuti viŵalo 21 vya Buganda vikasankhika mwakuyana na ndondomeko ya chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu. Chipani cha KY chikapambana chomene pa chipani cha DP, ndipo chikapokera ma mpando ghose 21. UPC yikafika pachanya paumaliro wa 1964 apo mulongozgi wa DP mu pharalamende, Basil Kiiza Bataringaya, wakambukira pa pharalamende pamoza na mamembala ghanyake ghankhondi, ndipo DP yikakhala waka na vithuzi 9. Ŵa MP ŵa DP ŵakakondwa yayi cifukwa ca ukali wa mulongozgi wawo, Benedicto Kiwanuka, kwa Kabaka uwo ukaŵatondeskanga kusanga nthowa yakukolerana na KY. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakagaluka apo ŵanyawo 10 ŵa KY ŵakafumapo pa nyumba ya mafumu ŵakati ŵawona kuti ŵaleke kwendera lumoza na UPC. Ivyo Obote wakayowoyanga vikaŵa vyakukhozga chomene mu charu chose, ndipo UPC yikathereskanga pa mavoti ghose agho ghakacitikanga. Themba likazgora mwambura kuyowoya - panji likakhorwa na mulimo wake na vimanyikwiro vya mu chigaŵa chake. Ndipouli, pakaŵaso kugaŵikana kukuru mu nyumba yake, ndipo ici cikamupangiska kuti waleke kulimbana na Obote. Pa nyengo iyo Uganda yikamba kujiyimira pawekha, Buganda "yakaŵa nyumba yakupambana na magulu gha ndyali". Apo gulu ili likakuranga, ŵanthu ŵa mafuko, visopa, vigaŵa, na ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakamba kusuzga ŵanyawo. Nkhongono ya chipani ichi yikamara cifukwa ca mphindano izo zikacitika pakati pa magulu gha vigaŵa na gha pakati. Ndipo mu 1966, UPC yikamba kujipatura. Nkhondo yikasazgikira cifukwa ca ŵeneawo ŵakiza ku Nyumba ya Malamulo kufuma ku DP na KY. Mu 1964, ŵimiliri ŵa UPC ŵakafika ku Gulu kuti ŵakaŵepo pa ungano wawo. Ici cikaŵa cilongolero cakwamba ca umo Obote wakalekera kuwusa cipani cake. Nkhondo ya Secretary General wa chipani ichi yikaŵa pakati pa Grace Ibingira na John Kakonge. Ibingira wakazgoka chimanyikwiro cha ŵakususka Obote mukati mwa UPC. Ici nchinthu cakuzirwa comene para tikuwona ivyo vikacitika pamanyuma pake ivyo vikapangiska kuti paŵe suzgo pakati pa Buganda na boma la pakati. Kwa awo ŵakaŵa kuwaro kwa UPC (mwakusazgapo awo ŵakakolerana na KY), ici cikaŵa cimanyikwiro cakuti Obote wakaŵa wambura kuvikilirika. Awo ŵakawonanga vinthu mwakupwelelera ŵakamanya kuti UPC yikaŵa yimoza yayi. Kupatukana kwa mgwirizano wa UPC-KY kukuvumbura kuti Obote na ŵanyake ŵakakondwa yayi na "maudindo ghapadera" gha Buganda. Mu 1964, boma likapempha vigaŵa vinyake vya Ufumu wa Buganda kuti vileke kuŵa pasi pa Themba Kabaka. Pambere charu cha Buganda chindambe kulamulirika, ufumu wa Bunyoro ndiwo ukalimbananga nayo. Boma la Buganda likapoka vigaŵa vinyake vya Bunyoro, ndipo ŵasilikari ŵa Britain ŵakalembapo fundo iyi mu Mapangano gha Buganda. Ŵanthu ŵa mu vigaŵa ivi ŵakakhumbanga kuwelera ku Bunyoro. Obote wakazomerezga kuti paŵe ungano wa ŵanthu wose, ndipo ichi chikakwiyiska Kabaka na ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa mu Buganda. Ŵanthu ŵa mu vigaŵa ivi ŵakazomera kuti ŵawelere ku Bunyoro nangauli Themba Kabaka likayezga kuti liŵawovwire. Pakutondeka pa referendum, KY wakakanira fundo ya kupeleka vigaŵa ku Bunyoro, ntheura wakamalizga ubwezi na UPC. Ndyali za mu Uganda zikaŵa za mafuko ghanandi. Chipani cha UPC icho pakwamba chikaŵa chipani cha fuko lose chikamba kusweka apo Ibingira wakasuska Obote mu chipani cha UPC. Ŵanthu ŵa mafuko gha kumpoto na kumwera awo ŵakaŵa ŵakupambana pa nkhani za cuma na za umoyo wa ŵanthu, sono ŵakamba kutemwana chomene. Obote wakazingilizgika na ŵanthu ŵa ku mpoto. A. Wakutemweka wane. Neykon, Félix Onama, Alex Ojera, apo awo ŵakakolerana na Ibingira awo ŵakakakika na kujalirika mu jele pamoza na iyo, ŵanandi ŵakaŵa ŵa ku South. Kirya, Matthias Ngobi. Nyengo yikati yajumphapo, magulu ghaŵiri agha ghakaŵa na mazina ghakupambana. Ŵanthu ŵakamba kughanaghana kuti boma lili pa nkhondo na ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Bantu apo Obote wakakora na kujalira mu jele ŵaliska awo ŵakakolerananga na Ibingirachimanyikwiro cha Uganda.<ref name="Otunnu">{{cite book|last1=Otunnu|first1=Ogenga|title=Crisis of Legitimacy and Political Violence in Uganda, 1890 to 1979|date=2016|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|location=London|isbn=978-3319331553}}</ref>[[File:SA18157-Crowned Crane - Żuraw Królewski.jpg|thumb|[[Grey crowned crane|Grey Crowned Crane]] – chimanyikwiro cha Uganda|alt=]] Vinthu ivi vikawovwira chomene ŵanthu ŵaŵiri. Chakwamba, ŵanthu ŵa ku Buganda mba Bantu ndipo ŵakukolerana na gulu la Ibingira. Gulu la Ŵaibingira likalutilira kususka Obote kuti wakukhumba kuwuskapo Themba. Sono ŵakakolerana na Obote. Caciŵiri nchakuti ŵasilikari ŵa boma la Britain ŵakalemba ŵasilikari na ŵapolisi kufuma ku Northern Uganda cifukwa cakuti ŵakamanyanga kuti ŵangacita milimo iyi. Pa nyengo iyo boma likapokera wanangwa, ŵanthu ŵa ku mizi ya kumpoto, comenecomene ŵa mtundu wa Nilotic, ndiwo ŵakalongozganga ŵasilikari na ŵapolisi. Ŵakajiwonanga kuti ŵali pafupi comene na Obote, ndipo wakawovwira comene kuti wakhozge mazaza ghake. Mu Epulero 1966, Obote wakapeleka ŵasilikari ŵaphya ŵakukwana 800 ku Moroto, ndipo 70 pa 100 ŵakaŵa ŵa ku Northern Region. Pa nyengo yira, ŵanthu ŵakaghanaghananga kuti boma na mawupu gha vimbundi vikulongozgeka na ŵanthu ŵakufuma ku vigaŵa vya kumpoto, chomenechomene ŵa Acholi. Ku mpoto kwa Uganda kukaŵaso ŵanthu ŵakususkana na Ufumu wa Uganda, comenecomene cifukwa ca "mphapu yapadera" iyo ufumu ukaŵa nayo pambere undapoke wanangwa na pamanyuma pake. "Obote wakiziska ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku mpoto mu chigaŵa chapakati, kwizira mu boma na ŵasilikari. Ndipouli, mazina gha "Bantu" na "Nilotic" ghakupambana. Mwaciyelezgero, ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Bantu ŵali na mitundu ya Buganda na Bunyoro. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Lugbara, Acholi, na Langi ndiwo ŵakumanyikwa na zina ili. Nangauli vinthu ivi vikaŵa vyambura kupulikikwa makora, kweni vinthu ivi vikapangiska kuti paŵe kugaŵikana kwa ndyali pakati pa kumpoto na kumwera. Ŵalwani ŵa UPC ŵakalutilira kugaŵikana apo ŵakamanya kuti Obote ngwakusuzgika. Pa cigaŵa ico UPC ndiyo yikaŵa na mazaza pa mipingo yinandi, ŵanthu ŵakakondwa yayi na ivyo vikacitikanga. Nanga ni mu cigaŵa ico Obote wakakhalanga, ŵanthu ŵakayezga kuti ŵafumiskemo mulongozgi wa wupu wa cigaŵa mu 1966. Cinthu cinyake ico cikapangiska UPC kwenjerwa comene nchakuti mavoti ghaciŵiri gha boma ghakaŵa pafupi kucitika mu 1967 ndipo kwambura wovwiri wa KY (uyo sono wakwenera kuti wakawovwiranga DP), ndiposo cifukwa ca kugaŵikana kwa vigaŵa mu UPC, kukaŵa mwaŵi wakuti UPC yizamuleka kuwusa mu myezi yicoko waka. Mu 1966 Obote wakapangiska dango liphya ilo likakanizga KY kuti yilute ku vyaru vinyake. Boma la KY likuwoneka kuti likuzgora mu nyumba ya malango kwizira mwa yumoza wa mamembala gha Nyumba ya Malamulo ghachoko waka agho ghalipo, Davide Ochieng uyo wali na nthenda yikuru. Ochieng wakaŵa munthu wakuzizika chomene nangauli wakafuma ku Northern Uganda, kweni wakaŵa na maudindo ghapachanya mu boma la KY ndipo wakaŵa mubwezi wa Kabaka uyo wakamupa malo ghanandi mu Buganda. Apo Obote wakaŵavya mu Nyumba ya Malamulo, Ochieng wakavumbura kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Congo ŵakakhumbanga kupoka njovu na golide. Wakayowoyaso kuti Obote, Onama, na Neykon wose ŵakasanga candulo na ndondomeko iyi. Nyumba ya malango yikazomerezga fundo yakuti Amin waleke kupulikira na kusanda umo Obote wakakhwaskikira. Ici cikapangiska kuti boma litenthemeske na kukhuŵazga caru. KY yikalongoraso kuti yikumanya kulimbana na Obote kufuma mukati mwa chipani chake pa ungano wa UPC Buganda apo Godfrey Binaisa (laŵiliri wa boma) wakathereskeka na gulu ilo likugomezga kuti likukhozgeka na KY, Ibingira na ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵakususka Obote mu Buganda.<ref name="Kasozi63">{{cite book |last1=Kasozi |title=The social origins of violence in Uganda, 1964–1985 |url=https://archive.org/details/socialoriginsofv0000kaso |date=1994 |page=[https://archive.org/details/socialoriginsofv0000kaso/page/63 63]}}</ref> Mu Febuluwale 1966, Obote wakakakaso Ibingira na nduna zinyake. Mu March 1966, Obote wakapharazgaso kuti maofesi gha pulezidenti na wachiŵiri wa pulezidenti ghalekenge kuŵako. Obote wakapaso Amin nkhongono zinandi ‡ kumupa udindo wa Mulongozgi wa ŵasilikari (Army Commander) kuluska uyo wakaŵa nayo kale (Opolot) uyo wakaŵa paubwezi na Buganda kwizira mu nthengwa (panji kuti wakagomezganga kuti Opolot wangatemwa yayi kuchitapo kanthu ka nkhondo pa Kabaka usange wangakwaniska). Obote wakawuskapo dango liphya na kulekeska maungano agho ghakaŵa pafupi kuchitika. Obote wakaluta pa TV na wayilesi kukususka Kabaka kuti wakuswa malango ghakupambanapambana kusazgapo kupempha ŵasilikari ŵakufumila ku vyaru vinyake ivyo vikuwoneka kuti vikalembeka na Kabaka pamanyuma pa mphindano za Amin kuti wakunozga chiwembu cha kuwukira boma. Obote wakalutizga kusisita mazaza gha Kabaka mwa kupharazga kuti: * Kuwuskapo makomiti ghakuwona vya wanangwa wa ŵanthu ku vyaru vinyake. Ivi vikawuskapo mazaza gha Kabaka gha kwimika ŵateŵeti ŵa boma mu Buganda. * Kuwuskapo Khoti Likuru la Buganda ∙ kuwuskapo mazaza ghose agho Kabaka wakaŵa nagho. * Kuŵika ndalama za mu Buganda pasi pa mazaza gha boma. * Kuwuskapo malo gha ŵalongozgi ŵa mu Buganda. Caru nchimoza mwa vinthu ivyo vikawovwira kuti Kabaka waŵe na mazaza pa ŵanthu. Pa nyengo iyi pakaŵa mphindano pakati pa Buganda na boma lapakati. Ŵakumanya vya mdauko ŵakususka usange vinthu ivi mphanyi vikachitika yayi. Ivi vikaŵa vyakuti vingachitika yayi chifukwa Obote wakawona kuti Themba ili ndakulopwa. Nakuti Themba Kabaka likati lazomera kuŵa pulezidenti vyaka vinayi kumasinda, likakolerana na UPC. Mu vyaru vya Buganda, visopa vikamba kulimbana ndipo ŵanthu ŵakakhumbanga waka vinthu vyawo. Themba ili likamanyikwanga kuti ndakujipatura ndipo likapulikiranga yayi ulongozgi wa ŵandyali ŵachinyamata ŵa Buganda awo ŵakamanyanga makora ndyali ziphya izo zikaŵako pamanyuma pa Kujiyimira paŵekha. Themba ili likakondwanga na ŵanthu awo ŵakalondezganga mitheto yiphya. Mu Meyi 1966, Themba Kabaka likacita cinthu cinyake. Iyo wakapempha wovwiri ku vyaru vinyake, ndipo nyumba ya malango ya ku Buganda yikapempha boma la Uganda kuti lifumemo mu charu ichi. Pakuzgora, Obote wakalangura Idi Amin kuti wawukire nyumba ya Themba. Nkhondo ya kutora nyumba ya fumu yikaŵa yankhongono comene. Ŵanalume 120 awo ŵakaŵa na vilwero ŵakakanizga Idi Amin kuti waleke kunjira nkhondo kwa maora 12. Ŵanthu ŵakuyowoya kuti ŵanthu pafupifupi 2,000 ŵakafwa pa nkhondo iyo yikamara apo ŵasilikari ŵakacema vilwero vikuru na kunjira mu nyumba yacifumu. Nkhondo ya ku mizi iyo ŵakayighanaghananga kuti yizamucitika mu Buganda yikacitika yayi ndipo pati pajumpha maora ghacoko waka, Obote wakakumana na ŵapharazgi kuti waŵaphalire vya kutonda kwake. Themba ili likacimbira pa viliŵa vya nyumba yacifumu ndipo likatolekera ku caru cinyake ku London. Pakati pajumpha vyaka vitatu wakafwira kwenekura. === 1966-1971 (pambere boma lindanjire) === Mu 1966, pamanyuma pa kulimbana pakati pa boma la Obote na Themba Muteesa, Obote wakalekeska malango gha boma ndipo wakawuskapo pulezidenti na wachiŵiri wake. Mu 1967, dango liphya likapharazga kuti Uganda ni charu cha wupu. Obote wakapharazgika kuŵa purezidenti.<ref name="Background">{{cite web | url=https://2001-2009.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2963.htm | title=Background Note: Uganda | publisher=Bureau of African Affairs, United States Department of State | date=November 2008 | access-date=21 January 2017 | archive-date=28 January 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220128192054/https://2001-2009.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2963.htm | url-status=live }}</ref> === 1971 (pamanyuma pa boma) -1979 (umaliro wa muwuso wa Amin) === {{Main|History of Uganda (1971–79)}} Pamanyuma pa kuwukira boma pa Janyuwale 25, 1971, Obote wakathereskeka ndipo Jenerale Idi Amin wakayamba kuwusa. Amin wakawusa Uganda nga ni muwusi wankhongono na wovwiri wa ŵasilikari kwa vyaka 8.<ref name="loc">[http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/ugtoc.html "A Country Study: Uganda"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150627004743/http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/ugtoc.html|date=27 June 2015}}, ''[[Library of Congress]] Country Studies''</ref> Wakakoma ŵanthu ŵanandi mu caru kuti walutilire kuwusa. Ŵanthu pafupifupi 80,000-500,000 ŵa ku Uganda ŵakafwa mu nyengo ya muwuso wake. Padera pa nkhaza izo wakacitanga, wakafumiskaso ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku India mu Uganda. Mu Juni 1976, ŵasilikari ŵa ku Palestina ŵakakora ndege ya Air France na kuyichichizga kuti yikhizge ku Entebbe. Ŵanthu 100 pa ŵanthu 250 awo ŵakaŵa mu ndege iyi ŵakakoleka na ŵasilikari ŵa Israyeli. Boma la Amin likamara mu 1979 pamanyuma pa Nkhondo ya Uganda na Tanzania. ===1979–mpaka pano=== {{Main|History of Uganda (1979–present)}} [[File:Second Congo War Africa map en.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|Belligerents of the Second Congo War. On 19 December 2005, the [[International Court of Justice]] found against Uganda, in a case brought by the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]], for illegal invasion of its territory, and violation of human rights.<ref>"[https://www.theguardian.com/world/2005/dec/20/congo.uganda Court orders Uganda to pay Congo damages] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210102143450/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2005/dec/20/congo.uganda|date=2 January 2021}}". ''[[The Guardian]]''. 20 December 2005</ref>]] Yoweri Museveni wakaŵa purezidenti kwambira waka apo ŵasilikari ŵake ŵakagumura boma lakale mu Janyuwale 1986 paumaliro wa Nkhondo ya ku Uganda. Kwamba mu caka ici, magulu gha ndyali gha mu Uganda ghakakanizgika kucita milimo yawo, cifukwa ca cilato ca kucepeskako nkhaza za cisopo. Mu boma la "Movement" ilo likaŵavya vipani, vipani vikalutilira kuŵako, kweni vikaŵa na ofesi yikuru pera. Ŵakatondekanga kujura maofesi ghawo, kuchita maungano gha chigaŵa, panji kwimika ŵalongozgi (nangauli ŵalongozgi aŵa ŵakeneranga kuŵa ŵa chipani). Mu Julayi 2005, boma likamazga dango lakuti ŵandyali ŵaŵepo vyaka 19. Mu 1993, Papa Yohane Paul II wakaluta ku Uganda pa ulendo wake wa mazuŵa 6 kuti wakaciske ŵanthu ŵa ku Uganda kuti ŵaphemane. Pa nyengo ya viphikiro, wakacindikanga Ŵakhristu awo ŵakakomeka cifukwa ca cipulikano cawo. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1990, vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi vikalumba Museveni kuti wakaŵa yumoza wa ŵalongozgi ŵa ku Africa. Ndipouli, nyengo iyo wakaŵa pulezidenti yikakhwaskika na nkhondo yaciŵiri ya ku Congo iyo yikakoma ŵanthu pafupifupi 5.4 miliyoni kufuma mu 1998, kweniso nkhondo zinyake izo zikacitika mu caru ca Great Lakes. Iyo wakarwa nkhondo ya pawenenawene kwa vilimika vinandi na gulu la Lord's Resistance Army, ilo lili na mulandu wa kusuzga ŵanthu ŵanandi, kusazgapo ŵazga ŵa ŵana, kukoma ŵanthu ŵa ku Atiak, na kukoma ŵanthu ŵanandi. Nkhondo izo zikucitika kumpoto kwa Uganda zakoma ŵanthu ŵanandi comene ndipo ŵanthu mamiliyoni ghanandi ŵafumapo pa nyumba zawo. Nyumba ya mafumu yikawuskapo malango gha mafumu mu 2005, chifukwa chakuti Museveni wakagwiliskiranga nchito ndalama za boma kuti wapeleke madola 2,000 kwa munthu waliyose uyo wakakhozgera dango ili. Mu Febuluwale 2006, kukaŵa mavoti gha pulezidenti. Museveni wakathereskanga ŵanthu ŵanandi, ndipo uyo wakaŵa wakuzirwa chomene wakaŵa Kizza Besigye. Pa 20 February, 2011, wupu wa Uganda Electoral Commission ukati pulezidenti wa sono Yoweri Kaguta Museveni ndiyo watonda pa chisankho cha 2011. Ndipouli, ŵakususka ŵakakhorwa yayi na ivyo vikacitika, ndipo ŵakavilongora kuti ni vyautesi. Kuyana na mavoti gha boma, Museveni ndiyo wakatonda na mavoti 68 pa 100 gha ŵanthu. Ivi vikapangiska kuti uyo wakamususkiranga chomene, Besigye, uyo wakaŵa dokotala wa Museveni, waleke kuwina ndipo wakaphalira ŵapharazgi kuti iyo na awo ŵakamukhozganga "ŵakuyuyura" ivyo vyachitika kweniso boma la Museveni panji munthu waliyose uyo wangimika. Besigye wakasazgirapo kuti mavoti ghakubendezga ghazamupangiska kuti ŵalongozgi ŵambura kuzomerezgeka ŵaŵepo ndipo ni udindo wa ŵanthu ŵa ku Uganda kusanda fundo iyi. Wupu wa European Union's Election Observation Mission ukayowoyapo pa ivyo vyasintha mu ndondomeko ya mavoti mu Uganda. Ndipouli, ndondomeko ya vyakusankha yikasuzgika cifukwa ca vinthu vyambura kwenda makora ivyo vikatondeska ŵanthu ŵanandi ku Uganda kuŵa na wanangwa wa kusankha". Kwambira mu Ogasiti 2012, gulu la ŵanthu awo ŵakutemwa kunanga vinthu (hacktivists) lakuchemeka Anonymous, likuwopsya ŵamazaza ŵa ku Uganda na kunanga mawebusayiti gha boma chifukwa cha malango ghake ghakususkana na ŵanthu ŵaviŵaro vyakuyana. Ŵanyake awo ŵakupeleka ndalama ku vyaru vinyake ŵakuti ŵamalenge ndalama izo ŵakupeleka ku caru ici usange ŵakulutilira kususka ŵanthu awo ŵakutemwa kugonana na ŵanalume panji ŵanakazi ŵanyawo. Vinthu vyakuti mwana wa pulezidenti, Muhoozi Kainerugaba ndiyo wazamunjira mu malo gha pulezidenti, vyasazgirako suzgo.<ref>Article 19. (2013). [http://www.article19.org/resources.php/resource/37201/en/uganda:-public-order-management-bill Uganda: Public Order Management Bill] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171016144056/https://www.article19.org/resources.php/resource/37201/en/uganda:-public-order-management-bill |date=16 October 2017 }}.</ref><ref>Masereka, Alex. (2013). [https://web.archive.org/web/20141129042324/http://www.redpepper.co.ug/m7-okays-public-order-bill/ M7 Okays Public Order Bill] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131023062551/http://www.redpepper.co.ug/m7-okays-public-order-bill/ |date=23 October 2013 }}. ''Red Pepper''.</ref><ref name="Uganda 2012 Human Rights Report">United States Department of State (Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor). (2012). [https://2009-2017.state.gov/documents/organization/204390.pdf Uganda 2012 Human Rights Report] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170326170131/https://2009-2017.state.gov/documents/organization/204390.pdf |date=26 March 2017 }}.</ref><ref>Natabaalo, Grace. (2013). Ugandan Police Shutdown Papers Over 'Plot'. ''Al Jazeera''.</ref> Pulezidenti Yoweri Museveni wali kulamulira chalo ichi kwambira mu chaka cha 1986 ndipo wakasankhikaso mu Januwale 2021. Kuyana na mavoti gha boma, Museveni wakathereska pa mavoti 58% apo Bobi Wine uyo wakaŵa ndyali wakaŵa na 35%. Awo ŵakususka ŵakasuska ivyo vikachitika chifukwa chakuti ŵakayowoya kuti pakaŵa upusikizgi na vinthu vinyake vyambura kwenelera.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.dw.com/en/uganda-election-bobi-wine-challenges-result-in-court/a-56405583|title=Uganda election: Bobi Wine challenges result in court &#124; DW &#124; 01.02.2021|website=Deutsche Welle|access-date=12 March 2021|archive-date=1 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210301143714/https://www.dw.com/en/uganda-election-bobi-wine-challenges-result-in-court/a-56405583|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-55675887|title=Uganda elections 2021: Museveni takes lead as Bobi Wine cries foul|work=BBC News|date=16 January 2021|access-date=12 March 2021|archive-date=10 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210310035143/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-55675887|url-status=live}}</ref> Munthu munyakeso uyo wakasuskanga wakaŵa John Katumba wa vyaka 24.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Independent |first1=The |title=Presidential candidate John Katumba publishes his memoir |url=https://www.independent.co.ug/presidential-candidate-john-katumba-publishes-his-memoir/ |website=The Independent Uganda |date=9 January 2021 |access-date=12 April 2022 |archive-date=1 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220701070601/https://www.independent.co.ug/presidential-candidate-john-katumba-publishes-his-memoir/ |url-status=live }}</ref> ==Makhalilo gha charu== {{Main|Geography of Uganda}} Uganda yili kumwera kwa Africa pakati pa 1o S na 4o N latitude, na pakati pa 30o E na 35o E longitude. Malo agha ghali na mapiri, nyanja, na tumapiri. Charu ichi chili pa mtunda wa mamita 900. Malire gha kumafumiro gha dazi na kumanjiliro gha dazi gha Uganda ghali na mapiri. Mu mapiri gha Ruwenzori muli phiri likuru comene mu Uganda, zina lake Alexandra, ilo lili na mamita 5,094. === Nyanja na milonga === Chigaŵa chikuru cha kumwera kwa charu ichi chili na nyanja yikuru chomene pa charu chose, Lake Victoria, iyo yili na virwa vinandi. Misumba yakuzirwa comene yili kumwera, kufupi na nyanja iyi, kusazgapo msumba ukuru wa Kampala na msumba wa Entebbe. Nyanja ya Kyoga yili pakatikati pa charu ichi ndipo yili kuzingilizgika na mathipa. Nangauli charu cha Uganda chili kutali na nyanja, kweni chili na nyanja zinandi zikuruzikuru. Padera pa Nyanja ya Victoria na Kyoga, paliso Nyanja ya Albert, Nyanja ya Edward, na Nyanja ya George. Malo agha ghali pafupi na Mlonga wa Nayelo. Mlonga wa Victoria Nile ukufuma mu Nyanja ya Victoria na kunjira mu Nyanja ya Kyoga, kufuma apo ukunjira mu Nyanja ya Albert pa mphaka ya Congo. Kufuma apo, likuluta kumpoto ku South Sudan. Chigaŵa chinyake cha kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Uganda chili na maji ghanandi agho ghakwenda mu mlonga wa Suam. Chigaŵa chakutali chomene cha kumpoto kwa kumafumiro gha dazi kwa charu cha Uganda chikuthira mu malo ghakuchemeka Lotikipi Basin, agho ghali mu charu cha Kenya.<ref name=DataBasin>{{cite web | url=http://databasin.org/maps/new#datasets=878c064ec5d8440493f9924f90b58af1 | title=Maps | website=Data Basin | access-date=14 September 2015 | archive-date=6 September 2015 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150906155539/http://databasin.org/maps/new#datasets=878c064ec5d8440493f9924f90b58af1 | url-status=live }}</ref> === Vinthu vyamoyo vyakupambanapambana === {{Main|Conservation in Uganda}} [[File:Koppen-Geiger Map UGA present.svg|thumb|upright=1.25|Mapu gha ku Uganda ghakulongora umo vinthu viliri mu charu ichi.]] Mu charu cha Uganda muli malo ghakuvikilirika 60, kusazgapo malo ghakusungirako vinyama ghakukwana 10. Malo agha ni Bwindi Impenetrable National Park na Rwenzori Mountains National Park (wose ni malo ghakusungirako vinthu vya charu cha UNESCO), Kibale National Park, Kidepo Valley National Park, Lake Mburo National Park, Mgahinga Gorilla National Park, Mount Elgon National Park, Murchison Falls National Park, Queen Elizabeth National Park, na Semuliki National Park. Ku Uganda kuli vyamoyo vinandi, kusazgapo viyuni vya mountain gorilla mu Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, viyuni vya gorilla na vikoko vya golide mu Mgahinga Gorilla National Park, na viyuni vya hippo mu Murchison Falls National Park. Vipambi ivi vikusangikaso mu vyaru vinandi. Charu ichi chili na chiŵelengero cha 4.36/10 pa 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index, ndipo chili pa nambara 128 pa vyaru 172.<ref name="FLII-Supplementary">{{cite journal|last1=Grantham|first1=H. S.|last2=Duncan|first2=A.|last3=Evans|first3=T. D.|last4=Jones|first4=K. R.|last5=Beyer|first5=H. L.|last6=Schuster|first6=R.|last7=Walston|first7=J.|last8=Ray|first8=J. C.|last9=Robinson|first9=J. G.|last10=Callow|first10=M.|last11=Clements|first11=T.|last12=Costa|first12=H. M.|last13=DeGemmis|first13=A.|last14=Elsen|first14=P. R.|last15=Ervin|first15=J.|last16=Franco|first16=P.|last17=Goldman|first17=E.|last18=Goetz|first18=S.|last19=Hansen|first19=A.|last20=Hofsvang|first20=E.|last21=Jantz|first21=P.|last22=Jupiter|first22=S.|last23=Kang|first23=A.|last24=Langhammer|first24=P.|last25=Laurance|first25=W. F.|last26=Lieberman|first26=S.|last27=Linkie|first27=M.|last28=Malhi|first28=Y.|last29=Maxwell|first29=S.|last30=Mendez|first30=M.|last31=Mittermeier|first31=R.|last32=Murray|first32=N. J.|last33=Possingham|first33=H.|last34=Radachowsky|first34=J.|last35=Saatchi|first35=S.|last36=Samper|first36=C.|last37=Silverman|first37=J.|last38=Shapiro|first38=A.|last39=Strassburg|first39=B.|last40=Stevens|first40=T.|last41=Stokes|first41=E.|last42=Taylor|first42=R.|last43=Tear|first43=T.|last44=Tizard|first44=R.|last45=Venter|first45=O.|last46=Visconti|first46=P.|last47=Wang|first47=S.|last48=Watson|first48=J. E. M.|display-authors=1|title=Anthropogenic modification of forests means only 40% of remaining forests have high ecosystem integrity - Supplementary Material|journal=Nature Communications|volume=11|issue=1|year=2020|page=5978|issn=2041-1723|doi=10.1038/s41467-020-19493-3|pmid=33293507|pmc=7723057|bibcode=2020NatCo..11.5978G |doi-access=free}}</ref> ==Boma na ndale== {{Main|Politics of Uganda}}Pulezidenti wa Uganda ni mutu wa boma na wa charu. Pulezidenti wakusora wachiŵiri kwa pulezidenti na nduna yikuru kuti zimovwire kuwusa. Nyumba ya malango yikupangika na wupu wa National Assembly, uwo uli na ŵanthu 449. Ŵanyake mwa iwo ni ŵimiliri ŵa vigaŵa 290, ŵimiliri ŵa ŵanakazi ŵa vigaŵa 116, ŵimiliri 10 ŵa gulu la Uganda People's Defense Forces, ŵimiliri 5 ŵa ŵawukirano, ŵimiliri 5 ŵa ŵantchito, ŵimiliri 5 ŵa ŵanthu ŵakupendera, na ŵimiliri 18 ŵa ofesi..<ref>{{Cite web |title=About Uganda {{!}} State House Uganda |url=https://www.statehouse.go.ug/about-uganda |access-date=19 June 2022 |website=www.statehouse.go.ug |archive-date=18 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220618075533/https://statehouse.go.ug/about-uganda |url-status=live }}</ref> ===Ubale na vyaru vinyake=== {{Further|Foreign relations of Uganda|}}Charu cha Uganda chili ku East African Community (EAC), pamoza na vyaru vya Kenya, Tanzania, Rwanda, Burundi, na South Sudan. Mwakuyana na ndondomeko ya 2010 yakuyowoya za msika wa East African Common Market, ŵanthu ŵali na wanangwa wa kusama na kusama, kusazgapo wanangwa wa kukhala mu caru cinyake. Ndipouli, ndondomeko iyi yindakhazikiskike cifukwa ca kupeleŵera kwa mwaŵi wa kugwira nchito na masuzgo ghanyake gha ndyali, malango, na ndalama. Boma la Uganda ndilo likayambiska bungwe la Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD), ilo lili na vyaru 8 ivyo vikusazgapo maboma gha mu Africa, Nile Valley, na Great Lakes. Likulu lake lili ku Djibouti City. Kweniso charu cha Uganda chili mu wupu wa Islamic Cooperation Organization.<ref name="oicmems">{{cite web|title=Member States|url=https://www.oic-oci.org/|website=OIC|access-date=1 November 2020|archive-date=1 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201101030126/https://www.oic-oci.org/|url-status=live}}</ref> [[File:BushMuseveniEntebbe2003.jpg|thumb|United States Pulezidenti George W. Bush wakakumana na Pulezidenti Yoweri Museveni ku Entebbe, Uganda, pa Julayi 11, 2003.]] === Ŵankhondo === {{Further|Uganda People's Defence Force}} Ku Uganda, ŵasilikari ŵakucemeka Uganda People's Defence Force. Ŵasilikari ŵa mu Uganda ŵalipo pafupifupi 45,000. Gulu la ŵasilikari la Uganda likugwira nchito zinandi za mtende na nkhondo mu cigaŵa ici, ndipo ŵanthu ŵakuyowoya kuti ŵasilikari ŵa United States pera ndiwo ŵakutumika mu vyaru vinandi. Boma la Uganda lili na ŵasilikari awo ŵali kumpoto na kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Democratic Republic of Congo, Central African Republic, Somalia, na South Sudan.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.monitor.co.ug/OpEd/OpEdColumnists/CharlesOnyangoObbo/With-Somalia--CAR--and-South-Sudan--Museveni/-/878504/2137720/-/eb4y1nz/-/index.html | title=With Somalia, CAR, and South Sudan, Museveni is remaking the state – Charles Onyango Obbo | publisher=Monitor.co.ug | access-date=30 May 2015 | archive-date=29 November 2014 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141129014713/http://www.monitor.co.ug/OpEd/OpEdColumnists/CharlesOnyangoObbo/With-Somalia--CAR--and-South-Sudan--Museveni/-/878504/2137720/-/eb4y1nz/-/index.html | url-status=dead }}</ref> ===Vimbundi=== {{main|Corruption in Uganda}} Wupu wa Transparency International ukati mu charu cha Uganda muli vimbundi vinandi chomene. Mu chaka cha 2016, charu cha Uganda chikaŵa pa malo gha 151 pa malo 176, ndipo chikaŵa na mavoti 25 pa scale ya 0 (kuwona kuti ntcha vimbundi chomene) m'paka 100 (kuwona kuti ntchakutowa). Mu 2015 World Bank's Worldwide Governance Indicators yikati Uganda yili pa 12 percentile pa vyaru vyose. Lipoti la United States Department of State lakuyowoya za wanangwa wa ŵanthu mu 2012, likati: "Ivyo ofesi ya World Bank yikalemba vikulongora kuti vimbundi ni suzgo likuru chomene". Mu 2014, ŵimiliri ŵa Nyumba ya Malamulo ku Uganda ŵakasanganga ndalama zinandi chomene kuluska za ŵantchito ŵanandi ŵa boma. Ivi vikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵayowoye viheni na kususka ivyo vikachitika, kusazgapo kunjira mwakubisilizga twana twa ng'ombe tuŵiri mu Nyumba ya Malango mu Juni 2014 kuti ŵawoneske kuti pali vimbundi pakati pa ŵanthu ŵa mu Nyumba ya Malango. Ŵanthu awo ŵakakakika ŵakayowoya mazgu ghakuti "Vinkhara" kulongora kuti ŵakakwiya. Mu 2012, ofesi ya nduna yikapoka ndalama zakukwana madola 12.6 miliyoni kufuma ku ŵanthu awo ŵakachitanga vyawanangwa. Ndalama izi "zikapelekeka kuti ziwovwire kuzengaso kumpoto kwa Uganda, uko kukaŵa nkhondo kwa vyaka 20, na Karamoja, cigaŵa cikavu comene mu Uganda". Nkhani iyi yikapangiska kuti ŵa EU, Britain, Germany, Denmark, Ireland, na Norway ŵaleke kovwira ŵanyawo. Vimbundi vikuru na vichoko ivyo vikuchitika pakati pa ŵalara ŵa boma na ŵandyali, vyakhwaskaso chomene ndalama izo ŵanthu ŵakuguliska mu Uganda. Chimoza mwa vigaŵa ivyo vingapangiska vimbundi ni vyakupeleka vya boma, uko kanandi awo ŵakupeleka vyakupeleka ŵakuŵapa ndalama zakubisika. Cinyake ico cingapangiska kuti suzgo ili likure comene ni mafuta. Dango la Petroleum Bill, ilo likapelekeka na boma mu 2012 ndipo likayowoyeka na NRM kuti lipelekenge umanyikwiro ku vyalo vya mafuta, likakondweska yayi ŵanthu awo ŵakuyowoya vya ndyali na vyachuma. Mwaciyelezgero, Angelo Izama, wakuwona vya magesi wa ku Uganda wa ku United States Open Society Foundation, wakati dango liphya ili likuyana waka na "kupeleka mashini gha ATM" kwa Museveni na muwuso wake. Wupu unyake uwo ukuwona vya malango gha pa charu chose (Global Witness) ukati mu 2012, charu cha Uganda chili na "mafuta ghanandi chomene agho ghangapangiska kuti mu vyaka 6 m'paka 10 ndalama za boma ziŵe zakukwana madola 2.4 biliyoni pa chaka". Dango lakuyowoya za mawupu ghambura kwendera boma (Amendment) Act, ilo likapelekeka mu 2006, likakanizga mawupu agha kuchita vinthu mwamahara. Vinthu vinyake ivyo vikupangiska kuti ntchito ya mawupu gha boma yileke kwenda makora ni ndondomeko zakusuzga na za vimbundi izo zikulembeka (kusazgapo kupempha ulongozgi ku ŵalara ŵa boma; kulembeskaso chaka chilichose), malango ghambura kupulikikwa ghakwendeskera vinthu (kusazgapo kupempha boma kuti liŵamanyiske pambere ŵandambe kukumana na ŵanthu awo ŵakukhwaskika na mawupu gha boma yayi), kweniso kuti ndalama zose izo zikufuma ku vyaru vinyake zileke kuluta mu Banki ya Uganda. Kweniso wanangwa wa kuyowoya wa boma ukuyuzgika nyengo zose, ndipo dango liphya lakuti boma liŵe na ndondomeko yiwemi (ilo likukanizga wanangwa wa kuwungana) likusazgirako waka vilwero vya boma.<ref>The International Center for Not-For-Profit Law. (2012). [http://www.icnl.org/research/monitor/uganda.html NGO Law Monitor: Uganda] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029191439/http://www.icnl.org/research/monitor/uganda.html |date=29 October 2013 }}.</ref> === Wanangwa wa '''ŵa'''nthu === {{Main|Human rights in Uganda}} Pali vigaŵa vinandi ivyo vikulutilira kutipangiska kwenjerwa pa nkhani ya wanangwa wa ŵanthu mu Uganda. Nkhondo mu vigaŵa vya kumpoto kwa charu ichi yikulutilira kutimbanizga ŵanthu ŵa gulu la Lord's Resistance Army (LRA), ilo likulongozgeka na Joseph Kony, kweniso ŵasilikari ŵa Uganda. Mu Febuluwale 2009, mulara wa UN wakapa mulandu LRA kuti "wakucita nkhaza zinandi" mu Democratic Republic of Congo. Ŵanthu awo ŵali kufumamo mu vikaya vyawo ŵalipo pafupifupi 1.4 miliyoni. Kuyuzgika kukulutilira kuŵa mu vyaru vinandi. Kuwukira wanangwa wa ndyali mu caru ici, kusazgapo kukora na kutimba ŵanthu awo ŵakususka boma, kwapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yose ŵadandawurenge. Kusoleka kwa mulongozgi mukuru wa chipani chakususka Kizza Besigye na kuzingilizga khoti likuru pa nyengo ya kupulikizga mulandu wa Besigye na ŵasilikari awo ŵakaŵa na vilwero vikuru vikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵaleke kumupulikira. Ku Uganda ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakugwira ntchito za ŵana. Ŵana ŵanandi ŵakugwira nchito ya kulima. Ŵana awo ŵakugwira nchito mu minda ya hona ku Uganda ŵakuŵa pangozi. Ŵana awo ŵakuteŵetera mu nyumba ku Uganda ŵakuŵa pangozi ya kuyuzgika. Ŵana ŵakuguliskika. Dango la Uganda likukanizga wuzga na kugwira nchito mwankhongono. Komiti ya ku United States yakuwona vya ŵanthu ŵakuchimbira kwawo yikati mu 2007, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakaŵachimbizga ku Uganda. Mu vyaka vyasonosono apa, ŵanthu ŵanandi ku Uganda ŵakusuzgika na kukomeka kwambura mulandu. Mwachiyelezgero, lipoti la Dipatimenti ya vya Vyaru ya ku United States ilo likalembeka mu 2012, likati: "Chipatala cha African Center for Treatment and Rehabilitation for Torture Victims chikalembapo milandu 170 yakususkana na ŵapolisi, 214 yakususkana na UPDF, yimoza yakususkana na ŵapolisi ŵasilikari, 23 yakususkana na Special Investigations Unit, 361 yakususkana na ŵantchito ŵambura kuzunulika, kweniso 24 yakususkana na ŵalara ŵa jele". Mu Seputembala 2009, Museveni wakakanira Kabaka Muwenda Mutebi, fumu ya Baganda, kuzomerezga kuluta ku vigaŵa vinyake vya Ufumu wa Buganda, chomenechomene chigaŵa cha Kayunga. Ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 40 ŵakakomeka, ndipo ŵanyake ŵachali mu jele. Kuonjezera apo, ŵanthu 9 ŵakakomeka mu mwezi wa Epulero 2011 apo ŵakacitanga viphikiro vya "Walk to Work". Kuyana na lipoti la wupu wa Human Rights Watch la 2013 World Report on Uganda, boma la Uganda latondeka kupenjerezga za kukoma ŵanthu uko kwachitika mu vigaŵa vyose viŵiri ivi.<ref>Human Rights Watch. (2013). [https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2013/country-chapters/uganda World Report 2013 (Uganda)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160701082641/https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2013/country-chapters/uganda |date=1 July 2016 }}.</ref> ==== Wanangwa wa ŵa LGBT ==== {{Main|LGBT rights in Uganda}} {{See also|The Anti-Homosexuality Act, 2014}} [[File:Uganda Anti-Homosexuality Bill protest.jpg|thumb|left|Protests in [[New York City]] against Uganda's [[The Anti-Homosexuality Act, 2014|Anti-Homosexuality Bill]].]] Mu 2007, nyuzipepara yinyake yikalemba mazina gha ŵanalume ŵanandi awo ŵakatenge ŵakutemwa kugonana na ŵanalume ŵanyawo. Pa Okutobala 9, 2010, nyuzipepala ya ku Uganda ya Rolling Stone yikalemba nkhani ya mutu wakuti "Vithunzi 100 za Ogonana Nawo Kwambiri ku Uganda" iyo yikalembamo mazina, maadiresi, na vithuzithuzi vya ŵanthu 100 awo ŵakugonana na ŵanalume panji ŵanakazi ŵekhaŵekha. Kweniso nyuzipepara iyi yikayowoya kuti ŵana ŵa ku Uganda ŵakugonana na ŵanalume panji ŵanakazi ŵanyawo. Buku ili likakondweska ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yose ndipo likaŵa na ŵanthu awo ŵakususka ivyo likalemba. Kuyana na ŵanthu awo ŵakuvikilira wanangwa wa ŵanalume panji ŵanakazi awo ŵakugonana na ŵanalume panji ŵanakazi ŵanyawo, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Uganda ŵakhwaskika kufuma apo buku ili likalembekera. Pa January 27, 2011, David Kato, wakuvikilira wanangwa wa ŵanthu ŵaviŵaro vyakuyana wakakomeka. Mu 2009, Nyumba ya Malamulo ya ku Uganda yikaghanaghanirapo pa dango lakukanizga kugonana kwa ŵanalume panji ŵanakazi ŵekhaŵekha ilo likatenge liŵikenge chilango cha nyifwa ku ŵanthu awo ŵakususkana na kugonana kwa ŵanthu ŵekhaŵekha. Ndondomeko iyi yikaŵa na fundo izo zikovwira ŵanthu ŵa ku Uganda awo ŵakugonana na ŵanalume panji ŵanakazi ŵekhaŵekha ku caru cinyake, ndipo yikati ŵangawezgeka ku Uganda kuti ŵakalangike. Pa 14 Okutobala 2009, MP David Bahati wakapeleka dango la mamembala gha yekha, ndipo ŵakagomezganga kuti likapokera wovwiri ukuru mu nyumba ya malango ya Uganda. Gulu la ŵanthu awo ŵakutemwa kunanga vinthu la Anonymous likakanjira mu webusayiti ya boma la Uganda kuti lichitire ukaboni dango ili. Chifukwa chakuti charu chose chikasuska fundo iyi, nkhani iyi yikadumulika, kweni paumaliro yikadumulika pa Disembala 20, 2013. Dango laumaliro likalekeska chilango cha nyifwa. Dango ili likasuskika chomene na ŵamitundu yose. Denmark, Netherlands, na Sweden, vikati vilekenge kupeleka wovwiri. Pa 28 February 2014 Banki ya Charu chose yikati yilekeskenge ngongoli ya US$90 million, apo United States yikati yikughanaghanaso za ubwezi wake na Uganda. Pa Ogasiti 1, 2014, Khoti la Dango la Uganda likati dango ili ndakubendera chifukwa likapokelereka yayi.<ref>{{cite news | title=Uganda anti-gay law challenged in court | url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/jul/31/uganda-anti-gay-law-constitutional-court | access-date=1 August 2014 | work=The Guardian | agency=AFP | date=31 July 2014 | archive-date=31 July 2014 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140731171411/http://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/jul/31/uganda-anti-gay-law-constitutional-court | url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news | title=Uganda court annuls anti-gay law | url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-28605400 | access-date=1 August 2014 | work=BBC News | date=1 August 2014 | archive-date=9 September 2019 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190909134802/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-28605400 | url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news | title=Uganda constitutional court annuls new anti-gay law | url=http://www.timeslive.co.za/africa/2014/08/01/uganda-constitutional-court-annuls-new-anti-gay-law | access-date=1 August 2014 | work=Times LIVE | agency=AFP | date=1 August 2014 | archive-date=9 September 2019 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190909103014/https://www.timeslive.co.za/africa/2014/08/01/uganda-constitutional-court-annuls-new-anti-gay-law | url-status=live }}</ref>Lipoti la nyuzipepara ilo likalembeka pa 13 August 2014 likati loya mukuru wa boma la Uganda wakaleka ivyo wakakhumbanga kuchita pakudandawura chifukwa cha ulongozgi wa pulezidenti Museveni uyo wakafipanga mtima na umo ŵanthu ŵakuchitira na dango ili. Kufumira mu chaka cha 2019, vinthu vikenda makora yayi mu Africa, ndipo charu cha South Africa ndicho pera icho chikuzomerezga nthengwa za ŵanalume panji ŵanakazi ŵekhaŵekha. Pa March 21, 2023, nyumba ya malango ya ku Uganda yikapeleka dango lakuti munthu uyo wakujiwona kuti ni mwanalume panji mwanakazi munthengwa wangakakika umoyo wake wose.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Nicholls |first=Larry Madowo,Catherine |date=2023-03-21 |title=Uganda parliament passes bill criminalizing identifying as LGBTQ, imposes death penalty for some offenses |url=https://www.cnn.com/2023/03/21/africa/uganda-lgbtq-law-passes-intl/index.html |access-date=2023-03-22 |website=CNN |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Atuhaire |first=Patience |date=2023-03-21 |title=Uganda Anti-Homosexuality bill: Life in prison for saying you're gay |language=en-GB |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-65034343 |access-date=2023-03-22}}</ref> ==== Kugonana kwa ŵanalume panji ŵanakazi pera ==== {{See also|Anti-Homosexuality Bill, 2023}} {{align|right|{{Highlighted world map by country|scale = 60|US=darkblue|CA=darkblue|MX=yellow|GB=darkblue|IS=yellow|NO=yellow|SE=lightblue|FI=lightblue|EE=lightblue|LV=lightblue|LT=lightblue|PL=lightblue|DE=darkblue|DK=lightblue|NL=lightblue|BE=lightblue|FR=lightblue|ES=lightblue|PT=lightblue|IT=lightblue|CH=yellow|IE=lightblue|GL=yellow|CZ=lightblue|SK=lightblue|RU=yellow|BY=yellow|UA=yellow|RO=lightblue|AT=lightblue|GR=lightblue|TR=yellow|BG=lightblue|RS=yellow|MK=yellow|AL=yellow|HU=lightblue|SI=lightblue|BA=yellow|ME=yellow|HR=lightblue|KZ=yellow|MN=yellow|CN=yellow|KP=yellow|KR=yellow|JP=yellow|TW=yellow|PH=yellow|UZ=yellow|KG=yellow|TJ=yellow|AF=yellow|PK=yellow|IN=yellow|NP=yellow|BT=yellow|BD=yellow|MM=yellow|TH=yellow|VN=yellow|KH=yellow|LA=yellow|IR=yellow|LK=yellow|ID=yellow|MY=yellow|PG=yellow|AU=yellow|NZ=yellow|SA=yellow|YE=yellow|OM=yellow|AE=yellow|BH=yellow|QA=yellow|IQ=yellow|SY=yellow|JO=yellow|IL=yellow|EG=yellow|LY=yellow|TN=yellow|DZ=yellow|MA=yellow|EH=yellow|MG=yellow|MR=yellow|CU=yellow|SD=yellow|SS=yellow|ER=yellow|DJ=yellow|ET=yellow|SO=yellow|BR=yellow|UY=yellow|AR=yellow|CL=yellow|KW=yellow|PY=yellow|BO=yellow|PE=yellow|EC=yellow|CO=yellow|VE=yellow|PA=yellow|GY=yellow|SR=yellow|CR=yellow|NI=yellow|HN=yellow|SV=yellow|GT=yellow|HT=yellow|DO=yellow|NE=yellow|ML=yellow|BF=yellow|NG=yellow|CM=yellow|CF=yellow|TD=yellow|KE=yellow|ZA=yellow|NA=yellow|BW=yellow|CD=yellow|CG=yellow|GA=yellow|GQ=yellow|BZ=yellow|AZ=yellow|AM=yellow|GE=yellow|SN=yellow|GM=yellow|GW=yellow|SL=yellow|CI=yellow|GN=yellow|PR=yellow|JM=yellow|AO=yellow|ZM=yellow|MZ=yellow|ZW=yellow|MW=yellow|TZ=yellow|UG=black|BI=yellow|RW=yellow|BS=yellow|TK=yellow|BJ=yellow|TG=yellow|GH=yellow|TT=yellow|LR=yellow|FK=yellow|CY=lightblue|TM=yellow|LB=yellow|FJ=yellow|SB=yellow|NC=yellow|VU=yellow|MD=yellow|PS=yellow|LU=yellow|BN=yellow}} {{legend|darkblue|Countries opposing the bill}} {{legend|lightblue|European Union countries without statements}} {{legend|darkred|Countries supporting the bill}} {{legend|yellow|No statement}} {{legend|black|Uganda}}}} Pa March 9, 2023 Asuman Basalirwa, mphala ya malango kufuma mu 2018 kufuma ku chipani cha opposition icho chikwimira boma la Bugiri pa chiphikiro cha Justice Forum party ticket, wakalemba ndondomeko ya dango [pdf bill] ilo likukhumba kukanizga kugonana kwa ŵanalume panji ŵanakazi ŵekhaŵekha ndiposo “kusambizga panji kuzomerezga vibwezi vyantheura ndipo wakayowoya kuti: Mu chalo ichi, panji mu charu ichi, tikuyowoya za wanangwa wa ŵanthu. Kweni mbunenesko kuti ŵanthu nawo ŵakubudiska. Nkhukhumba kuyowoya kuti kugonana kwa ŵanalume pera panji ŵanakazi pera nkhwananga uko kukususkana na malango gha mu Uganda ndipo kukususka utuŵa wa mbumba, kuvikilira ŵana ŵithu ndiposo kulutilira kwa ŵanthu kwizira mu kubaba. <ref>{{Cite news |last=Okiror |first=Samuel |date=2023-03-01 |title=Uganda MPs revive hardline anti-LGBTQ bill, calling homosexuality a 'cancer' |language=en-GB |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2023/mar/01/uganda-mps-hardline-anti-lgbtq-bill |access-date=2023-03-11 |issn=0261-3077}}</ref>Mulara wa nyumba ya malango, Annet Anita Among, wakatumizga dango ili ku komiti ya nyumba ya malango kuti liwonekere makora. Mulara wa nyumba ya malango wakayowoyapo kale kuti: "Tikukhumba kuwonga awo ŵakukhozgera kugonana kwa ŵanalume panji ŵanakazi ŵekhaŵekha cifukwa ca wovwiri uwo ŵapeleka ku caru", pakuyowoya za vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi na awo ŵakupeleka wovwiri. Kweni tikukondwa yayi kuti ŵakukoma ŵanthu. Tikukhumba ndalama zawo yayi, tikukhumba cikaya cithu. Pa nyengo ya kusopa uko kukachitika mu nyumba ya boma ndipo ŵalongozgi ŵanandi ŵa visopa ŵakiza. Wapampando wakalapa kuti wazamunjira mu dango pa mtengo uliwose kuvikilira cikaya ca Uganda na muwuso wake. Pa Malichi 21, 2023, nyumba ya malango yikapokelera luŵiro dango lakukanizga kugonana kwa ŵanalume panji ŵanakazi pera. Boma la United States likasuska comene fundo iyi. Pa ungano wa White House Press pa March 22, 2023, Karine Jean-Pierre wakayowoya. "Munthu waliyose wali na wanangwa. Palije uyo wakwenera kuyuzgika, kukakika, panji kukomeka cifukwa ca umo waliri panji cifukwa ca uyo wakumutemwa". Mu mazuŵa ghakulondezgapo, boma la United Kingdom, Canada, Germany, na European Union likalutilira kumususka. === Kugawikana kwa boma === {{main|Administrative divisions of Uganda}} Kufika mu chaka cha 2022, charu cha Uganda chili kugaŵika vigaŵa vinayi na vigaŵa 136.<ref name="district">{{cite web | url=https://www.iso.org/obp/ui/#iso:code:3166:UG | title=UG – Uganda | work=[[ISO 3166]] | publisher=[[ISO]] | date=23 November 2017 | access-date=1 December 2017 | archive-date=17 June 2016 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160617031837/https://www.iso.org/obp/ui/#iso:code:3166:UG | url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=factsheet>{{cite web | url=http://molg.go.ug/sites/default/files/MoLG%20-%20%20Fact%20Sheet.pdf | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171202054340/http://molg.go.ug/sites/default/files/MoLG%20-%20%20Fact%20Sheet.pdf | url-status=dead | archive-date=2 December 2017 | title=Ministry of Local Government Fact Sheet | publisher=[[Ministry of Local Government (Uganda)|MOLG]] | date=1 July 2017 | access-date=1 December 2017 }}</ref> Vigaŵa vya ku mizi vya vigaŵa ivi vili kugaŵika mu vigaŵa vichokovichoko, vikaya, na vikaya. Maofesi gha boma na gha matawuni ghakumanyikwa mu vigaŵa vya misumba. Maboma gha ndyali gha mu Uganda ghakukolerana na wupu wa Uganda Local Governments Association (ULGA). Kuyana na boma, maufumu ghankhondi gha ŵanthu ŵa Bantu ghakukhalapo, ndipo ghakuŵa na wanangwa wa kujilongozga. Maufumu agha ni Toro, Busoga, Bunyoro, Buganda, na Rwenzururu. Kweniso, magulu ghanyake ghakukhumba kuwezgerapo ufumu wa Ankole, kweni palije ico cacitika. Maboma ghanyake ghakumanyikwa na boma, nga ni Alur, Iteso, Lango, na Padhola.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.irinnews.org/report/86107/uganda-a-rough-guide-to-the-country-s-kingdoms | title=A rough guide to the country's kingdoms | date=11 September 2009 | access-date=30 November 2014 | archive-date=5 December 2014 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141205023326/http://www.irinnews.org/report/86107/uganda-a-rough-guide-to-the-country-s-kingdoms | url-status=live }}</ref> ==Chuma na vyakuzenga== {{Main|Economy of Uganda|Energy in Uganda|Agriculture in Uganda}} [[File:Uganda Export Treemap.png|thumb|upright=1.5|Chithuzithuzi ichi chikulongora katundu uyo Uganda wakuguliska mu vigaŵa 28.]] Banki ya Uganda ni banki yikuru ya Uganda ndipo yikwendeska ndondomeko ya ndalama pamoza na kusindikiza shilling ya Uganda. Mu 2015, chuma cha Uganda chikapanga ndalama zakufumila ku vyakurya ivi: khofi (US$402.63 million), mafuta (US$131.25 million), visulo na vinthu vinyake (US$120.00 million), somba (US$117.56 million), chimanga (US$90.97 million), simenti (US$80.13 million), hona (US$73.13 million), tiyi (US$69.94 million), shuga (US$66.43 million), vikumba (US$62.71 million), makoko (US$55.67 million), nyemba (US$53.88 million), simsim (US$52.20 million), maluŵa (US$51.44 million), na vinthu vinyake (US$766.77 million).<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.bou.or.ug/bou/bou-downloads/publications/Statistical_Abstract/2015/All/2015-Bank-of-Uganda-Statistical-Abstract.pdf | title=2015 Statistical Abstract – Table 3.3a: Exports of merchandise (Flows) – CY | publisher=Research and Policy Directorate, [[Bank of Uganda]] | page=9 | access-date=17 January 2017 | archive-date=18 January 2017 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170118100916/https://www.bou.or.ug/bou/bou-downloads/publications/Statistical_Abstract/2015/All/2015-Bank-of-Uganda-Statistical-Abstract.pdf | url-status=dead }}</ref>[[File:GDP per capita development of Uganda.svg|thumb|Kusintha kwa GDP pa munthu yumoza mu Uganda, 1950~2018. Malipoti agha ghali na ndalama zakukwana madola gha pa caru cose mu 2011.]] Vyaru ivi vikukura comene. Mu chaka cha ndalama cha 2015-16, charu cha Uganda chikaŵa na chiŵelengero cha vinthu vyakuthupi (GDP) icho chikakura na 4.6 peresenti. Ivi vikupambana na umo vikaŵira mu caka ca 2014 ∙15. Charu ichi chili na mafuta ghanandi na gasi. Mu 1986, vyakurya ivyo vikagwiranga nchito mu vyaru vinyake vikaŵanga na ciŵelengero ca 56 peresenti, ndipo khofi ndiyo yikaŵa nchito yikuru ya vyakurya ivyo vikagwiranga nchito mu vyaru vinyake. Kweni sono vyakurya ivi vyajumpha pa viŵelengero vya vyakurya ivyo vikagwiranga nchito mu vyaru vinyake. Mu ma 1950, boma la Britain likakhozga ŵalimi pafupifupi 500,000 kuti ŵaŵe na makopanthazi. Kwambira mu 1986, boma (na wovwiri wa vyaru vinyake na mawupu gha pa caru cose) lacita vinthu kuti liwezgepo cuma ico cikaparanyika mu nyengo ya muwuso wa Idi Amin na nkhondo ya pa cikaya iyo yikacitika pamanyuma pake. Mu 2012, Banki ya Caru Cose yikalutilira kulemba Uganda pa nambara ya vyaru vikavu ivyo vili na ngongoli zinandi. Ni nyengo zose yayi apo ukavu ukumara chifukwa cha kukura kwa chuma. Nangauli pakati pa 2000 na 2003, ukavu ukakuranga pa ciŵelengero ca 2.5 peresenti pa caka, kweni pa nyengo iyi ukavu ukakwera pa 3.8 peresenti. Ivi vikulongora kuti nchakuzirwa comene kuti tileke kuŵa na nchito zinandi, ndipo vikovwira kuti ŵanthu ŵamanye kuti nchakukhumbikwa kuŵa na nchito zinandi mu caru cose.<ref name=ODI>{{cite web | url=http://www.odi.org.uk/resources/details.asp?id=4892&title=millennium-development-goals-equitable-growth-policy-brief | title=Economic growth and the MDGs – Resources – Overseas Development Institute | publisher=ODI | access-date=31 May 2011 | archive-date=17 July 2011 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110717041456/http://www.odi.org.uk/resources/details.asp?id=4892&title=millennium-development-goals-equitable-growth-policy-brief | url-status=dead }}</ref>[[File:Uganda GV5 lo (4108162183).jpg|thumb|left|Coffee fields in southwestern Uganda]] Pakuti maburosha gha ndalama gha ku Uganda ghakakhazikiskika mu 1996, maburosha ghanandi gha ndalama ghakalembeka. Boma likugwiliskira nchito msika wa masheya kuŵa nthowa yakucitira vinthu vyawo. Vinthu vyose ivyo boma likupeleka vikusangika pa masheya. Wupu wa Capital Markets Authority uli kupeleka malayisensi ku mabroker 18, ŵalaŵiliri ŵa katundu, na ŵapeleka ulongozgi wa ndalama, kusazgapo: African Alliance Investment Bank, Baroda Capital Markets Uganda Limited, Crane Financial Services Uganda Limited, Crested Stocks and Securities Limited, Dyer & Blair Investment Bank, Equity Stock Brokers Uganda Limited, Renaissance Capital Investment Bank na UAP Financial Services Limited. Pakuŵa yimoza mwa nthowa izo zingawovwilira kuti ŵanthu ŵaŵikengepo ndalama zinandi mu nyumba zawo, ndondomeko yakunozga ndarama za penshoni ndiyo yikukhumbikwa chomene (2007). Mwaciyelezgero, charu ca Uganda cikuthemba pa Kenya kuti chifike ku dowoko la Mombasa ku Indian Ocean. Ŵakuyezgayezga chomene kuti ŵajare nthowa yaciŵiri yakunjilira mu nyanja kwizira mu dowoko la Bukasa ku Uganda na Musoma ku Tanzania, ndipo njanji iyi yikunjilira mu dowoko la Arusha ku Tanzania na ku dowoko la Tanga ku Indian Ocean.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.businessdailyafrica.com/Corporate+News/Tanzania+and+Uganda+agree+to+speed+up+railway+project/-/539550/1268910/-/1364j49/-/ | title=Tanzania And Uganda Agree To Speed Up Railway Project | publisher=Businessdailyafrica.com8 November 2011 | author=Mbunga, Paskal | access-date=27 June 2012 | archive-date=4 April 2012 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120404075957/http://www.businessdailyafrica.com/Corporate+News/Tanzania+and+Uganda+agree+to+speed+up+railway+project/-/539550/1268910/-/1364j49/-/ | url-status=live }}</ref> Uganda ni ciŵaro ca wupu wa East African Community ndipo wangaŵa na mwaŵi wa kuŵa mu wupu wa East African Federation. Mu charu cha Uganda muli ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakukhala ku United States na United Kingdom. Ŵanthu ŵa mu charu ichi ŵakawovwira chomene kuti chuma cha charu cha Uganda chikure. Kuyana na Banki ya Charu Chose, Uganda yikapokera mu 2016 ndalama zakukwana US$1.099 billion kufuma ku vyaru vinyake, yaciŵiri kwa Kenya (US$1.574 billion) mu East African Community. ndipo yaciŵiri mu Africa. Wupu wakuwona vya ndyali ku Uganda ukati mu Novembala 2016 chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu awo ŵakakhwaskika na suzgo ili chikaŵa pa 4.6 peresenti. Pa 29 June 2018, wupu wakuwona vya manambara ku Uganda ukati charu ichi chikakhira pa 3.4 peresenti mu chaka cha ndalama cha 2017/18 pakuyaniska na 5.7 peresenti mu chaka cha ndalama cha 2016/17.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2018-06/29/c_137290591.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180629211155/http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2018-06/29/c_137290591.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=29 June 2018|title=Uganda sees drop in inflation in 2017/18 financial year - Xinhua - English.news.cn|website=www.xinhuanet.com}}</ref> ===Ma kamupani=== Boma la Uganda lili pa malo gha nambara 102 pa vyaru vya pasi pa chiŵelengero cha GDP (Gross Domestic Product) na International Monetary Fund na GDP ya 26,349 (US$ million). Banki ya Caru cose yikalongora kuti caru ca Uganda cili pa nambara 99 pa nkhani ya GDP, na GDP ya 25,891 (US$ million). Kuyana na GDP na nkhongono zakugulira, IMF yikaŵika Uganda pa nambara 86 (91,212 million of current Int$) ndipo World Bank yikaŵika Uganda pa nambara 90 (79,889 million of current Int$). Kwamba m'ma 1990, chuma cha Uganda chikukura. Pa nyengo ya 1990-2015, GDP yikakura pa ciŵelengero ca 6.7% pa caka, apo GDP pa munthu yikakura pa ciŵelengero ca 3.3% pa caka.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://databank.worldbank.org/data/reports.aspx?source=world-development-indicators|title=World Development Indicators - DataBank|website=databank.worldbank.org|access-date=22 May 2019|archive-date=4 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190504140427/https://databank.worldbank.org/data/reports.aspx?source=world-development-indicators|url-status=live}}</ref> ===Ukavu=== {{main|Poverty in Uganda}} CCharu cha Uganda ntchimoza mwa vyaru vikavu chomene pa charu chose. Mu 2012, pa ŵanthu 100 ŵaliwose, 37.8 ŵakakhalanga na ndalama zichoko chomene pa zuŵa. Nangauli ŵanthu ŵanandi mu charu ichi ŵali kuhara chomene, kweni ŵakavu ŵachali palipose.<ref>{{cite web | title=Enabling Poor People to Overcome Poverty in Uganda | publisher=International Fund for Agricultural Development | url=http://www.ifad.org/operations/projects/regions/Pf/factsheets/uganda.pdf | access-date=26 August 2015 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924033202/http://www.ifad.org/operations/projects/regions/Pf/factsheets/uganda.pdf | archive-date=24 September 2015 | url-status=dead | df=dmy-all }}</ref>Ŵanthu ŵa ku mizi ya ku Uganda ŵakuthemba pa ulimi kuti ndiwo uŵape ndalama zinandi, ndipo ŵanakazi 90 pa 100 ŵaliwose ku mizi ŵakugwira nchito ya ulimi. Padera pa mulimo wa kulima, ŵanakazi ŵa ku mizi ndiwo ŵakupwelelera mbumba zawo. Mwanakazi munyake wa ku Uganda wakumalira maora 9 pa zuŵa pa milimo ya pa nyumba, nga nkhuphika na kuvwara, kutolera maji na nkhuni, kupwelelera ŵacekuru, ŵalwari, na ŵalanda. Ntheura, ŵanakazi ŵakugwira nchito maora ghanandi kuluska ŵanalume, maora 12 m'paka 18 pa zuŵa. Kuti ŵasangirepo ndalama zinandi, ŵanakazi ŵa ku mizi ŵakuchita bizinesi yichoko waka nga nkhusunga na kuguliska viŵeto vya mu mizi yawo. Ndipouli, cifukwa ca nchito yinandi iyo ŵakucita, ŵalije nyengo yakucitira vinthu ivi. Ŵakavu ŵakutondeka kupeleka ndalama zakovwira ŵana ŵawo ku sukulu, ndipo kanandi ŵasungwana ŵakuleka sukulu kuti ŵateŵetere pa nyumba panji kutengwa. Ŵanakazi ŵanyake ŵakugwira nchito ya kugonana. Pa cifukwa ici, ŵanakazi ŵawukirano ŵakutemwa kuŵa na ŵanyawo ŵalara msinkhu ndiposo ŵakumanya vinandi pa nkhani ya kugonana, ndipo ici cikupangiska kuti ŵanakazi ŵasangike na nthenda ya HIV. Kuleka kuyana kwa ŵanakazi na ŵanakazi ni suzgo likuru chomene pa nkhani ya kuchepeska ukavu. Ŵanakazi ŵali na udindo wapasi kuluska ŵanalume. Ŵanakazi ŵanandi ŵakugomezga kuti ici cikovwira kuti ŵaleke kujiyimira paŵekha, kuti ŵaleke kusuzgika na ŵanalume awo ŵakuŵachitira nkhaza..<ref>{{cite web | title=Gender Equity Issues in Uganda | publisher=Foundation for Sustainable Development | url=http://www.fsdinternational.org/country/uganda/weissues | access-date=10 February 2012 | archive-date=4 June 2012 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120604021704/http://www.fsdinternational.org/country/uganda/weissues | url-status=live }}</ref>[[File:Entebbe Airport.JPG|thumb|Entebbe International Airport]] === Ndege === Ku Uganda kuli ma [[eyapoti]] 35. Makampani ghakwendeskera ndege ghakwendeska ndege za ŵanthu pa ndege zinayi. Pasono ku Uganda kuli chiŵanja chimoza cha ndege cha Entebbe International Airport, icho chili pa mtunda wa makilomita 40 kumwera cha kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Kampala. Mu 2017, ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 1.53 miliyoni ŵakenda pa chiŵanja cha mlengalenga ichi. Malo gha ndege ghaciŵiri, Hoima International Airport, ghali kuzenga.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.africanaerospace.aero/uganda-to-get-second-international-airport.html|title=African Aerospace - Uganda to get second International Airport|website=www.africanaerospace.aero|access-date=17 December 2018|archive-date=8 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211008140415/https://www.africanaerospace.aero/uganda-to-get-second-international-airport.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> === Misewu === {{see also |List of roads in Uganda}} [[File:Wild route.jpg|thumb|Road to Murchison]] Mtundu wakuzirwa comene wa mendero mu Uganda ni msewu. Mtundu wa misewu ya mu Uganda uli na utali wa makilomita 129,469. Pafupifupi vigaŵa 4 pa vigaŵa vyose vya misewu iyi vili na misewu yakukhoma. Mitundu yakupambanapambana ya misewu ni misewu ya boma (22,009 km (13,676 mi) 17%), misewu ya chigaŵa (33,661 km (20,916 mi) 26%), misewu ya mu matawuni (9,062 km (5,631 mi) 7%), na misewu ya ŵanthu (64,734 km (40,224 mi) 50%). Misewu ya mu vyaru vinandi yikuŵa na malo ghakukwana 17% pa misewu yose, kweni yikwendeska magalimoto ghakujumpha 80%. Mu Uganda muli magalimoto 83,000 agho ghakung'anamura magalimoto 2.94 pa ŵanthu 1000.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.welt-in-zahlen.de/laendervergleich.phtml|title=Welt-in-Zahlen.de > Ländervergleich|website=/www.welt-in-zahlen.de|language=DE|accessdate=13 August 2022|archive-date=16 August 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220816020341/https://welt-in-zahlen.de/laendervergleich.phtml|url-status=live}}</ref> === Njanji === Mtundu wa njanji mu Uganda uli na utali wa makilomita 1,260 (780 mi). Mzere wautali kwambiri ndi mzere waukulu kuchokera ku Kampala kupita ku Tororo (249 kilometres (155 mi)), mzere wakumadzulo kuchokera ku Kampala kupita ku Kasese (333 kilometres (207 mi)), mzere wakumpoto kuchokera ku Tororo kupita ku Pakwach (641 kilometres (398 mi)).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://fortuneofafrica.com/ug/railway-transport/|title=Railway Transport – Uganda|date=3 February 2017|publisher=Fortune of Africa|access-date=17 December 2018|archive-date=1 April 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220401015949/https://fortuneofafrica.com/ug/railway-transport/|url-status=dead}}</ref> ===Kuyowoyeskana=== {{Main|Communications in Uganda}} Pali makampani 7 agho ghakugwira ntchito ya kutumizga mauthenga agho ghali na ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 21 miliyoni. Pafupifupi 95 peresenti ya ŵanthu ŵakugwiliskira ntchito foni. Chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu awo ŵakugwiliskira ntchito foni ya m'manja na ya pa foni chikakwera kufuma pa 20 miliyoni kufika pa 21 miliyoni.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Q1-Market Report 2015 |url=http://www.ucc.co.ug/files/downloads/Q1-Market%20Report%202015.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151123031129/http://www.ucc.co.ug/files/downloads/Q1-Market%20Report%202015.pdf |archive-date=23 November 2015 |access-date=15 February 2015 |website=Reports & Surveys |publisher=UCC: Uganda Communications Commission}}</ref> {|class="wikitable" |+Foni na mitengo yakuimbila<ref name=":0"/> !Indicators !Q4 2014 !Q1 2015 !Change (%) |- |Mobile Subscriptions (prepaid) |20,257,656 |21,347,079 |5.4 |- |Mobile Subscriptions (post-paid) |108,285 |110,282 |1.8 |- |Fixed subscriptions |324,442 |349,163 |7.6 |- |Tele-density |56.5 |62.5 |10.6 |- |National status |20,690,383 |21,806,523 |5.4 |} ===Magesi=== {{See also|Energy in Uganda}} Mu charu cha Uganda muli magesi ghanandi chomene, ndipo ghali palipose. Vinthu ivi ni magesi gha maji, mafuta, zuŵa, geothermal, peat, na mafuta. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1980, nkhongono zinandi mu Uganda zikafumanga ku malasha na makuni. Ndipouli, mu chigaŵa cha Lake Albert ŵakasanga mafuta ghakukwana 95 miliyoni gha cubic metres (3.4×109 cu ft).<ref name="oilrush">[http://www.economist.com/businessfinance/displayStory.cfm?story_id=14177583&source=hptextfeature Uganda's oil rush: Derricks in the darkness] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230227180845/https://www.economist.com/business/2009/08/06/derricks-in-the-darkness|date=27 February 2023}}. Economist.com (6 August 2009). Retrieved 24 March 2013.</ref> Heritage Oil yikasanga mafuta ghanandi chomene mu Uganda, ndipo yikulutilira kugwira nchito kwenekura. Pa 13 September 2016 charu cha Uganda na Tanzania vikalembeska chiphangano icho chikukhumba kuti vyaru viŵiri ivi vizenge nthowa yakuzenga mafuta ya makilomita 1,445 ya mtengo wa madola 3.5 biliyoni. Uganda-Tanzania Crude Oil Pipeline (UTCOP), iyo yikumanyikwaso kuti East African Crude Oil Pipeline (EACOP) yizamuŵa yakwamba ya mtundu uwu ku East Africa, yizamumaniska chigaŵa cha Hoima icho chili na mafuta ghanandi ku Uganda na nyanja ya Indian Ocean kwizira ku doko la Tanga ku Tanzania. Vinthu vyakukondweska ivyo vikuchitika mu charu cha Uganda ndiposo ndalama zinandi izo maboma ghapachanya ghakugwiliskira nchito, ni mwaŵi wapadera comene kuti vifiskike vilato vya Power Africa. Uganda ni yimoza mwa vyaru vichoko waka vya ku Africa kumwera kwa Sahara ivyo vili na masitoro gha magesi agho ghali na ndalama zinandi. Pali wupu wakuwona vya magesi uwo ukuwona vya magesi. Kampani yikuru chomene ya UMEME njakuguliska vinthu, ndipo yili na wanangwa wa kuguliska na kuguliska vinthu vyaka 20. Ndipouli, caru cili kugaŵika mu vigaŵa 13 vya uteŵeti wa ku mizi, ndipo vigaŵa 6 vya vigaŵa ivi vikwendeskeka na mabungwe ghacoko waka. Pa nyengo yasono, awo ŵakupanga magesi na magesi ŵekha ndiwo ŵakupanga pafupifupi 60 peresenti ya magesi. Pali masuzgo ghanandi pa nkhani ya ndondomeko ya ndalama. === Kupeleka maji na maji ghakumwa === {{Main|Water supply and sanitation in Uganda}} Kuyana na lipoti ilo likalembeka mu 2006, vyalo vya maji na vyalo vya maji vya ku Uganda vyaluta panthazi comene mu malo gha matawuni kwambira m'ma 1990.<ref name="Mugisha">{{cite news |last=Mugisha |first=Silver |author2=Berg, Sanford V. |title=Struggling State-Owned Enterprises: NWSC's Turnaround in Uganda |date=November 2006 |ssrn=1088139}}</ref>{{rp|3–4}} Pa nyengo ya 1998 m'paka 2003, maboma ghakasintha vinthu vinyake pa nkhani ya maji, nga ni National Water and Sewerage Corporation iyo yikugwira ntchito mu misumba na misumba yikuruyikuru.<ref>{{cite web |title=National Water Development Report: Uganda. Prepared for 2nd UN World Water Development Report "Water, a shared responsibility" |year=2006 |url=http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0014/001467/146760e.pdf |access-date=5 May 2008 |archive-date=18 March 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090318062251/http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0014/001467/146760e.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>{{rp|15}} Nangauli charu chose chawona kuti ŵanthu ŵakukhumba kusintha vinthu vinyake pa nkhani iyi, kweni mu 2010, ŵanthu 38 pa ŵanthu 100 ŵaliwose ŵakaŵavya maji ghawemi. Pa nkhani ya malo ghawemi ghakukhala, ŵanthu ŵakupambana comene. Kuyana na maukaboni gha boma, mu 2011, ŵanthu 70 pa 100 ŵakaŵa ku mizi ndipo 81 pa 100 ŵakaŵa mu misumba. Ntchito ya maji na maofesi ghakugeziskira vinthu vikamanyikwa kuti ni vyakuzirwa chomene mu ndondomeko ya kulekeska ukavu ya mu 2004, iyo ni ndondomeko yikuru ya Uganda ya kumazga ukavu.:182 188 Kuyana na lipoti ilo likalembeka mu 2006, pakaŵa ndondomeko yikuru ya ndalama izo ŵanthu ŵakupeleka ndalama, boma, na mawupu ghambura vya boma.<ref name="MWE SWAP">{{cite web |author=Ministry of Water and Environment (Uganda) |title=Water and Sanitation Sector Performance Report 2006 |date=September 2006 |url=http://www.danidadevforum.um.dk/NR/rdonlyres/94B047D5-F8C9-46C9-B56D-7A43367ED141/0/WSSperformanceReportUganda.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090318062315/http://www.danidadevforum.um.dk/NR/rdonlyres/94B047D5-F8C9-46C9-B56D-7A43367ED141/0/WSSperformanceReportUganda.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=18 March 2009 |access-date=13 May 2008 }}</ref>{{rp|5}} PEAP yikati kwamba mu 2001 m'paka mu 2015, pakakhumbikwanga ndalama zakukwana madola 1.4 biliyoni, panji kuti madola 92 miliyoni pa chaka, kuti maji ghapelekeke ku ŵanthu ŵakukwana 95 peresenti.<ref name="PEAP">{{cite web |author1=Republic of Uganda |author2=Ministry of Finance |author3=Planning and Economic Development |title=Poverty Eradication Action Plan (2004/5-2007/8) |url=http://www.finance.go.ug/docs/PEAP%202005%20Apr.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081010162613/http://www.finance.go.ug/docs/PEAP%202005%20Apr.pdf |archive-date=10 October 2008 |access-date=7 May 2008}}</ref>{{rp|182–183}} ===Masambilo=== {{Main|Education in Uganda}}Nangauli masambiro gha ku Uganda ghakaŵa ghambura kuzirwa mu vigaŵa vinandi, kweni ghakasintha chomene kwamba m'ma 1990. Ŵana ŵakusambira vyaka vinkhondi na viŵiri pa sukulu ya pulayimare, vyaka vinkhondi na viŵiri pa sukulu ya sekondare, na vyaka vitatu panji vinkhondi pa sukulu ya sekondare. Mu 1997, boma likati ŵana wose ŵasambirenge kwaulere. Ndondomeko iyi yawovwira comene. Mu 1986, ŵana 2 miliyoni pera ndiwo ŵakasambiranga ku pulayimale. Kuzakafika mu 1999, ŵana mamiliyoni ghankhondi na limoza ŵakaŵa pa sukulu za pulayimale, ndipo ciŵerengero ici cikulutilira kukwera. Kufuma waka mu 1997, apo sukulu ya pulayimale yikambira, charu cha Uganda ndicho chikaŵa chakwamba mu vyaru vya ku Africa kumwera kwa Sahara. Boma la Uganda likati lachita nthena, chiŵelengero cha ŵana ŵa sukulu awo ŵakalembeskanga masambiro gha kusekondale chikakwera pafupifupi 25 peresenti pakati pa 2007 na 2012.[[File:Uganda students.jpg|thumb|Ŵasambiri ku Uganda]] Pa kalembera uyo wakacitika mu 2002, mu Uganda ŵanthu 66.8 pa 100 ŵaliwose ŵakamanyanga kulemba na kulemba. Ndalama izo boma likagwiliskira nchito pa masambiro zikaŵa 5.2 peresenti ya GDP ya 2002-2005.<ref name="hdrstats.undp.org">{{cite web |title=Human Development Report 2009 – Uganda [Archived] |url=http://hdrstats.undp.org/en/countries/data_sheets/cty_ds_UGA.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090429194955/http://hdrstats.undp.org/en/countries/data_sheets/cty_ds_UGA.html |archive-date=29 April 2009 |access-date=3 May 2010 |publisher=Hdrstats.undp.org}}</ref> Kufika mu chaka cha 2020, webusayiti ya NCHE yikalembapo ma yunivesite 46 ghapachanya agho ghakumanyikwa na boma. ===Umoyo=== {{Main|Health in Uganda|HIV/AIDS in Uganda}} Kuuyambiro wa vyaka vya m'ma 2000, kukaŵa ŵadokotala 8 pa ŵanthu 100,000. Mu 2001, boma la Uganda likawuskapo ndalama izo ŵanthu ŵakulombera ku maofesi gha munkhwala. Ndondomeko iyi yikulongosoreka kuti njakuzirwa comene pakovwira Uganda kufiska vilato vyake vya m'ma 1000. Nangauli pali ndondomeko iyi, kweni ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakukana kupokera wovwiri wa munkhwala usange ŵakupeleka yayi munkhwala wawo, nga umo vikaŵira na Jennifer Anguko. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakukhorwa yayi na wovwiri wa chipatala, kweniso ŵakukhala kutali chomene na awo ŵakupeleka wovwiri uwu. Kupeleka wovwiri ku ŵanthu ŵakavu na awo ŵakukhala ku mizi, pamoza na kusazgikira kwa vinthu vya boma na vya ŵanthu ŵekha, vyaŵa vyakuzirwa kuti ŵanthu ŵakusuzgika ŵasangenge wovwiri.<ref name="pariyo2009">{{cite journal|last=Pariyo|first=G.|title=Changes in Utilization of Health Services among Poor and Rural Residents in Uganda: Are Reforms Benefitting the Poor?|journal=International Journal for Equity in Health|year=2009|volume=8|pages=39|doi=10.1186/1475-9276-8-39|pmid=19909514|url=http://www.futurehealthsystems.org/publications/changes-in-utilization-of-health-services-among-poor-and-rur.html|access-date=26 May 2012|display-authors=etal|pmc=2781807|archive-date=14 November 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121114105707/http://www.futurehealthsystems.org/publications/changes-in-utilization-of-health-services-among-poor-and-rur.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> [[File:Life expectancy in Uganda.svg|thumb|Development of life expectancy]] Mu 2019, ŵanthu ŵakakhazganga kuti ŵazamukhala vyaka 63.4. Mu 2012, pa ŵana 1,000, ŵana 61 ŵakafwanga. Mu Julayi 2012, ku Kibaale kukaŵa nthenda ya Ebola. Pa Okutobala 4, 2012, Unduna wa vya Umoyo ukazomerezga kuti nthenda iyi yamara. Unduna wa vyaumoyo ukati pa 16 August 2013, ŵanthu ŵatatu ŵakafwa kumpoto kwa Uganda chifukwa cha nthenda ya Congo Crimean Hemorrhagic Fever. Charu cha Uganda chili na ŵanthu ŵachoko chomene awo ŵakulwara nthenda ya HIV. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1980, ŵanthu 30 pa ŵanthu 100 ŵakaŵa na nthenda iyi, kweni kuumaliro wa 2008 ŵakakhala waka pa ŵanthu 6.4 pa ŵanthu 100. Pa nyengo yeneyiyo, ŵanthu ŵakamba kuleka kumwa chomene. Pa ŵanakazi wose ŵambura kutengwa awo ŵakugonana, ŵanakazi ŵacoko comene ndiwo ŵakugwiliskira nchito munkhwala wakukanizga nthumbo. Kweni mu 2011, pa ŵanakazi ŵakutorana, 26 pera ndiwo ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito nthowa zakulera. Ŵanakazi ŵakavu (~15%) na ŵasambazi (~40%) ŵakugwiliskira nchito nthowa zakukanizgira nthumbo mwakupambana. Ntheura, ŵanakazi ŵa ku Uganda ŵali na ŵana pafupifupi 6, apo iwo ŵakutemwa kuŵa na ŵana pafupifupi 4. Kuyana na kafukufuku uyo wakachitika mu 2011 ku Uganda (Uganda Demographic and Health Survey, DHS), ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 40 pa 100 ŵaliwose awo ŵakubabika ŵakukhumba yayi. Mu 2010, Unduna wa vya Umoyo wa ku Uganda ukati nthumbo izo zikufumiskika kwambura kuvikilirika ni 8 peresenti ya nthumbo izo zikufwa. Kafukufuku uyo wakachitika mu 2006 wakulongora kuti chaka chilichose ŵanakazi pafupifupi 6,000 ŵakufwa chifukwa cha nthenda izo zikuŵapo para ŵatora nthumbo. Kafukufuku munyake uyo wakachitika mu 2012, wakalongora kuti chiŵelengero ichi chingachepeka chomene para ŵanthu ŵangapokera ndalama zakwendeskera masitima.<ref>{{cite web | title=Improving Access to Safe Deliveries in Uganda | url=http://www.futurehealthsystems.org/publications/improving-access-to-safe-deliveries-in-uganda.html | publisher=Future Health Systems | access-date=17 January 2012 | archive-date=23 December 2011 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111223174717/http://www.futurehealthsystems.org/publications/improving-access-to-safe-deliveries-in-uganda.html | url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title=Women's Perceptions of ANC and delivery care Services, a community perspective | url=http://www.futurehealthsystems.org/storage/Research20Brief2021.pdf | publisher=Future Health Systems | access-date=8 May 2012 | url-status=dead | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121114105517/http://www.futurehealthsystems.org/storage/Research20Brief2021.pdf | archive-date=14 November 2012 | df=dmy-all }}</ref> Kuyana na lipoti la wupu wa UNICEF la mu 2013, mwanakazi yumoza pera pa ŵanakazi 100 ŵaliwose mu Uganda ndiyo wali kupika nthumbo.<ref>{{cite news | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/8406940.stm | title=Uganda bans female genital mutilation | work=BBC News | date=10 December 2009 | access-date=30 May 2015 | archive-date=4 December 2018 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181204010402/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/8406940.stm | url-status=live }}</ref> ===Vyongo na malango=== Mu Uganda, gulu la Allied Democratic Forces likuwoneka kuti ni gulu la ŵanthu ŵakugaluka awo ŵakususka boma la Uganda. Ŵalwani aŵa mbalwani ŵa gulu la Uganda People's Defence Force ndipo ŵakuŵawona nga ni gulu la Al-Shabaab.<ref>[http://www.newvision.co.ug/news/638611-adf-recruiting-in-mayuge-iganga-says-army.html ADF recruiting in Mayuge, Iganga says army] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141129025850/http://www.newvision.co.ug/news/638611-adf-recruiting-in-mayuge-iganga-says-army.html |date=29 November 2014 }}. Newvision.co.ug (3 January 2013). Retrieved 24 March 2013.</ref> === Wupu wakukopa '''ŵalendo''' === {{Main|Tourism in Uganda}} [[File:Rwenzori Mountains.jpg|thumb|Mapiri gha Rwenzori ku Uganda]] Ŵanthu ŵakutemwa chomene vyalo vya ku Uganda. Ndiwo ukwendeskera ntchito, ndalama na ndalama zakunja, ndipo ukovwira ndalama zakujumpha 4.9 trillion Uganda shillings (US$1.88 billion panji €1.4 billion pa August 2013) ku GDP ya Uganda mu chaka cha ndalama cha 2012.<ref name=Mutagamba>{{cite news |last=Mutagamba |first=Moses |date=25 August 2013 |title=Uganda Wildlife Authority staff under probe |url=http://www.newvision.co.ug/news/646483-uganda-wildlife-authority-staff-under-probe.html |access-date=25 August 2013 |newspaper=New Vision |archive-date=27 August 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130827174640/http://www.newvision.co.ug/news/646483-uganda-wildlife-authority-staff-under-probe.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> Bungwe la Uganda Tourism Board ndilo likuwona za kusungilira vinthu vyakukhwaskana na maulendo gha ku Uganda. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakutemwa kuluta ku malo ghakusungirako nyama. Vinyake ivyo vikukondweska ni Mountain Gorillas ivyo vikusangika mu Bwindi Impenetrable National Park (BINP) na Mgahinga Gorilla National Park (MGNP). Ku Uganda kuli viyuni vinandi ivyo vili na viyuni vyakujumpha 1073. Mu charu cha Uganda muli mapiri gha Rwenzori na Great Rift Valley. == Sayansi na vyakupangapanga == {{Main|Science and technology in Uganda}} Ndondomeko ya sayansi, matekinoloje na vyakupanga vinthu yikwamba mu 2009. Cakulinga cake cikuru nchakuti "cikhozge luso la caru cose la kupanga, kusamuska na kugwiliskira nchito umanyi wa sayansi, maluso na macitiro gha sayansi agho ghakupangiska kuti vinthu vyakuthupi vicitikenge makora kuti vinthu vyendenge makora mu Uganda". Ndondomeko iyi yikudangira Uganda Vision 2040, iyo yikayambika mu mwezi wa Epulero 2013 kuti'mbumba ya Uganda yisinthe kufuma ku mlimi kuya ku chalo cha mazuŵa ghano na chakukondwa mu vyaka 30,' mu mazgu gha nduna. Uganda Vision 2040 yikulayizga kukhozga maboma gha wanangwa, kunozga masambiro na masambiro, kunozga vinthu vyakukhumbikwa na vyalo vyakusama na vyalo vya ulimi, kukhozga makampani na kukhozga muwuso uwemi. Vinthu ivyo vingapangiska kuti vinthu vyendenge makora ni mafuta na gasi, vyakusanguluska, vinthu vyakununkhira, na vyakupharazga. Boma la Uganda lili pa nambala 119 pa Global Innovation Index mu 2021, kufuma pa nambala 102 mu 2019.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Global Innovation Index 2021|url=https://www.wipo.int/global_innovation_index/en/2021/|work=[[World Intellectual Property Organization]]|publisher=[[United Nations]]|access-date=5 March 2022|language=en|archive-date=20 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210920133358/https://www.wipo.int/global_innovation_index/en/2021/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Global Innovation Index 2019|url=https://www.wipo.int/global_innovation_index/en/2019/index.html|access-date=2 September 2021|website=www.wipo.int|language=en|archive-date=2 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210902101818/https://www.wipo.int/global_innovation_index/en/2019/index.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=RTD - Item|url=https://ec.europa.eu/newsroom/rtd/items/691898|access-date=2 September 2021|website=ec.europa.eu|archive-date=2 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210902140715/https://ec.europa.eu/newsroom/rtd/items/691898|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=28 October 2013|title=Global Innovation Index|url=https://knowledge.insead.edu/entrepreneurship-innovation/global-innovation-index-2930|access-date=2 September 2021|website=INSEAD Knowledge|language=en|archive-date=2 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210902101622/https://knowledge.insead.edu/entrepreneurship-innovation/global-innovation-index-2930|url-status=dead}}</ref>Pakati pa 2008 na 2010, ndalama zakovwira pa kafukufuku zikakwera kufuma pa 0.33% kufika pa 0.48% ya GDP. Pa nyengo yeneyiyi, chiŵelengero cha ŵasayansi chikakwera kaŵiri kufuma pa 1 387 kufika pa 2 823, kuyana na lipoti la UNESCO Institute for Statistics. Ichi chikulongora kuti pa ŵanthu 1 miliyoni, pa nyengo yeneyiyi pakaŵa ŵasayansi 44 ndipo pakaŵa 83 pera. Munthu yumoza pa ŵasayansi ŵanayi waliyose ni mwanakazi. Boma la Uganda likagwiliskira nchito ndalama zakukwana madola 70 pakupanga galimoto yakucemeka Kiira. <ref name=":12">{{Cite book |url=http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0023/002354/235406e.pdf |title=UNESCO Science Report: towards 2030 |publisher=UNESCO |year=2015 |isbn=978-92-3-100129-1 |location=Paris |pages=471–565 |access-date=6 June 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170322210919/http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0023/002354/235406e.pdf |archive-date=22 March 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> == Ŵanthu == {{Main|Demographics of Uganda}} Ŵanthu ŵa ku Uganda ŵakakwera kufuma pa 9.5 miliyoni mu 1969 kufika pa 34.9 miliyoni mu 2014. Pakuyaniska na cilimika caumaliro (September 2002), mu vyaka 12 ivyo vyajumpha, ciŵelengero ca ŵanthu cajumpha 10.6 miliyoni. Ŵana ŵa vyaka vyapakati pa 15 mu Uganda ndiwo mbacoko comene pa caru cose.<ref name="cia">{{cite web |author=Central Intelligence Agency |year=2009 |title=Uganda |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/uganda/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210213104751/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/uganda/ |archive-date=13 February 2021 |access-date=23 January 2010 |publisher=[[The World Factbook]]}}</ref> Charu cha Uganda chili pa nambara 5 pa vyaru ivyo vili na ŵana ŵanandi chomene. Ŵanthu ŵa ku India ŵakaŵa 80,000 mu Uganda pambere Idi Amin wandachimbizge ŵanthu ŵa ku Uganda ŵa ku Asia (ŵanandi ŵakaŵa ŵa ku India) mu 1972, ndipo ŵanthu aŵa ŵakakwana 7,000. Ndipouli, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku India ŵakawelera ku Uganda mu 1979 apo Amin wakathereskeka. Ŵanthu pafupifupi 90 pa 100 ŵaliwose ŵa ku Uganda ŵakukhala ku Kampala. Kuyana na UNHCR, ku Uganda kuli ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 1.4 miliyoni awo ŵali kuhara mu mwezi wa Ogasiti 2021..<ref name=":3">{{Cite news |date=2021-08-17 |title=Uganda to take 2,000 Afghan refugees at U.S. request |language=en |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/uganda-take-2000-afghan-refugees-us-request-2021-08-17/ |access-date=2023-04-04}}</ref><ref name = "UNHCR_stats">{{cite web | url=https://ugandarefugees.org/en/country/uga | title=Uganda Comprehensive Refugee Response Portal | author=<!--Not stated--> | website=Operational Data Portal | publisher=UNHCR | access-date=22 November 2018 | archive-date=27 August 2018 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180827220904/http://ugandarefugees.org/en/country/uga/ | url-status=dead }}</ref> Ŵanandi mwa ŵanthu aŵa ŵakufuma ku vyaru vyapafupi na Africa, chomenechomene South Sudan (68.0 peresenti) na Democratic Republic of Congo (24.6 peresenti). Mu Ogasiti 2021, charu cha Uganda chikapokelera ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakuchimbira kwawo kufuma ku Afghanistan pamanyuma pa kuwusa kwa Taliban.<ref name=":3" /> ===Viyowoyelo=== {{main|Languages of Uganda}} [[File:Languages of Uganda.png|thumb|upright=1.25|Mapu gha chiyowoyero cha ŵanthu ŵa ku Uganda]] ChiSwahili, icho chikuyowoyeka chomene mu vigaŵa vya mu Africa, chikazomerezgeka kuŵa chiyowoyero chachiŵiri mu 2005.<ref name="Amendment_2005" /><ref name="Kagonye_22_sw">{{cite news |last1=Kagonye |first1=Fred |title=Uganda adopts Swahili as an official language |url=https://www.standardmedia.co.ke/world/article/2001449634/uganda-adopts-swahili-as-an-official-language |access-date=6 July 2022 |work=[[The Standard (Kenya)]] |publisher=[[The Standard (Kenya)]] |date=5 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220706045639/https://www.standardmedia.co.ke/world/article/2001449634/uganda-adopts-swahili-as-an-official-language |archive-date=6 July 2022 |location=[[Nairobi, Kenya]] |language=en}}</ref>Cingelezi cikaŵa ciyowoyero cimoza pera mpaka apo dango likasinthira mu 2005. Nangauli ŵanthu awo ŵakuyowoya Chibantu ŵakutemwa yayi Ciswahili, kweni mu vigaŵa vya kumpoto, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuyowoya Ciswahili. Kweniso likugwiliskirika nchito comene mu ŵapolisi na ŵasilikari, cifukwa cakuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakakhalanga kumpoto kwa caru ici. Ntheura chiyowoyero cha Chiswahili chikuŵa na maudindo ghakupambanapambana. Mwaciyelezgero, Idi Amin, uyo wakafuma kumpoto ca kumanjiliro gha dazi, wakapharazga kuti Ciswahili ni ciyowoyero ca caru cose.<ref>[http://www.glcom.com/hassan/swahili_history.html "A Brief History of the Swahili Language"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170512022044/http://www.glcom.com/hassan/swahili_history.html |date=12 May 2017 }}, glcom.com</ref> ===Chisopo=== {{Main|Religion in Uganda}} [[File:Rubaga_Cthedral.jpg|thumb|left|Tchalitchi la Saint Mary's Cathedral ku Rubaga, ndilo tchalitchi likuru la Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Kampala.]] Tchalitchi la Roman Catholic ndilo likaŵa na ŵanthu ŵanandi chomene (39.3 peresenti, kufuma pa 41.6 peresenti mu 2002), ndipo la Anglican Church of Uganda (32 peresenti, kufuma pa 35.9 peresenti). Gulu la ŵanthu awo ŵali mu chisopa chautesi likakura chomene, kufuma pa 4.7% mu 2002 kufika pa 11.1% mu 2018. Matchalitchi gha Adventist na ghanyake gha Protestanti ghakaŵa na Ŵakhristu ŵanandi, nangauli pakaŵaso mpingo ucoko wa Eastern Orthodox.<ref name="Census 2014">{{cite web|url=http://www.ubos.org/onlinefiles/uploads/ubos/NPHC/2014%20National%20Census%20Main%20Report.pdf|title=2014 Uganda Population and Housing Census – Main Report|publisher=Uganda Bureau of Statistics|access-date=17 April 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171012091133/http://www.ubos.org/onlinefiles/uploads/ubos/NPHC/2014%20National%20Census%20Main%20Report.pdf|archive-date=12 October 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="Census 2002">{{cite web|url=http://www.ubos.org/onlinefiles/uploads/ubos/pdf%20documents/2002%20Census%20Final%20Reportdoc.pdf|title=2002 Uganda Population and Housing Census&nbsp;– Main Report|publisher=Uganda Bureau of Statistics|access-date=26 March 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171012091154/http://www.ubos.org/onlinefiles/uploads/ubos/pdf%20documents/2002%20Census%20Final%20Reportdoc.pdf|archive-date=12 October 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref> Chisopa chinyake icho ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuyowoya mu Uganda ni Chisilamu. Mu charu ichi, Ŵasilamu ŵalipo 13.7 peresenti. Ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵakalembeka mu 2014 ŵakasopanga visopa vyaunenesko (0.1 peresenti, kufuma pa 1% mu 2002), visopa vinyake (1.4 peresenti), panji ŵalije chisopa (0.2 peresenti).<ref name="Census 2014"/> === Misumba yikuru === {{Largest cities | country = Uganda | kind = urban centres | stat_ref = [[Uganda Bureau of Statistics]] 2016, [http://www.ubos.org/onlinefiles/uploads/ubos/NPHC/2014%20National%20Census%20Main%20Report.pdf ''National Population and Housing Census 2014 – Main Report''], p. 11 | div_name = District | city_1 = Kampala | div_1 = Kampala District{{!}}Kampala | pop_1 = 1,507,114 | img_1 = KampalaSkyline.jpg | city_2 = Nansana | div_2 = Wakiso District{{!}}Wakiso | pop_2 = 365,857 | city_3 = Kira Town{{!}}Kira | div_3 = Wakiso District{{!}}Wakiso | pop_3 = 317,428 | city_4 = Ssabagabo{{!}}Makindye Ssabagabo | div_4 = Wakiso District{{!}}Wakiso | pop_4 = 282,664 | city_5 = Mbarara | div_5 = Mbarara District{{!}}Mbarara | pop_5 = 195,160 | img_5 = Mbarara_at_Sundown.jpg | city_6 = Mukono | div_6 = Mukono District{{!}}Mukono | pop_6 = 162,744 | city_7 = Gulu | div_7 = Gulu District{{!}}Gulu | pop_7 = 149,802 | city_8 = Lugazi | div_8 = Buikwe District{{!}}Buikwe | pop_8 = 114,163 | city_9 = Kasese | div_9 = Kasese District{{!}}Kasese | pop_9 = 103,293 | city_10 = Masaka | div_10 = Masaka District{{!}}Masaka | pop_10 = 101,557 }} ==Mwambo== {{Main|Culture of Uganda|Music of Uganda|Ugandan cuisine|List of African writers (by country)#Uganda|List of Ugandans}} [[File:Cultural celebrations resumed with the end of the LRA conflict in Northern Uganda (7269658432).jpg|thumb|Cultural celebrations in Northern Uganda]] [[File:Uganda - Ruwenzori Mountain Lady.jpg|thumb|upright|Woman in [[Rwenzori Mountains|Rwenzori]] – Western Uganda]] Chifukwa cha unandi wa ŵanthu awo ŵakukhala mu charu ichi, ŵanthu ŵa mu charu ichi ŵali na mitheto yakupambanapambana. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Asia (ŵanandi ŵakufuma ku India) awo ŵakachimbizgika mu nyengo ya Idi Amin ŵawelera ku Uganda.<ref>{{cite news|access-date=29 September 2011|title=Kampala Journal; Cast Out Once, Asians Return: Uganda Is Home|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1993/03/22/world/kampala-journal-cast-out-once-asians-return-uganda-is-home.html|first=Donatella|last=Lorch|date=22 March 1993|archive-date=11 June 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220611211829/https://www.nytimes.com/1993/03/22/world/kampala-journal-cast-out-once-asians-return-uganda-is-home.html|url-status=live}}</ref> ===Wayilesi=== {{Further|Mass media in Uganda}} Mu charu cha Uganda muli mawayilesi ghanandi agho ghakupharazga pa charu chose. Ŵakupharazga nkhani, magazini, maseŵero, bizinesi, na vyakusanguluska. Manyuzipepara ghakumanyikwa chomene mu Uganda ni agha: * ''[[New Vision (newspaper)|New Vision]] * [[Daily Monitor]] * [[Bukedde]] * [[The Observer (Uganda)|The Observer]] * [[East African Business Week]] * [[Red Pepper (newspaper)|Red Pepper]]'' Mapulogalamu ghakutchuka chomene pa TV ku Uganda ni agha: * [[Uganda Broadcasting Corporation]] (UBC) * [[NTV Uganda|NTV]] * [[NBS Television (Uganda)|NBS Television]] * [[Sanyuka TV Uganda|Sanyuka TV]] * [[Baba TV]] * Top TV * Spark TV Vyose ivyo vikuyowoyeka mu manyuzipepara vikulongozgeka na Uganda Communications Commission (UCC).<ref>{{Cite web |title=About UCC – UCC: Uganda Communications Commission |url=https://www.ucc.co.ug/about-ucc/ |access-date=2 July 2022 |language=en-US |archive-date=18 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220818100445/https://www.ucc.co.ug/about-ucc/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Uganda Communications Commission – Ministry of ICT & National Guidance |url=https://ict.go.ug/about-us/agencies/uganda-communications-commission/ |access-date=2 July 2022 |language=en-US |archive-date=2 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220702102435/https://ict.go.ug/about-us/agencies/uganda-communications-commission/ |url-status=live }}</ref> === Maseŵera === {{further|Uganda at the Olympics|Uganda at the Commonwealth Games}} Mpira wa pasi ni maseŵero gha ku Uganda. Chikwata cha mpira cha dziko la Uganda, chotchedwa "The Cranes" chikulamulidwa ndi Federation of Uganda Football Associations. Ŵakaŵavya mwaŵi wakuchitako maseŵero gha pa caru cose. Ŵakaŵa ŵaciŵiri pa maseŵera gha Africa Cup of Nations mu 1978. Pakati pa makalabu, SC Villa ndiyo yikwenda makora chomene, pakuti yikapoka mphaka ya chalo kankhondi na kamoza na kufika paumaliro wa African Cup of Champions Clubs mu 1991, icho chikapangiska kuti Simba SC nayo yikhale na mphaka mu 1972. KCCA yili pa chiŵiri pa kuwina mu ligi ya chalo na 13. Kufika mu 2020, charu cha Uganda pa Olimpiki chawina mendulo ziŵiri za golide, zitatu za siliva, na ziŵiri za mkuŵa. Boma la Uganda pa maseŵera gha Commonwealth likatora mendulo ya golide 13 na mendulo zinandi 49, zose mu nkhonya na maseŵero ghakukhozga thupi. Gulu la nkhonya la ku Uganda likucemeka The Bombers. Ŵakawina mendulo zinayi pa maseŵero gha ku Summer Olympics kufuma mu 1968 m'paka mu 1980, kweniso mendulo ziŵiri pa maseŵero gha ku World Amateur Boxing Championships mu 1974. Ŵanthu ŵakumanyikwa chomene nga ni Cornelius Boza-Edwards, Justin Juuko, Ayub Kalule, John Mugabi, Eridadi Mukwanga, Joseph Nsubuga, Kassim Ouma, Sam Rukundo na Leo Rwabwogo. Mu maseŵero ghakukhozga thupi, John Akii-Bua ndiyo wakapokera mendulo yakwamba ya golide ku maOlympic. Pa 1972 Summer Olympics ku Munich, wakathereska pa 400m hurdles race na world record ya 47.82 seconds. Dorcus Inzikuru wakathereska pa mpikisano wa makilomita 3000 pa maseŵera gha pa caru cose gha 2005 na maseŵera gha Commonwealth mu 2006. Stephen Kiprotich wakathereska pa mpikisano wa marathon pa 2012 Summer Olympics ku London na pa 2013 World Championships, ndipo wakamalizga wachiŵiri pa 2015 Tokyo Marathon. Joshua Cheptegei wakathereska pa mpikisano wa makilomita 10 pa World Championships, World Athletics Cross Country Championships na Commonwealth Games, ndipo wakhazikiska ma world records pa 5 km na 15 km. Halimah Nakaayi wakathereska pa mpikisano wa mamita 800 pa mpikisano wa World Championships wa 2019. Mu mpira wa cricket, charu cha Uganda chikaŵa mu timu ya East Africa iyo yikaluta ku Cricket World Cup mu 1975. Charu ichi chili na timu ya basketball iyo yikwenda makora comene. Chipani ichi chikuchemeka "The Silverbacks", ndipo chikamba kuseŵera pa 2015 FIBA Africa Championship. Mu Julayi 2011, Kampala, Uganda wakaluta ku 2011 Little League World Series ku Williamsport, Pennsylvania kakwamba, wakathereska timu ya Baseball ya Saudi Arabia Dharan LL, nangauli masuzgo gha visa ghakaŵakanizga kuluta ku viphalizgano ivi. Magulu a Little League ochokera ku Uganda adachita nawo ndipo adapita ku 2012 Little League World Series.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/sports/baseball/major-league-baseball-seeks-its-next-top-players-in-the-sports-next-frontierafrica/article33408352/|title=Major League Baseball seeks its next top players in the sport's 'next frontier': Africa|newspaper=The Globe and Mail|date=21 December 2016|last1=York|first1=Geoffrey|access-date=21 November 2018|archive-date=28 June 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220628223524/https://www.theglobeandmail.com/sports/baseball/major-league-baseball-seeks-its-next-top-players-in-the-sports-next-frontierafrica/article33408352/|url-status=live}}</ref> ===Vyakuonelela=== {{Update|section|date=January 2020}} {{Main|Cinema of Uganda}} Makampani gha mafilimu gha ku Uganda ngacoko comene. Likukura mwaluŵiro, kweni likuŵa na masuzgo ghanandi. Ŵanthu ŵakovwira chomene pa nkhani ya mafilimu nga ni Amakula, Pearl International Film Festival, Maisha African Film Festival na Manya Human Rights Festival. Ndipouli, awo ŵakupangiska mafilimu ŵakulimbana na ŵamalonda ŵa mu vyaru vinyake nga ni Nigeria na South Africa. Filimu yakwamba iyo ŵanthu ŵakayimanya kuti yikapangika na ŵanthu ŵa ku Uganda pera ni Feelings Struggle, iyo yikalongozgeka na kulemba na Hajji Ashraf Ssemwogerere mu 2005. Chaka ichi ndicho mafilimu ghakambira kugwira ntchito mu Uganda, ndipo ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakutemwa mafilimu ŵakamanyanga kuti ŵakugwira ntchito zakupambanapambana. Makampani gha mafilimu gha ku malo agha ghali na ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yiŵiri. Ŵakwamba ni awo ŵakugwiliskira nchito nthowa ya kuwukira ya mu nyengo ya filimu ya Nollywood, kupanga filimu mu masabata ghaŵiri na kuyiwoneska mu malo ghakusungirako mavidiyo. Yachiŵiri ni uyo wakupangiska mafilimu, uyo wali na luso la kupanga mafilimu, kweni wali na ndalama zichoko waka, ndipo wakukhumbikwira kupenja ndalama za awo ŵakupeleka. Nangauli mafilimu gha ku Uganda ghakusintha, kweni ghacali na masuzgo ghakuru. Padera pa masuzgo gha luso nga nkhusintha luso la kuseŵera na kusinthira, paliso masuzgo ghanyake ghakukhwaskana na ndalama na kusoŵa wovwiri wa boma. Mu caru ici mulije masukulu ghakucitira mafilimu, mabanki ghakupeleka ngongoli yayi ku ŵanthu awo ŵakucita mafilimu, ndipo kuguliska na kuguliska mafilimu ni viheni comene.<ref name="cannesvupar.com">[https://web.archive.org/web/20130718234909/http://www.cannesvupar.com/telling-the-story-against-all-odds-state-of-uganda-film-industry/ Telling the story against all odds; state of Uganda film industry] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130718234909/http://www.cannesvupar.com/telling-the-story-against-all-odds-state-of-uganda-film-industry/|date=18 July 2013}}. Cannes vu par. Retrieved on 19 July 2013.</ref><ref name="monitor.co.ug">[http://www.monitor.co.ug/artsculture/Theatre---Cinema/Ugandan-film-s-leap/-/691234/1868542/-/89jsv5z/-/index.html Ugandan film's leap – Theatre & Cinema] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131023061335/http://www.monitor.co.ug/artsculture/Theatre---Cinema/Ugandan-film-s-leap/-/691234/1868542/-/89jsv5z/-/index.html|date=23 October 2013}}. monitor.co.ug. Retrieved on 19 July 2013.</ref> Wupu wa Uganda Communications Commission (UCC) ukunozga malango ghakwamba mu 2014 agho ghakukhumba kuti ma TV gha mu Uganda ghawonelerenge 70 peresenti ya nkhani za mu Uganda ndipo 40 peresenti ya nkhani izi ghaŵe gha ŵanthu ŵakujiyimira. Chifukwa chakuti mafilimu gha ku Uganda ghakusangika chomene ndipo malango gha UCC ghakukhumba kuti mafilimu gha ku Uganda ghawonekerenge pa TV, mafilimu gha ku Uganda ghaŵenge ghakumanyikwa chomene.<ref name="monitor.co.ug"/> ==Wonaniso== {{portal|Uganda|Africa}} * [[Index of Uganda-related articles]] * [[Outline of Uganda]] == Vyakulembeka == {{notelist}} == Ukaboni == {{reflist}} == Vyakulemba vinyake == ; Encyclopedias {{Refbegin}} * Appiah, Anthony and Henry Louis Gates (ed.) (2010). ''Encyclopaedia of Africa''. Oxford University Press. * Middleton, John (ed.) (2008). ''New encyclopaedia of Africa''. Detroit: Thompson-Gale. * Shillington, Kevin (ed.) (2005). ''Encyclopedia of African history''. CRC Press. {{Refend}} ; Selected books and scholarly articles {{Refbegin}} * BakamaNume, Bakama B. (2011). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=E-u-oqGczPsC&source=gbs_ViewAPI A Contemporary Geography of Uganda]''. African Books Collective. * {{cite book | title=Uganda (Cultures of the World) | author=Robert Barlas | publisher=Marshall Cavendish | year=2000 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T3RYYPSq8JoC | isbn=9780761409816 | oclc=41299243 | ref=none }} overview written for younger readers. * Carney, J. J. ''For God and My Country: Catholic Leadership in Modern Uganda'' (Wipf and Stock Publishers, 2020). * Chrétien, Jean-Pierre (2003). ''The great lakes of Africa: two thousand years of history''. New York: Zone Books. * Clarke, Ian, ed. ''Uganda - Culture Smart!: The Essential Guide to Customs & Culture'' (2014) [https://www.amazon.com/dp/1857336992/ excerpt] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220714061651/https://www.amazon.com/dp/1857336992 |date=14 July 2022 }} * Datzberger, Simone, and Marielle L.J. Le Mat. "Just add women and stir?: Education, gender and peacebuilding in Uganda." ''International Journal of Educational Development'' 59 (2018): 61-69 [https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/10050396/1/Datzberger%20Education%20gender%20and%20peacebuilding%20in%20Uganda%20-%20Revisions%20tracked%20changes.pdf online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210417063530/https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/10050396/1/Datzberger%20Education%20gender%20and%20peacebuilding%20in%20Uganda%20-%20Revisions%20tracked%20changes.pdf |date=17 April 2021 }}. * Griffin, Brett, Robert Barlas, and Jui Lin Yong. ''Uganda.'' (Cavendish Square Publishing, 2019). * Hepner, Tricia Redeker. "At the Boundaries of Life and Death: Notes on Eritrea and Northern Uganda." ''African Conflict and Peacebuilding Review'' 10.1 (2020): 127-142 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2979/africonfpeacrevi.10.1.06 online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210425044047/https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2979/africonfpeacrevi.10.1.06 |date=25 April 2021 }}. * Hodd, Michael and Angela Roche ''Uganda handbook''. (Bath: Footprint, 2011). * Izama, Angelo. "Uganda." ''Africa Yearbook'' Volume 16. Brill, 2020 pp.&nbsp;413–422. * Jagielski, Wojciech and Antonia Lloyd-Jones (2012). ''The night wanderers: Uganda's children and the Lord's Resistance Army''. New York: Seven Stories Press. {{ISBN|9781609803506}} * Jørgensen, Jan Jelmert, ''Uganda: a modern history'' (1981) [https://archive.org/details/ugandamodernhist00jrge online] * Langole, Stephen, and David Monk. "Background to peace and conflict in northern Uganda." in ''Youth, education and work in (post-) conflict areas'' (2019): 16+ [https://www.rug.nl/research/portal/files/135090531/YEW_Publication_2020_online.pdf#page=22 online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210119194009/https://www.rug.nl/research/portal/files/135090531/YEW_Publication_2020_online.pdf#page=22 |date=19 January 2021 }}. * Otiso, Kefa M. (2006). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=rMnkcZsv_eEC&source=gbs_ViewAPI Culture and Customs of Uganda]''. Greenwood Publishing Group. * Reid, Richard J. ''A history of modern Uganda'' (Cambridge University Press, 2017), the standard scholarly history. [http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=55348 Buy from Amazon - online review] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210127162144/https://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=55348 |date=27 January 2021 }} * Sobel, Meghan, and Karen McIntyre. "The State of Press Freedom in Uganda". ''International Journal of Communication'' 14 (2020): 20+. [https://ijoc.org/index.php/ijoc/article/viewFile/11456/2948 online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415075411/https://ijoc.org/index.php/ijoc/article/viewFile/11456/2948 |date=15 April 2021 }} {{Refend}} == Vigaŵa vya kuwalo == {{Sister project links|voy=Uganda}} ===Overview=== * [https://web.archive.org/web/20210213104751/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/uganda/ Uganda]. ''[[The World Factbook]]''. [[Central Intelligence Agency]]. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20080607090539/http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/uganda.htm Uganda] from ''UCB Libraries GovPubs''. * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/country_profiles/1069166.stm Country Profile] from [[BBC News]]. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20140914133543/http://www.business-anti-corruption.com/country-profiles/sub-saharan-africa/uganda-version/snapshot.aspx Uganda Corruption Profile] from the [[Business-Anti-Corruption Portal|Business Anti-Corruption Portal]] * {{curlie|Regional/Africa/Uganda}} ===Mapu=== * [https://www.un.org/Depts/Cartographic/map/profile/uganda.pdf Printable map of Uganda from UN.org] * {{wikiatlas|Uganda}} * {{osmrelation-inline|192796}} ===Government and economy=== * [https://web.archive.org/web/20081210073716/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/world-leaders-1/world-leaders-u/uganda.html Chief of State and Cabinet Members] * [http://www.ifs.du.edu/ifs/frm_CountryProfile.aspx?Country=UG Key Development Forecasts for Uganda] from [[International Futures]] ===Humanitarian issues=== * [http://www.irinnews.org/Africa-Country.aspx?Country=UG Humanitarian news and analysis from IRIN – Uganda] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110402165315/http://www.reliefweb.int/rw/dbc.nsf/doc104?OpenForm&rc=1&cc=uga Humanitarian information coverage on ReliefWeb] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20210208131440/http://www.rfi.fr/actuen/pages/001/page_40.asp Radio France International – dossier on Uganda and Lord's Resistance Army] ; Trade * [http://wits.worldbank.org/CountryProfile/Country/UGA/Year/2012/Summary World Bank Summary Trade Statistics Uganda] ===Tourism=== * [https://web.archive.org/web/20091223191137/http://www.visituganda.com/ Uganda Tourism Board] * [http://www.ugandawildlife.org/ Uganda Wildlife Authority] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20171003170213/https://visitkampala.net/ Visit Kampala with Kampala Capital City Authority] * [http://visas.immigration.go.ug/ Immigration Department] {{Uganda topics}} {{Districts of Uganda}} {{Navboxes |list = {{Countries of Africa}} {{African Union}} {{Organisation of Islamic Cooperation}} {{Commonwealth of Nations}} }} {{Authority control}} {{Coord|1|N|32|E|type:country|display=title}} [[Category:Uganda| ]]<!-- Please leave the empty space as per [[WP:CATMAIN]]. --> [[Category:1962 establishments in Uganda]] [[Category:Countries in Africa]] [[Category:East African countries]] <!--Ebola virus?: [[Category:Eboli virus]]--> [[Category:Countries and territories where English is an official language]] [[Category:Landlocked countries]] [[Category:Least developed countries]] [[Category:Member states of the African Union]] [[Category:Member states of the Commonwealth of Nations]] [[Category:Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation]] [[Category:Member states of the United Nations]] [[Category:Republics in the Commonwealth of Nations]] [[Category:States and territories established in 1962]] [[Category:Swahili-speaking countries and territories]] qdh8f98swia5j8txvcfwut1hgd5cbm5 0 40423 119267 116056 2026-08-13T13:06:39Z Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi 11606 /* growthexperiments-addlink-summary-summary:3|0|0 */ 119267 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Chadian politician and convicted war criminal}} {{Use dmy dates|date=August 2021}} {{Infobox officeholder | native_name = حسين حبري | native_name_lang = ar | image = President Hissène Habré of Chad.jpg | caption = Habré during a visit to the United States in 1987 | order = 5th | office = President of Chad | primeminister = [[Djidingar Dono Ngardoum]] (1982) | vicepresident = | term_start = 7 June 1982 | term_end = 1 December 1990 | predecessor = [[Goukouni Oueddei]] | successor = [[Idriss Déby]] | order2 = 1st | office2 = Prime Minister of Chad | term_start2 = 29 August 1978 | term_end2 = 23 March 1979 | predecessor2 = [[François Tombalbaye]] (of [[French Chad]]) | successor2 = Djidingar Dono Ngardoum | birth_date = {{birth date|df=yes|1942|8|13}} | birth_place = [[Faya-Largeau]], [[French Chad]], [[French Equatorial Africa]] | death_date = {{death date and age|df=yes|2021|8|24|1942|8|13}} | death_place = [[Dakar]], Senegal<ref name=Senegal /> | resting_place = [[Yoff]] Muslim cemetery | spouse = Fatime Raymonde<ref>{{Cite web|date=24 August 2021|title=Hissène Habré is dead|url=https://www.theafricareport.com/121313/hissene-habre-is-dead/|access-date=25 August 2021|publisher=[[The Africa Report]]|language=en-US}}</ref> | party = {{ubl|[[FROLINAT]] (1972–1984) |[[National Union for Independence and Revolution|UNIR]] (1984–1990)}} | alma_mater = {{ubli|[[École nationale de la France d'Outre-Mer]]|[[Aosta Valley University]]|[[University of Paris II Panthéon-Assas]]}} | blank1 = Religion | data1 = [[Muslim]] | allegiance = {{Flagu|Chad}} | serviceyears = 1972–1990 | branch = [[Chadian Armed Forces]] | battles = {{Tree list}} * [[Chadian–Libyan conflict]] **[[Toyota War]] **[[First Chadian Civil War]]{{Tree list/end}} | module = {{Infobox |child=yes |headerstyle=background:lavender; | header1 = Criminal details {{Infobox criminal|child=yes | conviction = [[Crimes against humanity]] {{List collapsed|title=''See list'' |(1) Rape |(2) Forced [[slavery]] |(3) [[voluntary homicide]] |(4) systematic and massive practice of [[summary execution]]s |(5) kidnapping of people |(6) [[Torture]] and inhumane acts }} | victims = &gt;40,000 alleged Chadian dissidents | beginyear = 1982 | endyear = 1990 | penalty = [[Life imprisonment]] | imprisoned = [[Prison du Cap Manuel]] | apprehended = 15 November 2005 }}}} }} '''Hissène Habré''' ([[Arabic]]: {{lang|ar|حسين حبري}} ''Ḥusaīn Ḥabrī'',&nbsp;[[Chadian Arabic]]: {{IPA-ar|hiˈsɛn ˈhabre|pron}}; {{IPA-fr|isɛn abʁe}}; 13 August 1942 – 24 August 2021),<ref name=Senegal>{{cite news |title=Chad's former President Habre, convicted of war crimes, dies in Senegal |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/chads-former-president-habre-convicted-war-crimes-dies-senegal-2021-08-24/ |access-date=24 August 2021 |publisher=Reuters |date=24 August 2021}}</ref>wakaŵa wandale wa ku [[Chad]] ndipo wakaŵa wa mulandu wa nkhondo. Wakaŵa purezidenti wa 5 wa charu cha Chad kwambira mu 1982 mpaka apo wakawuskikira mu 1990. Munthu uyu wakaŵa Musulumani ndipo wakaŵa wa ku Northern Chad. Chifukwa cha mphindano na Goukouni Oueddei, Habré na gulu lake la ŵasilikari ŵakugaluka ŵakajipeleka kwa Felix Malloum. Kufuma apo, Habré wakapika udindo wa Minisita wa vya Vyankhondo mu boma liphya la Tchad, ndipo Oueddei wakaŵa purezidenti. Mwaluŵiro ubwezi wawo ukamara, ndipo ŵasilikari ŵa Habré ŵakawuskapo Oueddei mu 1982. Wakati waŵa pulezidenti muphya wa caru ici, Habré wakambiska muwuso wa wupu umoza uwo ukawusikanga na wupu wake wa National Union for Independence and Revolution. Wakafika pa mazaza na wovwiri wa France na United States, awo ŵakapeleka masambiro, vilwero, na ndalama mu nyengo yose ya muwuso wake cifukwa cakuti wakasuskanga Muammar Gaddafi mulongozgi wa ku [[Libya]].<ref name="hartford-hwp.com">{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/2000/11/27/chads-torture-victims-pursue-habre-in-court/9da03c6b-ed13-477e-9e94-7f80450ca3b8/|title=Chad's Torture Victims Pursue Habre in Court|author=Douglas Farah|date=27 November 2000|newspaper=The Washington Post|access-date=3 July 2012}}</ref> Wakalongozga chalo mu nyengo ya nkhondo ya ku Libya na Chad, ndipo wakatonda nkhondo ya Toyota kufuma mu 1986 mpaka 1987 na wovwiri wa France. Pakati pajumpha vyaka vitatu, Idriss Déby wakathereska Tchad mu 1990 ndipo wakachimbilira ku Senegal. Mu Meyi 2016, khoti la pa charu chose ku Senegal likasanga Habré na mulandu wa kuswa wanangwa wa ŵanthu, kusazgapo kuzgeriska, kugwiliska ntchito za uzga, na kukoma ŵanthu 40,000, ndipo ŵakamuphalira kuti wakakhale mu jele umoyo wake wose. Wakaŵa mutu wa boma wakwamba uyo wakeruzgika na khoti la caru cinyake cifukwa ca kuswa wanangwa wa ŵanthu. Wakafwa pa 24 August 2021, pamanyuma pa kuyezga kuti wali na COVID-19.<ref>{{Cite web|date=24 August 2021|title=Sénégal : Hissène Habré est mort – Jeune Afrique|url=https://www.jeuneafrique.com/1222220/politique/senegal-hissene-habre-est-mort/|access-date=24 August 2021|website=JeuneAfrique.com|language=fr-FR}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Décès en prison au Sénégal de l'ex-président tchadien Hissène Habré|url=https://www.lefigaro.fr/flash-actu/deces-en-prison-au-senegal-de-l-ex-president-tchadien-hissene-habre-20210824|url-status=live|access-date=24 August 2021|website=Le Figaro|date=24 August 2021|language=fr}}</ref> ==Umoyo== Habré wakababika mu 1942 ku Faya-Largeau, kumpoto kwa charu cha Chad. Wakaŵa wa fuko la Anakaza la fuko la Daza Gourane, ilo nalo ni fuko la fuko la Toubou. Wakati wamalizga masambiro ghake gha ku pulayimale, wakasanga nchito mu boma la France, ndipo wakakondweska ŵalara ŵake. Wakamalizga masambiro gha ku yunivesite mu Paris, ndipo wakawelera ku Chad mu 1971. Kweniso wakasanga madigiri ghanyake ghanandi na kupokera digiri ya udokotala. Pamanyuma pa nyengo yichoko waka yakuteŵetera boma nga ni Deputy Prefect, wakaluta ku Tripoli na kunjira gulu la National Liberation Front of Chad (FROLINAT) uko wakazgoka mulongozgi wa Second Liberation Army ya FROLINAT pamoza na Goukouni Oueddei. Abba Siddick wati watora mazaza gha FROLINAT, Second Liberation Army, pakwamba pasi pa Oueddei ndipo pamanyuma pa Habré, yikapatukana na FROLINAT ndipo yikazgoka Council of Command of the Armed Forces of the North (CCFAN). Mu 1976 Oueddei na Habré ŵakakwesana ndipo Habré wakapatura gulu lake liphya la Armed Forces of the North (Forces Armées du Nord panji FAN) ku ŵalondezgi ŵa Goukouni awo ŵakamba kucemeka People's Armed Forces (Forces Armées Populaires panji FAP). Habré wakamba kumanyikwa pa caru cose apo gulu ilo wakaŵa mulongozgi wake likawukira tawuni ya Bardaï ku Tibesti, pa Epulero 21, 1974, na kutora ŵanthu ŵatatu ŵa ku [[Europe]] kuŵa ŵakayidi. Munthu uyo ŵakamukora wakaŵa dokotala wa ku [[Germany]], Dr. Christoph Staewen (uyo muwoli wake Elfriede wakakomeka), na ŵanthu ŵaŵiri ŵa ku France, Françoise Claustre, uyo wakumanya vya mipukutu yakale, na Marc Combe, uyo wakugwira ntchito yakovwira ŵanthu. Pa Juni 11, 1974, Staewen ŵakamufumiska pamanyuma pakuti ŵasilikari ŵa ku West Germany ŵamupa ndalama zinandi.<ref>{{Cite news|date=6 July 1974|title=Entführung: Bedenkliches Zugeständnis aus Bonn: Diplomatische Beziehungen abgebrochen – Dr. Staewen berichtet über Gefangenschait im Tschad (Abduction: dubious sanction from Bonn: Diplomatic relations broken off – Dr. Staewen reported hostage in Chad)|newspaper=Das Ostpreußenblatt|page=5|url=http://archiv.preussische-allgemeine.de/1974/1974_07_06_27.pdf|language=de}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.spiegel.de/spiegel/print/d-41696557.html |title=Deutscher Rebellen-Funk |date=17 June 1974 |work=Der Spiegel |language=de |access-date=3 July 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.spiegel.de/spiegel/print/d-41443747.html |title=Zum Weinen |date=15 September 1975 |work=Der Spiegel |language=de |access-date=3 July 2012}}</ref>Combe wakacimbira mu 1975, kweni nangauli boma la France likacitapo kanthu, Claustre (uyo mfumu wake wakaŵa mulara wa boma la France) wakafwatulika pa 1 Febuluwale 1977. Habré wakapatukana na Oueddei, cifukwa ca nkhani iyi (iyo yikamanyikwa kuti "nkhani ya Claustre" mu France).<ref name="Chad-CS">{{Cite book |url=https://cdn.loc.gov/master/frd/frdcstdy/ch/chadcountrystudy00coll/chadcountrystudy00coll.pdf |title=A Country Study: Chad |publisher=Federal Research Division, Library of Congress |year=1990 |editor-last=Collelo |editor-first=Thomas |edition=Second |orig-year=December 1988}}</ref> == Kuŵa na mazaza == Mu Ogasiti 1978 Habré wakapika maudindo gha Prime Minister wa Chad na Vice President wa Chad nga ndi chigaŵa cha mgwirizano na Gen. Ndipouli, phangano la kugaŵikana mazaza likamara yayi. Mu Febuluwale 1979, ŵasilikari ŵa Habré na ŵasilikari ŵa Malloum ŵakarwa nkhondo mu N'Djamena. Nkhondo iyi yikapangiska kuti charu cha Chad chileke kuŵa na boma. Vyaru vinyake vikayezga nthowa zinandi kuti vimazge suzgo ili, ndipo mu Novembala 1979 boma liphya likapangika, ndipo Habré wakasankhika kuŵa nduna ya vyavikiliro. Mu Disembala 1980, Habré wakatolekera ku Sudan.:354 Mu 1982, wakambaso kulimbana na boma la Chad. FAN yikapoka mazaza pa N'Djamena mu Juni ndipo yikimika Habré kuŵa mulongozgi wa boma.<ref name="Chad-CS"/>{{Rp|30, 151}} ==Kulamula== [[File:President Ronald Reagan During a Working Visit of President Hissein Habre of Chad and His Departure Statements at The Diplomatic Entrance - DPLA - 394ffc8f3e4dc286e8cb4ed1949b868e.jpg|left|thumb|306x306px|[[Ronald Reagan]] na Habré ku White House]] Habré wakawusa mu charu cha Chad kwambira mu 1982 m'paka mu 1990 apo Idriss Déby wakamulekeska. Ufumu wa chipani chimoza wa Habré, nga umo ukaŵira na maparita ghanyake ghakale, ukaŵanga na kuswa wanangwa wa ŵanthu. Wakakana kukoma na kutambuzga ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakamususkanga, nangauli mu 2012, khoti la United Nations' International Court of Justice (ICJ) likalangura kuti Senegal yimweruzge panji kumupeleka ku caru cinyake. Wakati wafika pa mazaza, Habré wakambiska gulu la ŵapolisi lakucemeka Documentation and Security Directorate (DDS). Ŵanyake mwa nthowa izo DDS yikugwiliskira nchito pakusuzga ŵakayidi ni kuwotcha mathupi ghawo na vinthu vyakugolera, kuŵapopera gasi mu maso, makutu na mphuno, kuŵachichizga kumira maji, na kuŵachichizga kuti ŵajumphe milomo yawo mu viŵiya vya galimoto. Boma la Habré likacitangaso vyakukanizga ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yinyake nga ni Sara, Hadjerai na Zaghawa, kukoma na kukora ŵanthu ŵanandi para ŵawona kuti ŵalongozgi ŵawo mbakofya ku boma. Habré wakacimbira na ndalama za boma zakukwana $11 miliyoni, kuya ku Senegal pamanyuma pa kuwuskika mu 1990. Wakaŵikika mu jele mu 2005 mpaka apo wakakakikira mu 2013. Wakasoleka na milandu ya nkhondo na kutambuzga ŵanthu mu vilimika vinkhondi na viŵiri ivyo wakaŵira pa mazaza mu Chad, uko magulu ghakuvikilira wanangwa wa ŵanthu ghakuti ŵanthu pafupifupi 40,000 ŵakakomeka. Wupu wakuwona vya wanangwa wa ŵanthu (Human Rights Watch) ukuti ŵanthu 1,200 ŵakakomeka ndipo 12,000 ŵakayuzgika, ndipo wupu unyake wa ku Chad ukati ŵanthu 40,000 ŵakakomeka ndipo ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 200,000 ŵakayuzgika. Human Rights Watch pamanyuma pake yikati Habré ni "Pinochet wa ku Africa".<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/5140818.stm |title=Profile: Chad's Hissene Habre |date=3 July 2006 |publisher=BBC News |access-date=3 July 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/6919022.stm |title=France to help try Chad ex-leader |date=27 July 2007 |publisher=BBC News |access-date=3 July 2012}}</ref><ref>[http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2013/02/201329142812801421.html "Africa's Pinochet" or the beginning of "Africa's solutions"?] Al Jazeera</ref> == Nkhondo na Libya == {{Main|Chadian–Libyan conflict}} [[File:Idriss Déby - 2004.jpg|thumb|Idriss Deby, uyo wakanjira mu malo gha Habré, uyo wakaŵa mulongozgi wa ŵasilikari pa nyengo ya nkhondo ya Chadi na Libya, wakakomeka myezi yinayi pambere Habre wandafwe.]] Mu Julayi 1980, charu cha Libya chikapoka charu cha Chad na kupoka chigaŵa cha Aozou. Boma la United States na la France likapokelera wovwiri wa Chadi kuti likanizge ŵanthu ŵa mu charu cha Libya awo ŵakaŵa na mtima wa kuwukira boma la Muammar al-Gaddafi.:354 Mu 1980, boma la umoza likasazga phangano la ubwezi na kukolerana na Libya. Phangano ili likazomerezga boma la Chadi kupempha wovwiri ku Libya usange wanangwa wa Chadi uli pangozi.:191 Gulu la ŵasilikari la ku Libya likamba kovwira ŵasilikari ŵa boma, awo ŵakalongozgekanga na Goukouni. Mu 1983, ŵasilikari ŵa ku Libya ŵakawelera ku Chad ndipo ŵakakhalira mu charu ichi, kovwira ŵasilikari ŵa Goukouni, mpaka mu 1988.:193?? 198:354?? 356 Nangauli boma la Habré likathereska ŵalwani ŵake, kweni likaŵa na nkhongono yayi. Mu Novembala 1990, ŵakugaluka awo ŵakalongozgekanga na Idriss Déby, uyo wakaŵa mulara wa ŵasilikari ŵa ku Zaghawa, ŵakathereska ŵasilikari ŵa Habré. Ŵafarisi ŵakasankha kuleka kovwira Habré pa nyengo iyi, ndipo ŵakamulekeska ntchito. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakughanaghana kuti chifukwa icho charu cha France chikagwenthera ku Tchad chikaŵa chakuti chindanjirepo pa nkhondo izo zikaŵa mukati mwa charu cha Chad. Ŵanyake ŵakukhorwa yayi na ivyo Habré wakachita chifukwa chakuti wakakhumba yayi kuchita vinthu mwakukolerana na vyaru vinandi. Habré wakacimbilira ku Cameroon, ndipo ŵakugaluka ŵakanjira mu N'Djamena pa 2 Disembala 1990; Habré wakaluta ku Senegal.<ref>Bernard Lanne, "Chad: Regime Change, Increased Insecurity, and Blockage of Further Reforms", ''Political Reform in Francophone Africa'' (1997), ed. Clark and Gardinier, page 274 (see also note 26).</ref> == Wovwiri wa United States na France == {{See also|CIA activities in Chad}} {{quote box | quote = Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1980, United States yikaŵa na udindo ukuru pakuwuska Hissène Habré ku mazaza, ndipo yikamuwona kuti ni munthu wakujivikilira mwachikanga kuti Muammar Gaddafi wa ku Libya waleke kusazgikira, ntheura yikapeleka wovwiri wa usilikari ku gulu lake na ku boma lake, nangauli boma ili likacitanga viheni vikuru na vyakukhozga wanangwa wa ŵanthu.| source = —[[Human Rights Watch]]<ref>{{cite web|date =June 28, 2016| title=Enabling a Dictator: The United States and Chad's Hissène Habré 1982-1990|url=https://www.hrw.org/report/2016/06/28/enabling-dictator/united-states-and-chads-hissene-habre-1982-1990|access-date=December 10, 2019 |publisher= [[Human Rights Watch]]}}</ref> | width = 340px}} United States na France vikawovwira Habré, ndipo vikamuwona kuti ni munthu wakuvikilirika ku boma la Gaddafi ku Libya. Mu nyengo ya Pulezidenti Ronald Reagan, boma la United States likapeleka wovwiri ku CIA kuti wawovwire Habré kutora mazaza. Boma la United States likagwiliskiraso nchito msasa unyake mu caru ca Chad kusambizga ŵasilikari ŵa ku Libya awo ŵakakoleka. Donald Norland, uyo wakaŵa thenga la United States ku Chad kwambira mu 1979 m'paka 1981, wakati: "Nkhukayika usange CIA yikamanya ivyo vikacitikanga. Kweni pakaŵavya kudumbiskana za ndondomeko iyi, kweniso tikaŵavya kuyowoyapo usange ivyo tikachita vikaŵa vyavinjeru". Malipoti agho Human Rights Watch yikasanga ghakulongora kuti boma la United States likapeleka masambiro, mauthenga gha mu charu, vilwero, na wovwiri unyake ku gulu la DDS la Habré nangauli likamanyanga uheni uwo likachitanga. Mabuku agho ghakasangika mu mabuku gha DDS ghakulongosora umo ŵasambizgi ŵa boma la United States ŵakasambizgiranga ŵantchito ŵa DDS. Kuyana na Chadian Truth Commission, United States yikapelekaso DDS wovwiri wa ndalama mwezi uliwose ndipo yikagwiliskira nchito ndalama zakwendeskera maofesi gha vyenjezgo agho ghakacemekanga kuti "Mosaic" agho Chad yikagwiliskiranga nchito pakulondezga ŵanthu awo ŵakaghanaghananga kuti ŵakususka boma la Habré nangauli ŵakachimbira mu caru. Mu cihanya ca 1983, apo Libya wakawukira kumpoto kwa Chad ndipo wakakhumbanga kuwuskapo Habré, France yikatuma ŵasilikari ŵa parachute na wovwiri wa mu mphepo, apo boma la Reagan likapeleka ndege ziŵiri za AWACS kuti ziwovwire ŵanthu. Kuzakafika mu 1987, ŵasilikari ŵa Gaddafi ŵakawerako. Mulara munyake wa boma la United States wakati: "Habré wakaŵa munthu wavinjeru comene ndipo wakamanyanga makora umo wangacitira vinthu na ŵanthu ŵa mu caru. Kweniso wakaŵa munthu wankhaza na wakusuzga. Tingayowoya kuti tikamanyanga uyo wakaŵa na ivyo wakachitanga, kweni tikamuleka waka".<ref name="hartford-hwp.com"/> == Milandu == === Kuyowoya vya kuswa malango === Magulu ghakuvikilira wanangwa wa ŵanthu ghakuwona kuti Habré ndiyo wakakoma ŵanthu ŵanandi, kweni unandi wawo ukumanyikwa yayi. Pa ŵanthu awo ŵakakomeka pakaŵa ŵanthu ŵa mafuko ghanyake kumwera (1984), ŵa Hadjerai (1987), na ŵa Zaghawa (1989). Wupu wa Human Rights Watch ukamupa mulandu wakuti wakazomerezga kuti ŵanthu masauzandi ghanandi ŵakomeke na kutambuzgika. Habré ŵakamucemanga kuti "Pinochet wa ku Africa", pakuyowoya za Augusto Pinochet, muwusi wa ku Chile. Habre wakasayinanga yekha vyeruzgo vya nyifwa na kulaŵilira vyakuyuzga ŵanthu, ndipo ŵakamusanga na mulandu wa kunjilirapo pa kutambuzga ŵanthu na kuŵakolelera. Kuyana na nkhwantha zinyake, khoti ilo likweruzga mulandu uwu likaŵa "khoti la caru cose", nangauli ndilo likaŵa 'likuru comene' pa makhoti ghose". Boma la Idriss Déby likakhazikiska Commission of Inquiry into the Crimes and Misappropriations Committed by Ex-President Habré, His Complices and/or Accessories in 1990, ilo likati ŵanthu 40,000 ŵakakomeka, kweni likalondezga yayi ivyo likayowoya.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url = http://www.usip.org/sites/default/files/file/resources/collections/commissions/Chad-Charter.pdf|title = Decree No. 014 /P.CE/CJ/90|date = 29 December 1990|access-date = 25 August 2021|website = usip.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|date=24 August 2021|title=Convicted ex-Chadian leader Hissène Habré dies at 79|language=en-GB|publisher=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-58316923|access-date=25 August 2021}}</ref><ref name="BBC News 2015">{{cite news|title=Chad's Hissene Habre: Battle to bring 'Africa's Pinochet' to court|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-33566865|access-date=30 May 2016|publisher=BBC News|date=20 July 2015}}</ref><ref name="NYTimes" /><ref name="BBC News" /> === Kuyezgayezga kwambiro (Initial trial attempts) === Pakati pa 1993 na 2003, boma la Belgium likaŵa na dango lakuti ŵanthu wose ŵeruzgike (Loi belge des crimes de guerre) ilo likazomerezganga kuti ŵanthu awo ŵakuswa chomene wanangwa wa ŵanthu ŵeruzgike mu makhoti gha mu charu chawo kweniso gha pa charu chose. Nangauli dango ili likawuskikapo, kweni ŵapolisi ŵakalutilira na kusanda mulandu wa Habré, ndipo mu Seputembala 2005 ŵakamupa mulandu wa kuswa wanangwa wa ŵanthu, kutambuzga ŵanthu, na kuswa wanangwa wa ŵanthu. Ku Senegal, uko Habré wakaŵa ku wuzga kwa vilimika 17, ŵakamujalira mu nyumba yake ku Dakar. Pa Malichi 17, 2006, Nyumba ya Malamulo ya ku Europe yikapempha Senegal kuti yipeleke Habré ku Belgium kuti wakeruzgike. Senegal wakapulikira yayi, ndipo pakwamba wakakana ivyo wupu wa African Union ukayowoya kuti waŵapeleke kwa iyo. Wupu wa Chadian Association for the Promotion and Defense of Human Rights, ukazomerezga fundo iyi. Usange mphanyi ŵakamupeleka, mphanyi wakaŵa munthu wakwamba uyo charu chinyake chikamupeleka ku khoti chifukwa cha kuswa wanangwa wa ŵanthu. Mu 2007, boma la Senegal likakhazikiska khoti lakunozga la milandu ya nkhondo kuti limweruzge Habré. Pa Epulero 8, 2008, wupu wakuwona vya wanangwa wa ŵanthu wa ku Senegal ukazomerezga kusintha malango gha charu ichi kuti Habré wasangike na mulandu. Pa ungano wa wupu wa National Assembly na Senate mu Julayi 2008, ŵakazomerezga dango ilo likapeleka mazaza ku makhoti gha ku Senegal kuti gheruzgenge ŵanthu chifukwa cha milandu iyo ŵakacita mu vyaru vinyake kweniso milandu iyo ŵakacita vyaka vyakujumpha 10 kumasinda. Nduna ya vya Malango ya ku Senegal, Madicke Niang, yikimika ŵeruzgi ŵanayi. Filimu ya mu 2007 ya Klaartje Quirijns, The Dictator Hunter, yikulongosora vya Souleymane Guengueng na Reed Brody, awo ŵakalongozga ntchito ya kuzenga mulandu Habré.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.democracynow.org/2008/6/12/the_dictator_hunter_victims_of_us |title="The Dictator Hunter": Victims of US-Allied Chadian Dictator Hissene Habre Lead Quest to Bring Him to Justice |author=Amy Goodman and Juan González |date=12 June 2008 |work=Democracy Now! |access-date=3 July 2012}}]</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://afp.google.com/article/ALeqM5ilSuW-bsoOgcqLzkuQthox0qGrig |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130124143928/http://afp.google.com/article/ALeqM5ilSuW-bsoOgcqLzkuQthox0qGrig |url-status=dead |archive-date=24 January 2013 |title=Sénégal: les députés modifient la Constitution pour juger Hissène Habré |language=fr |agency=Agence France-Presse |date=8 April 2008 |access-date=3 July 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.news24.com/Africa/News/Senegal-amends-constitution-20080409 |title=Senegal amends constitution |agency=Associated Press |date=9 April 2008 |publisher=News 24 |access-date=3 July 2012}}</ref> === Kuyezgeka ku Chad === Pa 15 Ogasiti 2008, khoti la ku Chad likadumura kuti Habré wakomeke kwambura mulandu chifukwa cha milandu ya nkhondo na yakwimikana na wanangwa wa ŵanthu chifukwa cha ivyo ŵakamuyowoyera kuti wakagwiranga lumoza ntchito na ŵakugaluka mukati mwa Chad kuti wafumiske Déby. François Serres, loya wa Habré, wakasuska mulandu uwu pa Ogasiti 22 cifukwa cakuti ukaŵa wambura urunji ndiposo wachisisi. Kuyana na Serres, mulandu uwo upharazgi uwu ukajintha ukaŵa wambura kumanyikwa ndipo Habré wakapokera yayi uthenga uliwose wakukhwaskana na mulandu uwu.<ref>[https://www.hrw.org/en/news/2009/01/28/african-union-press-senegal-habr-trial "African Union: Press Senegal on Habré Trial"], Human Rights Watch, 28 January 2009</ref> === Kuyezgeka ku Senegal === Mu 2008, boma la Senegal likasazgirako fundo yinyake iyo yikapeleka mwaŵi wakuti Habré weruzgike. Kweni pamasinda, boma la Senegal likasintha maghanoghano ghake, ndipo likapempha wovwiri wa ndalama zakujumpha 27 miliyoni za ku caru cose pambere ŵandambe kuyezga. Ici cikapangiska Belgium kuti wacimbizge khoti la International Court of Justice (ICJ) kuti liŵachichizge Senegal kuti wapeleke Habré ku Belgium panji kuti walutilire na mulandu wake. Khoti la ICJ likakana kupeleka mulandu uwu, ndipo likati para munthu waswa dango ili ndikuti wabuda. Boma la Senegal likasuskika cifukwa ca kuleka kufiska ivyo likakhumbanga pa nkhani ya ucigeŵenga, kweniso cifukwa ca kuleka kupeleka mulandu uwu ku ŵalara ŵa boma kuti ŵeruzgike. Khoti la ICJ likakana ivyo boma la Senegal likayowoya vyakuti ndarama ni zichoko kweniso kuti likususka malango gha mu charu. Mu Novembala 2010, khoti la Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) likadumura kuti Senegal yingachita yayi mulandu uwu kwizira mu khoti la ku malo pera, ndipo likapempha kuti paŵe khoti lapadera lakweruzgira mulandu wa Habré. Mu Epulero 2011, Senegal yikakolerana kuti paŵe wupu wa ad hoc mu Africa, Chad, na vyaru vinyake. Ndipouli, boma la Senegal likasintha maghanoghano ghake, ndipo likafumamo mu khoti ili pa Meyi 30, 2011 kwambura kulongosora. Komiti ya African Union pa nkhani ya Habré, pakunozgekera ungano wawo wakulondezgapo wa pa Juni 30, yikalemba lipoti ilo likapempha Senegal kuti yipeleke Habré ku Belgium. Pa Julayi 8, 2011, ŵamazaza ŵa ku Senegal ŵakapharazga kuti Habré wazamumupeleka ku Chad pa Julayi 11, kweni ivi vikamara.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14101258 |title=Senegal suspends Hissene Habre's repatriation to Chad |date=10 July 2011 |publisher=BBC News |access-date=3 July 2012}}</ref> Mu Julayi 2012, khoti la ICJ likadumura kuti Senegal yambe kweruzga Habré "kwambura kuchedwa". Bungwe la Amnesty International likapempha boma la Senegal kuti lipulikire ivyo khoti la ICJ ladumura. Khoti la pa caru cose (ICC) likakana kweruzga mulandu uwu, cifukwa milandu iyi yikacitika pambere khoti ili lindambe kuwumbika mu 2002, ndipo likulongozga waka vinthu ivyo vikacitika pamanyuma pa nyengo iyi. Mu Disembala 2012, Nyumba ya Malamulo ya ku Senegal yikapeleka dango lakuti mu Senegal mupangike khoti la ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yose kuti limweruzge Habre. Ŵeruzgi ŵa khoti ili ŵakwimikika na wupu wa African Union, ndipo ŵakufuma ku vyaru vinyake vya mu Africa. Pa Juni 30, 2013, ŵapolisi ŵa ku Senegal ŵakamukora Habré ku Senegal. Pulezidenti wa Chadi, Idriss Déby, wakati kukakika kwake kukaŵa "nthowa yakulongozgera ku Africa uko kulije uheni uliwose, uko kulije maboma ghakupusa". Khoti la ku Senegal, ilo likakhazikiskika pamoza na wupu wa African Union, likamuphalira mulandu wa kusuzga ŵanthu. Mu caka ici, khoti la ku Chad likamuphalira kuti wakomeke cifukwa ca kuswa malango. Khoti ilo likeruzga mulandu wa Hissène Habré ku Senegal likuyowoyeka kuti lili na vinthu vinandi. Pa Julayi 20, 2015, mulandu uwu ukamba. Apo wakalindiliranga kuti mulandu uwu wambike, Habré wakacemerezga kuti: "Ŵalwani ŵa boma ŵaparanyike. [Ceruzgo ici] nchinthu caucindere ico ŵandyali ŵa ku Senegal ŵakucita. Ŵapusikizgi ŵa ku Africa. Muteŵeti wa ku America". Kufuma apo, Habré ŵakamufumiska mu khoti ndipo mulandu ukayamba kwambura iyo. Pa Julayi 21, 2015, mulandu wa Habré ukasinthika kufika pa Seputembala 7, 2015, pamanyuma pakuti maloya ghake ghakana kwiza ku khoti.<ref>{{cite news| title =Trial of Chad's ex-dictator Habré adjourned to September 7| newspaper =[[France 24]]| date =21 July 2015| url =http://www.france24.com/en/20150721-senegal-trial-chad-ex-dictator-habre-adjourned-september-7| access-date = 24 July 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite news| title =Chad's Hissene Habre forced to appear in court| quote =The trial has been suspended until 7 September after Mr Habre and his lawyers refused to speak to the judge.|publisher=[[BBC News]]| date =21 July 2015| url =https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-33607843| access-date = 24 July 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite news| author = Diadie Ba| title =Trial of Chad's Habre suspended after boycott by his lawyers|publisher=[[Reuters]]| date = 21 July 2015| url =https://www.reuters.com/article/us-senegal-justice-habre-idUSKCN0PV11K20150721| access-date = 24 July 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite news| author = Thierry Cruvellier| title =For Hissène Habré, a Trial by Refusal| newspaper =[[The New York Times]]| date =27 July 2015| url =https://www.nytimes.com/2015/07/28/opinion/for-hissene-habre-a-trial-by-refusal.html| access-date =28 July 2015}}</ref> === Khoti Lapadera ku Senegal Likatumizga Mulandu === Pa 30 May 2016, makhoti gha ku Africa ghakasanga kuti Habré ngwakwananga cifukwa ca kucitiska uleŵi, uzga wa kugonana, na kuphalira ŵanthu 40,000 kuti ŵakomeke apo wakaŵa pulezidenti wa Chad ndipo ŵakamupa chilango cakuti wakhale mu jele la Cap Manuel ku Senegal umoyo wake wose. Uwu ukaŵa ulendo wakwamba kuti khoti lakuwovwirika na wupu wa African Union limare mulandu wa kuswa wanangwa wa ŵanthu wa munthu uyo kale wakaŵa mulongozgi wa charu chinyake.<ref name="BBC News">{{cite news|title=Hissene Habre: Chad's ex-ruler convicted of crimes against humanity|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-36411466|access-date=30 May 2016|publisher=BBC News|date=30 May 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last1=Burke|first1=Jason|title=Hissène Habré trial provides model for international justice|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/may/30/hissene-habre-trial-provides-model-for-international-justice|access-date=30 May 2016|work=The Guardian|date=30 May 2016}}</ref><ref name="CNN">{{cite news|last1=Dewan|first1=Angela|last2=Swails|first2=Brent|title=Ex-Chad dictator sentenced to life for war crimes|url=http://www.cnn.com/2016/05/30/africa/habre-africa-chad-war-crimes/|access-date=30 May 2016|publisher=CNN|date=30 May 2016}}</ref><ref name="NYTimes">{{cite news|last1=Searcey|first1=Dionne|title=Hissène Habré, Ex-President of Chad, Convicted of War Crimes|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/05/31/world/africa/hissene-habre-leader-chad-war-crimes.html?_r=0|access-date=30 May 2016|work=The New York Times|date=30 May 2016}}</ref> Mu Meyi 2017, Mweruzgi Ougadeye Wafi wakakhozgera chilango cha umoyo wake wose kwa Habre pamoza na milandu yose iyo ŵakamupa, kupaturako wacigeŵenga. Khoti likati nkhani iyi yikakhwaska ndondomeko ya mulandu uwu, cifukwa cakuti ivyo mwanakazi uyu wakayowoya vikapelekeka mwakucedwa comene mwakuti vingaŵa nga ni mulandu wa nkhaza za kugonana izo ŵantchito ŵake ŵakacita. Pa 7 April 2020, mweruzgi ku Senegal wakapeleka kwa Habre myezi yiŵiri kuti waleke kukhala mu jele, pakuti jele ili likugwiliskirika nchito kuti ŵakayidi ŵaphya ŵa COVID-19 ŵaŵikikenge mu malo ghakupatulika. Wakati wafuma mu jele, wakawelera mu jele pa Juni 7.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.jeuneafrique.com/996420/societe/senegal-le-tchadien-hissene-habre-regagne-sa-prison/|title=Sénégal : le Tchadien Hissène Habré regagne sa prison – Jeune Afrique|date=7 June 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.notimerica.com/politica/noticia-chad-expresidente-chad-hissene-habre-vuelve-prision-senegal-permiso-covid-19-20200608115455.html|title=Chad.- El expresidente de Chad Hissne Habré vuelve a prisión en Senegal tras el permiso por la COVID-19|first=Europa|last=Press|date=8 June 2020|website=www.notimerica.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.vanguardngr.com/2020/06/former-chadian-strongman-hissene-habre-returns-to-prison/|title=Former Chadian strongman Hissene Habre returns to prison|date=7 June 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Seelinger|first=Kim Thuy |date=10 May 2017 |title=Hissène Habré's rape acquittal must not be quietly airbrushed from history|url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2017/may/10/hissene-habre-acquittal-not-airbrushed-from-history-khadidja-zidane-kim-thuy-seelinger|work=The Guardian |access-date=10 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=7 April 2020 |title=Chad: Ex-president temporarily released from jail due to COVID-19|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2020/04/chad-president-temporarily-released-jail-due-covid-19-200407070630471.html|publisher=[[Al Jazeera]] |agency= [[AFP news agency]] |access-date=7 April 2020}}</ref> == Nyifwa == cHabré wakafwira ku Senegal pa 24 August 2021, sabata yimoza pamanyuma pa zuŵa lake lakubabikira la 79, wati wafika ku chipatala chikuru ku Dakar na nthenda ya COVID-19.<ref>{{Cite news|last1=Maclean|first1=Ruth|last2=Camara|first2=Mady|date=24 August 2021|title=Hissène Habré, Ex-President of Chad Jailed for War Crimes, Dies at 79|language=en-US|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/08/24/world/africa/hissene-habre-dead.html|access-date=25 August 2021|issn=0362-4331}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Chad's former president Hissène Habré dies at 79 |url=https://www.france24.com/en/live-news/20210824-chad-s-former-president-hiss%C3%A8ne-habr%C3%A9-dies-at-79 |access-date=24 August 2021 |work=[[France24]] |date=24 August 2021}}</ref> Wakalwara apo wakaŵa mu jele sabata yimoza kumasinda.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Chad's former President Hissene Habre dies of COVID aged 79|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/8/24/chads-former-president-hissene-habre-dies-of-covid-aged-79|access-date=24 August 2021|website=www.aljazeera.com|language=en}}</ref> Mu mazgu, muwoli wa Habré, [[Fatimé Raymonne Habré]], wakasimikizga kuti wali na COVID-19. Wakasungika mu dindi la Ŵasilamu la Yoff.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-08-27|title=Sénégal : Hissène Habré enterré en l'absence de représentants officiels – Jeune Afrique|url=https://www.jeuneafrique.com/1223629/politique/senegal-hissene-habre-enterre-en-labsence-de-representants-officiels/|access-date=2021-08-30|website=JeuneAfrique.com|language=fr-FR}}</ref><ref name=rfi>{{cite news |first=|last=|title=L'ancien président tchadien Hissène Habré est mort |url=https://www.rfi.fr/fr/afrique/20210824-l-ancien-pr%C3%A9sident-tchadien-hiss%C3%A8ne-habr%C3%A9-est-d%C3%A9c%C3%A9d%C3%A9-du-covid-19 |work=[[Radio France International]] |date=2021-08-24 |access-date=2021-09-03}}</ref> ==Wonaniso== * [[Rose Lokissim]] ==Ukaboni== {{reflist}} ==External links== * [https://web.archive.org/web/20160804154204/http://www.icj-cij.org/docket/index.php?p1=3&p2=3&code=bs&case=144&k=5e ''Belgium v. Senegal Hissene Habre'' Case of 19 February 2009] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20101124151137/http://www.hrw.org/justice/habre/ The Case against Hissène Habré, an "African Pinochet"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101124151137/http://www.hrw.org/justice/habre/ |date=24 November 2010 }}, [[Human Rights Watch]]. * [http://www.democracynow.org/2016/5/31/from_us_ally_to_convicted_war "From U.S. Ally to Convicted War Criminal: Inside Chad's Hissène Habré's Close Ties to Reagan Admin"]. ''[[Democracy Now!]]'' 31 May 2016. {{ChadPres}} {{ChadPMs}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Habre, Hissene}} [[Category:1942 births]] [[Category:2021 deaths]] [[Category:20th-century criminals]] [[Category:Chadian anti-communists]] [[Category:Chadian people convicted of crimes against humanity]] [[Category:Chadian people imprisoned abroad]] [[Category:Chadian politicians convicted of crimes]] [[Category:Chadian prisoners sentenced to life imprisonment]] [[Category:Chadian rebels]] [[Category:People of the Chadian–Libyan War]] [[Category:Critics of Islamism]] [[Category:Deaths from the COVID-19 pandemic in Senegal]] [[Category:Heads of government of Chad]] [[Category:Heads of government who were later imprisoned]] [[Category:Heads of state of Chad]] [[Category:National Union for Independence and Revolution politicians]] [[Category:People convicted of genocide]] [[Category:Chadian people convicted of rape]] [[Category:People from Faya-Largeau]] [[Category:People sentenced to death in absentia]] [[Category:Place of birth missing]] [[Category:Prisoners and detainees of Senegal]] [[Category:Prisoners sentenced to life imprisonment by international courts and tribunals]] [[Category:Prisoners sentenced to life imprisonment by Senegal]] [[Category:Toubou people]] [[Category:Vice presidents of Chad]] [[Category:Prisoners who died from COVID-19]] [[Category:20th-century Chadian politicians]] [[Category:21st-century Chadian politicians]] 6w3laqhgsytt5mqdjxp9w31a6ae24nx 0 40525 119337 118849 2026-08-13T23:22:14Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260813sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 119337 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Continent}} {{Other uses}} {{pp-move-indef}} {{pp-semi-indef}} {{Use dmy dates|date=August 2021}} {{Infobox Continent |title = Afilika |image = {{Switcher|[[File:Africa (orthographic projection).svg|frameless]]|Show national borders|[[File:Africa (orthographic projection) blank.svg|frameless]]|Hide national borders|default=1}} |area = {{convert|30370000|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} &nbsp;([[List of continents by area|2nd]]) |population = {{UN_Population|Africa}}{{UN_Population|ref}} ({{UN_Population|Year}}; [[List of continents by population|2nd]]) |density = {{pop density|{{Decomma|{{UN_Population|Africa}}}}|30221532|km2|sqmi|prec=1}} ({{UN Population|Year}}) |religions = {{unbulleted list | [[Christianity in Africa|Christianity]] (49%) | [[Islam in Africa|Islam]] (42%) | [[African traditional religion|Traditional faiths]] (8%) | [[Religion in Africa|Others]] (1%)<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.gordonconwell.edu/blog/african-christianity-101/?__cf_chl_jschl_tk__=a1d4c1d931e6c38110d5c3f059ae64bb66bafafa-1590463375-0-AezHrWRbV9jUadPbMq1KCYOzXRnMTcuigdG5X7oahVbSoI1-HbOZFVzICpNQM3DD6h-V4OowV97KMQvA_Z5xrEIueURh3cAjh_JOwgzb_0xJ8ApebiYm1YKfWINm1tpYbvki0LdD6UCp1tdLlxQ9SRwtdKFDMRidCaiTEuKpAgqahxqDYDT9efnF_jaiIEUQu0uIx-pJ0jUDCQtArMqdHTN8eI_S59hxJlvlxrSqBFOFsKFbiRy66EYOzblYbhaniwzQPIxiovSOAM7Yj6fu-5jMYVAPJtBJplpKoRDBlTtl44pnDC6wJInEyJbLw46dPuXcViyFEB57ebEfmUnpcYoJDlysExw35Ay28x7nvUDx3aIEa6ZhJsxwn62dv-R57g |title=Gordon Conwell Theological Seminary, African Christianity, 2020 |date=18 March 2020 |access-date=1 July 2021 |archive-date=3 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210503132003/https://www.gordonconwell.edu/blog/african-christianity-101/?__cf_chl_jschl_tk__=a1d4c1d931e6c38110d5c3f059ae64bb66bafafa-1590463375-0-AezHrWRbV9jUadPbMq1KCYOzXRnMTcuigdG5X7oahVbSoI1-HbOZFVzICpNQM3DD6h-V4OowV97KMQvA_Z5xrEIueURh3cAjh_JOwgzb_0xJ8ApebiYm1YKfWINm1tpYbvki0LdD6UCp1tdLlxQ9SRwtdKFDMRidCaiTEuKpAgqahxqDYDT9efnF_jaiIEUQu0uIx-pJ0jUDCQtArMqdHTN8eI_S59hxJlvlxrSqBFOFsKFbiRy66EYOzblYbhaniwzQPIxiovSOAM7Yj6fu-5jMYVAPJtBJplpKoRDBlTtl44pnDC6wJInEyJbLw46dPuXcViyFEB57ebEfmUnpcYoJDlysExw35Ay28x7nvUDx3aIEa6ZhJsxwn62dv-R57g |url-status=live }}</ref>}} |GDP_PPP = {{nowrap|$8.05&nbsp;trillion (2022 est; 4th)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.imf.org/external/datamapper/PPPGDP@WEO/OEMDC/ADVEC/WEOWORLD|title=GDP PPP, current prices|publisher=International Monetary Fund|date=2022|access-date=16 January 2022|archive-date=22 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210122001107/https://www.imf.org/external/datamapper/PPPGDP@WEO/OEMDC/ADVEC/WEOWORLD|url-status=live}}</ref>}} |GDP_nominal = $2.96&nbsp;trillion (2022 est; [[List of continents by GDP (nominal)|5th]])<ref>{{cite web|title=GDP Nominal, current prices|url=https://www.imf.org/external/datamapper/NGDPD@WEO/OEMDC/ADVEC/WEOWORLD|publisher=International Monetary Fund|date=2022|access-date=16 January 2022|archive-date=25 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170225211431/https://www.imf.org/external/datamapper/NGDPD@WEO/OEMDC/ADVEC/WEOWORLD|url-status=live}}</ref> |GDP_per_capita = $2,180 (Nominal; 2022 est; [[List of continents by GDP (nominal)#GDP per capita (nominal) by continents|6th]])<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.imf.org/external/datamapper/NGDPDPC@WEO/OEMDC/ADVEC/WEOWORLD|title=Nominal GDP per capita|publisher=International Monetary Fund|date=2022|access-date=16 January 2022|archive-date=11 January 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200111084550/https://www.imf.org/external/datamapper/NGDPDPC@WEO/OEMDC/ADVEC/WEOWORLD|url-status=live}}</ref> |demonym = [[List of ethnic groups of Africa|African]] |countries = 54+2*+5** (*disputed) (**territories) |list_countries = List of sovereign states and dependent territories in Africa |dependencies = {{Collapsible list |list_style = text-align:left; |title = [[List of African dependencies#External territories|External]] (5) | 1 = {{flagdeco|Norway}} [[Bouvet Island]] | 2 = {{Flag|British Indian Ocean Territory}} | 3 = {{flag|French Southern and Antarctic Lands|name=French Southern Territories}} | 4 = {{flag|Heard Island and McDonald Islands}} | 5 = {{flag|Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha}} }} {{Collapsible list |list_style = text-align:left; |title = [[List of African dependencies#Internal territories|Internal]] (6+1 disputed) | 1 = {{flag|France}} ''([[Mayotte]] and [[Réunion]])'' | 2 = {{flag|Italy}} ''([[Pantelleria]] and [[Pelagie Islands]])'' | 3 = {{flag|Morocco}} ''([[Southern Provinces]])'' | 4 = {{flag|Portugal}} ''([[Madeira]])'' | 5 = {{flag|Spain}} ''([[Alboran Island]], [[Canary Islands]], [[Ceuta]], [[Melilla]], and [[Plazas de soberanía]])'' | 6 = {{flag|Tanzania}} ''([[Zanzibar]])'' | 7 = {{flag|Yemen}} ''([[Socotra]])'' }} |languages = [[Languages of Africa|1250–3000 native languages]] |time = [[UTC-1]] to [[UTC+4]] |cities = [[List of urban agglomerations in Africa|Largest urban areas]]:<!-- -->{{hlist |item_style=white-space:break; |[[Cairo]] |[[Lagos]] <br> |[[Kinshasa]] |[[Johannesburg]]<br> |[[Kinshasa]] |[[Luanda]]<br> |[[Kinshasa]] |[[Khartoum]] |[[Dar es Salaam]]<br> |[[Kinshasa]] |[[Abidjan]]<br> |[[Kinshasa]] |[[Alexandria]] |[[Kinshasa]]<br> |[[Kigali]] |[[Nairobi]]<br> |[[Algiers]] |[[Kinshasa]]<br> |[[Cape Town]] |[[Kano (city)|Kano]]<br> |[[Dakar]]<br> |[[Kinshasa]] |[[Casablanca]]<br> |[[Addis Ababa]] |[[Kampala]]}} }} [[File:MapAfricaSize.gif|thumb|Ukuru wa Africa pakuyaniska na vyaru vinyake]] [[Chilwa]] cha '''Afilika''' ndicho chili na ŵanthu ŵanandi chomene pa charu chose chapasi. Chigaŵa ichi chili na malo ghakukwana makilomita pafupifupi 30.300,000, kusazgapo virwa vinyake.<ref name=Sayre>Sayre, April Pulley (1999), ''Africa'', Twenty-First Century Books. {{ISBN|0-7613-1367-2}}.</ref> Ŵanthu ŵakukwana 1.4 biliyoni{{UN_Population|ref}} Kufika chaka cha 2021, chiŵelengero ichi chikaŵa pafupifupi {{percent|{{UN Population|Africa}}|{{UN Population|World}}}} pa ŵanthu wose pa caru capasi. Ŵanthu ŵa mu Afilika ndiwo mbaciwukirano comene pa vyaru vyose;<ref>{{cite news|title=5 ways the world will look dramatically different in 2100|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/wonk/wp/2015/08/17/5-ways-the-world-will-look-dramatically-different-in-2100/|last=Swanson|first=Ana|date=17 August 2015|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|access-date=26 September 2017|archive-date=26 September 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170926194109/https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/wonk/wp/2015/08/17/5-ways-the-world-will-look-dramatically-different-in-2100/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=[[Njideka Harry|Harry]]|first=Njideka U.|date=11 September 2013|title=African Youth, Innovation and the Changing Society|work=Huffington Post|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/njideka-u-harry/african-youth-innovation-_b_3904408.html|access-date=27 September 2013|archive-date=20 September 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130920184934/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/njideka-u-harry/african-youth-innovation-_b_3904408.html|url-status=live}}</ref> mu 2012, ŵanthu awo ŵakaŵa na vyaka vyapakati pa 19.7 na 30.4 pa charu chose.<ref>{{cite web|title=item, 4 of the provisional agenda&nbsp;– General debate on national experience in population matters: adolescents and youth|url=https://www.un.org/esa/population/cpd/cpd2012/Agenda%20item%204/UN%20system%20statements/ECA_Item4.pdf|author=Janneh, Abdoulie|date=April 2012|work=United Nations Economic Commission for Africa|access-date=15 December 2015|archive-date=10 November 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131110111359/http://www.un.org/esa/population/cpd/cpd2012/Agenda%20item%204/UN%20system%20statements/ECA_Item4.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> Nangauli charu cha Africa chili na usambazi unandi chomene, kweni chili na ŵanthu ŵachoko chomene pa charu chose chapasi. Ŵasayansi ŵakuti vinthu ivi vikupangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵambenge kusuzgika maghanoghano,<ref name=":1">{{cite journal|last1=Collier|first1=Paul|last2=Gunning|first2=Jan Willem|title=Why Has Africa Grown Slowly?|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-economic-perspectives_summer-1999_13_3/page/3|journal=Journal of Economic Perspectives|date=1 August 1999|volume=13|issue=3|pages=3–22|doi=10.1257/jep.13.3.3}}</ref>[[chikoloni]], Nkhondo Yakuzizima,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Alemazung |first1=Joy Asongazoh |title=Post-colonial colonialism: an analysis of international factors and actors marring African socio-economic and political development |journal=Journal of Pan African Studies |date=1 September 2010 |volume=3 |issue=10 |pages=62–85 |id={{Gale|A306596751}} |s2cid=140806396 |url=http://www.jpanafrican.org/docs/vol3no10/3.10Post-Colonial.pdf |access-date=24 October 2021 |archive-date=27 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211127024827/http://www.jpanafrican.org/docs/vol3no10/3.10Post-Colonial.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bayeh |first1=Endalcachew |title=The political and economic legacy of colonialism in the post-independence African states |journal=International Journal in Commerce, IT & Social Sciences |date=February 2015 |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=89–93 |url=https://journals.openedition.org/poldev/78 |s2cid=198939744 |doi=10.4000/poldev.78 |access-date=24 October 2021 |url-status=live }}</ref> Nkhondo ya ku caru ciphya, kusowa kwa demokilase, na vimbundi.Nangauli usambazi uli kupangika makora yayi, kweni chifukwa cha kusazgikira kwa vinthu mu vyaru ivi, kweniso ŵanthu ŵanandi awo mbawukirano, charu cha Africa ni msika wakuzirwa pa caru cose. Charu ichi chili kuzingilizgika na [[Nyanja ya Mediterranean]] kumpoto, Suez Isthmus na [[Nyanja Yiswesi]] kumpoto ca kumafumiro gha dazi, [[Indian Ocean]] kumwera kwa kumafumiro gha dazi na [[Atlantic Ocean]] kumanjiliro gha dazi. Charu ichi chili na vyaru vinandi nga ni Madagascar. Mu vyaru ivi muli vyaru 54 ivyo vili na mazaza, vigaŵa 8, na vyaru viŵiri vyambura mazaza. Charu cha [[Algeria]] ndicho ntchikuru chomene pa vyaru vyose vya mu Afilika. Vyaru vya mu Afilika vikukolerana pakuzenga wupu wa African Union, uwo uli na ofesi yake yikuru mu [[Addis Ababa]]. Charu cha Afilika chili pafupi na equator na prime meridian. Ni caru cimoza pera ico cili kufuma kumpoto kukafika kumwera.<ref>{{cite web|title=Africa. General info|url=http://www.visualgeography.com/continents/africa.html|publisher=Visual Geography|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110424072430/http://www.visualgeography.com/continents/africa.html|archive-date=24 April 2011|access-date=24 November 2007}}</ref> Chigaŵa chikuru cha charu ichi chili kumpoto kwa charu, ndipo chigaŵa chikuru chili kumwera kwa charu. Chigaŵa chikuru cha charu ichi chili mu vigaŵa vyakututuka, kupaturako chigaŵa chikuru cha [[Western Sahara]], [[Algeria]], [[Libya]], na [[Egypt]], kumpoto kwa [[Mauritania]], na vigaŵa vyose vya [[Morocco]], [[Ceuta]], [[Melilla]], na [[Tunisia]] ivyo vili pachanya pa chigaŵa cha Cancer, kumpoto kwa chigaŵa chakututuka. Ku chigaŵa chinyake cha charu ichi, kumwera kwa [[Namibia]], kumwera kwa [[Botswana]], vigaŵa vinandi vya [[South Africa]], vigaŵa vyose vya [[Lesotho]] na [[Eswatini]], kweniso kumwera kwa Mozambique na [[Madagascar]], vili kusi kwa malo ghakuchemeka Tropic of Capricorn. Ku Afilika kuli vyamoyo vinandi chomene, ndipo kuli vyamoyo vinandi chomene. Ndipouli, mu vyaru vya ku Afilika muli masuzgo ghakupambanapambana, nga ni kuzgoka mapopa, kukomeka kwa makuni, kusoŵa maji, na kunangika kwa vinthu. Vinthu ivi vikwenera kulutilira kutikhuŵazga chomene chifukwa cha kusintha kwa nyengo. Wupu wa United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (UNIPCC) ukati Afilika ni caru ico cikusuzgika comene na kusintha kwa nyengo.<ref>{{cite book|author=Schneider, S.H.|url=http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/wg2/en/ch19s19-3-3.html|title=Chapter 19: Assessing Key Vulnerabilities and the Risk from Climate Change|publisher=Print version: CUP. This version: IPCC website|year=2007|isbn=978-0-521-88010-7|editor=Parry, M.L.|series=Climate change 2007: impacts, adaptation, and vulnerability: contribution of Working Group II to the fourth assessment report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)|location=Cambridge University Press (CUP): Cambridge, UK|contribution=19.3.3 Regional vulnerabilities|display-authors=etal|access-date=15 September 2011|display-editors=etal|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130312104158/http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/wg2/en/ch19s19-3-3.html|archive-date=12 March 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name=":10Africa">Niang, I., O.C. Ruppel, M.A. Abdrabo, A. Essel, C. Lennard, J. Padgham, and P. Urquhart, "2014: Africa". In: ''Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability''. Part B: Regional Aspects. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Barros, V.R., C.B. Field, D.J. Dokken et al. (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, and New York, pp. 1199–1265. https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2018/02/WGIIAR5-Chap22_FINAL.pdf {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200619170833/https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2018/02/WGIIAR5-Chap22_FINAL.pdf |date=19 June 2020 }}</ref> Mbiri ya Afilika njitali, njakusuzga kuyipulikiska, ndipo kanandi ŵanthu ŵakutondeka kuyizirwiska. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakugomezga kuti ŵanthu ŵakafuma ku Afilika, chomenechomene ku East Africa. Ŵanthu ŵakwambilira na ŵasekuru ŵawo ŵakaŵako vyaka pafupifupi 7 miliyoni ivyo vyajumpha, kusazgapo Sahelanthropus tchadensis, Australopithecus africanus, A. afarensis, Homo erectus, H. habilis na H. ergaster. Vinthu vyakwambilira ivyo vikukhalira vya ŵanthu ŵa Homo sapiens (ŵanthu ŵa mazuŵa ghano) ivyo vikusangika ku [[Ethiopia]], [[Kum'mwera kwaAfrika (South Africa)|South Africa]], na [[Morocco]], vikaŵako vyaka pafupifupi 233,000, 259,000, na 300,000 ivyo vyajumpha. Ŵasayansi ŵakuwona kuti mu Africa ndimo muli vyamoyo vyakupambanapambana chifukwa ndiko ŵanthu ŵakukhala nyengo yitali chomene.<ref>{{cite web |title=The genetic diversity in Africa is greater than in any other region in the world |date=19 July 2018 |url=https://blogs.bcm.edu/2018/07/19/genetic-diversity-in-africa-is-greater-than-in-any-other-region-in-the-world/ |access-date=24 October 2021 |archive-date=24 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211024023512/https://blogs.bcm.edu/2018/07/19/genetic-diversity-in-africa-is-greater-than-in-any-other-region-in-the-world/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=New study confirms that Africans are the most genetically diverse people on Earth. And it claims to pinpoint our center of origin. |url=https://ksj.mit.edu/tracker-archive/new-study-confirms-africans-are-most-gen/ |access-date=24 October 2021 |archive-date=24 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211024023511/https://ksj.mit.edu/tracker-archive/new-study-confirms-africans-are-most-gen/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Africa is most genetically diverse continent, DNA study shows |date=9 June 2009 |url=https://www.bionews.org.uk/page_91054 |access-date=24 October 2021 |archive-date=24 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211024023512/https://www.bionews.org.uk/page_91054 |url-status=live }}</ref> Ŵanthu ŵakwambilira, nga ni Ŵaeguputo na Carthage, ŵakafuma ku North Africa. Kufuma apo, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakasamira mu vyaru vinyake na kusama. Mu vyaka 400 ivyo vyajumpha, ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe ŵamba kukhwaska chomene caru ici. Kwambira mu ma 1500 C.E., ŵanthu ŵakendanga chomene mu vyaru vya ku America chifukwa cha malonda, kusazgapo malonda gha ŵazga. Kwambira kuumaliro wa m'ma 1800 m'paka kukwambilira kwa m'ma 1900, vyaru vya ku Europe vikamba kulamulira pafupifupi charu chose cha Africa. Vyaru vinandi ivyo vilipo sono mu Africa vikafuma mu vyaru ivyo vikaŵa pasi pa maboma gha vyaru vinyake pamanyuma pa Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Caru Cose.<ref>The [[Egba United Government]], a government of the [[Egba people]], was legally recognized by the British as independent until being annexed into the [[Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria]] in 1914: {{cite journal|last1=Daly|first1=Samuel Fury Childs|title=From Crime to Coercion: Policing Dissent in Abeokuta, Nigeria, 1900–1940|journal=The Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History|date=4 May 2019|volume=47|issue=3|pages=474–489|doi=10.1080/03086534.2019.1576833|s2cid=159124664|url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/03086534.2019.1576833|issn=0308-6534|access-date=5 July 2022|archive-date=7 April 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220407145030/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/03086534.2019.1576833|url-status=live}}</ref> ==Zina== [[File:AS17-148-22733 (21516723298).jpg|thumb|Charu chose cha Africa icho ŵanthu ŵa mu Apollo 17 ŵakawona]] Afri likaŵa zina Lachilatini ilo ŵanthu ŵakakhaliranga kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Mlonga wa Nayelo, mu chigaŵa icho kale chikachemekanga Northern Africa.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|last1=Georges|first1=Karl Ernst|editor1-last=Georges|editor1-first=Heinrich|encyclopedia=Ausführliches lateinisch-deutsches Handwörterbuch|date=1913–1918|location=Hannover|edition=8th|url=http://latin_german.deacademic.com/1644|access-date=20 September 2015|language=de|title=Afri|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160116044500/http://latin_german.deacademic.com/1644|archive-date=16 January 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|last1=Lewis|first1=Charlton T.|last2=Short|first2=Charles|encyclopedia=A Latin Dictionary|date=1879|publisher=Clarendon Press|location=Oxford|url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0059%3Aentry%3DAfer|access-date=20 September 2015|title=Afer|archive-date=16 January 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160116044500/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0059%3Aentry%3DAfer|url-status=live}}</ref> Zina ili likwenera kuti likayowoyanga za fuko la ku Libya, ilo likaŵa sekuru wa ŵanthu ŵa ku Berber mazuŵa ghano. Kanandi zina ili likakolerananga na lizgu la Chifenike lakuti ʿafar ilo likung'anamura "fumbi", kweni mu 1981, ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakaghanaghana kuti lizgu ili likufuma ku lizgu la Chiberberber lakuti ifri. Lizgu lenelili likusangikaso mu zina la ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Banu Ifran ŵakufuma ku Algeria na Tripolitania. Mu nyengo ya Ŵaroma, msumba wa Carthage ndiwo ukaŵa msumba ukuru wa chigaŵa icho ŵakachichemanga kuti Africa Proconsularis, pamanyuma pakuti ŵathereska ŵanthu ŵa ku Carthage mu Nkhondo Yachitatu ya ku Punic mu 146 B.C.E., ndipo chigaŵa ichi chikaŵa ku Libya. Nyengo zinyake lizgu Lachilatini lakuti -ica likuyowoyeka kuti likung'anamura charu (kuyelezgera kuti, mu Chiceltic kufuma ku Celtae, nga umo Julius Caesar wakayowoyera). Chigaŵa cha Ifriqiya icho chikaŵa cha Ŵasilamu, chikati chawukira Ufumu wa Byzantine (Eastern Roman), chikaŵa na zina lakuti Exarchatus Africae. Kuyana na Ŵaroma, caru ca Africa cikaŵa kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Egupto, apo "Asia" cikaŵa Anatolia na vyaru vinyake vya kumafumiro gha dazi. Munthu munyake uyo wakalemba vya malo zina lake Ptolemy (85-165 C.E.) wakajambura mphaka pakati pa vyaru viŵiri ivi, ndipo wakalongosora kuti msumba wa Alekizandiriya ndiwo uli pa mphaka pakati pa Asia na Africa. Apo ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe ŵakamanya ukuru wa charu ichi, ŵakamba kumanya vinandi vya "Africa". Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakughanaghana kuti zina lakale lakuti "Afirika" likung'anamura kuti: * Flavius Josephus (Ant. 1.15) wakati zina ili likukolerana na zina la Eferi, muzukuru wa Abrahamu, uyo wakuzunulika pa Gen. 25:4, ndipo wakati ŵazukuru ŵake ŵakanjira mu Libya. * Isidore wa ku Seville mu buku lake la Etymologiae XIV.5.2 la m'ma 700 C.E., wakati "Africa lili kufuma ku lizgu la Chilatini lakuti aprica, kung'anamura "dazi". * Mu 1881, Massey wakayowoya kuti lizgu lakuti Africa lili kufuma ku lizgu la Chieguputo lakuti af-rui-ka, kung'anamura "kuzgokera ku chiziŵa cha Ka". Ka ni nkhongono ya munthu waliyose ndipo "kujura kwa Ka" kukung'anamura chiŵaro panji malo ghakubabikira. Ŵaeguputo ŵakatenge Africa ni "malo agho ŵakababikira".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://gerald-massey.org.uk/massey/cmc_nile_genesis.htm|title=Nile Genesis: the opus of Gerald Massey|publisher=Gerald-massey.org.uk|date=29 October 1907|access-date=18 May 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100130200159/http://gerald-massey.org.uk/massey/cmc_nile_genesis.htm|archive-date=30 January 2010|url-status=dead}}</ref> * Mu 1976, Michèle Fruyt wakayowoya kuti lizgu Lachilatini lakuti africus likung'anamura "mphepo ya kumwera".<ref>{{cite journal|author=Fruyt, M. |title= D'Africus ventus a Africa terrain |journal=Revue de Philologie|volume= 50|year= 1976|pages= 221–238}}</ref> * Robert R. Mu 1984, Stieglitz wa pa Yunivesite ya Rutgers wakati: "Zina lakuti Africa, ilo lili kufuma ku lizgu la Cilatini lakuti *Aphir-ic-a, likuyana waka na lizgu la Cihebere lakuti Ophir ['lusambazi']".<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.2307/3209914|jstor=3209914|title=Long-Distance Seafaring in the Ancient Near East|journal=The Biblical Archaeologist|volume=47|issue=3|pages=134–142|year=1984|last1=Stieglitz|first1=Robert R.|s2cid=130072563}}</ref> * Ibn Khallikan na ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵakulemba mdauko ŵakuti zina la Africa likafuma kwa fumu ya ku Himyarite yakuchemeka Afrikin ibn Kais ibn Saifi uyo wakawuskapo Ifriqiya.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3cdLAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA35|title=Kitab Wafayat Ala'yan. Ibn Khallikan's Biographical Dictionary Transl. by (Guillaume) B(aro)n Mac-Guckin de Slane|last=Hallikan|first='Abu-l-'Abbas Sams-al-din 'Ahmad ibn Muhammad Ibn|date=1842|publisher=Benjamin Duprat|language=en|access-date=30 July 2018|archive-date=24 September 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190924231636/https://books.google.com/books?id=3cdLAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA35|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mcN7AAAAQBAJ&pg=PA38|title=Science in the Medieval World|last=al-Andalusi|first=Sa'id|year=2010|publisher=University of Texas Press|isbn=978-0292792319|language=en|access-date=30 July 2018|archive-date=24 September 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190924231632/https://books.google.com/books?id=mcN7AAAAQBAJ&pg=PA38|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pbo5AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA113|title=Travels in the Arabian Desert: With Special Reference to the Arabian Horse and Its Pedigree|last=Upton|first=Roger D.|date=1881|publisher=C.K. Paul & Company|language=en|access-date=30 July 2018|archive-date=24 September 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190924231639/https://books.google.com/books?id=pbo5AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA113|url-status=live}}</ref> * Chiarabu afrīqā (zina lachikazi) na ifrīqiyā, sono kanandi likuzunulika afrīqiyā (zina lachikazi) <nowiki>'Africa', kufuma ku 'afara' (kufumira ku 'fuvu, fuvu' na 'afir' (kufuma ku 'fuvu, fuvu' na 'kufuma ku zuŵa, kufota') na 'afara' (kufuma ku 'kufota mu zuŵa pa mchenga wakotcha') panji 'kuphaka fuvu''</nowiki>.<ref>Modified from Wilhelm Sturmfels and Heinz Bischof: ''Unsere Ortsnamen im ABC erklärt nach Herkunft und Bedeutung'', Bonn, 1961, Ferdinand Dümmlers Verlag.</ref> * Panyake Faraqa wa ku Fonike wakang'anamuranga 'kupatukana'.<ref>Serge Losique: ''Dictionnaire étymologique des noms de pays et de peuples'', Paris, 1971, Éditions Klincksieck.</ref> ==Mbili== {{Main|History of Africa}} {{Further|History of North Africa|History of West Africa|History of Central Africa|History of East Africa|History of Southern Africa}} ===Mbili yakwamba=== {{Main|Recent African origin of modern humans}} [[File:Lucy blackbg.jpg|thumb|upright=0.75|Lucy, chiwangwa cha Australopithecus afarensis icho chikasangika pa Novembala 24, 1974 mu Dambo la Awash ku Ethiopia ]] Ŵasayansi ŵanandi ŵakuwona kuti charu cha Africa ndicho chakukhala ŵanthu ŵanandi chomene pa charu chapasi. Pakati pa vyaka vya m'ma 1900, ŵasayansi ŵakasanga viswaswa vinandi na ukaboni wakuti ŵanthu ŵakakhalanga mu charu ichi vyaka 7 miliyoni ivyo vyajumpha. Vipasi vya ŵanthu ŵakwambilira awo ŵakaghanaghanika kuti ndiwo ŵakapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵa mazuŵa ghano ŵaŵe ŵanthu, nga ni Australopithecus afarensis uyo wali na vyaka vyakujumpha 3.9 million. Ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵakaŵako kale chomene (ŵakaŵako kale chomene) ni Homo ergaster (c. Vinthu ivi vikawoneka mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800 B.C.E.<ref name=Sayre/> Pakati pajumpha vyaka 350,000 m'paka 260,000 kufuma apo ŵanthu ŵakamba kuŵako mu Africa,<ref name="Schlebusch2017"/><ref name="Guardian"/><ref name="NYT-20190910"/><ref name="NAT-20190910"/> Pa nyengo iyo, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakakhalanga mu charu ichi ŵakaŵa ŵalovi na ŵakuvuna vipasi.<ref>Mokhtar, G. (1990) ''UNESCO [[General History of Africa]], Vol. II, Abridged Edition: Ancient Africa'', University of California Press. {{ISBN|0-85255-092-8}}</ref><ref>Eyma, A.K. and C.J. Bennett. (2003) ''Delts-Man in Yebu: Occasional Volume of the Egyptologists' Electronic Forum No. 1'', Universal Publishers. p. 210. {{ISBN|1-58112-564-X}}</ref> Ŵanthu ŵakwambilira aŵa ŵakafumako ku Africa na kwamba kukhala mu vigaŵa vinyake vya charu mu nyengo ya Out of Africa II migration iyo yikachitika vyaka pafupifupi 50,000 pambere Yesu wandize pa charu chapasi. Ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵakasamukiranga ku vyaru vinyake mu nyengo yira, ŵakasanga ukaboni wakuti ŵanthu ŵakwambilira ŵakakhalanga mu vyaru vya kumwera kwa Africa, kumwera kwa Africa, kumpoto kwa Africa, na Sahara.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Goucher, Candice|author2=Walton, Linda|title=World History: Journeys from Past to Present|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gY7cAAAAQBAJ|year=2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-134-72354-6|pages=2–20|access-date=5 February 2018|archive-date=11 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200611044204/https://books.google.com/books?id=gY7cAAAAQBAJ|url-status=live}}</ref> === Kuwuka kwa maboma ghakubanuka === {{see|Cradle of civilization#Ancient Egypt}} Kwamba kale, chigaŵa cha Sahara chikusintha chomene, ndipo nyengo zinyake chikusintha mwakuyana na umo nyengo yiliri pa charu chose.<ref>{{cite book|author=Keenan, Jeremy|title=The Sahara: Past, Present and Future|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KUKPAQAAQBAJ|year=2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-97001-9|access-date=5 February 2018|archive-date=28 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170228175639/https://books.google.com/books?id=KUKPAQAAQBAJ|url-status=live}}</ref> Paumaliro wa nyengo ya Ice Age, iyo yikwenera kuti yikaŵa mu 10,500 B.C.E., Sahara yikazgokaso chipalamba, ndipo ŵanthu ŵa mu Africa ŵakawerako ku vigaŵa vya mukati na mumphepete mwa nyanja ku Africa, ndipo ŵakalembapo vinthu vya mu jalawe ivyo vikulongora kuti Sahara yikaŵa na vyakumera vinandi. Ndipouli, chifukwa chakuti nyengo yikakwera kweniso kukawomira, mu 5000 B.C.E., chigaŵa cha Sahara chikaŵa chakomira chomene. Pafupifupi mu 3500 B.C.E., chifukwa cha kupindika kwa charu, Sahara yikazgoka mapopa mwaluŵiro. Ŵanthu aŵa ŵakafumanga mu chigaŵa cha Sahara na kuluta ku Dambo la Nayelo kusi ku Second Cataract uko ŵakakhalanga. Nyengo yikafika paheni comene, ndipo ici cikapangiska kuti ku Central na East Africa kuleke kuwa vula zinandi. Kufuma waka pa nyengo iyi, mu vyaru vya kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Africa mukaŵa chilangalanga, ndipo mu vyaka 200 ivyo vyajumpha, ku Ethiopia kukaŵa chilangalanga. [[File:Mathendous giraffes.jpg|thumb|left|Vinthu vyakujambulika pa malibwe mu chigaŵa cha Fezzan, ku Libya]] Mu vigaŵa vya mapiri na vyakumera vya mu Sahara na Sahel ku North West Africa, ŵanthu awo ŵakwenera kuti ŵakakhalanga mu vyaru vya Nilo-Saharan na Mandé ŵakamba kuwunjika mphoza za mu thondo, kuzingilizga 8000 m'paka 6000 B.C.E. Nyengo yikati yajumphapo, ŵanthu ŵakamba kuwunjika viŵiya nga ni nkhaka, mphoza, makungwa, na katoni. Nkhumba zinayamba kulima kum'mawa kwa Sudan cha m'ma 4000 B.C.E., ndipo iyi yikaŵa nyengo yakwambilira chomene ya ulimi. Nyengo yikati yajumphapo, vyakumera ivi vikamba kulima mu vyaru vya ku Africa, ndipo pamanyuma vikamba kulima mu vyaru vya ku India.<ref name="Pottery">{{cite journal |last1=Jesse |first1=Friederike |title=Early Pottery in Northern Africa – An Overview |issue=2 |pages=219–238 |journal=[[Journal of African Archaeology]]|volume=8 |jstor=43135518 |year=2010 |doi=10.3213/1612-1651-10171 }}</ref><ref name="swissinfo">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120306002155/http://www.swissinfo.ch/eng/Home/Archive/Swiss_archaeologist_digs_up_West_Africas_past.html?cid=5675736 Simon Bradley, ''A Swiss-led team of archaeologists has discovered pieces of the oldest African pottery in central Mali, dating back to at least 9,400BC''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120306002155/http://www.swissinfo.ch/eng/Home/Archive/Swiss_archaeologist_digs_up_West_Africas_past.html?cid=5675736 |date=6 March 2012 }}, SWI swissinfo.ch – the international service of the Swiss Broadcasting Corporation (SBC), 18 January 2007</ref> Mu vigaŵa vya mapiri na vyakumera vya mu Sahara na Sahel ku North West Africa, ŵanthu awo ŵakwenera kuti ŵakakhalanga mu vyaru vya Nilo-Saharan na Mandé ŵakamba kuwunjika mphoza za mu thondo, kuzingilizga 8000 m'paka 6000 B.C.E. Nyengo yikati yajumphapo, ŵanthu ŵakamba kuwunjika viŵiya nga ni nkhaka, mphoza, makungwa, na katoni. Nkhumba zinayamba kulima kum'mawa kwa Sudan cha m'ma 4000 B.C.E., ndipo iyi yikaŵa nyengo yakwambilira chomene ya ulimi. Nyengo yikati yajumphapo, vyakumera ivi vikamba kulima mu vyaru vya ku Africa, ndipo pamanyuma vikamba kulima mu vyaru vya ku India.<ref>{{cite journal | url=https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.1086/693898?journalCode=ca | doi=10.1086/693898 | title=Evidence for Sorghum Domestication in Fourth Millennium BC Eastern Sudan: Spikelet Morphology from Ceramic Impressions of the Butana Group | year=2017 | last1=Winchell | first1=Frank | last2=Stevens | first2=Chris J. | last3=Murphy | first3=Charlene | last4=Champion | first4=Louis | last5=Fuller | first5=Dorianq. | journal=Current Anthropology | volume=58 | issue=5 | pages=673–683 | s2cid=149402650 | access-date=20 May 2022 | archive-date=20 May 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220520170745/https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.1086/693898?journalCode=ca | url-status=live }}</ref> [[File:Abu Simbel Main Temple (2346939149).jpg|thumb|Vithuzithuzi vikuruvikuru vya Ramesses II ku Abu Simbel, Egypt, vikaŵako mu 1250 B.C.E.]] Nkhumba izi zikaŵako kakwamba mu charu cha Sudan. Kweniso ŵakamba kupanga viŵiya vya dongo na kuzenga malo gha malibwe (nga ni Tichitt, Oualata). Mu milonga na nyanja zinandi izo zikaŵako cifukwa ca vula, ŵanthu ŵakaloŵanga comene pa somba. Mu vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Africa, nkhorongo yikakura chomene kufuma ku Senegal m'paka ku Cameroon. Pakati pa 9,000 na 5,000 B.C.E., ŵanthu awo ŵakayowoyanga chiyowoyero cha Niger na Congo ŵakamba kulima makuni gha maolive na rafia. Ŵakaŵaso na viŵiya vinyake vyakuchemeka black-eyed peas na voandzeia. Pakuti vyakumera vinandi vikakuliranga mu nkhorongo, ŵanthu awo ŵakayowoyanga chiyowoyero cha Niger na Congo ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito nkhwantha zakusona malibwe. Pafupifupi mu 4000 B.C.E., mlengalenga wa Sahara ukamba kukavuka chomene. Ivi vikapangiska kuti nyanja na milonga vichepe chomene. Ivi vikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵaleke kukhalamo mu vyaru ivi, kweniso kuti ŵalimi ŵalute ku vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Africa. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1000 B.C.E., ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakamba kulima mpunga pafupi na Mlonga wa Niger. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1000 B.C.E., ŵanthu ŵakamba kupanga visulo ku North Africa. Pa nyengo iyi, ŵanthu ŵakamba kugwiliskira ntchito visulo mu vigaŵa vinyake vya ku Africa, kwali ŵakavipanganga mwakujiyimira paŵekha panji ŵakavipharazga kufuma kumpoto. Mu vyaru vinandi vya kumafumiro gha dazi na kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Africa, mulimo wa kupanga visulo ukambira cha m'ma 500 B.C.E., nangauli mu vyaru vinyake ŵakamba kupanga visulo yayi m'paka m'ma 100 C.E. Vinthu vya mkuwa vyakufuma ku Eguputo, kumpoto kwa Africa, Nubia, na Ethiopia ivyo vikalembeka m'ma 500 B.C.E. vikavumbukwa ku West Africa, ndipo vikulongora kuti pa nyengo iyi, ŵanthu ŵakendanga mu vyaru vya ku Sahara.<ref name="O'Brien">O'Brien, Patrick K. ed. (2005) ''Oxford Atlas of World History''. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 22–23. {{ISBN|978-0199746538}}</ref> === Ŵanthu ŵakwambilira === {{Main|Ancient African history}} [[File:African-civilizations-map-pre-colonial.svg|thumb|left|upright=1.2|Mapu agho ghakulongora maufumu gha ku Africa agho ghakaŵako pakati pa 500 B.C.E. na 1500 C.E.]] Pafupifupi mu 3300 B.C.E., mbiri yakale yikamba ku Northern Africa apo ŵanthu ŵakamba kusambira kulemba na kulemba mu nyengo ya Farawo. Boma la Eguputo likaŵa limoza mwa maboma ghakale chomene pa charu chose ndipo likalutilira kulamulira m'paka mu 343 B.C.E.<ref>Hassan, Fekri A. (2002) ''Droughts, Food and Culture'', Springer. p. 17. {{ISBN|0-306-46755-0}}</ref><ref>McGrail, Sean. (2004) ''Boats of the World'', Oxford University Press. p. 48. {{ISBN|0-19-927186-0}}</ref> Ŵaeguputo ŵakathereskanga ŵanthu ŵanandi chomene mu charu icho sono chikuchemeka Libya na Nubia. Ŵafenikiya ŵa ku Ture ŵakakhazikiska msumba wa Carthage, ku mphepete mwa nyanja ya kumpoto ca kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Africa, uwo ukaŵa malo ghakupambanapambana gha ŵanthu awo ŵakaguliskiranga vinthu ku Fonike.<ref>Fage, J.D. (1979), ''The Cambridge History of Africa'', Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN|0-521-21592-7}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1017/CHOL9780521215923.004 |chapter=North Africa in the period of Phoenician and Greek colonization, c.800 to 323 BC |title=The Cambridge History of Africa |year=1979 |last1=Law |first1=R. C. C. |pages=87–147 |isbn=978-1-139-05456-0 }}</ref><ref>Oliver, Roland and Anthony Atmore (1994), ''Africa Since 1800'', Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN|0-521-42970-6}}</ref> Ŵagiriki na Ŵaroma ndiwo ŵakamba kusanda vyaru vya mu Africa.<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Berlin Conference {{!}} Western Civilization II (HIS 104) – Biel|url=https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-fmcc-worldcivilization2-1/chapter/the-berlin-conference/|website=courses.lumenlearning.com|access-date=13 May 2020|archive-date=10 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200610192536/https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-fmcc-worldcivilization2-1/chapter/the-berlin-conference/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Greeks, Romans and Barbarians|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/history-of-Europe/Greeks-Romans-and-barbarians|access-date=30 May 2020|archive-date=4 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200504023034/https://www.britannica.com/topic/history-of-Europe/Greeks-Romans-and-barbarians|url-status=live}}</ref> Mu 332 B.C.E., Alekizanda Mukuru wakapokelereka nga ni muwomboli mu Eguputo. Wakazenga msumba wa Alexandria ku Eguputo, uwo ukakhalako kwa nyengo yitali ndipo ukaŵa msumba ukuru wa ufumu wa Ptolemy.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wsu.edu/~dee/EGYPT/PTOLEMY.HTM |title=Ptolemaic and Roman Egypt: 332 BC – 395 AD |publisher=Wsu.edu |date=6 June 1999 |access-date=18 May 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100528152425/http://www.wsu.edu/~dee/EGYPT/PTOLEMY.HTM |archive-date=28 May 2010 |url-status=dead}}</ref> [[File:20141108- DSC1502 (15893475532).jpg|thumb|Malo agho Ŵaroma ŵakasunga ku Timgad, Algeria]] [[File:Aksum, iscrizione di re ezana, in greco, sabeo e ge'ez, 330-350 dc ca. 10.jpg|upright|thumb|Libwe la Ezana likulongosora umo Themba Ezana likang'anamukira ku Cikhristu na kuwuskira ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yakupambanapambana, kusazgapo Meroë.]] Ufumu wa Ŵaroma ukati wapoka chigaŵa cha kumpoto kwa Africa icho chili mumphepete mwa nyanja ya Meditereniyani, chigaŵa ichi chikamba kulamulirika na Ŵaroma. Ŵaroma ŵakamba kukhala mu vyaru ivyo sono ni Tunisia na vinyake ivyo vili mumphepete mwa nyanja. Themba lakwamba la Ŵaroma ilo likafuma ku North Africa likaŵa Septimius Severus, uyo wakababikira ku Leptis Magna mu Libya. Chikhristu chikafika mu vigaŵa ivi kufuma ku Yudeya na ku Eguputo, kweniso kufuma ku charu cha Romu kuya ku Nubia. Mu 340 C.E., chikaŵa kuti chazgoka chisopa cha boma la Ufumu wa Aksumite. Ŵamishonale ŵa ku Siriya na Girisi awo ŵakafika pa Nyanja Yiswesi ndiwo ŵakambiska nkhani iyi.<ref>{{cite book|author=Tesfagiorgis, Mussie|title=Eritrea|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f0R7iHoaykoC&pg=PA153|year=2010|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-59884-232-6|page=153|access-date=14 October 2015|archive-date=11 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200611044525/https://books.google.com/books?id=f0R7iHoaykoC&pg=PA153|url-status=live}}</ref> Kukwambilira kwa vyaka vya m'ma 700 C.E., ufumu wa Caliphate wa ku Arabia uwo ukaŵa kuti wapangika waka, ukafika ku Eguputo, ndipo pamanyuma ukafika ku North Africa. Pakati pajumpha nyengo yicoko waka, ŵanthu ŵa ku Berber ŵakasazgikana na mafuko gha Ciarabu. Apo msumba wa Umayyad ku Damaseko ukaparanyika mu ma 700 C.E., msumba wa chisopa cha Cisilamu uwo ukaŵa ku Meditereniyani ukafumako ku Siriya kuluta ku Qayrawan, kumpoto kwa Africa. Ku North Africa kukaŵa ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa chisopa cha Ciisilamu, ndipo kukaŵa ŵanthu ŵavinjeru, ŵasambizgi, ŵa malango, na ŵavinjeru. Mu nyengo iyi, Chisilamu chikamba kuthandazgika chomene mu vyaru vya kumwera kwa Sahara. Ku West Africa, Dhar Tichitt na Oualata ku Mauritania mazuŵa ghano, ni malo ghakwambilira agho ghakaŵa na ŵanthu ŵanandi. Mu chigaŵa icho kale chikachemekanga Sahara muli malo gha malibwe pafupifupi 500. Ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga mu msumba uwu ŵakaloŵanga somba na kulima mphoza. Augustin Holl wakasanga kuti ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Soninke ndiwo ŵakazenga malo agha. Pafupifupi 300 B.C.E., chigaŵa ichi chikakhoma chomene ndipo ŵanthu ŵakamba kuchepa. Ukaboni wa vyakuzengeka na kuyaniska vyakuzengeka vikulongora kuti Dhar Tichitt wakaŵa mu ufumu wa Ghana. Djenné-Djenno (uko sono ni Mali) wakakhalanga ŵanthu pafupifupi 300 B.C.E., ndipo msumba uwu ukaŵa na ŵanthu ŵanandi chomene ŵa mu nyengo ya Iron Age. Vinthu vyamoyo vikazengeka na mathipa agho ghakawomira pa dazi. Kufika mu 250 B.C.E., Djenné-Djenno wakaŵa kuti wazgoka msumba ukuru wa msika.<ref>Iliffe, John (2007). pp. 49–50{{Incomplete short citation|date=October 2021}}</ref><ref>Collins and Burns (2007), p. 78.{{Incomplete short citation|date=October 2021}}</ref> Kumwera kwenikweni, pakati pa Nigeria, cha m'ma 1500 B.C.E., ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Nok ŵakamba kukhala pa Jos Plateau. Ŵanthu ŵakakhalanga pamoza. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Nok ŵakapanganga vithuzithuzi vya ŵanthu, njovu, na vinyama vinyake. Kuzakafika mu 500 B.C.E., panji kumasinda wuwo, ŵanthu ŵakamba kusungunura visulo. Kufika mu 200 C.E., ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Nok ŵakaŵa kuti ŵamara. Ndipo ŵakamara mu nyengo ya 500 C.E., ndipo ŵakakhala vyaka pafupifupi 2,000. Chifukwa cha kuyana kwa kalembedwe kake na ka terracotta ka Nok, ŵanthu ŵakughanaghana kuti vithuzithuzi vya mkuŵa vya ufumu wa Yoruba ku Ife na vya ufumu wa Bini ku Benin, ni vyakulondezgana na mitheto ya ŵanthu ŵakwambilira ŵa mtundu wa Nok.{{sfn|Shillington|2005|p=39}}<ref name="FB 1969">Fagg, Bernard. 1969. Recent work in west Africa: New light on the Nok culture. World Archaeology 1(1): 41–50.</ref> === Vyaka vya m'ma 800 mpaka m'ma 1800 === [[File:Bronze ornamental staff head, 9th century, Igbo-Ukwu.JPG|thumb|left|upright|Viŵiya vya mkuŵa ivyo vikapangika mu Igbo-Ukwu, ku Nigeria, mu vyaka vya m'ma 800 C.E., vikaŵa vyapadera chomene kuluska ivyo ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe ŵakapanga mu nyengo yira.<ref name=Honour-2005>{{cite book |last1=Honour |first1=Hugh|last2=Fleming|first2=John|title=A world history of art|url=https://archive.org/details/worldhistoryofar0000hono |date=2005|publisher=Laurence King |location=London |isbn=978-1856694513 |edition=7th}}</ref>]] Mu nyengo iyo vyaru vikaŵa pambere vyaru ivi vindambe kulamulira, mu Africa mukaŵa vyaru na maboma pafupifupi 10,000. Mu vigaŵa ivi mukaŵa ŵanthu ŵachoko waka awo ŵakakhalanga mu vikaya vya ŵanthu awo ŵakalondezganga mitheto ya ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa San ku South Africa; vikaya vikuruvikuru ivyo vikaŵa na ŵanthu ŵakuyowoya chiyowoyero cha Bantu ku Central, Southern, na Eastern Africa; vikaya vikuruvikuru ku Horn of Africa; maufumu ghakurughakuru gha ku Sahelian; misumba na maufumu gha ŵanthu ŵakujiyimira ŵekha nga mba Akan; ŵanthu ŵa ku Edo, Yoruba, na Igbo ku West Africa; na matawuni gha Swahili agho ghakaŵa mumphepete mwa nyanja ku Southeast Africa.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/discussion/2006/01/11/DI2006011101372.html|title=The Fate of Africa – A Survey of Fifty Years of Independence|access-date=23 July 2007|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|first=Martin|last=Meredith|date=20 January 2006|archive-date=2 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190502070029/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/discussion/2006/01/11/DI2006011101372.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Mu vyaka vya m'ma 800 C.E., maufumu ghanandi, kusazgapo maufumu ghakwambilira gha Hausa, ghakathandazgikira mu chipalamba cha Sahara kufuma ku vigaŵa vya kumanjiliro gha dazi m'paka ku Central Sudan. Vyaru ivi vikaŵa Ghana, Gao, na Kanem-Bornu. Ghana wakamara mu vyaka vya m'ma 1100, kweni Ufumu wa Mali ndiwo ukamulongozga. Kanem wakazomera Chisilamu mu vyaka vya m'ma 1100. Mu vigaŵa vya nkhorongo ivyo vili mumphepete mwa nyanja ya kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Africa, maufumu ghakaŵa ghakujiyimira payekha ndipo kumpoto kwa Muslim kukaŵavya nkhongono. Ufumu wa Nri ukaŵako mu vyaka vya m'ma 800 C.E. Kweniso ni ufumu wakale comene uwo uli mu Nigeria mazuŵa ghano. Ufumu wa Nri ngwakumanyikwa cifukwa ca malata gha mkuŵa agho ghakasangika mu tawuni ya Igbo-Ukwu. Malibwe agha ghakalembeka mu vyaka vya m'ma 800 C.E.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/igbo/hd_igbo.htm|title=Igbo-Ukwu (c. 9th century) &#124; Thematic Essay &#124; Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History &#124; The Metropolitan Museum of Art|publisher=Metmuseum.org|access-date=18 May 2010|archive-date=4 December 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081204053356/http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/igbo/hd_igbo.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> Ufumu wa Ife, ndiwo ukaŵa wakwamba mu maufumu gha Ŵayoruba, ndipo ukaŵa na boma la ŵasembe awo ŵakachemekanga Ooni of Ife. Ife yikaŵa malo ghakuru gha cisopa na maluso mu vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Africa, ndipo yikaŵa na mitheto yakuyelezgera yakuŵikapo vinthu vya mkuŵa. Boma la Ife likaŵa la Ufumu wa Oyo, uko ma obas panji mafumu ghake, agho ghakachemekanga Alaafins of Oyo, ghakaŵa na mazaza pa misumba na maufumu ghanandi gha Ŵayoruba. [[File:Great Zimbabwe Closeup.jpg|thumb|left|Mabwinja gha Zimbabwe Mukuru (wakakura mu vyaka vya m'ma 1100 m'paka 1500 C.E.)]] Ŵa Almoravid ŵakaŵa fuko la Ŵaberi ilo likafuma ku Sahara, ilo likaŵa ku chigaŵa chikuru cha kumpoto cha kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Africa na Iberia mu vyaka vya m'ma 1100. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Banu Hilal na Banu Ma'qil ŵakaŵa Ŵabedouin ŵa ku Arabia awo ŵakasamukira ku Eguputo pakati pa vyaka vya m'ma 1100 na 1300. Ŵanthu ŵa mu charu ichi ŵakamba kusangana na Ŵaarabu na Ŵaberi, ndipo ŵanthu ŵa mu charu ichi ŵakazgoka Ŵaarabu. Pamanyuma pakuti charu cha Mali chaparanyika, mulongozgi munyake zina lake Sonni Ali (1464-1492) wakambiska ufumu wa Songhai mu chigaŵa cha pakati pa Niger na kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Sudan. Sonni Ali wakathereska msumba wa Timbuktu mu 1468 na Jenne mu 1473. Askia Mohammad I (1493-1528) uyo wakamulondezga, wakazgora chisopa cha Chisilamu kuŵa chisopa cha boma, wakazenga misasa, na kwiza na ŵasambizgi ŵa Chisilamu ku Gao, kusazgapo al-Maghili (uyo wakafwa mu 1504), uyo wakambiska chisambizgo cha Chisilamu cha ku Sudan. Kuzakafika m'ma 1100, vyaru vinyake vya Hausa nga ni Kano, Jigawa, Katsina, na Gobir, vikazgoka misumba yakuzingilizgika na viliŵa. M'paka m'ma 1400, vyaru ivi vikaŵa ku mphepete mwa maufumu ghakuru gha ku Sudan.<ref name="multiple">Lapidus, Ira M. (1988) ''A History of Islamic Societies'', Cambridge.</ref> === Kuguliska ŵazga kukaŵa palipose === {{See also|Trans-Saharan slave trade|Atlantic slave trade|Indian Ocean slave trade}} [[File:Africa slave Regions.svg|thumb|upright=1.2|right|Vyaru vikuruvikuru vya mu Africa ivyo ŵakaguliskanga ŵazga, vyaka vya m'ma 1500-1900.]] Ku Africa ŵanthu ŵakagwiliskiranga nchito ŵazga kwa nyengo yitali.<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157 Historical survey: Slave societies] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071230184609/https://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157 |date=30 December 2007 }}, ''Encyclopædia Britannica''</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20051001033344/http://www7.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/data/2001/10/01/html/ft_20011001.6.html Swahili Coast] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071206102932/http://www7.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/data/2001/10/01/html/ft_20011001.6.html |date=6 December 2007 }}, National Geographic</ref> Pakati pa vyaka vya m'ma 1400 na 1800, ŵanthu pafupifupi 712 miliyoni ŵakakoleka na malonda gha ŵazga ku Atlantic.<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24156 Welcome to Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to Black History] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070223090720/https://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24156|date=23 February 2007}}, ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]''</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/1523100.stm|title=Focus on the slave trade|publisher=BBC News – Africa|work=bbc.co.uk|date=3 September 2001|access-date=28 February 2008|archive-date=28 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110728134034/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/1523100.stm|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Lovejoy, Paul E. |title=Transformations in Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa|url=https://archive.org/details/transformationsi0000love|url-access=registration |year=2000|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-78430-6|page=[https://archive.org/details/transformationsi0000love/page/25 25]}}</ref> Kweniso pakati pa vyaka vya m'ma 1500 na 1800, ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 1 miliyoni ŵa ku Europe ŵakakoleka na ŵankhungu ŵa ku Barbary na kuguliskika ku North Africa. Mu vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Africa, malonda gha ŵazga gha ku Atlantic ghakamara mu 1820 ndipo vinthu vikasintha chomene pa nkhani ya vyachuma. Chifukwa cha kuchepa kwa malonda gha ŵazga mu vyaru vya ku Europe na America, kweniso chifukwa chakuti ŵasilikari ŵa ku Britain ŵakakhalanga kufupi na nyanja za kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Africa. Pakati pa 1808 na 1860, gulu la ŵasilikari ŵa ku Britain ilo likalongozganga ŵasilikari ŵa ku West Africa, likakora sitima za ŵazga pafupifupi 1,600 na kufwatura Ŵafrika 150,000 awo ŵakaŵa mu ngalaŵa izi. Ŵalongozgi ŵa mu Africa awo ŵakakana kuzomerezga vyaru vya ku Britain kuti vileke kuguliska vinyama ŵakachitapo kanthu. Ŵalongozgi ŵakujumpha 50 ŵa mu Africa ŵakakolerana kuti ŵamazge wuzga. Maboma ghakuru chomene gha kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Africa (Asante Confederacy, Kingdom of Dahomey, na Oyo Empire) ghakachita vinthu vyakupambanapambana kuti ghende makora. Asante na Dahomey ŵakaghanaghaniranga chomene vya "malonda ghakwenelera" agho ghakaŵa nga ni mafuta, koko, makuni, na golide. Ufumu wa Oyo ukati watondeka kusintha, ukawira mu nkhondo.<ref>Simon, Julian L. (1995) ''State of Humanity'', Blackwell Publishing. p. 175. {{ISBN|1-55786-585-X}}</ref> ===Chikoloni=== [[File:Scramble-for-Africa-1880-1913-v2.png|thumb|350px|Kuyaniska Afrika mu 1880 na 1913]] {{Excerpt|Scramble for Africa| only=paragraphs}} === Nkhondo za kujithemba === [[File:Map of Africa in 1939.svg|thumb|Muwuso wa Eu'''r'''ope mu 1939 {{aligned table |cols=2 |fullwidth=true | {{legend|#502D16|[[Belgian colonial empire|Belgian]]}} | {{legend|#00E500|[[Italian Empire|Italian]]}} | {{legend|#C83737|[[British Empire|British]]}} | {{legend|#009000|[[Portuguese Empire|Portuguese]]}} | {{legend|#214478|[[French colonial empire|French]]}} | {{legend|#FFDA00|[[Spanish Empire|Spanish]]}} | {{legend|#f6f6f6|Independent}} }} ]] Ufumu wa Ŵazungu ukalutilira kuwusa m'paka Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Charu Chose yikati yamara. Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Charu Chose yikati yamara, ŵanthu ŵanandi ku Africa ŵakamba kulimbikira kuti ŵajiyimire ŵekha. Mu 1951, charu cha Libya, icho kale chikaŵa pasi pa Italy, chikamba kujiwusa chekha. Mu 1956, charu cha Tunisia na Morocco vikafwatuka ku boma la France.<ref>{{cite book|author=Bély, Lucien|title=The History of France|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ltzav890zpIC&pg=PA118|year=2001|publisher=Editions Jean-paul Gisserot|isbn=978-2-87747-563-1|page=118|access-date=5 February 2018|archive-date=11 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200611045035/https://books.google.com/books?id=Ltzav890zpIC&pg=PA118|url-status=live}}</ref> <ref>{{cite book|author1=Aryeetey, Ernest|author2=Harrigan, Jane|first3=Nissanke|last3=Machiko|title=Economic Reforms in Ghana: The Miracle and the Mirage|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=87V55ZHppSYC&pg=PA5|year=2000|publisher=Africa World Press|isbn=978-0-86543-844-6|page=5|access-date=5 February 2018|archive-date=11 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200611044656/https://books.google.com/books?id=87V55ZHppSYC&pg=PA5|url-status=live}}</ref>Ghana nayo wakajiyimira yekha mu 1957. Mu vyaka 10 vyakulondezgapo, vyaru vinandi vya pa caru ici vikamba kujiyimira pavyekha. Charu cha Portugal chikaŵa ku Africa kumwera kwa Sahara (kwamba ku Angola, Cape Verde, Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau, na Sao Tome na Principe) kwambira m'ma 1500 m'paka mu 1975, apo boma la Estado Novo likadumulika mu Lisbon. Rhodesia yikapharazga kuti njakujiyimira pawekha kufuma ku Britain mu 1965, pasi pa boma la Ian Smith, kweni charu cha Zimbabwe chikazomerezgeka yayi kuŵa na wanangwa uwu m'paka mu 1980, apo ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yinyake ŵakamba kuwusa. Nangauli charu cha South Africa chikaŵa chimoza mwa vyaru vyakwambilira mu Africa kuti chiŵe na wanangwa, kweni chikaŵa pasi pa mazaza gha ŵazungu. === Africa ya ku maiko gha ku mpoto === {{see|Decolonisation of Africa}} {{see also|Non-Aligned Movement}} Mazuŵa ghano, mu Africa muli vyaru 54, ndipo vinandi mwa vyaru ivi vili na mphaka izo zikaŵako mu nyengo iyo ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe ŵakalamuliranga. Kwambira apo vyaru vya mu Africa vikapokera wanangwa, kanandi vikusuzgika cifukwa ca kutimbanizgika kwa vinthu, vimbundi, nkhaza, na nkhaza. Vyaru vinandi vya mu Africa ni vyaru ivyo vili na muwuso wa pulezidenti. Ndipouli, ni vigaŵa vichoko waka ivyo vikatondeka kuŵa na maboma gha demokilase nyengo zose. Vyaru vinandi vya mu Africa vili na maboma ghanandi agho ghakwambiska viwawa. Kweni pakati pa 1990 na 2018, caru cose ca Africa cikamba kuŵa na muwuso waurunji.<ref>tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/13510347.2019.1613980</ref> Ŵakati ŵafumako ku wuzga, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Africa ŵakaŵa ŵakavu comene. Charu ichi chikaŵa pasi pa muwuso wa ŵakoloni, ndipo chikaŵa chambura kukhazikika pa nkhani za ndyali. Vyaru vinyake nga ni Kenya vikaŵa na ndalama zichoko chomene ndipo vikaŵa na mwaŵi wakujura misika ya caru cose. Vyaru vicoko waka vya mu Africa ndivyo vikakura luŵiro comene pambere caka ca 1990 cindafike. Vinyake mwa vyaru ivi ni Libya na Equatorial Guinea, ivyo vili na mafuta ghanandi. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakakhalanga makora yayi mu charu ichi chifukwa cha vimbundi. Pakukhumba kusanga chandulo cha ndyali, ŵalongozgi ŵanandi ŵakachitiska kuti paŵe mphindano pakati pa mafuko, ndipo zinyake zikaŵako mu nyengo iyo charu cha Rwandani chikalamuliranga. Pakuwona kuti nkhaza zikuruzikuru zikucitika, ŵanthu ŵa mu vyaru vinandi ŵakazomera kuti ŵasilikari ndiwo ŵachitenge vinthu mwamahara, ndipo mu vyaka vya m'ma 1970 na 1980, vyaru vinandi vya mu Africa vikaŵa pasi pa mazaza gha ŵasilikari. Mu vyaru vya mu Africa mukaŵaso mphindano za malo na kugaluka kwa ŵanthu awo ŵakakhumbanga kujiwusa ŵekha. Nkhondo iyi yikaŵa pakati pa ŵasilikari ŵa boma la Nigeria na boma la ku Igbo ilo likakhumbanga kujipatura. Nkhondo ziŵiri za cikaya izo zikacitika mu Sudan, yakwamba yikacitika mu 1955 m'paka mu 1972 ndipo yachiŵiri mu 1983 m'paka mu 2005, zikakoma ŵanthu pafupifupi 3 miliyoni. Pa nkhondo zose izi, ŵanthu ŵakasankhanga mitundu na visopa. Nkhondo iyo yikaŵa pakati pa United States na Soviet Union nayo yikawovwira kuti vinthu vileke kwenda makora. Boma la Soviet Union na la United States likakhozga comene ŵalongozgi ŵa ndyali na ŵasilikari ŵa mu Africa awo ŵakakolerananga na ŵamazaza ŵa vyaru ivi. Paumaliro wa Nkhondo Yakuzizima, wovwiri wa Soviet na America ukamara mwamabuchi ndipo Soviet Union yikawa. Mu Ethiopia mukaŵa njara yikuru pakati pa 1983 na 1985, ndipo ŵanthu ŵakukwana 1.2 miliyoni ŵakafwa, ndipo ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakusanda mdauko ŵakuti njara iyi yikamba cifukwa ca ŵanthu awo ŵakagwiranga nchito mu minda na kukora vyakurya.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/703958.stm|title=BBC: 1984 famine in Ethiopia|date=6 April 2000|access-date=1 January 2010|work=BBC News|archive-date=19 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190419011700/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/703958.stm|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>Robert G. Patman, ''The Soviet Union in the Horn of Africa'' 1990, {{ISBN|0-521-36022-6}}, pp. 295–296</ref><ref>Steven Varnis, ''Reluctant aid or aiding the reluctant?: U.S. food aid policy and the Ethiopian Famine Relief'' 1990, {{ISBN|0-88738-348-3}}, p. 38</ref><ref>{{cite journal | url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/722691 | jstor=722691 | title=The Consequences of Resettlement in Ethiopia | last1=Woldemeskel | first1=Getachew | journal=African Affairs | year=1989 | volume=88 | issue=352 | pages=359–374 | doi=10.1093/oxfordjournals.afraf.a098187 | access-date=20 May 2022 | archive-date=20 May 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220520194833/https://www.jstor.org/stable/722691 | url-status=live }}</ref> Mu 1994, ŵanthu 800,000 ŵakafwa pa mulandu wa kutinkhana ku Rwanda. Ivi vikapangiska kuti nkhondo yakwamba na yachiŵiri ya ku Congo yambe, nkhondo izo zikaŵa zakuparanya comene mu Africa, ndipo ŵanthu pafupifupi 5.5 miliyoni ŵakafwa.<ref>{{cite news|date=22 January 2008|title=Congo war-driven crisis kills 45,000 a month-study|work=Reuters|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-congo-democratic-death-idUSL2280201220080122|access-date=20 May 2022|archive-date=14 April 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110414093820/http://www.reuters.com/article/2008/01/22/us-congo-democratic-death-idUSL2280201220080122|url-status=live}}</ref><gallery mode="packed" heights="250px"> File:African nations order of independence 1950-1993.gif|An animated map shows the order of [[Decolonisation of Africa|independence of African nations]], 1950–2011 File:Africa’s wars and conflicts, 1980–96.svg|Africa's wars and conflicts, 1980–96<br>{{legend|#cc4c02|Major Wars/Conflict (>100,000 casualties)}}{{legend|#fe9929|Minor Wars/Conflict}}{{legend|#fed98e|Other Conflicts}} File:Political Map of Africa.svg|Political map of Africa in 2021 </gallery> Nkhondo pakati pa magulu ghakupambanapambana na maboma zikulutilira. Kwambira mu 2003, nkhondo yikulutilira mu Darfur (Sudan) iyo yikakura comene mu 2003 m'paka 2005 ndipo nkhaza zikakwera comene mu 2007 na 2013. Gulu la Boko Haram ilo likulimbana chomene mu Nigeria (pamoza na nkhondo zinandi ku Niger, Chad, na Cameroon) likakoma ŵanthu pafupifupi 350,000 kwambira mu 2009. Nkhondo zinandi za mu Africa zachepako kufika mu 2022. Kweni nkhondo ya Tigray iyo yikamba mu 2020 yikakoma ŵanthu pafupifupi 300,000, chomenechomene chifukwa cha njara. Kweni mu vyaka vya m'ma 2000, nkhaza zachepa chomene mu vyaru vya ku Africa. Nkhondo za pawenenawene zikamara mu Angola, Sierra Leone, na Algeria mu 2002, Liberia mu 2003, kweniso Sudan na Burundi mu 2005. Nkhondo yaciŵiri ya ku Congo, iyo yikaŵa na vyaru 9 na magulu ghakupambanapambana gha ŵakugaluka, yikamara mu 2003. Kuchepa kwa nkhaza uku, kukakolerana na kuti vyaru vinandi vikaleka kulongozgeka na boma la chikomyunizimu ndipo vikamba kusintha vinthu pa nkhani ya malonda. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1990 na 2000, vyaru ivi vikamba kwenda mwamtende pakati pa vyaru vyapafupi. Kuŵa na mtende ndiposo kusintha kwa vinthu mu vyaru vya mu Africa kwapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa mu vyaru vinyake, comenecomene ŵa ku China, ŵanjire mu vyaru ivi. Pakati pa chaka cha 2000 na 2014, chiŵelengero cha GDP ku sub-Saharan Africa chikaŵa pa 5.02%, ndipo chiŵelengero cha GDP chikakwera kufuma pa $811 Billion kufika pa $1.63 Trillion (Constant 2015 USD). Kumpoto kwa Africa nako kukakura mwakuyana waka. Cigaŵa cikuru ca ciŵelengero ici cikupangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵamanye vinandi comene vyakukhwaskana na sayansi ya vinthu, comenecomene foni. Nangauli vyaru vinandi vikalutilira kukura, kweni kufuma mu 2014 kukura kwa vyaru ivi kukakhira comene, comenecomene cifukwa ca kukhira kwa mitengo ya vyakurya, kuleka kwambiska vyamalonda, kweniso nthenda ya Ebola na COVID-19.<ref>{{cite journal | url=https://academic.oup.com/afraf/article/117/469/543/5038419 | title=Validate User | journal=African Affairs | date=October 2018 | volume=117 | issue=469 | pages=543–568 | doi=10.1093/afraf/ady022 | last1=Frankema | first1=Ewout | last2=Van Waijenburg | first2=Marlous | access-date=21 May 2022 | archive-date=21 May 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220521052321/https://academic.oup.com/afraf/article/117/469/543/5038419 | url-status=live | doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.un.org/africarenewal/news/development-prospects-africa-undermined-severe-economic-downturn | title=Development prospects in Africa undermined by a severe economic downturn | newspaper=Africa Renewal | date=25 January 2021 | access-date=21 May 2022 | archive-date=21 May 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220521052321/https://www.un.org/africarenewal/news/development-prospects-africa-undermined-severe-economic-downturn | url-status=live }}</ref> == Makhalilo gha chilwa, malo na charu == {{Main|Malo gha Africa}} [[File:Topography of africa.png|thumb|upright=1.2|Topography of Africa]] Charu cha Africa ndicho ntchikuru chomene pa vyaru vitatu ivi. Charu ichi chikupatukana na Europe na Nyanja ya Meditereniyani, ndipo chili na mtunda wa makilomita 163. (Kuyana na umo charu cha Egypt chiliri, chigaŵa cha Sinai icho chili kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Suez Canal nacho chikuwoneka kuti chili ku Africa).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nationalgeographic.com/xpeditions/atlas/index.html?Parent=africa&Rootmap=&Mode=d|title=Atlas – Xpeditions|publisher=National Geographic Society|date=2003|access-date=1 March 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090303230811/http://www.nationalgeographic.com/xpeditions/atlas/index.html?Parent=africa&Rootmap=&Mode=d|archive-date=3 March 2009| url-status=live}}</ref><ref>Drysdale, Alasdair and Gerald H. Blake. (1985) ''The Middle East and North Africa'', Oxford University Press US. {{ISBN|0-19-503538-0}}</ref> Mphepete mwa nyanja ili na utali wa makilomita 26,000 (mailosi 16,000), ndipo palije malo ghakunjilirapo agho ghakusangika mu nyanja.<ref name="MW">(1998) ''Merriam-Webster's Geographical Dictionary (Index)'', Merriam-Webster, pp. 10–11. {{ISBN|0-87779-546-0}}</ref> Kuchokera kumpoto kwambiri, Ras ben Sakka ku Tunisia (37°21' N), mpaka kumwera kwambiri, Cape Agulhas ku South Africa (34°51'15" S), ndi mtunda wa pafupifupi 8,000 km (5,000 mi). Cape Verde, 17°33'22" W, malo gha kumanjiliro gha dazi chomene, ghali pa mtunda wa makilomita 7,400 (4,600 mi) kufuma ku Ras Hafun, 51°27'52" E, chigaŵa chakumafumiro gha dazi chomene icho chili kufupi na Cape Guardafui, kuumaliro wa Horn of Africa. Charu chikuru chomene mu Africa ni Algeria, ndipo chigaŵa chichoko chomene ni Seychelles. Charu chichoko chomene pa charu ichi ni Gambia. ===Chilwa cha Afilika=== [[Image:Motion of Nubia Plate.gif|thumb|upright=1.2|Mazuŵa ghano, chigaŵa cha pasi cha Africa chikwenda pa charu chapasi mwaluŵiro lwa 0.292° ± 0.007° pa chaka chimoza, pakuyaniska na charu chapakati (NNR-MORVEL56)]] {{Excerpt|African Plate}} === Nyengo === {{Main|Climate of Africa}} Nyengo ya mu Africa yikupambana chomene na ya mu vyaru vyakututuka. Chigaŵa chakumpoto cha charu ichi chili na mapopa ghanandi, ndipo chigaŵa chapakati na kumwera chili na vyakumera vinandi. Pakati pa malo agha pakaŵa vyakumera nga ni sahel na steppe. Charu cha Africa ndicho chili na chithukivu chikuru chomene pa charu chapasi. Ivyo vikachitika mu 1922 ku Libya ndivyo vikaŵa vyakusuzga chomene kuti ŵanthu ŵamanye apo kukazizima chomene.<ref name="newRecord">{{cite journal|last=El Fadli|first=KI|title=World Meteorological Organization Assessment of the Purported World Record 58°C Temperature Extreme at El Azizia, Libya (13 September 1922)|journal=Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society|date=September 2012|doi=10.1175/BAMS-D-12-00093.1|volume=94|issue=2|page=199|display-authors=etal|bibcode=2013BAMS...94..199E|doi-access=free}} (The 136&nbsp;°F (57.8&nbsp;°C), claimed by [['Aziziya]], [[Libya]], on 13 September 1922, has been officially deemed invalid by the [[World Meteorological Organization]].)</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=World Meteorological Organization World Weather / Climate Extremes Archive |url=http://wmo.asu.edu/world-highest-temperature |access-date=10 January 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130104143844/http://wmo.asu.edu/world-highest-temperature |archive-date= 4 January 2013}}</ref> ===Ecology and biodiversity=== [[File:Vegetation Africa.png|thumb|upright=1.2|The main biomes in Africa.]] Mu vyaru vya mu Africa muli malo ghakuvikilirika ghakujumpha 3,000. Vinthu vinandi ivyo vikuchitika mu Africa vikupangiska kuti vyamoyo vileke kuŵa vinandi kweniso kuti malo gha kulima ghaleke kuŵa ghawemi. Ŵanthu ŵakunjira mu vyaru vinyake, kusuzgika na ŵanthu, na mitundu yinyake ya vyamoyo ivyo vikusangika mu vyaru ivi, vikupangiska kuti vyamoyo vyambeso kuŵa na umoyo uwemi mu Africa. Vinthu ivi vikusazgikira cifukwa ca masuzgo gha nduna, ŵantchito ŵambura kwenelera, na ndalama. Wupu wa United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) ukuti, ku Africa ŵanthu ŵakumazga makuni ghanandi kuluska umo vikuŵira pa caru cose.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20081206051452/http://www.africanews.com/site/list_messages/18831 Deforestation reaches worrying level – UN] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081206051452/http://www.africanews.com/site/list_messages/18831 |date=6 December 2008 }}. AfricaNews. 11 June 2008</ref>Kuyana na lipoti la Yunivesite ya Pennsylvania ku Africa, vyakumera 31 pa 100 vya mu Africa na nkhorongo 19 pa 100 zili kunangika. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakuti makuni pafupifupi 90 pa 100 gha ku West Africa ghali kumara. Makuni ghakujumpha 90% gha ku Madagascar ghakaparanyika kufuma apo ŵanthu ŵakizira mu charu ichi vyaka 2000 ivyo vyajumpha. Pafupifupi 65% ya malo gha vyakurya gha mu Africa ghakunangika na dongo.<ref>[https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/africa/nature-laid-waste-the-destruction-of-africa-844370.html "Nature laid waste: The destruction of Africa"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171017221918/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/africa/nature-laid-waste-the-destruction-of-africa-844370.html |date=17 October 2017 }}, ''The Independent'', 11 June 2008.</ref>{{see also|Afrotropical realm|Palearctic realm}} === Environmental issues === {{Excerpt|Environmental issues in Africa|paragraphs=1-2|file=no}} === Water === [[File:Africa Precipitation Map.svg|thumb|Africa Water Precipitation]] {{Excerpt|Water in Africa|paragraphs=1-2|file=no}} === Climate change === [[File:Climate smart agriculture in Machakos county (15640332182).jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|[[Climate-smart agriculture]] and [[rainwater harvesting]] in [[Machakos County]], [[Kenya]].]] {{Excerpt|Climate change in Africa|paragraphs=1-2|file=no}} ===Fauna=== {{Main|Fauna of Africa}} [[File:Zebras, Serengeti savana plains, Tanzania.jpg|thumb|Savanna at [[Ngorongoro Conservation Area]], [[Tanzania]]]] Mu vyaru vya ku Africa muli nyama zinandi zakututuŵa na zakupambanapambana, ndipo nyama zikuruzikuru izo zikurya nyama (nga ni nkhalamu, njati, na mphumphi) na vyakumera (nga ni mbaŵala, zovu, ngamila, na zirafu) vikukhala mwakufwatuka mu vigaŵa vya malo ghambura ŵanthu. Kweniso kuli nyama zinandi za mu nkhorongo, nga ni njoka na vinyama vinyake vya mu maji nga ni ng'ona na vyamoyo vinyake vya mu nyanja. Kweniso mu Africa ndimo muli vyamoyo vinandi chomene ivyo vikukhala mu charu ichi. ==Ndale== {{See also|List of political parties in Africa by country}} === African Union === {{Main|African Union}} [[File:Regions of the African Union.png|thumb|[[Regions of the African Union]]:<br /> {{Color box|#DAA520|'''Northern Region'''|border=darkgray}}, {{Color box|#87CEEB|'''Southern Region'''|border=darkgray}}, {{Color box|#90EE90|'''Eastern Region'''|border=darkgray}}, {{Color box|#FA8072|'''Western Regions A and B'''|border=darkgray}}, {{Color box|#B88FFF|'''Central Region'''|border=darkgray}}]] Wupu wa African Union (AU) uli na vyaru 55. Wupu uwu ukaŵako pa Juni 26, 2001, ndipo likuru lake likaŵa ku Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Wupu uwu ukaŵako pa Julayi 9, 2002, ndipo ndiwo ukalondezganga wupu wa African Unity (OAU). Mu Julayi 2004, wupu wa African Union's Pan-African Parliament (PAP) ukasamukira ku Midrand, South Africa, kweni wupu wa African Commission on Human and Peoples' Rights ukakhala mu Addis Ababa. Wupu wa African Union (AU), uwo ukwenera kutimbanizgika yayi na wupu wa AU Commission, ukapangika na Dango la African Union (AU), ilo likukhumba kuti wupu wa African Economic Community (AEC), uwo ukaŵa wupu wakukolerana na vyaru vinyake, uŵe wupu wa boma. Wupu wa African Union uli na boma laparamende, lakucemeka African Union Government, ilo lili na wupu wakulongozga, wa vyeruzgo, na wa malango. Likulongozgeka na Mulara wa wupu wa African Union ndiposo mulongozgi wa boma, uyo nayo ni mulongozgi wa wupu wa Pan-African Parliament. Munthu wakuŵa purezidenti wa AU para wasankhika ku PAP, ndipo pamasinda wakusanga wovwiri wa ŵanandi mu PAP. Maluso na mazaza gha purezidenti wa African Parliament ghafuma ku Constitutive Act na Protocol ya Pan-African Parliament, kweniso chiharo cha mazaza gha purezidenti agho ghali kulembeka mu vyaru vya Africa na vyaru vya maiko. Boma la AU lili na maboma gha vigaŵa vyose, gha boma, na gha boma, kweniso maboma ghanandi. Mu vigaŵa vinandi vya mu Africa, ŵanthu ŵachali kuswa wanangwa wa ŵanthu, ndipo kanandi boma likuŵawona. Vifukwa vinandi ivyo ŵanthu ŵakuchitira vinthu ivi ni vya ndyali, ndipo kanandi vikuchitika chifukwa cha nkhondo. Mu vyaru ivyo ŵanthu ŵakuswa comene wanangwa wawo, muli vyaru nga ni Democratic Republic of Congo, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Sudan, Zimbabwe, na Ivory Coast. ===Boundary conflicts=== {{see|The Berlin Conference of 1884–1885|List of conflicts in Africa}} {{Excerpt|Military history of Africa#Post-colonial|paragraph=1|file=no}} ==Chuma== {{Main|Economy of Africa|List of African countries by GDP (nominal)|List of African countries by GDP (PPP)}} {{See also|Economy of the African Union}} [[File:RECs of the AEC.svg|thumb|upright=1.2|Map of the [[African Economic Community]]. {{legend|#691717|[[Community of Sahel-Saharan States|CEN-SAD]]}} {{legend|#4F4FB1|[[Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa|COMESA]]}} {{legend|#E88356|[[East African Community|EAC]]}} {{legend|#272759|[[Economic Community of Central African States|ECCAS]]}} {{legend|#C43C7F|[[Economic Community of West African States|ECOWAS]]}} {{legend|#4DB34D|[[Intergovernmental Authority on Development|IGAD]]}} {{legend|#D22E2E|[[Southern African Development Community|SADC]]}} {{legend|#7E8000|[[Arab Maghreb Union|UMA]]}} ]] Nangauli charu cha Africa chili na vinthu vinandi vyakuthupi, kweni ntchaukavu chomene pa charu chose chapasi kweniso ntchakusuzgika chomene (pambere Antarctica yindaŵeko). Vinthu vinyake ivyo vikupangiska kuti charu ichi chiŵe na masuzgo nga ni vimbundi, kuswa wanangwa wa ŵanthu, kuleka kunozgekera makora vinthu, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵambura kusambira, kujithemba, kuleka kusanga ndalama kufuma ku vyaru vinyake, vinthu ivyo vikaŵako chifukwa cha ufumu, malonda gha ŵazga, na Nkhondo Yakuzizima. GDP yake yose yikulondezga ya United States, China, Japan, Germany, United Kingdom, India na France. Kuyana na lipoti la wupu wa United Nations lakuyowoya za umo ŵanthu ŵakukulira mu 2003, vyaru 24 ivyo vikaŵa pasi chomene pa vyaru vinyake vyose (151 na 175) vikaŵa vya mu Africa. Ukavu, kuleka kuŵazga na kulemba, kusoŵa chakurya, maji na malo ghakutowa yayi, kweniso umoyo uheni vikukhwaska ŵanthu ŵanandi mu Africa. Mu Ogasiti 2008, Banki ya Charu chose yikapharazga vya ukavu wa pa charu chose, kuyana na fundo ya $1.25 pa zuŵa (kuyaniska na $1.00 pa zuŵa). Charu cha Sub-Saharan Africa ndicho ntchigaŵa icho ŵanthu ŵakutondeka kuchepeska ukavu (ndalama zakukwana madola 1.25 pa zuŵa); mu 1981 ŵanthu pafupifupi 50% (200 miliyoni) ŵakakhalanga mu ukavu. Munthu mukavu mu vigaŵa vya ku Africa kumwera kwa Sahara wakukhala na ndalama zakukwana masenti 70 pa zuŵa, ndipo wakaŵa mukavu comene mu 2003 kuluska mu 1973, ico cikulongora kuti ukavu ukukura comene mu vigaŵa vinyake. Vinyake mwa vinthu ivi vikucitika cifukwa ca masuzgo agho ghakwiza cifukwa ca ndyali na maboma gha caru cinyake.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.globalpolitician.com/21498-africa-malawi-poverty |title=Neo-Liberalism and the Economic and Political Future of Africa |publisher=Globalpolitician.com |date=19 December 2005 |access-date=18 May 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100131200200/http://globalpolitician.com/21498-africa-malawi-poverty |archive-date=31 January 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.turkishweekly.net/news.php?id=58925 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080924092909/http://www.turkishweekly.net/news.php?id=58925 |url-status=dead |archive-date=24 September 2008 |title=The Number of the Poor Increasing Worldwide while Sub-Saharan Africa is the Worst of All |publisher=Turkish Weekly |date=29 August 2008 |access-date=7 November 2011 }}</ref> Sono caru ca Africa cili pangozi yakuŵaso na ngongoli, comenecomene mu vyaru vya kumwera kwa Sahara. Nkhaza ya ngongoli iyo yikaŵako mu 2005 yikamara na wovwiri wa wupu wa HIPC (Highly Indebted Poor Countries Scheme). Pa nyengo iyi, vinthu vikasintha chomene mu Africa. Pakati pajumpha vilimika pafupifupi 10 kufuma apo suzgo la ngongoli mu caru ca Africa ca kumwera kwa Sahara mu 2005 likamalira, Zambia yikanjiraso mu ngongoli. Chifukwa chaching'ono chikaŵa chifukwa cha kukhira kwa mitengo ya mkuwa mu 2011, kweni chifukwa chikuru chikaŵa chakuti ndalama zinandi izo Zambia yikabwereka zikapambikika panji kupokeka na ŵanthu ŵakuzirwa.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.economist.com/leaders/2018/09/15/zambias-looming-debt-crisis-is-a-warning-for-the-rest-of-africa|title=Zambia's looming debt crisis is a warning for the rest of Africa|newspaper=The Economist|access-date=19 September 2018|language=en|archive-date=18 September 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180918163443/https://www.economist.com/leaders/2018/09/15/zambias-looming-debt-crisis-is-a-warning-for-the-rest-of-africa|url-status=live}}</ref> Kufuma mu 1995 m'paka mu 2005, chuma cha mu Africa chikakura chomene, ndipo mu 2005 chikaŵa pa 5%. Vyaru vinyake vikakura comene, comenecomene Angola, Sudan, na Equatorial Guinea, vyose ivi vikaŵa kuti vyambapo sonosono kunozga mafuta panji vyasazgirako nkhongono zawo. Mu kafukufuku uyo wakalembeka sonosono apa, uyo wakwendera vya ndyali wa ku Austria, Arno Tausch, wakati vyaru vinandi vya mu Africa, chomenechomene Ghana, vikukolerana comene na umo ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakutemwera demokilase na malonda.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.2139/ssrn.3214715|ssrn=3214715|title=Africa on the Maps of Global Values: Comparative Analyses, Based on Recent World Values Survey Data|date=2018|last1=Tausch|first1=Arno|s2cid=158596579|url=https://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/87966/1/MPRA_paper_87966.pdf|journal=|access-date=26 September 2019|archive-date=11 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200211141227/https://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/87966/1/MPRA_paper_87966.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>{{-}} {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: right; float:left; border:1px solid #aaa; margin:10px auto 10px auto" |- style="background:#dbdbdb;" ! Nambala ! Charu ! [[List of IMF ranked countries by past and projected GDP (nominal)|GDP]] <small>(nominal, Peak Year)</small><br /><small>millions of [[International dollar|USD]]</small> ! Peak Year |- | 1 ||align=left|{{flag|Nigeria}} ||568,499||2014 |- | 2 ||align=left|{{flag|Egypt}}||475,231||2022 |- | 3 ||align=left|{{nowrap|{{flag|South Africa}}}} ||458,708||2011 |- | 4 ||align=left|{{flag|Algeria}} ||213,810||2014 |- | 5 ||align=left|{{flag|Ethiopia}} ||156,083||2023 |- | 6 ||align=left|{{flag|Angola}} ||145,712||2014 |- | 7 ||align=left|{{flag|Morocco}} ||142,867||2021 |- | 8 ||align=left|{{flag|Kenya}} ||118,130||2023 |- | 9 ||align=left|{{flag|Libya}}<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2023/April/weo-report?c=522,672,&s=NGDPD,&sy=1980&ey=2023&ssm=0&scsm=1&scc=0&ssd=1&ssc=0&sic=0&sort=country&ds=.&br=1|title=Peak GDP (Nominal) for Libya |access-date=2023-05-18}}</ref>||92,542||2012 |- | 10 ||align=left|{{flag|Tanzania}} ||85,421||2023 |} {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: right; float:right; border:1px solid #aaa; margin:10px" |- style="background:#dbdbdb;" ! Nambala ! Charu ! [[List of countries by past and projected GDP (PPP)|GDP]] <small>(PPP, Peak Year)</small><br /><small>millions of [[International dollar|USD]]</small> ! Peak Year |- | 1 ||align=left|{{flag|Egypt}} ||1,803,584||2023 |- | 2 ||align=left|{{flag|Nigeria}} ||1,372,624||2023 |- | 3 ||align=left|{{nowrap|{{flag|South Africa}}}} ||990,030||2023 |- | 4 ||align=left|{{flag|Algeria}}||620,971||2023 |- | 5 ||align=left|{{flag|Ethiopia}} ||393,847||2023 |- | 6 ||align=left|{{flag|Morocco}} ||387,233||2023 |- | 7 ||align=left|{{flag|Kenya}} ||341,999||2023 |- | 8 ||align=left|{{flag|Angola}} ||265,631||2023 |- | 9 ||align=left|{{flag|Ghana}} ||229,471||2023 |- | 10 ||align=left|{{flag|Tanzania}} ||228,031||2023 |} {{-}} Pakuyaniska mtengo wa vinthu pa caru cose ico Tausch wakacita mwakuyana na kafukufuku uyo wakacitika pa caru cose, wakawona kuti pali vinthu vinandi ivyo vikupangiska kuti vinthu viŵe makora: 1. Wupu Wakulondezga Malango 2. Kuwukira boma 3. Kuŵa na mtima wa kuleka nkhaza 4. Kugomezga mabungwe 5. Chimwemwe, umoyo uwemi 6. Kuleka kusopa mwakujikuzga 7. Kuzomera malonda 8. Kuŵa na Nkhongono 9. Kuchitako ndyali 10. Kuŵa na cigomezgo ndiposo kujipeleka 11. Kulije maghanoghano gha wovwiri wa wupu wakuwona vya umoyo wa ŵanthu, ndipo ŵakuzomera kalvinistic work ethic. Tausch wakamalizga na kuyowoya kuti, umo vyaru vya mu Africa vikwendera na maukaboni ghose "nchakuzizika comene". Nangauli munthu wakwenera kuŵa na cigomezgo cikuru pa nkhani ya umo Ghana wazamuŵira na demokilase na cuma ca msika, kweni nkhani iyi yikulongora kuti vinthu vikwenda makora yayi ku Eguputo na Algeria, comenecomene ku South Africa, caru ico cili na cuma cikuru comene mu Africa. Kuyana yayi kwa ŵanthu, nga umo lipoti la UNDP likuyowoyera, kukupangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵaleke kuŵa na mtende. Tausch wakayowoyaso kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa ŵakukondwa chomene na vinthu ivyo vikuchitika pa nkhani ya vyachuma na wanangwa wa ŵanthu. [[File:African countries by GDP (PPP) per capita in 2020.png|upright=1.2|thumb|African countries by GDP (PPP) per capita in 2020]] Ŵanthu ŵakugomezga kuti mu caru ici ndimo muli cobalti wakukwana 90 peresenti, platinamu wakukwana 90 peresenti, golide wakukwana 50 peresenti, chromium wakukwana 98 peresenti, tantalite wakukwana 70 peresenti, manganese wakukwana 64 peresenti, na uranium wakukwana limoza pa vigaŵa vitatu.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110629123044/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/africa/article3319909.ece Africa, China's new frontier] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110629123044/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/africa/article3319909.ece |date=29 June 2011 }}. ''Times Online''. 10 February 2008</ref> Charu cha Democratic Republic of the Congo chili na visulo vya coltan 70 pa 100 pa caru cose. Kweniso charu cha DRC chili na madimondi ghakujumpha 30% pa charu chose. Charu cha Guinea ndicho chikuguliska bauxite yinandi pa charu chose. Pakuti ku Africa, vinthu vikukura comene cifukwa ca mauteŵeti, m'malo mwa kupanga vinthu panji vyakurya, ntheura kulije nchito panji ukavu. Nakuti suzgo la vyakurya ilo likaŵako mu 2008 likati lachitika pamanyuma pa suzgo la vya ndalama pa caru cose, likapangiska kuti ŵanthu 100 miliyoni ŵaleke kusanga vyakurya vyakwenelera.<ref>[http://www.strategicforesight.com/african_decade.htm The African Decade?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100613173905/http://www.strategicforesight.com/african_decade.htm |date=13 June 2010 }}. Ilmas Futehally. Strategic Foresight Group.</ref><ref>[http://www.thetimes.co.uk/tto/news/world/africa/article2594373.ece China tightens grip on Africa with $4.4bn lifeline for Guinea junta]. The Times. 13 October 2009 {{subscription required}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150429071020/http://www.thetimes.co.uk/tto/news/world/africa/article2594373.ece |date=29 April 2015 }}</ref><ref>"[http://allafrica.com/stories/200802070635.html Africa: Developed Countries' Leverage On the Continent] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121020072131/http://allafrica.com/stories/200802070635.html |date=20 October 2012 }}". AllAfrica.com. 7 February 2008</ref> Mu vyaka vyasonosono apa, caru ca China caŵa paubwezi wakukhora na vyaru vya mu Africa ndipo nchigaŵa cikuru comene ca vyamalonda mu Africa. Mu 2007, makampani gha ku China ghakagwiliskira nchito ndalama zakukwana $1 biliyoni mu Africa. Kafukufuku uyo wakacitika pa Yunivesite ya Harvard, wakalongosora kuti caru ca Africa cingajipwelelera yekha para cingaleka kuguliska vinthu ku vyaru vinyake na kwamba kujiguliska. "Charu cha Africa chili pa mphambano; tili pafupi kumalizga vyaka 100 ivyo vikaŵa vyakuti vyakurya vikusangikenge mu vyaru vinyake. Africa yikwamba kuŵika mtima pa kupanga vyakurya vyakupambanapambana kuti viwovwire kuti mu vigaŵa vyose muŵe malonda ghawemi".<ref>[https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2010/12/101202124337.htm "Africa Can Feed Itself in a Generation, Experts Say"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171017221141/https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2010/12/101202124337.htm|date=17 October 2017}}, ''[[Science Daily]]'', 3 December 2010</ref> == Ŵanthu == {{Main|Demographics of Africa|Genetic history of Africa|Child marriage#Africa{{!}}Child marriage in Africa}} {{Pie chart | caption= [[List of African countries by population|Proportion of total African population by country]] | other = yes | label1 = Nigeria | value1 = 15.38 | color1=#36A | label2 = Ethiopia | value2 = 8.37 | color2=#1A9 | label3 = Egypt | value3 = 7.65 | color3=#6A5 | label4 = Democratic Republic of the Congo | value4 = 6.57 | color4=#CC5 | label5 = Tanzania | value5 = 4.55 | color5=#928 | label6 = South Africa | value6 = 4.47 | color6=#E33 | label7 = Kenya | value7 = 3.88 | color7=#E72 | label8 = Uganda | value8 = 3.38 | color8=#FE3 | label9 = Algeria | value9 = 3.36 | color9=#A45 }} Mu vyaka 40 ivyo vyajumpha, ciŵelengero ca ŵanthu ku Africa cakura comene, ntheura nchicoko comene. Mu vyaru vinyake vya mu Africa, ŵanthu ŵakujumpha hafu ŵali na vyaka 25 kukhilira pasi. Unandi wa ŵanthu mu Africa ukakwera kufuma pa 229 miliyoni mu 1950 kufika pa 630 miliyoni mu 1990.<ref>[http://www.geohive.com/earth/his_proj_africa.aspx Past and future population of Africa] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924044751/http://www.geohive.com/earth/his_proj_africa.aspx |date=24 September 2015 }}. Source: United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division (2013)</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.overpopulation.org/Africa.html|title=Africa Population Dynamics|publisher=overpopulation.org|access-date=26 July 2007|archive-date=17 February 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150217040305/http://www.overpopulation.org/Africa.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Kufika mu chaka cha 2021, chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu mu Africa chikukwana 1.4 billion. Ŵanthu ŵanandi chomene mu Africa kuluska mu vyaru vinyake; ŵanthu ŵanandi chomene mu Africa kuluska mu Europe mu vyaka vya m'ma 1990, apo ŵanthu ŵanandi chomene mu America ŵakajumpha mu vyaka vya m'ma 2000; ŵanthu ŵanandi chomene mu Africa kuluska mu vyaru viŵiri pera ivyo vili na ŵanthu ŵanandi. Kuyana na ivyo vikuchitika mu vyaru vinyake, ciŵelengero ca ŵana awo ŵazamubabika mu Africa cizamufika pa 37% mu 2050. Chiŵelengero cha ŵana awo ŵakubabika mu vyaru vya ku Sub-Saharan Africa (ŵana pa mwanakazi yumoza) chikaŵa 4.7 mu 2018. Vyaru vyose vya ku sub-Saharan Africa vikaŵa na TFR (chiŵelengero cha ŵana) kuluska awo ŵakababika mu 2019 ndipo vikaŵa na 27.1% ya awo ŵakababika ŵamoyo pa charu chose. Mu 2021, vyaru vya ku sub-Saharan Africa vikaŵa na 29% vya ŵanthu awo ŵakababika pa charu chose.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://www.un.org/development/desa/pd/sites/www.un.org.development .desa.pd/files/wpp2022_summary_of_results.pdf|title=World Population Prospects 2022. Summary of Results|location=New York|author=[[United Nations]]. Department of Economic and Social Affairs|page=14}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(20)30977-6/fulltext|title=Global age-sex-specific fertility, mortality, healthy life expectancy (HALE), and population estimates in 204 countries and territories, 1950-2019: a comprehensive demographic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2019|publisher=[[The Lancet]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Fertility rate, total (births per woman) - Sub-Saharan Africa |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.DYN.TFRT.IN?locations=ZG |website=The World Bank |access-date=29 May 2020 |archive-date=13 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200513095844/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.DYN.TFRT.IN?locations=ZG |url-status=live }}</ref> Ŵanthu awo ŵakuyowoya viyowoyero vya Bantu (viyowoyero vya mu banja la Niger na Congo) ndiwo ŵanandi chomene kumwera, pakati na kumwera kwa Africa. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Sahel awo ŵakayowoyanga ciyowoyero ca Bantu ŵakamba kuthandazgika mu vigaŵa vinandi vya ku Africa.<ref>Luc-Normand Tellier (2009). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=cXuCjDbxC1YC Urban world history: an economic and geographical perspective] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924171325/https://books.google.com/books?id=cXuCjDbxC1YC |date=24 September 2015 }}''. PUQ. p. 204. {{ISBN|2-7605-1588-5}}</ref> Kweni mu South Sudan na East Africa muli ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa mtundu wa Nilotic, ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Swahili awo ŵakukhala mumphepete mwa nyanja ya Swahili, kweniso ŵanthu ŵachoko waka ŵa mtundu wa Khoisan ("San" panji "Bushmen"). Ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa awo ŵakuyowoya chiyowoyero cha Bantu ŵakusangika chomene ku Gabon na Equatorial Guinea. Mu chipalamba cha Kalahari, kumwera kwa Africa, ŵanthu awo ŵakumanyikwa na zina lakuti Bushmen (panji kuti "San", awo ŵakukolerana chomene na "Hottentots" kweni ŵakupambana na iwo) ŵakakhalako nyengo yitali. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa San ŵakupambana chomene na ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵa mu Africa. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Pygmy ndiwo ŵakakhalanga mu Africaa.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20100525095020/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/article402970.ece Pygmies struggle to survive in war zone where abuse is routine] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100525095020/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/article402970.ece |date=25 May 2010 }}. ''Times Online''. 16 December 2004</ref> Ŵanthu ŵa ku West Africa ŵakuyowoya viyowoyero vya Niger na Congo, ndipo ŵanandi mwa ŵanthu aŵa ŵakuyowoya viyowoyero vya ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yinyake. Mtundu wa Yoruba, Igbo, Fulani, Akan, na Wolof ndiwo ni ukuru chomene pa mitundu yose. Mu chigaŵa chapakati cha Sahara, ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Mandinka panji Mande ndiwo ŵakumanyikwa chomene. Ŵanthu awo ŵakuyowoya chiyowoyero cha Chadic, kusazgapo Ŵahasa, ŵakukhala kumpoto chomene kwa Sahara, ndipo ŵanthu ŵa ku Nilo-Sahara, nga ni Ŵasonghai, Kanuri, na Zarma, ŵakukhala kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Africa. [[Image:African_countries_by_HDI_(2019).png|thumb|upright=1.2|left| {| width="100%" style="background:transparent;" | Map of Africa indicating [[Human Development Index]] (2018). |-Africa | {{Col-begin}} {{Col-break}} {{Legend|#00C400|0.800–0.849}} {{Legend|#00F900|0.750–0.799}} {{Legend|#D3FF00|0.700–0.749}} {{Legend|#FFFF00|0.650–0.699}} {{Legend|#FFD215|0.600–0.649}} {{Legend|#FFA83C|0.550–0.599}} {{Col-break}} {{Legend|#FF852F|0.500–0.549}} {{Legend|#FF5B00|0.450–0.499}} {{Legend|#FF0000|0.400–0.449}} {{Legend|#A70000|≤ 0.399}} {{Legend|#D9D9D9|No data}} {{Col-end}} |}]] Ŵanthu ŵa ku North Africa ŵali mu magulu ghatatu: Ŵa Berber kumpoto cha kumanjiliro gha dazi, Ŵaeguputo kumpoto cha kumafumiro gha dazi, na ŵanthu ŵakuyowoya chiyowoyero cha Nile na Sahara kumafumiro gha dazi. Ŵaarabu awo ŵakafika mu vyaka vya m'ma 700 C.E. ŵakamba kuyowoya Chiarabu na Chisilamu ku North Africa. ŴaFenikiya (awo ŵakakhazikiska msumba wa Carthage) na Ŵahyksos, Ŵaalani ŵa ku Indo-Iran, Ŵagiriki ŵa ku Indo-Europe, Ŵaroma, na Ŵavandali nawo ŵakakhala ku North Africa. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Berber ŵakukhala mu vyaru vya Morocco na Algeria, ndipo mu vyaru vinyake vya ku Tunisia na Libya, ŵanthu awo ŵakuyowoya chi Berber ŵalipo.<ref>{{cite news|title=Q&A: The Berbers|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/3509799.stm|access-date=30 December 2013|newspaper=BBC News|date=12 March 2004|archive-date=12 January 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180112181804/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/3509799.stm|url-status=live}}</ref> Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Tuareg awo ŵakuyowoya Chiberberberia na ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵakukhala mu vigaŵa vinyake, ndiwo ŵakukhala chomene mu chigaŵa cha Sahara ku North Africa. Ku Mauritania, kumpoto kuli ŵanthu ŵachoko waka ŵa mtundu wa Berber awo ŵali kufwa, ndipo kumwera kuli ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Niger na Congo. Ku Sudan, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuyowoya Chiarabu na Chiarabu, kweni ŵanthu awo ŵakayowoyanga chiyowoyero ichi mbanandi chomene. Ŵanthu ŵachokoŵachoko ŵa mtundu wa Beja awo ŵakayowoyanga chiyowoyero cha ku Africa na Asia ŵakusangikaso ku Egypt na Sudan. Ku Africa, ŵanthu ŵa ku Ethiopia na Eritrea (nga mba Amhara na Tigray, awo ŵakumanyikwa na zina lakuti Habesha) ŵakuyowoya viyowoyero vya ku Semite, apo Ŵa Oromo na Ŵasomali ŵakuyowoya viyowoyero vya ku Cushitic. Pambere Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Caru Cose yindambe, ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe ŵakakhalanga mu vigaŵa vyose vya Africa. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1960 na 1970, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakafumako ku vyaru vinyake, comenecomene ku Algeria na Morocco (1,6 miliyoni ku North Africa), Kenya, Congo, Rhodesia, Mozambique na Angola. Pakati pa 1975 na 1977, ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 1 miliyoni ŵakawelera ku Portugal. Ndipouli, ŵanthu ŵazungu ŵa mu Africa ndiwo ŵachoko chomene mu vyaru vinandi vya mu Africa, chomenechomene mu Zimbabwe, Namibia, Réunion, na South Africa. Charu icho chili na ŵanthu ŵanandi chomene ŵazungu mu Africa ni South Africa. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Netherlands na Britain ndiwo ŵali na mbumba zikuru comene za ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe.<ref name=World>{{cite encyclopedia|date=1989|title=Africa|encyclopedia=[[World Book Encyclopedia]]|publisher=World Book, Inc.|location=Chicago|isbn=978-0-7166-1289-6|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/1989worldbookencyclo22worl}}</ref> Kweniso ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Asia, chomenechomene awo ŵakafuma ku India, ŵakiza ku Britain. Ku South Africa kuli ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku India, ndipo ku Kenya, Tanzania, na vyaru vinyake vya kumwera na kumwera kwa Africa kuli ŵanthu ŵachoko waka. Mu 1972, Fumu Idi Amin yikachimbizga ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku India mu Uganda, kweni ŵanandi ŵa iwo ŵali kuwelera. Kweniso mu virwa vya mu Nyanja ya Indian mukukhala ŵanthu ŵa ku Asia. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Madagascar mba ku Austronesia, kweni awo ŵakukhala mumphepete mwa nyanja ŵakusazgikana na ŵanthu ŵa ku Bantu, Arabia, India, na Europe. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Malaŵi na ku India ndiwo ŵali mu gulu la ŵanthu awo ku South Africa ŵakuchemeka Cape Coloured (ŵanthu awo ŵali kufuma ku mitundu yiŵiri panji kujumpha apa). Mu virimika vya m'ma 1900, ŵanthu ŵa ku Lebanon na ŵa ku China ŵakakhalanga mu misumba yikuruyikuru iyo yili mumphepete mwa nyanja ya kumanjiliro gha dazi na kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Africa.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20111224135631/http://www.voanews.com/english/news/a-13-2007-07-10-voa46.html Naomi Schwarz, "Lebanese Immigrants Boost West African Commerce"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111224135631/http://www.voanews.com/english/news/a-13-2007-07-10-voa46.html |date=24 December 2011 }}, VOANews.com, 10 July 2007</ref> === Ŵanyake ŵakuwona kuti ŵanthu ŵa mu Africa ŵakukhala mu vyaru vinandi chomene. (lternative Estimates of African Population, 0–2018 AD (in thousands) === ) Ukaboni: Maddison and others. (University of Groningen).<ref name="ggdc.net">{{cite web|url=http://www.ggdc.net/maddison/other_books/appendix_B.pdf|title=Growth of World Population, GDP and GDP Per Capita before 1820|author=Maddison|date=27 July 2016 |access-date=17 July 2019|archive-date=12 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210212183845/http://www.ggdc.net/maddison/other_books/appendix_B.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> {| class="wikitable " style="text-align:right" |- ! scope="col" |Year<ref name="ggdc.net"/> ! scope="col" |0 ! scope="col" |1000 ! scope="col" |1500 ! scope="col" |1600 ! scope="col" |1700 ! scope="col" |1820 ! scope="col" |1870 ! scope="col" |1913 ! scope="col" |1950 ! scope="col" |1973 ! scope="col" |1998 ! scope="col" |2018 ! scope="col" |2100<br>(projected) |- |'''Africa''' |16 500 |33 000 |46 000 |55 000 |61 000 |74 208 |90 466 |124 697 |228 342 |387 645 |759 954 |1 321 000<ref name="worldometers"/> |3 924 421<ref name=":6">{{Cite web |title=Five key findings from the 2022 UN Population Prospects |url=https://ourworldindata.org/world-population-update-2022 |access-date=2022-07-23 |website=Our World in Data}}</ref> |- |'''World''' |230 820 |268 273 |437 818 |555 828 |603 410 |1 041 092 |1 270 014 |1 791 020 |2 524 531 |3 913 482 |5 907 680 |7 500 000<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/newsroom/stories/2018/world-population.html|title=World Population Day: July 11, 2018|website=United States Census Bureau|date=11 July 2018|access-date=18 July 2019|archive-date=18 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190718064224/https://www.census.gov/newsroom/stories/2018/world-population.html|url-status=live}}</ref> |10 349 323<ref name=":6" /> |} === Shares of Africa and World Population, 0–2020 AD (% of world total) === Ukaboni: Maddison and others (University of Groningen).<ref name="ggdc.net"/> {| class="wikitable " style="text-align:right" |- ! scope="col" |Chaka<ref name="ggdc.net"/> ! scope="col" |0 ! scope="col" |1000 ! scope="col" |1500 ! scope="col" |1600 ! scope="col" |1700 ! scope="col" |1820 ! scope="col" |1870 ! scope="col" |1913 ! scope="col" |1950 ! scope="col" |1973 ! scope="col" |1998 ! scope="col" |2020 ! scope="col" |2100<br/>(projected) |- |'''Afilika''' |7.1 |12.3 |10.5 |9.9 |10.1 |7.1 |7.1 |7.0 |9.0 |9.9 |12.9 |18.2<ref name="worldometers">{{cite web|url=https://www.worldometers.info/world-population/africa-population/|title=Africa Population (LIVE)|website=worldometers.info|access-date=17 July 2019|archive-date=2 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200902033531/https://www.worldometers.info/world-population/africa-population/|url-status=live}}</ref> |39.4<ref name="www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank">{{cite web|website=Pew Research Center|url=https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2019/06/17/worlds-population-is-projected-to-nearly-stop-growing-by-the-end-of-the-century/|title=World's population is projected to nearly stop growing by the end of the century|author1=ANTHONY CILLUFFO|author2= NEIL G. RUIZ|date=17 June 2019}}</ref> |} ===Chisopo=== [[File:Religion distribution Africa crop.png|A map showing religious distribution in Africa|thumb|upright=1.1]] {{Main|Religion in Africa}} {{See also||African divination}} Nangauli ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa ŵali na visopa vyakupambanapambana, kweni ŵanandi ŵakuchindika visopa vya ku Africa. Ndipouli, para ŵanthu ŵafumbika panji kupendeka, ŵanandi ŵakujiyaniska na visopa vikuruvikuru ivyo vikafuma ku vyaru vinyake. Pali vifukwa vinandi, ndipo cimoza mwa vifukwa vikuru nchakuti ŵanthu ŵa mu vyaru vinyake ŵakagomezganga kuti visambizgo na maluso gha cisopa ca ku Africa ni viheni. Ntchakusuzga kusanga maukaboni gha visopa ivyo ŵanthu ŵakugomezga chifukwa kanandi maboma agho ŵanthu ŵakusopa mu visopa vyakupambanapambana ghakughanaghanapo chomene pa nkhani iyi.<ref name=stanford>{{cite web|url=http://library.stanford.edu/africa/religion.html|title=African Religion on the Internet |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060902182749/http://library.stanford.edu/africa/religion.html |archive-date=2 September 2006 |url-status=dead |publisher=[[Stanford University]]}}</ref><ref name=NYT>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2001/11/01/world/rising-muslim-power-in-africa-causes-unrest-in-nigeria-and-elsewhere-963950.html|date=1 November 2001|title=Rising Muslim Power in Africa Causing Unrest in Nigeria and Elsewhere|first=Normitsu|last=Onishi|work=The New York Times|access-date=1 March 2009}}{{dead link|date=July 2022|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref>Buku linyake likuti visopa vikuru comene mu Africa ni Cisilamu na Cikhristu. Buku linyake likuti, ŵanthu 45 pa ŵanthu 100 ŵaliwose mu caru ici Mbakhristu, 40 pa ŵanthu 100 ŵaliwose Mbasilamu, ndipo 10 pa ŵanthu 100 ŵaliwose ŵali mu visopa vyawo. Ŵanandi mwa ŵanthu aŵa mba Chihindu, Chibuda, Chiconfucian, Chibahai, panji Chiyuda. Kweniso mu Africa muli ŵanthu ŵachoko waka awo ŵakusopa yayi. ===Viyowoyelo=== {{Main|Languages of Africa}} {{See also|Writing systems of Africa#Indigenous writing systems}} Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuyowoya viyowoyero vyakujumpha 1,000 mu Africa (UNESCO yikuti viyowoyero ivi ni 2,000).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://portal.unesco.org/ci/en/ev.php-URL_ID=8048&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html |title=Africa |date=2005 |publisher=UNESCO |access-date=1 March 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080602050234/http://portal.unesco.org/ci/en/ev.php-URL_ID%3D8048%26URL_DO%3DDO_TOPIC%26URL_SECTION%3D201.html |archive-date= 2 June 2008 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Ŵanandi ŵali kufuma ku Africa, kweni ŵanyake ŵali kufuma ku Europe panji Asia. Charu cha Africa chili na viyowoyero vinandi chomene pa charu chose chapasi, ndipo ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuyowoya viyowoyero vinandi vya ku Africa: [[File:Map of African language families.svg|thumb|upright=1.2|A simplistic view of language families spoken in Africa]] * Viyowoyero vya Afroasiatic ni viyowoyero vya ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 285 miliyoni awo ŵakuyowoya viyowoyero pafupifupi 240 mu Africa, kumpoto kwa Africa, Sahel, na kumwera kwa Asia. * Viyowoyero vya ku Nilo na Sahara ni viyowoyero vyakujumpha 100 ivyo vikuyowoyeka na ŵanthu 30 miliyoni. Viyowoyero vya ku Nilo-Sahara vikuyowoyeka na ŵanthu ŵa ku Chad, Ethiopia, Kenya, Nigeria, Sudan, South Sudan, Uganda, na kumpoto kwa Tanzania. * Viyowoyero vya Niger-Congo vikusangika mu vigaŵa vinandi vya ku Africa. Kuyana na chiŵelengero cha viyowoyero ivyo vikuyowoyeka, chiyowoyero ichi ndicho ntchikuru chomene mu Africa, ndipo panji ntchikuru chomene pa charu chose. * Viyowoyero vya Khoisan vilipo pafupifupi 50 ndipo vikuyowoyeka na ŵanthu pafupifupi 400,000 ku Southern Africa.<ref>{{cite web|title=Khoisan Languages|url=http://www.languagesgulper.com/eng/Khoisan.html|website=The Language Gulper|access-date=2 January 2017|archive-date=25 January 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170125082754/http://languagesgulper.com/eng/Khoisan.html|url-status=live}}</ref>Viyowoyero vinandi vya ku Khoisan vili pafupi kumara. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Khoi na San ndiwo ŵakakhalanga mu chigaŵa ichi. Mu vyaru vinandi vya mu Africa, ŵanthu ŵakayowoyanga viyowoyero vyakupambanapambana, kweni viyowoyero ivi vikamanyikwanga na boma. Mu vyaru vinandi, Cingelezi na Cifurenci (wonani Cifurenci ca ku Africa) vikugwiliskirika nchito pakudumbiskana na ŵanthu nga ni boma, malonda, masambiro na vyakupharazga. Chiarabic, Ciphwitikizi, Cifrikaans na Cisipanishi ni viyelezgero vya viyowoyero ivyo vikamba ku Africa, ndipo ŵanthu ŵanandi mu Africa ŵakuviyowoya mazuŵa ghano. Ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵakakhalanga mu vyaru ivyo kale vikaŵa pasi pa Italy ŵakayowoyanga Citaliyan. Ku Namibia ŵanthu ŵakuyowoya Cijeremani cifukwa kukaŵa caru ico kale cikalongozgekanga na ŵa German. ===Umoyo=== [[File:HIV in Africa 2011.svg|thumb|upright=1.1|Prevalence of HIV/AIDS in Africa, total (% of population ages 15–49), in 2011 ([[World Bank]]) {| style="width:100%;" |- | valign=top | {{legend|#2b0000|over 15%}} {{legend|#800000|5–15%}} {{legend|#d40000|2–5%}} {{legend|#ff2a2a|1–2%}} {{legend|#ff9955|0.5-1%}} {{legend|#ffb380|0.1–0.5%}} {{legend|#b9b9b9|not available}} |}]] Ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 85% mu Africa ŵakugwiliskira ntchito munkhwala wa maluso gha ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yose m'malo mwa munkhwala wakuchemeka allopathic, uwo ukuŵa wakudura chomene. Wupu wa African Unity (OAU) Ŵalongozgi ŵa vyaru na maboma ŵati vyaka vya m'ma 2000 ni vyaka vya m'ma 2000 vya vyakurya vya ku Africa mu chilato cha kukhozga fundo ya WHO ya ku Africa ya kuzenga vyakurya vya ku Africa mu vyakurya vya ku Africa.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kofi-Tsekpo |first1=Mawuli |title=Editorial: Institutionalization of African Traditional Medicine in Health Care Systems in Africa |journal=African Journal of Health Sciences |date=11 February 2005 |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=i-ii |doi=10.4314/ajhs.v11i1.30772 |pmid=17298111 }}</ref> Awo ŵakupanga malango gha boma mu cigaŵa ici ŵakususkika cifukwa ca kuzirwa kwa ndondomeko za umoyo za ŵanthu ŵa ciyowoyero cawo ndiposo usange kuŵapo kwawo pamoza na vyakurya vya mazuŵa ghano kungakhozga urunji na kuŵapo kwa wovwiri wa munkhwala, umoyo wa ŵanthu, ndiposo umo vyaru vya ku sub-Saharan Africa vikukulira. Nthenda ya AIDS njakuzara comene mu vyaru vya ku Africa. Nangauli mu Africa muli ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 15.2 pa ŵanthu 100 pa caru cose, kweni pa ŵanthu wose awo ŵali na nthenda iyi pa caru cose, ŵanthu 35 miliyoni ŵakaŵa ŵa ku Africa. Mu 2011, mu vyaru vya ku Africa pera, ŵanthu 69 pa ŵanthu 100 ŵaliwose ŵakaŵa na HIV ndipo 70 pa ŵanthu 100 ŵaliwose ŵakafwa na AIDS. Mu vyaru vya ku Africa kumwera kwa Sahara, umo nthenda ya AIDS yikusuzga comene, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakufwa cifukwa ca nthenda iyi. Kweniso, mu vigaŵa vinandi vya mu Africa, umoyo wa ŵanthu ukukhala pacoko comene cifukwa ca nthenda ya HIV/AIDS.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Oxford Encyclopedia of The Modern World|last=Stearns|first=Peter N. | name-list-style = vanc |publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2008|pages=556}}</ref> ==Mwambo== {{Main|Mwambo wa Afilika}} [[File:Wassu Stone Circle.jpg|thumb|Vinthu ivi vili mu charu cha Gambia na Senegal.]] Mu vyaka vyasonosono apa, ŵanthu ŵakutondeka kulondezga mitheto yinyake ya mu Africa chifukwa cha kuyuyulika na kusuzgika na maboma gha ŵanthu. Mwaciyerezgero, mitheto ya ku Africa yikakanizgika, ndipo viyowoyero vya ku Africa vikakanizgika mu masukulu gha ŵamishonale. Leopold II wa ku Belgium wakayezga "kusambizga" ŵanthu ŵa mu Africa mwa kukanizga kutora ŵanakazi ŵanandi na uloyi.<ref name="pearsonhighered.com">{{Cite web |title=Pearsonhighered.com |url=http://www.pearsonhighered.com/assets/hip/us/hip_us_pearsonhighered/samplechapter/0205208606.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150501070358/http://www.pearsonhighered.com/assets/hip/us/hip_us_pearsonhighered/samplechapter/0205208606.pdf |archive-date=1 May 2015}}</ref> Obidoh Freeborn wakughanaghana kuti ukoloni ni cinthu cimoza ico cikapangiska kuti luso la ku Africa liŵe la mazuŵa ghano. Kuyana na umo Douglas Fraser na Herbert M. Cole wakati: "Vinthu vikasintha mwamabuchi mu boma chifukwa cha muwuso wa ŵasilikari. Fraser na Cole ŵakayowoya kuti mu Igboland, vinthu vinyake vya luso "vikusoŵa nkhongono na luso nga umo vikaŵira na vinthu vyakwambilira ivyo vikachitikanga mu nyengo yakale. Chika Okeke-Agulu, uyo ni mulembi wa mabuku, wakati: "Ufumu wa Britain ukapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵaleke kuzomerezga kuti caru ca Africa ciŵe na mazaza paŵekha kweniso kuti ŵanthu ŵaleke kutemwana".<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ojPJBwAAQBAJ&pg=PT63|title=Postcolonial Modernism: Art and Decolonization in Twentieth-Century Nigeria|first=Chika|last=Okeke-Agulu|year=2015|publisher=Duke University Press|isbn=978-0-8223-7630-9|page=63|access-date=18 December 2015|archive-date=11 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200611035844/https://books.google.com/books?id=ojPJBwAAQBAJ&pg=PT63|url-status=live}}</ref> Awo ŵakung'anamura F. Abiola Irele na Simon Gikandi ŵakayowoya kuti mabuku gha mu Africa ghakaŵako cifukwa ca "kukumana pakati pa Africa na Europe". Kweni Mhoze Chikowero wakugomezga kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito sumu, kuvina, vyauzimu, na mitheto yinyake kuti ŵajiwonenge kuti mbanthu ŵakujiyimira ŵekha na ŵavinjeru. Pasono ŵanthu ŵakuyezgayezga chomene kuti ŵamanye makora mitheto ya ku Africa, nga umo vikaŵira na gulu la ŵanthu ŵakuchemeka African Renaissance, awo ŵakalongozgekanga na Thabo Mbeki. Kuzakafika mu Malichi 2023, malo 98 gha mu Africa ghali kulembeka na UNESCO kuti ni malo gha Charu Chose. Pa malo agha, 54 ni malo ghakusungirako vinthu vyakuthupi, 39 ni malo ghakusungirako vinthu vyakuthupi, ndipo 5 ni malo ghakupambanapambana. Malo 15 gha mu Africa ghali pa Mndandanda wa Vinthu Vya Caru Cose Ivyo Vili pa Suzgo.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Africa |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/africa/ |access-date=30 March 2023 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Convention}}</ref> ===Visual art=== [[File:Nok sculpture Louvre 70-1998-11-1.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1| Chizindikiro cha Nok (zaka za m'ma 500 BCE-5 CE)]] {{Excerpt|African art|paragraph=1,2,3,4,5||only=paragraphs}} ===Architecture=== {{Excerpt|Architecture of Africa|paragraph=1,2,3|file=1}} ===Cinema=== {{Excerpt|Cinema of Africa|paragraphs=1-2|file=1}} ===Music=== [[File:Ke-Nako Music-Performance Vienna2008c.jpg|thumb|upright=0.7|A musician from South Africa]] {{Excerpt|Music of Africa|paragraph=1,2}} ===Dance=== {{Excerpt|African dance|paragraph=1,2|file=no}} ===Sports=== [[File:World cup african countries best results and hosts.png|thumb|Zotsatira zabwino kwambiri za timu za mpira za amuna zaku Africa pa FIFA World Cup]] Vyaru 54 vya mu Africa vili na magulu gha mpira mu wupu wa African Football Confederation. Eguputo wali kuthereska nkhonya ya Africa kankhondi na kaŵiri, ndipo wakukwaniska katatu. Cameroon, Nigeria, Morocco, Senegal, Ghana, na Algeria ŵafika ku vigaŵa vyaumaliro vya FIFA World Cup. Morocco yikalemba mbiri pa World Cup ya 2022 ku Qatar pakuŵa chalo chakwamba ku Africa kufika ku semi-final ya FIFA Men's World Cup. Charu cha South Africa chikapokelera maseŵera gha World Cup mu 2010, ndipo chikaŵa charu chakwamba cha ku Africa kuchita nthena. Magulu ghapachanya mu kilabu yiliyose ya mpira wa ku Africa ghakuseŵera mu CAF Champions League, apo magulu ghapasi ghakuseŵera mu CAF Confederation Cup. Mu vyaka vyasonosono apa, caru ca Africa caŵa na malo ghaphya gha maseŵero gha basketball agho ghazengeka mu misumba yakupambanapambana nga ni Cairo, Dakar, Johannesburg, Kigali, Luanda na Rades. Chiŵerengero cha osewera a basketball a ku Africa omwe adalemba ku NBA chakhala chikukula kwambiri m'ma 2010.<ref>{{cite news |first=Lee |last=Nxumalo |title=Basketball's next frontier is Africa |url=https://www.newframe.com/basketballs-next-frontier-is-africa/ |access-date=11 January 2021 |work=New Frame |date=20 December 2020 |archive-date=16 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210116062357/https://www.newframe.com/basketballs-next-frontier-is-africa/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Getting to know Africa's flashy basketball arenas |url=https://www.fiba.basketball/news/getting-to-know-africas-flashy-basketball-arenas |access-date=10 December 2020 |work=[[FIBA]] |date=2 September 2019 |archive-date=7 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210107193242/https://www.fiba.basketball/news/getting-to-know-africas-flashy-basketball-arenas |url-status=live }}</ref> Mu vyaru vinyake vya mu Africa, ŵanthu ŵakutemwa comene maseŵero gha cricket. Charu cha South Africa na Zimbabwe vili na chigaŵa cha Test, apo charu cha Kenya ndicho chili na chigaŵa chakwamba cha One Day International cricket (ODI). Vyaru vitatu ivi vikachitiska ungano wa Cricket World Cup mu 2003. Charu cha Namibia ndico nchigaŵa cinyake ca mu Africa ico cacitapo maseŵera gha pa caru cose. Charu cha Morocco, icho chili kumpoto kwa Africa, ndicho chikachitiskaso maseŵero gha Morocco Cup mu 2002, kweni charu ichi chindachiteko maseŵero ghakuru. Mu vyaru vinandi vya kumwera kwa Africa, ŵanthu ŵakutemwa comene maseŵero gha rugby. Namibia na Zimbabwe wose ŵaŵapo kanandi waka pa Rugby World Cup, apo South Africa ndiyo yikwenda makora chomene (pamoza na New Zealand) pa Rugby World Cup, pakuti yikawina katatu, mu 1995, 2007, na 2019.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.rugbyworldcup.com/2023/news/608463/rwc-2023-spotlight-south-africa|title=RWC 2023 Spotlight: South Africa ｜ Rugby World Cup 2023|website=www.rugbyworldcup.com|access-date=29 May 2021|archive-date=2 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602213126/https://www.rugbyworldcup.com/2023/news/608463/rwc-2023-spotlight-south-africa|url-status=live}}</ref> == Vigaŵa na malo == {{Main|List of regions of Africa|List of sovereign states and dependent territories in Africa}} {{center|{{Africa Labelled Map}}}} Vyaru ivyo vili pa tabuleti iyi vyalembeka kuyana na ndondomeko ya vigaŵa ivyo vikuzunulika na wupu wa United Nations. Para pali mphambano, fundo zikulongosoreka makora. <!--{{editnote | NOTE: If you have arguments or evidence to the contrary, please provide them on the talk page and await until the consensus supports making proposed edits. Thank you!--> <!--begin country info tables--> {| class="wikitable sortable" style="margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto; border:1px solid #aaa;" |- style="background:#ececec;" ! class="unsortable" style="width:20px" | ! class="unsortable" style="width:20px" | Chidindo cha boma ! Zina la chigaŵa panji charu, na ndembera{{efn|Continental regions as per [[United Nations geoscheme for Africa|UN categorizations/map]].}} ! data-sort-type="number" | [[List of countries and dependencies by area|Area]]<br>(km²) ! data-sort-type="number" | [[List of countries and dependencies by population|Population]]<ref name="uscen">{{cite web|url=https://www.census.gov\/cgi-bin/ipc/idbrank.pl|title=IDB: Countries Ranked by Population|date=28 November 1999|url-status=bot: unknown|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/19991128111024/http://www.census.gov/cgi-bin/ipc/idbrank.pl|archive-date=28 November 1999}}</ref> ! Chaka ! data-sort-type="number" | [[List of countries and dependencies by population density|Density]]<br>(per km²) ! Msumba waboma ! [[Language|Name(s) in official language(s)]] ! [[ISO 3166-1 alpha-3|ISO 3166-1]] |- style="background:#eee;" |colspan="10" style="text-align:center;"|'''North Africa''' |- | style="text-align:center" | {{Coat of arms|text=none|Algeria}} | style="text-align:center" | {{flagicon|Algeria}} | [[Algeria]] |style="text-align:right;"|2,381,740 |style="text-align:right;"|46,731,000 |style="text-align:right;"|2022 |style="text-align:right;"|17.7 |[[Algiers]] | الجزائر (al-Jazāʾir)/Algérie | DZA |- | style="text-align:center" | {{Coat of arms|text=none|Canary Islands}} | style="text-align:center" | {{flagicon|Canary Islands}} |[[Canary Islands]] (Spain){{efn|The Spanish [[Canary Islands]], of which [[Las Palmas de Gran Canaria]] are [[Santa Cruz de Tenerife]] are co-capitals, are often considered part of Northern Africa due to their relative proximity to [[Morocco]] and [[Western Sahara]]; population and area figures are for 2001.}} |style="text-align:right;"|7,492 |style="text-align:right;"|2,154,905 |style="text-align:right;"|2017 |style="text-align:right;"|226 |[[Las Palmas de Gran Canaria]],<br>[[Santa Cruz de Tenerife]] | Canarias | IC |- | style="text-align:center" | {{Coat of arms|text=none|Italy}} | style="text-align:center" | {{flagicon|Italy}} | style="text-align:left" | [[Pelagie Islands]] (Italy) |style="text-align:right;"| 25.5 |style="text-align:right;"| 6,556 |style="text-align:right;"| 2019 |style="text-align:right;"| 247 | style="text-align:left" | [[Lampedusa]] | Pelagie/Isole Pelagie/Ìsuli Pilaggî | ITA |- | style="text-align:center" | {{Coat of arms|text=none|Ceuta}} | style="text-align:center" | {{flagicon|Ceuta}} |[[Ceuta]] (Spain){{efn|The Spanish [[exclave]] of [[Ceuta]] is surrounded on land by Morocco in Northern Africa; population and area figures are for 2001.}} |style="text-align:right;"|20 |style="text-align:right;"|85,107 |style="text-align:right;"|2017 |style="text-align:right;"|3,575 |— | Ceuta/Sebta/سَبْتَة (Sabtah) | EA |- | style="text-align:center" | {{Coat of arms|text=none|Egypt}} | style="text-align:center" | {{flagicon|Egypt}} |[[Egypt]]{{efn|[[Egypt]] is generally considered a [[List of transcontinental countries|transcontinental country]] in Northern Africa (UN region) and Western Asia; population and area figures are for African portion only, west of the [[Suez Canal]].}} |style="text-align:right;"|1,001,450 |style="text-align:right;"|82,868,000 |style="text-align:right;"|2012 |style="text-align:right;"|83 |[[Cairo]] | مِصر (Miṣr) | EGY |- | style="text-align:center" | {{Coat of arms|text=none|Libya}} | style="text-align:center" | {{flagicon|Libya}} |[[Libya]] |style="text-align:right;"|1,759,540 |style="text-align:right;"|6,310,434 |style="text-align:right;"|2009 |style="text-align:right;"|4 |[[Tripoli, Libya|Tripoli]] | ليبيا (Lībiyā) | LBY |- | style="text-align:center" | {{Coat of arms|text=none|Madeira}} | style="text-align:center" | {{flagicon|Madeira}} |[[Madeira]] (Portugal){{efn|The Portuguese [[Madeira Islands]] are often considered part of Northern Africa due to their relative proximity to Morocco; population and area figures are for 2001.}} |style="text-align:right;"|797 |style="text-align:right;"|245,000 |style="text-align:right;"|2001 |style="text-align:right;"|307 |[[Funchal]] | Madeira | PRT-30 |- | style="text-align:center" | {{Coat of arms|text=none|Melilla}} | style="text-align:center" | {{flagicon|Melilla}} |[[Melilla]] (Spain){{efn|The Spanish [[exclave]] of [[Melilla]] is surrounded on land by Morocco in Northern Africa; population and area figures are for 2001.}} |style="text-align:right;"|12 |style="text-align:right;"|85,116 |style="text-align:right;"|2017 |style="text-align:right;"|5,534 |— | Melilla/Mlilt/مليلية | EA |- | style="text-align:center" | {{Coat of arms|text=none|Morocco}} | style="text-align:center" | {{flagicon|Morocco}} |[[Morocco]] |style="text-align:right;"|446,550 |style="text-align:right;"|35,740,000 |style="text-align:right;"|2017 |style="text-align:right;"|78 |[[Rabat]] | المغرب (al-maḡrib)/ⵍⵎⵖⵔⵉⴱ (lmeɣrib)/Maroc | MAR |- | style="text-align:center" | {{Coat of arms|text=none|Tunisia}} | style="text-align:center" | {{flagicon|Tunisia}} |[[Tunisia]] |style="text-align:right;"|163,610 |style="text-align:right;"|10,486,339 |style="text-align:right;"|2009 |style="text-align:right;"|64 |[[Tunis]] | تونس (Tūnis)/Tunest/Tunisie | TUN |- | style="text-align:center" | {{Coat of arms|text=none|Western Sahara}} | style="text-align:center" | {{flagicon|Western Sahara}} | [[Western Sahara]]{{efn|name="Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic"|The territory of [[Western Sahara]] is claimed by the [[Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic]] and [[Morocco]]. The [[SADR]] is recognized as a sovereign state by the [[African Union]]. [[Morocco]] claims the entirety of the country as its [[Southern Provinces]]. Morocco administers 4/5 of the territory while the SADR controls 1/5. Morocco's annexation of this territory has not been recognized internationally.}} |style="text-align:right;"|266,000 |style="text-align:right;"|405,210 |style="text-align:right;"|2009 |style="text-align:right;"|2 |[[El Aaiún]] | الصحراء الغربية (aṣ-Ṣaḥrā' al-Gharbiyyah)/Taneẓroft Tutrimt/Sáhara Occidental | ESH |- style="background:#eee;" |colspan="10" style="text-align:center;"|'''Kumafumilo gha Dazi gha Afilika''' |- | style="text-align:center" | {{Coat of arms|text=none|Burundi}} | style="text-align:center" | {{flagicon|Burundi}} | [[Burundi]] |style="text-align:right;"|27,830 |style="text-align:right;"|8,988,091 |style="text-align:right;"|2009 |style="text-align:right;"|323 |[[Gitega]] | Uburundi/Burundi/Burundi | BDI |- | style="text-align:center" | {{Coat of arms|text=none|Comoros}} | style="text-align:center" | {{flagicon|Comoros}} | [[Comoros]] |style="text-align:right;"|2,170 |style="text-align:right;"|752,438 |style="text-align:right;"|2009 |style="text-align:right;"|347 |[[Moroni, Comoros|Moroni]] | Komori/Comores/جزر القمر (Juzur al-Qumur) | COM |- | style="text-align:center" | {{Coat of arms|text=none|Djibouti}} | style="text-align:center" | {{flagicon|Djibouti}} | [[Djibouti]] |style="text-align:right;"|23,000 |style="text-align:right;"|828,324 |style="text-align:right;"|2015 |style="text-align:right;"|22 |[[Djibouti (city)|Djibouti]] | Yibuuti/جيبوتي (Jībūtī)/Djibouti/Jabuuti | DJI |- | style="text-align:center" | {{Coat of arms|text=none|Eritrea}} | style="text-align:center" | {{flagicon|Eritrea}} | [[Eritrea]] |style="text-align:right;"|121,320 |style="text-align:right;"|5,647,168 |style="text-align:right;"|2009 |style="text-align:right;"|47 |[[Asmara]] | Eritrea | ERI |- | style="text-align:center" | {{Coat of arms|text=none|Ethiopia}} | style="text-align:center" | {{flagicon|Ethiopia}} | [[Ethiopia]] |style="text-align:right;"|1,127,127 |style="text-align:right;"|84,320,987 |style="text-align:right;"|2012 |style="text-align:right;"|75 |[[Addis Ababa]] | ኢትዮጵያ (Ītyōṗṗyā)/Itiyoophiyaa/ኢትዮጵያ/Itoophiyaa/Itoobiya/ኢትዮጵያ | ETH |- | style="text-align:center" | [[File:BlasonTAAF.svg|25px]] | style="text-align:center" | {{flagicon|French Southern and Antarctic Lands}} | [[French Southern and Antarctic Lands|French Southern Territories]] (France) |style="text-align:right;"|439,781 |style="text-align:right;"|100 |style="text-align:right;"|2019 |style="text-align:right;"|— |[[Saint-Pierre, Réunion|Saint Pierre]] | Terres australes et antarctiques françaises | FRA-TF |- | style="text-align:center" | {{Coat of arms|text=none|Kenya}} | style="text-align:center" | {{flagicon|Kenya}} | [[Kenya]] |style="text-align:right;"|582,650 |style="text-align:right;"|39,002,772 |style="text-align:right;"|2009 |style="text-align:right;"|66 |[[Nairobi]] | Kenya | KEN |- | style="text-align:center" | {{Coat of arms|text=none|Madagascar}} | style="text-align:center" | {{flagicon|Madagascar}} | [[Madagascar]] |style="text-align:right;"|587,040 |style="text-align:right;"|20,653,556 |style="text-align:right;"|2009 |style="text-align:right;"|35 |[[Antananarivo]] | Madagasikara/Madagascar | MDG |- | style="text-align:center" | {{Coat of arms|text=none|Malawi}} | style="text-align:center" | {{flagicon|Malawi}} |[[Malawi]] |style="text-align:right;"|118,480 |style="text-align:right;"|14,268,711 |style="text-align:right;"|2009 |style="text-align:right;"|120 |[[Lilongwe]] | Malaŵi/Malaŵi | MWI |- | style="text-align:center" | {{Coat of arms|text=none|Mauritius}} | style="text-align:center" | {{flagicon|Mauritius}} |[[Mauritius]] |style="text-align:right;"|2,040 |style="text-align:right;"|1,284,264 |style="text-align:right;"|2009 |style="text-align:right;"|630 |[[Port Louis]] | Maurice/Moris | MUS |- | style="text-align:center" | {{Coat of arms|text=none|Mayotte}} | style="text-align:center" | {{flagicon|Mayotte|local}} |[[Mayotte]] (France) |style="text-align:right;"|374 |style="text-align:right;"|223,765 |style="text-align:right;"|2009 |style="text-align:right;"|490 |[[Mamoudzou]] | Mayotte/Maore/Maiôty | MYT |- | style="text-align:center" | {{Coat of arms|text=none|Mozambique}} | style="text-align:center" | {{flagicon|Mozambique}} |[[Mozambique]] |style="text-align:right;"|801,590 |style="text-align:right;"|21,669,278 |style="text-align:right;"|2009 |style="text-align:right;"|27 |[[Maputo]] | Moçambique/Mozambiki/Msumbiji/Muzambhiki | MOZ |- | style="text-align:center" | {{Coat of arms|text=none|Réunion}} | style="text-align:center" | {{flagicon|Réunion}} | [[Réunion]] (France) |style="text-align:right;"|2,512 |style="text-align:right;"|743,981 |style="text-align:right;"|2002 |style="text-align:right;"|296 |[[Saint-Denis, Réunion|Saint Denis]] | La Réunion | FRA-RE |- | style="text-align:center" | {{Coat of arms|text=none|Rwanda}} | style="text-align:center" | {{flagicon|Rwanda}} | [[Rwanda]] |style="text-align:right;"|26,338 |style="text-align:right;"|10,473,282 |style="text-align:right;"|2009 |style="text-align:right;"|398 |[[Kigali]] | Rwanda | RWA |- | style="text-align:center" | {{Coat of arms|text=none|Seychelles}} | style="text-align:center" | {{flagicon|Seychelles}} |[[Seychelles]] |style="text-align:right;"|455 |style="text-align:right;"|87,476 |style="text-align:right;"|2009 |style="text-align:right;"|192 |[[Victoria, Seychelles|Victoria]] | Seychelles/Sesel | SYC |- | style="text-align:center" | {{Coat of arms|text=none|Somalia}} | style="text-align:center" | {{flagicon|Somalia}} |[[Somalia]] |style="text-align:right;"|637,657 |style="text-align:right;"|9,832,017 |style="text-align:right;"|2009 |style="text-align:right;"|15 |[[Mogadishu]] | 𐒈𐒝𐒑𐒛𐒐𐒘𐒕𐒖 (Soomaaliya) /الصومال (aṣ-Ṣūmāl) | SOM |- | style="text-align:center" | {{Coat of arms|text=none|Somaliland}} | style="text-align:center" | {{flagicon|Somaliland}} |[[Somaliland]] |style="text-align:right;"|176,120 |style="text-align:right;"|5,708,180 |style="text-align:right;"|2021 |style="text-align:right;"|25 |[[Hargeisa]] | Soomaaliland/صوماليلاند (Ṣūmālīlānd) | |- | style="text-align:center" | {{Coat of arms|text=none|South Sudan}} | style="text-align:center" | {{flagicon|South Sudan}} |[[South Sudan]] |style="text-align:right;"|619,745 |style="text-align:right;"|8,260,490 |style="text-align:right;"|2008 |style="text-align:right;"|13 |[[Juba]] | South Sudan | SSD |- | style="text-align:center" | {{Coat of arms|text=none|Sudan}} | style="text-align:center" | {{flagicon|Sudan}} |[[Sudan]] |style="text-align:right;"|1,861,484 |style="text-align:right;"|30,894,000 |style="text-align:right;"|2008 |style="text-align:right;"|17 |[[Khartoum]] | Sudan/السودان (as-Sūdān) | SDN |- | style="text-align:center" | {{Coat of arms|text=none|Tanzania}} | style="text-align:center" | {{flagicon|Tanzania}} |[[Tanzania]] |style="text-align:right;"|945,087 |style="text-align:right;"|44,929,002 |style="text-align:right;"|2009 |style="text-align:right;"|43 |[[Dodoma]] | Tanzania/Tanzania | TZA |- | style="text-align:center" | {{Coat of arms|text=none|Uganda}} | style="text-align:center" | {{flagicon|Uganda}} |[[Uganda]] |style="text-align:right;"|236,040 |style="text-align:right;"|32,369,558 |style="text-align:right;"|2009 |style="text-align:right;"|137 |[[Kampala]] | Uganda/Yuganda | UGA |- | style="text-align:center" | {{Coat of arms|text=none|Zambia}} | style="text-align:center" | {{flagicon|Zambia}} |[[Zambia]] |style="text-align:right;"|752,614 |style="text-align:right;"|11,862,740 |style="text-align:right;"|2009 |style="text-align:right;"|16 |[[Lusaka]] | Zambia | ZMB |- | style="text-align:center" | {{Coat of arms|text=none|Zimbabwe}} | style="text-align:center" | {{flagicon|Zimbabwe}} |[[Zimbabwe]] |style="text-align:right;"|390,580 |style="text-align:right;"|11,392,629 |style="text-align:right;"|2009 |style="text-align:right;"|29 |[[Harare]] | Zimbabwe | ZWE |- |colspan="10" style="background:#eee; text-align:center;"|'''Pakati pa Afilika''' |- | style="text-align:center" | {{Coat of arms|text=none|Angola}} | style="text-align:center" | {{flagicon|Angola}} |[[Angola]] |style="text-align:right;"|1,246,700 |style="text-align:right;"|12,799,293 |style="text-align:right;"|2009 |style="text-align:right;"|10 |[[Luanda]] | Angola | AGO |- | style="text-align:center" | {{Coat of arms|text=none|Cameroon}} | style="text-align:center" | {{flagicon|Cameroon}} |[[Cameroon]] |style="text-align:right;"|475,440 |style="text-align:right;"|18,879,301 |style="text-align:right;"|2009 |style="text-align:right;"|40 |[[Yaoundé]] | Cameroun/Kamerun | CMR |- | style="text-align:center" | {{Coat of arms|text=none|Central African Republic}} | style="text-align:center" | {{flagicon|Central African Republic}} |[[Central African Republic]] |style="text-align:right;"|622,984 |style="text-align:right;"|4,511,488 |style="text-align:right;"|2009 |style="text-align:right;"|7 |[[Bangui]] | Ködörösêse tî Bêafrîka/République centrafricaine | CAF |- | style="text-align:center" | {{Coat of arms|text=none|Chad}} | style="text-align:center" | {{flagicon|Chad}} |[[Chad]] |style="text-align:right;"|1,284,000 |style="text-align:right;"|10,329,208 |style="text-align:right;"|2009 |style="text-align:right;"|8 |[[N'Djamena]] | تشاد (Tšād)/Tchad | TCD |- | style="text-align:center" | {{Coat of arms|text=none|Republic of the Congo}} | style="text-align:center" | {{flagicon|Republic of the Congo}} |[[Republic of the Congo]] |style="text-align:right;"|342,000 |style="text-align:right;"|4,012,809 |style="text-align:right;"|2009 |style="text-align:right;"|12 |[[Brazzaville]] | Congo/Kôngo/Kongó | COG |- | style="text-align:center" | {{Coat of arms|text=none|Democratic Republic of the Congo}} | style="text-align:center" | {{flagicon|Democratic Republic of the Congo}} |[[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] |style="text-align:right;"|2,345,410 |style="text-align:right;"|69,575,000 |style="text-align:right;"|2012 |style="text-align:right;"|30 |[[Kinshasa]] | République démocratique du Congo | COD |- | style="text-align:center" | {{Coat of arms|text=none|Equatorial Guinea}} | style="text-align:center" | {{flagicon|Equatorial Guinea}} |[[Equatorial Guinea]] |style="text-align:right;"|28,051 |style="text-align:right;"|633,441 |style="text-align:right;"|2009 |style="text-align:right;"|23 |[[Malabo]] | Guinea Ecuatorial/Guinée Équatoriale/Guiné Equatorial | GNQ |- | style="text-align:center" | {{Coat of arms|text=none|Gabon}} | style="text-align:center" | {{flagicon|Gabon}} |[[Gabon]] |style="text-align:right;"|267,667 |style="text-align:right;"|1,514,993 |style="text-align:right;"|2009 |style="text-align:right;"|6 |[[Libreville]] | gabonaise | GAB |- | style="text-align:center" | [[File:Insigne Insularum Sancti Thomae et Principis.png|25px]] | style="text-align:center" | {{flagicon|São Tomé and Príncipe}} | [[Sao Tome na Principe]] |style="text-align:right;"|1,001 |style="text-align:right;"|212,679 |style="text-align:right;"|2009 |style="text-align:right;"|212 |[[São Tomé]] | Sao Tome na Principe | STP |- style="background:#eee;" |colspan="10" style="text-align:center;"|'''Kummwela kwa Afilika''' |- | style="text-align:center" | {{Coat of arms|text=none|Botswana}} | style="text-align:center" | {{flagicon|Botswana}} |[[Botswana]] |style="text-align:right;"|600,370 |style="text-align:right;"|1,990,876 |style="text-align:right;"|2009 |style="text-align:right;"|3 |[[Gaborone]] | Botswana/Botswana | BWA |- | style="text-align:center" | {{Coat of arms|text=none|Eswatini}} | style="text-align:center" | {{flagicon|Eswatini}} |[[Eswatini]] |style="text-align:right;"|17,363 |style="text-align:right;"|1,123,913 |style="text-align:right;"|2009 |style="text-align:right;"|65 |[[Mbabane]] | eSwatini/Eswatini | SWZ |- | style="text-align:center" | {{Coat of arms|text=none|Lesotho}} | style="text-align:center" | {{flagicon|Lesotho}} |[[Lesotho]] |style="text-align:right;"|30,355 |style="text-align:right;"|2,130,819 |style="text-align:right;"|2009 |style="text-align:right;"|70 |[[Maseru]] | Lesotho/Lesotho | LSO |- | style="text-align:center" | {{Coat of arms|text=none|Namibia}} | style="text-align:center" | {{flagicon|Namibia}} | [[Namibia]] |style="text-align:right;"|825,418 |style="text-align:right;"|2,108,665 |style="text-align:right;"|2009 |style="text-align:right;"|3 |[[Windhoek]] | Namibia | NAM |- | style="text-align:center" | {{Coat of arms|text=none|South Africa}} | style="text-align:center" | {{flagicon|South Africa}} |[[South Africa]] |style="text-align:right;"|1,219,912 |style="text-align:right;"|51,770,560 |style="text-align:right;"|2011 |style="text-align:right;"|42 |[[Bloemfontein]], [[Cape Town]], [[Pretoria]]{{efn|[[Bloemfontein]] is the judicial capital of South Africa, while [[Cape Town]] is its legislative seat, and [[Pretoria]] is the country's administrative seat.}} | yaseNingizimu Afrika/yoMzantsi-Afrika/Suid-Afrika/Afrika-Borwa/Aforika Borwa/Afrika Borwa/Afrika Dzonga/yeNingizimu Afrika/Afurika Tshipembe/yeSewula Afrika | ZAF |- style="background:#eee;" |colspan="10" style="text-align:center;"|'''Kumafumilo gha Dazi gha Afilika''' |- | style="text-align:center" | {{Coat of arms|text=none|Benin}} | style="text-align:center" | {{flagicon|Benin}} | [[Benin]] |style="text-align:right;"|112,620 |style="text-align:right;"|8,791,832 |style="text-align:right;"|2009 |style="text-align:right;"|78 |[[Porto-Novo]] | Bénin | BEN |- | style="text-align:center" | {{Coat of arms|text=none|Burkina Faso}} | style="text-align:center" | {{flagicon|Burkina Faso}} | [[Burkina Faso]] |style="text-align:right;"|274,200 |style="text-align:right;"|15,746,232 |style="text-align:right;"|2009 |style="text-align:right;"|57 |[[Ouagadougou]] | Burkina Faso | BFA |- | style="text-align:center" | {{Coat of arms|text=none|Cape Verde}} | style="text-align:center" | {{flagicon|Cape Verde}} | [[Cape Verde]] |style="text-align:right;"|4,033 |style="text-align:right;"|429,474 |style="text-align:right;"|2009 |style="text-align:right;"|107 |[[Praia]] | Cabo Verde/Kabu Verdi | CPV |- | style="text-align:center" | {{Coat of arms|text=none|The Gambia}} | style="text-align:center" | {{flagicon|The Gambia}} | [[The Gambia]] |style="text-align:right;"|11,300 |style="text-align:right;"|1,782,893 |style="text-align:right;"|2009 |style="text-align:right;"|158 |[[Banjul]] | The Gambia | GMB |- | style="text-align:center" | {{Coat of arms|text=none|Ghana}} | style="text-align:center" | {{flagicon|Ghana}} | [[Ghana]] |style="text-align:right;"|239,460 |style="text-align:right;"|23,832,495 |style="text-align:right;"|2009 |style="text-align:right;"|100 |[[Accra]] | Ghana | GHA |- | style="text-align:center" | {{Coat of arms|text=none|Guinea}} | style="text-align:center" | {{flagicon|Guinea}} | [[Guinea]] |style="text-align:right;"|245,857 |style="text-align:right;"|10,057,975 |style="text-align:right;"|2009 |style="text-align:right;"|41 |[[Conakry]] | Guinée | GIN |- | style="text-align:center" | {{Coat of arms|text=none|Guinea-Bissau}} | style="text-align:center" | {{flagicon|Guinea-Bissau}} | [[Guinea-Bissau]] |style="text-align:right;"|36,120 |style="text-align:right;"|1,533,964 |style="text-align:right;"|2009 |style="text-align:right;"|43 |[[Bissau]] | Guiné-Bissau | GNB |- | style="text-align:center" | {{Coat of arms|text=none|Ivory Coast}} | style="text-align:center" | {{flagicon|Ivory Coast}} |[[Ivory Coast]] |style="text-align:right;"|322,460 |style="text-align:right;"|20,617,068 |style="text-align:right;"|2009 |style="text-align:right;"|64 |[[Abidjan]],{{efn|[[Yamoussoukro]] is the official capital of [[Ivory Coast]], while [[Abidjan]] is the ''de facto'' seat.}} [[Yamoussoukro]] | Côte d'Ivoire | CIV |- | style="text-align:center" | {{Coat of arms|text=none|Liberia}} | style="text-align:center" | {{flagicon|Liberia}} |[[Liberia]] |style="text-align:right;"|111,370 |style="text-align:right;"|3,441,790 |style="text-align:right;"|2009 |style="text-align:right;"|31 |[[Monrovia]] | Liberia | LBR |- | style="text-align:center" | {{Coat of arms|text=none|Mali}} | style="text-align:center" | {{flagicon|Mali}} |[[Mali]] |style="text-align:right;"|1,240,000 |style="text-align:right;"|12,666,987 |style="text-align:right;"|2009 |style="text-align:right;"|10 |[[Bamako]] | Mali | MLI |- | style="text-align:center" | {{Coat of arms|text=none|Mauritania}} | style="text-align:center" | {{flagicon|Mauritania}} |[[Mauritania]] |style="text-align:right;"|1,030,700 |style="text-align:right;"|3,129,486 |style="text-align:right;"|2009 |style="text-align:right;"|3 |[[Nouakchott]] | موريتانيا (Mūrītānyā) | MRT |- | style="text-align:center" | {{Coat of arms|text=none|Niger}} | style="text-align:center" | {{flagicon|Niger}} |[[Niger]] |style="text-align:right;"|1,267,000 |style="text-align:right;"|15,306,252 |style="text-align:right;"|2009 |style="text-align:right;"|12 |[[Niamey]] | Niger | NER |- | style="text-align:center" | {{Coat of arms|text=none|Nigeria}} | style="text-align:center" | {{flagicon|Nigeria}} |[[Nigeria]] |style="text-align:right;"|923,768 |style="text-align:right;"|166,629,000 |style="text-align:right;"|2012 |style="text-align:right;"|180 |[[Abuja]] | Nigeria | NGA |- | style="text-align:center" | {{Coat of arms|text=none|United Kingdom}} | style="text-align:center" | {{flagicon|Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha}} |[[Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha]] (United Kingdom) |style="text-align:right;"|420 |style="text-align:right;"|7,728 |style="text-align:right;"|2012 |style="text-align:right;"|13 |[[Jamestown, Saint Helena|Jamestown]] | Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha | SHN |- | style="text-align:center" | {{Coat of arms|text=none|Senegal}} | style="text-align:center" | {{flagicon|Senegal}} |[[Senegal]] |style="text-align:right;"|196,190 |style="text-align:right;"|13,711,597 |style="text-align:right;"|2009 |style="text-align:right;"|70 |[[Dakar]] | Sénégal | SEN |- | style="text-align:center" | {{Coat of arms|text=none|Sierra Leone}} | style="text-align:center" | {{flagicon|Sierra Leone}} |[[Sierra Leone]] |style="text-align:right;"|71,740 |style="text-align:right;"|6,440,053 |style="text-align:right;"|2009 |style="text-align:right;"|90 |[[Freetown]] | Sierra Leone | SLE |- | style="text-align:center" | {{Coat of arms|text=none|Togo}} | style="text-align:center" | {{flagicon|Togo}} |[[Togo]] |style="text-align:right;"|56,785 |style="text-align:right;"|6,019,877 |style="text-align:right;"|2009 |style="text-align:right;"|106 |[[Lomé]] | togolaise | TGO |- style="font-weight:bold; background:#eee;" | colspan="3" | Afilika pamoza |style="text-align:right;"|30,368,609 |style="text-align:right;"|1,001,320,281 |style="text-align:right;"|2009 |style="text-align:right;"|33 ! colspan="3"| |} <!--end country info table + refs--> ==Wonaniso== {{Portal|Africa}} <!-- *[[Bibliography of Africa]] --> * [[Index of Africa-related articles]] * [[African historiography]] * [[Outline of Africa]] ==Vyakulemba== {{notelist}} ==Ukaboni== {{reflist}} ==Vyalemba vinandi== * {{Cite book|last=Malone|first=Jacqui|url=https://archive.org/details/steppinonbluesvi00malo|title=Steppin' on the Blues: the Visible Rhythms of African American Dance|date=1996|publisher=University of Illinois Press|oclc=891842452}} * {{Cite book|last=Welsh-Asante|first=Kariamu|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WrbrTfSO3fwC|title=African Dance|date=2009|publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=978-1-4381-2427-8|language=en}} * {{cite book |last1=Shillington |first1=Kevin |title=History of Africa |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofafrica0002shil |date=2005 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=978-0-333-59957-0 }} == Vyakulemba vinyake == {{see also|Africa Bibliography}} {{refbegin}} * {{cite book|last=Asante|first=Molefi|author-link=Molefi Asante|title=The History of Africa|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofafricaq0000asan_v6f8|publisher=Routledge|location=US|date=2007|isbn=978-0-415-77139-9}} * {{cite book|last=Clark|first=J. Desmond|author-link=J. Desmond Clark|title=The Prehistory of Africa|publisher=Thames and Hudson|location=London|date=1970|isbn=978-0-500-02069-2}} * {{cite book|last=Crowder|first=Michael|title=The Story of Nigeria|url=https://archive.org/details/storyofnigeria0000crow_x6k2|publisher=Faber|location=London|date=1978|isbn=978-0-571-04947-9}} * {{cite book|last=Davidson|first=Basil|author-link=Basil Davidson|title=The African Past: Chronicles from Antiquity to Modern Times|publisher=Penguin|location=Harmondsworth|date=1966|oclc=2016817}} * {{cite book|last1=Gordon|first1=April A.|first2=Donald L.|last2=Gordon|title=Understanding Contemporary Africa|url=https://archive.org/details/understandingcon0000unse_h5y4|publisher=Lynne Rienner Publishers|location=Boulder|date=1996|isbn=978-1-55587-547-3}} * {{cite book|last=Khapoya|first=Vincent B.|title=The African experience: an introduction|publisher=Prentice Hall|location=Upper Saddle River, NJ|date=1998|isbn=978-0-13-745852-3|url=https://archive.org/details/africanexperienc00khap}} * Moore, Clark D., and Ann Dunbar (1968). ''Africa Yesterday and Today'', in series, ''The George School Readings on Developing Lands''. New York: Praeger Publishers. * [[V. S. Naipaul|Naipaul, V.S.]] ''The Masque of Africa: Glimpses of African Belief''. Picador, 2010. {{ISBN|978-0-330-47205-0}} * {{cite journal|last1=Wade|first1=Lizzie|title=Drones and satellites spot lost civilizations in unlikely places|journal=Science|doi=10.1126/science.aaa7864|year=2015|doi-access=free}} {{refend}} == Vigaŵa vya kuwalo == {{Sister project links|n=Category:Africa|voy=Africa}} '''General information''' * {{GovPubs|Africa}} * {{Britannica|7924}} * {{curlie|Regional/Africa}} * [https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/africa-human-geography Africa: Human Geography] at the [[National Geographic Society]] * [https://www.loc.gov/rr/amed/ African & Middle Eastern Reading Room] from the United States [[Library of Congress]] * [http://www-sul.stanford.edu/depts/ssrg/africa/ Africa South of the Sahara] from [[Stanford University]] * [http://www.aluka.org/ Aluka], digital library of scholarly resources from and about Africa * [https://web.archive.org/web/20100117005910/http://www.usaraf.army.mil/MAP_INTERACTIVE/INTERACTIVE_MAP.swf Africa Interactive Map] from the [[United States Army Africa]] '''History''' * [https://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/africa/features/storyofafrica/index_section10.shtml The Story of Africa] from [[BBC World Service]] * {{Cite EB1911|wstitle= Africa | volume= 1 | pages = 320–358 |short= 1}} * [http://www.africa.upenn.edu/Urgent_Action/menu_APIC.html Africa Policy Information Center (APIC)] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20131103230525/http://www.scribd.com/doc/161017303/Hungarian-military-forces-in-Africa-%E2%80%93-past-and-future-Recovering-lost-knowledge-exploiting-cultural-anthropology-resources-creating-a-comprehensive Hungarian military forces in Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131103230525/http://www.scribd.com/doc/161017303/Hungarian-military-forces-in-Africa-%E2%80%93-past-and-future-Recovering-lost-knowledge-exploiting-cultural-anthropology-resources-creating-a-comprehensive |date=3 November 2013 }} '''News media''' * [http://allafrica.com/ allAfrica.com] current news, events and statistics * [https://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/africa/features/focus_magazine/index.shtml ''Focus on Africa''] magazine from [[BBC World Service]] {{Africa topics}} {{Africa}} {{Navboxes |title = Articles related to Africa |list = {{African Trade Agreements}} {{Continents of the world}} {{Regions of the world}} }} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Afilika| ]] [[Category:Continents]] nv8pqwqwadzqvqtpzl6dcv5qwnzuy02 0 41344 119312 118808 2026-08-13T22:32:05Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Add 16 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260813sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 119312 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Country spanning Europe and Asia}} {{Other uses}} {{pp-semi-indef|small=yes}} {{Use dmy dates|date=June 2022|cs1-dates=l}} {{Infobox country | conventional_long_name = Wupu wa Russia | common_name = Russia | linking_name = Russia | native_name = {{native name|ru|Российская Федерация}} | image_flag = Flag of Russia.svg | image_coat = Coat of Arms of the Russian Federation.svg | national_anthem = <br />{{nowrap|{{lang|ru|Государственный гимн Российской Федерации}}}}<br />{{transliteration|ru|Gosudarstvennyy gimn Rossiyskoy Federatsii}}<br />"[[State Anthem of the Russian Federation]]"{{parabr}}{{center|[[File:National Anthem of Russia (2000), instrumental, one verse.ogg]]}} | image_map = {{Switcher|[[File:Russian Federation (orthographic projection) - All Territorial Disputes.svg|frameless]]|Show globe (incl. claimed and disputed territories){{Efn|[[Crimea]], which was [[Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation|annexed by Russia]] in 2014, remains [[United Nations General Assembly Resolution 68/262|internationally recognised]] as a part of Ukraine.<ref name="dispute">{{cite web |last=Pifer |first=Steven |url=https://www.brookings.edu/blog/order-from-chaos/2020/03/17/crimea-six-years-after-illegal-annexation/ |title=Crimea: Six years after illegal annexation |publisher=[[Brookings Institute]] |date=17 March 2020 |access-date=30 November 2021}}</ref> Donetsk, Luhansk, Kherson, and Zaporizhzhia oblasts, which were [[Russian annexation of Donetsk, Kherson, Luhansk and Zaporizhzhia oblasts|annexed]]—though are only partially occupied—in 2022, also remain [[United Nations General Assembly Resolution ES-11/4|internationally recognised]] as a part of Ukraine. The southernmost [[Kuril Islands]] have been the subject of a territorial dispute with Japan since their occupation by the Soviet Union at the end of World War II.<ref name="chapple-2019" />}}|[[File:Map of Russia-en.svg|frameless]]|Show region with labels|default=1}} | map_caption = | capital = [[Moscow]] | coordinates = {{Coord|55|45|21|N|37|37|02|E|type:city}} | largest_city = capital | languages_type = Official and national language | languages = [[Russian language|Russian]]<ref name="Russian">{{cite journal |last=Chevalier |first=Joan F. |title=Russian as the National Language: An Overview of Language Planning in the Russian Federation |jstor=43669126 |journal=Russian Language Journal |pages=25–36 |volume=56 |year=2006 |publisher=American Councils for International Education ACTR / ACCELS}}</ref> | languages2_type = {{nobold|Recognised regional languages}} | languages2 = See [[Languages of Russia#Official languages|Languages of Russia § Official languages]] | ethnic_groups = {{unbulleted list | 71.7% [[Russians|Russian]] | 3.2% [[Tatars|Tatar]] | 1.1% [[Chechens|Chechen]] | 1.1% [[Bashkirs|Bashkir]] | 22.9% [[Ethnic groups in Russia|other]] or not reported }} | ethnic_groups_year = 2021, including Russia and Crimea | ethnic_groups_ref = <ref name=EthnicGroups2021>{{cite web|title=Национальный состав населения|url=https://rosstat.gov.ru/storage/mediabank/Tom5_tab1_VPN-2020.xlsx|publisher=[[Federal State Statistics Service (Russia)|Federal State Statistics Service]]|accessdate=30 December 2022}}</ref> | demonym = Russian | government_type = [[Federal republic|Federal]] [[semi-presidential]] [[republic]] under an [[authoritarian]] [[dictatorship]]<ref name="Krzywdzinski">{{cite book | author = Martin Krzywdzinski |year= 2020 | title = Consent and Control in the Authoritarian Workplace: Russia and China Compared | publisher = [[Oxford University Press]] | pages = 252– | isbn = 978-0-19-252902-2 | oclc = 1026492383 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=gz5MDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA252|quote=''officially a democratic state with the rule of law, in practice an authoritarian dictatorship''}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title=Russia: Freedom in the World 2023 Country Report | website=Freedom House | date=2019-07-20 | url=https://freedomhouse.org/country/russia/freedom-world/2023 | access-date=2023-04-17}}</ref><ref name="cia"/><ref name="authoritarianness"/> <!--- Before adding [[Dominant-party system]] here, discuss in the talk page, additions before any consensus will be challenged and removed. ---> | leader_title1 = [[President of Russia|President]] | leader_name1 = [[Vladimir Putin]] | leader_title2 = [[Prime Minister of Russia|Prime Minister]] | leader_name2 = [[Mikhail Mishustin]] | legislature = [[Federal Assembly (Russia)|Federal Assembly]] | upper_house = [[Federation Council (Russia)|Federation Council]] | lower_house = [[State Duma]] | sovereignty_type = [[History of Russia|Formation]] | established_event1 = {{nowrap|[[Kievan Rus']]}} | established_date1 = 879 | established_event2 = {{nowrap|[[Vladimir-Suzdal]]}} | established_date2 = 1157 | established_event3 = [[Grand Duchy of Moscow|Grand Duchy of<br>Moscow]] | established_date3 = 1263 | established_event4 = [[Tsardom of Russia]] | established_date4 = 16 January 1547 | established_event5 = [[Russian Empire]] | established_date5 = 2 November 1721 | established_event6 = {{nowrap|[[February Revolution|Monarchy abolished]]}} | established_date6 = 15 March 1917 | established_event7 = {{nowrap|[[Soviet Union]]}} | established_date7 = 30 December 1922 | established_event8 = {{nowrap|[[Declaration of State Sovereignty of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic|Declaration of State<br>Sovereignty]]}} | established_date8 = 12 June 1990 | established_event9 = {{nowrap|[[Belovezha Accords|Russian Federation]]}} | established_date9 = 12 December 1991 | established_event10 = [[Constitution of Russia|Current constitution]] | established_date10 = 12 December 1993 | established_event11 = [[Union State|Union State formed]] | established_date11 = 8 December 1999 | area_km2 = 17,098,246 | area_footnote = <ref>{{cite web |url=https://unstats.un.org/unsd/publications/pocketbook/files/world-stats-pocketbook-2016.pdf#page=182 |title=World Statistics Pocketbook 2016 edition |publisher=United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs. Statistics Division |access-date=24 April 2018}}</ref> (within internationally recognised borders) {{convert|17,234,028|km2|abbr=on}} (including claimed territories) | area_rank = 1st | percent_water = 13<ref name=gen>{{cite web |title=The Russian federation: general characteristics |url=http://www.gks.ru/scripts/free/1c.exe?XXXX09F.2.1/010000R |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110728064121/http://www.gks.ru/scripts/free/1c.exe?XXXX09F.2.1%2F010000R |archive-date=28 July 2011 |website=Federal State Statistics Service |access-date=5 April 2008 |url-status=dead}}</ref> (including swamps) | population_estimate = {{plainlist| * {{IncreaseNeutral}} 147,182,123 ([[Russian Census (2021)|2021 Census]])<ref name="census2021">Including 2,482,450 people living on the [[Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation|annexed]] [[Crimea|Crimean Peninsula]] {{cite web |url=https://rosstat.gov.ru/vpn_popul# |script-title=ru:Том 1. Численность и размещение населения|language=ru |work=[[Federal State Statistics Service (Russia)|Russian Federal State Statistics Service]] |access-date=3 September 2022}}</ref> * {{nowrap|(including Crimea)<ref name="gks.ru-popul">{{cite web |url=https://rosstat.gov.ru/storage/mediabank/PrPopul2022_Site.xls |format=XLS|script-title=ru:Предварительная оценка численности постоянного населения на 1 января 2022 года и в среднем за 2021 год|trans-title=Preliminary estimated population as of 1 January 2022 and on the average for 2021 |language=ru |work=[[Federal State Statistics Service (Russia)|Russian Federal State Statistics Service]] |access-date=30 January 2022}}</ref>}} * {{IncreaseNeutral}} 144,699,673 * (excluding Crimea)<ref name="gks.ru-popul"/>}} | population_estimate_year = 2022 | population_estimate_rank = 9th | population_density_km2 = 8.4 | population_density_sq_mi = 21.5 | population_density_rank = 181st | GDP_PPP = {{Increase}} $4.771 trillion<ref name="IMFWEORU">{{cite web |url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2023/April/weo-report?c=922,&s=NGDPD,PPPGDP,NGDPDPC,PPPPC,&sy=2022&ey=2022&ssm=0&scsm=1&scc=0&ssd=1&ssc=0&sic=0&sort=country&ds=.&br=1|title=World Economic Outlook Database, April 2023 |publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]]}}</ref> | GDP_PPP_year = 2022 | GDP_PPP_rank = | GDP_PPP_per_capita = {{Increase}} $33,263<ref name="IMFWEORU"/> | GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = | GDP_nominal = {{Increase}} $2.215 trillion<ref name="IMFWEORU"/> | GDP_nominal_year = 2022 | GDP_nominal_rank = | GDP_nominal_per_capita = {{Increase}} $15,444<ref name="IMFWEORU"/> | GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = | Gini = 36.0 <!--number only--> | Gini_year = 2020 | Gini_change = decrease <!--increase/decrease/steady--> | Gini_ref = <ref name="WBgini">{{cite web |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI?locations=RU |title=GINI index (World Bank estimate) – Russian Federation |publisher=World Bank |access-date=23 June 2022}}</ref> | HDI = 0.822<!--number only--> | HDI_year = 2021<!-- Please use the year to which the data refers, not the publication year--> | HDI_change = increase <!--increase/decrease/steady--> | HDI_ref = <ref name="HDI">{{cite web|url=https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2021-22pdf_1.pdf|title=Human Development Report 2021/2022|language=en|publisher=[[United Nations Development Programme]]|date=8 September 2022|access-date=8 September 2022}}</ref> | HDI_rank = 52nd | currency = [[Russian ruble|Ruble]] ([[₽]]) | currency_code = RUB | utc_offset = +2 to +12 | drives_on = right | calling_code = [[Telephone numbers in Russia|+7]] | cctld = {{unbulleted list |[[.ru]]|[[.рф]]}} | religion_year = 2020 | religion_ref = <ref name="auto">https://www.state.gov/reports/2020-report-on-international-religious-freedom/russia/</ref><ref name="ArenaAtlas2012">{{cite web|title=Арена: Атлас религий и национальностей|trans-title=Arena: Atlas of Religions and Nationalities|year=2012|publisher=Среда (Sreda)|url=https://docviewer.yandex.com/view/0/?*=rvAv5PGTc%2Fw%2BBFV6QOUZtaf5gYF7InVybCI6InlhLWRpc2stcHVibGljOi8vMWV1aDl5RDFpcnZKeVZNNSswWWFaZktqRFhoOXZDNWhldUlGTU5uQU4zQT0iLCJ0aXRsZSI6IlNyZWRhX2Jsb2tfcHJlc3Nfc20yLnBkZiIsInVpZCI6IjAiLCJub2lmcmFtZSI6ZmFsc2UsInRzIjoxNTI0NDg3NTUzMTcwfQ%3D%3D&page=1|format=PDF}} See also the results' '''[http://sreda.org/arena main interactive mapping]''' and the static mappings: {{cite map|title=Religions in Russia by federal subject|journal=Ogonek|volume=34|issue=5243|date=27 August 2012|url=http://c2.kommersant.ru/ISSUES.PHOTO/OGONIOK/2012/034/ogcyhjk2.jpg|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170421154615/http://c2.kommersant.ru/ISSUES.PHOTO/OGONIOK/2012/034/ogcyhjk2.jpg|archive-date=21 April 2017}} The Sreda Arena Atlas was realised in cooperation with the [http://sreda.org/arena/maps?mainsection=census All-Russia Population Census 2010 (Всероссийской переписи населения 2010)], the [http://sreda.org/arena/maps?mainsection=minust Russian Ministry of Justice (Минюста РФ)], the Public Opinion Foundation (Фонда Общественного Мнения) and presented among others by the Analytical Department of the Synodal Information Department of the Russian Orthodox Church. See: {{cite journal|title=Проект АРЕНА: Атлас религий и национальностей|trans-title=Project ARENA: Atlas of religions and nationalities|url=http://russ.ru/Mirovaya-povestka/Proekt-ARENA-Atlas-religij-i-nacional-nostej|journal=Russian Journal|date=10 December 2012}}</ref> | religion = {{ublist|item_style=white-space;|{{Tree list}} * 69.4% [[Christianity in Russia|Christianity]] ** 63% [[Russian Orthodox Church|Russian Orthodoxy]]<ref name="auto"/> ** 6.4% other [[List of Christian denominations|Christian]] {{Tree list/end}}|16.7% [[Irreligion in Russia|unaffiliated/no answer]]|6.5% [[Islam in Russia|Islam]]{{efn|name=ArenaAtlasIslam}}|2.4% [[Religion in Russia|other]] (including [[Buddhism in Russia|Buddhism]])<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.rbth.com/arts/327646-kalmykia-buddhism-russia |title=Check out Russia's Kalmykia: The only region in Europe where Buddhism rules the roost |last=Shevchenko |first=Nikolay |date=February 21, 2018 |website=[[Russia Beyond]] |access-date=February 11, 2023}}</ref>|5% atheism}}<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Russia/Economy|title=Russia - Soviet Union Dissolution, Privatization Process, and Economic Hardship &#124; Britannica|website=www.britannica.com}}</ref> }} '''Russia''' ({{Lang-ru|Россия|Rossiya}}, {{IPA-ru|rɐˈsʲijə| }}), panji kuti '''Wupu wa Russia''',<!-- Both names are equally official - see: [[Talk:Russia/Archive 12#Equality of the names]]. -->{{efn|{{lang-rus|Российская Федерация|r=Rossiyskaya Federatsiya|p=rɐˈsʲijskəjə fʲɪdʲɪˈratsɨjə|links=yes}}}} ni charu icho chili ku chigaŵa cha kumafumiro gha dazi kwa [[Europe]] na kumpoto kwa [[Asia]]. Ni caru cikuru comene pa caru capasi, ndipo cikupanga cigaŵa cimoza pa vigaŵa vinkhondi na cimoza pa vigaŵa vyose vya caru capasi. Charu cha Russia chili na vigaŵa 11 vya nyengo ndipo chili na vyaru 14. Ni caru cacinkhondi na cinayi pa vyaru ivyo vili na ŵanthu ŵanandi comene pa caru cose ndiposo caciŵiri pa vyaru ivyo vili na ŵanthu ŵanandi comene mu Europe. Msumba ukuru wa Russia ni [[Moscow]]. Msumba wa [[Saint Petersburg|St. Petersburg]] ndiwo ni msumba ukuru comene wa Russia. Malo ghanyake ghakurughakuru mu charu ichi ni [[Novosibirsk]], [[Yekaterinburg]], [[Kazan]], [[Krasnoyarsk]], [[Nizhny Novgorod]], [[Chelyabinsk]], [[Ufa]], na [[Krasnodar]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://citypopulation.de/en/russia/cities/|title=Russia: Federal Districts and Major Cities|work=citypopulation.de|accessdate=2026-01-18}}</ref> Ŵanthu ŵa ku East Slav ŵakamba kukhala ku Europe pakati pa vyaka vya m'ma 300 na 800 C.E. Boma lakwamba la ŵanthu ŵa ku [[East Slavic]], la Kievan Rus', likaŵako mu vyaka vya m'ma 900 C.E., ndipo mu 988, likamba kugomezga Chikhristu cha Orthodox kufuma ku [[Ufumu wa Byzantium]]. Paumaliro, caru ca Russia cikamara, ndipo u[[fumu wa Grand Duchy]] wa [[Moscow]] ukakura na kuzgoka Ufumu wa Russia. Kuzakafika kuuyambiro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1800, charu cha Russia chikakura chomene chifukwa cha kuthereska ŵanthu na kuŵawukira. Ndipouli, apo ku Russia kukawuka vivulupi mu 1917, muwuso wa ufumu wa Russia ukamara ndipo pamasinda SFSR yikamba kulamulira. Pamanyuma pa [[Nkhondo ya ku Russia]], [[Soviet Socialist Socialist Republic of Russia]] yikambiska Soviet Union pamoza na vyaru vinyake vitatu vya Soviet Union. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1930, [[Soviet Union]] yikasuzgika chomene na vinthu vya m'ma 1930. Apo Nkhondo Yakuzizima yikambanga, charu cha Russia chikamba kuphalizgana na charu cha [[United States]] kuti chiŵe na maghanoghano ghakupambanapambana pa charu chose. Mu 1991, boma la Russia SFSR likafuma mu wupu wa Soviet Union. Dango liphya likapelekeka, ilo likakhazikiska muwuso wa boma. Kufuma waka apo vyaka vya m'ma 1900 vikambira, boma la Russia likuwusika na Vladimir Putin. Russia wali kunjilirapo pa nkhondo zinandi izo zikacitika mu nyengo ya Soviet Union, kusazgapo kupoka Crimea mu 2014 kufuma ku Ukraine. Pa caru cose, caru ca Russia nchakutowa comene pa nkhani ya demokilase, wanangwa wa ŵanthu, na wanangwa wa vyalo. Charu cha Russia chili pa nambara 11 pa nkhani ya GDP. Vinthu vyakununkhira na nkhongono ivyo charu ichi chili navyo ni vikuru comene pa caru cose, ndipo mafuta na gasi ivyo vikusangika mu caru ici ni vyakuzirwa comene. Pa caru cose, caru ca Russia cili na vilwero vya nyukiliya vinandi comene, ndipo ni cacitatu pa vyaru ivyo vili na vilwero vya nkhondo vinandi. Charu ichi chili mu wupu wa United Nations Security Council; nchigaŵa ca G20, SCO, BRICS, APEC, OSCE, na WTO; ndipo nchigaŵa cikuru comene ca mawupu agho ghakaŵako pamanyuma pa Soviet Union nga ni CIS, CSTO, na Eurasian Economic Union (EAEU). Ku Russia kuli malo 30 agho ghali kulembeka na wupu wa UNESCO kuti ni malo ghakukondweska ŵanthu. ==Kwiza kwa zina== {{Main|Names of Rus', Russia and Ruthenia}} Zina lakuti Russia lili kufuma ku lizgu Lachilatini lakuti Rus' ilo likung'anamura charu icho chikaŵa na ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku East Slavs.<ref>{{cite book |title=Webster's II New College Dictionary. |url=https://archive.org/details/webstersiinewcol00unse |date=1999 |publisher=Houghton Mifflin Co |location=Boston |isbn=978-0395962145 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/webstersiinewcol00unse/page/n995 970]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Kuchkin|first=V. A.|title=|publisher=Institute of General History of the Russian Academy of Sciences; Ladomir|year=2014|editor-last=Melnikova|editor-first=E. A.|location=Moscow|pages=700–701|language=ru|script-title=ru:Древняя Русь в средневековом мире|trans-title=Old Rus' in the medieval world|script-chapter=ru:Русская земля|trans-chapter=Russian land|editor-last2=Petrukhina|editor-first2=V. Ya.}}</ref> Mu mabuku gha mdauko wa mazuŵa ghano, boma ili likuchemeka Kiev Rus' chifukwa cha msumba wake ukuru. Zina lakuti Rus' likufuma ku ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga ku Russia, awo ŵakaŵa ŵamalonda na ŵasilikari ŵa ku Scandinavia awo ŵakafuma ku nyanja ya Baltic na kwamba kukhala ku Novgorod, ndipo pamanyuma ŵakambiska boma la Kiev. Zina linyake la Cilatini ilo likazunulika kuti Rus' likaŵa Ruthenia.<ref>{{cite book |last=Nazarenko |first=Aleksandr Vasilevich|author-link=Aleksandr Nazarenko|script-title=ru:Древняя Русь на международных путях: междисциплинарные очерки культурных, торговых, политических связей IX–XII веков |year=2001 |publisher=Languages of the Rus' culture |isbn=978-5-7859-0085-1 |pages=40, 42–45, 49–50 |chapter=1. Имя "Русь" в древнейшей западноевропейской языковой традиции (XI–XII века)|trans-title=Old Rus' on international routes: interdisciplinary essays on cultural, trade, and political ties in the 9th–12th centuries |language=ru|trans-chapter=The name Rus' in the old tradition of Western European language (XI-XII centuries)|chapter-url=http://dgve.csu.ru/download/Nazarenko_2001_01.djvu |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110814143443/http://dgve.csu.ru/download/Nazarenko_2001_01.djvu |archive-date=14 August 2011}}</ref> Mu Chirasha, zina la lero la charu ichi, Россия (Rossiya), likufuma ku zina la Chigiriki la Byzantine la Rus', Ρωσία (Rosía). Zina lakuti Rus' (Росия) lili kufuma ku lizgu Lachigiriki ndipo likasangika mu 1387. Kweni likamba kugwiliskirika ntchito mu vyaka vya m'ma 1500. Mu Chirasha muli mazgu ghaŵiri agho ghakung'anamulika kuti "ŴaciRussian" mu Cingelezi kuti: Russian (russkiye), agho ghakung'anamura ŵanthu ŵa ciyowoyero ca ku Russia, na Russian (rossiyane), agho ghakung'anamura ŵanthu ŵa ciyowoyero ca ku Russia, kwali mba fuko wuli.<ref name="Hellberg-Hirn">{{cite book |last1=Hellberg-Hirn |first1=Elena |title=Soil and Soul: The Symbolic World of Russianness |url=https://archive.org/details/soilsoulsymbolic0000hell |date=1998 |publisher=Ashgate |isbn=1855218712 |location=Aldershot [Hants, England] |pages=[https://archive.org/details/soilsoulsymbolic0000hell/page/54 54]}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Merridale |first=Catherine |title=Redesigning History in Contemporary Russia |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-contemporary-history_2003-01_38_1/page/13 |journal=[[Journal of Contemporary History]] |year=2003 |volume=38 |number=1 |pages=13–28 |doi=10.1177/0022009403038001961 |jstor=3180694 |s2cid=143597960}}</ref> == Mbili == {{Main|History of Russia}} === Mbiri yakwambilira === {{further|Ancient Greek colonies||Early Slavs|Huns|Turkic expansion|Prehistory of Siberia}} {{See also|Proto-Indo-Europeans|Proto-Uralic homeland}} Malo ghakwamba agho ŵanthu ŵakakhalanga ku Russia ghakaŵako mu nyengo ya Oldowan mu nyengo ya Lower Paleolithic. Vyaka pafupifupi 2 miliyoni ivyo vyajumpha, ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Homo erectus ŵakaluta ku Taman Peninsula, kumwera kwa Russia.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Shchelinsky |first1=V.E. |last2=Gurova |first2=M. |last3=Tesakov |first3=A.S. |last4=Titov |first4=V.V. |last5=Frolov |first5=P.D. |last6=Simakova |first6=A.N. |title=The Early Pleistocene site of Kermek in western Ciscaucasia (southern Russia): Stratigraphy, biotic record and lithic industry (preliminary results) |journal=[[Quaternary International]] |volume=393 |pages=51–69 |date=30 January 2016 |doi=10.1016/j.quaint.2015.10.032|bibcode=2016QuInt.393...51S }}</ref> Vinthu vinyake ivyo ŵanthu ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito vyaka pafupifupi 1.5 miliyoni ivyo ŵakavisanga ku North Caucasus. Vinthu vinyake ivyo vikulongora kuti munthu uyu wakaŵako vyaka 195,122,700 ivyo vyajumpha. Mu mphanji iyi mukaŵaso viswaswa vya munthu munyake zina lake Denny, uyo wakababika mu nyengo yakale chomene. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵa ku Russia ndiwo ŵakakhalako vyaka pafupifupi 45,000 ivyo vyajumpha.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1= Igor V. Ovchinnikov |last2= Anders Götherström |last3= Galina P. Romanova |last4= Vitaliy M. Kharitonov |last5= Kerstin Lidén |last6= William Goodwin |date= 30 March 2000 |title= Molecular analysis of Neanderthal DNA from the northern Caucasus |url= https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_2000-03-30_404_6777/page/490 |journal= [[Nature (journal)|Nature]] |volume= 404 |issue= 6777 |pages= 490–493 |bibcode= 2000Natur.404..490O |doi= 10.1038/35006625 |pmid= 10761915 |s2cid= 3101375}}</ref> Ŵanthu ŵakwambilira awo ŵakaŵako mu nyengo yithu iyi ŵakaŵako vyaka 45,000 ivyo vyajumpha, ku Western Siberia. Ŵakasanga viswaswa vya ŵanthu ŵa mazuŵa ghano vyaka 40,000 ivyo vyafuma ku Kostyonki Borshchyovo na Sungir, vyaka 34,600 ivyo vyafuma ku Russia. Ŵanthu ŵakafika ku Russia vyaka pafupifupi 40,000 ivyo vyajumpha, ku Mamontovaya Kurya. Ŵanthu ŵakufuma ku Siberia awo ŵakakhalanga ku North Eurasia, awo ŵakayananga na ŵanthu ŵa ku Mal'ta Buret na Afontova Gora, ndiwo ŵakapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku America na ŵanthu ŵa ku Eastern Hunter-Gatherers ŵakhalenge ku malo agha.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Balter |first1=M. |title=Ancient DNA Links Native Americans With Europe |journal=Science |date=25 October 2013 |volume=342 |issue=6157 |pages=409–410 |doi=10.1126/science.342.6157.409 |pmid=24159019 |bibcode=2013Sci...342..409B |doi-access=free }}</ref> [[File:Yamnaya Steppe Pastoralists.jpg|thumb|320px|left|Ŵanthu ŵa ku Yamnaya Steppe awo ŵakaliskanga viŵeto pakati pa 3300 na 1500 B.C.E., kusazgapo ŵanthu ŵa ku Siberia<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gibbons |first1=Ann |title=Thousands of horsemen may have swept into Bronze Age Europe, transforming the local population |journal=Science |date=21 February 2017 |url=https://www.science.org/content/article/thousands-horsemen-may-have-swept-bronze-age-europe-transforming-local-population}}</ref>]] Chiphunzitso cha Kurgan chikulongora kuti chigaŵa cha Volga-Dnieper icho chili kumwera kwa Russia na Ukraine ndicho chikaŵa chakwamba kwa ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe. Ŵanthu ŵakwambilira ŵa ku Indo-Europe awo ŵakafuma ku vigaŵa vya ku Pontic-Caspian ku Ukraine na Russia ŵakamba kuyowoya viyowoyero vya Yamnaya na viyowoyero vya ku Indo-Europe mu vigaŵa vinandi vya ku Eurasia. Vinyama vya viŵeto vikamba kukhala mu chipalamba cha Pontic-Caspian mu nyengo ya Chalcolithic. Vinthu ivyo vikakhalako vya ŵanthu ŵa mu vigaŵa ivi vikasangika ku malo nga ni Ipatovo, Sintashta, Arkaim, na Pazyryk. Ŵanthu awo ŵakayowoyanga viyowoyero vya ku Urals kumpoto kwa Europe, ŵakamba kusama kufuma ku Siberia vyaka 3,500 ivyo vyajumpha.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Lamnidis |first1=Thiseas C. |last2=Majander |first2=Kerttu |last3=Jeong |first3=Choongwon |last4=Salmela |first4=Elina |last5=Wessman |first5=Anna |last6=Moiseyev |first6=Vyacheslav |last7=Khartanovich |first7=Valery |last8=Balanovsky |first8=Oleg |last9=Ongyerth |first9=Matthias |last10=Weihmann |first10=Antje |last11=Sajantila |first11=Antti |last12=Kelso |first12=Janet |last13=Pääbo |first13=Svante |last14=Onkamo |first14=Päivi |last15=Haak |first15=Wolfgang |date=2018-11-27 |title=Ancient Fennoscandian genomes reveal origin and spread of Siberian ancestry in Europe |journal=Nature Communications |language=en |volume=9 |issue=1 |page=5018 |doi=10.1038/s41467-018-07483-5 |pmid=30479341 |pmc=6258758 |bibcode=2018NatCo...9.5018L |s2cid=53792952 |issn=2041-1723}}</ref> Mu vyaka vya m'ma 300 C.E. m'paka 400 C.E., ufumu wa Oium ukaŵa kumwera kwa Russia. Pakati pa vyaka vya m'ma 300 na 600 C.E., Ufumu wa Bosporus, uwo ukaŵa ufumu wa Ŵagiriki, nawo ukaparanyika chifukwa cha kuwukira kwa ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yinyake nga ni Hun na Avars. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Khazars, awo ŵakaŵa ŵa ku Turkey, ndiwo ŵakalongozganga chigaŵa cha ku Caucasus kumwera, kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Mlonga wa Volga, na kumanjiliro gha dazi m'paka ku Kyiv pa Mlonga wa Dnieper m'paka mu 100 C.E. Pamanyuma pa iwo, Ŵachichenichi ŵakamba kuwungana pamoza, ndipo pamasinda Ŵacumani na Ŵachipaki ŵakamba kuwungana. Ŵasekuru ŵa ŵanthu ŵa ku Russia ŵali kufuma ku mafuko gha Ŵaslaviki agho ghakapambana na ŵanthu ŵa ku Indo-Europe awo ŵakaŵako kumpoto kwa Europe vyaka 1,500 ivyo vyajumpha. Ŵanthu ŵa ku East Slavs ŵakamba kukhala ku Russia mu vigaŵa viŵiri. Chimoza chikafuma ku Kiev na kuluta ku Suzdal na Murom, ndipo chinyake chikafuma ku Polotsk na kuluta ku Novgorod na Rostov. Kwambira mu ma 700 C.E., ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Russia ŵakaŵa ŵa ku East Slavs.<ref name="EarlyH">{{cite web |last=Curtis |first=Glenn E. |year=1998 |title=Russia – Early History |url=http://countrystudies.us/russia/2.htm |access-date=29 June 2021 |publisher=Federal Research Division of the [[Library of Congress]] |location=Washington, D.C.}}</ref> === Kievan Rus' === {{Main|Rus' Khaganate|Kievan Rus'|List of tribes and states in Belarus, Russia and Ukraine}} [[File:Kievan-rus-1015-1113-(en).png|thumb|Rus' wa ku Kiev pamanyuma pa ungano wa Lyubech mu 1097]] Mu vyaka vya m'ma 900 C.E., ŵanthu ŵa ku East Slavic ŵakamba kukhala mu vyaru vya Varangians, awo ŵakaŵa Ŵaviking awo ŵakendanga mu maji kufuma kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Baltic kuya ku Black na Caspian Seas. Mu 882, Oleg, uyo wakanjira mu ufumu wake, wakaluta kumwera na kuwukira Kiev, uko kale kukaŵanga na ŵanthu awo ŵakapelekanga mithulo ku Ŵakazari. Mwana wa Rurik, Igor, na mwana wa Igor, Sviatoslav, ŵakathereska mafuko ghose gha ku East Slavic, ŵakaparanya Khazar Khaganate, ndipo ŵakaluta ku Byzantium na Persia.<ref>{{cite book |last=Obolensky |first=Dimitri |url=https://archive.org/details/byzantiumslavs0000obol |title=Byzantium & the Slavs |date=1971 |isbn=978-0-88141-008-2 |pages=75–108 |url-access=registration}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=[[Francis Donald Logan|Logan, Donald F.]] |url=https://archive.org/details/vikingsinhistory00loga |title=The Vikings in History|edition=2nd |date=1992 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-0-415-08396-6 |page=201 |url-access=registration}}</ref> Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1000 m'paka mu 1100, caru ca Kievan Rus' cikazgoka cimoza mwa vyaru vikuru comene na vyakutukuka comene mu Europe. Mu nyengo ya muwuso wa Vladimir Mukuru (980-1015) na mwana wake Yaroslav the Wise (1019-1054) kukaŵa nyengo ya golide ku Kiev. Nyengo ya muwuso wa ŵasilikari na kuleka kwendera boma yikaŵa kuti yakwana. Chigaŵa cha Kiev chikamba kuchepa, ndipo chikaŵa ku chigaŵa cha Vladimir-Suzdal, kumpoto, Novgorod Republic, na Galicia-Volhynia, kumwera cha kumanjiliro gha dazi. Kuzakafika m'ma 1200 C.E., Kiev yikaŵa kuti yindaŵepo na mazaza pa caru cose, ndipo yikaŵa kuti yagawikana mu vigaŵa vinandi. Fumu Andrey Bogolyubsky yikawukira Kiev mu 1169 ndipo yikapangiska Vladimir kuŵa msasa wake.<ref name="EarlyH"/> Ŵanalume ŵa ku Novgorod awo ŵakalongozgekanga na fumu Alexander Nevsky, ŵakathereska Ŵaswede mu Nkhondo ya ku Neva mu 1240, kweniso ŵakathereska ŵasilikari ŵa ku Germany mu Nkhondo ya ku Ice mu 1242. Paumaliro, Ŵamongoliya ŵakanjira mu charu cha Kievan Rus mu 1237 na 1240. Ŵalwani aŵa, awo pamasinda ŵakacemeka kuti Ŵataliyani, ndiwo ŵakambiska ufumu wa Golden Horde, uwo ukawusa Russia kwa vilimika vinandi. Boma la Novgorod ndilo likapona ku ŵasilikari ŵacilendo apo likajipeleka na kuzomera kupeleka msonkho ku Ŵa Mongol. Pamanyuma, chigaŵa cha Galicia-Volhynia chikapokeka na Lithuania na Poland, ndipo chigaŵa cha Novgorod chikalutilira kukura kumpoto. Ku mpoto ca kumafumiro gha dazi, mitheto ya Byzantine-Slavic iyo yikaŵa mu caru ca Kievan Rus' yikasintha na kupanga boma la Russia.<ref name="EarlyH" /> === Grand Duchy ya Moscow === {{Main|Grand Duchy of Moscow}} [[File:Lissner TroiceSergievaLavr.jpg|thumb|Sergius wa ku Radonezh wakutumbika Dmitry Donskoy mu Trinity Sergius Lavra, pambere nkhondo ya Kulikovo yindambe]] Kuwuskika kwa charu cha Kievan Rus' kukapangiska kuti ufumu wa Grand Duchy of Moscow, uwo pakwamba ukaŵa chigaŵa cha Vladimir-Suzdal, uŵeko. Apo mpositole wa Tchalitchi la Orthodox ku Russia wakasamira ku Moscow mu 1325, nkhongono zake zikakura comene. Ufumu wa Novgorod, uwo ukaŵa mulwani waumaliro wa Moscow, ndiwo ukaŵa msumba ukuru wa malonda gha vikumba vya nyama na dowoko lakumafumiro gha dazi chomene la Hanseatic League.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Halperin |first=Charles J. |title=Novgorod and the 'Novgorodian Land' |jstor=20171136 |volume=40 |number=3 |pages=345–363 |date=September 1999 |publisher=EHESS |journal=Cahiers du Monde russe}}</ref> Mu 1380, ŵasilikari ŵa ufumu wa Russia ŵakathereska Ŵamongoliya na Ŵatata mu Nkhondo ya Kulikovo. Nyengo yikati yajumphapo, Moscow wakayamba kulamulira vigaŵa vinyake nga ni Tver na Novgorod. Ivan III ("Mukuru") wakawuskapo ufumu wa Golden Horde na kukhozga charu chose cha kumpoto kwa Russia. Mu 1453, msumba wa Constantinople ukati wabwangandulika, boma la Moscow likati ndilo liŵenge themba la Ufumu wa Roma. Ivan III wakatora Sophia Palaiologina, muzukuru wa Constantine XI, themba la ku Byzantium, ndipo wakazgora nombo ya nombo ya ku Byzantium kuŵa yake, ndipo pamanyuma yikazgoka ya Russia. Vasili III wakakolerana na caru cose ca Russia mwa kunjizga vyaru vinyake vya ku Russia ivyo vikaŵa vyambura mazaza mu vyaka vya m'ma 1500.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Anderson |first1=M.S. |title=The Origins of the Modern European State System, 1494–1618 |date=2014 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1317892755 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=smCgBAAAQBAJ&pg=PT281}}</ref> === Tsardom wa Russia === {{Main|Tsardom of Russia}} {{See also|Moscow, third Rome}} [[File:Ivan IV by anonim (18th c., GIM).jpg|thumb|upright|Ivan IV wakaŵa Karonga Mukuru wa Moscow kwambira mu 1533 m'paka mu 1547, ndipo pamanyuma wakaŵa Themba la Russia m'paka apo wakafwira mu 1584.]] Mu 1547, Themba Ivan IV ("Wakofya") ndilo likaŵa themba lakwamba la Russia. Themba ili likapeleka malango ghaphya (Sudebnik wa mu 1550), likakhazikiska wupu wakwimira boma la Russia (Zemsky Sobor), likasintha ŵasilikari, likakanizga ŵalongozgi ŵa visopa kuti ŵaleke kuŵa na mazaza pa ŵanthu, ndipo likambaso kuwunganya maboma. Pa nyengo iyo wakaŵira themba, Ivan wakasazgirako pafupifupi malo ghaŵiri gha Russia agho ghakaŵa ghakuru chomene. Paumaliro, kuumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1500, caru ca Russia cikamba kwenda kumafumiro gha dazi kwa mapiri gha Ural. Ndipouli, ufumu wa Tsardom ukalopwa cifukwa ca Nkhondo ya ku Livonia iyo yikacitika kwa nyengo yitali, ndipo yikaŵa yambura kucitika makora. Mu 1572, ŵasilikari ŵa Crimean Tatars ŵakathereskeka pa Nkhondo ya Molodi.<ref>{{cite book |date=2015 |last=Skrynnikov |first=R. G. |title=Reign of Terror: Ivan IV |publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]] |isbn=978-9-004-30401-7 |pages=417–421}}</ref> Nyifwa ya ŵana ŵa Ivan yikapangiska kuti muwuso wa Rurik umare mu 1598, ndipo njara yikuru iyo yikachitika mu 1601-1603 yikapangiska kuti paŵe nkhondo ya pawenenawene. Boma la Poland na Lithuania likapoka vigaŵa vinyake vya Russia na kufika ku Moscow. Mu 1612, ŵasilikari ŵa ku Russia awo ŵakalongozgekanga na Muwukirano Kuzma Minin na fumu Dmitry Pozharsky, ŵakachimbizga Ŵapoliki. Mu 1613, nyumba ya ŵawusi ya ŵa Romanov yikamba kuwusa, ndipo charu chikamba kuchira. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1700, caru ca Russia cikalutilira kukura. Mu 1654, mulongozgi wa ku Ukraine, Bohdan Khmelnytsky, wakapeleka Ukraine ku muwuso wa themba la Russia, Alexis. Paumaliro, Ukraine yikagaŵikana mumphepete mwa Dnieper, ndipo chigaŵa chakumafumiro gha dazi (Left-bank Ukraine na Kiev) chikaŵa pasi pa boma la Russia. Ku chigaŵa cha kumafumiro gha dazi, ŵanthu ŵa ku Russia ŵakalutilira kupenja vinthu vyakuzirwa nga ni vikumba na mino gha zovu. Ŵalendo ŵa ku Russia ŵakendanga kumafumiro gha dazi chomene na nthowa za ku Siberia, ndipo m'ma 1700, kukaŵa vyaru vinyake ivyo ŵanthu ŵa ku Russia ŵakakhalanga kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Siberia, ku Chukchi Peninsula, mumphepete mwa Mlonga wa Amur, na mumphepete mwa nyanja ya Pacific. Mu 1648, Semyon Dezhnyov wakaŵa munthu wakwamba wa ku Europe kwendera mu nyanja ya Bering Strait.<ref>{{cite book |last=Oliver |first=James A. |title=The Bering Strait Crossing: A 21st Century Frontier between East and West |year=2006 |publisher=Information Architects |pages=36–37 |isbn=978-0-9546995-8-1}}</ref> === Ufumu wa Russia === {{Main|Russian Empire}} [[File:Territorial Expansion of Russia.svg|thumb|upright=1.4|Kukula na kusintha kwa chigaŵa cha Grand Duchy of Moscow, Tsardom of Russia na Russian Empire pakati pa vyaka vya m'ma 1400 na 1900]] Mu 1721, mu nyengo ya muwuso wa Peter Mukuru, caru ca Russia cikazgoka ufumu, ndipo cikaŵa cimoza mwa vyaru vikuru comene vya ku Europe. Peter wakawusa kwambira mu 1682 m'paka 1725, ndipo wakathereska Sweden mu Nkhondo Yikuru ya ku Northern (1700-1721) ndipo wakawovwira kuti Russia yambe kwenda pa nyanja. Mu 1703, Petrosi wakazenga msumba wa St. Petersburg, uwo uli mumphepete mwa nyanja ya Baltic. Mu nyengo yose iyo wakalamuliranga, vinthu vikasintha chomene mu charu cha Russia. Mu nyengo ya kuwusa kwa mwana mwanakazi wa Peter I, Elizabeti mu 1741-1762, caru ca Russia cikamba kurwa nkhondo ya vilimika vinkhondi na viŵiri (1756-1763). Apo nkhondo yikaŵa mukati, ŵasilikari ŵa Russia ŵakanjira mu East Prussia na kufika ku Berlin. Kweni Elizabeti wakati wafwa, vinthu vyose ivi vikawezgeka ku Ufumu wa Prussia na Peter III wa ku Russia.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Raeff |first=Marc |title=The Domestic Policies of Peter III and his Overthrow |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-historical-review_1970-06_75_5/page/1289 |journal=[[The American Historical Review]] |volume=75 |number=5 |date=June 1970 |pages=1289–1310 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |jstor=1844479 |doi=10.2307/1844479}}</ref> Catherine II ("Mukuru"), uyo wakawusa mu 1762-1796, ndiyo wakawusa mu nyengo iyo ŵanthu ŵakasambizgikiranga vinthu mu Russia. Wakapeleka mazaza gha ndyali ku Russia pa charu cha Poland na Lithuania, ndipo wakawunjika vigaŵa vinandi mu Russia. Kumwera, pamanyuma pa Nkhondo za ku Russia na Turkey, Catherine wakawoneseska kuti mphaka ya Russia yifike ku Nyanja Yiswesi. Cifukwa ca kuthereska Ŵaqajar ku Iran mu Nkhondo za ku Russia na Peresiya, mu hafu yakwamba ya vyaka vya m'ma 1800, caru ca Russia cikathereskaso caru ca Caucasus. Mwana wake Paul, uyo wakanjira mu malo gha Catherine, wakaŵa wambura kukhazikika ndipo wakatemwanga chomene vinthu vya mu nyumba. Pakati pajumpha nyengo yichoko waka kufuma apo wakawusira, Alexander I (1801-1825) wakathereska charu cha Finland ku Sweden mu 1809 na Bessarabia ku Ottomans mu 1812. Ku North America, ŵanthu ŵa ku Russia ndiwo ŵakaŵa ŵakwamba kufika ku Alaska na kukhalamo. Mu 1803-1806, ŵanthu ŵa ku Russia ŵakazingilira charu. Mu 1820, ŵanthu ŵa ku Russia ŵakasanga charu cha Antarctica.<ref>{{cite web |last=Blakemore |first=Erin |title=Who really discovered Antarctica? Depends who you ask. |date=27 January 2020 |access-date=12 January 2022 |work=[[National Geographic (magazine)|National Geographic]] |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/history/article/who-discovered-antarctica-depends-who-ask}}</ref> ==== Nkhongono yikuru na kukura kwa ŵanthu, sayansi na luso ==== Mu nyengo ya Nkhondo za Napoleon, Russia wakakolerana na maboma gha ku Europe, ndipo wakarwa nkhondo na France. Nkhondo ya ku France iyo yikafika ku Russia mu 1812 yikafika ku Moscow, kweni yikathera yayi chifukwa ŵanthu ŵakagomezgeka yayi, kweniso nyengo yakuzizima ya ku Russia yikatimbanizga ŵasilikari. Ŵasilikari ŵa Ufumu wa Russia, awo ŵakalongozgekanga na Mikhail Kutuzov na Michael Andreas Barclay de Tolly, ŵakawuskapo Napoleon na kwenda mu Europe yose mu Nkhondo ya Gulu Lachinkhondi na Chimoza. Alexander I ndiyo wakalongozganga ŵimiliri ŵa ku Russia pa ungano wa ku Vienna, uwo ukalongosora umo caru ca ku Europe cikaŵira pamanyuma pa nyengo ya Napoleon.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Ghervas |first=Stella |title=The Long Shadow of the Congress of Vienna |jstor=26266203 |publisher=[[SAGE Publishers]] |journal=Journal of Modern European History |volume=13 |number=4 |pages=458–463 |year=2015|doi=10.17104/1611-8944-2015-4-458 |s2cid=151713355 }}</ref> [[File:Napoleons retreat from Moscow by Adolph Northen.jpg|thumb|Kupoka kwa Napoleon ku Moscow na Albrecht Adam (1851)]] Ŵasilikari awo ŵakalondezganga Napoleon mu vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Europe ŵakiza na maghanoghano gha ku Russia, ndipo ŵakayezga kukanizga mazaza gha fumu mu nyengo ya kuwukira kwa Decembrist mu 1825. Paumaliro wa muwuso wa Nicholas I (1825-1855), nyengo iyo ufumu wa Russia ukaŵa na nkhongono zinandi ku Europe, yikamara chifukwa cha kutondeka ku nkhondo ya ku Crimea.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Vincent |first=J.R. Vincent |title=The Parliamentary Dimension of the Crimean War |journal=[[Transactions of the Royal Historical Society]] |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |pages=37–49 |volume=31 |year=1981 |jstor=3679044 |doi=10.2307/3679044|s2cid=153338264 }}</ref> ==== Kusintha Kwambiri kwa Chikhalidwe ndi Chikapitale ==== Alexander II (1855-1881) uyo wakanjira mu malo gha Nicholas, wakasintha vinthu vinandi mu charu chose, kusazgapo kusintha kwa boma mu 1861. Vinthu ivi vikawovwira kuti vinthu vyendenge makora mu charu cha Russia, ndipo vikawovwira kuti ŵasilikari ŵa Ufumu wa Russia ŵambe kugwira ntchito mazuŵa ghano. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800 na m'ma 1900, Russia na Britain ŵakakolerananga pa nkhani ya Afghanistan na vigaŵa vinyake vya ku Central na South Asia. Kuumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1800, ku Russia kukawuka magulu ghakupambanapambana gha ŵanthu awo ŵakakhumbanga kuti vinthu vyende makora. Mu 1881, Alexander II wakakomeka na ŵanthu ŵakugaluka. Muwuso wa mwana wake Alexander III (1881-1894) ukaŵa wambura kujikora kweni wamtende.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Taranovski |first=Theodore |title=Alexander III and his Bureaucracy: The Limitations on Autocratic Power |url=https://archive.org/details/canadian-slavonic-papers_june-september-1984_26_2-3/page/207 |journal=[[Canadian Slavonic Papers]] |volume=26 |number=2/3 |year=1984 |pages=207–219 |doi=10.1080/00085006.1984.11091776 |jstor=40868293}}</ref> ==== Ufumu wa Wupu Wakulongozga na Nkhondo ya Caru Cose ==== Mu nyengo ya muwusi waumaliro wa Russia, Nicholas II (1894-1917), Nkhondo ya ku Russia na Japan yikatimbanizgika. Nkhondo iyi yikamara, kweni boma likakanizgika kusintha vinthu vinandi.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Doctorow |first=Gilbert S. |title=The Fundamental State Laws of 23 April 1906 |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_russian-review_1976-01_35_1/page/33 |journal=[[The Russian Review]] |year=1976 |jstor=127655 |doi=10.2307/127655 |volume=35 |number=1 |pages=33–52}}</ref> === Kuwukira na nkhondo ya cikaya === {{main|Russian Revolution|Russian Civil War}} [[File:Russian Imperial Family 1913.jpg|thumb|left|Muwusi Nicholas II wa ku Russia pamoza na mbumba ya Romanov ŵakakomeka na Bolsheviks mu 1918.]] Mu 1914, caru ca Russia cikanjira mu Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Caru Cose cifukwa cakuti Austria-Hungary yikapharazga kuti yikukhumba kurwa nkhondo na Serbia. Mu 1916, ŵasilikari ŵa Ufumu wa Russia ŵakathereska ŵasilikari ŵa Austria na Hungary. Ndipouli, ŵanthu ŵakagomezganga yayi kuti boma ili lichitenge vinthu mwamahara. Vyose ivi vikawovwira kuti paŵe Nkhondo Yakwamba ya ku Russia mu 1917, iyo yikacitika mu vigaŵa viŵiri vikuruvikuru. Kukwambilira kwa 1917, Nicholas II wakacicizgika kuleka ufumu wake. Iyo na mbumba yake ŵakakakika ndipo pamanyuma ŵakakomeka pa Nkhondo ya pa Cikaya ya ku Russia. Mu ufumu wa ufumu uwu mukaŵa magulu gha ndyali agho ghakajiphara kuti ni boma la kanyengo kachoko, ndipo ghakapharazga kuti ni charu cha Russia. Pa Janyuwale 19 [O.S. 6 January], 1918, Russian Constituent Assembly yikapharazga kuti Russia ni fuko la demokilase (pakuzomerezga fundo ya boma la kanyengo). Zuŵa lakulondezgapo, Wupu Wakulongozga ukawuskapo ungano uwu. Pa nyengo iyi, pakaŵaso wupu unyake wa Petrograd Soviet, uwo ukaŵa na mazaza gha kuwusa mu vyaru vinyake. Boma liphya likasazgirako waka suzgo mu caru m'malo mwa kulimazga, ndipo paumaliro, Nkhondo ya Okutobala, iyo yikalongozgekanga na Vladimir Lenin, yikathereska boma la nyengo yicoko na kupeleka mazaza ghose ku maboma gha Soviet, ndipo ivi vikapangiska kuti caru cikhazikike. Nkhondo ya ku Russia yikamba pakati pa gulu la White movement na Bolsheviks. Pamanyuma pa kusazga phangano la Brest-Litovsk ilo likamalizga nkhondo na ŵamazaza ŵa ku Central Powers mu Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Caru Cose, caru ca Russia cikapeleka vigaŵa vyake vinandi vya kumanjiliro gha dazi, umo mukaŵa 34% ya ŵanthu ŵake, 54% ya mafakitale ghake, 32% ya vyaru vyake, na pafupifupi 90% ya migodi yake ya malasha.<ref>{{cite web |last=Figes |first=Orlando |author-link=Orlando Figes |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/history/history-magazine/article/russian-revolution-history-lenin |title=From Tsar to U.S.S.R.: Russia's Chaotic Year of Revolution |work=[[National Geographic (magazine)|National Geographic]] |date=25 October 2017 |access-date=27 November 2021 }}</ref>[[File:Vladimir_Lenin_Speech_in_May_1920.jpg|thumb|Vladimir Lenin na Leon Trotsky apo ŵakayowoyanga nkhani mu Moscow mu 1920]] Ŵasilikari ŵa vyaru vinyake ŵakacita nkhondo kuti ŵawovwire ŵasilikari awo ŵakasuskanga boma la Germany. Pa nyengo yeneyira, ŵa Bolshevik na ŵa White ŵakacitiskana nkhondo ya kusonkhaniska ŵanthu na kuŵakoma. Paumaliro wa nkhondo ya pawenenawene, chuma na vinthu vinyake vya ku Russia vikaparanyika comene, ndipo ŵanthu pafupifupi 10 miliyoni ŵakafwa pa nkhondo iyi, comenecomene ŵanthu bweka. Ŵanthu mamiliyoni ghanandi ŵakafuma mu vyaru vyawo na kuluta ku vyaru vinyake.<ref>{{cite web |last=Haller |first=Francis |url=https://www.icrc.org/en/doc/resources/documents/article/other/5rfhjy.htm |title=Famine in Russia: the hidden horrors of 1921 |work=[[Le Temps]]|publisher=[[International Committee of the Red Cross]] |date=8 December 2003 |access-date=26 July 2021}}</ref> === Soviet Union === {{Main|History of the Soviet Union}} [[File:Russian SFSR in Soviet Union (1936).svg|thumb|left|Location of the [[Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic|Russian SFSR]] (red) within the [[Soviet Union]] in 1936]] ====Command economy and Soviet society==== Pa Disembala 30, 1922, Lenin na ŵantchito ŵake ŵakapanga Soviet Union, ndipo ŵakasazga Soviet Socialist Republic of Russia na vyaru vya Belarus, Transcaucasia, na Ukraine. Paumaliro, pa nyengo ya Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Caru Cose, caru cikaŵa na vyaru 15 ivyo vikakolerananga. Pamanyuma pa nyifwa ya Lenin mu 1924, gulu la ŵasilikari ŵatatu likimikika kuti licitenge mulimo uwu. Paumaliro, Joseph Stalin, mulembi mukuru wa chipani cha Communist Party, wakamazga magulu ghose ghakwimikana na boma na kukhozga mazaza ghake mwakuti waŵe muwusi wankhongono wa caru mu ma 1930. Leon Trotsky, uyo wakaŵa wakuwovwira comene pa kusintha vinthu pa caru cose, wakacimbizgika mu Soviet Union mu 1929, ndipo fundo ya Stalin yakuti Socialism in One Country yikazgoka fundo ya boma. Nkhondo iyo yikalutilira mukati mwa chipani cha Bolshevik yikafika paheni comene.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Kuromiya |first=Hirosaki |title=Accounting for the Great Terror |jstor=41051345 |publisher=[[Franz Steiner Verlag]] |journal=Jahrbücher für Geschichte Osteuropas |year=2005 |pages=86–101 |volume=53 |number=1}}</ref> ====Stalinism and violent modernization==== Mu muwuso wa Stalin, boma likambiska vinthu vyakuti ŵanthu ŵagwirenge ntchito mwakufwatuka, kupanga vyamuminda, na kupanga vyakurya vinandi. Mu nyengo iyi, vinthu vikasinthanga comene pa nkhani ya cuma na umoyo wa ŵanthu. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakatumizgika ku misasa yakuyuzgirako ŵanthu, kusazgapo ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakakakika cifukwa ca ndyali. Mu 1932-33 mu Soviet Union mukaŵa njara yikuru, ndipo ŵanthu 8.7 miliyoni ŵakafwa. Paumaliro, mu nyengo yicoko waka, Soviet Union yikasintha kufuma ku cuma ico cikagwiranga nchito ya vyakurya kuya ku caru ico cikagwiranga nchito ya kupanga vinthu.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Rosefielde |first=Steven |title=Excess Deaths and Industrialization: A Realist Theory of Stalinist Economic Development in the 1930s |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-contemporary-history_1988-04_23_2/page/277 |jstor=260849 |journal=[[Journal of Contemporary History]] |year=1988 |volume=23 |number=2 |pages=277–289 |publisher=[[SAGE Publishing]]|doi=10.1177/002200948802300207 |pmid=11617302 |s2cid=26592600 }}</ref> ====World War II and United Nations==== {{main|Soviet Union in World War II}} [[File:RIAN archive 602161 Center of Stalingrad after liberation.jpg|thumb|The [[Battle of Stalingrad]], the largest and bloodiest battle in the history of warfare, ended in 1943 with a decisive Soviet victory against the [[German Army (1935–1945)|German army]].]] Soviet Union yikanjira mu Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Caru Cose pa Seputembala 17, 1939 apo yikawukira Poland, mwakuyana na dango lakubisika la Molotov Ribbentrop Pact na Nazi Germany.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Roberts |first=Geoffrey |title=The Soviet Decision for a Pact with Nazi Germany |jstor=152247 |publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]] |volume=44 |number=1 |year=1992 |journal=Soviet Studies (Europe-Asia Studies) |pages=57–78}}</ref> Pa 22 Juni, 1941, Germany yikawukira Soviet Union, ndipo yikajura chigaŵa chikuru chomene cha Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Charu Chose. Paumaliro, ŵasilikari pafupifupi 5 miliyoni ŵa Red Army ŵakakoleka na Nazi;:272 Ŵasilikari aŵa ŵakakomeka na njara panji ŵakakoma ŵanthu 3.3 miliyoni ŵa ku Soviet, kweniso ŵanthu ŵanandi, pakuti "Ndara" yikaŵa ndondomeko ya kufiska Generalplan Ost.:175-186 Nangauli ŵasilikari ŵa German ŵakaŵa na viwemi vyakwambilira, kweni nkhondo ya ku Moscow yikaŵakoma. Pamanyuma, Ŵachijeremani ŵakathereskeka comene pakwamba pa Nkhondo ya Stalingrad mu nyengo ya cihanya ya 1942-1943 ndipo pamanyuma pa Nkhondo ya Kursk mu cihanya ca 1943.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Mulligan |first=Timothy P. |title=Spies, Ciphers and 'Zitadelle': Intelligence and the Battle of Kursk, 1943 |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-contemporary-history_1987-04_22_2/page/235 |jstor=260932 |pages=235–260 |volume=22 |number=2 |journal=[[Journal of Contemporary History]] |publisher=[[SAGE Publishing]] |date=April 1987|doi=10.1177/002200948702200203 |s2cid=162709461}}</ref> Kuwina kunyake uko Ŵachijeremani ŵakacita kukaŵa kuzingilizga msumba wa Leningrad, uko msumba uwu ukazingilizgika na ŵasilikari ŵa ku Germany na Finland pakati pa 1941 na 1944. Ŵasilikari ŵa Soviet ŵakaluta ku vyaru vya kumafumiro gha dazi na vya pakati pa Europe mu 1944 na 1945, ndipo ŵakapoka Berlin mu Meyi 1945. Mu Ogasiti 1945, ŵasilikari ŵa Reds ŵakanjira mu charu cha Manchuria na kuchimbizga Ŵapaniya ku North East Asia. Mu nyengo ya Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Charu Chose ya mu 1941 m'paka mu 1945, ku Russia ŵakachemanga kuti Nkhondo Yikuru ya Charu. Soviet Union, pamoza na United States, United Kingdom na China ŵakawonekanga kuti ni Big Four of Allied powers mu Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya pa Charu Chose, ndipo pamasinda ŵakazgoka Four Policemen, iyo yikaŵa musisi wa United Nations Security Council.:27 Mu nyengo ya nkhondo, ŵanthu pafupifupi 2627 miliyoni ŵakafwa pa nkhondo iyi. Ndipouli, Soviet Union yikajipeleka comene kuti yiŵe ufumu wankhongono pa caru cose.<ref name="superpower">{{cite book |last=Reiman |first=Michael |title=About Russia, Its Revolutions, Its Development and Its Present |chapter=The USSR as the New World Superpower |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctv2t4dn7.14 |date=2016 |publisher=[[Peter Lang (publisher)|Peter Lang]] |pages=169–176 |jstor=j.ctv2t4dn7.14 |isbn=978-3-631-67136-8}}</ref> ====Superpower and Cold War==== [[File:Yalta Conference (Churchill, Roosevelt, Stalin) (B&W).jpg|thumb|The "[[Grand Alliance (World War II)|Big Three]]" at the [[Yalta Conference]] in February 1945, [[Winston Churchill]], [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] and [[Joseph Stalin]]]] Pamanyuma pa Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya pa Charu Chose, vigaŵa vinyake vya kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Europe, na kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Austria, vikapokeka na ŵasilikari ŵa Red Army. Maboma gha Chikomyunizimu ghakaŵapo mu vyaru vya ku Eastern Bloc. Nkhondo iyi yikati yamara, Soviet Union yikamba kulimbana na ŵasilikari ŵa United States na NATO.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Wagg |first1=Stephen |last2=Andrews |first2=David |title=East Plays West: Sport and the Cold War |year=2007 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-1-134-24167-5 |page=11}}</ref> ====Khrushchev Thaw reforms and economic development==== Pamanyuma pa nyifwa ya Stalin mu 1953 na nyengo yifupi ya muwuso wa wupu, mulongozgi muphya Nikita Khrushchev wakachenya Stalin ndipo wakambiska ndondomeko ya kulekeska Stalin, kufumiska ŵakayidi ŵanandi ŵa ndyali mu misasa ya Gulag. Nyengo yikati yajumphapo, vinthu vikamba kwenda makora. Pa nyengo yeneyiyo pera, nkhondo ya pa caru cose yikafika paheni comene apo ŵasilikari ŵaŵiri aŵa ŵakasuskananga pa nkhani ya kuŵika mabomba gha Jupiter ku Turkey na mabomba gha Soviet ku Cuba. Mu 1957, Soviet Union yikaponya pa mtunda satellite yakwamba pa caru cose yakucemeka Sputnik 1. Munthu wakwamba kuzingilira caru capasi wakaŵa Yuri Gagarin, uyo wakaluta pa Vostok 1 pa Epulero 12, 1961.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20210409-yuri-gagarin-the-spaceman-who-came-in-from-the-cold |title=Yuri Gagarin: the spaceman who came in from the cold |last=Dowling |first=Stephen |date=12 April 2021 |access-date=15 January 2022 |publisher=BBC}}</ref> ====Period of developed socialism or Era of Stagnation==== Khrushchev wakati waparanyika mu 1964, pakaŵaso muwuso unyake wa ŵanthu wose, m'paka apo Leonid Brezhnev wakaŵira mulongozgi. Nyengo ya m'ma 1970 na kuuyambiro wa m'ma 1980 yikamanyikwa kuti nyengo ya kukhazikika. Mu 1965, boma la Soviet likasintha vinthu vinyake mu Soviet Union. Mu 1979, ŵasilikari ŵa Soviet ŵakanjira mu charu ichi, ndipo paumaliro nkhondo ya ku Afghanistan yikamba. Mu Meyi 1988, ŵasilikari ŵa Soviet ŵakamba kufumamo mu Afghanistan, cifukwa ca ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yose awo ŵakasuskanga ŵasilikari ŵa Soviet, nkhondo ya kuwukira ŵasilikari ŵa Soviet, ndiposo cifukwa ca kuleka kukhozgeka na ŵanthu ŵa Soviet.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Daley |first=Tad |title=Afghanistan and Gorbachev's Global Foreign Policy |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_asian-survey_1989-05_29_5/page/496 |jstor=2644534 |doi=10.2307/2644534 |journal=[[Asian Survey]] |volume=29 |number=5 |date=May 1989 |pages=496–513 |publisher=[[University of California Press]]}}</ref> [[File:President Ronald Reagan Meeting with Soviet General Secretary Gorbachev at Hofdi House During The Reykjavik Summit Iceland - DPLA - af5603d8cc5dc9f3bd2f69b218e112bd.jpg|thumb|[[Mikhail Gorbachev]] in one-to-one discussions with [[Ronald Reagan]] in the [[Reykjavík Summit]], 1986]] ====Perestroika, democratization and Russian sovereignty==== Kwambira mu 1985, mulongozgi waumaliro wa Soviet, Mikhail Gorbachev, uyo wakakhumbanga kusintha vinthu mu Soviet Union, wakambiska ndondomeko ya glasnost (kujulika) na perestroika (kuweleramo mu vinthu vinyake) kuti wamazge suzgo la vyachuma na kuzgora boma kuŵa la ŵanthu ŵanandi. Ndipouli, ici cikapangiska kuti mu caru cose muŵe vyaru vyakupambanapambana. Pambere caka ca 1991 cindafike, caru ca Soviet Union cikaŵa caciŵiri pa vyaru ivyo vikaŵa na cuma cikuru comene, kweni mu vilimika vyaumaliro vya umoyo wake, cikaŵa mu suzgo. Mu 1991, vinthu vikamba kunangika mu vyaru vya ku Baltic apo vyaru ivi vikafumako ku Soviet Union. Pa Malichi 17, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakazomerezga kuti Soviet Union yiŵe wupu wakukolerana. Mu Juni 1991, Boris Yeltsin wakaŵa pulezidenti wakwamba uyo wakasankhika mwakudunjika mu Russia. Mu Ogasiti 1991, boma la Gorbachev likayezga kuwuskapo boma, ndipo likaŵa na cilato cakuti likhalilire mu Soviet Union. Pa Disembala 25, 1991, pamanyuma pa kuparanyika kwa Soviet Union, pamoza na Russia wa mazuŵa ghano, vyaru vinyake 14 vikafuma mu wupu wa Soviet Union.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.rferl.org/a/soviet-union-collapse-timeline/31487661.html |title=The Undoing Of The U.S.S.R.: How It Happened |publisher=[[Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty]] |last=Foltynova |first=Kristyna |date=1 October 2021 |access-date=15 January 2022}}</ref> === Independent Russian Federation === {{Main|History of Russia (1991–present)}} {{Further|Presidency of Boris Yeltsin|Russia under Vladimir Putin|Presidency of Dmitry Medvedev}} [[File:Vladimir Putin taking the Presidential Oath, 7 May 2000.jpg|thumb|right|[[Vladimir Putin]] takes the oath of office as president on his [[First inauguration of Vladimir Putin|first inauguration]], with [[Boris Yeltsin]] looking over, 2000.]] ====Transition to a market economy and political crises==== Charu cha Russia chikaŵa mu suzgo yikuru chifukwa cha suzgo la vyachuma na ndyali. Pa nyengo iyo Soviet Union yikaparanyikira na pamanyuma pake, pakaŵa kusintha kukuru, kusazgapo kupanikizga vinthu vya boma na kulekeska malonda, kusazgapo kusintha kukuru kwa vinthu nga ni "chock therapy". Kuŵika vinthu vya boma pa malo ghake kukapangiska kuti maboma gha Russia ghaleke kulamulira mabungwe gha boma na kwamba kulamulira ŵanthu awo ŵakamanyikwanga na boma. Ŵanandi awo ŵakaŵa ŵasambazi ŵakawuskamo ndalama zinandi mu charu ichi. Kuchepa kwa ndalama kukapangiska kuti vinthu vyendenge makora yayi mu charu. Chiŵelengero cha ŵana awo ŵakubabika chikakhira chomene, ndipo ŵanthu mamiliyoni ghanandi ŵakamba kusuzgika na ukavu. Kuumaliro wa 1993, mphindano pakati pa Yeltsin na Nyumba ya Malamulo ya Russia zikakura comene mwakuti pakaŵa suzgo la ndyali. Mu nyengo ya suzgo iyi, Yeltsin wakawovwirika na maboma gha ku vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi, ndipo ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 100 ŵakakomeka.<ref>{{cite web |last=Goncharenko |first=Roman |date=3 October 2018 |title=Russia's 1993 crisis still shaping Kremlin politics, 25 years on |work=[[DW News]] |publisher=[[Deutsche Welle]] |url=https://www.dw.com/en/russias-1993-crisis-still-shaping-kremlin-politics-25-years-on/a-45733546 |access-date=2 February 2022}}</ref> ==== Modern liberal constitution, international cooperation and economic stabilization ==== Mu Disembala, ŵakachita pharazgo na kuzomerezga dango liphya ilo likapa pulezidenti mazaza ghakuru. M'ma 1990, ku North Caucasus kukaŵa nkhondo, kuswa malango kwa mafuko na kugaluka kwa ŵanthu ŵa chisopa cha Islam. Kufuma waka apo ŵasilikari ŵa ku Chechnya ŵakapharazgira kuti ŵajiyimire ŵekha mu ma 1990, nkhondo ya ŵasilikari yikamba pakati pa gulu la ŵakugaluka na ŵasilikari ŵa Russia. Ŵasilikari ŵa ku Chechnya ndiwo ŵakacitiska vivulupi na kukoma ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Russia. Pamanyuma pakuti Soviet Union yaparanyika, Russia ndiyo wakeneranga kulipira ngongoli za caru ici. Mu 1992, ŵakawuskapo malango ghanandi ghakwendeskera mitengo ya vinthu, ndipo ivi vikapangiska kuti ndalama za Russia zichepe chomene. Kuchepa kwa ndalama mu boma la Russia, pamoza na kusazgikira kwa ndalama na kutondeka kuwezga ngongoli, ndivyo vikapangiska suzgo la ndalama mu Russia mu 1998.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Chiodo |first1=Abbigail J. |last2=Owyang |first2=Michael T. |url=https://files.stlouisfed.org/files/htdocs/publications/review/02/11/ChiodoOwyang.pdf |title=A Case Study of a Currency Crisis: The Russian Default of 1998 |pages=7–18|publisher=[[Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis]] |journal=[[Canadian Parliamentary Review]] |year=2002 |volume=86 |number=6}}</ref>{{efn|Most notably the [[Budyonnovsk hospital hostage crisis]], the [[Russian apartment bombings]], the [[Moscow theater hostage crisis]], and the [[Beslan school siege]]}} ====Movement towards a modernized economy, political centralization and democratic backsliding==== Pa Disembala 31, 1999, pulezidenti Yeltsin wakafumapo mwamabuchi, ndipo wakalekera ntchito iyo nduna yikuru iyo yikaŵa kuti yasankhika waka, Vladimir Putin. Pamanyuma pake, Putin wakathereska ŵanthu ŵa ku Chechnya mu nkhondo yaciŵiri ya ku Chechnya. Mu 2004, Putin wakathereskeka. Chifukwa cha kukwera kwa mtengo wa mafuta na kukwera kwa ndalama izo ŵanthu ŵakufuma ku vyaru vinyake ŵakugwiliskira ntchito, chuma cha Russia chikamba kwenda makora kweniso ŵanthu ŵakamba kukhala makora. Muwuso wa Putin ukakhozga mtende, uku uku Russia wazgoka boma lakugaluka. Mu 2008, Putin wakamba kuŵa nduna yikuru, apo Dmitry Medvedev wakasankhika kuŵa pulezidenti kwa nyengo yimoza, kuti walutilire kuŵa na mazaza nangauli nyengo yake yikaŵa yakukwana yayi.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Monaghan|first=Andrew|title=The vertikal: power and authority in Russia|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_international-affairs_2012-01_88_1/page/1|volume=88|number=1|date=January 2012|pages=1–16|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|journal=[[International Affairs (journal)|International Affairs]]|doi=10.1111/j.1468-2346.2012.01053.x |jstor=41428537}}</ref>[[File:Annexation of Southern and Eastern Ukraine.svg|thumb|[[Russian-occupied territories of Ukraine]] as of 30 September 2022 at the time their [[Russian annexation of Donetsk, Kherson, Luhansk and Zaporizhzhia oblasts|annexation was declared]]]] Nkhondo ya Russia na Georgia yikacitika pa 1 na 12 Ogasiti, 2008, pamanyuma pa suzgo ya ndyali na Georgia. Iyi yikaŵa nkhondo yakwamba ya ku Europe ya m'ma 2000.<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://aei.pitt.edu/9382/2/9382.pdf|number=167|title=Post-Mortem on Europe's First War of the 21st Century|last=Emerson|first=Michael|publisher=[[Centre for European Policy Studies]]|date=August 2008|access-date=6 April 2022|doi=10.2139/ssrn.1333553|s2cid=127834430}}</ref> ====Invasion of Ukraine==== Kuuyambiro wa chaka cha 2014, Russia yikapoka charu cha Crimea kufuma ku Ukraine. Mu suzgo yikuru ya nkhondo, Russia yikamba nkhondo ya ku Ukraine pa 24 February 2022.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/2/24/putin-orders-military-operations-in-eastern-ukraine-as-un-meets|title=Russian forces launch full-scale invasion of Ukraine|publisher=[[Al Jazeera]]|date=24 February 2022|access-date=5 April 2022}}</ref> Nkhondo iyi ndiyo yikaŵa yikuru comene mu Europe kufuma apo Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Caru Cose yikambira, ndipo yikaŵa na ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakasuskanga. Pa cifukwa ici, Russia wakafumiskika mu wupu wa Council of Europe mu Malichi, ndipo wakasoleka mu wupu wa United Nations Human Rights Council mu Epulero. Mu Seputembala, pamanyuma pa nkhondo zakutonda za ku Ukraine, Putin wakapharazga za "kuwungana kwa vigaŵa", kuwungana kwa Russia kakwamba kufuma apo Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Caru Cose yikambira. Kuumaliro wa Seputembala, Putin wakapharazga kuti vigaŵa vinayi vya Ukraine vyatoleka na boma la Russia. Putin na ŵalongozgi ŵa ku Russia ŵakasazgapo phangano lakuti ŵanjire mu caru ca Russia, ilo caru cose cikumanya yayi ndipo ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuliwona kuti ndakuswa malango. Pa maparamende ghanandi gha pa caru cose na gha pa caru cose, pakaŵa fundo izo zikati Russia ni boma ilo likuwovwira vigeŵenga. Kweniso, Latvia, Lithuania, na Estonia ŵati Russia ni boma la vigeŵenga. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuyowoya kuti ŵakafwa cifukwa ca nkhondo iyi. Nkhondo ya ku Ukraine yasazgirako suzgo la ŵanthu ku Russia.<ref>{{cite news |title=Putin’s War Escalation Is Hastening Demographic Crash for Russia |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2022-10-18/putin-s-war-escalation-is-hastening-demographic-crash-for-russia |work=Bloomberg |date=18 October 2022}}</ref> == Makhalilo gha charu == {{Main|Geography of Russia}} [[File:Russian Federation Relief Map.png|thumb|upright=1.34|[[Topographic map]] of Russia]] Charu cha Russia chili kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Europe na kumpoto kwa Asia. Chigaŵa ichi chili kumpoto chomene kwa charu cha Eurasia. Charu cha Russia chili pakati pa latitude 41° na 82° N, na longitude 19° E na 169° W, ndipo chili na mtunda wa makilomita pafupifupi 9,000 (5,600 mi) kufuma kumafumiro gha dazi kuya kumanjiliro gha dazi, na makilomita 2,500 mpaka 4,000 (1,600 mpaka 2,500 mi) kufuma kumpoto kuya kumwera. Ku Russia, charu ichi chili na vigaŵa vikuruvikuru kuluska vyaru vitatu.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/across-the-universe/2015/jul/28/pluto-ten-things-we-now-know-about-the-dwarf-planet |title=Pluto: ten things we now know about the dwarf planet |work=[[The Guardian]] |first=Stuart |last=Clark |date=28 July 2015 |access-date=20 June 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Russia – Land|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Russia#ref38573|encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|access-date=14 December 2021}}</ref>{{efn|Russia, by land area, is larger than the continents of [[Australia (continent)|Australia]], [[Antarctica]], and Europe; although it covers a large part of the latter itself. Its land area could be roughly compared to that of South America.}}{{efn|Russia has an additional {{convert|comma=5|850|km|mi|abbr=on}} of coastline along the [[Caspian Sea]], which is the world's largest inland body of water, and has been variously classified as a sea or a lake.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.economist.com/the-economist-explains/2018/08/16/is-the-caspian-a-sea-or-a-lake |title=Is the Caspian a sea or a lake? |newspaper=[[The Economist]] |date=16 August 2018 |access-date=27 June 2021}}</ref>}} Russia yili na mapiri ghakuru ghankhondi na ghatatu, ndipo ghakusangika mu vigaŵa vya kumwera chomene, uko kuli mapiri ghanandi gha Caucasus (uko kuli Phiri la Elbrus, ilo lili pa mtunda wa mamita 5,642 (18,510 ft) ndilo ni phiri likuru chomene mu Russia na Europe); Mapiri gha Altai na Sayan mu Siberia; na mu mapiri gha East Siberia na Kamchatka Peninsula mu Russian Far East (uko kuli Klyuchevskaya Sopka, ilo lili pa mtunda wa mamita 4,750 (15,584 ft) ndilo phiri likuru chomene mu Eurasia). Mapiri gha Ural, agho ghali kumpoto na kumwera kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa charu ichi, ghali na vinthu vinandi vyakuthupi. Malo ghapasi chomene mu Russia na Europe, ghali ku mphepete mwa Nyanja ya Caspian, uko maji gha mu Nyanja ya Caspian ghakukwera mamita 29. Russia njimoza mwa vyaru vitatu ivyo vili na nyanja zitatu. Virwa vikuruvikuru vya charu ichi ni Novaya Zemlya, Franz Josef Land, Severnaya Zemlya, New Siberian Islands, Wrangel Island, Kuril Islands (vigaŵa vinayi ivyo vikususkana na Japan), na Sakhalin. Virwa vya Diomede, ivyo vili pasi pa boma la Russia na United States, vili pa mtunda wa makilomita 3.8 pera kufuma pa chirwa ichi. Ndipo chirwa cha Kunashir chili pa mtunda wa makilomita 20 pera kufuma ku Hokkaido, Japan.<ref name="chapple-2019">{{cite web |last=Chapple |first=Amos |title=The Kurile Islands: Why Russia And Japan Never Made Peace After World War II |date=4 January 2019 |url=https://www.rferl.org/a/the-disputed-islands-where-world-war-2-never-ended/28402307.html |access-date=26 January 2022 |publisher=[[Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty]]}}</ref>{{efn|Russia borders, clockwise, to its southwest: the [[Black Sea]] and the [[Sea of Azov]], to its west: the [[Baltic Sea]], to its north: the [[Barents Sea]] ([[White Sea]], [[Pechora Sea]]), the [[Kara Sea]], the [[Laptev Sea]], and the [[East Siberian Sea]], to its northeast: the [[Chukchi Sea]] and the [[Bering Sea]], and to its southeast: the [[Sea of Okhotsk]] and the [[Sea of Japan]].}} Ku Russia kuli milonga yakujumpha 100,000, ndipo kuli maji ghanandi chomene pa charu. Nyanja ya Baikal, iyo njakukhora comene pa nyanja zose za ku Russia, njakunyang'amira comene, njakutowa comene, yakale comene, ndiposo njakutowa comene. Nyanja ya Ladoga na ya Onega, izo zili kumpoto ca kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Russia, ni zinandi comene mu Europe. Ku Russia, maji ghose agho ghakusangika ku malo ghakusangikako ghakusangika waka ku Brazil. Mlonga wa Volga uwo uli kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Russia, ndiwo ni mlonga utali chomene mu Europe. Mlonga wa Ob, Yenisey, Lena, na Amur, uwo uli mu Siberia, ngumoza mwa milonga yitali comene pa caru.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2019/05/15/russias-largest-rivers-from-the-amur-to-the-volga-a65593 |title=Russia's Largest Rivers From the Amur to the Volga |work=[[The Moscow Times]] |date=15 May 2019 |access-date=26 May 2021}}</ref> === Nyengo === {{Main|Climate of Russia}} [[File:Russia Köppen.svg|thumb|upright=1.38|[[Köppen climate classification]] of Russia]] Chifukwa cha ukuru wa caru ca Russia ndiposo cifukwa cakuti vigaŵa vinandi vya caru ici vili kutali comene na nyanja, mu caru ici muli nyengo yakuzizima, kweni mu vigaŵa vinandi vya caru ici muli vyakumera vyambura maji. Mapiri agho ghali kumwera na kumafumiro gha dazi ghakovwira kuti mphepo yakufuma ku nyanja za Indian na Pacific yileke kwiza, apo mapiri gha ku Europe agho ghali kumanjiliro gha dazi na kumpoto ghakovwira kuti mphepo izo zikufuma ku nyanja za Atlantic na Arctic zileke kwiza. Chigaŵa chikuru cha kumpoto cha kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Russia na Siberia chili na mphepo ya subarctic, ndipo mu vigaŵa vya kumpoto cha kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Siberia muli nyengo yakuzizima chomene. Mphepete mwa nyanja ya Arctic na pa virwa vya ku Russia, pali mphepo yakuzizima. Chigaŵa cha mumphepete mwa nyanja cha Krasnodar Krai pa Nyanja Yiswesi, chomenechomene Sochi, na vigaŵa vinyake vya mumphepete mwa nyanja na vya mukati mwa North Caucasus, vili na mphepo yakuzizima chomene. Mu vigaŵa vinandi vya kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Siberia na kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Russia, nyengo ya chiwuvi njakomira chomene pakuyaniska na nyengo ya chihanya. Mu nyengo ya chiwuvi, mu vigaŵa vinandi vya charu ichi, vula yikuwa nga ni chiwuvi. Chigaŵa chakumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Kaliningrad Oblast na vigaŵa vinyake kumwera kwa Krasnodar Krai na North Caucasus vili na mphepo ya nyanja. Malo agha ghali mumphepete mwa Lower Volga na Caspian Sea, kweniso mu vigaŵa vinyake vya kumwera kwa Siberia. Mu vigaŵa vinandi vya caru ici, pali nyengo ziŵiri pera, nyengo ya cihanya na ya cihanya. Mwezi wakuzizima comene ni Janyuwale (February pa mumphepete mwa nyanja). Nyengo zinyake matenthedwe ghakupambanapambana. Mu nyengo yakuzizima, kuzizima kukukulirakulira kufuma kumwera kuya kumpoto ndiposo kufuma kumanjiliro gha dazi kuya kumafumiro gha dazi. Nyengo ya chihanya yikuŵa yakotcha comene, nanga nkhu Siberia. Kusintha kwa mphepo ku Russia kukupangiska kuti moto wa mu nkhorongo ulokenge kanandi waka, kweniso kuti charu ichi chiŵe na chiwuvi chikuru.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.npr.org/2022/01/22/1075108299/why-russias-thawing-permafrost-is-a-global-problem|title=Why Russia's thawing permafrost is a global problem|work=[[NPR]]|date=22 January 2022|access-date=7 July 2022}}</ref> === Biodiversity === {{Main|Wildlife of Russia}} {{See also|List of ecoregions in Russia}} [[File:Саблинский хребет.jpg|thumb|[[Yugyd Va National Park]] in the [[Komi Republic]] is the largest [[national park]] in Europe.<ref name="urals">{{cite web |date=13 July 2011 |title=The Ural Mountains |url=https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/87198/the-ural-mountains |access-date=27 May 2021 |work=[[NASA Earth Observatory]] |publisher=[[NASA]]}}</ref>]] Chifukwa cha ukuru wake, caru ca Russia cili na vyakumera vyakupambanapambana. Vinyake mwa vyakumera ivi ni mapopa gha ku mpoto, vyakumera vya tundra, vyakumera vya tundra, vyakumera vya taiga, vyakumera vya makuni ghakupambanapambana, vyakumera vya makuni, vyakumera vya makuni, vyakumera vya mu mapopa, vyakumera vya mu mapopa, na vyakumera vya mu vigaŵa vyakumwera. Pa caru cose ca Russia, hafu ya caru ici yili na makuni, ndipo ni malo ghakurughakuru comene pa caru cose gha makuni, agho ghakukanizga mphepo ya carbon dioxide.<ref name="Gardiner 2021">{{cite web | last=Gardiner | first=Beth | title=Will Russia's Forests Be an Asset or an Obstacle in Climate Fight? | website=Yale University| date=2021-03-23 | url=https://e360.yale.edu/features/will-russias-forests-be-an-asset-or-obstacle-in-the-climate-fight | access-date=2022-12-11}}</ref><ref name="Schepaschenko Moltchanova Fedorov Karminov 2021 p.">{{cite journal | last1=Schepaschenko | first1=Dmitry | last2=Moltchanova | first2=Elena | last3=Fedorov | first3=Stanislav | last4=Karminov | first4=Victor | last5=Ontikov | first5=Petr | last6=Santoro | first6=Maurizio | last7=See | first7=Linda | last8=Kositsyn | first8=Vladimir | last9=Shvidenko | first9=Anatoly | last10=Romanovskaya | first10=Anna | last11=Korotkov | first11=Vladimir | last12=Lesiv | first12=Myroslava | last13=Bartalev | first13=Sergey | last14=Fritz | first14=Steffen | last15=Shchepashchenko | first15=Maria | last16=Kraxner | first16=Florian | title=Russian forest sequesters substantially more carbon than previously reported | journal=Scientific Reports | publisher=Springer Science and Business Media LLC | volume=11 | issue=1 | date=Jun 17, 2021 | issn=2045-2322 | doi=10.1038/s41598-021-92152-9 | page=12825| pmid=34140583 | pmc=8211780 | bibcode=2021NatSR..1112825S }}</ref> Mu vyakumera vya ku Russia muli vyakumera vyakupambanapambana 12,500, vyakumera vyakupambanapambana 2,200, vyakumera vyakupambanapambana 3,000, vyakumera vyakupambanapambana 7,000, na vyakumera vyakupambanapambana 20,000, 25,000. Vinyama vya ku Russia vili na vyamoyo vyakukwana 320, viyuni vyakukwana 732, vyamoyo vyakukhala pasi vyakukwana 75, vyamoyo vyakukhala pasi na pasi vyakukwana 30, somba za mu maji ghawemi vyakukwana 343, somba za mu maji gha mchere vyakukwana 1,500, vyamoyo vyakukwana 9 na vyamoyo vyambura msana vyakukwana 100,000 na 150,000. Vinyama na vyakumera vyakujumpha 1,100 ivyo ni vichoko chomene na ivyo vili pangozi ya kumara vili kulembeka mu buku la Russian Red Data Book. Vinthu vyose vyakuthupi vya ku Russia vili mu malo pafupifupi 15,000 agho ghali na malo ghakupambanapambana ghakuvikilirika. Vinyake mwa vyaru ivi ni vyaru 45 ivyo vili na vyamoyo vyakupambanapambana, vyaru 64 ivyo vili na vyakumera vyakupambanapambana, na vyaru 101 ivyo vili na vyakumera vyakupambanapambana. Nangauli charu ichi chikulutilira kunangika, kweni viyuni vinandi vichalipo, chomenechomene ku chigaŵa cha kumpoto kwa charu cha Siberia. Russia wakaŵa na chiŵelengero cha 9.02 mu 2019, ndipo wakaŵa wa nambara 10 pa vyaru 172.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Grantham HS, ''et al''. |title=Anthropogenic modification of forests means only 40% of remaining forests have high ecosystem integrity – Supplementary Material |journal=Nature Communications |volume=11 |issue=1 |year=2020 |page=5978 |issn=2041-1723 |doi=10.1038/s41467-020-19493-3 |pmid=33293507 |pmc=7723057|bibcode=2020NatCo..11.5978G |doi-access=free}}</ref> == Boma na ndale == {{Main|Politics of Russia}} {{multiple image|perrow=2|total_width=300 | align = right | caption_align = center | image1 = Владимир Путин (18-06-2023) (cropped).jpg|caption1=[[Vladimir Putin]]<br /><small>[[President of the Russian Federation|President]]</small> | image2 = Mikhail Mishustin (2020-07-09).jpg|caption2=[[Mikhail Mishustin]]<br /><small>[[Prime Minister of the Russian Federation|Prime Minister]]</small> }} [[File:Chart Constitution of Russia EN.svg|thumb|upright=1.4|A chart of the Russian political system]] Mu 1993, boma la Russia likaŵa na fundo yakuti boma la Russia likwenera kuŵa na pulezidenti yumoza. Boma ili lili na vigaŵa vitatu:<ref name="DeRouenHeo2005">{{cite book |first1=Karl R. |last1=DeRouen |first2=Uk |last2=Heo |title=Defense and Security: A Compendium of National Armed Forces and Security Policies |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wdeBgfmZI0cC&pg=PA666 |year=2005 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-85109-781-4 |page=666}}</ref> * Wupu Wakulongozga: Wupu Wakulongozga wa Russia, uwo uli na ŵanthu 450 ndipo uli na ŵanthu 170, ndiwo ukukhazikiska malango gha boma, kupharazga nkhondo, kukolerana na vyaru vinyake, ndipo uli na mazaza ghakulongozga ndalama za boma na kukaka pulezidenti.<ref>{{cite web|title=Chapter 5. The Federal Assembly {{!}} The Constitution of the Russian Federation|url=http://www.constitution.ru/en/10003000-06.htm|access-date=4 February 2022|website=www.constitution.ru}}</ref> * Muwuso: Pulezidenti ndiyo ni mulara wa ŵasilikari ŵa Russia, ndipo wakwimika boma la Russia (Cabinet) na ŵantchito ŵanyake, awo ŵakwendeska na kufiska malango gha boma. Pulezidenti wangapeleka vyeruzgo vyambura mphaka, kweni vikususkana yayi na dango la boma.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Remington |first1=Thomas F. |title=Presidential Decrees in Russia: A Comparative Perspective |date=2014 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=New York |isbn=978-1-107-04079-3 |page=48 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TK-BAwAAQBAJ&dq=russia+decree+of+the+president+inpublisher:university&pg=PA48 |access-date=August 13, 2022}}</ref> * Ŵeruzgi: Khoti Likuru Chomene, Khoti Likuru Chomene, na makhoti ghachokoghachoko, agho ŵeruzgi ŵawo ŵakwimikika na Wupu wa Federation pa ulongozgi wa pulezidenti, ŵakung'anamura malango ndipo ŵangawuskapo malango agho ŵakughanaghana kuti ngakususkana na dango. Mulara wa boma wakusankhika na ŵanthu wose kuti waŵe na vyaka vinkhondi na cimoza. Maofesi gha boma ghakukhala na nduna yikuru na ŵantchito ŵake, nduna, na ŵanthu ŵanyake; wose ŵakwimikika na pulezidenti pa ulongozgi wa nduna yikuru (pakuwona kuti kwimika nduna iyi kukukhumba kuzomerezgeka na boma la Duma). United Russia ni chipani cha ndyali icho chili na mazaza chomene mu Russia, ndipo ŵanthu ŵakuti ni "chipani cha nkhongono". Mu muwuso wa Vladimir Putin, caru ca Russia caweleramo ku demokilase, ndipo cazgoka boma la wupu wakulongozga pasi pa muwuso wa wupu wa Putin.<ref>{{cite book | author = Brian D. Taylor | date = 2018 | title = The Code of Putinism | url = https://archive.org/details/codeofputinism0000tayl | publisher = Oxford University Press | pages = [https://archive.org/details/codeofputinism0000tayl/page/2 2]–7 | isbn = 978-0-19-086731-7 | oclc = 1022076734}}</ref>{{efn|In 2020, [[2020 amendments to the Constitution of Russia|constitutional amendments]] were signed into law that limit the president to two terms overall rather than two consecutive terms, with this limit reset for current and previous presidents.<ref name="reformvote">{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-53255964 |title=Putin strongly backed in controversial Russian reform vote |publisher=BBC |date=2 July 2020 |access-date=18 July 2021}}</ref>}}<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Konitzer|first1=Andrew|last2=Wegren|first2=Stephen K.|title=Federalism and Political Recentralization in the Russian Federation: United Russia as the Party of Power|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_publius_fall-2006_36_4/page/n38|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|volume=36|number=4|year=2006|pages=503–522|journal=[[Publius (journal)|Publius]]|doi=10.1093/publius/pjl004|jstor=4624765}}</ref><ref name="authoritarianness">{{cite journal|last=Kuzio|first=Taras|title=Nationalism and authoritarianism in Russia|journal=Communist and Post-Communist Studies|year=2016|volume=49|number=1|pages=1–11|publisher=[[University of California Press]]|doi=10.1016/j.postcomstud.2015.12.002|jstor=48610429}}</ref> === Political divisions === {{Main|Political divisions of Russia}} Mu 1993, boma la Russia likaŵa na malango ghakwendera lumoza. Mwakupambana na umo vinthu vikaŵira mu R.S.F.S.R., apo vyaru vikaŵa waka "vinthu vya mu wupu", dango ili likawovwira kuti vigaŵa vinyake viŵe nga ni vyaru vinyake. Vyaru vya Russia vili na vigaŵa ivyo vili na mazaza ghake, kweni palije vigaŵa ivyo vili na mazaza ghake, vilije mazaza gha boma, vilije wanangwa wa kulongora mazaza ghake mu malango ghawo, ndipo vilije wanangwa wa kujipatura ku caru. Malango gha vigaŵa ghangatimbanizga yayi malango gha boma. Vyaru vyose vya ku Germany vili na ŵimiliri ŵaŵiri mu wupu wa Federation Council, uwo ni wupu wa ŵalara ŵa boma. Kweni ŵakupambana pa umo ŵakuchitira vinthu. Mu 2000, Putin wakambiska maboma gha Russia kuti ghaŵe na mazaza pa ŵanthu awo ŵakulongozgeka na boma. Pakwamba kukaŵa vigaŵa vinkhondi na viŵiri, kweni sono kuli vigaŵa vinkhondi na viŵiri, ndipo chigaŵa chilichose chili na nthumi yake.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Russell |first=Martin |url=https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/IDAN/2015/569035/EPRS_IDA(2015)569035_EN.pdf |title=Russia's constitutional structure |journal=[[European Parliamentary Research Service]] |publisher=[[European Parliament]] |date=2015 |access-date=3 November 2021 |isbn=978-92-823-8022-2 |doi=10.2861/664907}}</ref>{{efn|Including the [[Republic of Crimea]], and the federal city of [[Sevastopol]], which are disputed between Russia and Ukraine, since the internationally unrecognised annexation of Crimea in 2014<ref name="dispute"/>}}[[File:Map of federal subjects of Russia (2022), disputed Crimea and Donbass.svg|center|600px|frameless]] {| class="wikitable sortable" |- ! Federal subjects ! Governance |- | {{legend|#FFEC77|46&nbsp;[[oblasts of Russia|oblast]]s}} | The most common type of federal subject with a governor and locally elected legislature. Commonly named after their administrative centres.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Hale |first=Henry E. |title=The Makeup and Breakup of Ethnofederal States: Why Russia Survives Where the USSR Fell |journal=[[Perspectives on Politics]] |pages=55–70 |volume=3 |number=1 |date=March 2005 |publisher=[[American Political Science Association]] |doi=10.1017/S153759270505005X |jstor=3688110|s2cid=145259594 }}</ref> |- | {{legend|#00C160|22&nbsp;[[Republics of Russia|republics]]}} | Each is nominally autonomous—home to a specific [[Ethnic groups in Russia|ethnic minority]], and has its own constitution, language, and legislature, but is represented by the federal government in international affairs.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Orttung |first1=Robert |last2=Lussier |first2=Danielle |last3=Paetskaya |first3=Anna |title=The Republics and Regions of the Russian Federation: A Guide to Politics, Policies, and Leaders |publisher=[[EastWest Institute]] |date=2000 |isbn=978-0-7656-0559-7 |location=New York |pages=523–524}}</ref> |- | {{legend|#FF9400|9&nbsp;[[krais of Russia|krai]]s}} | For all intents and purposes, krais are legally identical to oblasts. The title "krai" ("frontier" or "territory") is historic, related to geographic (frontier) position in a certain period of history. The current krais are not related to frontiers.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Shabad |first=Theodore |title=Political-Administrative Divisions of the U.S.S.R., 1945 |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_geographical-review_1946-04_36_2/page/303 |journal=[[Geographical Review]] |publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]] |volume=36 |number=2 |pages=303–311 |date=April 1946 |doi=10.2307/210882 |jstor=210882}}</ref> |- | {{legend|#006989|4&nbsp;[[autonomous okrugs of Russia|autonomous okrugs]]}} | Occasionally referred to as "autonomous district", "autonomous area", and "autonomous region", each with a substantial or predominant ethnic minority.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Sharafutdinova |first=Gulnaz |title=When Do Elites Compete? The Determinants of Political Competition in Russian Regions |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_comparative-politics_2006-04_38_3/page/273 |pages=273–293 |volume=38 |number=3 |date=April 2006 |journal=[[Comparative Politics]] |publisher=Comparative Politics, Ph.D. Programs in Political Science, [[City University of New York]] |doi=10.2307/20433998 |jstor=20433998}}</ref> |- | {{legend|#FF0037|3&nbsp;[[federal cities of Russia|federal cities]]}} | Major cities that function as separate regions (Moscow and Saint Petersburg, as well as [[Sevastopol]] in Russian-occupied Ukraine).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kelesh |first1=Yulia V. |last2=Bessonova |first2=Elena A. |title=Digitalization management system of Russia's federal cities focused on prospective application throughout the country |journal=SHS Web of Conferences |url=https://www.shs-conferences.org/articles/shsconf/pdf/2021/21/shsconf_icemt2021_05011.pdf |volume=110 |number=5011 |doi=10.1051/shsconf/202111005011 |date=11 June 2021 |page=05011 |s2cid=236655658 }}</ref> |- | {{legend|#C300FF|1&nbsp;autonomous oblast}} | The only autonomous oblast is the [[Jewish Autonomous Oblast]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Alessandro |first=Vitale |title=Ethnopolitics as Co-operation and Coexistence: The Case-Study of the Jewish Autonomous Region in Siberia |journal=Politeja |year=2015 |number=31/2 |pages=123–142 |jstor=24919780 |publisher=Księgarnia Akademicka |doi=10.12797/Politeja.12.2015.31_2.09|s2cid=132962208 }}</ref> |} === Foreign relations === {{Main|Foreign relations of Russia}} [[File:2019 Foto de família dos Líderes do G20.jpg|thumb|Putin with G20 counterparts in [[Osaka]], 2019]] Mu 2019, caru ca Russia cikaŵa pa nambara 5 pa vyaru ivyo vili na ŵasilikari ŵanandi. Likukolerana na vyaru 190 ivyo vili mu wupu wa United Nations, vyaru vinayi ivyo vili na wupu uwu, na vyaru vitatu ivyo vili na wupu uwu. Russia njimoza mwa vyaru vinkhondi ivyo vili mu wupu wa United Nations Security Council. Kwamba kale, caru ici nchankhongono comene, ndipo nchakumanyikwa comene pakuŵa cigaŵa cikuru ca Soviet Union. Russia njumoza wa vyaru vya G20, OSCE, na APEC. Russia nayo wakulongozga mu mawupu nga ni CIS, EAEU, CSTO, SCO, na BRICS. Russia wali na ubwezi wakukhora na vyaru viŵiri ivi. Kwamba kale, Serbia ni muwukirano wa Russia, cifukwa vyaru viŵiri ivi vikukolerana comene pa nkhani ya mitheto, mafuko, na visopa. India ndiyo wakuguliska comene vya nkhondo ku Russia, ndipo vyaru viŵiri ivi vili na ubwezi wakukhora wa vyaru vyakupambanapambana kwambira mu nyengo ya Soviet Union. Russia wali na mazaza pa vyaru vyakuzirwa nga ni South Caucasus na Central Asia.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Nation |first=R Craig. |title=Russia and the Caucasus |journal=Connections |year=2015 |volume=14 |number=2 |pages=1–12 |jstor=26326394 |publisher=[[Partnership for Peace Consortium of Defense Academies and Security Studies Institutes]] |doi=10.11610/Connections.14.2.01}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Swanström |first=Niklas |title=Central Asia and Russian Relations: Breaking Out of the Russian Orbit? |journal=[[Brown Journal of World Affairs]] |volume=19 |number=1 |year=2012 |pages=101–113 |jstor=24590931|quote=The Central Asian states have been dependent on Russia since they gained independence in 1991, not just in economic and energy terms, but also militarily and politically.}}</ref>[[File:Russian-list-of-unfriendly-countries.svg|thumb|right|{{legend2|#3F48CC}} Russia<br /> {{legend2|#AA0000}} Countries on Russia's "[[Unfriendly Countries List]]". The list includes countries that have imposed [[International sanctions during the Russo-Ukrainian War|sanctions against Russia]] for its invasion of Ukraine.]] Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1900, Russia wakulondezga fundo zakususkana na vyaru vinyake kuti wasange mazaza pa charu chose kweniso kuti wawovwire boma lake. Kuwukira ŵasilikari mu vyaru ivyo vikaŵa pasi pa Soviet Union, ni nkhondo na Georgia mu 2008, kweniso kuwukira Ukraine na kutimbanizga mtende mu 2014. Russia nayo wakukhumba kusazgirako nkhongono zake ku Middle East, comenecomene kwizira mu nkhondo ya ku Syria. Nkhondo za pa Intaneti na kunanga malo gha mu mlengalenga, pamoza na kunjilirapo pa mavoti, vyawovwira kuti ŵanthu ŵawonenge kuti Russia ngwankhongono. Ubwezi wa Russia na Ukraine na vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi, chomenechomene United States, European Union, United Nations na NATO, watimbanizgika; comenecomene pamanyuma pa nkhondo ya Russia na Ukraine mu 2014 na kunjira mu suzgo mu 2022. Ubwezi pakati pa Russia na China wakukhozga comene pa vigaŵa viŵiri ndiposo vya cuma cifukwa ca ivyo ŵanthu wose ŵakutemwa. Turkey na Russia ŵakukolerana comene pa nkhani ya ndyali, nkhongono, na kuvikilira caru. Russia wali na ubwezi uwemi na Iran, cifukwa ni mubwezi wake wa ndyali ndiposo wa vya cuma. Kweniso Russia wakulimbikira kuti wasanuzge mazaza ghake mu vyaru vya ku Arctic, Asia-Pacific, Africa, Middle East, na Latin America. Kuyana na lipoti la Economist Intelligence Unit, ŵanthu ŵaŵiri pa ŵanthu ŵatatu ŵaliwose pa caru capasi ŵakukhala mu vyaru nga ni China na India ivyo ni vyakutemwera yayi nkhondo panji ivyo vikutemwa Russia.<ref>{{cite magazine |last1=Stengel |first1=Richard |title=Putin May Be Winning the Information War Outside of the U.S. and Europe |url=https://time.com/6179221/putin-information-war-column/ |magazine=[[Time (magazine)|TIME]] |date=20 May 2022}}</ref> === Ŵankhondo === {{Main|Russian Armed Forces}} [[File:Sukhoi Design Bureau, 054, Sukhoi T-50 (Su-57 prototype) (49581303977).jpg|thumb|[[Sukhoi Su-57]], a [[fifth-generation fighter]] of the [[Russian Air Force]]<ref name="Sukhoi">{{cite web |url=https://www.rand.org/blog/2020/08/russias-su-57-heavy-fighter-bomber-is-it-really-a-5th.html |title=Russia's Su-57 Heavy Fighter Bomber: Is It Really a Fifth-Generation Aircraft? |work=[[RAND Corporation]] |author=Ryan Bauer and Peter A. Wilson |date=17 August 2020 |access-date=28 June 2021}}</ref>]] Ŵasilikari ŵa Russia ŵali kugaŵika mu magulu ghaŵiri: ŵasilikari ŵa pa mtunda, ŵasilikari ŵa mu nyanja, na ŵasilikari ŵa mu mlengalenga. Kufika mu 2021, ŵasilikari ŵali na ŵasilikari pafupifupi 1 miliyoni, ndipo ŵali na ŵasilikari ŵakujumpha 2 miliyoni.<ref>{{cite book |author=International Institute for Strategic Studies|author-link=International Institute for Strategic Studies |title=The Military Balance |date=2021 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |location=London |isbn=978-1-85743-988-5 |page=191}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Nichol |first=Jim |url=https://sgp.fas.org/crs/row/R42006.pdf |title=Russian Military Reform and Defense Policy |work=[[Congressional Research Service]] |publisher=[[Library of Congress]] |date=24 August 2011 |access-date=22 December 2021}}</ref> Ŵanalume wose ŵa vyaka vyapakati pa 18 na 27 ŵakwenera kunjira usilikari.<ref name="cia">{{cite web |title=Russia – The World Factbook |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/russia/ |access-date=4 March 2022 |work=[[The World Factbook]] |publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency]]}}</ref> Boma la Russia ndilo lili na vilwero vya nyukiliya vinandi chomene kuluska vyaru vinyake. Russia ni yimoza mwa vyaru vitatu ivyo vili na sitima za pasi pa nyanja za balistic missile. Boma la Russia ndilo lili na ndalama zinandi chomene pa charu chose pa nkhani ya vya nkhondo, ndipo likagwiliskira ntchito madola 86.4 biliyoni mu 2022, panji kuti 4.1% ya GDP. Mu 2021, yikaŵa yikuluta yaciŵiri pa caru cose pakuguliska vilwero, ndipo yikaŵa na makampani ghakurughakuru gha kuvikilira caru, ndipo yikapanganga vilwero vinandi vya nkhondo.<ref>{{cite web |last=Bowen |first=Andrew S. |url=https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/R/R46937 |title=Russian Arms Sales and Defense Industry |work=[[Congressional Research Service]] |publisher=[[Library of Congress]] |date=14 October 2021 |access-date=20 December 2021 }}</ref> === Wanangwa wa ŵanthu na vimbundi === {{Main|Human rights in Russia|Corruption in Russia}} [[File:Protest against the invasion of Ukraine (Yekaterinburg, February 24, 2022).jpg|thumb|Pamanyuma pakuti Russia wanjira mu Ukraine mu 2022, ŵanthu ŵakamba kususka nkhondo mu Russia. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakakanizgika kwiza pa ungano uwu ndipo ŵanthu pafupifupi 15,000 ŵakakakika.<ref name="massarrest">{{cite web |last=Shevchenko |first=Vitaliy |date=15 March 2022 |title=Ukraine war: Protester exposes cracks in Kremlin's war message |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-60749064 |access-date=3 April 2022 |publisher=BBC}}</ref>]] Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakususka ivyo boma la Russia likuchita pa nkhani ya wanangwa wa ŵanthu. Mwaciyerezgero, wupu wa Amnesty International na wa Human Rights Watch ŵakuti Russia ni caru ca demokilase yayi ndipo ŵanthu ŵake ŵalije wanangwa wa ndyali panji wanangwa wa kucita vinthu vinyake.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.amnesty.org/en/countries/europe-and-central-asia/russian-federation/ |title=Russian Federation |publisher=[[Amnesty International]] |access-date=16 March 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.hrw.org/europe/central-asia/russia |title=Russia |publisher=[[Human Rights Watch]] |access-date=20 November 2021}}</ref> Kwambira mu 2004, wupu wa Freedom House, ukuwona kuti caru ca Russia nchambura wanangwa. Kwambira mu 2011, bungwe la Economist Intelligence Unit likuwona kuti charu cha Russia ni "chipani cha ŵanthu ŵankhongono" ndipo mu 2022 chiŵenge pa malo 146. Pa nkhani ya wanangwa wa vyalo, Russia wali pa malo gha 155 pa vyalo 180 mu lipoti la Reporters Without Borders Press Freedom Index la 2022. Boma la Russia lakususkika comene na ŵanthu awo ŵakususka ndyali na awo ŵakuvikilira wanangwa wa ŵanthu cifukwa ca maungano ghambura urunji, kukanizga magulu gha visopa na viyezgelero, kutambuzga mawupu ghambura vya boma, kukanizga na kukoma ŵapharazgi ŵakujiyimira paŵekha, na kukanizga ŵanthu kuti ŵamanye vinandi pa nkhani ya vya boma. Ndyali za ku Russia zikuchemeka kleptocracy, oligarchy, na plutocracy. Charu ichi ndicho chikaŵa pasi chomene pa vyaru vyose vya ku Europe pa ndondomeko ya Transparency International's Corruption Perceptions Index ya chaka cha 2021. Ku Russia, vimbundi vyazara comene, ndipo ŵanthu ŵakuwona kuti ni suzgo likuru. Likukhwaska vigaŵa vinandi, nga ni vya vyachuma, bizinesi, boma, malango, vyakusungilira umoyo, masambiro, na ŵasilikari. Ŵasilamu, comenecomene ŵa Salafi, ŵakutambuzgika mu Russia. Kuti ŵamazge viwawa ivyo vikucitika ku North Caucasus, ŵamazaza ŵa ku Russia ŵakususkika kuti ŵakukoma ŵanthu, kuŵakaka, kuŵachimbizga, na kuŵatambuzga. Ku Dagestan, ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵa mu gulu la Salafi ŵakusuzgika na boma cifukwa ca kawonekero kawo. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Chechnya na Ingush awo ŵali mu majele gha ku Russia ndiwo ŵakusuzgika chomene kuluska ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yinyake. Pa nyengo ya nkhondo ya ku Ukraine mu 2022, Russia wakhazikiska misasa ya ŵanthu awo ŵakusuzgika ndipo ŵakutumika ku Russia. Misasa iyi yikayaniskika na iyo ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito pa nkhondo za ku Chechnya.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Marquise Francis |date=April 7, 2022 |title=What are Russian 'filtration camps'? |url=https://news.yahoo.com/what-are-russian-filtration-camps-194643731.html |website=[[Yahoo! News]] |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Katie Bo Lillis, Kylie Atwood and Natasha Bertrand |title=Russia is depopulating parts of eastern Ukraine, forcibly removing thousands into remote parts of Russia |url=https://www.cnn.com/2022/05/26/politics/ukraine-filtration-camps-forcibly-remove-russia/index.html |access-date=2022-11-17 |website=[[CNN]]|date=26 May 2022 }}</ref> === Dango na upusikizgi === {{Main|Law of Russia|Crime in Russia}} Dango lakwamba na lakuzirwa chomene mu Russia ni Dango la Wupu Wakulongozga. Malango, nga ni Russian Civil Code na Russian Criminal Code, ndigho ghakovwira chomene pa malango gha Russia.<ref name="Yılmaz 2020">{{cite web | last=Yılmaz | first=Müleyke Nurefşan İkbal | title=With its Light and Dark Sides; The Unique Semi-Presidential System of the Russian Federation | website=Küresel Siyaset Merkezi | date=31 August 2020 | url=https://www.kureselsiyaset.org/with-its-light-and-dark-sides-the-unique-semi-presidential-system-of-the-russian-federation/ | access-date=23 May 2023}}</ref><ref name="Partlett 2010">{{cite web | last=Partlett | first=William | title=Reclassifying Russian Law: Mechanisms, Outcomes, and Solutions for an Overly Politicized Field | website=Search eLibrary | date=7 July 2010 | ssrn=1197762 | url=https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1197762 | access-date=23 May 2023}}</ref><ref name="butler99">{{cite book |last1=Butler |first1=William E. |title=Criminal Code of the Russian Federation |year= 1999 |publisher=Springer}}</ref> Russia ni caru caciŵiri pa caru cose ico cikuguliska vilwero mwambura kuzomerezgeka, pamanyuma pa United States.<ref name="The Organized Crime Index 2023">{{cite web | title=Criminality in Russia | website=The Organized Crime Index | date=4 May 2023 | url=https://ocindex.net/country/russia | access-date=23 May 2023}}</ref><ref name=" The Organized Crime Index">{{cite web | title=The Organized Crime Index | website= The Organized Crime Index | url=https://ocindex.net/ | access-date=23 May 2023}}</ref><ref name="OSW Centre for Eastern Studies 2019">{{cite web | title=Russia behind bars: the peculiarities of the Russian prison system | website=OSW Centre for Eastern Studies | date=7 February 2019 | url=https://www.osw.waw.pl/en/publikacje/osw-commentary/2019-02-07/russia-behind-bars-peculiarities-russian-prison-system | access-date=23 May 2023}}</ref> == Chuma == {{Main|Economy of Russia}} {{Further|Economic history of the Russian Federation|Taxation in Russia}} [[File:Business Centre of Moscow 2.jpg|thumb|The [[Moscow International Business Center|Moscow International Business Centre]] in Moscow. The city has one of the world's [[List of cities by GDP|largest urban economies]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Churkina|first1=Natalie|last2=Zaverskiy|first2=Sergey|title=Challenges of strong concentration in urbanization: the case of Moscow in Russia|doi=10.1016/j.proeng.2017.07.095|volume=198|year=2017|pages=398–410|journal=Procedia Engineering|publisher=[[Elsevier]]}}</ref>]] Boma la Russia lili na chuma cha msika, ndipo lili na vinthu vinandi chomene, chomenechomene mafuta na gasi.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://countrystudies.us/russia/59.htm |title=Russia – Natural Resources |editor=Glenn E. Curtis |year=1998 |publisher=Washington, D.C.: Federal Research Division of the [[Library of Congress]] |access-date=25 June 2021}}</ref> Charu ichi chili na cuma cikuru comene cacinkhondi na cinayi pa caru cose pa nkhani ya GDP, ndipo nchicinkhondi na cimoza pa vyaru vyose pa nkhani ya malonda. Vigaŵa vikuruvikuru vya uteŵeti vikupanga 62% vya GDP yose, ivi vikulondezgana na vigaŵa vya vyamaseŵera (32%), apo vigaŵa vya vyakurya ni vichoko chomene, ndipo vikupanga 5% pera vya GDP yose. Ku Russia, ŵanthu awo ŵakutondeka kugwira nchito mbacoko comene. Vinthu ivyo charu ichi chikusunga ni vyacinkhondi pa vyaru vyose pa caru, ndipo vili na ndalama zakukwana madola 540 biliyoni. Mu caru ici muli ŵanthu pafupifupi 70 miliyoni, ndipo ni caru ca nambara sikisi pa vyaru ivyo vili na ŵanthu ŵanandi. Russia ni caru ca nambara 13 pa vyaru ivyo vikuguliska vyakurya ku vyaru vinyake ndipo ni caru ca nambara 21 pa vyaru ivyo vikuguliska vyakurya ku vyaru vinyake.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.trademap.org/Country_SelProductCountry.aspx?nvpm=1%7c643%7c%7c%7c%7cTOTAL%7c%7c%7c2%7c1%7c1%7c2%7c1%7c1%7c2%7c1%7c1%7c1|title=List of importing markets for the product exported by Russian Federation in 2021|work=[[International Trade Centre]]|access-date=27 June 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.trademap.org/Country_SelProductCountry.aspx?nvpm=1%7c643%7c%7c%7c%7cTOTAL%7c%7c%7c2%7c1%7c1%7c1%7c1%7c1%7c2%7c1%7c1%7c1|title=List of supplying markets for the product imported by Russian Federation in 2021|work=[[International Trade Centre]]|access-date=27 June 2022}}</ref> Boma la Russia likuthemba chomene pa ndalama izo likusanga kufuma ku misonkho ya mafuta na gasi kweniso misonkho ya vyakurya ivyo vikupanga vyakurya vinyake. Russia ni yimoza mwa vyaru ivyo vili na ngongoli yichoko chomene pa vyaru vikuruvikuru, nangauli ni vyaru vyakupambanapambana ivyo vili na ndalama zinandi. Kweniso pali mphambano yikuru pakati pa vigaŵa. Pamanyuma pa virimika vyakujumpha 10 vya kukura kwa cuma mu nyengo ya Soviet Union, kwakovwirika na mtengo wa mafuta ndiposo kukwera kwa ndalama zakwendakwenda, cuma ca Russia cikapwetekeka cifukwa ca nkhondo ya Russia na Ukraine na kunjizga Crimea mu 2014. Pamanyuma pa nkhondo ya Russia ya ku Ukraine mu 2022, chalo ichi chikakumana na viyezgo vikuru na vyakuti mabungwe gha vyamalonda ghalekerethu kugwiliskira nchito ndalama zawo, ndipo chikazgoka chalo ico ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakucicizga pa caru cose. Chifukwa cha suzgo ili, boma la Russia laleka kufumiska vinthu vinandi vya vyachuma kufuma mu Epulero 2022. Ogwira ntchito zachuma akunena kuti zilangozi zidzakhudza kwambiri chuma cha Russia.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.dw.com/en/is-russias-economy-really-hurting/a-63000166|last=Martin|first=Nik|title=Is Russia's economy really hurting?|work=[[DW News]]|publisher=[[Deutsche Welle]]|date=6 September 2022|access-date=2 October 2022}}</ref> === Transport and energy === {{Main|Transport in Russia|Energy in Russia}} [[File:VL 85-022 container train.jpg|thumb|The [[Trans-Siberian Railway]] is the longest railway line in the world, connecting Moscow to [[Vladivostok]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.businessinsider.com/trans-siberian-railway-russia-what-its-like-photos-2019-7 |title=I rode the legendary Trans-Siberian Railway on a 2,000-mile journey across 4 time zones in Russia. Here's what it was like spending 50 hours on the longest train line in the world. |work=[[Business Insider]] |first=Katie |last=Warren |date=3 January 2020 |access-date=10 June 2021}}</ref>]] Mu Russia, njanji zikwendeskeka na boma la Russia. Mtunda wose wa njanji izo zikugwiliskirika nchito ni mtunda wacitatu pa mtunda wose pa caru, ndipo ukujumpha makilomita 87,000.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/railways/country-comparison |title=Railways – The World Factbook |work=[[The World Factbook]] |publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency]] |access-date=15 June 2021}}</ref> Mu 2016, Russia wakaŵa wa nambara 5 pa vyaru ivyo vili na misewu yinandi chomene. Misewu ya maji ya ku Russia ndiyo yitali chomene pa charu chose. Pa ma eyapoti 1,218 gha ku Russia, agho ghali na ŵanthu ŵanandi chomene ni Sheremetyevo International Airport ku Moscow. Doko likuru comene mu Russia ni Novorossiysk Port mu Krasnodar Krai mumphepete mwa Nyanja Yiswesi. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakatenge Russia ni boma la nkhongono chomene pa nkhani ya magesi. Charu ichi chili na mafuta ghanandi chomene pa charu chose chapasi, ndipo chili pa nambara 8 pa vyaru ivyo vili na mafuta ghanandi chomene. Kweniso charu cha Russia ndicho chikupanga mafuta ghanandi chomene pa charu chose. Kupanga mafuta na gasi mu Russia kukapangiska kuti paŵe ubwezi wakukhora na vyaru vya ku Europe, China, na vyaru vinyake ivyo vikaŵa pasi pa Soviet Union.<ref>{{cite web |title=Oil Market and Russian Supply – Russian supplies to global energy markets – Analysis |url=https://www.iea.org/reports/russian-supplies-to-global-energy-markets/oil-market-and-russian-supply-2 |access-date=18 May 2022 |website=IEA |language=en-GB}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite web |title=Gas Market and Russian Supply – Russian supplies to global energy markets – Analysis |url=https://www.iea.org/reports/russian-supplies-to-global-energy-markets/gas-market-and-russian-supply-2 |access-date=18 May 2022 |website=IEA |language=en-GB}}</ref> Mwachiyelezgero, mu vyaka 10 ivyo vyajumpha, chiŵelengero cha Russia icho chikupeleka mafuta ku vyaru vyose vya ku Europe (mwakusazgapo United Kingdom) chikakwera kufuma pa 25% mu 2009 kufika pa 32% mu masabata ghakwambilira pambere charu cha Russia chindanjire mu Ukraine mu Febuluwale 2022. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 2000, chiŵelengero cha mafuta na gasi mu GDP chikaŵa pafupifupi 20%, ndipo mu 2013 chikaŵa 20~21% ya GDP. Malire gha mafuta na gasi mu vyakurya vya ku Russia (pafupifupi 50%) na ndalama za boma (pafupifupi 50%) ni ghanandi, ndipo GDP ya Russia yikuthemba pa mtengo wa mafuta na gasi, kweni ndalama izo zili mu GDP ni zicoko comene kuluska 50%. Kuyana na kafukufuku wakudumura wakudumura uyu uyo wakalembeka na wupu wa Russian Statistics Agency Rosstat mu 2021, chiŵelengero cha mafuta na gasi mu GDP ya Russia, kusazgapo kunozga mafuta na gasi, kwendeska, kuguliska mafuta na gasi, vinthu vyose ivyo vikugwiliskirika nchito, na milimo yose yakovwira, ni 19.2% mu 2019 na 15.2% mu 2020. Ivi vikuyana waka na GDP ya Norway na Kazakhstan. Ni pacoko comene kuluska GDP ya ku Saudi Arabia na United Arab Emirates.<ref>https://rosstat.gov.ru/storage/mediabank/1b5RpebS/Maximov-tezisy.pdf {{bare URL PDF|date=May 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.rbc.ru/economics/13/07/2021/60ec40d39a7947f74aeb2aae|title=Росстат впервые рассчитал долю нефти и газа в российском ВВП|website=РБК|date=13 July 2021 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://neftegazru.com/news/economics-markets-stocks/688594-oil-gas-share-of-russia-s-gdp-dropped-to-15-in-2020/|title=Oil & gas share of Russia's GDP dropped to 15% in 2020|website=neftegazru.com|date=14 July 2021 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://norvanreports.com/oil-gas-share-of-russias-gdp-dropped-to-15-in-2020/|title=Oil & gas share of Russia's GDP dropped to 15% in 2020 &#124; NORVANREPORTS.COM &#124; Business News, Insurance, Taxation, Oil & Gas, Maritime News, Ghana, Africa, World|date=14 July 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://oilprice.com/Latest-Energy-News/World-News/Oil-Gas-Share-Of-Russias-GDP-Dropped-To-15-In-2020.html|title=Oil & Gas Share Of Russia's GDP Dropped To 15% In 2020|website=OilPrice.com}}</ref> Russia yikazomera phangano la Paris mu 2019. Ku Russia ndiko kuli na vyakumera vinandi comene kuluska vyakumera vinyake vyose pa caru. Russia ni caru cacinayi pa caru cose ico cikupanga magesi. Kweniso ni caru cakwamba pa caru cose kupanga nkhongono za nyukiliya, na kuzenga sitima yakwamba ya nyukiliya. Mu 2019, Russia ndiyo yikaŵa na nkhongono zinandi chomene pa charu chose pa nkhani ya nyukiliya.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Whiteman |first1=Adrian |last2=Akande |first2=Dennis |last3=Elhassan |first3=Nazik |last4=Escamilla |first4=Gerardo |last5=Lebedys |first5=Arvydas |last6=Arkhipova |first6=Lana |url=https://www.irena.org/-/media/Files/IRENA/Agency/Publication/2021/Apr/IRENA_RE_Capacity_Statistics_2021.pdf |title=Renewable Energy Capacity Statistics 2021 |access-date=3 January 2022 |location=[[Abu Dhabi]] |publisher=[[International Renewable Energy Agency]] |date=2021 |isbn=978-92-9260-342-7}}</ref> === Agriculture and fishery === {{Main|Agriculture in Russia|Fishing industry in Russia}} [[File:Wheat Tomsk.jpg|thumb|left|Wheat in [[Tomsk Oblast]], Siberia]] Vyaru vya Russia vikupanga pafupifupi 5% ya GDP ya caru ici, nangauli vikugwirapo nchito pafupifupi cigaŵa cimoza pa vigaŵa vinkhondi na cimoza vya ŵanthu wose awo ŵakugwira nchito. Charu ichi chili na malo ghakurughakuru ghachitatu pa charu chose, ghakukwana 1,265,267 sq. km. Ndipouli, cifukwa ca umo caru ici ciliri, pafupifupi 13.1% ya caru ici ni vyakurya, ndipo 7.4% pera ni vyakurya. Malo gha vyakurya gha mu caru ici ghakumanyikwa kuti ni malo gha ku Europe. Malo ghakujumpha hafu gha malo agha ghakupambika vyakurya vya viŵeto. Vipambi vikuru comene mu vyaru vya Russia ni vyakurya vya tirigu, ivyo vikukwana pafupifupi hafu ya malo gha vyakurya. Russia ni caru ico cikuguliska tirigu comene pa caru cose, ndipo ndico cikuguliska balere na buckwheat comene.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.fao.org/3/cb9236en/cb9236en.pdf|title=The importance of Ukraine and the Russian Federation for global agricultural markets and the risks associated with the current conflict|date=25 March 2022|publisher=[[Food and Agriculture Organization]]|location=[[Rome]]|access-date=8 July 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://oec.world/en/profile/bilateral-product/wheat/reporter/rus?redirect=true|title=Wheat in Russia &#124; OEC|website=OEC – The Observatory of Economic Complexity}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-09-22/russia-s-dominance-of-the-wheat-world-keeps-growing |title=Russia's Dominance of the Wheat World Keeps Growing |publisher=[[Bloomberg L.P.]] |first1=Anatoly |last1=Medetsky |first2=Megan |last2=Durisin |date=23 September 2020 |access-date=15 June 2021}}</ref> Ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵakumanya umo vyakumera vingasinthira na kusintha kwa nyengo ŵakuwona kuti mu vyaka vya m'ma 2000 vyakurya vya ku Russia vizamusambazgika chomene. Chifukwa cha mumphepete mwa nyanja zikuruzikuru zitatu na nyanja 12 izo zili mumphepete mwa nyanja, charu cha Russia chili pa nambara 6 pa vyakumera vikuruvikuru pa charu chose chapasi. Mu chaka cha 2018, ŵanthu pafupifupi 5 miliyoni ŵakakora somba. Mu charu ichi ndimo mukusangika somba ziwemi chomene za beluga.<ref name="agriculturebritannica">{{cite encyclopedia |title=Russia – Economy |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Russia/Economy |access-date=1 July 2021}}</ref> === Science and technology === {{Main|Science and technology in Russia}} {{See also|Timeline of Russian innovation|List of Russian scientists|List of Russian inventors}} <!--section full of name spamming see Canada#Science and technology for proper example--> [[File:M.V. Lomonosov by L.Miropolskiy after G.C.Prenner (1787, RAN).jpg|thumb|upright|[[Mikhail Lomonosov]] (1711–1765), [[polymath]] scientist, inventor, poet and artist]] Boma la Russia likagwiliskira nchito pafupifupi 1% ya GDP yake pa kafukufuku mu 2019, ndipo ndilo lili na ndalama zinandi comene pa caru cose. Kweniso yikaŵa ya nambara 10 pa charu chose pa nkhani ya mabuku gha sayansi agho ghakalembeka mu 2020. Kwambira mu 1904, ŵanthu 26 ŵa ku Soviet Union na Russia ŵali kupokera chawanangwa cha Nobel mu vyaru vya physics, chemistry, medicine, economics, literature na peace. Russia ili pa malo 45 pa Global Innovation Index mu 2021.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.wipo.int/edocs/pubdocs/en/wipo_pub_gii_2021/ru.pdf |title=RUSSIAN FEDERATION |work=[[World Intellectual Property Organization]] |publisher=United Nations |access-date=17 November 2021}}</ref> Kufuma waka mu nyengo ya Nikolay Lobachevsky, uyo wakambiska masamu agho ghakusambizga vya Euclid yayi, na Pafnuty Chebyshev, uyo wakaŵa msambizgi wakumanyikwa chomene, ŵasayansi ŵa masamu ŵa ku Russia ndiwo ŵakaŵa na mazaza chomene pa charu chose. Dmitry Mendeleev ndiyo wakambiska sayansi ya vinthu vyamunthazi. Ŵasayansi 9 ŵa ku Russia na Soviet ŵali kupokera chawanangwa ichi. Mu 2002, Grigori Perelman wakapokera chawanangwa chakuchemeka Clay Millennium Prize Problems Award chifukwa cha ukaboni wake waumaliro wa fundo ya Poincaré, kweniso Fields Medal mu 2006.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Morgan |first=Frank |title=Manifolds with Density and Perelman's Proof of the Poincaré Conjecture |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-mathematical-monthly_2009-02_116_2/page/134 |jstor=27642690 |volume=116 |number=2 |pages=134–142 |date=February 2009 |journal=[[The American Mathematical Monthly]] |publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]]|doi=10.1080/00029890.2009.11920920 |s2cid=6068179 }}</ref> Alexander Popov wakaŵa yumoza wa awo ŵakapanga wayilesi, ndipo Nikolai Basov na Alexander Prokhorov ndiwo ŵakapanga laser na maser. Oleg Losev wakacita vinandi comene pa nkhani ya kudumura vinthu mu viŵiya, ndipo wakabowozga viŵiya vyakufumiska ungweru. Vladimir Vernadsky wakuwoneka kuti ndiyo wakambiska sayansi ya geochemistry, biogeochemistry, na radiogeology. Eli Metchnikoff wakumanyikwa na kafukufuku wake wakukhwaskana na munkhwala wakuvikilira thupi. Ivan Pavlov wakumanyikwa comene cifukwa ca mulimo wake wa kusambizga ŵanthu kuti ŵaŵe na maghanoghano ghakwenelera. Lev Landau wakawovwira chomene pa nkhani ya sayansi. Nikolai Vavilov wakumanyikwa comene cifukwa ca kumanya malo agho vyakumera vikupangikira. Trofim Lysenko wakamanyikwanga comene cifukwa ca cisopa ca Lysenko. Ŵasayansi na ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakumanyikwa ŵa ku Russia ŵakafuma ku vyaru vinyake. Igor Sikorsky wakaŵa mupayiniya wa vya ndege. Vladimir Zworykin ndiyo wakapanga makina gha pa TV ghakucemeka iconoscope na kinescope. Theodosius Dobzhansky wakaŵa munthu wakuzirwa chomene pa nkhani ya umo vinthu vikalengekera. George Gamow wakaŵa yumoza wa ŵanthu awo ŵakasambizganga fundo yakuti vinthu vikachita kuphulika kufuma ku chinthu chinyake.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.colorado.edu/physics/events/outreach/george-gamow-memorial-lecture-series/distinguished-life-and-career-george-gamow |title= The Distinguished Life and Career of George Gamow |date= 11 May 2016 |publisher=[[University of Colorado Boulder]] |access-date=21 January 2022}}</ref> ==== Space exploration ==== Roscosmos ni wupu wakuwona vya mlengalenga wa Russia. Ivyo charu cha Russia chafiska pa nkhani ya sayansi ya mlengalenga vikamba na Konstantin Tsiolkovsky, uyo wakaŵa wiske wa sayansi ya mlengalenga. Mu 1957, Satellite yakwamba ya Sputnik 1 yikaponyeka kucanya. Mu 1961, Yuri Gagarin ndiyo wakaluta mu mlengalenga kakwamba. Pakajumpha nyengo yitali kufuma apo ku Russia na ku Soviet Union kukaŵaso ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakasanda mlengalenga. Mu 1963, Valentina Tereshkova wakaŵa mwanakazi wakwamba kweniso muchoko comene kuluta mu mlengalenga. Mu 1965, Alexei Leonov wakaŵa munthu wakwamba kwenda mu mlengalenga. Mu 1957, Laika, ntcheŵe yakufuma ku Soviet, ndiyo yikaŵa nyama yakwamba kuzingilira caru capasi. Mu 1966, ndege ya Luna 9 ndiyo yikaŵa yakwamba kufika pa mwezi. Mu 1968, Zond 5 yikawovwira ŵanthu ŵaŵiri ŵa pa charu chapasi kuti ŵende kuzingilira mwezi. Mu 1970, Venera 7 ndiyo yikaŵa ndege yakwamba kukhira pa caru cinyake, Venus. Mu 1971, Mars 3 yikaŵa ndege yakwamba kukwera pa Mars.:34 ¢60 Mu nyengo yeneyiyo, Lunokhod 1 yikaŵa ndege yakwamba kukwera mu mlengalenga, ndipo Salyut 1 yikaŵa sitima yakwamba ya mlengalenga. Mu Epulero 2022, caru ca Russia cikaŵa na mapulaneti 172 mu mlengalenga.<ref>{{cite web |title=Satellite Database |url=https://www.ucsusa.org/resources/satellite-database |access-date=18 August 2022 |website=[[Union of Concerned Scientists]]}}</ref> === Tourism === {{Main|Tourism in Russia}} [[File:Grand Cascade in Peterhof 01.jpg|thumb|[[Peterhof Palace]] in Saint Petersburg, a [[UNESCO World Heritage Site]]]] Kuyana na wupu wa World Tourism Organization, charu cha Russia chili pa nambara 16 pa vyaru ivyo ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuluta ku malo agha. Wupu wakuwona vya maulendo ku Russia (Federal Agency for Tourism) ukati mu 2019, ŵanthu ŵakufuma ku vyaru vinyake ŵakaluta ku Russia maulendo ghakukwana 24.4 miliyoni. Mu 2018, ndalama izo charu cha Russia chikapokera kufuma ku ŵanthu ŵakwendakwenda zikakwana madola 11.6 biliyoni. Mu chaka cha 2019, maulendo na vyakukopa ŵanthu vikaŵa pafupifupi 4.8% ya GDP ya charu chose.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://knoema.com/atlas/Russian-Federation/topics/Tourism/Travel-and-Tourism-Total-Contribution-to-GDP/Contribution-of-travel-and-tourism-to-GDP-percent-of-GDP|title=Russian Federation Contribution of travel and tourism to GDP (% of GDP), 1995–2019 |website=Knoema}}</ref> Ŵalendo ŵanandi ŵakuluta ku malo ghakupambanapambana ku Russia. Ŵalendo aŵa ŵakwenda mu malo ghakuchemeka Golden Ring of Russia. Vinyake mwa malo agho ŵanthu ŵakutemwa kuluta ku Russia ni Red Square, Peterhof Palace, Kazan Kremlin, Trinity Lavra of St. Petersburg, na Moscow Cathedral. Sergius na Nyanja ya Baikal. Moscow, msumba ukuru wa caru ici, ni msumba ukuru comene. Nyumba iyi yili na vyakuzengeka vya nyengo ya Soviet ndipo yili na vinthu vyakuzirwa nga ni vyakusanguluska, maseŵero gha ballet, na nyumba zikuruzikuru. Msumba wa St. Petersburg, uwo ni msumba ukuru wa Ufumu wa Russia, ukumanyikwa na vyakuzengeka, matchalitchi, nyumba zakusungiramo vinthu vyakale, mise yituŵa, milonga na migelo yinandi. Charu cha Russia ntchakumanyikwa pa charu chose chifukwa cha malo ghakusungirako vinthu vyakale nga ni State Russian, State Hermitage, na Tretyakov Gallery. Nyumba ya Moscow Kremlin na Cathedral ya St. Basil ni vinyake mwa vinthu vyakuzirwa comene mu Russia.<ref>{{cite web|title=Kremlin and Red Square, Moscow|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/545/|access-date=20 February 2022|website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre}}</ref> == Ŵanthu == {{Main|Demographics of Russia|Russians|List of cities and towns in Russia|List of cities and towns in Russia by population}} {{multiple image | direction = vertical | caption_align = center | align = right | title = Ethnic groups across Russia | image1 = Ethnic groups in Russia of more than 1 million people 2010 Census English.png | caption1 = {{font|size=100%|text=Ethnic groups in Russia with a population of over 1 million according to the 2010 census}} | image2 = Percentage of Russians by region.svg | caption2 = {{font|size=100%|text=Percentage of ethnic Russians by region according to the 2010 census}} }} Charu cha Russia chili na ŵanthu ŵachoko chomene pa charu chose ndipo ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakukhala mu misumba. Ŵanthu ŵakukwana 142.8 miliyoni kuyana na kalembera wa mu 2010, ndipo ŵakukwana 145.5 miliyoni mu 2022. Charu cha Russia ndicho chili na ŵanthu ŵanandi chomene ku Europe, ndipo chili pa nambara 9 pa vyaru vyose pa charu chapasi.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/EN.POP.DNST |title=Population density (people per sq. km of land area) |work=[[The World Bank]] |access-date=16 June 2021}}</ref> Kwamba m'ma 1990, ciŵelengero ca ŵanthu awo ŵakufwa ku Russia cajumpha ca awo ŵakubabika. Mu 2019, chiŵelengero cha ŵana awo ŵakubabika mu Russia chikaŵa 1.5 pa mwanakazi waliyose, ndipo ichi ntchichoko chomene pakuyaniska na chiŵelengero cha ŵana awo ŵakubabika mu charu ichi. Ntheura, caru ici nchimoza mwa vyaru ivyo ŵanthu ŵake mbacekuru comene pa caru cose, ndipo ŵali na vilimika 40.3. Mu 2009, caru ici cikaŵa na ŵanthu ŵanandi comene kwa nyengo yakwamba mu vilimika 15, ndipo pamanyuma pake ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakamba kufwa cifukwa ca kuchepa kwa unandi wa ŵanthu awo ŵakufwa, kunjira mu caru cinyake cifukwa ca ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakubabika.<ref>{{cite web |last=Foltynova |first=Kristyna |url=https://www.rferl.org/a/migrants-welcome-is-russia-trying-to-solve-its-demographic-crisis-by-attracting-foreigners-/30677952.html |title=Migrants Welcome: Is Russia Trying To Solve Its Demographic Crisis By Attracting Foreigners? |publisher=[[Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty]] |quote="Russia has been trying to boost fertility rates and reduce death rates for several years now. Special programs for families have been implemented, anti-tobacco campaigns have been organized, and raising the legal age to buy alcohol was considered. However, perhaps the most successful strategy so far has been attracting migrants, whose arrival helps Russia to compensate population losses." |date=19 June 2020 |access-date=9 July 2021}}</ref> Ndipouli, kwambira mu 2020, chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu ku Russia chawelerapo, chifukwa ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakufwa na nthenda ya COVID-19 yikapangiska kuti chiŵelengero chake chichepe chomene mu nyengo ya mtende. Pamanyuma pa nkhondo ya Russia ya ku Ukraine mu 2022, suzgo la ŵanthu mu chalo ichi likasazgikira comene, cifukwa boma ili likapwetekeka comene na ŵasilikari awo ŵakafwa. Boma la Russia lili na vyaru vinandi ivyo vili na ŵanthu ŵachoko waka. Mu caru cose ici muli mafuko ghakujumpha 193. Mu 2010, ŵanthu pafupifupi 81% ŵakaŵa ŵa fuko la Russia, ndipo 19% ŵakaŵa ŵa fuko linyake. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Russia ŵakaŵa ŵa fuko la Europe. Kuyana na wupu wa United Nations, caru ca Russia ndico cili na ŵanthu ŵanandi comene ŵakufuma ku vyaru vinyake, ndipo ŵalipo ŵakujumpha 11.6 miliyoni.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2019-04-03/russia-and-ukraine-fight-but-their-people-want-reconciliation |title=Russia and Ukraine Fight, But Their People Seek Reconciliation |publisher=[[Bloomberg L.P.]] |first=Leonid |last=Ragozin |date=3 April 2019 |access-date=19 April 2021}}</ref> {{Largest cities of Russia}} === Viyowoyelo === {{Main|Russian language|Languages of Russia}} {{multiple image|perrow=2|total_width=350|caption_align=center | align = right | title = Minority languages across Russia | image1 = Linguistic map of the Altaic, Turkic and Uralic languages (en).png|caption1=[[Altaic languages|Altaic]] and [[Uralic languages]] spoken across Russia | image2 = Caucasus-ethnic en.svg|caption2=The [[North Caucasus]] is [[Peoples of the Caucasus|ethno]]-[[North Caucasian languages|linguistically]] diverse.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lazarev |first1=Vladimir |last2=Pravikova |first2=Ludmila |title=The North Caucasus Bilingualism and Language Identity |publisher=Pyatigorsk State Linguistic University |quote=The North Caucasus, inhabited by more than 100 of autochthonous and allochthonous peoples, including Russians, is a unique locus for conducting a large-scale research in the area of bilingualism and multilingualism. |page=1325 |url=http://www.lingref.com/isb/4/103ISB4.PDF}}</ref> }} Chiyowoyero cha ku Russia ndicho chikuyowoyeka chomene.<ref name="Russian"/> Chiyowoyero ichi ndicho chikuyowoyeka chomene ku Europe, kweniso ndicho chili na ŵanthu ŵanandi chomene ku Eurasia. Chiyowoyero cha Chirussia ndicho chikuyowoyeka pa malo ghakuchemeka International Space Station. Russia ni charu icho ŵanthu ŵakuyowoya viyowoyero vinandi.<ref>{{cite journal |year=2011 |last=Iryna |first=Ulasiuk |title=Legal protection of linguistic diversity in Russia: past and present |journal=[[Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development]] |publisher=[[European University Institute]] |volume=32 |number=1 |pages=71–83 |doi=10.1080/01434632.2010.536237 |s2cid=145612470 |issn=0143-4632 |quote=Russia is unique in its size and ethnic composition. There is a further linguistic complexity of more than 150 co-existing languages.}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Russia/Mixed-and-deciduous-forest#ref38595 |title=Russia – Ethnic groups and languages |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |quote="Although ethnic Russians comprise more than four-fifths of the country's total population, Russia is a diverse, multiethnic society. More than 120 ethnic groups, many with their own national territories, speaking some 100 languages live within Russia's borders." |access-date=8 November 2020}}</ref> Kuyana na kalembera uyo wakachitika mu 2010, ŵanthu 137.5 miliyoni ŵakayowoyanga Chirussia, 4.3 miliyoni ŵakayowoyanga Chitata, ndipo 1.1 miliyoni ŵakayowoyanga Chiukraine. Ndondomeko iyi yikupeleka wanangwa ku vigaŵa vya caru ici kuti viŵe na viyowoyero vyawo vya boma padera pa Cirasha, kweniso yikovwira ŵanthu kuti ŵasungilire ciyowoyero cawo na kupanga vinthu vyakukhumbikwa kuti ŵacisambire na kucikura. Ndipouli, ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakuti viyowoyero vinandi vya ku Russia vikumara chifukwa viyowoyero vinandi vili pangozi.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Jankiewicz |first1=Szymon |last2=Knyaginina |first2=Nadezhda |last3=Prina |first3=Federic |url=http://eprints.gla.ac.uk/208165/1/208165.pdf |title=Linguistic rights and education in the republics of the Russian Federation: towards unity through uniformity |date=13 March 2020 |volume=45 |number=1 |pages=59–91 |journal=[[Review of Central and East European Law]] |doi=10.1163/15730352-bja10003 |publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]] |s2cid=216273023 |issn=0925-9880}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bondarenko |first1=Dmitry V. |last2=Nasonkin |first2=Vladimir V. |last3=Shagieva |first3=Rozalina V. |last4=Kiyanova |first4=Olga N. |last5=Barabanova |first5=Svetlana V. |year=2018 |title=Linguistic Diversity In Russia Is A Threat To Sovereignty Or A Condition Of Cohesion? |url=https://mjltm.org/article-1-146-en.pdf |journal=Modern Journal of Language Teaching Methods |pages=166–182 |volume=8 |number=5 |issn=2251-6204}}</ref> === Religion === {{Main|Religion in Russia}} [[File:Moscow StBasilCathedral d18.jpg|thumb|[[Saint Basil's Cathedral]] in Moscow is the most iconic religious architecture of Russia.]] Ku Russia kuli boma la ŵanthu ŵanandi yayi, ndipo cisopa cikuru comene ni Cikhristu ca Eastern Orthodox, ico cikumanyikwa comene na Tchalitchi la Russian Orthodox. Dango la Russia likuti cisopa ca Orthodox, pamoza na Cisilamu, Cibuda, na Cikhristu ca Ŵamitundu Yinyake (icho cilipo sono panji caŵasopo), ni visopa vya mu caru ici, ndipo ni vigaŵa vya "mbiri ya caru ici".<ref>{{cite book|last=Bourdeaux|first=Michael|chapter=Trends in Religious Policy|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EPP3ti4hysUC&pg=PA46|title=Eastern Europe, Russia and Central Asia|publisher=Taylor and Francis|year=2003|isbn=978-1857431377|pages=46–52 [47]}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Fagan|first=Geraldine|title=Believing in Russia: Religious Policy After Communism|publisher=Routledge|year=2013|isbn=9780415490023}} p. 127.</ref> Chisopa cha Chisilamu ndicho ntchikuru chomene pa visopa vyose mu Russia, ndipo ntchisopa cha ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku North Caucasus, kweniso ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵa ku Turkmenistan awo ŵakukhala ku chigaŵa cha Volga na Ural. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa chisopa cha Chibuda ŵakukhala mu vyaru vya Kalmykia, Buryatia, Zabaykalsky Krai, na Tuva. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Russia ŵakulondezga visopa vinyake, kusazgapo Rodnovery (Slavic Neopaganism), Assianism (Scythian Neopaganism), mitundu yinyake ya ŵanthu awo ŵakusopa ŵangoza, na visopa vinyake vya ŵanthu ŵangoza nga ni Ringing Cedars' Anastasianism, visopa vyakupambanapambana vya Chihindu, Siberian shamanism na Tengrism, visopa vyakupambanapambana vya Neo-Theosophical nga ni Roerichism, na visopa vinyake.<ref>{{cite book|year=2006|editor-surname1=Bourdeaux|editor-given1=Michael|editor-surname2=Filatov|editor-given2=Sergey|title=Современная религиозная жизнь России. Опыт систематического описания|trans-title=Contemporary religious life of Russia. Systematic description of experiences|place=Moscow|publisher=[[Keston Institute]]; Logos|volume=4|language=ru|isbn=5987040574}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|editor-last1=Menzel|editor-first1=Brigit|editor-last2=Hagemeister|editor-first2=Michael|editor-last3=Glatzer Rosenthal|editor-first3=Bernice|title=The New Age of Russia: Occult and Esoteric Dimensions|publisher=Kubon & Sagner|year=2012|isbn=978-3866881976|url=https://library.oapen.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12657/26681/1003383.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210903042320/https://library.oapen.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12657/26681/1003383.pdf|archive-date=3 September 2021}}</ref> Ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵakusopa mu visopa vichokovichoko ŵakutambuzgika ndipo ŵanyake ŵakukanizgika mu charu ichi. Mu 2017, Ŵakaboni ŵa Yehova ŵakaŵakanizga mu Russia. Mu 2012, wupu wakuwona vya chisopa wa Sreda, pamoza na Unduna wa vya Malango, ukafumiska buku la Arena Atlas, ilo likasazgako ku kalembera wa mu 2010, ilo likulongosora vya chisopa na mitundu ya ŵanthu mu Russia. Ivyo vikachitika vikalongora kuti ŵanthu 47.3% ŵa ku Russia ŵakajiphara kuti Mbakhristu, kusazgapo 41% ŵa tchalitchi la Orthodox, 1.5% ŵa Orthodox panji ŵa matchalitchi ghanyake, 4.1% ŵa Ŵakhristu ŵambura kukolerana na tchalitchi linyake, ndipo ŵambura kukolerana na tchalitchi la Orthodox, Ŵakatorika, panji Ŵaprotesitanti, ndipo ŵakakwana 1%.<ref name="ArenaAtlas2012"/> === Masambilo === {{Main|Education in Russia}} [[File:МГУ, вид с воздуха.jpg|thumb|[[Moscow State University]], the most prestigious educational institution in Russia<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.topuniversities.com/universities/lomonosov-moscow-state-university |title=Lomonosov Moscow State University |work=[[QS World University Rankings]] |access-date=28 June 2021}}</ref>]] Ŵanthu ŵanandi ku Russia ŵakumanya kulemba na kuŵazga, ndipo sukulu iyi njakukakamiza kwa vyaka 11. Dango la caru ici likuti ŵanthu ŵasambirenge kwawanangwa.<ref name="CEPES">{{cite book |date=1997 |last=Kouptsov |first=Oleg |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000129839 |title=Mutual recognition of qualifications: the Russian Federation and the other European countries |location=[[Bucharest]] |work=[[UNESCO-CEPES]] |publisher=[[UNESCO]] |page=25 |isbn=929-0-69146-8}}</ref> Unduna wa vya masambiro ku Russia ndiwo ukupeleka masambiro gha ku pulayimale na gha ku sekondare, kweniso masambiro gha mauteŵeti. Ŵalaraŵalara ŵa vigaŵa ŵakulongozga masambiro mu vigaŵa vyawo mwakuyana na malango gha boma. Russia ni yimoza mwa vyaru ivyo vili na masambiro ghapacanya comene pa caru cose, ndipo ni caru ca nambara 6 pa vyaru vyose ivyo vili na ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵali kumalizga masambiro ghapacanya.<ref>{{cite journal |url=https://data.oecd.org/eduatt/population-with-tertiary-education.htm |title=Population with tertiary education |publisher=[[OECD]] |doi=10.1787/0b8f90e9-en |year=2022 |access-date=21 January 2022}}</ref> Mu 2018, charu ichi chikagwiliskira ntchito ndalama zakukwana 4.7% pa GDP yake pa masambiro. Ŵana ŵa vyaka vyapakati pa vitatu na vinkhondi na cimoza mu caru ca Russia ŵakusambira mu masukulu gha ŵana ŵachoko. Ŵana ŵa vyaka 6 m'paka 7 ndiwo ŵakwenera kusambira sukulu ya pulayimale. Kuti munthu wafike ku sekondare wakwenera kusambira vyaka viŵiri panji vitatu, ndipo ŵanthu pafupifupi 7 pa ŵanthu 8 ŵa ku Russia ŵakulutilira kusambira sukulu iyi. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakunjira masukulu ghapachanya ndipo ŵakusanga mwaŵi wa kusambira. Maunivesite ghakale chomene na ghakuru chomene mu Russia ni Moscow State University na Saint Petersburg State University. Mu vyaru vyose ivi muli masukulu ghapachanya 10 gha boma. Russia ndiyo yikaŵa malo ghachinkhondi pa charu chose agho ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakasambirangako ku charu ichi mu 2019.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://uis.unesco.org/en/uis-student-flow |title=Global Flow of Tertiary-Level Students |publisher=[[UNESCO]] |access-date=4 January 2022}}</ref> === Umoyo === {{Main|Healthcare in Russia}} [[File:Metallurg Sochi.jpg|thumb|Metallurg, a Soviet-era [[sanatorium]] in [[Sochi]]<ref>{{cite news |last=Morton |first=Elise |url=https://www.calvertjournal.com/features/show/9981/beyond-the-game-sochi-seaside-walking-guide-soviet-sanatoriums-gardens |work=[[Calvert 22 Foundation]] |title=Russian rivieia: from Soviet sanatoriums to lush gardens, your walking guide to seaside Sochi |date=25 May 2018 |access-date=7 January 2022}}</ref>]] Ku Russia, malango ghakwendeskera umoyo ghakupeleka wovwiri waulere ku ŵanthu wose ŵa mu charu ichi.<ref>{{cite web |last=Cook |first=Linda |url=https://www.unrisd.org/80256B3C005BCCF9/(httpAuxPages)/3C45C5A972BF063BC1257DF1004C5420/$file/Cook.pdf |date=February 2015 |work=[[United Nations Research Institute for Social Development]] |publisher=United Nations |title=Constraints on Universal Health Care in the Russian Federation |location=Geneva |access-date=3 January 2022 }}</ref> Unduna wa vya Umoyo wa Ŵanthu wa Russia ndiwo ukuwona vya umoyo wa ŵanthu, ndipo ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 2 miliyoni ŵakugwira ntchito mu charu ichi. Vigaŵa vya boma navyo vili na maofesi gha vyaumoyo agho ghakuwona vya boma. Kuti munthu wasange wovwiri wa ku chipatala ku Russia wakwenera kuŵa na inshuwalansi yapadera. Boma la Russia lagwiritsa ntchito 5.65% ya GDP yake pa zaumoyo mu 2019.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.XPD.CHEX.GD.ZS?locations=RU |title=Current health expenditure (% of GDP) – Russian Federation |publisher=[[World Bank]] |access-date=21 April 2021|quote=Data retrieved on January 30, 2022.}}</ref> Ndalama izo charu ichi chikugwiliskira nchito pa vya cipatala ni zicoko comene pakuyaniska na za vyaru vinyake vyakutukuka. Chifukwa cha unandi wa ŵanalume awo ŵakufwa, caru ca Russia nchimoza mwa vyaru ivyo ŵanthu ŵakutemwa comene ŵanakazi. Mu 2019, umoyo wose wa ŵanthu ku Russia ukaŵa wa vyaka 73.2 (68.2 kwa ŵanalume na 78.0 kwa ŵanakazi). Mu Russia, matenda gha mtima ndigho ghakwamba kufwa. Ku Russia, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakututuŵa chomene. Ndipouli, nangauli mu vyaka 10 ivyo vyajumpha ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakumwa chomene moŵa ku Russia, kweni ni suzgo likuru chomene pa charu chose. Kukhweŵa hona ni suzgo linyake mu caru ici. Nangauli chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu awo ŵakujikoma chikukhira, kweni ni suzgo likuru chomene.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.euro.who.int/en/health-topics/noncommunicable-diseases/mental-health/news/news/2020/9/preventing-suicide-russian-federation-adapts-who-self-harm-monitoring-tool |title=Preventing suicide: Russian Federation adapts WHO self-harm monitoring tool |publisher=[[World Health Organization]] |date=9 October 2020 |access-date=3 January 2022 }}</ref> == Mwambo == {{Main|Russian culture}} [[File:Moscow-Bolshoi-Theare-1.jpg|thumb|The [[Bolshoi Theatre]] in Moscow, at night]] Ŵanthu ŵa ku Russia ŵakulondezga mitheto yawo chifukwa cha mbiri ya charu ichi, malo agho chili na ŵanthu ŵanandi, chisopa na mitheto ya ŵanthu, kweniso vinthu vya ku Western.<ref>{{cite journal |url=https://www.historytoday.com/archive/western-culture-comes-russia |title=Western Culture Comes to Russia |date=10 October 1970 |volume=20 |number=10 |last=Lincoln |first=W.B. |publisher=[[History Today]] |access-date=14 January 2022}}</ref> Awo ŵakulemba mabuku na ŵavinjeru ŵa ku Russia ŵali kovwirapo chomene pa nkhani ya mabuku na maghanoghano gha ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Russia ŵakukhwaskaso chomene sumu, maseŵero, kupenta, na mafilimu. Charu ichi chachitaso vinandi pa nkhani ya sayansi na vyakupangapanga ndiposo kupenja malo.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Hachten |first=Elizabeth A. |title=In Service to Science and Society: Scientists and the Public in Late-Nineteenth-Century Russia |jstor=3655271 |publisher=The [[University of Chicago Press]] |journal=[[Osiris]] |year=2002 |volume=17 |pages=171–209|doi=10.1086/649363 |s2cid=144835649 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Ipatieff |first=V.N. |title=Modern Science in Russia |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_russian-review_spring-1943_2_2/page/68 |jstor=125254 |doi=10.2307/125254 |year=1943 |pages=68–80 |journal=[[The Russian Review]] |publisher=[[Wiley (publisher)|Wiley]] |volume=2 |number=2}}</ref> Ku Russia kuli malo 30 agho ghali kulembeka na UNESCO kuti ni malo ghakukondweska ŵanthu. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Russia awo ŵakukhala mu vyaru vinyake ŵali kovwirapo chomene pa kusambizga ŵanthu ŵa ku Russia. Chizindikiro cha charu cha Russia, nombo ya mitu yiŵiri, yikamba mu nyengo ya ufumu wa Tsardom, ndipo yili pa vikozgo vya charu ichi. Kanandi nkhalamira ya ku Russia na Mama Russia ni vimanyikwiro vya caru ici.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Platoff |first=Anne M. |title=The 'Forward Russia' Flag: Examining the Changing Use of the Bear as a Symbol of Russia |journal=[[Raven: A Journal of Vexillology]] |volume=19 |url=https://escholarship.org/content/qt5xz8x2zc/qt5xz8x2zc.pdf?t=n02jtk |pages=99–126 |doi=10.5840/raven2012197 |year=2012 |issn=1071-0043 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Riabov |first=Oleg |title=The Symbol of the Motherland in the Legitimation and Delegitimation of Power in Contemporary Russia |journal=[[Nationalities Papers]] |issn=0090-5992 |year=2020 |doi=10.1017/nps.2019.14 |pages=752–767 |volume=48 |number=4|s2cid=214578255 }}</ref> Vidoli vya Matryoshka ni vyakuzirwa chomene ku Russia.<ref>{{cite book |title=Mother Russia: The Feminine Myth in Russian Culture |page=19 |first=Hubbs |last=Joanna |year=1993 |publisher=[[Indiana University Press]] |isbn=978-0-253-20842-2}}</ref> === Holidays === {{main|Public holidays in Russia}} [[File:Алые паруса.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Scarlet Sails (tradition)|Scarlet Sails]] being celebrated along the [[Neva]] in Saint Petersburg]] Mu Russia muli maholide ghankhondi na ghatatu. Chaka chikwamba na Zuŵa la Caka Ciphya pa 1 Janyuwale, ndipo pamanyuma pake pa 7 Janyuwale pakaŵanga Khisimasi. Zuŵa la kuvikilira caru, lakupelekeka ku ŵanalume, likukondwelereka pa Febuluwale 23. Zuŵa la Ŵanakazi pa 8 Malichi, likakura comene mu Russia mu nyengo ya Soviet Union. Zuŵa la ŵanakazi ilo likuŵako chaka chilichose lakhumbikwa chomene na ŵanalume ŵa ku Russia. Zuŵa la Khisimu na la Ŵantchito, ilo likaŵa holide ya mu nyengo ya Soviet, likukondwelereka pa Meyi 1.<ref name=":0" /> Zuŵa la Nkhondo, ilo likukumbukira kuwina kwa Soviet pa Nazi Germany na umaliro wa Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Caru Cose mu Europe, likukondwelereka pa Red Square mu Moscow. Maholide ghanyake agho ŵanthu ŵakukondwelera ni Zuŵa la Russia, ilo likuchitika pa Juni 12, kuti likumbukire umo charu cha Russia chikapharazgira kuti chili na mazaza pa charu chinyake kufuma ku Soviet Union. Pali maholide ghanandi agho ŵanthu ŵakutemwa. Chaka Ciphya cikukondwelereka pa 14 Janyuwale. Maslenitsa ni holide yakale ya ŵanthu ŵa ku East Slavic. Zuŵa la Cosmonautics pa 12 Epulero, kucindika ulendo wakwamba wa ŵanthu mu mlengalenga. Maholide ghaŵiri ghakuru gha Cikristu ni Isitara na Sabata ya Utatu.<ref name=":0">{{cite web |last=Leonov |first=Tatyana |title=Celebrate: Russian Orthodox Easter |url=https://www.sbs.com.au/food/article/2013/04/04/celebrate-russian-orthodox-easter |work=[[Special Broadcasting Service]] |date=5 April 2018 |access-date=12 January 2022 }}</ref> === Maluso na kuzenga === {{Main|Russian artists|Russian architecture|List of Russian architects}} {{multiple image | direction = vertical | perrow = 2 | total_width = 230 | caption_align = center | align = right | image_style = border:none; | image1 = Karl Brullov - The Last Day of Pompeii - Google Art Project.jpg | caption1 = {{font|size=100%|text=[[Karl Bryullov]], ''[[The Last Day of Pompeii]]'' (1833)}} | image2 = Winter Palace Panorama 3.jpg | caption2 = {{font|size=100%|text=The [[Winter Palace]] served as the [[official residence]] of the [[Emperor of all the Russias|Emperor of Russia]].}} }} Ku Russia, ŵanthu ŵakujambura vithuzithuzi vyakutowa chomene. Kukwambilira kwa vyaka vya m'ma 1400, Andrei Rublev, uyo wakaŵa nkhwantha ya kupenta vikozgo, wakapanga vinthu vinyake vya cisopa vyakuzirwa comene mu Russia. Wupu wa Russian Academy of Arts, uwo ukakhazikiskika mu 1757, kuti usambizge ŵanthu ŵa ku Russia umo ŵangapangira vithuzithuzi. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800, ŵasayansi ŵanyake nga ni Ivan Argunov, Dmitry Levitzky, na Vladimir Borovikovsky ŵakaŵa na nkharo yiwemi. Kukwambilira kwa vyaka vya m'ma 1800, ŵakajambura vithuzithuzi vinandi vya Karl Briullov na Alexander Ivanov.<ref>{{cite journal |year=2018 |volume=77 |number=1 |jstor=26565352 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |journal=[[Slavic Review]] |last=Dianina |first=Katia |title=The Making of an Artist as National Hero |pages=122–150|doi=10.1017/slr.2018.13 |s2cid=165942177 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Sibbald |first=Balb |title=If the soul is nourished ... |journal=Canadian Medical Association Journal |date=5 February 2002 |volume=166 |number=3 |pages=357–358 |pmc=99322}}</ref> Ivan Aivazovsky, uyo nayo wakaŵa na nkharo iyi, wakuwoneka kuti wakaŵa yumoza wa ŵanthu ŵakumanyikwa chomene pa nkhani ya vyakumera. Mu ma1860, gulu la ŵanthu awo ŵakasuskanga vinthu (Peredvizhniki), awo ŵakalongozgekanga na Ivan Kramskoy, Ilya Repin, na Vasiliy Perov, ŵakaleka kughanaghanira chomene vya sukulu iyi. Paumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1900, ŵanthu ŵakamba kutemwana chomene.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Reeder |first=Roberta |title=Mikhail Vrubel': A Russian Interpretation of "fin de siècle" Art |jstor=4207296 |publisher=[[Modern Humanities Research Association]] |journal=[[The Slavonic and East European Review]] |volume=54 |number=3 |date=July 1976 |pages=323–334}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Archer |first=Kenneth |title=Nicholas Roerich and His Theatrical Designs: A Research Survey |jstor=1478046 |doi=10.2307/1478046 |volume=18 |number=2 |publisher=Dance Studies Association |journal=[[Congress on Research in Dance#Dance Research Journal|Dance Research Journal]] |pages=3–6 |year=1986|s2cid=191516851 }}</ref> Ŵaluso ŵa ku Russia awo ŵakamanyikwanga kuti ŵali na nkharo yiwemi ŵakamba kuzura mu 1890 m'paka mu 1930. Ŵaluso ŵanyake awo ŵakamanyikwa chomene mu nyengo iyi ŵakaŵa El Lissitzky, Kazimir Malevich, Natalia Goncharova, Wassily Kandinsky, na Marc Chagall. Mbiri ya vyakuzengeka vya ku Russia yikamba na vyakuzengeka vyakwambilira vya ŵanthu ŵa ku Slavonia, kweniso vya matchalitchi gha ku Kiev. Pamanyuma pakuti charu cha Kievan Rus' chazgoka Chikhristu, kwa vyaka vinandi chikaŵa na vyakuzengeka vya Byzantine. Aristotle Fioravanti na ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵa ku Italy ndiwo ŵakambiska nyengo ya kuwuka kwa Yesu. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1500, ŵakazenga matchalitchi agho ghakaŵa nga ni mahema. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1700, "nthowa ya moto" ya kusongonora yikakura chomene mu Moscow na Yaroslavl, ndipo pachoko na pachoko yikawovwira kuti ŵanthu ŵamanye umo ŵakazengeranga vinthu mu nyengo ya Naryshkin. Pamanyuma pa kusintha kwa vinthu kwa Peter the Great, ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe ŵakamba kutolera kalembero ka ku Russia. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800, ŵanthu ŵakamba kutemwana chomene na vyakuzengeka vya Rococo, ndipo ŵakalemba milimo yiwemi chomene ya Bartolomeo Rastrelli na ŵalondezgi ŵake. Ŵanthu ŵakumanyikwa chomene awo ŵakazenganga vinthu ku Russia mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800, nga ni Vasily Bazhenov, Matvey Kazakov, na Ivan Starov, ŵakapanga vinthu vyakukumbukika ku Moscow na Saint Petersburg. Mu nyengo ya Catherine Mukuru, msumba wa St. Petersburg ukazgoka malo ghakusungirako vinthu vyakale. Mu nyengo ya Alexander I, nyumba izo ŵakazenganga zikaŵa za Ufumu. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800, ŵanthu ŵakamba kutemwana chomene na ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yinyake. Kukwambilira kwa vyaka vya m'ma 1900, ŵanthu ŵakamba kuzgoŵera kalembero kakupambanapambana ka ku Russia. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1900, ŵanthu ŵakamba kutemwana chomene na ŵanthu ŵa mitundu iyi.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://iseees.berkeley.edu/sites/default/files/shared/doc/2013_8-eady.pdf |title=To the New Shore: Soviet Architecture's Journey from Classicism to Standardization |last=Zubovich-Eady |first=Katherine |year=2013 |publisher=[[University of California, Berkeley]] |access-date=15 January 2022 |archive-date=20 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120150146/https://iseees.berkeley.edu/sites/default/files/shared/doc/2013_8-eady.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> === Music === {{Main|Music of Russia}} [[File:Porträt des Komponisten Pjotr I. Tschaikowski (1840-1893).jpg|thumb|upright|[[Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky]] (1840–1893), in a 1893 painting by [[Nikolai Dmitriyevich Kuznetsov (painter)|Nikolai Dmitriyevich Kuznetsov]]]] M'paka m'ma 1700, sumu za ku Russia zikaŵa za ku tchalitchi, na za ŵanthu.<ref name="Music">{{cite web |last=Curtis |first=Glenn E. |url=http://countrystudies.us/russia/44.htm |title=Russia – Music |year=1998 |publisher=Federal Research Division of the [[Library of Congress]] |location=Washington D.C. |access-date=25 June 2021}}</ref>Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800, sumu iyi yikamanyikwa na umo ŵanthu ŵakakhalira pakati pa Mikhail Glinka, uyo wakaŵa wakwimba wakwimba, na ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵa gulu la The Mighty Handful. Ivyo wakalemba Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky, uyo wakaŵa yumoza wa ŵanthu ŵakumanyikwa chomene awo ŵakalemba sumu zachitemwa, Sergei Rachmaninoff ndiyo wakalutilira kulemba m'ma 1900. Ŵanyake mwa ŵanthu ŵakumanyikwa chomene awo ŵakalemba sumu mu vyaka vya m'ma 1900, ni Alexander Scriabin, Alexander Glazunov, Igor Stravinsky, Sergei Prokofiev na Dmitri Shostakovich, kweniso Edison Denisov, Sofia Gubaidulina, Georgy Sviridov, na Alfred Schnittke.<ref name="music2">{{cite encyclopedia |title=Russia – Music |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Russia/Music |access-date=7 July 2021}}</ref> Mu nyengo ya Soviet Union, ŵanthu ŵakamanyikwanga chomene na sumu nga ni Vladimir Vysotsky na Bulat Okudzhava. Nangauli boma la Soviet likakanizganga sumu za jazz, kweni zikalutilira kukura ndipo zikazgoka sumu zakumanyikwa comene mu caru ici. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1980, sumu za rock zikaŵa zakutchuka chomene mu Russia, ndipo zikafumiska magulu nga ni Aria, Aquarium, DDT, na Kino. Sumu za pop zikulutilira kukura mu Russia kwambira mu ma 1960, ndipo ŵanthu ŵakumanyikwa pa caru cose nga ni t.A.T.u.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.theage.com.au/entertainment/music/tatu-bad-to-be-true-20030614-gdvvq0.html |title=Tatu bad to be true |work=[[The Age]] |date=14 June 2003 |access-date=7 July 2021}}</ref> === Literature and philosophy === {{Main|Russian literature|Russian philosophy}} {{multiple image | perrow = 2 | total_width = 300 | caption_align = center | align = left | image1 = Ilya Efimovich Repin (1844-1930) - Portrait of Leo Tolstoy (1887).jpg | caption1 = {{font|size=100%|text=[[Leo Tolstoy]] (1828–1910), is regarded as one of the greatest authors of all time, with works such as ''[[War and Peace]]''.<ref>{{cite web |last=Thirlwell |first=Adam |url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2005/oct/08/classics.leonikolaevichtolstoy |title=A masterpiece in miniature |work=[[The Guardian]] |date=8 October 2005 |access-date=25 July 2021}}</ref>}} | image2 = Vasily Perov - Портрет Ф.М.Достоевского - Google Art Project.jpg | caption2 = {{font|size=100%|text=[[Fyodor Dostoevsky]] (1821–1881), one of the great novelists of all time, whose masterpieces include ''[[Crime and Punishment]]''<ref>{{cite journal |last=Dahlkvist |first=Tobias |date=October 2015 |title=The Epileptic Genius: The Use of Dostoevsky as Example in the Medical Debate over the Pathology of Genius |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-the-history-of-ideas_2015-10_76_4/page/587 |jstor=43948762 |journal=[[Journal of the History of Ideas]] |publisher=[[University of Pennsylvania Press]] |volume=76|number=4 |pages=587–608 |doi=10.1353/jhi.2015.0028 |pmid=26522713 |s2cid=37817118 |issn=0022-5037}}</ref>}} }} Mabuku gha ku Russia ghakumanyikwa kuti ndigho ghakupambanapambana pa charu chose. Baibolo ili likamba kulembeka mu vyaka vyapakati pa 500 na 1500 C.E., apo ŵanthu ŵakamba kulemba nkhani za mu Baibolo mu ChiSlavonic chakale. Kuzakafika mu nyengo ya Nkhondo Yakusambizga Ŵanthu, mabuku ghakaŵa ghakuzirwa chomene, ndipo pakaŵa mabuku gha Mikhail Lomonosov, Denis Fonvizin, Gavrila Derzhavin, na Nikolay Karamzin. Kwambira mu ma 1830, apo mabuku gha ku Russia ghakaŵa mu nyengo ya ndakatulo, mabuku agha ghakaŵa gha ndakatulo chomene. Vinthu vikamba kwenda makora mu nyengo iyi. Vasiliy Zhukovsky na Alexander Pushkin ŵakamba kuyowoya makora. Kuyana na ivyo Pushkin wakalemba, ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵakalembako ŵakababika nga ni Mikhail Lermontov, Nikolay Nekrasov, Aleksey Konstantinovich Tolstoy, Fyodor Tyutchev na Afanasy Fet.<ref name="literature">{{cite web |year=1998 |editor=Glenn E. Curtis |title=Russia – Literature |url=http://countrystudies.us/russia/43.htm |access-date=27 July 2021 |publisher=Federal Research Division of the [[Library of Congress]] |location=Washington D.C.}}</ref> Mulembi mukuru wakwamba wa ku Russia wakaŵa Nikolai Gogol. Kufuma apo, pakaŵa Ivan Turgenev, uyo wakalemba nkhani zicoko na mabuku ghanyake. Mwaluŵiro Fyodor Dostoevsky na Leo Tolstoy ŵakamanyikwa pa caru cose. Mikhail Saltykov-Shchedrin wakalembanga vyakusekeska, apo Nikolai Leskov wakumanyikwa na mabuku ghake ghafupi. Mu hafu yaciŵiri ya vilimika vya m'ma 1900, Anton Chekhov wakalemba nkhani zicoko comene ndipo wakaŵa mulembi wa maseŵero. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800, pakaŵaso ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵakalemba mabuku nga ni Ivan Krylov, Vissarion Belinsky, na Alexander Griboyedov. Kukwambilira kwa vyaka vya m'ma 1900, ŵanthu ŵakughanaghana kuti kukaŵa nyengo iyo visambizgo vya ŵanthu ŵa ku Russia vikamba kulembeka. Mu nyengo iyi mukaŵa ŵanthu ŵakulemba nga ni Alexander Blok, Anna Akhmatova, Boris Pasternak, na Konstantin Balmont. Kweniso pakaŵa ŵalembi ŵa mabuku na mabuku gha nkhani zichoko waka nga ni Aleksandr Kuprin, Ivan Bunin, Leonid Andreyev, Yevgeny Zamyatin, Dmitry Merezhkovsky na Andrei Bely.<ref name="literature"/> Pamasinda pa Nkhondo Yakwamba ya ku Russia mu 1917, mabuku gha ku Russia ghakagaŵikana mu vigaŵa vya Soviet na White émigré. Mu m'ma 1930, fundo yakuti vinthu vikuchitika nadi ndiyo yikamba kulamulira mu Russia. Munthu uyo wakawovwira pakusintha kalembero aka wakaŵa Maxim Gorky. Mikhail Bulgakov wakaŵa yumoza wa ŵalembi ŵakumanyikwa comene mu nyengo ya Soviet Union. Buku la Nikolay Ostrovsky lakuti How the Steel Was Tempered ndilo ndakumanyikwa chomene mu mabuku gha ku Russia. Ŵanandi awo ŵakalemba mabuku agha ŵakaŵa Vladimir Nabokov na Isaac Asimov. Ŵalembi ŵanyake ŵakasuska maghanoghano gha Soviet, nga ni Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn, uyo wakalemba vya umoyo wa mu misasa ya Gulag. Fundo za ŵanthu ŵa ku Russia zikawovwira chomene. Alexander Herzen wakumanyikwa kuti njumoza wa ŵanthu awo ŵakambiska vyaru. Ŵanthu ŵakuti Mikhail Bakunin ndiyo wakambiska chisambizgo chakuti ŵanthu ŵaleke kulamulira ŵanyawo. Peter Kropotkin wakaŵa munthu wakuzirwa comene pa nkhani ya cikomyunizimu. Ivyo Mikhail Bakhtin wakalemba vyawovwira chomene ŵasayansi. Helena Blavatsky wakaŵa na ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakamulondezganga pa charu chose. Vladimir Lenin, uyo wakaŵa munthu wankhongono comene, wakambiska cisopa ca cikomyunizimu. Kweni Leon Trotsky ndiyo wakambiska cisopa ca Trotsky. Alexander Zinoviev wakaŵa wavinjeru wakuzirwa comene mu hafu yaciŵiri ya vilimika vya m'ma 1900. Alexander Dugin, uyo wakumanyikwa cifukwa ca maghanoghano ghake gha ucigaluka, wakucemeka "mulongozgi wa vyaru vya caru".<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rutland|first=Peter|date=December 2016|title=Geopolitics and the Roots of Putin's Foreign Policy|journal=[[Russian History (Brill journal)|Russian History]]|publisher=[[Brill Publishers]]|volume=43|issue=3–4|pages=425–436|doi=10.1163/18763316-04304009|jstor=26549593}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=The myth of Trotskyism |year=1973 |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/leon-trotsky-and-the-politics-of-economic-isolation/myth-of-trotskyism/95EE597BFA047615C393337F30CF63AF |work=Leon Trotsky and the Politics of Economic Isolation |pages=3–16 |editor-last=Day |editor-first=Richard B. |series=Cambridge Russian, Soviet and Post-Soviet Studies |place=Cambridge |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |doi=10.1017/CBO9780511524028.002 |isbn=978-0-521-52436-0 |access-date=14 March 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Brom |first=Libor |title=Dialectical Identity and Destiny: A General Introduction to Alexander Zinoviev's Theory of the Soviet Man |jstor=1347433 |doi=10.2307/1347433 |volume=42 |number=1/2 |year=1988 |pages=15–27 |publisher=Rocky Mountain Modern Language Association |journal=Rocky Mountain Review of Language and Literature|s2cid=146768452 }}</ref> === Kuphika === {{See also|Russian cuisine}} [[File:Mint bread kvas.jpg|thumb|[[Kvass]] is an ancient and traditional Russian beverage.]] Vyakurya vya ku Russia vikukolerana na umo charu chiliri, mitheto yake, chisopa chake, kweniso malo agho charu ichi chili. Vipambi vya mpunga, tirigu, balere, na mpiru ndivyo vikupangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵapange vingwa, makeke, na vyakurya vinyake. Cingwa ca mitundu yakupambanapambana cikumanyikwa comene mu Russia. Vyakurya vinyake vyakunowa ni shchi, borsch, ukha, solyanka, na okroshka. Kanandi ŵanthu ŵakusazgako smetana na mayonesi ku sopo na saladi.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2021/05/15/spotlight-on-smetana-russias-sour-cream-a73909 |title=Spotlight on Smetana: Russia's Sour Cream |work=[[The Moscow Times]] |first=Jennifer |last=Eremeeva |date=15 May 2021 |access-date=18 May 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Shearlaw |first=Maeve |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/nov/21/-sp-understanding-russias-obsession-with-mayonnaise |title=Understanding Russia's obsession with mayonnaise |work=[[The Guardian]] |date=21 November 2014 |access-date=5 December 2021}}</ref> Pirozhki, blini, na syrniki ni vyakurya ivyo vikupangika mu charu ichi. Nyama ya nyama yakuchemeka Stroganoff, nyama ya nkhuku yakuchemeka Kiev, nyama ya nyama yakuchemeka pelmeni, na nyama yakuchemeka shashlyk ni vyakurya ivyo ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakutemwa kurya. Vyakurya vinyake ivyo ŵanthu ŵakurya ni mphangwe zakuzura na nyama. Pa saladi iyi pali saladi ya Olive, vinegret, na hering'i. Vyakumwa vya ku Russia ivyo ni vyakumwa vyakuloŵezga yayi ni kvass, ndipo vyakumwa vyakuloŵezga ni vodka. Charu ichi ndicho chikumwa moŵa unandi chomene pa charu chose, ndipo moŵa ndiwo ŵanthu ŵakumwa chomene. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1900, ŵanthu ŵanandi ku Russia ŵakutemwa vinyo. Mu Russia ŵanthu ŵakutemwa comene tiyi kwa vilimika vinandi.<ref>{{cite web |last=Teslova |first=Elena |url=https://www.aa.com.tr/en/europe/russian-samovars-make-tea-time-distinctive-tradition/1720329 |publisher=[[Anadolu Agency]] |title=Russian samovars make tea-time distinctive tradition |date=31 January 2021 |access-date=17 November 2021 }}</ref><ref>{{cite report |url=https://ac.gov.ru/uploads/2-Publications/alcogol/al%D1%81o.2020.4.pdf |script-title=ru:Обзор российского рынка алкогольной продукции. IV квартал 2020 |title=Obzor rossiyskogo rynka alkogol'noy produktsii. IV kvartal 2020 |publisher=[[Analytical Center for the Government of the Russian Federation]] |page=11 |lang=ru |date=February 2021 |access-date=10 February 2022 |archive-date=22 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210422110728/http://www.ac.gov.ru/uploads/2-Publications/alcogol/al%D1%81o.2020.4.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2020/07/04/kvas-russias-national-tipple-a70784 |title=Kvas: Russia's National Tipple |work=[[The Moscow Times]] |first=Jennifer |last=Eremeeva |date=4 July 2020 |access-date=19 May 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.atlasobscura.com/articles/how-to-drink-vodka-like-a-russian |title=How To Drink Vodka Like a Russian |work=[[Atlas Obscura]] |first=Dan |last=Nosowitz |date=7 April 2016 |access-date=19 May 2021}}</ref> === Mass media and cinema === {{Main|Media of Russia|Cinema of Russia}} [[File:2019-07-28-3385-Moscow-Ostankino-Tower.jpg|thumb|left|upright|[[Ostankino Tower]] in Moscow, the [[List of tallest freestanding structures|tallest freestanding structure]] in Europe<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.rbth.com/arts/2017/08/08/the-high-life-how-to-get-to-ostankino-tower-and-what-to-do-there_818720 |title=The high life: How to get to Ostankino Tower and what to do there |work=[[Russia Beyond]] |last=Sinelschikova |first=Yekaterina |date=8 August 2017 |access-date=23 December 2021}}</ref>]] Mu Russia muli mawupu gha nkhani ghakujumpha 400, ndipo ghanyake ghakuru chomene ni TASS, RIA Novosti, Sputnik, na Interfax. Ku Russia, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakutemwa kuwonelera TV.<ref name="bbcmedia">{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-17840134 |title=Russia profile – Media |publisher=BBC |date=8 June 2021 |access-date=25 November 2021}}</ref><ref name="mediaarchive">{{cite web |url=http://ejc.net/media_landscapes/russia#link_312 |title=Russia – Media Landscape |work=[[European Journalism Centre]] |first=Natalya |last=Krasnoboka |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180320003807/http://ejc.net/media_landscapes/russia#link_312 |archive-date=20 March 2018 |url-status=dead |access-date=15 May 2021}}</ref> Pa mawayilesi 3,000 agho ghali na malayisensi pa charu chose, ghapadera chomene ni Radio Rossii, Vesti FM, Echo of Moscow, Radio Mayak, na Russkoye Radio. Pa manyuzipepara 16,000 agho ghali kulembeka, ghakumanyikwa chomene ni Argumenty i Fakty, Komsomolskaya Pravda, Rossiyskaya Gazeta, Izvestia, na Moskovskij Komsomolets. TV ya boma ya Channel One na Russia-1 ndiyo yikulongozga pa nkhani izi, apo RT ndiyo yikulongozga pa nkhani za ku Russia. Russia ndiyo ni caru cikuru comene pa vyamaseŵera gha pa vidiyo mu Europe, ndipo pali ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 65 miliyoni awo ŵakuseŵera. Mu Russia, ndipo pamanyuma, mu Soviet Union, ŵanthu ŵakamba kupanga mafilimu ghanandi.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Miller |first=Jamie |jstor=20451166 |title=Soviet Cinema, 1929–41: The Development of Industry and Infrastructure |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_europe-asia-studies_2006-01_58_1/page/103 |journal=[[Europe-Asia Studies]] |volume=58 |number=1 |year=2006 |pages=103–124 |doi=10.1080/09668130500401715 |s2cid=153570960}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Hodgson |first=Jonathan |url=https://www.play.mdx.ac.uk/media/EISENSTEIN%2C+Sergei+-+BATTLESHIP+POTEMKIN+-+1925+Russia/1_sub9wj41 |title=Eisenstein, Sergei – Battleship Potemkin – 1925 Russia |publisher=[[Middlesex University]] |date=4 December 2020 |access-date=10 July 2021}}</ref> Ŵalongozgi ŵa mafilimu ŵa mu nyengo ya Soviet Union, comenecomene Sergei Eisenstein na Andrei Tarkovsky, ŵakaŵa ŵankhongono comene pa caru cose.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.inverse.com/article/40392-sergei-eisenstein-google-doodle |title=Sergei Eisenstein: How the "Father of Montage" Reinvented Cinema |work=[[Inverse (website)|Inverse]] |first=Mike |last=Brown |date=22 January 2018 |access-date=27 May 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bfi.org.uk/features/where-begin-with-andrei-tarkovsky |title=Where to begin with Andrei Tarkovsky |work=[[British Film Institute]] |quote=He made only seven features, but Russian director Andrei Tarkovsky is widely regarded as one of cinema's true masters. |first=Carmen |last=Gray |date=27 October 2015 |access-date=27 May 2021}}</ref> Eisenstein wakaŵa msambiri wa Lev Kuleshov, uyo wakambiska fundo ya ku Soviet ya kusinthira mafilimu pa sukulu yakwamba ya mafilimu pa charu chose, ya All-Union Institute of Cinematography. Fundo ya Dziga Vertov yakuti "Kino-Eye" yikakhwaska chomene pa nkhani ya kupanga mafilimu ghavidiyo. Mafilimu ghanandi gha Soviet Socialist Realism ghakaŵa ghakovwira chomene, nga ni Chapaev, The Cranes Are Flying, na Ballad of a Soldier. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1960 na 1970, mu Soviet Union mukaŵa mafilimu ghanandi. Vyakusanguluska vya Eldar Ryazanov na Leonid Gaidai vya nyengo yira vikaŵa vyakutchuka chomene, ndipo mazgu agha ghachali kugwiliskirika ntchito mazuŵa ghano.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.rferl.org/a/eldar-ryazanov-films/27398408.html |title=Eldar Ryazanov And His Films |publisher=[[Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty]] |date=30 November 2015 |access-date=27 May 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Prokhorova |first1=Elena |last2=Beumers |first2=Birgit |title=A History of Russian Cinema |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofrussian0000beum |date=2008 |section=The Man Who Made Them Laugh: Leonid Gaidai, the King of Soviet Comedy |isbn=978-1-84520-215-6 |publisher=[[Berg Publishers]] |pages=519–542}}</ref> Mu 1961-68, Sergey Bondarchuk wakalongosora filimu ya Leo Tolstoy yakuchemeka War and Peace, iyo yikapokera mphotho ya Oscar. Iyi yikaŵa filimu yakuzirwa comene iyo yikaŵako mu Soviet Union. Mu 1969, Vladimir Motyl wakafumiska filimu yakuchemeka White Sun of the Desert. Pamasinda pa kuparanyika kwa Soviet Union, makampani gha mafilimu gha ku Russia ghakaŵa na masuzgo ghakuru, kweni kwamba m'ma 2000, ghakambaso kukura.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2019/01/18/the-revival-of-russias-cinema-industry-a64197 |title=The Revival of Russia's Cinema Industry |work=[[The Moscow Times]] |first=Ben |last=Aris |date=18 January 2019|access-date=25 May 2021}}</ref> === Maseŵera === {{Main|Sport in Russia}} [[File:Maria Sharapova (18405201199).jpg|thumb|[[Maria Sharapova]], uyo kale wakaŵa na maudindo ghapachanya pa maseŵero gha tenesi, ndiyo wakapokeranga ndalama zinandi chomene pa maseŵero agha kwa vyaka 11.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/kurtbadenhausen/2016/03/08/how-maria-sharapova-earned-285-mill-during-her-tennis-career/ |title=How Maria Sharapova Earned $285 Million During Her Tennis Career |work=[[Forbes]] |first=Kurt |last=Badenhausen |date=8 March 2016 |access-date=15 February 2020}}</ref>]] Mpira wa pasi ni maseŵero ghakumanyikwa comene mu Russia. Gulu la mpira la Soviet Union likaŵa lakwamba kuwina maseŵera gha ku Europe apo likathereska vyalo vya ku Europe mu 1960, ndipo likaluta ku ma finals gha ku Europe mu 1988. Gulu la Russia la CSKA Moscow na Zenit Saint Petersburg likathereska nkhonya ya UEFA mu 2005 na 2008.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.uefa.com/uefachampionsleague/news/0253-0d806e352f9f-e83f37a18d8b-1000--sporting-cska-moskva-watch-their-2005-final/ |title=Sporting-CSKA Moskva: watch their 2005 final |work=[[UEFA Champions League]] |date=7 August 2015 |access-date=31 May 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://thesefootballtimes.co/2019/11/18/how-a-brilliant-zenit-saint-petersburg-lifted-the-uefa-cup-in-2008/ |title=How a brilliant Zenit Saint Petersburg lifted the UEFA Cup in 2008 |work=[[These Football Times]] |first=Joe |last=Terry |date=18 November 2019 |access-date=31 May 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.uefa.com/uefaeuro-2020/news/025d-0f859f66fcba-c8d3aa08dfa3-1000--classics-ussr-vs-netherlands-1988/ |title=Classics: Soviet Union vs Netherlands, 1988 |work=[[UEFA Champions League]] |date=29 May 2020 |access-date=31 May 2021}}</ref> <ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.uefa.com/uefaeuro-2020/news/025a-0eb0ecf360cc-a9532565e049-1000--euro-1960-all-you-need-to-know/ |title=EURO 1960: all you need to know |work=[[UEFA Champions League]] |date=13 February 2020 |access-date=31 May 2021}}</ref>Gulu la mpira la Russia likafika ku semi-final ya Euro 2008. Russia ndiyo yikachitiska nkhonya ya FIFA Confederations Cup ya 2017, na World Cup ya 2018. Ndipouli, sono timu za ku Russia zilije mwaŵi wa kuseŵera pa maseŵera gha FIFA na UEFA. Hockey yikumanyikwa chomene mu Russia, ndipo timu ya ku Soviet Union ndiyo yikaŵa na mazaza pa maseŵera agha. Bandy ni maseŵero gha caru ca Russia, ndipo ni caru ico cikucita makora comene pa maseŵero agha. Gulu la mpira la Russia ndilo likathereska EuroBasket 2007, ndipo gulu la mpira la Russia la PBC CSKA Moscow lili pakati pa magulu a mpira opambana kwambiri ku Ulaya. Mpikisano wa chaka chilichonse wa Formula One Russian Grand Prix unachitikira ku Sochi Autodrom mu Sochi Olympic Park, mpaka kutha kwake chifukwa cha kuwukira kwa Russia ku Ukraine mu 2022.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.formula1.com/en/information.russia-sochi-autodrom.3nDdZPizsnPEtlHysv115Y.html |title=Russia – Sochi |publisher=[[Formula One]] |access-date=31 May 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/sport/formula1/60601632|last=Benson|first=Andrew|title=Formula 1 terminates contract with Russian Grand Prix|work=[[BBC]]|date=3 March 2022|access-date=7 July 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.rbth.com/arts/sport/2013/02/14/bandy_a_concise_history_of_the_extreme_sport_22867.html |title=Bandy: A concise history of the extreme sport |work=[[Russia Beyond]] |first=Ilya |last=Trisvyatsky |date=14 February 2013 |access-date=7 July 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.euroleague.net/news/i/15364/eurobasket-2007-final-september-16-2007 |title=EuroBasket 2007 final: September 16, 2007 |work=[[EuroLeague]] |first=Javier |last=Gancedo |date=16 September 2007 |access-date=31 May 2021}}</ref> Kwamba kale, ŵanthu ŵakuchita maseŵero gha maseŵero gha ku Russia ndiwo ŵakuchita makora chomene maseŵero agha. Russia ndiyo wakwendeska maseŵero gha maseŵero gha maseŵero ghakukhozga thupi. Ku Russia, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakutemwa kuseŵera maseŵero ghakuchemeka skating. Mu Russia muli ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakumanyikwa pa maseŵero gha tennis. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakutemwa kuseŵera maseŵero gha chesi mu charu ichi. Maseŵera gha Olimpiki gha 1980 ghakachitikira ku Moscow, ndipo maseŵera gha Olimpiki gha mu 2014 gha mu nyengo yakuzizima na gha mu nyengo yakuzizima gha mu 2014 ghakachitikira ku Sochi.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://olympics.com/en/olympic-games/sochi-2014 |title=Sochi 2014 Winter Olympics – Athletes, Medals & Results |publisher=[[International Olympic Committee]] |date=23 April 2018 |access-date=31 May 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.paralympic.org/sochi-2014 |title=Sochi 2014 |publisher=[[International Paralympic Committee]] |access-date=31 May 2021}}</ref> Ndipouli, caru ca Russia cikapokaso mendulo 43 pa maseŵero gha Olimpiki cifukwa ca kuswa malango gha doping.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Keh |first1=Andrew |last2=Panja |first2=Tariq |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/12/08/sports/olympics/Wada-Russing-doping.html |title=Will Russia Be Thrown Out of the Olympics on Monday? A Primer |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=8 December 2019 |access-date=9 January 2022|url-access=limited}}</ref> == Wonaniso == {{Portal|Russia}} * [[Outline of Russia]] == Vyakulemba == {{notelist}} {{reflist|group=Note}} == Mwakufuma vyakulemba == {{Free-content attribution | title = Frequently Asked Questions on Energy Security | author = [[International Energy Agency]] | publisher = the International Energy Agency | documentURL = https://www.iea.org/articles/frequently-asked-questions-on-energy-security | license statement URL = https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/af2ef37e-cbf5-49ce-b05a-ecb5725f9769/ListordescriptionofCC-licensedContent_20220406.pdf | license = CC BY 4.0 }} == Ukaboni == {{reflist}} == Vyakulemba vinyake == {{main|Bibliography of the history of the Early Slavs and Rus'|Bibliography of Russian history (1223–1613)|Bibliography of Russian history (1613–1917)}} {{refbegin|3}} * Bartlett, Roger P. ''A history of Russia'' (2005) [https://archive.org/details/historyofrussia00bart online] * Breslauer, George W. and Colton, Timothy J. 2017. ''Russia Beyond Putin'' ([[Daedalus (journal)|Daedalus]]) [https://www.amacad.org/daedalus/russia-beyond-putin online] * Brown, Archie, ed. ''The Cambridge encyclopedia of Russia and the Soviet Union'' (1982) [https://archive.org/details/cambridgeencyclo00brow online] * {{cite book | last1=Dutkiewicz | first1=P. | last2=Richard | first2=S. | last3=Vladimir | first3=K. | title=The Social History of Post-Communist Russia | publisher=Taylor & Francis | series=Routledge Contemporary Russia and Eastern Europe Series | year=2016 | isbn=978-1-317-32846-9 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vo7DCwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1 | access-date=11 April 2022}} * Florinsky, Michael T. ed. ''McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Russia and the Soviet Union'' (1961). * Frye, Timothy. ''Weak Strongman: The Limits of Power in Putin's Russia'' (2021) [https://www.amazon.com/Weak-Strongman-Limits-Putins-Russia/dp/0691212465/ excerpt] * Greene, by Samuel A. and Graeme B. Robertson. ''Putin v. the People: the Perilous Politics of a Divided Russia'' (Yale UP, 2019) [https://www.amazon.com/Putin-v-People-Perilous-Politics/dp/0300238398/ excerpt] * Hosking, Geoffrey A. ''Russia and the Russians: a history'' (2011) [https://archive.org/details/russiarussianshi2ndehosk online] * Kort, Michael. ''A Brief History of Russia'' (2008) [https://archive.org/details/briefhistoryofru0000kort online] * {{Cite EB1911|wstitle= Russia | volume= 23 |last1= Kropotkin |first1= Peter Alexeivitch |author1-link=Peter Kropotkin|last2= Bealby |first2=John Thomas|last3=Phillips|first3=Walter Alison |author3-link=Walter Alison Phillips|pages = 869–912}} * Lowe, Norman. ''Mastering Twentieth Century Russian History'' (2002) [https://www.amazon.com/Mastering-Twentieth-Century-Russian-History/dp/0333963075/ excerpt] * Millar, James R. ed. ''Encyclopedia of Russian History'' (4 vol 2003). [https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofru0001unse online] * Riasanovsky, Nicholas V., and Mark D. Steinberg. ''A History of Russia'' (9th ed. 2018) [https://archive.org/details/historyofrussia0000rias 9th edition 1993 online] * Rosefielde, Steven. ''Putin's Russia: Economy, Defence and Foreign Policy'' (2020) [https://www.amazon.com/Putins-Russia-Economy-Defense-Foreign/dp/9811212678/ excerpt] * Service, Robert. ''A History of Modern Russia: From Tsarism to the Twenty-First Century'' (Harvard UP, 3rd ed., 2009) [https://www.amazon.com/History-Modern-Russia-Tsarism-Twenty-First/dp/0674034937/ excerpt] * Smorodinskaya, Tatiana, and Karen Evans-Romaine, eds. ''Encyclopedia of Contemporary Russian Culture'' (2014) [https://www.amazon.com/Encyclopedia-Contemporary-Russian-Culture-Encyclopedias/dp/0415758629/ excerpt]; 800 pp covering art, literature, music, film, media, crime, politics, business, and economics. * Walker, Shauin. ''The Long Hangover: Putin's New Russia and the Ghosts Of the Past'' (2018, Oxford UP) [https://www.amazon.com/Long-Hangover-Putins-Russia-Ghosts/dp/0190659246 excerpt] {{refend}} == Vigaŵa vya kuwalo == {{Sister project links|voy=Russia}} {{Wikisource portal|Russia}} <!-- {{No more links}} Please be cautious adding more external links. Wikipedia is not a collection of links and should not be used for advertising. Excessive or inappropriate links will be removed. See [[Wikipedia:External links]] and [[Wikipedia:Spam]] for details. If there are already suitable links, propose additions or replacements on the article's talk page, or submit your link to the relevant category at the Open Directory Project (dmoz.org) and link there using {{Dmoz}}. --> '''Government''' * [http://www.gov.ru/index_en.html Official Russian governmental portal] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20131004223744/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/world-leaders-1/RS.html Chief of State and Cabinet Members] (archived 4 October 2013) '''General information''' * {{curlie|Regional/Europe/Russia}} * {{wikiatlas|Russia}} * {{osmrelation-inline|60189}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20210109173026/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/russia/ Russia]. ''[[The World Factbook]]''. [[Central Intelligence Agency]]. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20081022164202/http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/russia.htm Russia] at ''UCB Libraries GovPubs'' (archived 22 October 2008) * [https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-17839672 Russia] from [[BBC News]] * [https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/513251/Russia Russia] at ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]'' * [http://www.ifs.du.edu/ifs/frm_CountryProfile.aspx?Country=RU Key Development Forecasts for Russia] from [[International Futures]] '''Vinyake''' * [https://web.archive.org/web/20121215070149/http://repository.library.georgetown.edu/handle/10822/552653 Post-Soviet Problems] from the [https://repository.library.georgetown.edu/handle/10822/552494/browse?type=title Dean Peter Krogh Foreign Affairs Digital Archives] (archived 15 December 2012) {{Russia topics}} {{Navboxes|title=Articles related to Russia |list= {{Sovereign states of Europe}} {{Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS)|state=collapsed}} {{Eurasian Economic Community (EURASEC)}} {{Shanghai Cooperation Organisation}} {{Organisation of the Islamic Conference|state=collapsed}} }} {{Authority control}} {{Coord|66|N|94|E|scale:100000000|display=title}} [[Category:Russia| ]] [[Category:Federal republics]] [[Category:Countries in Europe]] [[Category:Countries in Asia]] [[Category:North Asian countries]] [[Category:Northeast Asian countries]] [[Category:BRICS nations]] [[Category:G20 nations]] [[Category:E7 nations]] [[Category:Christian states]] [[Category:Member states of the Commonwealth of Independent States]] [[Category:Member states of the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation]] [[Category:Member States of the Collective Security Treaty Organization]] [[Category:Member States of the Eurasian Economic Union]] [[Category:Member states of the United Nations]] [[Category:Russian-speaking countries and territories]] [[Category:States and territories established in 1991]] [[Category:1991 establishments in Europe]] [[Category:1991 establishments in Asia]] [[Category:Transcontinental countries]] [[Category:Observer states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation]] qdf91s6gabjyb70zkzyo5lebxg9stf6 0 41839 119287 118614 2026-08-13T21:54:51Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Add 7 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260813sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 119287 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Standard Normal Distribution-en.svg|right|thumb|Kugaŵa kwakaŵiri-kaŵiri, ako kali kakusangika chomene mu kuthithika kwa unandi, kukugwiliskika chomene pa Kusanthura-Maŵiro.]] [[File:Iris_Pairs_Plot.svg|right|thumb|Minda ya kumija na ma tchati gha mzere, yakugwiliskika chomene mu Kusanthura-Maŵiro kwa kulongosoleka kuwoneska ubali pakati pa visintho vyakupambana, apa kugwiriska chibwayila cha Iris flower.]] '''Kusanthura-Maŵiro''' (kufuma ku [[German language|ChiGerman]]: ''[[wikt:Statistik#German|Statistik]]'', {{Abbr|orig.|originally}} "kulongosora [[State (polity)|boma]], la charu")<ref>{{Cite OED|statistics}}</ref><ref>“[https://www.dwds.de/?q=Statistik Statistik]” in ''Digitales Wörterbuch der deutschen Sprache''</ref> ni kafukufuku uyo wakukhwaskana na kuwunjika, kwendeska, kusanda, kung'anamura, na kulongosora [[uthenga]].<ref name=ox>{{cite book|title = Oxford Reference|chapter = Statistics|date = January 2008|publisher = Oxford University Press|isbn = 978-0-19-954145-4|url = https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780199541454.001.0001/acref-9780199541454-e-1566?rskey=nxhBLl&result=1979|access-date = 2019-08-14|archive-date = 2020-09-03|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200903144424/https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780199541454.001.0001/acref-9780199541454-e-1566?rskey=nxhBLl&result=1979|url-status = live}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |first=Jan-Willem |last=Romijn |year=2014 |title=Philosophy of statistics |encyclopedia=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |url=http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/statistics/ |access-date=2016-11-03 |archive-date=2021-10-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211019033058/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/statistics/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title=Cambridge Dictionary | url=https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/statistics | access-date=2019-08-14 | archive-date=2020-11-22 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201122210156/https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/statistics | url-status=live }}</ref> Para tikugwiliskira ntchito Kusanthura-Maŵiro pa suzgo la sayansi, malonda, panji la umoyo wa ŵanthu, kanandi tikwamba na [[Unandi-wose]] panjiso [[kayezgero ka Kusanthura-Maŵiro]] ako katiŵazgikenge. Unandi-wose, ungaŵa vigaŵa vyakupambana pambana vya ŵanthu panji vinthu nga "ŵanthu ŵose ŵakukhala mu charu" panji "chimenyu chilichose chakuwumba khristoli". Kusanthura-Maŵiro kukuwona vyose vyakukhwaskana na umo vinthu viliri, kusazgapo ndondomeko ya kunozga ma [[statistical survey|Save]] na [[experimental design|ma kafukufuku]].<ref name=Dodge>Dodge, Y. (2006) ''The Oxford Dictionary of Statistical Terms'', Oxford University Press. {{isbn|0-19-920613-9}}</ref> Pala uthenga wa [[chipendero]] ungatoleleka yayi, [[waKusanthura-Maŵiro]] wakutolela uthenga pakupanga makafukufuku na ma save ago ghakugwiliska ntchito [[sample (statistics)|viyezgero]]. Kutola viyezgero vyakwimilra yikuwoneseska kuti fundo zingatandazga mwa mahara kufuma ku kachiyezgero kuluta ku unandi-wose mwanthunthu. [[experimental study|Kafukufuku wakusanda]] kukukhwaska kupima vinthu ivyo vikusangika mu ndondomeko iyo yikusambizgika, kunjizgapo vinthu vinyake ivyo vikusintha vinthu ivi, na kupima vinthu vinyake ivyo vikuchitika mwakuyana na ndondomeko iyo yikapangika kuti ŵanthu ŵamanye usange vinthu ivi vyasintha vinthu ivyo vikupima. Mwakupambaniska, [[observational study|kusanda Kwakulaŵilira]] kukukhwaska kafukufuku wakuseŵeleska yayi. Vyakudanga viŵiri mwa nthowa za Kusanthura-Maŵiro yakugwiliskika mu [[data analysis|kusanda uthenga]]: [[descriptive statistics|Kusanthura-Maŵiro kwakulongosoleka]], Ivyo vikuyowoya mwakudumura ivyo vyafuma mu viyezgero kugwiriska [[Index (statistics)|maindekse]] nthe [[mean|tikatikati]] panji [[standard deviation|yisezgo yakukhazikika]], na [[statistical inference|Kusanthura-Maŵiro mwa fundo]], izo zikufunya fundo kufuma pa uthenga uwo ukupambanangapambananga (nthe, vyakubekeka mwautesi, upambano wa viyezgero).<ref name=LundResearchLtd>{{cite web |last=Lund Research Ltd. |url=https://statistics.laerd.com/statistical-guides/descriptive-inferential-statistics.php |title=Descriptive and Inferential Statistics |publisher=statistics.laerd.com |access-date=2014-03-23 |archive-date=2020-10-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201026075549/https://statistics.laerd.com/statistical-guides/descriptive-inferential-statistics.php |url-status=live }}</ref> Kusanthura-Maŵiro ghakulongosoleka kanandi ghakukhwaska magulu yaŵiri ya maunenesko gha chigaŵo (chiyezgero panji unandi-wose): ''[[central tendency|uzgoloŵezgi wa pakati]]'' (pangi malo) uikukhumba kulongora umo vinthu viliri pakatikati panji umo vikuŵira, apo kusakatuka (panji kuti kusinthasintha) kukulongora umo ŵanthu ŵakufumira pakati pa vinthu. Fundo zakuroska mu [[mathematical statistics|Kusanthura-Maŵiro musamuzi]] zikupangika pa chizengero cha [[probability theory|fundo ya mayero]], iyi yikulongosora umo vinthu vikuchitikira mwamwaŵi. Kanandi ndondomeko ya Kusanthura-Maŵiro kukukhwaska kutolela kwa uthenga kulazgiska ku [[statistical hypothesis testing|kuyezga kwa ubali]] pakati pa vibwayila viŵiri vya Kusanthura-Maŵiro, panji vibwayila vyauthenga na mauthenga ghakuwumbika na ŵanthu kufuma ku chiyezgero chakuwumbika mwausuma. Chiloskero chikupelekeka kulongosola ubali wa Kusanthura-Maŵiro pakati pa vibwayila viŵiri vyauthenga, ndipo this is compared as an [[alternative hypothesis|alternative]] to an idealized [[null hypothesis]] of no relationship between two data sets. Rejecting or disproving the null hypothesis is done using statistical tests that quantify the sense in which the null can be proven false, given the data that are used in the test. Working from a null hypothesis, two basic forms of error are recognized: [[Type I error]]s (null hypothesis is falsely rejected giving a "false positive") and [[Type II error]]s (null hypothesis fails to be rejected and an actual relationship between populations is missed giving a "false negative"). Statistical measurement processes are also prone to error in regards to the data that they generate. Many of these errors are classified as random (noise) or systematic ([[Bias (statistics)|bias]]), but other types of errors (e.g., blunder, such as when an analyst reports incorrect units) can also occur. The presence of [[missing data]] or [[censoring (statistics)|censoring]] may result in biased estimates and specific techniques have been developed to address these problems. {{TOC limit|3}} == Vyakudanga == {{main|Outline of statistics}} Statistics is a mathematical body of science that pertains to the collection, analysis, interpretation or explanation, and presentation of [[data]],<ref>Moses, Lincoln E. (1986) ''Think and Explain with Statistics'', Addison-Wesley, {{isbn|978-0-201-15619-5}}. pp. 1–3</ref> or as a branch of [[mathematics]].<ref>Hays, William Lee, (1973) ''Statistics for the Social Sciences'', Holt, Rinehart and Winston, p. xii, {{isbn|978-0-03-077945-9}}</ref> Some consider statistics to be a distinct [[mathematical sciences|mathematical science]] rather than a branch of mathematics. While many scientific investigations make use of data, statistics is concerned with the use of data in the context of uncertainty and decision-making in the face of uncertainty.<ref>{{cite book |last=Moore |first=David |title=Statistics for the Twenty-First Century |publisher=The Mathematical Association of America |editor=F. Gordon |editor2=S. Gordon |location=Washington, DC |year=1992 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/statisticsfortwe0000unse/page/14 14–25] |chapter=Teaching Statistics as a Respectable Subject |isbn=978-0-88385-078-7 |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/statisticsfortwe0000unse/page/14 }} </ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Chance |first=Beth L. |author1-link=Beth Chance |author2=Rossman, Allan J. |title=Investigating Statistical Concepts, Applications, and Methods |publisher=Duxbury Press |year=2005 |chapter=Preface |isbn=978-0-495-05064-3 |chapter-url=http://www.rossmanchance.com/iscam/preface.pdf |access-date=2009-12-06 |archive-date=2020-11-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201122092901/http://www.rossmanchance.com/iscam/preface.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> In applying statistics to a problem, it is common practice to start with a [[statistical population|population]] or process to be studied. Populations can be diverse topics, such as "all people living in a country" or "every atom composing a crystal". Ideally, statisticians compile data about the entire population (an operation called a [[census]]). This may be organized by governmental statistical institutes. ''[[Descriptive statistics]]'' can be used to summarize the population data. Numerical descriptors include [[mean]] and [[standard deviation]] for [[Continuous probability distribution|continuous data]] (like income), while frequency and percentage are more useful in terms of describing [[categorical data]] (like education). When a census is not feasible, a chosen subset of the population called a [[sampling (statistics)|sample]] is studied. Once a sample that is representative of the population is determined, data is collected for the sample members in an observational or [[experiment]]al setting. Again, descriptive statistics can be used to summarize the sample data. However, drawing the sample contains an element of randomness; hence, the numerical descriptors from the sample are also prone to uncertainty. To draw meaningful conclusions about the entire population, ''[[inferential statistics]]'' are needed. It uses patterns in the sample data to draw inferences about the population represented while accounting for randomness. These inferences may take the form of answering yes/no questions about the data ([[hypothesis testing]]), estimating numerical characteristics of the data ([[Estimation theory|estimation]]), describing [[Association (statistics)|associations]] within the data ([[correlation and dependence|correlation]]), and modeling relationships within the data (for example, using [[regression analysis]]). Inference can extend to the [[forecasting]], [[prediction]], and estimation of unobserved values either in or associated with the population being studied. It can include [[extrapolation]] and [[interpolation]] of [[time series]] or [[spatial statistics|spatial data]], as well as [[data mining]]. ===Mathematical statistics=== {{main|Mathematical statistics}} Mathematical statistics is the application of [[mathematics]] to statistics. Mathematical techniques used for this include [[mathematical analysis]], [[linear algebra]], [[stochastic analysis]], [[differential equations]], and [[measure-theoretic probability theory]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Lakshmikantham|first1=D. |last2=Kannan|first2= V.|title=Handbook of stochastic analysis and applications|date=2002|publisher=M. Dekker|location=New York|isbn=0824706609}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Schervish|first=Mark J.|title=Theory of statistics|date=1995|publisher=Springer|location=New York|isbn=0387945466|edition=Corr. 2nd print.}}</ref> == Mbiri == {{main|History of statistics|Founders of statistics}} [[File:Jakob Bernoulli.jpg|thumb|Bernoulli's ''[[Ars Conjectandi]]'' was the first work that dealt with [[probability theory]] as currently understood.]] Formal discussions on inference date back to [[Mathematics in medieval Islam|Arab mathematicians]] and [[cryptographers]], during the [[Islamic Golden Age]] between the 8th and 13th centuries. [[Al-Khalil ibn Ahmad al-Farahidi|Al-Khalil]] (717–786) wrote the ''Book of Cryptographic Messages'', which contains one of the first uses of [[permutation]]s and [[combination]]s, to list all possible [[Arabic language|Arabic]] words with and without vowels.<ref name="LB">{{cite journal|last=Broemeling|first=Lyle D.|title=An Account of Early Statistical Inference in Arab Cryptology|journal=The American Statistician|date=1 November 2011|volume=65|issue=4|pages=255–257|doi=10.1198/tas.2011.10191|s2cid=123537702}}</ref> [[Al-Kindi|Al-Kindi's]] ''Manuscript on Deciphering Cryptographic Messages'' gave a detailed description of how to use [[frequency analysis]] to decipher [[encrypted]] messages, providing an early example of [[statistical inference]] for [[Code|decoding]]. [[Ibn Adlan]] (1187–1268) later made an important contribution on the use of [[sample size]] in frequency analysis.<ref name="LB"/> The term 'statistic' was introduced by the Italian scholar [[Girolamo Ghilini]] in 1589 with reference to this science.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Ostasiewicz |first=Walenty |year=2014 |title=The emergence of statistical science |journal=Śląski Przegląd Statystyczny |volume=12 |issue=18 |doi=10.15611/sps.2014.12.04 |pages=76–77}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Bruneau |first=Quentin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=63RnEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT64 |title=States and the Masters of Capital: Sovereign Lending, Old and New |publisher=[[Columbia University Press]] |year=2022 |isbn=978-0231555647}}</ref> The earliest writing containing statistics in Europe dates back to 1663, with the publication of ''[[Natural and Political Observations upon the Bills of Mortality]]'' by [[John Graunt]].<ref>Willcox, Walter (1938) "The Founder of Statistics". ''Review of the [[International Statistical Institute]]'' 5(4): 321–328. {{JSTOR|1400906}}</ref> Early applications of statistical thinking revolved around the needs of states to base policy on demographic and economic data, hence its [[History of statistics#Etymology|''stat-'' etymology]]. The scope of the discipline of statistics broadened in the early 19th century to include the collection and analysis of data in general. Today, statistics is widely employed in government, business, and natural and social sciences. The mathematical foundations of statistics developed from discussions concerning [[Game of chance|games of chance]] among mathematicians such as [[Gerolamo Cardano]], [[Blaise Pascal]], [[Pierre de Fermat]], and [[Christiaan Huygens]]. Although the idea of probability was already examined in ancient and medieval law and philosophy (such as the work of [[Juan Caramuel]]), [[probability theory]] as a mathematical discipline only took shape at the very end of the 17th century, particularly in [[Jacob Bernoulli|Jacob Bernoulli's]] posthumous work ''[[Ars Conjectandi]]''.<ref>J. Franklin, The Science of Conjecture: Evidence and Probability before Pascal, Johns Hopkins Univ Pr 2002</ref> This was the first book where the realm of games of chance and the realm of the probable (which concerned opinion, evidence, and argument) were combined and submitted to mathematical analysis.<ref>Schneider, I. (2005). Jakob Bernoulli, ''Ars Conjectandi'' (1713). In I. Grattan-Guinness (Ed.), ''Landmark writings in Western Mathematics, 1640-1940'' (pp. 88-103). </ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Sylla |first1=E. D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-xgwSAjTh34C |title=The Art of Conjecturing, Together with Letter to a Friend on Sets in Court Tennis (trans.) |last2=Bernoulli |first2=Jacob |publisher=JHU Press |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-8018-8235-7 |language=en}}</ref> The [[method of least squares]] was first described by [[Adrien-Marie Legendre]] in 1805, though [[Carl Friedrich Gauss]] presumably made use of it a decade earlier in 1795.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Lim |first=M. |date=2021 |title=Gauss, Least Squares, and the Missing Planet |url=https://www.actuaries.digital/2021/03/31/gauss-least-squares-and-the-missing-planet/ |access-date=2022-11-01 |website=Actuaries Digital}}</ref> [[File:Karl Pearson, 1910.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.05|[[Karl Pearson]], a founder of mathematical statistics.]] The modern field of statistics emerged in the late 19th and early 20th century in three stages.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jYFRAAAAMAAJ|title=Studies in the history of statistical method|author=Helen Mary Walker|author-link=Helen M. Walker|year=1975|publisher=Arno Press|isbn=978-0405066283|access-date=2015-06-27|archive-date=2020-07-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200727141905/https://books.google.com/books?id=jYFRAAAAMAAJ|url-status=live}}</ref> The first wave, at the turn of the century, was led by the work of [[Francis Galton]] and [[Karl Pearson]], who transformed statistics into a rigorous mathematical discipline used for analysis, not just in science, but in industry and politics as well. Galton's contributions included introducing the concepts of [[standard deviation]], [[correlation]], [[regression analysis]] and the application of these methods to the study of the variety of human characteristics—height, weight and eyelash length among others.<ref name=Galton1877>{{cite journal | last1 = Galton | first1 = F | year = 1877 | title = Typical laws of heredity | journal = Nature | volume = 15 | issue = 388| pages = 492–553 | doi=10.1038/015492a0| bibcode = 1877Natur..15..492. | doi-access = free }}</ref> Pearson developed the [[Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient]], defined as a product-moment,<ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1214/ss/1177012580 | last1 = Stigler | first1 = S.M. | year = 1989 | title = Francis Galton's Account of the Invention of Correlation | journal = Statistical Science | volume = 4 | issue = 2| pages = 73–79 | doi-access = free }}</ref> the [[Method of moments (statistics)|method of moments]] for the fitting of distributions to samples and the [[Pearson distribution]], among many other things.<ref name="Pearson, On the criterion">{{Cite journal|last1=Pearson|first1=K.|year=1900|title=On the Criterion that a given System of Deviations from the Probable in the Case of a Correlated System of Variables is such that it can be reasonably supposed to have arisen from Random Sampling|url=https://zenodo.org/record/1430618|journal=Philosophical Magazine|series=Series 5|volume=50|issue=302|pages=157–175|doi=10.1080/14786440009463897|access-date=2019-06-27|archive-date=2020-08-18|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200818110818/https://zenodo.org/record/1430618|url-status=live}}</ref> Galton and Pearson founded ''[[Biometrika]]'' as the first journal of mathematical statistics and [[biostatistics]] (then called biometry), and the latter founded the world's first university statistics department at [[University College London]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Karl Pearson (1857–1936)|publisher=Department of Statistical Science&nbsp;– [[University College London]]|url=http://www.ucl.ac.uk/stats/department/pearson.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080925065418/http://www.ucl.ac.uk/stats/department/pearson.html|archive-date=2008-09-25}}</ref> The second wave of the 1910s and 20s was initiated by [[William Sealy Gosset]], and reached its culmination in the insights of [[Ronald Fisher]], who wrote the textbooks that were to define the academic discipline in universities around the world. Fisher's most important publications were his 1918 seminal paper ''[[The Correlation between Relatives on the Supposition of Mendelian Inheritance]]'' (which was the first to use the statistical term, [[variance]]), his classic 1925 work ''[[Statistical Methods for Research Workers]]'' and his 1935 ''[[The Design of Experiments]]'',<ref>{{cite journal | author = Box, JF | title = R.A. Fisher and the Design of Experiments, 1922–1926 | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_american-statistician_1980-02_34_1/page/n1 | jstor = 2682986 | journal = [[The American Statistician]] | volume = 34 | issue = 1 |date=February 1980 | pages = 1–7 | doi = 10.2307/2682986}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | author = Yates, F | title = Sir Ronald Fisher and the Design of Experiments | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_biometrics_1964-06_20_2/page/307 | jstor = 2528399 | journal = [[Biometrics (journal)|Biometrics]] | volume = 20 | issue = 2 |date=June 1964 | pages = 307–321 | doi = 10.2307/2528399}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=The Influence of Fisher's "The Design of Experiments" on Educational Research Thirty Years Later |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-educational-research-journal_1966-05_3_3/page/223 |first1=Julian C. |last1=Stanley |journal=American Educational Research Journal |volume=3 |issue=3 |year=1966|pages= 223–229 |jstor=1161806 |doi=10.3102/00028312003003223|s2cid=145725524 }}</ref> where he developed rigorous [[design of experiments]] models. He originated the concepts of [[sufficiency (statistics)|sufficiency]], [[ancillary statistic]]s, [[linear discriminant analysis|Fisher's linear discriminator]] and [[Fisher information]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Agresti|first=Alan|author2=David B. Hichcock|year=2005|title=Bayesian Inference for Categorical Data Analysis|journal=Statistical Methods & Applications|issue=3|page=298|url=http://www.stat.ufl.edu/~aa/articles/agresti_hitchcock_2005.pdf|doi=10.1007/s10260-005-0121-y|volume=14|s2cid=18896230|access-date=2013-12-19|archive-date=2013-12-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131219212926/http://www.stat.ufl.edu/~aa/articles/agresti_hitchcock_2005.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> He also coined the term [[null hypothesis]] during the [[Lady tasting tea]] experiment, which "is never proved or established, but is possibly disproved, in the course of experimentation".<ref name="oed">OED quote: '''1935''' R.A. Fisher, ''[[The Design of Experiments]]'' ii. 19, "We may speak of this hypothesis as the 'null hypothesis', and the null hypothesis is never proved or established, but is possibly disproved, in the course of experimentation."</ref><ref>Fisher|1971|loc=Chapter II. The Principles of Experimentation, Illustrated by a Psycho-physical Experiment, Section 8. The Null Hypothesis</ref> In his 1930 book ''[[The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection]]'', he applied statistics to various [[biology|biological]] concepts such as [[Fisher's principle]]<ref name="Edwards98">{{cite journal|last1=Edwards|first1=A.W.F.|year=1998|title=Natural Selection and the Sex Ratio: Fisher's Sources|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-naturalist_1998-06_151_6/page/564|journal=American Naturalist|volume=151|issue=6|pages=564–569|doi=10.1086/286141|pmid=18811377|s2cid=40540426}}</ref> (which [[A. W. F. Edwards]] called "probably the most celebrated argument in [[evolutionary biology]]") and [[Fisherian runaway]],<ref name="fisher15">Fisher, R.A. (1915) The evolution of sexual preference. Eugenics Review (7) 184:192</ref><ref name="fisher30">Fisher, R.A. (1930) [[The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection]]. {{isbn|0-19-850440-3}}</ref><ref name="pers00">Edwards, A.W.F. (2000) Perspectives: Anecdotal, Historical and Critical Commentaries on Genetics. The Genetics Society of America (154) 1419:1426</ref><ref name="ander94">{{cite book|last = Andersson|first = Malte|date = 1994|title = Sexual Selection|isbn = 0-691-00057-3|publisher = Princeton University Press|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=lNnHdvzBlTYC|access-date = 2019-09-19|archive-date = 2019-12-25|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20191225202726/https://books.google.com/books?id=lNnHdvzBlTYC|url-status = live}}</ref><ref name="ander06">Andersson, M. and Simmons, L.W. (2006) Sexual selection and mate choice. Trends, Ecology and Evolution (21) 296:302</ref><ref name="gayon10">Gayon, J. (2010) Sexual selection: Another Darwinian process. Comptes Rendus Biologies (333) 134:144</ref> a concept in [[sexual selection]] about a positive feedback runaway effect found in [[evolution]]. The final wave, which mainly saw the refinement and expansion of earlier developments, emerged from the collaborative work between [[Egon Pearson]] and [[Jerzy Neyman]] in the 1930s. They introduced the concepts of "[[Type I and type II errors|Type II]]" error, [[power of a test]] and [[confidence interval]]s. Jerzy Neyman in 1934 showed that stratified random sampling was in general a better method of estimation than purposive (quota) sampling.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Neyman | first1 = J | year = 1934 | title = On the two different aspects of the representative method: The method of stratified sampling and the method of purposive selection | journal = [[Journal of the Royal Statistical Society]] | volume = 97 | issue = 4| pages = 557–625 | jstor=2342192| doi = 10.2307/2342192 }}</ref> Today, statistical methods are applied in all fields that involve decision making, for making accurate inferences from a collated body of data and for making decisions in the face of uncertainty based on statistical methodology. The use of modern [[computer]]s has expedited large-scale statistical computations and has also made possible new methods that are impractical to perform manually. Statistics continues to be an area of active research, for example on the problem of how to analyze [[big data]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.santafe.edu/news/item/sfnm-wood-big-data/|title=Science in a Complex World – Big Data: Opportunity or Threat?|work=Santa Fe Institute|access-date=2014-10-13|archive-date=2016-05-30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160530001750/http://www.santafe.edu/news/item/sfnm-wood-big-data/|url-status=live}}</ref> ==Mauthenga gha Kusanthura-Maŵiro== {{main|Statistical data}} === Kutolela uthenga === ====Kutolela Viyezgero==== When full census data cannot be collected, statisticians collect sample data by developing specific [[design of experiments|experiment designs]] and [[survey sampling|survey samples]]. Statistics itself also provides tools for prediction and forecasting through [[statistical model]]s. To use a sample as a guide to an entire population, it is important that it truly represents the overall population. Representative [[sampling (statistics)|sampling]] assures that inferences and conclusions can safely extend from the sample to the population as a whole. A major problem lies in determining the extent that the sample chosen is actually representative. Statistics offers methods to estimate and correct for any bias within the sample and data collection procedures. There are also methods of experimental design that can lessen these issues at the outset of a study, strengthening its capability to discern truths about the population. Sampling theory is part of the [[mathematics|mathematical discipline]] of [[probability theory]]. Probability is used in [[statistical theory|mathematical statistics]] to study the [[sampling distribution]]s of [[sample statistic]]s and, more generally, the properties of [[statistical decision theory|statistical procedures]]. The use of any statistical method is valid when the system or population under consideration satisfies the assumptions of the method. The difference in point of view between classic probability theory and sampling theory is, roughly, that probability theory starts from the given parameters of a total population to [[deductive reasoning|deduce]] probabilities that pertain to samples. Statistical inference, however, moves in the opposite direction—[[inductive reasoning|inductively inferring]] from samples to the parameters of a larger or total population. ====Experimental and observational studies==== A common goal for a statistical research project is to investigate [[causality]], and in particular to draw a conclusion on the effect of changes in the values of predictors or [[Dependent and independent variables|independent variables on dependent variables]]. There are two major types of causal statistical studies: [[Experiment|experimental studies]] and [[Observational study|observational studies]]. In both types of studies, the effect of differences of an independent variable (or variables) on the behavior of the dependent variable are observed. The difference between the two types lies in how the study is actually conducted. Each can be very effective. An experimental study involves taking measurements of the system under study, manipulating the system, and then taking additional measurements using the same procedure to determine if the manipulation has modified the values of the measurements. In contrast, an observational study does not involve [[Scientific control|experimental manipulation]]. Instead, data are gathered and correlations between predictors and response are investigated. While the tools of data analysis work best on data from [[Randomized controlled trial|randomized studies]], they are also applied to other kinds of data—like [[natural experiment]]s and [[Observational study|observational studies]]<ref>[[David A. Freedman (statistician)|Freedman, D.A.]] (2005) ''Statistical Models: Theory and Practice'', Cambridge University Press. {{isbn|978-0-521-67105-7}}</ref>—for which a statistician would use a modified, more structured estimation method (e.g., [[Difference in differences|Difference in differences estimation]] and [[instrumental variable]]s, among many others) that produce [[consistent estimator]]s. =====Vifukufuku===== The basic steps of a statistical experiment are: # Planning the research, including finding the number of replicates of the study, using the following information: preliminary estimates regarding the size of [[Average treatment effect|treatment effects]], [[alternative hypothesis|alternative hypotheses]], and the estimated [[experimental error|experimental variability]]. Consideration of the selection of experimental subjects and the ethics of research is necessary. Statisticians recommend that experiments compare (at least) one new treatment with a standard treatment or control, to allow an unbiased estimate of the difference in treatment effects. # [[Design of experiments]], using [[blocking (statistics)|blocking]] to reduce the influence of [[confounding variable]]s, and [[randomized assignment]] of treatments to subjects to allow [[bias of an estimator|unbiased estimates]] of treatment effects and experimental error. At this stage, the experimenters and statisticians write the ''[[protocol (natural sciences)|experimental protocol]]'' that will guide the performance of the experiment and which specifies the'' primary analysis'' of the experimental data. # Performing the experiment following the [[Protocol (natural sciences)|experimental protocol]] and [[analysis of variance|analyzing the data]] following the experimental protocol. # Further examining the data set in secondary analyses, to suggest new hypotheses for future study. # Documenting and presenting the results of the study. Experiments on human behavior have special concerns. The famous [[Hawthorne study]] examined changes to the working environment at the Hawthorne plant of the [[Western Electric Company]]. The researchers were interested in determining whether increased illumination would increase the productivity of the [[assembly line]] workers. The researchers first measured the productivity in the plant, then modified the illumination in an area of the plant and checked if the changes in illumination affected productivity. It turned out that productivity indeed improved (under the experimental conditions). However, the study is heavily criticized today for errors in experimental procedures, specifically for the lack of a [[control group]] and [[double-blind|blindness]]. The [[Hawthorne effect]] refers to finding that an outcome (in this case, worker productivity) changed due to observation itself. Those in the Hawthorne study became more productive not because the lighting was changed but because they were being observed.<ref name="pmid17608932">{{cite journal |vauthors=McCarney R, Warner J, Iliffe S, van Haselen R, Griffin M, Fisher P |title=The Hawthorne Effect: a randomised, controlled trial |journal=BMC Med Res Methodol |volume=7|pages=30 |year=2007 |pmid=17608932 |pmc=1936999 |doi=10.1186/1471-2288-7-30 |issue=1}}</ref> =====Kuŵazga Kwakulaŵilila===== An example of an observational study is one that explores the association between smoking and lung cancer. This type of study typically uses a survey to collect observations about the area of interest and then performs statistical analysis. In this case, the researchers would collect observations of both smokers and non-smokers, perhaps through a [[cohort study]], and then look for the number of cases of lung cancer in each group.<ref>{{cite book|editor1-last=Rothman|editor1-first=Kenneth J|editor2-last=Greenland|editor2-first=Sander|editor3-last=Lash|editor3-first=Timothy|title=Modern Epidemiology|url=https://archive.org/details/modernepidemiolo00roth|url-access=limited|date=2008|publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins|page=[https://archive.org/details/modernepidemiolo00roth/page/n100 100]|edition=3rd|language=en|chapter=7|isbn=978-0781755641}}</ref> A [[case-control study]] is another type of observational study in which people with and without the outcome of interest (e.g. lung cancer) are invited to participate and their exposure histories are collected. ===Mitundu ya uthenga=== {{main|Statistical data type||Levels of measurement}} Various attempts have been made to produce a taxonomy of [[level of measurement|levels of measurement]]. The psychophysicist [[Stanley Smith Stevens]] defined nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio scales. Nominal measurements do not have meaningful rank order among values, and permit any one-to-one (injective) transformation. Ordinal measurements have imprecise differences between consecutive values, but have a meaningful order to those values, and permit any order-preserving transformation. Interval measurements have meaningful distances between measurements defined, but the zero value is arbitrary (as in the case with [[longitude]] and [[temperature]] measurements in [[Celsius]] or [[Fahrenheit]]), and permit any linear transformation. Ratio measurements have both a meaningful zero value and the distances between different measurements defined, and permit any rescaling transformation. Because variables conforming only to nominal or ordinal measurements cannot be reasonably measured numerically, sometimes they are grouped together as [[categorical variable]]s, whereas ratio and interval measurements are grouped together as [[Variable (mathematics)#Applied statistics|quantitative variables]], which can be either [[Probability distribution#Discrete probability distribution|discrete]] or [[Probability distribution#Continuous probability distribution|continuous]], due to their numerical nature. Such distinctions can often be loosely correlated with [[data type]] in computer science, in that dichotomous categorical variables may be represented with the [[Boolean data type]], polytomous categorical variables with arbitrarily assigned [[integer]]s in the [[integer (computer science)|integral data type]], and continuous variables with the [[real data type]] involving [[floating-point arithmetic]]. But the mapping of computer science data types to statistical data types depends on which categorization of the latter is being implemented. Other categorizations have been proposed. For example, Mosteller and Tukey (1977)<ref>{{cite book | last1 = Mosteller | first1 = F. | author-link1 = Frederick Mosteller | last2 = Tukey | first2 = J.W | author-link2 = John Tukey | year = 1977 | title = Data analysis and regression | url = https://archive.org/details/dataanalysisregr0000most | location = Boston | publisher = Addison-Wesley}}</ref> distinguished grades, ranks, counted fractions, counts, amounts, and balances. Nelder (1990)<ref>[[John Nelder|Nelder, J.A.]] (1990). The knowledge needed to computerise the analysis and interpretation of statistical information. In ''Expert systems and artificial intelligence: the need for information about data''. Library Association Report, London, March, 23–27.</ref> described continuous counts, continuous ratios, count ratios, and categorical modes of data. (See also: Chrisman (1998),<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Chrisman | first1 = Nicholas R | year = 1998 | title = Rethinking Levels of Measurement for Cartography | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_cartography-and-geographic-information-science_1998-10_25_4/page/231 | journal = Cartography and Geographic Information Science | volume = 25 | issue = 4| pages = 231–242 | doi=10.1559/152304098782383043}}</ref> van den Berg (1991).<ref>van den Berg, G. (1991). ''Choosing an analysis method''. Leiden: DSWO Press</ref>) The issue of whether or not it is appropriate to apply different kinds of statistical methods to data obtained from different kinds of measurement procedures is complicated by issues concerning the transformation of variables and the precise interpretation of research questions. "The relationship between the data and what they describe merely reflects the fact that certain kinds of statistical statements may have truth values which are not invariant under some transformations. Whether or not a transformation is sensible to contemplate depends on the question one is trying to answer."<ref>Hand, D.J. (2004). ''Measurement theory and practice: The world through quantification.'' London: Arnold.</ref>{{rp|82}} == Nthowa == {{more citations needed section|date=December 2020}} === Descriptive statistics === {{main|Descriptive statistics}} A '''descriptive statistic''' (in the [[count noun]] sense) is a [[summary statistic]] that quantitatively describes or summarizes features of a collection of [[information]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Mann |first=Prem S. |year=1995 |title=Introductory Statistics |url=https://archive.org/details/introductorystat02edmann_z9s5 |url-access=registration |edition=2nd |publisher=Wiley |isbn=0-471-31009-3 }}</ref> while '''descriptive statistics''' in the [[mass noun]] sense is the process of using and analyzing those statistics. Descriptive statistics is distinguished from [[statistical inference|inferential statistics]] (or inductive statistics), in that descriptive statistics aims to summarize a [[Sample (statistics)|sample]], rather than use the data to learn about the [[statistical population|population]] that the sample of data is thought to represent.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Descriptive Statistics {{!}} Research Connections |url=https://www.researchconnections.org/research-tools/descriptive-statistics |access-date=2023-01-10 |website=www.researchconnections.org}}</ref> === Inferential statistics === {{main|Statistical inference}} '''Statistical inference''' is the process of using [[data analysis]] to deduce properties of an underlying [[probability distribution]].<ref name="Oxford">Upton, G., Cook, I. (2008) ''Oxford Dictionary of Statistics'', OUP. {{ISBN|978-0-19-954145-4}}.</ref> Inferential statistical analysis infers properties of a [[Statistical population|population]], for example by testing hypotheses and deriving estimates. It is assumed that the observed data set is [[Sampling (statistics)|sampled]] from a larger population. Inferential statistics can be contrasted with [[descriptive statistics]]. Descriptive statistics is solely concerned with properties of the observed data, and it does not rest on the assumption that the data come from a larger population.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Basic Inferential Statistics - Purdue OWL® - Purdue University |url=https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/research_and_citation/using_research/writing_with_statistics/basic_inferential_statistics.html |access-date=2023-01-10 |website=owl.purdue.edu}}</ref> ====Terminology and theory of inferential statistics==== =====Statistics, estimators and pivotal quantities===== Consider [[Independent identically distributed|independent identically distributed (IID) random variables]] with a given [[probability distribution]]: standard [[statistical inference]] and [[estimation theory]] defines a [[random sample]] as the [[random vector]] given by the [[column vector]] of these IID variables.<ref name=Piazza>Piazza Elio, Probabilità e Statistica, Esculapio 2007</ref> The [[Statistical population|population]] being examined is described by a probability distribution that may have unknown parameters. A statistic is a random variable that is a function of the random sample, but {{em|not a function of unknown parameters}}. The probability distribution of the statistic, though, may have unknown parameters. Consider now a function of the unknown parameter: an [[estimator]] is a statistic used to estimate such function. Commonly used estimators include [[sample mean]], unbiased [[sample variance]] and [[sample covariance]]. A random variable that is a function of the random sample and of the unknown parameter, but whose probability distribution ''does not depend on the unknown parameter'' is called a [[pivotal quantity]] or pivot. Widely used pivots include the [[z-score]], the [[Chi-squared distribution#Applications|chi square statistic]] and Student's [[Student's t-distribution#How the t-distribution arises|t-value]]. Between two estimators of a given parameter, the one with lower [[mean squared error]] is said to be more [[Efficient estimator|efficient]]. Furthermore, an estimator is said to be [[Unbiased estimator|unbiased]] if its [[expected value]] is equal to the [[true value]] of the unknown parameter being estimated, and asymptotically unbiased if its expected value converges at the [[Limit (mathematics)|limit]] to the true value of such parameter. Other desirable properties for estimators include: [[UMVUE]] estimators that have the lowest variance for all possible values of the parameter to be estimated (this is usually an easier property to verify than efficiency) and [[consistent estimator]]s which [[converges in probability]] to the true value of such parameter. This still leaves the question of how to obtain estimators in a given situation and carry the computation, several methods have been proposed: the [[method of moments (statistics)|method of moments]], the [[maximum likelihood]] method, the [[least squares]] method and the more recent method of [[estimating equations]]. =====Null hypothesis and alternative hypothesis===== Interpretation of statistical information can often involve the development of a [[null hypothesis]] which is usually (but not necessarily) that no relationship exists among variables or that no change occurred over time.<ref>{{cite book | last = Everitt | first = Brian | title = The Cambridge Dictionary of Statistics | publisher = Cambridge University Press | location = Cambridge, UK New York | year = 1998 | isbn = 0521593468 | url = https://archive.org/details/cambridgediction00ever_0 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.yourstatsguru.com/epar/rp-reviewed/cohen1994/ |title=Cohen (1994) The Earth Is Round (p < .05) |publisher=YourStatsGuru.com |access-date=2015-07-20 |archive-date=2015-09-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150905081658/http://www.yourstatsguru.com/epar/rp-reviewed/cohen1994/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The best illustration for a novice is the predicament encountered by a criminal trial. The null hypothesis, H₀, asserts that the defendant is innocent, whereas the alternative hypothesis, H₁, asserts that the defendant is guilty. The indictment comes because of suspicion of the guilt. The H₀ (status quo) stands in opposition to H₁ and is maintained unless H₁ is supported by evidence "beyond a reasonable doubt". However, "failure to reject H₀" in this case does not imply innocence, but merely that the evidence was insufficient to convict. So the jury does not necessarily ''accept'' H₀ but ''fails to reject'' H₀. While one can not "prove" a null hypothesis, one can test how close it is to being true with a [[Statistical power|power test]], which tests for [[type II error]]s. What [[statisticians]] call an [[alternative hypothesis]] is simply a hypothesis that contradicts the [[null hypothesis]]. =====Error===== Working from a [[null hypothesis]], two broad categories of error are recognized: * [[Type I and type II errors#Type I error|Type I errors]] where the null hypothesis is falsely rejected, giving a "false positive". * [[Type I and type II errors#Type II error|Type II errors]] where the null hypothesis fails to be rejected and an actual difference between populations is missed, giving a "false negative". [[Standard deviation]] refers to the extent to which individual observations in a sample differ from a central value, such as the sample or population mean, while [[Standard error (statistics)#Standard error of the mean|Standard error]] refers to an estimate of difference between sample mean and population mean. A [[Errors and residuals in statistics#Introduction|statistical error]] is the amount by which an observation differs from its [[expected value]]. A [[Errors and residuals in statistics#Introduction|residual]] is the amount an observation differs from the value the estimator of the expected value assumes on a given sample (also called prediction). [[Mean squared error]] is used for obtaining [[efficient estimators]], a widely used class of estimators. [[Root mean square error]] is simply the square root of mean squared error. [[File:Linear least squares(2).svg|thumb|right|A least squares fit: in red the points to be fitted, in blue the fitted line.]] Many statistical methods seek to minimize the [[residual sum of squares]], and these are called "[[least squares|methods of least squares]]" in contrast to [[Least absolute deviations]]. The latter gives equal weight to small and big errors, while the former gives more weight to large errors. Residual sum of squares is also [[Differentiable function|differentiable]], which provides a handy property for doing [[regression analysis|regression]]. Least squares applied to [[linear regression]] is called [[ordinary least squares]] method and least squares applied to [[nonlinear regression]] is called [[non-linear least squares]]. Also in a linear regression model the non deterministic part of the model is called error term, disturbance or more simply noise. Both linear regression and non-linear regression are addressed in [[polynomial least squares]], which also describes the variance in a prediction of the dependent variable (y axis) as a function of the independent variable (x axis) and the deviations (errors, noise, disturbances) from the estimated (fitted) curve. Measurement processes that generate statistical data are also subject to error. Many of these errors are classified as [[Random error|random]] (noise) or [[Systematic error|systematic]] ([[bias]]), but other types of errors (e.g., blunder, such as when an analyst reports incorrect units) can also be important. The presence of [[missing data]] or [[censoring (statistics)|censoring]] may result in [[bias (statistics)|biased estimates]] and specific techniques have been developed to address these problems.<ref>Rubin, Donald B.; Little, Roderick J.A., Statistical analysis with missing data, New York: Wiley 2002</ref> =====Interval estimation===== {{main|Interval estimation}} [[File:NYW-confidence-interval.svg|thumb|right|[[Confidence intervals]]: the red line is true value for the mean in this example, the blue lines are random confidence intervals for 100 realizations.]] Most studies only sample part of a population, so results do not fully represent the whole population. Any estimates obtained from the sample only approximate the population value. [[Confidence intervals]] allow statisticians to express how closely the sample estimate matches the true value in the whole population. Often they are expressed as 95% confidence intervals. Formally, a 95% confidence interval for a value is a range where, if the sampling and analysis were repeated under the same conditions (yielding a different dataset), the interval would include the true (population) value in 95% of all possible cases. This does ''not'' imply that the probability that the true value is in the confidence interval is 95%. From the [[frequentist inference|frequentist]] perspective, such a claim does not even make sense, as the true value is not a [[random variable]]. Either the true value is or is not within the given interval. However, it is true that, before any data are sampled and given a plan for how to construct the confidence interval, the probability is 95% that the yet-to-be-calculated interval will cover the true value: at this point, the limits of the interval are yet-to-be-observed [[random variable]]s. One approach that does yield an interval that can be interpreted as having a given probability of containing the true value is to use a [[credible interval]] from [[Bayesian statistics]]: this approach depends on a different way of [[Probability interpretations|interpreting what is meant by "probability"]], that is as a [[Bayesian probability]]. In principle confidence intervals can be symmetrical or asymmetrical. An interval can be asymmetrical because it works as lower or upper bound for a parameter (left-sided interval or right sided interval), but it can also be asymmetrical because the two sided interval is built violating symmetry around the estimate. Sometimes the bounds for a confidence interval are reached asymptotically and these are used to approximate the true bounds. =====Significance===== {{main|Statistical significance}} Statistics rarely give a simple Yes/No type answer to the question under analysis. Interpretation often comes down to the level of statistical significance applied to the numbers and often refers to the probability of a value accurately rejecting the null hypothesis (sometimes referred to as the [[p-value]]). [[File:P-value in statistical significance testing.svg|upright=1.8|thumb|right|In this graph the black line is probability distribution for the [[test statistic]], the [[Critical region#Definition of terms|critical region]] is the set of values to the right of the observed data point (observed value of the test statistic) and the [[p-value]] is represented by the green area.]] The standard approach<ref name="Piazza"/> is to test a null hypothesis against an alternative hypothesis. A [[Critical region#Definition of terms|critical region]] is the set of values of the estimator that leads to refuting the null hypothesis. The probability of type I error is therefore the probability that the estimator belongs to the critical region given that null hypothesis is true ([[statistical significance]]) and the probability of type II error is the probability that the estimator does not belong to the critical region given that the alternative hypothesis is true. The [[statistical power]] of a test is the probability that it correctly rejects the null hypothesis when the null hypothesis is false. Referring to statistical significance does not necessarily mean that the overall result is significant in real world terms. For example, in a large study of a drug it may be shown that the drug has a statistically significant but very small beneficial effect, such that the drug is unlikely to help the patient noticeably. Although in principle the acceptable level of [[statistical significance]] may be subject to debate, the [[significance level]] is the largest p-value that allows the test to reject the null hypothesis. This test is logically equivalent to saying that the p-value is the probability, assuming the null hypothesis is true, of observing a result at least as extreme as the [[test statistic]]. Therefore, the smaller the significance level, the lower the probability of committing type I error. Some problems are usually associated with this framework (See [[Statistical hypothesis testing#Criticism|criticism of hypothesis testing]]): * A difference that is highly statistically significant can still be of no practical significance, but it is possible to properly formulate tests to account for this. One response involves going beyond reporting only the [[significance level]] to include the [[p-value|''p''-value]] when reporting whether a hypothesis is rejected or accepted. The p-value, however, does not indicate the [[effect size|size]] or importance of the observed effect and can also seem to exaggerate the importance of minor differences in large studies. A better and increasingly common approach is to report [[confidence interval]]s. Although these are produced from the same calculations as those of hypothesis tests or ''p''-values, they describe both the size of the effect and the uncertainty surrounding it. * Fallacy of the transposed conditional, aka [[prosecutor's fallacy]]: criticisms arise because the hypothesis testing approach forces one hypothesis (the [[null hypothesis]]) to be favored, since what is being evaluated is the probability of the observed result given the null hypothesis and not probability of the null hypothesis given the observed result. An alternative to this approach is offered by [[Bayesian inference]], although it requires establishing a [[prior probability]].<ref name=Ioannidis2005>{{Cite journal | last1 = Ioannidis | first1 = J.P.A. | author-link1 = John P.A. Ioannidis| title = Why Most Published Research Findings Are False | journal = PLOS Medicine | volume = 2 | issue = 8 | pages = e124 | year = 2005 | pmid = 16060722 | pmc = 1182327 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pmed.0020124}}</ref> * Rejecting the null hypothesis does not automatically prove the alternative hypothesis. * As everything in [[inferential statistics]] it relies on sample size, and therefore under [[fat tails]] p-values may be seriously mis-computed.{{clarify|date=October 2016}} =====Examples===== Some well-known statistical [[Statistical hypothesis testing|tests]] and procedures are: {{Columns-list|colwidth=22em| * [[Analysis of variance]] (ANOVA) * [[Chi-squared test]] * [[Correlation]] * [[Factor analysis]] * [[Mann–Whitney (U)|Mann–Whitney ''U'']] * [[Mean square weighted deviation]] (MSWD) * [[Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient]] * [[Regression analysis]] * [[Spearman's rank correlation coefficient]] * [[Student's t-test|Student's ''t''-test]] * [[Time series analysis]] * [[Conjoint Analysis]] }} ===Exploratory data analysis=== {{main|Exploratory data analysis}} '''Exploratory data analysis''' ('''EDA''') is an approach to [[data analysis|analyzing]] [[data set]]s to summarize their main characteristics, often with visual methods. A [[statistical model]] can be used or not, but primarily EDA is for seeing what the data can tell us beyond the formal modeling or hypothesis testing task. == Misuse == {{main|Misuse of statistics}} [[Misuse of statistics]] can produce subtle but serious errors in description and interpretation—subtle in the sense that even experienced professionals make such errors, and serious in the sense that they can lead to devastating decision errors. For instance, social policy, medical practice, and the reliability of structures like bridges all rely on the proper use of statistics. Even when statistical techniques are correctly applied, the results can be difficult to interpret for those lacking expertise. The [[statistical significance]] of a trend in the data—which measures the extent to which a trend could be caused by random variation in the sample—may or may not agree with an intuitive sense of its significance. The set of basic statistical skills (and skepticism) that people need to deal with information in their everyday lives properly is referred to as [[statistical literacy]]. There is a general perception that statistical knowledge is all-too-frequently intentionally [[Misuse of statistics|misused]] by finding ways to interpret only the data that are favorable to the presenter.<ref name="Huff">Huff, Darrell (1954) ''[[How to Lie with Statistics]]'', WW Norton & Company, Inc. New York. {{isbn|0-393-31072-8}}</ref> A mistrust and misunderstanding of statistics is associated with the quotation, "[[Lies, damned lies, and statistics|There are three kinds of lies: lies, damned lies, and statistics]]". Misuse of statistics can be both inadvertent and intentional, and the book ''[[How to Lie with Statistics]]'',<ref name=Huff/> by [[Darrell Huff]], outlines a range of considerations. In an attempt to shed light on the use and misuse of statistics, reviews of statistical techniques used in particular fields are conducted (e.g. Warne, Lazo, Ramos, and Ritter (2012)).<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Warne | first1 = R. Lazo | last2 = Ramos | first2 = T. | last3 = Ritter | first3 = N. | year = 2012 | title = Statistical Methods Used in Gifted Education Journals, 2006–2010 | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_gifted-child-quarterly_summer-2012_56_3/page/134 | journal = Gifted Child Quarterly | volume = 56 | issue = 3| pages = 134–149 | doi = 10.1177/0016986212444122 | s2cid = 144168910 }}</ref> Ways to avoid misuse of statistics include using proper diagrams and avoiding [[Bias (statistics)|bias]].<ref name="Statistics in Archaeology">{{cite book | chapter = Statistics in archaeology | pages = [https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaarch00pear/page/n2072 2093]–2100 | first1 = Robert D. | last1 = Drennan | title = Encyclopedia of Archaeology | url = https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaarch00pear | url-access = limited | year = 2008 | publisher = Elsevier Inc. | editor-first = Deborah M. | editor-last = Pearsall | isbn = 978-0-12-373962-9 }}</ref> Misuse can occur when conclusions are [[Hasty generalization|overgeneralized]] and claimed to be representative of more than they really are, often by either deliberately or unconsciously overlooking sampling bias.<ref name="Misuse of Statistics">{{cite journal |last=Cohen |first=Jerome B. |title=Misuse of Statistics |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-the-american-statistical-association_1938-12_33_204/page/657 |journal=Journal of the American Statistical Association |date=December 1938 |volume=33 |issue=204 |pages=657–674 |location=JSTOR |doi=10.1080/01621459.1938.10502344}}</ref> Bar graphs are arguably the easiest diagrams to use and understand, and they can be made either by hand or with simple computer programs.<ref name="Statistics in Archaeology" /> Unfortunately, most people do not look for bias or errors, so they are not noticed. Thus, people may often believe that something is true even if it is not well [[Sampling (statistics)|represented]].<ref name="Misuse of Statistics" /> To make data gathered from statistics believable and accurate, the sample taken must be representative of the whole.<ref name="Modern Elementary Statistics">{{cite journal|last=Freund|first=J.E.|author-link = John E. Freund|title=Modern Elementary Statistics|journal=Credo Reference|year=1988}}</ref> According to Huff, "The dependability of a sample can be destroyed by [bias]... allow yourself some degree of skepticism."<ref>{{cite book|last=Huff|first=Darrell|title=How to Lie with Statistics|url=https://archive.org/details/howtoliewithstat0000dare|year=1954|publisher=Norton|location=New York|author2=Irving Geis |quote=The dependability of a sample can be destroyed by [bias]... allow yourself some degree of skepticism.}}</ref> To assist in the understanding of statistics Huff proposed a series of questions to be asked in each case:<ref name=Huff/> * Who says so? (Does he/she have an axe to grind?) * How does he/she know? (Does he/she have the resources to know the facts?) * What's missing? (Does he/she give us a complete picture?) * Did someone change the subject? (Does he/she offer us the right answer to the wrong problem?) * Does it make sense? (Is his/her conclusion logical and consistent with what we already know?) [[File:Simple Confounding Case.svg|upright=0.9|thumb|right|The [[confounding variable]] problem: ''X'' and ''Y'' may be correlated, not because there is causal relationship between them, but because both depend on a third variable ''Z''. ''Z'' is called a confounding factor.]] ===Misinterpretation: correlation=== {{See also|Correlation does not imply causation}} The concept of [[correlation]] is particularly noteworthy for the potential confusion it can cause. Statistical analysis of a [[data set]] often reveals that two variables (properties) of the population under consideration tend to vary together, as if they were connected. For example, a study of annual income that also looks at age of death, might find that poor people tend to have shorter lives than affluent people. The two variables are said to be correlated; however, they may or may not be the cause of one another. The correlation phenomena could be caused by a third, previously unconsidered phenomenon, called a lurking variable or [[confounding variable]]. For this reason, there is no way to immediately infer the existence of a causal relationship between the two variables. ==Applications== ===Applied statistics, theoretical statistics and mathematical statistics=== ''Applied statistics,'' sometimes referred to as ''Statistical science,''<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Nelder|first=John A.|date=1999|title=From Statistics to Statistical Science|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2681191|journal=Journal of the Royal Statistical Society. Series D (The Statistician)|volume=48|issue=2|pages=257–269|doi=10.1111/1467-9884.00187|jstor=2681191|issn=0039-0526|access-date=2022-01-15|archive-date=2022-01-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220115160959/https://www.jstor.org/stable/2681191|url-status=live}}</ref> comprises descriptive statistics and the application of inferential statistics.<ref>Nikoletseas, M.M. (2014) "Statistics: Concepts and Examples." {{isbn|978-1500815684}}</ref><ref>Anderson, D.R.; Sweeney, D.J.; Williams, T.A. (1994) ''Introduction to Statistics: Concepts and Applications'', pp. 5–9. West Group. {{isbn|978-0-314-03309-3}}</ref> ''Theoretical statistics'' concerns the logical arguments underlying justification of approaches to [[statistical inference]], as well as encompassing ''mathematical statistics''. Mathematical statistics includes not only the manipulation of [[probability distribution]]s necessary for deriving results related to methods of estimation and inference, but also various aspects of [[computational statistics]] and the [[design of experiments]]. [[Statistical consultant]]s can help organizations and companies that do not have in-house expertise relevant to their particular questions. ===Machine learning and data mining=== [[Machine learning]] models are statistical and probabilistic models that capture patterns in the data through use of computational algorithms. ===Statistics in academia=== Statistics is applicable to a wide variety of [[academic discipline]]s, including [[Natural science|natural]] and [[social science]]s, government, and business. Business statistics applies statistical methods in [[econometrics]], [[auditing]] and production and operations, including services improvement and marketing research.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://amstat.tandfonline.com/loi/jbes|title=Journal of Business & Economic Statistics|website=Journal of Business & Economic Statistics|publisher=Taylor & Francis|access-date=16 March 2020|archive-date=27 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200727052958/https://amstat.tandfonline.com/loi/jbes|url-status=live}}</ref> A study of two journals in tropical biology found that the 12 most frequent statistical tests are: [[analysis of variance]] (ANOVA), [[chi-squared test]], [[Student's t-test]], [[linear regression]], [[Pearson’s correlation coefficient]], [[Mann-Whitney U test]], [[Kruskal-Wallis test]], [[Diversity index#Shannon index|Shannon’s diversity index]], [[Tukey's range test]], [[cluster analysis]], [[Spearman's rank correlation coefficient]] and [[principal component analysis]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Natalia Loaiza Velásquez, María Isabel González Lutz & Julián Monge-Nájera|date=2011|title=Which statistics should tropical biologists learn?|url=https://investiga.uned.ac.cr/ecologiaurbana/wp-content/uploads/sites/30/2017/09/JMN-2011-statistics-should-learn.pdf|journal=Revista Biología Tropical|volume=59|pages=983–992|access-date=2020-04-26|archive-date=2020-10-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201019160957/https://investiga.uned.ac.cr/ecologiaurbana/wp-content/uploads/sites/30/2017/09/JMN-2011-statistics-should-learn.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> A typical statistics course covers descriptive statistics, probability, binomial and [[normal distribution]]s, test of hypotheses and confidence intervals, [[linear regression]], and correlation.<ref>{{cite book|last=Pekoz|first=Erol|title=The Manager's Guide to Statistics|date=2009|publisher=Erol Pekoz|isbn=978-0979570438}}</ref> Modern fundamental statistical courses for undergraduate students focus on correct test selection, results interpretation, and use of [[free statistics software]].<ref name=":0" /> ===Statistical computing=== [[File:Gretl screenshot.png|thumb|upright=1.15|right|[[gretl]], an example of an [[List of open source statistical packages|open source statistical package]]]] {{main|Computational statistics}} The rapid and sustained increases in computing power starting from the second half of the 20th century have had a substantial impact on the practice of statistical science. Early statistical models were almost always from the class of [[linear model]]s, but powerful computers, coupled with suitable numerical [[algorithms]], caused an increased interest in [[Nonlinear regression|nonlinear models]] (such as [[Artificial neural network|neural networks]]) as well as the creation of new types, such as [[generalized linear model]]s and [[multilevel model]]s. Increased computing power has also led to the growing popularity of computationally intensive methods based on [[Resampling (statistics)|resampling]], such as [[permutation test]]s and the [[Bootstrapping (statistics)|bootstrap]], while techniques such as [[Gibbs sampling]] have made use of [[Bayesian model]]s more feasible. The computer revolution has implications for the future of statistics with a new emphasis on "experimental" and "empirical" statistics. A large number of both general and special purpose [[List of statistical packages|statistical software]] are now available. Examples of available software capable of complex statistical computation include programs such as [[Mathematica]], [[SAS (software)|SAS]], [[SPSS]], and [[R (programming language)|R]]. ===Business statistics=== In business, "statistics" is a widely used [[Management#Nature of work|management-]] and [[decision support]] tool. It is particularly applied in [[financial management]], [[marketing management]], and [[Manufacturing process management|production]], [[operations management for services|services]] and [[operations management]] .<ref>{{cite web |url=https://amstat.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?show=aimsScope&journalCode=ubes20 |title=Aims and scope |website=Journal of Business & Economic Statistics |publisher=Taylor & Francis |access-date=16 March 2020 |archive-date=23 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210623194835/https://amstat.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?show=aimsScope&journalCode=ubes20 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://amstat.tandfonline.com/loi/jbes |title=Journal of Business & Economic Statistics |website=Journal of Business & Economic Statistics |publisher=Taylor & Francis |access-date=16 March 2020 |archive-date=27 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200727052958/https://amstat.tandfonline.com/loi/jbes |url-status=live }}</ref> Statistics is also heavily used in [[management accounting]] and [[auditing]]. The discipline of [[Management Science]] formalizes the use of statistics, and other mathematics, in business. ([[Econometrics]] is the application of statistical methods to [[economic data]] in order to give empirical content to [[economic theory|economic relationships]].) A typical "Business Statistics" course is intended for [[Business education#Undergraduate education|business majors]], and covers <ref>Numerous texts are available, reflecting the scope and reach of the discipline in the business world: * Sharpe, N. (2014). ''Business Statistics'', Pearson. {{ISBN|978-0134705217}} * Wegner, T. (2010). ''Applied Business Statistics: Methods and Excel-Based Applications,'' Juta Academic. {{ISBN|0702172863}} Two [[Open textbook|open textbooks]] are: * Holmes, L., Illowsky, B., Dean, S. (2017). [https://open.umn.edu/opentextbooks/textbooks/509 ''Introductory Business Statistics''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210616084059/https://open.umn.edu/opentextbooks/textbooks/509|date=2021-06-16}} * Nica, M. (2013). [https://open.umn.edu/opentextbooks/textbooks/384 ''Principles of Business Statistics''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210518151122/https://open.umn.edu/opentextbooks/textbooks/384|date=2021-05-18}}</ref> [[descriptive statistics]] ([[Data collection|collection]], description, analysis, and summary of data), probability (typically the [[binomial distribution|binomial]] and [[normal distribution]]s), test of hypotheses and confidence intervals, [[linear regression]], and correlation; (follow-on) courses may include [[forecasting]], [[time series]], [[decision trees]], [[multiple linear regression]], and other topics from [[business analytics]] more generally. See also {{sectionlink|Business mathematics#University level}}. [[Professional certification in financial services|Professional certification programs]], such as the [[Chartered Financial Analyst|CFA]], often include topics in statistics. ===Statistics applied to mathematics or the arts=== Traditionally, statistics was concerned with drawing inferences using a semi-standardized methodology that was "required learning" in most sciences. This tradition has changed with the use of statistics in non-inferential contexts. What was once considered a dry subject, taken in many fields as a degree-requirement, is now viewed enthusiastically.{{according to whom|date=April 2014}} Initially derided by some mathematical purists, it is now considered essential methodology in certain areas. * In [[number theory]], [[scatter plot]]s of data generated by a distribution function may be transformed with familiar tools used in statistics to reveal underlying patterns, which may then lead to hypotheses. * Predictive methods of statistics in [[forecasting]] combining [[chaos theory]] and [[fractal geometry]] can be used to create video works.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Cline|first=Graysen|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1132348139|title=Nonparametric Statistical Methods Using R|date=2019|publisher=EDTECH|isbn=978-1-83947-325-8|oclc=1132348139|access-date=2021-09-16|archive-date=2022-05-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220515012840/https://www.worldcat.org/title/nonparametric-statistical-methods-using-r/oclc/1132348139|url-status=live}}</ref> * The [[process art]] of [[Jackson Pollock]] relied on artistic experiments whereby underlying distributions in nature were artistically revealed.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Palacios|first1=Bernardo|last2=Rosario|first2=Alfonso|last3=Wilhelmus|first3=Monica M.|last4=Zetina|first4=Sandra|last5=Zenit|first5=Roberto|date=2019-10-30|title=Pollock avoided hydrodynamic instabilities to paint with his dripping technique|journal=PLOS ONE|language=en|volume=14|issue=10|pages=e0223706|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0223706|issn=1932-6203|pmc=6821064|pmid=31665191|bibcode=2019PLoSO..1423706P|doi-access=free}}</ref> With the advent of computers, statistical methods were applied to formalize such distribution-driven natural processes to make and analyze moving video art.{{Citation needed|date=March 2013}} * Methods of statistics may be used predicatively in [[performance art]], as in a card trick based on a [[Markov process]] that only works some of the time, the occasion of which can be predicted using statistical methodology. * Statistics can be used to predicatively create art, as in the statistical or [[stochastic music]] invented by [[Iannis Xenakis]], where the music is performance-specific. Though this type of artistry does not always come out as expected, it does behave in ways that are predictable and tunable using statistics. == Specialized disciplines == {{main|List of fields of application of statistics}} Statistical techniques are used in a wide range of types of scientific and social research, including: [[biostatistics]], [[computational biology]], [[computational sociology]], [[network biology]], [[social science]], [[sociology]] and [[social research]]. Some fields of inquiry use applied statistics so extensively that they have [[specialized terminology]]. These disciplines include: {{Columns-list|colwidth=30em|* [[Actuarial science]] (assesses risk in the insurance and finance industries) * Applied information economics * [[Astrostatistics]] (statistical evaluation of astronomical data) * [[Biostatistics]] * [[Chemometrics]] (for analysis of data from [[chemistry]]) * [[Data mining]] (applying statistics and [[pattern recognition]] to discover knowledge from data) * [[Data science]] * [[Demography]] (statistical study of populations) * [[Econometrics]] (statistical analysis of economic data) * [[Statistical study of energy data|Energy statistics]] * [[Engineering statistics]] * [[Epidemiology]] (statistical analysis of disease) * [[Geography]] and [[geographic information system]]s, specifically in [[spatial analysis]] * [[Image processing]] * [[Jurimetrics]] ([[law]]) * [[Medical statistics]] * [[Political science]] * [[Psychological statistics]] * [[Reliability engineering]] * [[Social statistics]] * [[Statistical mechanics]]}} In addition, there are particular types of statistical analysis that have also developed their own specialised terminology and methodology: {{Columns-list|colwidth=30em| * [[Bootstrapping (statistics)|Bootstrap]]{{\}}[[Jackknife resampling|jackknife]] [[Resampling (statistics)|resampling]] * [[Multivariate statistics]] * [[Statistical classification]] * [[Structured data analysis (statistics)|Structured data analysis]] * [[Structural equation modelling]] * [[Survey methodology]] * [[Survival analysis]] * Statistics in various sports, particularly [[Baseball statistics|baseball]] – known as [[sabermetrics]] – and [[Cricket statistics|cricket]] }} Statistics form a key basis tool in business and manufacturing as well. It is used to understand measurement systems variability, control processes (as in [[statistical process control]] or SPC), for summarizing data, and to make data-driven decisions. In these roles, it is a key tool, and perhaps the only reliable tool.{{Citation needed|date=August 2021}} == See also == {{Library resources box |by=no |onlinebooks=no |others=no |about=yes |label=Statistics}} {{main|Outline of statistics}} <!-- NOTE: This is mainly for statistics-related lists. Please consider adding links to either the "Outline of statistics" or the "List of statistics articles" entries rather than here.--> {{Columns-list|colwidth=20em| * [[Abundance estimation]] * [[Glossary of probability and statistics]] * [[List of academic statistical associations]] * [[List of important publications in statistics]] * [[List of national and international statistical services]] * [[List of statistical packages]] (software) * [[List of statistics articles]] * [[List of university statistical consulting centers]] * [[Notation in probability and statistics]] * [[Statistics education]] * [[World Statistics Day]] }} ;Foundations and major areas of statistics {{Columns-list|colwidth=22em|<!-- Foundations and major areas of statistics, closely related fields NOT already mentioned in "Specialised disciplines" section--> * [[Foundations of statistics]] * [[List of statisticians]] * [[Official statistics]] * [[Multivariate analysis of variance]] :<!--empty column--> :<!--empty column--> }} == References == {{reflist}} ==Further reading== * Lydia Denworth, "A Significant Problem: Standard scientific methods are under fire. Will anything change?", ''[[Scientific American]]'', vol. 321, no. 4 (October 2019), pp.&nbsp;62–67. "The use of [[p value|''p'' values]] for nearly a century [since 1925] to determine [[statistical significance]] of [[experiment]]al results has contributed to an illusion of [[certainty]] and [to] [[Replication crisis|reproducibility crises]] in many [[science|scientific fields]]. There is growing determination to reform statistical analysis... Some [researchers] suggest changing statistical methods, whereas others would do away with a threshold for defining "significant" results." (p.&nbsp;63.) * {{cite book|author1=Barbara Illowsky|author2=Susan Dean|title=Introductory Statistics|url=https://openstax.org/details/introductory-statistics|year=2014|publisher=OpenStax CNX|isbn=978-1938168208}} * {{cite web|first=David W.|last=Stockburger|url=http://psychstat3.missouristate.edu/Documents/IntroBook3/sbk.htm|title=Introductory Statistics: Concepts, Models, and Applications|edition=3rd Web|website=[[Missouri State University]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200528093101/http://psychstat3.missouristate.edu/Documents/IntroBook3/sbk.htm|archive-date=28 May 2020}} * [https://www.openintro.org/stat/textbook.php?stat_book=os ''OpenIntro Statistics''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190616110442/https://www.openintro.org/stat/textbook.php?stat_book=os |date=2019-06-16 }}, 3rd edition by Diez, Barr, and Cetinkaya-Rundel * Stephen Jones, 2010. [https://web.archive.org/web/20170215092220/https://books.google.com/books?id=mywdBQAAQBAJ ''Statistics in Psychology: Explanations without Equations'']. Palgrave Macmillan. {{isbn|978-1137282392}}. * {{cite journal | last1 = Cohen | first1 = J | year = 1990 | title = Things I have learned (so far) | url = http://moityca.com.br/pdfs/Cohen_1990.pdf | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20171018181831/http://moityca.com.br/pdfs/Cohen_1990.pdf | url-status = dead | archive-date = 2017-10-18 | journal = American Psychologist | volume = 45 | issue = 12 | pages = 1304–1312 | doi = 10.1037/0003-066x.45.12.1304 }} * {{cite journal | last1 = Gigerenzer | first1 = G | year = 2004 | title = Mindless statistics | journal = Journal of Socio-Economics | volume = 33 | issue = 5 | pages = 587–606 | doi = 10.1016/j.socec.2004.09.033 }} * {{cite journal | last1 = Ioannidis | first1 = J.P.A. | year = 2005 | title = Why most published research findings are false | journal = PLOS Medicine | volume = 2 | issue = 4 | pages = 696–701 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pmed.0040168 | pmid = 17456002 | pmc = 1855693 }} ==External links== {{Sister project links|Statistics}} * (Electronic Version): TIBCO Software Inc. (2020). [https://docs.tibco.com/data-science/textbook Data Science Textbook]. * [http://onlinestatbook.com/index.html ''Online Statistics Education: An Interactive Multimedia Course of Study'']. Developed by Rice University (Lead Developer), University of Houston Clear Lake, Tufts University, and National Science Foundation. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20060717201702/http://www.ats.ucla.edu/stat/ UCLA Statistical Computing Resources] (archived 17 July 2006) * [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/statistics/ Philosophy of Statistics] from the [[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]] {{Statistics |state=expanded}} {{Areas of mathematics |collapsed}} {{Glossaries of science and engineering}} {{Portal bar|Mathematics}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Statistics| ]]<!--space-indexed (i.e. lead/home/eponymous) category first--> [[Category:Data]] [[Category:Formal sciences]] [[Category:Information]] [[Category:Mathematical and quantitative methods (economics)]] [[Category:Research methods]] [[Category:Arab inventions]] 2loy4c93us6jkfq4ffi2j445z8g2dc1 0 46084 119272 115691 2026-08-13T13:11:41Z Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi 11606 /* growthexperiments-addlink-summary-summary:3|0|0 */ 119272 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox building | name = Sanjika Palace | native_name_lang = ny | image = | caption = Nyumba ya Chifumu ya Sanjika mu 2014 | location = [[Blantyre]], [[Southern Region, Malawi|Southern Region]] | location_country = [[Malawi]] | opened_date = {{Start date and age|1983}} | current_tenants = Lazarus Chakwela,<br> [[President of the Republic of Malawi]] }} '''Nyumba ya boma ya Sanjika''' ni nyumba ya boma ya pulezidenti wa [[Malawi]]. Nyumba iyi yili ku Blantyre, ku Southern Region. Munthu uyo wakukhala mu nyumba ya Sanjika palace ni Lazarus Chakwela, uyo ni pulezidenti wa Malawi kufuma pa 28 June 2020. Ndipouli, mu vyaka vyasonosono apa, mu muzi uwu mukaŵa nkhani za mizimu.<ref name=":0"><nowiki>https://www.nytimes.com/2005/03/29/world/africa/a-ghost-story-turns-very-scary-for-malawi-journalists.html</nowiki></ref> === Vyakuchitika === ====== Ndondocha ====== Mu [[Lilongwe]], Malawi, Malichi 23 - Pulezidenti wa Malawi, Bingu wa Mutharika, wakakhala sabata yimoza mwezi uno ku ofesi ya European Union ku Brussels, kuti wawoneke nga ni mulongozgi wakulongozga ŵanthu awo ŵakulongozga mu nthowa za sono kuti ŵanjire mu virimika vya m'ma 2000.<ref name=":0" /> Wati wafika ku nyumba, wakapulika nkhani zinandi mu nyuzipepara zakuti wakacimbira mu nyumba yake ya vipinda 300 cifukwa wakagomezganga kuti muli mizimu. Ŵanakazi ŵaŵiri ŵa nyuzipepara ŵakakora mazgu gha mulara wa boma uyo wakumanya vya cisopa, uyo wakayowoya kuti mulara wa boma wakacema ŵalongozgi ŵa cisopa kuti ŵafumiske mizimu yiheni. Ŵanyake ŵakayowoya kuti mulara wa boma uyu wakawonanga [[vinyama]] vyambura kuwoneka ivyo vikambwambwanthanga usiku.<ref name=":0" /> Cikaŵa cambura kughanaghanika yayi kuti munthu munyake uyo wakaŵa mulara pa vya cuma wa Banki ya Caru Cose, nga ni Mr. Mutharika, uyo wakumanya makora umo wangamazgira suzgo la kukwera kwa mitengo na kovwira kuti vinthu visinthe, wakwenera kuti wakafipanga mtima na nkhani ya mzimu. Mu vigaŵa vinandi vya kumwera kwa Sahara mu Africa, vigomezgo vya cisopo vikukhala pamoza na maghanoghano gha ŵantu mazuŵa ghano.<ref name=":0" /> Kweni ni unenesko yayi, nga umo Mr. Mutharika. Wakati wawerako ku [[Europe]], wakati: "Nindawonepo mizimu yiliyose". Nkhawopanga ŵanthu aŵa yayi mu umoyo wane".<ref name=":0" /> ====== Kulasika ====== Pa June 14, 2021, mwanalume munyake wakathyapika na futi mu malundi ghose ghaŵiri cifukwa ca kunjira mu nyumba ya themba.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Chimulala |first=Maneno |date=2021-06-14 |title=Man shot on both legs for trespassing at Sanjika Palace |url=https://www.maravipost.com/man-shot-on-both-legs-for-trespassing-at-sanjika-palace/ |access-date=2023-09-19 |website=The Maravi Post |language=en-US}}</ref> == Ukaboni == {{Reflist}} [[Category:Nyumba za boma izo zikamara kuzengeka mu 1983]] [[Category:Nyumba zacifumu mu Africa]] [[Category:Nyumba za Pulezidenti]] [[Category:Nyumba za boma ku Malawi]] tkalqn0xbqoulpu8o6ztic92yt4vmck 0 46107 119328 118822 2026-08-13T22:59:41Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260813sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 119328 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|British explorer and missionary to Africa (1813–1873)}} {{other people}} {{Use British English|date=September 2022}} {{Use dmy dates|date=February 2017}} {{Infobox person | name = David Livingstone | honorific_suffix = {{post-nominals|country=GBR|size=100%|FRGS|FRS}} | image = David Livingstone by Thomas Annan.jpg | caption = Livingstone in 1864 | birth_date = {{Birth date|df=yes|1813|3|19}} | birth_place = [[Blantyre, South Lanarkshire]], in Scotland | death_date = {{Death date and age|df=yes|1873|5|1|1813|3|19}}<ref name="BBC2014">{{cite web | title = David Livingstone (1813–1873) | work = BBC - History - Historic Figures | date = 2014 | access-date = 2018-07-12 | url = http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/livingstone_david.shtml }}</ref> | death_place = [[Livingstone Memorial|Chief Chitambo's Village]], Kingdom of Kazembe {{awrap|(today [[Northern Province, Zambia]])}} | resting_place = [[Westminster Abbey]] | resting_place_coordinates = {{Coord|51.499444|-0.1275}} | known_for = Proselytizing Christianity, exploration of Africa, and meeting with [[Henry Morton Stanley|Henry Stanley]] | spouse = {{marriage|[[Mary Moffat Livingstone|Mary Moffat]]|January 1845|27 April 1862|end=d}} | children = 6 }} David Livingstone (19 March 1813 - 4 May 1873) wakaŵa dokotala wa ku Scotland<ref name=":0" />, Congregationalist, pioneer Christian missionary with the London Missionary Society<ref name=":0" />, na explorer ku Africa, uyo wakakhumbanga kuti waleke wuzga; yumoza wa ŵanthu ŵakumanyikwa chomene ŵa ku Britain mu nyengo ya Victorian ya 19th century. David wakaŵa mfumu wa Mary Moffat Livingstone, uyo wakafuma mu mbumba yakumanyikwa ya ŵamishonale ya mu virimika vya m'ma 1700, Moffat.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Bayly |first=Paul |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/853507173 |title=David Livingstone, Africa's greatest explorer : the man, the missionary and the myth |date=2013 |isbn=978-1-78155-333-6 |location=Stroud |pages=50 |oclc=853507173}}</ref> Livingstone wakaŵa munthu wavinjeru uyo wakacitanga vinthu vinandi vyakupambanapambana. Wakaŵa mishonale wa Chiprotesitanti uyo wakajipeleka kuti waŵe musambiri, munthu uyo wakajipeleka kuti waŵe musambazi, wasayansi, wakwendakwenda, wakunozga vinthu, wakususka wuzga, na wakukhozgera kuti Britain yisandenge malonda ghake na kukhazikiska maufumu ghanyake.<ref name="Easton2017">{{cite web | title = Why don't many British tourists visit Victoria Falls? | last = Easton | first = Mark | work = BBC News | date = 3 September 2017 | access-date = 2018-07-12 | url = https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-41083374 }}</ref> Livingstone wakamanyikwanga kuti ni munthu uyo wakakhumbanga kumanya uko kukufuma maji gha mu Mlonga wa Nile, ndipo wakagomezganga kuti usange wangawuskapo cisisi ici, wamanyikwenge kuti wacitengepo kanthu kuti walekeske malonda gha ŵazga mu caru ca East Africa. Wakaphalira mubwezi wake kuti: "Maji gha mu Nile ghali na candulo cifukwa ca kunovwira kuti niŵe na nkhongono pakati pa ŵanthu. Nkhongono iyi [ndiyo] nkhugomezga kuti yizamumazga suzgo likuru".{{sfn | Jeal | 2013 | p=289}} Wakamba kupenja malo ghakupambanapambana gha ku Central Africa, ndipo ivi vikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe ŵasange malo ghakupambanapambana mu Africa. Pa nyengo yeneyiyo pera, maulendo ghake gha umishonale, "kuzgeŵa", na nyifwa yake mu Africa, ndiposo kuzunurika kwake nga ni munthu wakuzirwa mu 1874 vikapangiska kuti paŵe maubwezi ghanandi gha Ŵakhristu ŵa ku Central Africa.<ref name="Mackenzie1990">{{cite book|last=Mackenzie|first=John M. |editor1-first=Graham |editor1-last=Walker|editor2-first=Tom |editor2-last=Gallagher|title=Sermons and battle hymns: Protestant popular culture in modern Scotland|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OpZnAAAAMAAJ|year=1990|publisher=Edinburgh University Press|isbn=978-0-7486-0217-9|chapter=David Livingstone: The Construction of the Myth}}</ref> == Umoyo wake == [[File:Birthplace of david livingstone.jpg|thumb|Livingstone's birthplace in [[Blantyre]], [[South Lanarkshire]], Scotland]] [[File:David Livingstones birthplace (geograph 4530192).jpg|thumb|David Livingstone's birthplace, with period furnishings]] Livingstone wakababika pa 19 March 1813 mu tawuni ya Blantyre, Scotland, mu nyumba ya ŵantchito ŵa fakitare ya thonje pa m'mphepete mwa Mlonga wa Clyde pasi pa mlatho uwo ukujumpha mu Bothwell.<ref name="nts.org.uk">{{cite web |url=https://www.nts.org.uk/Property/23/ |title=David Livingstone Centre: Birthplace Of Famous Scot |access-date=12 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070212012712/https://www.nts.org.uk/Property/23/ |archive-date=12 February 2007 |url-status=bot: unknown |df=dmy-all}}</ref> Wakaŵa mwana waciŵiri pa ŵana ŵankhondi na ŵaŵiri ŵa Neil Livingstone (1788 ⁇ 1856) na muwoli wake Agnes (née Hunter; 1782- 1865). Apo Davide wakaŵa na vilimika khumi, wakamba kugwira nchito pa fakitare ya Henry Monteith & Co. ku Blantyre Works. Iyo na mudumbu wake John, ŵakagwiranga nchito ya maora 12 pa zuŵa, ŵakakakiliranga visulo vya thonje pa makina ghakusonera. Neil Livingstone wakaŵa msambizgi wa Sande sukulu ndipo wakakananga kumwa moŵa, ndipo wakagaŵiranga mathirakiti gha Cikhristu paulendo wake wa kuguliska tiyi nyumba na nyumba. Wakaŵazga comene mabuku ghakukhwaskana na cisopo, vyamwendakwenda, na mauteŵeti gha umishonale. Ivi vikamovwira kuti waŵe munthu wakutemwa kuŵazga, kweniso kuti wasangenge vinyama, vyakumera, na vinthu vinyake mu migodi ya malibwe. Neil wakafipanga mtima kuti mabuku gha sayansi ghangatimbanizga Cikristu ndipo wakayezga kucicizga mwana wake kuti waŵazgenge vya cisopo pera, kweni David wakatemwanga comene vinthu vya cilengiwa na sayansi, ndipo ici cikamupangiska kuti wasande umo cisopa na sayansi vikukolerana.{{sfn | Ross | 2002 | p=6}} Mu 1832, wakaŵazga buku la Thomas Dick lakuti Philosophy of a Future State, ndipo wakasanga fundo izo zikamovwira kuti wagwirizaniske cisopa na sayansi. Padera pa Baibolo, buku ili ndilo likamovwira comene pa nkhani ya vinjeru.<ref name="Blaikie1880">{{cite book|last=Blaikie|first=William Garden|author-link=William Garden Blaikie |title=The Personal Life of David Livingstone... Chiefly from His Unpublished Journals and Correspondence in the Possession of His Family|url=http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/13262|year=1880|publisher=John Murray|location=London|via=[[Project Gutenberg]]}}</ref> Ŵanyake awo ŵakamovwira comene apo wakaŵa mwana ŵakaŵa Thomas Burke, mupharazgi wa mu Blantyre, na David Hogg, msambizgi wake wa Sunday school. Apo wakaŵa na virimika 15, David wakafumamo mu Church of Scotland na kuluta ku mpingo wa Congregational, ndipo wakapusikika na ŵapharazgi nga ni Ralph Wardlaw, awo ŵakakananga kuti munthu wangapona cifukwa ca kugomezga kuti vinthu vyose vili kulembekerathu. Pakuti Livingstone wakasambizgika visambizgo vya ŵanthu ŵa ku United States, wakazomera fundo iyo Charles Finney, uyo ni Pulofesa wa vya cisopa pa Oberlin College, ku Ohio, wakayowoya yakuti "mzimu utuŵa ukupelekeka kwa wose awo ŵakuwulomba". Kwa Livingstone, ici cikang'anamuranga kuti walekerethu kopa kuti wazamuparanyika kwamuyirayira. Livingstone wakati waŵazga buku la Karl Gützlaff, ilo likayowoyanga za visopa vya ku Britain na America, wakaciska adada ŵake kuti ŵasambire vya udokotala kuti ŵasange nchito ya kusopa. Ivyo vikacitikira Livingstone ku H. Mulimo wa ku Blantyre uwo Monteith wakacitanga, ukaŵawovwiranga chomene ŵana awo ŵakaŵa na vyaka vyapakati pa 10 na 26. Mulimo uwu ukaŵa wakukhumbikwa kuti wovwire mbumba yake iyo yikaŵa yambura ndalama zinandi, kweni ukamusambizga kuti waŵe wakuzizipizga, ndiposo kuti waŵenge walusungu na wose awo ŵakugwira nchito, nga ni umo wakalongolera mu mazgu agho wakacemerezganga mu sumu ya Robert Burns yakuti: "When man to man, the world o'er/Shall brothers be for a' that".{{efn|This sentiment today would be expressed along the lines of: "all people, worldwide, are brothers and sisters, despite everything."<ref name="Blaikie1880" />}} ==Masambilo== Livingstone wakasambiranga pa sukulu ya mu muzi wa Blantyre, pamoza na ŵana ŵanyake awo ŵakagwiranga nchito ya ku fakitare nangauli ŵakagwiranga nchito maora 14 pa zuŵa (6 koloko mulenji mpaka 8 koloko mise). Cifukwa cakuti wakaŵa na mbumba iyo yikalimbikiranga comene kusambira, wakasambira vinandi. Apo wakaŵa na vilimika 21, wakakondwa comene na kapepara ako adada ŵake ŵakapokera kufuma ku chalichi ako kakayowoyanga ivyo Gützlaff wakacema ŵamishonale kuti ŵalute ku China, ndipo kakayowoyanga kuti ŵamishonale ŵakwenera kusambizgika kuŵa ŵadokotala. Awiske ŵakamukhorweska, ndipo nga umo ŵakacitiranga ŵana ŵanyake ku Scotland, Livingstone wakeneranga kusanga vyakukhumbikwa pa umoyo wake, na kuzomerezgana na ŵalaŵiliri ŵa fakitare, ndipo wakeneranga kugwira nchito yake yakale kufuma pa Isitara m'paka Okutobala. Mu 1836, wakasambira ku Anderson's University, ku Glasgow, ndipo wakasambiranga vyaumoyo na chemistry. Kweniso wakasambiranga vya cisopa na Richard Wardlaw, uyo wakalimbananga na wuzga.{{sfn | Ross | 2002 | pp=9–12}}<ref name="education">{{cite web |first1=Christopher |last1= Lawrence| editor-last =Wisnicki | editor-first =Adrian S. | editor-last2 =Ward | editor-first2 = Megan | title=Livingstone's Medical Education | website=Livingstone Online | url=https://livingstoneonline.org/life-and-times/livingstones-medical-education |year= 2015 | access-date=15 March 2022}}</ref><ref name="UnivGlas">{{cite web | title = The University of Glasgow Story : David Livingstone | work = University of Glasgow | date = n.d. | access-date = 2018-07-12 | url = https://www.universitystory.gla.ac.uk/biography/?id=WH0220&type=P }}</ref> Kuti wanjire sukulu ya udokotala, wakakhumbikwiranga kumanya Cilatini, ndipo wakasambizgikanga na Daniel Gallagher (uyo pamasinda wakaŵa wasembe, ndipo wakambiska chalichi la St. Simon's, ku Partick). Livingstone wakalimbikiranga comene nchito, wakasambira comene vya sayansi na vya cipatala, ndipo wakasanga ŵabwezi ŵanandi, kusazgapo Andrew Buchanan na James Young.<ref name="education" />{{sfn | Ross | 2002 | pp=13–14}} Pa nyengo iyo, gulu la London Missionary Society (LMS) ndilo likaŵa likuru comene pa gulu la ŵamishonale mu caru ici. Mu Okutobala 1837 wakalembeska ku LMS, ndipo mu Janyuwale ŵakamutumira mafumbo agho wakazgora. Wakazgoreka yayi m'paka apo wakacemekera ku maungano ghaŵiri mu Ogasiti 1838. Pamanyuma pake wakapokelereka nga ni mulondezgi, ndipo wakapika masambiro ghakwambilira ku Ongar, Essex, nga ni umo ŵakambira masambiro kuti waŵe muteŵeti mu mpingo wa Congregational Union wakutumikira mu LMS, m'malo mwa masambiro ghakwambilira gha mishonale. Ku Ongar, iyo na ŵasambiri ŵanyake 6 ŵakasambiranga Cigiriki, Cilatini, Cihebere, na vya cisopa kwa Reverend Richard Cecil, uyo mu Janyuwale 1839 wakawona kuti nangauli Livingstone wakaŵa "wakujikuzga" kweniso "wakusuzga", kweni wakaŵa na "maghanoghano ghawemi, wakukhazikika, wakutemwa kusesa, kweniso wakaŵa na nkharo yiwemi. Pakati pajumpha mwezi umoza, wakalutilira kughanaghana kuti Livingstone "wakaŵa wakunozgeka yayi" kuti wasambire vya cisopa ku Cheshunt College, ndipo wakaŵa "wakwenelera kweni wakaŵa kuti walije mahara". Mu Juni 1839 ŵalongozgi ŵa LMS ŵakazomera Livingstone, ndipo ŵakazomera pempho lake lakuti walutilire kusambira na Cecil ku Ongar mpaka kuumaliro wa cilimika, ndipo pamanyuma pake LMS yikamovwira kuti wasambire vya udokotala ku London. Kuti wasambire vya chipatala, wakalutizga masambiro ghake ku Charing Cross Hospital Medical School. Pa 16 November 1840 wakaba Licentiate of the Faculty (now Royal College) of Physicians and Surgeons of Glasgow (mu 1857 wakaba Honorary Fellow of the Faculty). Pa Novembala 20, 1840, Livingstone wakimikika kuŵa muteŵeti wa mpingo, pamoza na William Ross, uyo nayo wakaŵa mishonale ku South Africa, mu mpingo wa Albion Chapel, ku Finsbury. Cecil na J. J. Freeman.<ref name="Albion Chapel">{{cite book | title=The Evangelical Magazine and Missionary Chronicle | issue=v. 19 | year=1841 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4eI6AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA50 | access-date=15 March 2022 | page=50}}</ref> ==Vision for Africa== [[File: Dance of Landeens.jpg|thumb|[[Zulu people|Zulu]] dance, at [[Chupanga|Shupanga]] on the [[Zambesi]] to collect tribute from Portuguese merchants.]] Nangauli Livingstone wakazomera pempho la Gützlaff lakuti ŵamishonale ŵapharazgike ku China, kweni cifukwa cakuti Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Opiyamu yikaŵa pafupi, ŵalara ŵa LMS ŵakaghanaghana kuti ŵaleke kutuma ŵanthu ku China. Wakati wapempha kuti wakakhaleko nyengo yitali ku Ongar, Cecil wakamuphalira kuti ŵakukhumba kuti iyo wagwirenge nchito ku West Indies "m'malo mwa ku South Africa". Pa Julayi 2, 1839, wakalembera kalata ŵalara ŵa LMS kuti ku West Indies kukaŵa ŵadokotala ŵanandi, ndipo nyengo zose wakakhumbanga kuluta ku vigaŵa vinyake vya pa charu chapasi m'malo mwa kukakhala ku malo ghakupambanapambana. Wati wazomerezgana na gulu la LMS, wakalutilira kusambira vya cisopa na Cecil mpaka kuumaliro wa cilimika ici, ndipo pamasinda wakambiraso masambiro gha udokotala. Mu Janyuwale 1840, wakati wamba masambiro ghake, wakawelera ku sukulu ya Mrs. Nyumba iyo Sewell wakakhalanga apo wakaŵa mishonale ku Aldersgate.<ref name="education" />{{sfn | Ross | 2002 | pp=19–20}} Ŵanji awo ŵakakhalanga ku malo agha nyengo na nyengo ŵakizanga kucezga na mishonale Robert Moffat, uyo panyengo iyo wakaŵa ku England na mbumba yake kuti waŵapharazgire vya mulimo wa LMS ku Kuruman, South Africa. Livingstone wakamufumba kanandi waka vya Africa, ndipo nga umo Moffat wakalongosolera pamanyuma, wakati: "Nyengo na nyengo wakanifumbanga usange ine nkhugomezga kuti wangawovwira ku Africa. Nkhamuphalira kuti ine nkhugomezga kuti wangacita nthena, usange wangaluta ku malo ghakale yayi, kweni ku malo ghambura ŵanthu, chomenechomene ku mapiri ghakumpoto, uko nyengo zinyake nkhawonanga josi la mizi yikuruyikuru, uko kulije mishonale uyo wali kufikapo". Iyo wakakondwa na umo Moffat wakawoneranga mulimo wa umishonale kumpoto kwa Bechuanaland, kweniso nkhani ya Chikhristu na malonda. John Philip, uyo wakaŵa mishonale wa LMS, wakati wadumbiskana na Fowell Buxton, uyo wakakhumbanga kuti boma lilekerethu mulimo wa kupharazga, wakalemba buku la Researches in South Africa mu 1828. Fundo iyi yikakhozgeka na Livingstone apo wakaluta ku ungano uwo ukacitikira ku Exeter Hall pa Juni 1, 1840. Pa ungano uwu, Buxton wakalongosora mwakukhorweska kuti malonda gha ŵazga ku Africa ghamalenge usange ŵalongozgi ŵa mafuko, m'malo mwa kuguliska ŵazga, ŵangasanga vinthu vyakukhumbikwa ku Europe kwizira mu "malonda ghaunenesko".<ref name="Vetch1893">{{cite DNB|wstitle=Livingstone, David|first=Robert Hamilton|last=Vetch|authorlink=Robert Hamilton Vetch|p=385|volume=33}}</ref>{{sfn | Ross | 2002 | pp=24–25}} ===Mission stations=== Livingstone wakafumako ku London pa Novembala 17, 1840, ndipo wakaluta ku Cape of Good Hope, pamoza na ŵamishonale ŵanyake ŵaŵiri ŵa LMS: Ross, uyo wakasankhika pa uteŵeti umoza na iyo, na muwoli wake. Pa ulendo utali uwu, wakasambira ciyowoyero ca Cidachi na Citswana, ndipo kapiteni wakamusambizga comene umo ŵangendeskera sitima. Mu Rio de Janeiro, mwakupambana na maboti ghanyake ghaŵiri, iyo wakafika pa mtunda ndipo wakakondwa na tchalitchi na malo agho ghakaŵa ku mtunda, kweni wakakondwa yayi na uloŵevu wa ŵantchito ŵa sitima ŵa ku Britain na ŵa ku America, ntheura wakaŵagaŵira mathirakiti mu malo ghakunjilira moŵa. Pa 15 March 1841, ngaraŵa yikafika ku Simon's Bay, ndipo kwa mwezi umoza, ŵanthu ŵatatu aŵa ŵakakhala mu msumba wa Cape Town pamoza na mfumu na muwoli wa Philip. Nga ni mulongozgi wa LMS, Philip wakalutilira na ndondomeko yawo yakuti ŵanthu wose ŵakaŵa ŵakuyana pamaso pa Chiuta na dango, ivyo vikapangiska kuti ŵaŵe na mphindano na ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Boers, na awo ŵakakhalanga ku Britain. Ŵamishonale ŵakakolerana nayo yayi nkhani iyi, kweniso ŵakakolerana yayi na fundo yakuti wakakhumbanga kuti ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Griqua ndiwo ŵapharazgenge. Ŵanyake, nga ni Moffatt, ŵakakhumbanga kuti ŵapharazgenge mu vigaŵa vinyake. Pakaŵaso mphindano pakati pa ŵamishonale awo ŵakagwiranga nchito za mawoko, na ŵamishonale awo ŵakaŵikika kuŵa ŵalaŵiliri.{{sfn | Ross | 2002 | pp=25, 33–36, 37–40}} Ngalaŵa iyi yikaluta na Livingstone na mbumba yake ku Algoa Bay, ndipo kufuma pa 19 Meyi mpaka pa 31 Julayi ŵakenda pa ngolo ya ng'ombe kuluta ku Kuruman Mission. Mbumba ya Moffat yikaŵa kuti yindawelere kufuma ku Britain, ndipo iyo wakajiŵikamo comene mu umoyo wa Ŵatswana. Kufuma mu Seputembala mpaka kuumaliro wa Disembala, wakenda mtunda wa makilomita 1,210 na mishonale Roger Edwards, uyo wakaŵa ku Kuruman kwambira mu 1830. Ŵakacezgera na kudumbiskana malo ghakucemeka Mabotsa, Botswana, kufupi na Zeerust, North West Province, South Africa. Mu 1842, Livingstone wakaluta ku Africa na ŵanyake ŵaŵiri, Paul na Mebalwe, awo ŵakaŵa ŵamishonale. Mu Juni 1843, Edwards wakazomelezgeka na LMS kuti wakhazikiske malo gha mishoni pamoza na muwoli wake ku Mabotsa. Livingstone wakasamukira ku malo agha na kukolerana nawo, ndipo wakaŵawovwira pa mulimo wa kuzenga. Wakalembera kalata Arthur Tidman, uyo wakaŵa mulembi wa LMS, kuti waŵenge wakukondwa kucemeka Mabotsa kuti "ntchigaŵa ca nchito yane", kweni waŵenge wakunozgeka "kuya kulikose, kweni kunthazi pera". Mu Janyuwale 1844, mbumba ya Moffat yikati yafika ku Mlonga wa Vaal pamoza na mbumba zinyake ziŵiri za ŵamishonale, Livingstone wakaluta kukakumana nawo, ndipo wakakhala mu ngolo ya Moffat na kuyowoya na Robert kwa maora ghanandi mu ulendo wa mazuŵa 17 panji 18 wa ku Kuruman. Aka kakaŵa kakwamba kuti wakumane na mwana wawo Mary, uyo wakababikira na kukulira ku Africa.{{sfn | Ross | 2002 | pp=44–46, 49}}[[File:David Livingstone attacked by a lion in Africa. Lithograph. Wellcome V0018847.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|Deacon Mebalwe shooting, distracting the lion which had overpowered Livingstone.]] [[File:Livingstone and the Lion.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|Livingstone Memorial Sculpture in [[Blantyre, South Lanarkshire|Blantyre]], Scotland]] Pa 16 February, Mebalwe na Livingstone ŵakamba kuvikilira mberere zawo. Livingstone wakawona nkharamu yikuru, kweni apo iyo wakayeghanga katundu, nkharamu iyi yikamuwukira, yikamudinya woko lake lamazere, ndipo yikamugwaza pasi. Mebalwe wakaponoska umoyo wa nkhalamu apo wakayizguzga kuti yikome nkharamu. Nayo wakuluma. Mwanalume munyake uyo wakayezga kumugwaza na mkondo wakalasika pambere wandafwe. Nangauli Livingstone wakaphwanya chiwangwa, kweni iyo na Edwards ŵakakhozga ubwezi wawo. Wakaluta ku Kuruman kuti wakachizgike, ndipo mwana wa Moffat, zina lake Mary, ndiyo wakamupweleleranga. Woko lake likachizgika, ndipo likamba kumuwuska na futi, nangauli likalutilira kumusuzga umoyo wake wose, ndipo wakatondekanga kuwuska woko lake kujumpha pa chiŵegha. Livingstone na Mary ŵakatorana pa Janyuwale 9, 1845. Livingstone wakeneranga kuleka uteŵeti wake wakwamba wa umishonale ku Mabotsa mu caru ca Botswana mu 1845 cifukwa ca mphindano izo zikaŵapo pakati pa iyo na Rogers Edwards, uyo nayo wakaŵa mishonale, ndiposo cifukwa cakuti ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Bakgatla ŵakaleka kupulikira makani ghawemi. Mu 1847, wakaleka uteŵeti wake wa ku Chonuane cifukwa ca njara, kweniso cifukwa cakuti ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Boer ŵakaŵa pafupi, ndipo wakakhumbanga "kusamukira ku vigaŵa vinyake". Ku Kolobeng Mission, Livingstone wakang'anamura maghanoghano gha mulongozgi Sechele mu 1849 pamanyuma pa vilimika viŵiri vya kulimbikira kumunyengelera. Pakati pajumpha myezi yichoko waka, Sechele wakafwa.<ref name="Livingstone1960">{{cite book|last=Livingstone|first=David |editor=Isaac Schapera|title=Livingstone's private journals, 1851–1853|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZgQrAAAAIAAJ|year=1960|publisher=University of California Press|page=304}}</ref> ==Exploration of southern and central Africa== [[File:Map livingstone travels africa.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|The journeys of Livingstone in Africa between 1851 and 1873]] Livingstone na William Cotton Oswell ŵakaluta kutali kumpoto kwa Kolobeng kuti ŵasambire ciyowoyero ca Tswana na kusanga malo ghakukhala ŵamishonale. Mu 1849 ŵakambuka mapopa gha Kalahari na kufika pa Nyanja ya Ngami. Mu 1850, Royal Geographical Society yikamuwonga ndipo yikamupa wachi wa chronometer chifukwa cha ulendo wake wa ku nyanja yikuru ya Ngami. Wakapulika za mlonga uwo ukwenera kuti ukaŵa "msewu ukuru" uwo ukafikanga ku nyanja, ndipo mu Ogasiti 1851 ŵakafika ku Zambezi, uko wakagomezganga kuti kukaŵa "kiyi wakunjilira mu vyaru vya mukati". Mu 1852, wakati watuma mbumba yake ku Britain, Livingstone wakaluta kumpoto ku muzi wa Linyanti pa mlonga wa Zambezi, uwo ukaŵa pakati pa mphepete ya kumafumiro na kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Africa. Ŵakafika mu msumba wa Luanda ku Portugal mu Meyi 1854 pamanyuma pa masuzgo ghanandi na nyifwa iyo yikaŵa pafupi kucitika ya Livingstone. Livingstone wakamanya kuti ulendo uwu ukaŵa wakusuzga comene ku ŵamalonda ŵa munthazi, ntheura wakawelera ku Linyanti. Pamanyuma pake, pamoza na ŵanalume 114 ŵa fuko la Kololo, awo ŵakagwiranga nchito na mulongozgi uyu, ŵakanyamuka kuya ku Zambezi. Pa ulendo uwu, wakaŵa munthu wakwamba ku Europe kuwona maji ghakututuka gha Mosi-oa-Tunya, agho wakathya zina lakuti Victoria Falls, mu zina la Fumukazi Victoria. Paumaliro wakafika ku Quelimane pa Nyanja ya India, ndipo wakapanga mapu gha nthowa ya mu mlonga wa Zambezi.{{sfn | Jeal | 2013 | pp=126, 147–8}}<ref name="Life & Expeditions" /> Pa cifukwa ici, Livingstone wakaŵa munthu wakwamba wa ku Europe kujumpha mu caru ca Africa pa mtunda uwu, ndipo ŵanthu ŵakamulumba kuti "wakajura" caru ca Africa, kweni pakaŵa kale nthowa zinandi za malonda. Ŵamalonda ŵa ku Portugal ŵakanjira mu caru ca Africa kufuma ku vigaŵa vyose viŵiri, mu 1853 na 1854 ŵamalonda ŵaŵiri ŵa ku Arabia ŵakambukira ku Zanzibar kuluta ku Benguela, ndipo ca m'ma 1800 ŵamalonda ŵa ku Angola ŵakambukira ku Mozambique.{{sfn|Jeal|1973b|p=159}} [[File:Preaching from a Waggon (David Livingstone) by The London Missionary Society.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Livingstone preaching the gospel to unconverted Africans. Like other missionaries of the era he had a low success rate and is credited with a single conversion.{{sfn|Jeal|1973b}}]] Livingstone wakakhumbanga kuti ku Central Africa kuŵe malonda na visopa, kweni wakakhumbanga kuti ŵazga ŵa ku Africa ŵaleke kugwiliskirika nchito na Ŵaphwitikizi ŵa ku Tete na Ŵaarabu ŵa ku Kilwa. Mazgu ghake agho ghakalembeka pa chikhwangwani chake ku Victoria Falls ghakaŵa "Chikhristu, Malonda na Civilization", ndipo wakagomezganga kuti ghazamuzgora malonda gha ŵazga na kupeleka ntchindi ku ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe. Wakagomezganga kuti nthowa yakufiskira vilato ivi yikaŵa yakuti Mlonga wa Zambezi uŵe nthowa yikuru yakwendeskera malonda gha Ŵakhristu mu vyaru vya mukati.<ref name="Holmes1996">{{cite book|last=Holmes|first=Tim |title=Spectrum Guide to Zambia|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xlUwAQAAIAAJ|year=1996|publisher=Struik|isbn=978-1-86872-012-5|chapter=The History}}</ref> ===Author and campaigner=== Wakawelera ku Britain mu Disembala 1856. Mu 1855, wupu wa Royal Geographical Society ukamupa nkhombo ya Patron's Medal cifukwa ca ivyo wakacita ku Africa. Wati wacicizgika na wupu wa London Missionary Society, wakalemba buku lake lakucemeka kuti Missionary Travels, ilo mu 1857 likalembeka na John Murray. Buku ili likaŵa la malonda comene. Buku ili likaŵa na nkhani za sayansi, ndipo likalongosoranga makora vya ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa. Wakayowoya kuti mauteŵeti gha umishonale na "malonda gha pamtunda" pa mlonga wa pakati pa Africa vizamumazga malonda gha ŵazga.<ref name="Life & Expeditions">{{cite web |first1=Adrian S. |last1=Wisnicki |first2= Megan |last2=Ward | title=Livingstone's Life & Expeditions | website=Livingstone Online | url=https://livingstoneonline.org/life-and-times/livingstone-s-life-expeditions |year=2015| access-date=28 September 2021}}</ref>{{sfn | Livingstone | 1857 | pp=[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.33342/page/n122 92], [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.33342/page/n740 679–680, 683]}} [[File:Gang of Captives at Mbame’s.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|Slave traders and their captives bound in chains and collared with 'taming sticks'. From Livingstone's ''Narrative'']] Livingstone wakakhozgeka comene na umo ŵanthu ŵa ku Britain ŵakacitira na ivyo wakasanga, kweniso ŵakamovwira kuti wacitenge maulendo ghanyake. Wakayowoya kuti wakambenge kupenjerezga malo ghanyake, kuti wasange nthowa za malonda izo wakagomezganga kuti zingatora malo gha malonda gha ŵazga, m'malo mwa kupenja nthowa za umishonale. Wupu wa London Missionary Society (LMS) ukati wamanya ivyo wakakhumbanga kucita, ukamutumira kalata, iyo Livingstone wakapokera ku Quelimane, na kumuwonga cifukwa ca ulendo wake, kweni ukati ŵalongozgi ŵa wupu uwu "ŵakakanizgika kovwira kuti mulimo wa kupharazga makani ghawemi ufike patali". Wakakana kuti ŵambe kuzenga misasa yinyake kumpoto kwa Zambezi, ndipo wakakhumbanga kuti Zambezi yiŵe nthowa yakwendeskera malonda mu vyaru vinyake, kweni wakakhumba yayi kuleka LMS nyengo yeneyiyo. Apo Roderick Murchison, pulezidenti wa Royal Geographical Society, wakadumbiskana nayo na nduna ya vya caru, Livingstone wakayowoyapo cilicose yayi ku ŵalongozgi ŵa LMS, nanga ni apo cikawonekanga kuti boma ndilo lizamugwiliskira nchito ndalama pakwendeska ulendo wa ku Zambezi. Wakaphalira mubwezi wake kuti: "Nindamanye vinandi vyakukhwaskana na Boma, kweni nkhumanya vinandi vyakukhwaskana na Sosaite (LMS)". Mu 1857, Livingstone wakafumapo pa gulu la London Missionary Society, ndipo mu Meyi wa cilimika ici, wakimikika kuŵa mulara wa boma la ku Mozambique. Mu Febuluwale 1858, boma likati malo agho wakenera kulamulira ni "mafumiro gha dazi kwa Africa na vigaŵa vya mukati mwa Africa". Apo wakadumbiskananga na boma kuti waŵe Konsolo, ŵa LMS ŵakaghanaghananga kuti wawelerenge ku Africa na ulendo wawo wa ku Kololo ku Barotseland, uko Livingstone wakawovwira. Paumaliro, mishonale yumoza, muwoli wake, muwoli wa mishonale munyake, na ŵana ŵake ŵatatu ŵakafwa na maleriya. Livingstone wakakumana na viyezgo vinandi pa ulendo wake wakwamba, kweni wakapulikiska yayi masuzgo agho wakakumana nagho, ndipo wakajumphizga kughanaghanira za caru ico ŵakasangako, ntheura ŵamishonale aŵa ŵakaluta ku malo gha mathipa uku ŵakaŵa na cakurya cambura kukwana ca quinine. Munthu munyake wakulemba mbiri ya ŵanthu zina lake Tim Jeal, wakawona kuti nkhani iyi yikulongora kuti Livingstone wakatondeka kucita makora vinthu vinyake, ndipo wakalongora kuti nyengo zose wakaŵikanga vilato vyake na ntchito yake pakwamba kuluska umoyo wa ŵanthu ŵanyake. Pa nyengo iyi Livingstone wakaŵa munthu wakumanyikwa comene, ndipo ŵanthu ŵakakhumbanga kuti wayowoyenge nkhani pa wumba, ndipo wakasankhika kuŵa mu Royal Society. Wakapokera ndalama zinandi ku boma kuti wawovwire pa ulendo wake wakulondezgapo. Kweniso boma likamupa ndalama zakukwana £5,000 kuti wawone umo ŵamalonda ŵa ku Britain ŵangagwilira nchito pa Mlonga wa Zambezi.<ref name="Life & Expeditions" /> ===Zambezi expedition===<!-- This section is linked from [[Zambezi]] --> Mu Disembala 1857, ofesi ya munthavi yikanozga kuti yilute na gulu likuru. Mu Janyuwale 1858 wakazomera kulongozga ulendo waciŵiri wa ku Zambezi pamoza na ŵalara ŵa ŵasilikari ŵankhondi na yumoza. Boti lakucemeka Ma Robert likapangika mwaluŵiro ndipo likanyamulika mu boti la Colonial Office la Pearl, ilo likaluta nalo ku Ceylon. Ŵakafumako pa 10 March, ndipo ŵakaluta ku Freetown na kutora ŵanthu 12 ŵa mtundu wa Kru kuti ŵakateŵetere pa sitima ya pa mlonga, ndipo ŵakafika pa Zambezi pa 14 May. Ŵakaghanaghana kuti ngalaŵa zose ziŵiri ziŵawovwire kuti ŵende mu mlonga na kukhazikapo malo, kweni pakaŵa pakusuzga kuti ngalaŵa zijumphemo para zajumpha mu Cahora Bassa rapids. Pearl wakataya katundu wawo pa cirwa ico cikaŵa pa mtunda wa makilomita 64 kufuma uko kukaŵa boti ili. Kufuma pa malo agha, Ma Robert wakendanga mwakuzizima, ndipo ŵakamuguzira mu maji ghanandi. Mlonga uwu ukaŵa malo gha nkhondo, ndipo ŵasilikari ŵa ku Portugal na ŵazga ŵawo ŵakarwanga nkhondo na Ŵachikunda ŵa ku Matakenya (Mariano) awo ŵakakhumbanga ŵazga, kweni wose ŵaŵiri ŵakazomera kuti ŵaŵe ŵabwezi.{{sfn | Ross | 2002 | pp=129–138}}<ref name="Popular Account I">{{cite wikisource|chapter=CHAPTER I|wslink=A Popular Account of Dr Livingstone's Expedition to the Zambesi and its Tributaries|plaintitle=A Popular Account of Dr Livingstone's Expedition to the Zambesi and its Tributaries| last=Livingstone|first=David|year= 1894 |publisher=John Murray|page=|wspage=|scan=}}</ref>[[File:MaryMoffatGravestone.JPG|thumb|upright=1.3|The grave of Livingstone’s wife, [[Mary Moffat Livingstone]], in [[Chupanga]], Mozambique. She died in 1862.]] Ŵasayansi ŵara ŵakati ŵakhala waka ku Shupanga, ŵakamanya yayi umo vinthu vikwenera kucitikira, ntheura ŵakakolerana yayi. Thomas Baines, uyo wakaŵa citatata, ŵakamuwuskamo mu gulu ili. Ŵanyake awo ŵakaluta ku Nyanja ya Nyasa ndiwo ŵakaŵa ŵakwamba kufika ku Nyanja iyi, ndipo ŵakenda pa sitima zinayi. Mu 1861, ofesi ya Colonial yikatumizga boti la nkhuni lakucemeka Pioneer, ilo likanyamura gulu la University Mission to Central Africa (UMCA) ilo likalongozgekanga na Bishop Charles MacKenzie. Livingstone wakawunjika ndalama kuti wapange ngalaŵa yinyake, ya Lady Nyasa, iyo yikanozgeka kuti yende pa Nyanja ya Nyasa. Buku ili likatumizgika mu vigaŵa-vigaŵa, mwakupambana na ivyo wakapempha, pamoza na ŵamishonale ŵanyake, kusazgapo Mary Livingstone, ndipo ŵakafika mu 1862. Ngalaŵa ya Pioneer yikacedwa kufika pa mtunda kuti yikakumane nawo, ndipo yikacedwa comene cifukwa cakuti yikamanya kuti Bishopu wafwa. Mary Livingstone wakafwa pa 27 Epulero 1862 cifukwa ca maleriya. Livingstone wakatora sitima ya Pioneer na kuluta ku mtunda na kukawona Mlonga wa Ruvuma, ndipo dokotala John Kirk wakalemba kuti: "Nkhuwona kuti Dr. Livingstone wali na maghanoghano ghaheni ndipo ni mulongozgi wakofya comene". Apo ŵapayiniya ŵakaweleranga ku Shupanga mu Disembala 1862, ŵakaŵalipira (mu salu) "ŵanalume ŵa Mazaro" awo ŵakafumapo na kusanga ŵanyake. Pa 10 Janyuwale 1863 ŵakanyamuka, ŵakaguzanga Lady Nyasa, ndipo ŵakakwelera mu Mlonga wa Shire uko kukaŵa vinthu vinandi ivyo vikaparanyika apo Mariano wakambanga kupenja ŵazga ku Chikunda, ivyo vikapangiska njara. Ŵakafika ku Chibisa na ku Murchison Cataracts mu Epulero, ndipo ŵakamba kuwuskapo Nyanakazi Nyasa na kuzenga msewu uwo ukajumphanga mu vigaŵa vinyake vya Nyanja iyi.{{sfn | Livingstone | Livingstone | 1866 | pp=[https://archive.org/details/narrativeanexpe03livigoog/page/n509/mode/2up 472–475]}}{{sfn | Ross | 2002 | pp=180–182}} Mu 1864 wakanyamura ngalaŵa izi mu mlonga pamanyuma pakuti boma lazomerezga kuti ŵaleke kuluta. Ŵapharazgi ŵanandi ŵa mu nyuzipepara ŵakayowoya kuti ulendo wa ku Zambezi watondeka, ndipo Livingstone vikamusuzga kusanga ndalama zakwendeskera ulendo wake wa ku Africa. John Kirk, Charles Meller, na Richard Thornton, ŵasayansi awo ŵakasankhika na Livingstone kuti ŵacite mulimo uwu, ŵakapeleka vinthu vinandi vyakukhwaskana na vyakumera, vinyama, na ŵanthu ku masukulu gha ŵasayansi ku United Kingdom. ===Nile River=== Mu Janyuwale 1866, Livingstone wakawelera ku Africa, ndipo pa nyengo iyi wakaluta ku Zanzibar, ndipo kufuma ku malo agha wakamba kupenja uko kukufuma maji gha mu Mlonga wa Nile. Richard Francis Burton, John Hanning Speke, na Samuel Baker ŵakayowoya kuti Nyanja ya Albert panji Nyanja ya Victoria ndiyo yikafuma maji agha. (Ivyo vikaŵa vyaunenesko nadi, cifukwa Nile "yikuphulika kufuma pasi pa mapiri gha ku Burundi pakati pa Nyanja ya Tanganyika na Nyanja ya Victoria"), kweni pakaŵa mphindano pa nkhani iyi. Livingstone wakagomezganga kuti cisimi ici cikaŵa kumwera ndipo wakasora gulu la ŵazga awo ŵakafwatuka ku wuzga, ŵanthu ŵa ku virwa vya Comoros, na ŵateŵeti ŵaŵiri ŵa pa ulendo wake wakwamba, Chuma na Susi. [[File:Livingstone House, Mikindani, Tanzania.JPG|thumb|upright=1.3|This house in Mikindani in southern Tanzania was the starting point for Livingstone's last expedition. He stayed here from 24 March to 7 April 1866.]] Livingstone wakamba ulendo wake kufuma pa mlomo wa mlonga wa Ruvuma, kweni pacoko na pacoko awo ŵakamovwiranga ŵakamba kumuleka. Ŵanthu ŵa ku virwa vya Comoros ŵakawelera ku Zanzibar ndipo ŵakaphalira ŵalara ŵa boma kuti Livingstone wafwa. Wakafika pa Nyanja ya Malawi pa 6 Ogasiti, ndipo pa nyengo iyi vinthu vyake vinandi vikaŵa kuti vyibika, kusazgapo munkhwala wake wose. Kufuma apo, Livingstone wakaluta ku Nyanja ya Tanganyika, ndipo umoyo wake ukaŵa pa ngozi. Wakatuma uthenga ku Zanzibar kupempha kuti ŵatumizge vinthu ku Ujiji ndipo wakaluta kumanjiliro gha dazi, chifukwa cha ulwari. Wakafika pa Nyanja ya Mweru pa 8 November 1867 ndipo wakalutizga ulendo wake, wakaluta kumwera kukaŵa munthu wakwamba wa ku Europe kuwona Nyanja ya Bangweulu. Wakati wasanga mlonga wa Lualaba, Livingstone wakaghanaghana kuti ungaŵa mu mphepete mwa Mlonga wa Nile, kweni wakamanya kuti mu mphepete mwa Mlonga wa Congo muli Nyanja ya Upper Congo.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Livingstone |first1=David |title=Personal Letter to J. Kirk or R. Playfair |url=http://www.livingstoneonline.ucl.ac.uk/view/transcript.php?id=LETT2200 |website=David Livingstone Online |access-date=10 December 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141221195004/http://www.livingstoneonline.ucl.ac.uk/view/transcript.php?id=LETT2200 |archive-date=21 December 2014 |df=dmy }}</ref> Caka ca 1869 cikamba apo Livingstone wakalwara comene apo wakaŵa mu nkhorongo. Ŵamalonda Ŵaarabu ndiwo ŵakamuponoska, ŵakamupa munkhwala na kuluta nayo ku malo gha Ŵaarabu. Mu Malici 1869, Livingstone wakalwara nthenda ya chibungu ndipo wakati wafika ku Ujiji, wakasanga kuti ŵanthu ŵabiba katundu wake. Wakapwetekeka na cholera ndipo malundi ghake ghakaŵa na vilonda, ntheura wakeneranga kugomezga ŵamalonda ŵa ŵazga kuti ŵamufikiske ku Bambara, uko nyengo ya vula yikamukora. Pakuti wakaŵaje cakurya, Livingstone wakaryanga mu cipinda ico ŵakakakilira vingwe kuti ŵakondweske ŵanthu ŵa mu cigaŵa ici. Pa Julayi 15, 1871, Livingstone wakalemba ivyo wakawona apo Ŵaarabu ŵakaguliskanga ŵazga ku msika wa Nyangwe, mumphepete mwa Mlonga wa Lualaba. Ŵakayowoya kuti cifukwa ca kupanikizgira ici cikaŵa kuwezgera pa ivyo wakacita Manilla, uyo wakaŵa muzga uyo wakawukira ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Mohombo cifukwa ca kulongozgeka na mulongozgi wa mtundu wa Wagenya, Kimburu. Ŵaarabu ŵakawukira ŵamalonda na ŵanthu ŵa Kimburu. Ŵasayansi ŵa pa Yunivesite ya Indiana ku Pennsylvania, awo ŵakawona ivyo vikaŵa mu diary ya Livingstone ŵakayowoya kuti apo wakalembanga ivyo vikaŵa mu diary yake, wakaleka kughanaghanira vya ŵalondezgi ŵake ŵanyake, awo ŵakaŵa ŵazga ŵa ŵamalonda ŵa ku Banyan, awo ŵakagwiranga nchito na John Kirk, uyo wakaŵa mulara wa boma ku Zanzibar, ndipo wakatumika kuti wakaponoske Livingstone. Ŵazga aŵa ŵakaŵafwatura ndipo ŵakasazgikako ku gulu lake, kweni ŵakalongora nkhaza ku ŵanthu ŵa ku malo agha mwakupambana na ulongozgi wake, ndipo wakafipanga mtima kuti panji ndiwo ŵakambiska kuti ŵanthu ŵakomeke. Mu diary yake wakalemba kuti "ŵanalume ŵa Dugumbe ŵakakoma Kimburu na munyake kuti ŵaŵe ŵazga" ndipo wakalongosora kuti ŵazga ŵa Manilla ndiwo ŵakalongozganga, kweni pakuwona ivyo vikacitika, wakati ŵanthu ŵa Dugumbé ndiwo ŵakaŵa na mulandu, ndipo ŵakamba mulandu uwu kuti ŵaŵe ciyelezgero ciwemi ku Manilla. Mu diary yake wakalongosora kuti wakatuma ŵanalume ŵake na ndembera kuti ŵawovwire munung'una wa Manilla. Baibolo ilo Waller wakalemba mu "Last Journals", ilo likalembeka mu 1874, likulongosora yayi ivyo Livingstone wakayowoya vyakukhwaskana na Kirk na nkharo yiheni ya ŵanalume ŵa ku Banyan awo ŵakagwiranga nchito, ndipo likulongosora yayi umo ŵanthu ŵa mu muzi ŵakakhalira pakwamba apo ŵakalimbana na ŵazga ŵa Ŵaarabu. Cigaŵa ico cikulongosora vya kukoma ŵanthu cikaŵa na mazgu ghacoko waka. Kupenjerezga ivyo vikalembeka mu dayare kukulutilira.<ref name="cbsn_Rese">{{Cite web |title=Researchers now presume that Dr Livingstone lied |work=CBS News |date=2 November 2011 |access-date=25 April 2019 |url= https://www.cbsnews.com/news/researchers-now-presume-that-dr-livingstone-lied/ }}</ref><ref name="livingstoneonline.org">{{Cite web |last=Wisnicki |first=Adrian S. |date=2011 |title=Livingstone in 1871 |url=http://www.livingstoneonline.org/spectral-imaging/livingstone-in-1871 |access-date=25 April 2019 |work=livingstoneonline.org}}</ref> Livingstone wakatenthema comene na ivyo vikacitika, ndipo wakalutilira yayi kupenja maji gha mu Nile. Nyengo ya vula yikati yamara, wakenda mtunda wa makilomita 390 kufuma ku Nyangwe kuwelera ku Ujiji, malo gha Ŵaarabu agho ghakaŵa kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Nyanja ya Tanganyika. ===Geographical discoveries=== Nangauli Livingstone wakananga pakuyowoya za Nile, kweni wakasora malo ghanandi agho ghakovwira ŵasayansi ŵa ku vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi, nga ni Nyanja ya Ngami, Nyanja ya Malawi, na Nyanja ya Bangweulu, kusazgapo Victoria Falls iyo yazunulika kale. Wakalongosora makora umo Nyanja ya Tanganyika, Nyanja ya Mweru, na nthowa ya milonga yinandi, comenecomene ya Zambezi, ndipo ivyo wakawona vikawovwira kuti vigaŵa vikuruvikuru ivyo vikaŵa vyambura kumanyikwa vilembeke. Nangauli vikaŵa nthena, kweni wakafika yayi kumpoto kwa Nyanja ya Tanganyika, iyo yikaŵa kumwera kwa Equator, ndipo wakafika yayi ku nkhorongo za mu Mlonga wa Congo uko kukaŵa kufupi na Msumba wa Ntangwe, kufupi na Misisi. Livingstone wakapika mendulo ya golide ya Royal Geographical Society of London, ndipo wakaŵa yumoza wa ŵanthu awo ŵakakolerananga na gulu ili umoyo wake wose.<ref name="Blaikie1880" /> ==Stanley meeting== [[File:Omani Empire 2.png|thumb|Livingstone's meeting with Stanley took place at [[Ujiji]], an Arab trading post under the [[Sultanate of Zanzibar]], marked in pink at the bottom left of this map.]] [[File:Henry Morton Stanley meeting David Livingstone at Ujiji, in Wellcome V0006855.jpg|thumb|Henry Morton Stanley meets David Livingstone]] [[File:Livingstone Memorial, Tanzania.jpg|thumb|Livingstone Memorial in [[Ujiji]], Tanzania]] Kwa vilimika vinkhondi na cimoza, Livingstone wakaleka kucezga na ŵanthu ndipo vilimika vinayi vyaumaliro wa umoyo wake, wakaŵa mulwari comene. Pa makalata 44 agho wakatuma, limoza pera ndilo likafika ku Zanzibar. Kalata yimoza iyo yikalembeka na Horace Waller, yikavumbukwa na Peter Beard mu 2010. Likuti: "Nili na nthumbo yikuru, kweni iyi njinu pera... Nkhukayika usange nizamukuwonaso".<ref>{{cite news|title=David Livingstone letter deciphered at last. Four-page missive composed at the lowest point in his professional life|url=http://www.nbcnews.com/id/38064893|agency=Associated Press|date=2 July 2010|access-date=2 July 2010}}</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20100705102958/http://emelibrary.org/livingstoneletter/ ''Livingstone's Letter from Bambarre''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100705102958/http://emelibrary.org/livingstoneletter/ |date=5 July 2010 }}, emelibrary.org; accessed 4 July 2010.</ref> Mu 1869, nyuzipepara ya New York Herald yikatuma Henry Morton Stanley kuti wamupenje. Wakamusanga Livingstone mu tawuni ya Ujiji pa mphepete mwa Nyanja ya Tanganyika pa Novembala 10, 1871. Livingstone, nkhugomezga?" Livingstone wakazgora kuti, "Enya", ndipo wakasazgirapo kuti, "Nkhuwonga comene kuti nili pano kuti nimupokelerani". Mazgu ghakumanyikwa agha ghangaŵa ghakupangika waka, cifukwa pamasinda Stanley wakalemba mu diary yake ivyo vikacitika. Nanga ni nkhani ya Livingstone ya umo wakakumana na ŵanthu aŵa yikuzunurapo yayi mazgu agha. Kweni mazgu agha ghakusangika mu nyuzipepara ya New York Herald ya Ogasiti 10, 1872, ndipo mabuku gha Encyclopædia Britannica na Oxford Dictionary of National Biography ghakuzunura mazgu agha kwambura kukayika. Mazgu agha ghakumanyikwa comene cifukwa cakuti ghakulongora kuti Livingstone wakaŵa yekha muzungu uyo wakaŵapo pa mtunda wa makilomita ghanandi, kweniso cifukwa cakuti Stanley wakayezgayezga kuti wawoneke wakucindikika mu nkhorongo ya mu Africa mwa kuyowoya mazgu agho munthu wangaghanaghananga kuti wangapulika mu kilabu ya ŵanthu ŵakuzirwa ku London. Ndipouli, awo ŵakaŵazganga nyuzipepara iyi ŵakawona kuti Stanley wakuneneska yayi. Munthu munyake uyo wakalemba mbiri ya umoyo wa Stanley, zina lake Tim Jeal, wakati umoyo wake wose Stanley wakalimbananga na suzgo lakuti wakaŵa mukavu. Buku la Stanley likulongora kuti mazgu agha ghakaŵa ghakufuma ku soni, cifukwa wakakhumba yayi kukumbatira Livingstone. Nangauli Stanley wakamuchiskanga, kweni Livingstone wakaŵikapo mtima kuti waleke kuwukapo mu Africa m'paka wamalizge mulimo wake. Ulwari wake ukamupangiska kuti watimbanizgike maghanoghano ndipo wakasuzgikanga kusankha vinthu paumaliro wa umoyo wake. Wakenda mu mlonga wa Lualaba, ndipo wakati watondeka kusanga nthowa yakunjilira mu mlonga wa Nile, wakawelera ku Nyanja ya Bangweulu na malo ghake kuti wakawone umo mlonga uwo ukendanga kumpoto ukuyendera.{{sfn|Livingstone|1874|p=}} ==Christianity and Sechele== Livingstone wakumanyikwa kuti ni "mishonale mulara comene mu Africa", ndipouli, pali kulembeka kuti wakang'anamura mtima munthu yumoza pera wa ku Africa: Sechele, uyo wakaŵa mulongozgi wa ŵantu ŵa mtundu wa Kwena ŵa ku Botswana (ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Kwena mba Sotho-Tswana, awo ŵakusangika mu South Africa, Lesotho, na Botswana mu magulu ghose ghatatu gha ciyowoyero ca Sotho-Tswana). Sechele wakababika mu 1812. Adada ŵake ŵakafwa apo Sechele wakaŵa na vilimika 10, ndipo ŵaŵiri mwa ŵadumbu ŵake ŵakagaŵana fuko, ndipo ici cikapangiska kuti Sechele wafumeko ku nyumba yake kwa vilimika vinkhondi na vinayi. Sechele wakati wawelera, wakatora cigaŵa ca fuko la sekuru wake, ndipo pa nyengo iyi ndipo wakakumana na Livingstone. Livingstone wakamba kutemwa chomene Sechele, chomenechomene umo wakaŵazgiranga. Pakuti Sechele wakasambiranga luŵiro, wakasambira alufabeti mu mazuŵa ghaŵiri ndipo mwaluŵiro wakamba kuyowoya Cingelezi. Wakati wasambizga ŵanakazi ŵake luso ulu, wakalemba Baibolo mu ciyowoyero cake. Livingstone wakamanyikwanga mu vigaŵa vinandi vya mu Africa kuti wakacindikanga ŵanthu ŵa ku malo agha, ndipo mafuko agho wakaluta nagho ghakamucindikanga na cipulikano ndiposo kugomezgeka. Ndipouli, wakatondeka kuzgora ŵanthu ŵa mu fuko ili kuti ŵaŵe Ŵakhristu. Cifukwa cimoza nchakuti, Sechele, uyo panyengo iyo wakaŵa mulongozgi wa fuko la ku Africa, wakakondwa yayi na fundo yakuti Livingstone wangapempha yayi vula kwa Ciuta wake nga ni umo awo ŵakapanganga vula ŵakacitiranga, ŵeneawo ŵakatenge ŵangacita. Livingstone wakadandawura kwa nyengo yitali, ndipo wakabapatiza Sechele na kumuzomerezga kuti waŵe muteŵeti wa chalichi. Sono Sechele wakaŵa mu chalichi, kweni wakalutilira kucita vinthu kuyana na mitheto yake ya ku Africa, iyo yikaŵa yakupambana na visambizgo vya Livingstone.:20 Sechele wakaŵa wakupambana yayi na ŵanalume ŵanyake ŵa fuko lake pa nkhani ya kutora ŵanakazi ŵanandi. Wakaŵa na ŵawoli ŵankhondi, kusazgapo MmaKgari (kufuma ku lizgu la Citswana ilo likung'anamura "anyina ŵa Kgari"), Mokgokong na Masebele. Wakati walekana na ŵanakazi aŵa, Livingstone wakaŵabatizga wose ndipo vyose vikenda makora. Ndipouli, pakati pajumpha cilimika cimoza, yumoza wa ŵawoli ŵake wakale wakaŵa na nthumbo, ndipo mwana wakababika na Sechele. Sechele wakapempha Livingstone kuti waleke kumugongoweska cifukwa cipulikano cake cikaŵa kuti citali, kweni Livingstone wakafumamo mu caru ici na kuluta kumpoto kuti walutilire kuzgora ŵanthu kuŵa Ŵakhristu. Template:Mapeji ghakukhumbikwa Livingstone wakati wafumako ku fuko la Kwena, Sechele wakalutilira kugomezgeka ku Cikhristu ndipo wakalongozganga ŵamishonale ku mafuko gha pafupi na kuzgora pafupifupi ŵanthu wose ŵa fuko la Kwena kuŵa Ŵakristu. Neil Parsons wa ku Yunivesite ya ku Botswana wakati, Sechele "wakacita vinandi pakuthandazga Cikristu kumwera kwa Africa mu vilimika vya m'ma 1800 kuluska mishonale waliyose wa ku Europe". Nangauli Sechele wakajicemanga kuti ni Mkhristu, kweni ŵamishonale ŵanandi ŵa ku Europe ŵakakolerana nayo yayi. Mulongozgi wa fuko la Kwena wakakhumbanga kuti vula yilokwe, kweniso wakakhumbanga kuti ŵanakazi ŵaŵe na ŵanakazi ŵanandi.<ref name="Tomkins2013a">{{cite web |last=Tomkins |first=Stephen |date=19 March 2013 |title=The African chief converted to Christianity by Dr Livingstone |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-21807368 |access-date=2018-07-12 |work=BBC News}}</ref> ==Death== [[File:David Livingstone Medal (p.60) - Copy.jpg|thumb|David Livingstone Medal<ref name="LMS1890">{{cite journal|title=A Livingstone Medal|journal=Chronicles of the London Missionary Society|date=February 1890 |url=https://archive.org/stream/chroniclelondon00unkngoog#page/n104/mode/2up/search/livingstone+medal|first=Allen|last=Wyon|page=60|location=London}}</ref>]] Livingstone wakafwa pa 1 May 1873 apo wakaŵa na vyaka 60 mu muzi wa Chitambo ku Chipundu, kumwera-kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Nyanja ya Bangweulu, mu Zambia lero, chifukwa cha maleriya na kuthika ndopa mukati chifukwa cha nthenda ya malungo. Wakalongozgeka na ŵantchito ŵake ŵakugomezgeka, Chuma na Susi, ndipo gulu lake likanozga vyakusunkhizga nyifwa. Ŵakafumiskamo mtima wake na kuwusunga musi mwa khuni ilo likaŵa pafupi na malo agho wakafwira. Ŵanthu ŵakuti khuni ili ni mvula panji baobab, kweni likwenera kuti ni mpundu, chifukwa awo ŵakukhala pasi pa khuni ili mbachoko chomene kweniso ŵali mu malo ghambura maji.<ref name="WickensLowe2008">{{cite book|last1=Wickens|first1=G. E. |last2= Lowe |first2=P.|title=The Baobabs: Pachycauls of Africa, Madagascar and Australia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jYq6NAEACAAJ|year=2008|publisher=Springer Netherlands|isbn=978-1-4020-6430-2|page=33}}</ref>{{sfn|Dugard|2014|p=147}} Pa malo agha, agho sono ghakucemeka kuti Livingstone Memorial, pali kulembeka kuti wakafwa pa 4 May, zuŵa ilo Chuma na Susi ŵakayowoya (ndipo ŵakalilemba mu khuni); kweni mabuku ghanandi ghakulongora kuti zuŵa lakwamba la Meyi ndilo likaŵa zuŵa leneko ilo Livingstone wakalemberanga ivyo wakalemba. Ŵanthu awo ŵakalongozgekanga na Chuma na Susi, ŵakanyamura thupi lake, pamoza na buku lake lakulongosora umoyo wake na katundu wake, ndipo ŵakenda ulendo wa mazuŵa 63 kuluta ku Bagamoyo, tawuni iyo yili mumphepete mwa nyanja, mtunda wa makilomita ghakujumpha 1,600. Ŵakafika ku Ujiji mu Febuluwale 1874, uko ŵakasanga mapepara gha Livingstone na kughapeleka ku England. Ŵalondezgi 79 ŵakamalizga ulendo uwu, ndipo ŵanalume aŵa ŵakapokera malipiro ghawo, ndipo viwangwa vya Livingstone vikaweleraso ku Britain kuti ŵakasunge. Mu London, thupi lake likagona pa No.1 Savile Row, uko panyengo iyo kukaŵa likuru la Royal Geographical Society, pambere ŵandamuŵike ku Westminster Abbey.<ref name="Blaikie1880" /><ref>{{cite magazine|url=http://www.cigaraficionado.com/Cigar/CA_Archives/CA_Show_Article/0,2322,626,00.html|title=On Savile Row|author=G. Bruce Boyer|magazine=Cigar Aficionado|date=Summer 1996|access-date=21 December 2009|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100817001808/http://www.cigaraficionado.com/Cigar/CA_Archives/CA_Show_Article/0,2322,626,00.html|archive-date=17 August 2010|df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=David Livingstone|url=https://www.westminster-abbey.org/abbey-commemorations/commemorations/david-livingstone|access-date=2023-02-07|website=Westminster Abbey}}</ref> ==Livingstone and slavery== [[File:The Slave Gang (relates to David Livingstone) by The London Missionary Society.jpg|thumb|Arab slave traders and their captives]] {{blockquote|Ndipo usange ivyo nasanga vyakukhwaskana na wuzga wa ku Ujijian vikovwira kuti malonda gha ŵazga ghaleke kucitika ku East Coast, niwonenge kuti nkhani iyi njakuzirwa comene kuluska kusanga maji ghose gha mu Nile.|Livingstone mu kalata iyo wakalembera mulembi wa nyuzipepara ya New York Herald<ref name="Stanley1872">{{cite book|last=Stanley|first=Henry Morton|author-link=Henry Morton Stanley |title=How I Found Livingstone: Travels, Adventures and Discoveries in Central Africa: Including an Account of Four Months' Residence with Dr. Livingstone|url=https://archive.org/details/howifoundliving01stangoog|year=1872|publisher=Scribner, Armstrong & Company}}</ref>}} Apo wakayowoyanga za malonda gha ŵazga ku East Africa mu nyuzipepara yake: {{blockquote|Ntchambura macitiko kuti uheni wake uleke kuŵa na nkhongono.{{sfn|Livingstone|1874|p=442}} }} Livingstone wrote about a group of slaves forced to march by Arab slave traders in the [[African Great Lakes]] region when he was travelling there in 1866: {{blockquote|Tikawona muzga mwanakazi uyo ŵakamukoma na futi panji kumudinya ndipo wakaŵa mu nthowa. Gulu la ŵanalume likimilira patali, ndipo gulu linyake la ŵanakazi likawoneleranga. Ŵakati Muarabu munyake uyo wakajumphapo mulenjilenji zuŵa lira, wakachita nthena chifukwa cha ukali chifukwa cha kutaya ndalama izo ŵakamulipira, chifukwa chakuti mwanakazi uyu wakatondekanga kwenda. 27 Juni 1866 - Lero tikakumana na munthu uyo wakafwa na njara, cifukwa wakaŵa wakunyotwa comene. Yumoza wa ŵanalume ŵithu wakendendendeka ndipo wakasanga ŵazga ŵanandi awo ŵakaŵa na ndodo za wuzga, awo ŵasekuru ŵawo ŵakaŵaleka cifukwa ca kusoŵa cakurya. Ŵakaŵa ŵakulopwa comene mwakuti ŵakatondekanga kuyowoya panji kuyowoya uko ŵakafuma; ŵanyake ŵakaŵa ŵacoko comene.|source={{harvnb|Livingstone|1874|p=62}}}} He also described: {{blockquote|Nthenda yiheni comene iyo nili kuyiwonapo mu caru ici yikuwoneka kuti ni mtima wakuphyoka, ndipo yikuwukira ŵanalume ŵanangwa awo ŵakakoleka na kuzgoka ŵazga... Ŵanalume 21 ŵakafwatuka, kweni wose ŵakacimbira nyengo yeneyiyo. Ŵanandi 8 ŵakakakika, ndipo ŵakafwa mu mazuŵa ghatatu ŵati ŵambuka. Iwo ŵakalongosora kuti ŵakasuzgikanga waka mu mtima, ndipo ŵakaŵika woko pa malo ghakwenelera, nangauli ŵanandi ŵakughanaghana kuti woko ili lili mu chiwangwa cha pa nganga.|source={{harvnb|Livingstone|1874|p=352}} }} Makalata gha Livingstone, mabuku ghake, na magazini ghake ghakawovwira kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakane wuzga, kweni wakakhumbikwiranga wovwiri wa awo ŵakaguliskanga ŵazga, awo wakakhumbanga kuŵawuskapo. Wakaŵa mulongozgi wambura nkharo pakati pa ŵanyake, ndipo pa ulendo wake waumaliro wakaluta nga ni munthu uyo wakwenda yekha, na ŵateŵeti na awo ŵakamunyamulira katundu, kweni wakaŵavya wovwiri wa nkhwantha. Kweniso wakakhumbanga yayi kulondezga nthowa za ŵanthu ŵankhaza nga ni Stanley, kuti waŵavikilire ŵantchito ŵake na katundu wake. Pa vifukwa ivi, wakazomera kovwirika na kupokelereka kufuma mu 1867 na Mohamad Bogharib na Mohamad bin Saleh (wakumanyikwaso kuti "Mpamari"), ŵamalonda awo ŵakaguliskanga ŵazga, nga umo wakalongosolera mu mabuku ghake. Iwo nawo ŵakasanga candulo cifukwa cakuti Livingstone wakaŵa na mazaza pa ŵanthu ŵa mu cigaŵa ici, ndipo ici cikawovwira kuti Mpamari wafumiskike mu wuzga wa Mwata Kazembe. Livingstone wakakwiya comene wakati wamanya kuti ŵanji mwa awo ŵakatumizgikanga kufuma ku Ujiji ŵakaŵa ŵazga. Kweni maukaboni gha Livingstone ghakukhwaskana na ŵazga ŵakughakayikira comene.<ref name="TeelockPeerthum2017">{{cite book|last1=Teelock|first1=Vijayalakshmi|last2=Peerthum|first2=Satyendra|title=Transition from Slavery in Zanzibar and Mauritius|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0iXUDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA47|year=2017|publisher=CODESRIA|isbn=978-2-86978-680-6|pages=47–}}</ref><ref name="Rijpma2015">{{cite book|last=Rijpma|first=Sjoerd |title=David Livingstone and the Myth of African Poverty and Disease: A Close Examination of his Writing on the Pre-colonial Era|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0Jj8CQAAQBAJ&pg=PA161|year=2015|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-90-04-29373-1|pages=161–}}</ref> {{clear left}} ==Legacy== Ku umaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1860, Livingstone wakaŵa na lumbiri luheni ku Europe cifukwa ca kutondeka kwa ulendo wake wa ku Zambezi, ndipo ŵanthu ŵakamugomezganga yayi pa nkhani ya uko kukufuma Mlonga wa Nile. Ulendo wake ukaŵa wakulongozgeka makora yayi. Stanley na nyuzipepara yake ŵakamovwira kuti waŵe na lumbiri luwemi, kweniso ŵateŵeti ŵa Livingstone ŵakamovwira kuti waŵe wakugomezgeka. Kulembeka kwa buku lake laumaliro kukavumbura kuti wakaŵa wakukhwima mtima nangauli wakasuzgikanga. Mu 1860, pa pempho lake, ŵakambiska sukulu ya University's Mission to Central Africa. Ŵamishonale ŵanandi ŵakuzirwa, nga ni Mulongozgi Stirling na Miss Annie Allen, ŵakamba kuteŵetera gulu ili. Gulu ili na ŵamishonale awo ŵakagwiranga nchito ya udokotala ŵakamba kovwira comene ŵanthu ŵa mu Africa. Livingstone wakabowozga vinthu vinyake vya ku Europe. Wakaciska ŵanthu awo ŵakakhumbanga kuti ŵazga ŵaleke kugwiliskirika nchito, awo ŵakendanga mu vyaru vinyake, na ŵamishonale. Wakajulira ŵanthu ŵa ku Central Africa kuti ŵamishonale ŵambe kusambizga ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa na kuŵapwelelera, kweniso wakambiska kampani ya African Lakes Company. Ŵalongozgi ŵanandi ŵa ku Africa na ŵanthu ŵa ku malo agha ŵakamucindikanga comene, ndipo zina lake likawovwira kuti ŵaŵe paubwezi na ŵaboma ŵa ku Britain.<ref name="Blaikie1880" />[[File:David Livingstone statue, Princes Street Gardens, Edinburgh.jpg|thumb|[[Statue of David Livingstone, Edinburgh|Livingstone statue]], Edinburgh by [[Amelia Robertson Hill]]]] Ici cikapangiska kuti pamasinda pa vilimika 50 kufuma apo wakafwira, mu Africa muŵe ufumu wa ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yinyake, ndipo ŵazungu ŵakaciskika kuti ŵakhalenge mu vyaru vinyake. Ndipouli, ivyo Livingstone wakaghanaghananga kuti "makoloni" ghaŵenge nga ni umo ise tikughanaghanira sono ni ufumu wa ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe yayi, kweni vikaya vya Ŵakhristu ŵakujipeleka awo ŵakakhalanga na ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe kuti ŵaŵawovwire kusanga nthowa za umoyo zambura wuzga. Livingstone wakaŵa yumoza wa gulu la ŵanthu awo ŵakatemwanga kupharazga makani ghawemi ndipo ŵakakhumbanga kuti vinthu viŵayendere makora ku Britain. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800, gulu ili likawovwira kuti ŵanthu ŵa mu charu cha Britain ŵaleke kughanaghana kuti Chiuta wali na mazaza pa ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yinyake. Nyumba ya David Livingstone ku Blantyre yili mu nyumba iyo wakababikiramo, ndipo yili pa malo agho pakaŵa nyumba iyo wakagwirangamo ntchito. Cipulikano cake ca Cikhristu cikulongoreka mu buku lake, umo muli mazgu ghakuti: "Nkhukhumba cara kuŵa na cinthu cilicose ico nili naco panji ico ningaŵa naco, kweni ico cikukolerana na ufumu wa Khristu. Usange cinthu cinyake cingawovwira kuti vinthu vya Ufumu viŵe makora, cipelekekenge panji kusungika, kweni para nkhupeleka panji kusungika, ndikuti nkhukhozga ucindami wa Uyo nkhugomezga kuti wazamuniponoska kwamuyirayira". Alvyn Austin mu 1997 wakati:<ref>Alvyn Austin, "Discovering Livingstone" ''Christian History'' (1997) 16#4 pp 10-19.</ref><blockquote>Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1960, Livingstone wakalongosoreka kuti ni munthu yumoza pera uyo wakazgoka Mkhristu, kweni pamasinda wakawelera nyuma. Wakenda mu vigaŵa vichoko waka ivyo ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakafikako yayi. Wakathaska ŵazga ŵachoko waka. Ndipouli, mu nyengo iyi apo mazina gha vyaru ghakuzgoreka na vithuzithuzi vikubwangandulika, Livingstone wandafwe. Nangauli ŵanthu ŵa mu Africa mazuŵa ghano ŵakutinkha comene ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe, nga ni Cecil Rhodes, kweni Livingstone wakalutilira kuŵa munthu wacikanga. Kwa nyengo yitali, Rhodesia wali kuleka kuzunura zina lake, kweni mu misumba ya Livingstone (Zambia) na Livingstonia (Malawi) zina la munthu uyu likulutilira kumanyikwa.</blockquote> Mu 2002, David Livingstone wakasankhika kuŵa yumoza wa ŵanthu 100 ŵakumanyikwa comene ŵa ku Britain.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/programmes/greatbritons/list.shtml/ |title=The Top 100 Great Britons |access-date=19 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20021204214727/http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/programmes/greatbritons/list.shtml/ |archive-date=4 December 2002 |url-status=dead | work = BBC | date= 2002|df=dmy-all}}</ref> ==Family life== [[File:David Livingstone by Frederick Havill.jpg|thumb|Posthumous portrait of David Livingstone by [[Frederick Havill]]]] Nangauli Livingstone wakawovwira comene kuti ufumu wa Britain uthande, kweni mbumba yake yikakhwaskika comene. Ŵana ŵake ŵakakura kwambura awiskewo, ndipo muwoli wake Mary (mwana wa Mary na Robert Moffat), uyo wakatorana nayo mu 1845, wakaŵa na umoyo uheni comene, ndipo wakafwa na maleriya pa 27 Epulero 1862. Wakaŵa na ŵana ŵankhondi na yumoza: # Robert died while serving in the [[Union Army]] during the [[American Civil War]];<ref>{{cite journal|jstor=716469|pages=250–252|last1=Chirgwin|first1=A. M.|title=New Light on Robert Livingstone|volume=33|issue=132|journal=Journal of the Royal African Society|year=1934}}</ref> He took the name Rupert Vincent and was the substitute for Horace Heath, and took his place in Company H of the [[3rd New Hampshire Volunteer Infantry|3rd New Hampshire Volunteers]]. Robert ended up being captured by the [[Confederate States Army]] and died at the [[Salisbury National Cemetery|Salisbury prison camp]] in [[Rowan County, North Carolina]],<ref name="Murray2011">{{cite web | title = Rupert Vincent, I Presume? | last = Murray | first = John | work = Crossfire |issue=96|date=August 2011 | access-date = 2018-07-12 | url = http://www.acwrt.org.uk/uk-heritage_The-Search-for-Robert-Livingstone.asp }}</ref> which has since been termed, "North Carolina's [[Andersonville Prison|Andersonville]]."<ref>{{Cite web|author=Joel R. Stegall|date=2018-09-13|title=Salisbury Prison: North Carolina's Andersonville|url=https://nccivilwarcenter.org/salisbury-prison-north-carolinas-andersonville/|access-date=2023-02-07|website=North Carolina Civil War & Reconstruction History Center|language=en-US}}</ref> # Agnes (born 1847 or 1857, died 1912; married A.L. Bruce, a wealthy Scottish brewery executive.{{Sfn|Dugard||2012|p=384}}) # Thomas, died in Egypt in 1876 at the age of 27 from [[Schistosomiasis|bilharzia]], a disease he contracted as a child living in Africa.{{Sfn|Dugard||2012|p=}} # Elizabeth (who died at two months) # William Oswell (nicknamed Zouga because of the river along which he was born, in 1851; died in 1892 in Trinidad where he practiced medicine.{{Sfn|Dugard||2012|p=}}) # Anna Mary (born 1858, died 1939) Only Agnes, William Oswell and Anna Mary married and had children.<ref>{{cite web|author=Steven Wilson|url=http://freepages.genealogy.rootsweb.ancestry.com/~swilson/livingstone/descendants.htm|title=Livingstone Descendants|publisher=Freepages.genealogy.rootsweb.ancestry.com|access-date=23 January 2012}}</ref> His one regret in later life was that he did not spend enough time with his children.<ref name="Ferguson2002">{{cite book|last=Ferguson|first=Niall |author-link=Niall Ferguson|title=Empire: The Rise and Demise of the British World Order and the Lessons for Global Power|url=https://archive.org/details/empire00nial|url-access=registration|year=2002|publisher=Basic Books|isbn=978-0-465-02329-5|page=[https://archive.org/details/empire00nial/page/158 158]}}</ref> ==Archives== Ivyo vikalembeka mu mabuku gha David Livingstone vikusungikira mu ofesi ya University of Glasgow (GUAS). Pa Novembala 11, 2011, buku la Livingstone la 1871 Field Diary, pamoza na mabuku ghanyake ghakalembeka na David Livingstone Spectral Imaging Project. Mabuku agho ghakulongosora ivyo vikacitika apo Livingstone wakaŵa mishonale wa London Missionary Society (nga ni mapu gha ku South-East Africa) ghali mu malo ghakusungirako vinthu vyakale gha School of Oriental and African Studies. Mabuku gha pa Intaneti agho ghakukolerana na vinthu ivi na vinyake, ghakusangika na ŵanthu wose kwizira mu pulogiramu ya Livingstone Online ya pa Yunivesite ya Nebraska-Lincoln.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://today.oregonstate.edu/archives/2015/jun/scottish-explorer-david-livingstone%E2%80%99s-writings-drawings-now-available-through-onli|title=Scottish explorer David Livingstone's writings, drawings now available through online archive|date=2015-06-24|website=Life at OSU|language=en|access-date=2019-02-19}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.livingstoneonline.org/about-this-site/livingstone-online-introduction|title=Livingstone Online: An Introduction {{!}} Livingstone Online|website=www.livingstoneonline.org|language=en|access-date=2019-02-19}}</ref> ==Place names and other memorials== [[File:Portrait of David Livingstone (4671614).jpg|thumb|upright|Photograph of Livingstone in later life]] ===Africa=== '''Botswana''' *Scottish Livingstone Hospital in Molepolole 50&nbsp;km west of [[Gaborone|Gaborone, Botswana]] * There is a memorial to Livingstone at the ruins of the [[Kolobeng Mission]], 40&nbsp;km west of Gaborone, Botswana. * Livingstone Kolobeng College, a private secondary school in Gaborone, Botswana. '''Burundi''' The [[Livingstone–Stanley Monument]] in [[Mugere]] (present-day [[Burundi]]) marks a spot that Livingstone and Stanley visited on their exploration of Lake Tanganyika, mistaken by some as the first meeting place of the two explorers. '''Congo''' *[[Livingstone Falls]] on the River Congo, named by Stanley. * The [[Livingstone Inland Mission]], a Baptist mission to the [[Central Africa]] 1877–1884, located in present-day [[Kinshasa|Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo]]. '''Ghana''' * Livingstone House, Achimota School, Ghana (boys' boarding house). '''Kenya''' * Dr Livingstone Primary School in [[Nairobi]], [[Kenya]]. * Livingstone house, Alliance Highschool in [[Kiambu]], Kenya. [[File:David Livingstone memorial at Victoria Falls, Zimbabwe.jpg|thumb|[[Statue of David Livingstone, Zimbabwe|David Livingstone statue]] at [[Victoria Falls]], the first statue on the Zimbabwean side]]'''Malawi''' *The town of [[Livingstonia, Malawi]]. * The city of [[Blantyre, Malawi]] is named after Livingstone's birthplace in Scotland, and includes a memorial. * The ''David Livingstone Scholarships'' for students at the [[University of Malawi]], funded through [[Strathclyde University]], Scotland. * The David Livingstone Clinic was founded by the University of Strathclyde's Millennium Project in [[Lilongwe]], Malawi.<ref>{{Cite web |title=David Livingstone Clinic - University of Strathclyde |url=http://www.strath.ac.uk/malawi/projects/davidlivingstoneclinic}}</ref> * The [[Kipengere Range]] in south-west Tanzania at the north-eastern end of [[Lake Malawi]] is also called the Livingstone Mountains. '''Namibia''' * David Livingstone Museum in [[Sangwali]], north-eastern [[Namibia]]. Livingstone stayed at Sangwali in the 1850s before travelling further north. '''South Africa''' * David Livingstone Senior Secondary School in Schauderville, [[Port Elizabeth]], South Africa. * Livingstone Hospital, Port Elizabeth, South Africa. '''Tanzania''' *A memorial in [[Ujiji]] commemorates his meeting with Stanley.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Grant |first=C. H. B. |date=April 1932 |title=The Livingstone-Stanley Memorials in Africa |journal=The Geographical Journal |volume=79 |issue=4 |pages=318–319 |doi=10.2307/1784331 |issn=0016-7398 |jstor=1784331}}</ref> * The church tower of the Holy Ghost Mission (Roman Catholic) in [[Bagamoyo]], Tanzania, is sometimes called "Livingstone Tower" as Livingstone's body was laid down there for one night before it was shipped to London. {{citation needed|date=January 2014}} * Livingstone House in [[Stone Town]], [[Zanzibar]], provided by the [[Majid bin Said of Zanzibar|Sultan]] for Livingstone's use, January to March 1866, to prepare his last expedition; the house was purchased by the Zanzibar government in 1947. {{citation needed|date=January 2014}} * Plaque commemorating his departure from [[Mikindani]] (present-day [[Tanzania]]) on his final expedition on the wall of the house that has been built over the house he reputedly stayed in. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20181020221743/http://tz.geoview.info/livingstone_street,25108633w Livingstone Street], [[Dar es Salaam]], Tanzania. '''Uganda''' * Livingstone Hall, Men's Hall of residence at [[Makerere University]], [[Kampala, Uganda]]. '''Zambia''' * The [[Livingstone Memorial]] in [[Zambia|Ilala, Zambia]] marks where David Livingstone died * The city of [[Livingstone, Zambia]], which includes a memorial in front of the [[Livingstone Museum]] and a new statue erected in 2005.<ref name="TOZ">{{cite web |url=http://www.times.co.zm/news/viewnews.cgi?category=6&id=1132264497 |title=David Livingstone Remembered |access-date=27 April 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927225346/http://www.times.co.zm/news/viewnews.cgi?category=6&id=1132264497 |archive-date=27 September 2007 |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all}}</ref> * The [[Rhodes-Livingstone Institute]], located a few miles outside [[Lusaka, Zambia]], 1937 to 1964, was a pioneering research institution in anthropology.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Crehan |first1=Kate |date=1997 |title=The Fractured Community: Landscapes of Power and Gender in Rural Zambia|place=Berkeley, California |publisher=University of California Press |url=http://ark.cdlib.org/ark:/13030/ft0779n6dt/ |chapter-url=https://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpressebooks/view?docId=ft0779n6dt&chunk.id=d0e2527&toc.depth=100&toc.id=d0e2413&brand=ucpress |chapter=Max Gluckman and the Rhodes-Livingstone Institute}}</ref><ref>Schumaker, Lynette Louise, "The lion in the path: Fieldwork and culture in the history of the Rhodes-Livingstone Institute, 1937-1964" (1994). Dissertations available from ProQuest. AAI9521118. https://repository.upenn.edu/dissertations/AAI9521118</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Heron |first1=Alastair |title=Rhodes-Livingstone Institute, Lusaka |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-modern-african-studies_1964-03_2_1/page/112 |journal=The Journal of Modern African Studies |date=March 1964 |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=112–113 |doi=10.1017/S0022278X00003724|s2cid=155082162 }}</ref> * David Livingstone Teachers' Training College, Livingstone, Zambia. * A new statue of David Livingstone was erected in November 2005 on the Zambian side of Victoria Falls.<ref name="TOZ" /> '''Zimbabwe''' * The David Livingstone Memorial statue at [[Victoria Falls, Zimbabwe]], erected in 1934 on the western bank of the falls.<ref name="Michler2007">{{cite book|last=Michler|first=Ian|title=Victoria Falls & Surrounds: The Insider's Guide|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NprYukGOsEoC|year=2007|publisher=Penguin|isbn=978-1-77007-361-6|page=11}}{{Dead link|date=February 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> {{harvnb|Michler|2007}} quoted 1954 which is wrong. The statue was unveiled on 5 August 1934<ref name="VicFalls">{{cite sign|url=http://www.rhodesia.me.uk/VictoriaFalls.htm|title=David Livingstone's statue|date=1934|location=[[Victoria Falls]]|access-date=30 January 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150309063629/http://www.rhodesia.me.uk/VictoriaFalls.htm|archive-date=9 March 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref> * A plaque was unveiled in November 2005 at Livingstone Island on the lip of Victoria Falls marking where Livingstone stood to get his first view of the falls.<ref name="TOZ" /> * David Livingstone Primary School in [[Harare|Salisbury, Rhodesia (present-day Harare, Zimbabwe)]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://dr.livingstone.primary.school.co.ke/|title=Dr Livingstone Primary School - Nairobi|website=dr.livingstone.primary.school.co.ke}}</ref> * David Livingstone Secondary School in Ntabazinduna about 40&nbsp;km from [[Bulawayo]], Zimbabwe. * Livingstone House in Harare, Zimbabwe, designed by Leonora Granger. {{Who|date=January 2014}}<ref>{{cite news | title=Museum to honour David Livingstone | last=Lottering | first=Francois | work=[[The Namibian]] | date=28 October 2016 | page=7 | url=http://www.namibian.com.na/47333/read/Museum-to-honour-David-Livingstone | access-date=29 October 2016 | archive-date=29 October 2016 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161029174306/http://www.namibian.com.na/47333/read/Museum-to-honour-David-Livingstone | url-status=dead }}</ref> ===Asia=== '''New Zealand''' *Livingstone Street in Westmere, Auckland *Livingstone Road in Flaxmere, Hastings ===Europe=== '''Scotland''' [[File:David Livingstone statue, Glasgow.JPG|thumb|Livingstone statue, [[Glasgow]]]] * The [[David Livingstone Centre|David Livingstone Birthplace Museum]] in [[Blantyre, South Lanarkshire]], is a museum in his honour, operated by the David Livingstone Trust. * David Livingstone Memorial Primary School in Blantyre. * David Livingstone Memorial Church of the Church of Scotland in Blantyre. * A statue of Livingstone in [[Cathedral Square, Glasgow|Cathedral Square]], [[Glasgow]]. * A [[Statue of David Livingstone, Edinburgh|statue]] of Livingstone in [[Princes Street Gardens]], Edinburgh. * A bust of Livingstone is among those of famous Scotsmen in the [[Wallace Monument]] near [[Stirling]]. * [[Strathclyde University]], Glasgow (which evolved from Anderson's University, later the [[Royal College of Science and Technology]]), commemorates him in the David Livingstone Centre for Sustainability<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.strath.ac.uk/dlcs|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807084611/http://www.strath.ac.uk/dlcs/|url-status=dead|title=David Livingstone Centre for Sustainability webpage|archive-date=7 August 2012}}</ref> and the [[Livingstone Tower]] where there is a statue of him in the building's foyer. * The David Livingstone Room in the [[Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Glasgow]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://fifteenninetynine.co.uk/venue/the-david-livingstone-room.aspx|title=David Livingstone Meeting & Function Room {{!}} Fifteen Ninety Nine|website=fifteenninetynine.co.uk|access-date=23 August 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160531140052/http://fifteenninetynine.co.uk/venue/the-david-livingstone-room.aspx|archive-date=31 May 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref> A portrait of Livingstone by [[Thomas Annan]] (a photograph painted over in oils) hangs outside the room.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://libraryblog.rcpsg.ac.uk/2016/01/05/thomas-annan-and-the-documentary-photograph/|title=Thomas Annan and the Documentary Photograph|last=Andrew McAinsh|date=5 January 2016|website=College Library|access-date=23 August 2016|archive-date=29 June 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160629185327/https://libraryblog.rcpsg.ac.uk/2016/01/05/thomas-annan-and-the-documentary-photograph/|url-status=dead}}</ref> * The ''David Livingstone (Anderson College) Memorial Prize in Physiology'' commemorates him at the [[University of Glasgow]]. * Livingstone Place, a street in the [[Sciennes]] neighbourhood of Edinburgh.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Harris |first1=Stuart |title=The Place Names of Edinburgh: Their Origins and History |url=https://archive.org/details/placenamesofedin0000stua |date=2002 |publisher=Steve Savage Publishers |isbn=1-904246-06-0 |page=[https://archive.org/details/placenamesofedin0000stua/page/371 371]}}</ref> * Livingstone Street in [[Addiewell]]. * A memorial plaque commemorating the centenary of Livingstone's birth was dedicated in [[Hamilton United Reformed Church|St. James's Congregational Church in Hamilton]], the church he attended as a boy.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://hamilton.urc.org.uk/david-livingstone/ |title=David Livingstone – a brief history |publisher=Hamilton.urc.org.uk |date=13 January 2012 |access-date=7 March 2013 |archive-date=21 October 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141021144458/http://hamilton.urc.org.uk/david-livingstone/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> * Livingstone lived at 17 Burnbank Road in [[Hamilton, South Lanarkshire]], for a short time in 1862. The house still stands and has a memorial plaque outside. He was awarded the [[Freedom of the City|Freedom of the Town]] of Hamilton.<ref>{{cite book|author=Blaikie, William Garden|title=The Personal Life of David Livingstone|publisher=Project Gutenberg|year=2004|orig-year=1880|url=https://www.gutenberg.org/files/13262/13262-h/13262-h.htm}}</ref> '''England''' * A statue of David Livingstone stands in a niche on the outer wall of the [[Royal Geographical Society]] on Kensington Gore, London, looking out across Kensington Gardens. It was unveiled in 1953.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Unveiling of the Livingstone Statue|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_geographical-journal_1954-03_120_1/page/15|journal=The Geographical Journal|volume=120|issue=1|pages=15–20|year=1954|issn=0016-7398|doi=10.2307/1791984|jstor=1791984}}</ref> * Livingstone is one of the four houses at [[Eltham College]]. * David Livingstone Primary School in Thornton Heath, South London. ===North America=== '''Canada''' * The [[Livingstone Range (Canada)|Livingstone Range]] of mountains in southern [[Alberta]]. * David Livingstone Elementary School, [[Vancouver]]. * David Livingstone Community School, [[Winnipeg]]. * Bronze bust in [[City of Halifax|Halifax]], Nova Scotia. * Gold bust in the city of Borden, Ontario. * Livingstone Avenue in Barrie, Ontario. * Livingstone Street, St. John's, [[Newfoundland and Labrador]], Canada. '''United States''' * The town of [[Livingston, California]] * [[Livingstone College]], Salisbury, North Carolina. * Livingstone Adventist Academy, [[Salem, Oregon]]. * Livingston Falls, Busch Gardens, Tampa Bay ===South America=== *The Livingstone Healthservice in Jardín América, Misiones, Argentina is named in his honour.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.accc-ja.com/0000009f7f0a5e705/0000009ff00e61617/index.html |title=Livingstone Healthservice |access-date=7 March 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304104452/http://www.accc-ja.com/0000009f7f0a5e705/0000009ff00e61617/index.html |archive-date=4 March 2016 |url-status=dead }}</ref> ===Banknotes=== In 1971–1998 Livingstone's image was portrayed on [[Banknotes of the pound sterling|£10 notes]] issued by the [[Clydesdale Bank]]. He was originally shown surrounded by palm tree leaves with an illustration of African [[tribesmen]] on the back.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://aes.iupui.edu/rwise/banknotes/scotland/ScotlandP213a-10Pounds-1982-donatedth_b.jpg |title=Clydesdale 10 Pounds, 1982 |publisher=Ron Wise's Banknoteworld |access-date=15 October 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081021212133/http://aes.iupui.edu/rwise/banknotes/scotland/ScotlandP213a-10Pounds-1982-donatedth_b.jpg |archive-date=21 October 2008 |df=dmy }}</ref> A later issue showed Livingstone against a background graphic of a map of Livingstone's Zambezi expedition, showing the [[Zambezi|River Zambezi]], [[Victoria Falls, Zambia|Victoria Falls]], [[Lake Nyasa]] and [[Blantyre, Malawi]]; on the reverse, the African figures were replaced with an image of Livingstone's birthplace in [[Blantyre, South Lanarkshire|Blantyre]], Scotland.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://aes.iupui.edu/rwise/banknotes/scotland/ScotlandP214-10Pounds-1990-donatedth_f.jpg |title=Clydesdale 10 Pounds, 1990 |publisher=Ron Wise's Banknoteworld |access-date=15 October 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081021212114/http://aes.iupui.edu/rwise/banknotes/scotland/ScotlandP214-10Pounds-1990-donatedth_f.jpg |archive-date=21 October 2008 |df=dmy }}</ref> ===Science=== The following species have been named in honour of David Livingstone: * Livingston's cichlid, ''[[Nimbochromis livingstonii]]'' * Livingstone's eland, ''[[Taurotragus oryx]] livingstonii'' * [[Livingstone's fruit bat]], ''Pteropus livingstonii'' The mineral [[livingstonite]] is named in his honor.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Barcena |first1=M |title=On livingstonite, a new mineral |journal=American Journal of Science |date=1874 |volume=108 |pages=145–146}}</ref> It was described in 1874 from Mexico. ==Portrayal in film and books== * Livingstone has been portrayed by [[M.A. Wetherell]] in [[Livingstone (film)|''Livingstone'']] (1925), [[Percy Marmont]] in [[David Livingstone (film)|''David Livingstone'']] (1936), Sir [[Cedric Hardwicke]] in ''[[Stanley and Livingstone]]'' (1939), [[Bernard Hill]] in [[Mountains of the Moon (film)|''Mountains of the Moon'']] (1990) and Sir [[Nigel Hawthorne]] in the TV movie ''Forbidden Territory'' (1997).<ref>{{IMDb title|id=0132972|title=Forbidden Territory: Stanley's Search for Livingstone (1997)}}</ref> * [[Marvel Comics]]' ''[[Young Allies (Marvel Comics)|The Young Allies]]'' #2 featured an explorer named "Martin Livingstone" who discovered a new territory he dubbed "New America" and claimed it for the United States. [[Bucky Barnes]] greets him with the famous, "Dr. Livingstone, I presume?" The story was at least partially drawn by [[Ernie Hart]], but the writer is unknown--[[Otto Binder]] had written the preceding issue and [[Stan Lee]] the following one.<ref>Stan Lee, Otto Binder, et al. ''[[Marvel Masterworks]]: Young Allies''. New York: Marvel Publishing, 2009.</ref> * The 1949 [[comedy film]] ''[[Africa Screams]]'' is the story of a dimwitted clerk named Stanley Livington (played by [[Lou Costello]]), who is mistaken for a famous African explorer and recruited to lead a treasure hunt. The character's name appears to be a play on Stanley and Livingstone. * Stanley Livingston, played by [[Mort Marshall]], whose name invokes both Stanley and David Livingtone, was the zoo director on ''[[Tennessee Tuxedo and His Tales]]'', a 1963-66 animated series. * ''Out of Darkness, Shining Light'' (2019) by [[Petina Gappah]] is a fictionalized account of how Livingstone's body, papers, and maps traveled 1,500 miles across the continent of Africa, so his remains could be returned to England and his work preserved there. ==In popular culture== In the 1940 [[Warner Bros.]] [[Looney Tunes]] cartoon "[[Africa Squeaks]]", a caricature of [[Spencer Tracy]] as [[Henry Morton Stanley]] erroneously presumes Porky Pig to be Livingstone in the heart of "Darkest Africa". The [[Moody Blues]] 1968 single [[Dr. Livingstone, I Presume (song)|"Dr. Livingstone, I Presume"]] paints the adventures of Livingstone, [[Captain Scott]], and [[Christopher Columbus|Columbus]] with the refrain "What did you find there? Did you stand awhile and stare? Did you meet anyone?", followed by a repeated chorus of "We're all looking for someone". The ABBA song "[[What About Livingstone?|What about Livingstone?]]"<ref name="Sheridan2012">{{cite book|last1=Sheridan|first1=Simon|title=The Complete ABBA|date=2012|publisher=Titan Books|isbn=978-0857687241|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=glQ4CgAAQBAJ&pg=PT69|page=69|edition=40th Anniversary}}</ref> mentions Livingstone "traveling up the Nile". Livingstone made 4 great journeys into Africa, three of them starting in Cape Town, South Africa and the last at Zanzibar. None of the routes traveled on the Nile which lay far to the north. He may have crossed sections of the headwaters of Nile on his final expedition but he would not have known so as these areas were not considered in the Nile watershed until much later. A song from American [[Heavy metal music|heavy metal]] band [[Alcatrazz]] called Jet to Jet from 1983's [[No Parole from Rock 'n' Roll]] contains the lyrics "Dr. Livingstone where are you, when We need you the most" which is in reference to the famed doctor and his expedition to [[Africa]]. Stanley's search for and discovery of Livingstone is the subject of the [[Hugh Masekela]] song "Witch Doctor" that appears on his 1976 album, ''[[Colonial Man]]''. ==Wonaniso== *[[Thomas Baines]] *[[John Kirk (explorer)|John Kirk]] *[[Livingstone Inland Mission]] *[[History of Christianity in Zambia]] ==Ukaboni== ===Notes=== {{notelist}} ===Citations=== {{reflist}} ===Sources and further reading=== {{refbegin|30em|indent=yes}} * Austin, Alvyn. "Discovering Livingstone" ''Christian History'' (1997) 16#4 pp.&nbsp;10–19. * Dritsas, Lawrence. ''Zambesi: David Livingstone and expeditionary science in Africa'' (Bloomsbury Publishing, 2020). *{{cite book|last=Dugard|first=Martin |title=Into Africa: The Epic Adventures Of Stanley And Livingstone|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X5xM29LaRZQC&pg=PA384|year=2012|publisher=Transworld|isbn=978-1-4464-3720-9}} *{{cite book|last=Dugard|first=Martin |title=The Explorers: A Story of Fearless Outcasts, Blundering Geniuses, and Impossible Success|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_HumAwAAQBAJ|year=2014|publisher=Simon and Schuster|isbn=978-1-4516-7757-7}} * Gooding, Philip. "David Livingstone, UNESCO, and Nation-Building in 19th-21st-Century Scotland and East and Central Africa." ''Journal of Indian Ocean World Studies'' 5.2 (2021): 243–269. [https://jiows.mcgill.ca/article/view/117/72 online] * Groop, Kim Stefan. "Exploring Africa in the Nordic Press: David Livingstone, Henry Stanley and the Popular Fascination with Exploration and Adventure in Africa in the Late 19th Century." in ''Modernity, Frontiers and Revolutions: Proceedings of the 4th International Multidisciplinary Congress'' (CRC Press, 2018). [https://www.academia.edu/download/57545041/Grooop_-_Exploring_Africa.pdf online]{{dead link|date=May 2023|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}} * Holmes, Timothy (1993). ''Journey to Livingstone: Exploration of an Imperial Myth''. Edinburgh: Canongate Press. {{ISBN|978-0-86241-402-3}}; scholarly biography *{{cite book|first=Tim|last=Jeal|author-link=Tim Jeal|title=Livingstone|url=https://archive.org/details/livingstone0000unse_i2j7|year=1973|publisher=[[Heinemann (book publisher)|Heinemann]]|location=London|isbn=978-0-434-37208-9}}, scholarly biography * {{cite book|last=Jeal|first= Tim |url=https://archive.org/details/livingstone00jeal |date=1973b |title=Livingstone |location=New York |publisher=G. P. Putnum's Sons|isbn= 9780399112157 |lccn=73-82030}}, first American edition * {{cite book|last=Jeal|first=Tim|author-link=Tim Jeal |title=Livingstone: Revised and Expanded Edition|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HcDR7nTiVAYC|year=2013|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=978-0-300-19100-4}} * Kilbride, Daniel. "The Old South Confronts the Dilemma of David Livingstone." ''Journal of Southern History'' (2016) 82#4 p789-822; how he was seen in the American South. * Lewis, Joanna. ''Empire of sentiment: the death of Livingstone and the myth of Victorian imperialism'' (Cambridge University Press, 2018) . * Liebenberg, Elri. "‘I Will Open a Path into the Interior (of Africa), or Perish’: David Livingstone and the Mapping of Africa." ''Cartographic Journal'' 58.1 (2021): 29-49. <!--*{{cite book|last=Livingstone|first=David|title=Journeys in South Africa, or Travels and Researches in South Africa|url=https://archive.org/details/travelsresearche00livi|orig-year=1857|year=1905|publisher=The Amalgamated Press Ltd.|location=London, UK}}--> *{{cite book|last=Livingstone|first=David |title=Missionary Travels and Researches in South Africa: Including a Sketch of Sixteen Years' Residence in the Interior of Africa|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.33342/page/n3 |year=1857|publisher=Murray|location=London|page=[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.33342 Contents]}} * {{cite book | last1=Livingstone | first1=D. | last2=Livingstone | first2=C. | title=Narrative of an Expedition to the Zambesi and Its Tributaries: And of the Discovery of the Lakes Shirwa and Nyassa. 1858–1864 | publisher=Harper & Brothers | year=1866 | url=https://archive.org/details/narrativeanexpe03livigoog }} *{{cite book|last=Livingstone|first=David |editor-first=Horace |editor-last=Waller|editor-link=Horace Waller (activist)|title=The Last Journals of David Livingstone, in Central Africa, from 1865 to His Death: Continued by a Narrative of His Last Moments and Sufferings, Obtained from His Faithful Servants Chuma and Susi; in Two Volumes|url=https://archive.org/details/lastjournalsdav00livigoog|year=1874|publisher=J. Murray}} * Livingstone, David and James I. Macnair (eds) (1954). ''Livingstone's Travels''. London: J.M. Dent. * Livingstone, David (1999) [1875]. [https://web.archive.org/web/20070927214512/http://www.arlea.fr/article.php3?id_article=493&var_recherche=livingstone%2F ''Dernier Journal'']. Paris: [[Arléa]]; {{ISBN|2-86959-215-9}} {{in lang|fr}} * Livingstone, Justin D. "Livingstone’s Life & Expeditions." in Adrian S. Wisnicki and Megan Ward, eds. ''Livingstone Online'' (2015) [http://livingstoneonline.org/uuid/node/76ab1aa0-2bf4-4c42-adf7-c8c4ee960236 online]. * MacKenzie, John M. "David Livingstone, the Scottish cultural and political revival and the end of empire in Africa." in ''Scotland, empire and decolonisation in the twentieth century'' (Manchester University Press, 2017) pp.&nbsp;180–199. * [[Thomas Banks Maclachlan|Maclachlan, T. Banks.]] ''David Livingstone,'' Edinburgh: [[Oliphant, Anderson and Ferrier]], 1901, ([[List of books for the "Famous Scots Series"|"Famous Scots Series"]]). * Martelli, George (1970). ''Livingstone's River: A History of the Zambezi Expedition'', 1858–1864. London: Chatto & Windus. {{ISBN|978-0-7011-1527-2}} * {{cite book|first=Jay|last=Milbrandt|title=The Daring Heart of David Livingstone: Exile, African Slavery, and the Publicity Stunt that Saved Millions|url=https://archive.org/details/daringheartofdav0000milb|year=2014|publisher=[[Thomas Nelson (book publisher)|Thomas Nelson]]|location=Nashville, TN|isbn=978-1-59555-592-2}} scholarly biography * [[Basil Joseph Mathews|Mathews, Basil Joseph]], ''Livingstone, the Pathfinder'', illustrated by [[Ernest Prater]] (Oxford and London: Henry Frowde Oxford University Press, 1913) * Mkenda, Festo. "A Protestant Verdict on the Jesuit Missionary Approach in Africa: David Livingstone and Memories of the Early Jesuit Presence in South Central Africa." in ''Encounters between Jesuits and Protestants in Africa'' (Brill, 2017). 59-79 [https://brill.com/view/book/edcoll/9789004347151/B9789004347151_006.xml online]. * Morrill, Leslie, and Madge Haines (1959). ''Livingstone, Trail Blazer for God''. Mountain View: Pacific Press Publication Association. * [[M. NourbeSe Philip|Philip, M. NourbeSe]] (1991). ''Looking for Livingstone: An Odyssey of Silence''. Stratford: The Mercury Press; {{ISBN|978-0-920544-88-4}} * Rea, W. F. "Livingstone's Rhodesian Legacy." '' History Today'' (Sept 1973), Vol. 23 Issue 9, pp.&nbsp;633–639 online. * {{cite book | last=Ross | first=Andrew | title=David Livingstone : Mission and Empire | publisher=Hambledon Continuum | publication-place=London | year=2002 | isbn= 978-1-85285-285-6 | oclc=}} * Rotberg, Robert I. "His Brother’s Keeper: Charles Livingstone and the ‘Failure’ of David Livingstone's Zambezi Expedition." ''Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History'' 47.1 (2019): 76-99. * Seaver, George. ''David Livingston: His Life and Letters'' (1957), a standard biography * Shepperson, George. "David Livingstone 1813–1873: a centenary assessment." ''Geographical Journal'' (1973): 205–219. {{doi|10.2307/1796089}} * Stanley, Henry M. ''How I Found Livingstone'' (1872) [https://archive.org/details/howifoundliving00stangoog famous primary source]. * Stuart, John. "David Livingstone, British Protestant missions, memory and empire." in Dominik Geppert, ed., ''Sites of imperial memory'' (Manchester University Press, 2016). * Waters, John (1996). ''David Livingstone: Trail Blazer''. Leicester: Inter-Varsity; {{ISBN|978-0-85111-170-4}} * Wisnicki, Adrian S. (2009). "Interstitial Cartographer: David Livingstone and the Invention of South Central Africa". ''Victorian Literature and Culture'' 37.1 (Mar.): 255–71. {{refend}} ==External links== * {{Commons category-inline|David Livingstone}} {{Wikiquote}} {{wikisource author}} {{EB1911|wstitle=Cameron, Verney Lovett|volume=5|page=109}} *[https://www.livingstoneonline.org/life-and-times/livingstone-s-life-expeditions Livingstone Online] *[https://web.archive.org/web/20170715215339/http://livingstone.library.ucla.edu/ Livingstone Spectral Imaging Project] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170715215339/http://livingstone.library.ucla.edu/ |date=15 July 2017 }}. Many of Livingstone's original papers spectrally imaged. *[https://web.archive.org/web/20080217151257/http://www.livingstoneonline.ucl.ac.uk/index.html Livingstone Online – Explore the manuscripts of David Livingstone] Images of original documents alongside transcribed, critically edited versions *[https://web.archive.org/web/20120401060253/http://ssa.nls.uk/film.cfm?fid=0192 David Livingstone (c. 1956)]. Archive film from the National Library of Scotland: Scottish Screen Archive * {{Gutenberg author |id=519| name=David Livingstone}} **''[[gutenberg:1039|Missionary Travels and Researches in South Africa]]'' **''[https://gutenberg.org/etext/2519 A Popular Account of Dr Livingstone's Expedition to the Zambesi and its Tributaries] '' **''[https://gutenberg.org/etext/13262 The Personal Life of David Livingstone] '' * {{Internet Archive author |sname=David Livingstone}} *{{cite journal |publisher=Macmillan & Co. |pages=225–236 |year=1892 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0CMYAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA225 |title=Dr. Livingston (obituary, Wed., 28 Jan. 1874) |journal=Eminent Persons: Biographies Reprinted from the Times. Vol. 1–6. D. Vol I, 1870–1875}} * [https://www.pbs.org/wnet/secrets/the-lost-diary-of-dr-livingstone-watch-the-full-episode/1157/ The Lost Diary of Dr. Livingstone] Documentary produced by the [[PBS]] Series [[Secrets of the Dead]] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20150309063629/http://www.rhodesia.me.uk/VictoriaFalls.htm How Livingstone discovered the Falls. by J. Desmond Clark M.A. PH.D. F.S.A. Curator of the Rhodes-Livingstone Museum. 1955] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20170413235642/http://labs.jstor.org/zambezi/?cid=soc_JSTORedu Interactive map of Livingstone's Zambezi expedition] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170413235642/http://labs.jstor.org/zambezi/?cid=soc_JSTORedu |date=13 April 2017 }} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Livingstone, David}} [[Category:David Livingstone| ]] [[Category:1813 births]] [[Category:1873 deaths]] [[Category:Alumni of Charing Cross Medical School]] [[Category:Alumni of the University of Glasgow]] [[Category:Big cat attack victims]] [[Category:Burials at Westminster Abbey]] [[Category:Congregationalist missionaries in Africa]] [[Category:Deaths from dysentery]] [[Category:Deaths from malaria]] [[Category:Explorers of Africa]] [[Category:Fellows of the Royal Geographical Society]] [[Category:Fellows of the Royal Society]] [[Category:Infectious disease deaths in Zambia]] [[Category:Medical missionaries]] [[Category:People from Blantyre, South Lanarkshire]] [[Category:Scottish Congregationalist missionaries]] [[Category:Scottish explorers]] [[Category:Scottish evangelicals]] [[Category:Deaths from bleeding]] [[Category:Scottish Congregationalist ministers]] 69fl3599zbxuhc0nyuno7kq54zswswb 0 46490 119286 117941 2026-08-13T21:50:39Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260813sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 119286 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox language | name = Interlingua | nativename = {{lang|ia|interlingua}} | pronunciation = {{IPA-art|inteɾˈliŋɡwa|}} | speakers = A few hundred | date = 2007 | ref = <ref name="Fiedler">{{cite book|first1=Sabine|last1=Fiedler|year=2007|chapter=Phraseology in planned languages|title=Phraseology: Ein internationales Handbuch der zeitgenössischen Forschung, Volume 2|publisher=De Gruyter Mouton|pages=779-788|doi=10.1515/9783110190762.779}}</ref> | familycolor = | fam1 = [[Chiyowoyelo chakovwira chapasi chose]] | creator = [[International Auxiliary Language Association]] | created = 1951 | setting = Kulembeka kwa mazgu gha sayansi gha pa charu chose; [[chiyowoyelo chakovwira chapasi chose]] | posteriori = '''Viyowoyelo vyakufuma ku vyakale''': [[Chingelezi]], [[Chifurenchi]], [[Chitaliyana]], [[Chipwitikizi]], na [[Chisipanishi]]. | script = [[Malembo gha Chilatini]] | agency = Palije bungwe lakulamulira | iso1 = ia | iso2 = ina | iso3 = ina | image = Bandiera de Interlingua.svg | imagescale = | imagecaption = Official Interlingua flag<ref>{{cite web |date=2026-01-16 |title=Presentation del bandiera official de interlingua |language=ia |url=https://www.interlingua.com/novas/2026-01-16-interlingua-75-annos-bandiera/ |publisher=[[Union Mundial pro Interlingua]] |access-date=2026-01-16}}</ref> | notice = IPA | glotto = inte1239 | glottorefname = Interlingua (International Auxiliary Language Association) }} '''Interlingua''' (/ɪntərˈlɪŋɡwə/) ni chiyowoyelo chakuwovwira cha pa charu chose (IAL) icho chikapangika pakati pa 1937 na 1951 na American ''International Auxiliary Language Association'' (IALA). Ni ciyowoyero cakupangika na ŵanthu, ndipo mazgu ghake, kalembero kake, na vinyake ivyo vikucitika mu ciyowoyero ici vikufuma ku viyowoyero vinyake. Mabuku gha '''Interlingua''' ghakulongosora kuti (kulembeka) kwa Interlingua kukupulikikwa na ŵanthu mamiliyoni ghanandi awo ŵakuyowoya viyowoyero vya Romance,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Yeager|first1=Leland B.|title=Interlinguistica e Interlingua: Discursos public|publisher=Servicio de Libros UMI|year=1991|location=Beekbergen, Netherlands|chapter=Le linguistica como reclamo pro Interlingua|trans-chapter=Linguistics as an advertisement for Interlingua}}</ref> nangauli ni ŵanthu ŵacoko waka awo ŵakuyowoya chiyowoyero ichi. Interlingua yikapangika kuti yikolerane na viyowoyelo vinandi vya kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Europe, ivyo vikovwira kuti ŵanthu awo ŵakuyowoya viyowoyero vyawo ŵasambire viyowoyero ivi.<ref name="iala1971">{{harvnb|Gode|1971|loc=Introduction}}</ref><ref name="breinstrup-beginners">Breinstrup, Thomas, Preface, [http://www.interlingua.com/archivos/Prefacio%20-%20Contento.pdf ''Interlingua course for beginners''], Bilthoven, Netherlands: Union Mundial pro Interlingua, 2006.</ref> Zina lakuti Interlingua likufuma ku lizgu la Cilatini lakuti ''inter'', ilo likung'anamura kuti "pakati", na ''lingua'', ilo likung'anamura kuti "lulimi". Mazgu agha ghakuyana waka mu ciyowoyero ca Interlingua; ntheura ciyowoyero ici cikung'anamura 'pakati pa viyowoyero.' == Chidule == Interlingua yikugomezga pa mazgu agho ghakuyana agho ghakusangika mu viyowoyero vya ku Western Europe, ivyo vinandi vikafuma ku [[Chilatini]] panji vikakhwaskika chomene na chiyowoyero ichi (nga ni [[viyowoyero vya Romance]]). Awo ŵakakhazikiska Interlingua ŵali na "viyowoyero vikuruvikuru vyakulongozga" vinayi, ndipo mwakawiro, lizgu (panji mtundu wake) likwenera kusangika mu vitatu mwa viyowoyero ivi kuti lizomerezgeke mu Interlingua. Viyowoyero ivi ni [[Chingelezi]], [[Chifurenchi]], [[Chitaliyani]], na kuphatikizika kwa [[Chisipanishi]] na [[Chitogorezi]], ivyo vikuwoneka nga ni chiyowoyero chimoza chikuru pa ntchito za Interlingua. Kusazgapo apa, [[Chijeremani]] na [[Chirashiya]] vikachemekwa kuti "viyowoyero vyakulongozga vya chiŵiri".{{sfn|Gode|1971|loc=Introduction}} Nangauli mazgu ghanandi mu Interlingua ghakuyana na [[Chilatini cha sono|Neo-Latin]] chifukwa ghakufuma chomene ku Chilatini, mazgu gha Interlingua ghangafuma mu chiyowoyero chilichose, usange ghali kunjira mu viyowoyero vikuruvikuru vyakulongozga nga ni [[mazgu ghakupokera|mazgu ghakupokera]]. Mwachiyelezgero, mazgu gha mu [[Chiyapani]] nga ''[[geisha]]'' na ''[[samurai]]'', kweniso lizgu la mu [[Chifini]] lakuti ''[[sauna]]'', ghakugwiliskirika ntchito mu viyowoyero vinandi vya ku Western Europe, ndipo ntheura ghali mu Interlingua. Mwakuyana waka, lizgu la mu [[Chiyowoyero cha Guugu Yimithirr|Guugu Yimithirr]] lakuti ''gangurru'' likugwiliskirika ntchito mu mtundu wakasintha kufuma ku Chilatini (Interlingua: {{Lang|ia|kanguru}}, Chingelezi: ''[[kangaroo]]'').{{sfn|Gode|1971|loc=Introduction}} Awo ŵakusunga na kulongozga Interlingua ŵakuyezgayezga kuti galamala ya chiyowoyero ichi yiŵe yipusu ndipo kupanga mazgu kuŵe kwakuyana, ndipo ŵakugwiliskira ntchito mizi yichoko waka ya mazgu na viwangwa vya mazgu. Ichi chikukhumba kuti chiyowoyero ichi chiŵe chakusambira mwaluŵiro.{{sfn|Morris|1945}} == Mbiri == Mwanakazi wakukhala na usambazi wa ku America, [[Alice Vanderbilt Morris]] (1874–1950), wakamba kunweka na [[vyakusambira vya viyowoyero|masambiro gha viyowoyero]] na gulu la ŵanthu awo ŵakakhumbanga kupanga [[chiyowoyero chakovwira chapadziko chose|chiyowoyero chakovwira chapadziko chose]] mu vyaka vya m'ma 1920. Mu 1924, Morris na mfumu wake, [[Dave Hennen Morris]], ŵakakhazikiska bungwe la kusapota ŵanthu wose la [[International Auxiliary Language Association]] (IALA) mu [[New York City]]. Chilato chawo chikaŵa chakuti kafukufuku wa viyowoyero vyakovwira chapadziko chose waŵe pa maziko ghakukhora gha sayansi. Morris wakapanga pulogiramu ya kafukufuku ya IALA pamoza na [[Edward Sapir]], [[William Edward Collinson]], na [[Otto Jespersen]].{{sfn|Falk|1995}} Kafukufuku pa suzgo la viyowoyero vyakovwira wakachitikanga kale ku International Research Council, American Council on Education, American Council of Learned Societies, mabungwe gha sayansi gha ku Britain, France, Italy, na America, kweniso magulu ghanyake gha ŵakumanya vinandi. Morris wakakhazikiska IALA kuti yilutilire ntchito iyi.{{sfn|Bray|1971|loc=Foreword}} === International Auxiliary Language Association === IALA likazgoka gulu likuru ilo likawovwiranga masambiro gha viyowoyero mu America. Kafukufuku munandi wakachitika na Sapir, Collinson, na [[Morris Swadesh]] mu vyaka vya m'ma 1930 na 1940, ndipo ndalama zake zikafuma ku IALA. Alice Morris wakawovwirapo pa kusintha kwa kafukufuku uyu ndipo wakapeleka chovwiro chikuru cha ndalama ku IALA.{{sfn|Bray|1971|loc=Foreword}} Mwachiyelezgero, Morris wakasintha kafukufuku wa Sapir na Morris Swadesh wa mu 1932 uyo wakayerekezganga umo viyowoyero vikupangira mazgu ghaumaliro, kweniso kafukufuku wa Collinson wa mu 1937 pa nkhani ya kulongora. IALA likapokeraso chovwiro kufuma ku magulu nga ni [[Carnegie Corporation]], [[Ford Foundation]], [[Research Corporation]], na [[Rockefeller Foundation]].{{sfn|Gopsill|Sexton|2006a}}{{sfn|Gopsill|1990}} Mu vyaka vyakwamba, IALA likaghanaghananga ntchito zitatu zikuru: * kusanga mabungwe ghanyake pa charu chose agho ghakaŵa na vilato vyakuyana; * kuzenga laibulare ya mabuku ghakukhwaskana na viyowoyero na [[interlinguistics|kafukufuku wa umo viyowoyero vikukolerana]]; * kwendeska kuyerekezgera kwa viyowoyero vyakovwira ivyo vikaŵapo kale, kusazgapo [[Esperanto]], [[Esperanto II]], [[Ido (chiyowoyero)|Ido]], [[Latino sine flexione|Interlingua ya Peano]] (Latino sine flexione), [[Novial]], na [[Interlingue]] (Occidental). Pakukhumba kufiska chilato chakumalizga ichi, IALA likachita kafukufuku wakuyana pa viyowoyero ivi, pamoza na kuyerekezgera na viyowoyero vya mitundu.{{sfn|Bray|1971|loc=Foreword}} == Ŵanthu awo ŵakuyowoya Interlingua == Ntchakumanyikwa yayi unandi wa ŵanthu awo ŵakumanya na kugwiliskira ntchito Interlingua mwakukhazikika.{{sfn|Gopsill|1990}} Viyowoyero vinandi ivyo vikapangika na ŵanthu (kusazgapo ivyo ni vya kupangika) padera pa [[Esperanto]] vili na ŵayowoyi ŵachoko chomene.{{sfn|Gopsill|1990|p=46}} Mu kalembero ka ŵanthu ku Hungary mu 2001, ako kakafumbanga vya viyowoyero ivyo ŵanthu ŵakuyowoya, ŵanthu ŵaŵiri pera mu charu chose cha Hungary ndiwo ŵakati ŵakuyowoya Interlingua.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nepszamlalas2001.hu/hun/kotetek/18/tables/load2_39_1.html|title=18. Demográfiai adatok – Központi Statisztikai Hivatal|website=www.nepszamlalas2001.hu|lang=hu|trans-title=Demographic Data – Central Statistical Office|access-date=2025-01-16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180617000434/http://www.nepszamlalas2001.hu/hun/kotetek/18/tables/load2_39_1.html |archive-date=2018-06-17|url-status=live}}</ref> Ŵakukhozgera Interlingua ŵakuti chandulo chikuru cha chiyowoyero ichi ntchakuti ndicho chingamanyikwa chomene pakati pa [[chiyowoyero chakovwira chapadziko chose|viyowoyero vyakovwira chapadziko chose]], padera pa [[Latino sine flexione|Interlingua (IL) de A.p.I.]],{{sfn|Blandino|1989}} chifukwa cha galamala na mazgu ghake agho ghakuyana na viyowoyero vya chilengedwe (mwakupambana na viyowoyero vyakulongosoreka mwadongosolo). Ichi chikovwira ŵanthu awo ŵakumanya chiyowoyero chilichose cha mu gulu la [[viyowoyero vya Romance]] na ŵakuyowoya Chingelezi awo ŵali na masambiro ghapachanya kuti ŵaŵazge na kupulikiska Interlingua kwambura kusambira dankha.{{sfn|Blandino|1989}} Masamba gha pa intaneti gha Interlingua ghakusazgapo matembelo gha [[Wikipedia]] na Wiktionary, kweniso magazini ghanyake nga ni ''[[Panorama in Interlingua]]'' kufuma ku Union Mundial pro Interlingua (UMI). Pafupifupi vyaka viŵiri-viŵiri, UMI yikupanga ungano wa pa charu chose mu charu chakupambana. Mu chaka icho chili pakati pa maungano agha, mabungwe gha Interlingua gha ku Scandinavia ghakukolerana kupanga ungano ku Sweden, chifukwa pali ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakuyowoya Interlingua mu Scandinavia. Mabungwe gha mu vyaru nga ni Union Brazilian pro Interlingua nagho ghakupanga maungano nyengo zose.{{sfn|Breinstrup|2006c}} Interlingua yikusambizgika mu masukulu ghanyake gha sekondale na mayunivesite, nyengo zinyake nga nthowa yakovwilira ŵanthu kusambira viyowoyero vinyake mwaluŵiro, kupereka ulongozgi pa nkhani ya [[interlinguistics|kafukufuku wa viyowoyero vyapakati]], panji kumanyiska mazgu gha pa charu chose.{{sfn|Breinstrup|2006c}}{{sfn|Stenström|1991a}}{{sfn|Stenström|1991b}} Mwachiyelezgero, kosi ya masabata ghaŵiri yikasambizgika ku [[University of Granada]] mu [[Spain]] mu 2007.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://canal.ugr.es/prensa-y-comunicacion/notas-de-prensa/curso-introduccion-a-la-interlinguistica-interlingua-hablado-y-escrito/|title=Curso «Introducción a la Interlingüística. Interlingua hablado y escrito»|lang=es|date=2007-11-07|website=Universidad de Granada|access-date=2025-01-16}}</ref> == Kalembero == Interlingua wali na [[kalembero]] iyo yikuyana chomene na umo mazgu ghakuyowoyekera. === Alfabeti ya Interlingua === Interlingua yikugwiliskira ntchito malembo 26 gha [[ISO basic Latin alphabet|alfabeti ya Chilatini ya ISO]], kwambura [[diacritic|vimanyikwiro vya malembo]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.omniglot.com/writing/interlingua.htm|title=Interlingua Alphabet|website=Omniglot|access-date=2025-01-16}}</ref> Alfabeti iyi, umo malembo ghakuyowoyekera mu [[International Phonetic Alphabet|alfabeti ya mazgu ya charu chose (IPA)]], kweniso mazina gha malembo mu Interlingua ni agha: {| class="wikitable" |+ Alfabeti ya Interlingua ! Nambara ||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||10||11||12||13||14||15||16||17||18||19||20||21||22||23||24||25||26 |- |''Malembo ([[malembo ghakuru]])''|| A || B || C || D || E || F || G || H || I || J || K || L || M || N || O || P || Q || R || S || T || U || V || W || X || Y || Z |- |''Malembo ([[malembo ghachoko]])''|| a || b || c || d || e || f || g || h || i || j || k || l || m || n || o || p || q || r || s || t || u || v || w || x || y || z |- |''[[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]''|| {{IPA link|a}} || {{IPA link|b}} || {{IPA link|k}}, {{IPA link|t͡s}}~{{IPA link|t͡ʃ}} || {{IPA link|d}} || {{IPA link|e}} || {{IPA link|f}} || {{IPA link|ɡ}} || {{IPA link|h}}~{{IPA link|∅}} || {{IPA link|i}} || {{IPA link|ʒ}} || {{IPA link|k}} || {{IPA link|l}} || {{IPA link|m}} || {{IPA link|n}} || {{IPA link|o}} || {{IPA link|p}} || {{IPA link|k}} || {{IPA link|r}} || {{IPA link|s}}~{{IPA link|z}} || {{IPA link|t}} || {{IPA link|u}} || {{IPA link|v}} || {{IPA link|w}}~{{IPA link|v}} || {{IPA link|k}}{{IPA link|s}} || {{IPA link|i}} || {{IPA link|z}} |- |''Mazina''|| a || be || ce || de || e || ef || ge || ha || i || jota || ka || el || em || en || o || pe || cu || er || es || te || u || ve || duple ve || ix || ypsilon || zeta |} {{Notelist}} === Kalembero wakunjilirapo === Buku lakuti ''Grammar of Interlingua'' likulongosora mu chigaŵa 15 za "kalembero wakunjilirapo" (collateral orthography), uyo wakulongosora umo lizgu likwenera kulembekera mu Interlingua para likasinthika na kunjira mu chiyowoyero ichi kwambura kughanaghanira chomene uko lizgu likafumira.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://adoneilson.com/int/gi/spell/collat.html|title=''Grammar of Interlingua''}}</ref> == Mazgu gha Interlingua (Phonology) == [[File:Vocabulario scientific international.ogg|thumb|Interlingua yakuyowoyeka]] Interlingua ni chiyowoyero icho chikugwiliskirika chomene pakulemba, ndipo umo mazgu ghakuyowoyekera kuti ghali wuli chikupulikikwa mwakuyana yayi pakati pa ŵayowoyi wose. Mazgu agho ghali mu mabokosi ( ) ghakugwiliskirika ntchito yayi na ŵayowoyi wose. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center" |- ! ! colspan="2" | [[Mazgu gha milomo|gha milomo]] ! colspan="2" | [[Mazgu gha mu zino|gha mu zino]] ! colspan="2" | [[Mazgu gha kuseri kwa zino|gha kuseri kwa zino]] ! [[Mazgu gha pakatikati pa kamwa|gha pakatikati]] ! colspan="2" | [[Mazgu gha mu mmero|gha mu mmero]] ! [[Mazgu gha mu khosi|gha mu khosi]] |- ! [[Mazgu gha mphuno|Mazgu gha mphuno]] | colspan="2"| {{IPA link|m}} | colspan="2" | {{IPA link|n}} | colspan="2"| | | colspan="2"| | |- ! [[Mazgu gha kujambuka mphepo|Mazgu gha kujambuka mphepo]] | {{IPA link|p}} || {{IPA link|b}} | {{IPA link|t}} || {{IPA link|d}} | colspan="2"| | | {{IPA link|k}} || {{IPA link|ɡ}} | |- ! [[Mazgu gha kusazga|Mazgu gha kusazga]] | colspan="2"| | colspan="3"| ({{IPA link|ts}} ~ {{IPA link|tʃ}}) | rowspan=2| ({{IPA link|d}}){{IPA link|ʒ}} | | colspan="2"| | |- ! [[Mazgu gha kusisita|Mazgu gha kusisita]] | {{IPA link|f}} || {{IPA link|v}} | {{IPA link|s}} || {{IPA link|z}} | {{IPA link|ʃ}} ||| | colspan="2"| | ({{IPA link|h}}) |- ! [[Mazgu gha kuyandikira|Mazgu gha kuyandikira]] | colspan="2"| | colspan="2"|{{IPA link|l}} | colspan="2"| | {{IPA link|j}} | colspan="2"|{{IPA link|w}} | |- ! [[Mazgu gha r|Mazgu gha r]] | colspan="2"| | colspan="2"|{{IPA link|r}} | colspan="2"| | | colspan="2"| | |} {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center" |- ! ! [[Lizgu lakudanga|lakudanga]] ! [[Lizgu lakubwelera|lakubwelera]] |- ! [[Lizgu lakufupi|Lakufupi]] | {{IPA link|i}} | {{IPA link|u}} |- ! [[Lizgu lakatikati|Lakati]] | {{IPA link|e}} | {{IPA link|o}} |- ! [[Lizgu lakujuruka|Lakujuruka]] | colspan=2|{{IPA link|a}} |} === Umo mazgu ghakuyowoyekera === Mu nyengo zinandi, [[konsonanti|makonsonanti]] mu Interlingua ghakuyowoyeka nga umo ghakuyowoyekera mu Chingelezi, apo [[vowel|mavawelo]] ghakuyana na gha mu Chisipanishi. Malembo ghaŵiri ghakuyana agho ghali pamoza ghangayowoyeka nga ni lizgu limoza mu Chingelezi panji Chifurenchi, kweni ghangayowoyekaso nga ni mu Chitaliyana kuti ghapulikikwe makora. Interlingua wali na [[diphthong|mazgu gha mavawelo ghaŵiri]] ghakukhilira, agho ni {{IPA|/ai/, /au/, /ei/, /eu/}}, na {{IPA|/oi/}}.{{sfn|Gopsill|1994}} Kweni {{IPA|/ei/}} na {{IPA|/oi/}} ghakuwoneka mwachoko. === Kukanika kwa mazgu (Stress) === Dango likuru ndakuti kukankha kwa lizgu kukuŵa pa wawelo iyo yili panthazi pa konsonanti yakumalizga. Viyelezgero: * {{lang|ia|l'''i'''ngua}} — "chiyowoyero" * {{lang|ia|ess'''e'''r}} — "kuŵa" * {{lang|ia|requirim'''e'''nto}} — "chakukhumbikwa" Mu mazgu gha unandi, lizgu lakumalizga {{lang|ia|-(e)s}} likuleka kupulikikwa pa nkhani ya kukankha. Mwachiyelezgero, {{lang|ia|l'''i'''nguas}} likukankha malo ghamoza nga ni {{lang|ia|lingua}}. Usange dango ili lingaleka kugwira ntchito, kukankha kukuŵa pa wawelo yakwamba. Pali vyakuleka vichoko: * Mazgu gha zina panji chivumbuzi agho ghamalira na wawelo pamaso pa {{lang|ia|-le}}, {{lang|ia|-ne}}, panji {{lang|ia|-re}} ghakukankha pa silabi yachitatu kufuma kumaliro. * Mazgu agho ghamalira na {{lang|ia|-ica/-ico}}, {{lang|ia|-ide/-ido}}, na {{lang|ia|-ula/-ulo}} ghakukankha pa silabi yachitatu kufuma kumaliro. * Mazgu agho ghamalira na {{lang|ia|-ic}} ghakukankha pa silabi yachiŵiri kufuma kumaliro. Ŵayowoyi ŵangayowoya mazgu ghose mwakugwiliskira ntchito dango likuru. Mwachiyelezgero, {{lang|ia|kilom'''e'''tro}} ntchakuzomerezgeka, nangauli {{lang|ia|kil'''o'''metro}} ndiko kukuyowoyeka chomene.{{sfn|Gode|Blair|1955}} === Umo mazgu ghakupangikira (Phonotactics) === Interlingua yilije malango ghakulongosoreka chomene pa umo mazgu ghakukhalira pamoza. Kweni nthowa iyo mazgu gha Interlingua ghakusankhikira, iyo yikukhumba kuti mazgu ghaŵe gha pa charu chose, yikupangiska kuti mazgu ghanyake ghaŵe ghapusu kuyowoya kwa ŵasambiri ŵanandi. Para mazgu ghaphya ghapangika, nyengo zinyake mathero ghakuzomerezgeka yayi kusazgikapo kwambura kusintha kanthu. Chiyerezgero ntchakuti mathero gha unandi {{lang|ia|-s}} nyengo zose ghakwamba na wawelo kuti ghaleke kupanga gulu la makonsonanti ilo ntchakusuzga kuyowoya. Usange lizgu la umodzi likumalira pa konsonanti, {{lang|ia|-s}} wakumalira wakusintha kuŵa {{lang|ia|-es}}. === Mazgu ghakubwereka === [[Mazgu ghakubwereka|Mazgu ghakubwereka]] kufuma ku viyowoyero vinyake agho ghandasintheke ghakulembeka umo ghali kulembekera mu chiyowoyero chawo chakufumirako. Malembo ghangaŵa na [[vimanyikwiro vya malembo|vimanyikwiro vya malembo]] panji vimanyikwiro vya kukankha. Usange vimanyikwiro ivi vikusintha yayi umo lizgu likuyowoyekera, vikuchotskeka.{{sfn|Gode|1971|loc=Introduction}} == Mazgu gha chiyowoyero == Awo ŵakulongozga chiyowoyero cha Interlingua ŵakusora mazgu chifukwa cha umo ghakusangikira na umo ghakugwilira ntchito mu viyowoyero ivyo vikucemeka viyowoyero vyakupima. Ivi ni [[Chisipanishi|Spanish]], [[Chipwitikizi|Portuguese]], [[Chitaliyana|Italian]], [[Chifurenchi|French]], na [[Chingelezi|English]], apo [[Chijeremani|German]] na [[Chirashiya|Russian]] vikucemeka viyowoyero vyakusazgirapo. Mazgu gha Interlingua ghangaŵa ghakufuma ku chiyowoyero chilichose para ghali kufalikira mu viyowoyero vyakupima ivi.{{sfn|Morris|1945}} Spanish na Portuguese, ivyo vyose ni viyowoyero vya ku Iberia, vikupimika nga ni chigaŵa chimoza. Mazgu ghanandi gha Interlingua ghakufuma ku [[Chilatini|Latin]], apo [[Chigiriki|Greek]] na [[viyowoyero vya Chijeremani|Germanic languages]] ndivyo vikupanga mazgu ghanandi ghakwamba na ghaŵiri. Mazgu ghanyake ghakufuma ku [[viyowoyero vya Chisilavo|Slavic languages]] na viyowoyero ivyo ni vyakuleka ku Indo-European.{{sfn|Gode|1971|loc=Introduction}} === Umo mazgu ghakuzomerezgeka === Lizgu, ilo ni mazgu ghenecho agho ghali na ng'anamuro, likuzomerezgeka kuŵa mu mazgu gha Interlingua para likusangika mu vinyake vitatu vya viyowoyero vinayi vyakwamba. Chiyowoyero chilichose chachiŵiri chinganjira mu malo mwa chimoza cha viyowoyero vyakwamba. Lizgu lililose la chiyowoyero cha Indo-European ilo likusangika mu chiyowoyero chakupima lingawovwira kuti lizomerezgeke kuŵa lizgu la pa charu chose.{{sfn|Stillman|Gode von Aesch|1943}} Mu nyengo zinyake, kuŵapo kwa lizgu lakale chomene panji ilo lingawoneka kuti lingazgoka lizgu la sono kungawovwira kuti lizomerezgeke. Lizgu lingawoneka kuti lili mu chiyowoyero para lizgu lakufuma kwa ilo lilipo, kweni lizgu leneko palije. Mwachiyelezgero, lizgu la Chingelezi ''proximity'' likovwira pa lizgu la Interlingua {{lang|ia|proxime}}, ilo likung'anamura "pafupi". Ivi vikuzomerezgeka usange chiyowoyero chimoza panji vinandi vya kupima vili na lizgu lakwambilira ili, ndipo viyowoyero vya Romance vyose vili nalo. Kweni mazgu ghakuŵikika mu Interlingua chifukwa cha kuŵa na mazgu ghakuyana mu viyowoyero vinandi pera yayi. Usange ng'anamuro la lizgu lasintha chomene mu nyengo, lizgu ilo likupimika nga ndakupambana. Kweni usange ling'anamuro limoza panji ghanandi ghakhalilira, lizgu lingazomerezgeka mu Interlingua na ng'anamuro ilo lasungika.{{sfn|Stillman|Gode von Aesch|1943}} Para nthowa iyi yileka kusanga lizgu la pa charu chose, lizgu la chinthu chinyake likatoranga kufuma ku [[Chilatini|Latin]]. Ichi chikachitikanga waka na mazgu ghachoko gha vya galamala. === Kapangidwe ka mazgu === Kapangidwe ka lizgu la Interlingua kakuwoneka nga ni "mazgu gha pa charu chose" ghakuyana na mazgu ghanyake. Lizgu likwenera kuŵa lakusangika mwakawiro, kwambura kuŵa na vimanyikwiro vya chiyowoyero chimoza pera. Kweniso likwenera kulongora vinandi ivyo viyowoyero vyose ivyo vikovwira vili navyo. Ntheura, lizgu lingasintha kuŵa mitundu ya viyowoyero vinyake mwakugwiliskira ntchito vinthu vyakupambanapambana vya chiyowoyero chilichose. Para lizgu lili na mazgu ghanyake ghakufuma kwa ilo mu viyowoyero vyakwambilira, ubwezi wa kapangidwe kawo ukwenera kusungika. Mwachiyelezgero, lizgu la Interlingua la "nyengo" ni {{lang|ia|tempore}}, osati {{lang|ia|*tempus}} panji {{lang|ia|*tempo}}, chifukwa likukolerana na mazgu ghakufuma kwa ilo nga ni {{lang|ia|temporal}}.{{cite}} Vinthu vya chiyowoyero ivyo vikupangiska kupambana kwa mazgu vikukolerana na [[malango gha kusintha kwa mazgu|sound laws]] gha viyowoyero vyakupambanapambana. Mazgu agho ghapangika kanandi ghakuŵa pafupi chomene na umo mazgu ghakale ghakaŵira. Nyengo zinyake ghakuyana na [[Chilatini cha ŵanthu|Vulgar Latin]], kweni nyengo zinyake ghangaŵa gha sono.{{sfn|Stillman|Gode von Aesch|1943}} == Malango gha chiyowoyero == {{Main|malango gha chiyowoyero cha Interlingua}} Interlingua yikapangika mwakuleka vinthu vyose vya galamala ivyo vikusangika yayi mu chiyowoyero chilichose chimoza cha viyowoyero vyakwamba vyakupima. Ntheura, Interlingua yilije kukolerana kwa [[mazina na mazgu ghakulongosora|zina na lizgu lakulongosora]] mwakuyana na chibabiro, mulandu, panji unandi (nga umo viliri mu Spanish na Portuguese {{lang|es|gatas negras}} panji Italian {{lang|it|gatte nere}}, "ŵamphaka ŵanakazi ŵakufipa"), chifukwa ichi chilije mu Chingelezi. Kweniso yilije nyengo za viliwiro vya vitenzi (nga ni mu Chingelezi ''I am reading''), chifukwa izi zilije mu Chifurenchi. Kweni, Interlingua yikupambaniska mazina gha umoza na unandi chifukwa viyowoyero vyose vyakupima vili na kupambaniska uku.{{sfn|Gode|Blair|1955}} Pa nkhani ya viyowoyero vyakupima vyachiŵiri, Interlingua yili na mazgu ghakuŵika mazina (articles), mwakupambana na [[Chirashiya|Russian]]. Lizgu lakulongora chinthu chakumanyikwa {{lang|ia|le}} likusintha yayi, nga umo liliri mu Chingelezi ("the"). Mazina ghakuŵavya [[chibabiro cha galamala|jenda ya galamala]].{{sfn|Gode|Blair|1955}}{{sfn|Wilgenhof|1995}} Unandi wa mazina ukupangika mwa kusazgirapo ''-s'', panji ''-es'' para lizgu likumalira na konsonanti.{{sfn|Gode|Blair|1955}} [[Viimiliri vya munthu|Mazgu ghakuimilira ŵanthu]] ghali na mtundu umoza wa uyo wakuchita chinthu na mtundu umoza wa uyo wakupokera chinthu kweniso wa kujiremekezga. Mu munthu wachitatu, lizgu la kujiremekezga nyengo zose ni {{lang|ia|se}}.{{sfn|Gode|Blair|1955}}{{sfn|Wilgenhof|1995}} Vimiliri vinandi (adverbs) vikupangika mwakuzomerezgeka kufuma ku mazgu ghakulongosora (adjectives) mwa kusazgirapo {{lang|ia|-mente}}, panji {{lang|ia|-amente}} para lizgu likumalira na ''-c''. Ntheura, chingapangika chivimiliri kufuma ku lizgu lililose lakulongosora.{{sfn|Brauers|1975}} Vitenzi vili na kawonekero kamoza kwa ŵanthu wose ({{lang|ia|io vive}}, {{lang|ia|tu vive}}, {{lang|ia|illa vive}}, "ine nkhukhala", "iwe ukukhala", "iyo wakukhala"). [[Mubali wakulongora|Mubali wakulongora]] (indicative) ({{lang|ia|pare}}, "wakuwoneka") ukuyana waka na [[mubali wa malango|imperative]] ({{lang|ia|pare!}}, "woneka!"), ndipo palije mubali wa kukhumba panji kudumbiskana (subjunctive).{{sfn|Gode|Blair|1955}} Vitenzi vitatu vyakugwiliskirika ntchito kanandi vili na mitundu mifupi mu nyengo ya sono: * {{lang|ia|es}} kwa "ni", "ndine", "ndi"; * {{lang|ia|ha}} kwa "wali na", "ŵali na"; * {{lang|ia|va}} kwa "kwenda", "wakuluta". Pali mitundu yichoko ya vitenzi vyambura kulondezga malango wose, kweni yikugwiliskirika ntchito mwakawiro yayi.{{sfn|Wilgenhof|1995}} Pali nyengo zinayi zifupi za vitenzi: * sono; * yakale; * yamunthazi; * yakukhumbikwa (conditional). Kweniso pali nyengo zitatu zakupangika na kovwira: * yakale; * yamunthazi; * yakukhumbikwa. Kapangidwe ka nyengo izi kakugwiliskira ntchito lizgu lakovwira pamoza na mtundu wakwamba wa chitenzi panji chigaŵa cha chitenzi chakale (mwachiyelezgero, {{lang|ia|Ille ha arrivate}}, "Iyo wafika").{{sfn|Gode|Blair|1955}} Nyengo zifupi na zakupangika zingasazgikana kuti zilonoske nyengo zakusuzga (mwachiyelezgero, {{lang|ia|Nos haberea morite}}, "Tikaŵa kuti tifikenge pa nyifwa"). Ndondomeko ya mazgu mu sentensi kanandi ni [[wakuchita–chitenzi–wakupokera|wakuchita–chitenzi–wakupokera chinthu]], kweni para pali lizgu lakwimira chinthu panji lakujiremekezga, likwiza pambere chitenzi ({{lang|ia|io les vide}}, "ine nkhuŵawona").{{sfn|Gode|Blair|1955}}{{sfn|Wilgenhof|1995}} Mazgu ghakulongosora (adjectives) ghangiza pambere panji pamanyuma pa zina ilo ghakulongosora, kweni kanandi ghakuŵa pamanyuma pake.{{sfn|Gode|Blair|1955}} Malo gha vimiliri (adverbs) mu sentensi ngakusintha-sintha kuyana na fundo ya ng'anamuro.{{sfn|Wilgenhof|1995}} Galamala ya Interlingua yikulongosoreka kuti yikuyana na galamala ya viyowoyero vya Romance, kweni yasazgikira kuŵa yipusu chomene, chomenechomene chifukwa cha chovwiro cha Chingelezi.{{sfn|Gode|Blair|1955}} Kafukufuku wa mu 1991 wakayowoya kuti galamala ya Interlingua yikuyana na magalamala ghapusu gha [[Chijapanizi|Japanese]] na chomenechomene [[Chichayina|Chinese]].{{sfn|Yeager|1991b}} F. P. Gopsill wakalemba kuti Interlingua yilije vinthu vyambura kulondezga malango, nangauli ''Interlingua Grammar'' ya Gode yikulongora kuti Interlingua yili na vinthu vichoko vyambura kulondezga malango.{{sfn|Gode|Blair|1955}}{{sfn|Gopsill|1994}} == Mivvimbi na vimanyikwiro == Nga umo viliri na [[Esperanto]], pali maghanoghano ghakupanga mbumba (flag) ya Interlingua. <ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20140416192338/https://www.fotw.info/flags/qy-ia.html Mivvimbi ya Interlingua (IALA)] kufuma ku fotw.net (nakusungika pa web)</ref> Maghanoghano gha wakung'anamura wa ku Czech, Karel Podrazil, ghakumanyikwa chomene pa malo gha pa intaneti agho ghali na viyowoyero vinandi. <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.airbagjacket.eu/jachetta_airbag.html |title=Toto super le airbag jachetta e gilet / jachetta e gilet con airbag (invento hungaro) - interlingua - All about Airbag Jacket and Airbag Vest |website=Airbagjacket.eu |access-date=2016-06-23}}</ref> Mbumba iyi yili na nyenyezi yituŵa ya mphingo zinayi iyo yikufika ku mphaka za mbumba ndipo yikupatura chigaŵa chapachanya cha buluu na chigaŵa chapasi chituŵa cha bofira. Nyenyezi iyi yikwimira vigaŵa vinayi vya charu (kumpoto, kumwera, kumafumiro gha dazi, na kumadzulo), apo vigaŵa viŵiri vya mbumba vikuyimira ŵanthu ŵakuyowoya viyowoyero vya Romance na ŵanthu ŵakuyowoya viyowoyero vinyake awo ŵakumanya kupulikana mu Interlingua. Chimanyikwiro chinyake cha Interlingua ni [[Blue Marble|Charu cha buluu (Blue Marble)]] chakuzingilizgika na nyenyezi 12 pa malo ghafipa panji gha buluu. Ichi chikukolerana na nyenyezi 12 za [[Mbumba ya ku Europe|mbumba ya Europe]] (chifukwa viyowoyero ivyo vikapangiska Interlingua vikufuma ku Europe). <gallery widths=200 heights=130> File:Bandiera de Interlingua.png|Mbumba yambura kuŵikika mwalamulo iyo kanandi yikuwoneka mu gulu la ŵakuyowoya Interlingua File:Flag of Interlingua.svg|Mbumba yambura kuŵikika mwalamulo ya Interlingua iyo Karel Podrazil wakapereka File:Bandiera de Interlingua.svg|Mbumba ya Interlingua iyo yikazomerezgeka mwalamulo pa chikumbusko cha vyaka 75<ref name="flag"/><ref name="flagspec"/> </gallery> === Malongosolero gha mbumba === [[File:Construction sheet for the flag of Interlingua.svg|thumb|Chithuzithuzi chakulongora umo mbumba ya Interlingua yikapangikira.]] Mbumba ya Interlingua ni chithuzithuzi cha makona ghanayi (rectangle) icho chiŵerengero cha utali na msinkhu wake ni 2:3, ndipo chigaŵa chitali chikuŵa chakutambalala. <ref name="flagspec" /> Mbumba iyi yili na mitundu yiŵiri: * azure (buluu); * gold (chikasu). Mitundu iyi yikulongosoreka na vinthu ivi: {| class="wikitable" style="background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px solid #aaaaaa; border-collapse: collapse; white-space: nowrap; text-align: left" width="60%" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" border="1" |- style="text-align: centre; background: #eee" ! !style="background:#003399"| <span style="color:#FFFFFF"> Buluu (Azure) </span> !style="background:#FFCC00"| Chikasu (Gold) |- | [[Pantone]] | Reflex Blue | Yellow |- | [[RGB color model|RGB]] | <code>#003399</code> | <code>#FFCC00</code> |- | [[CMYK]] | 100.80.0.0 | 0.21.100.0 |- |} Mbumba iyi yili na malo ghose gha buluu, ndipo pakati pali chithuzithuzi cha makona 8 icho chikupanga nyenyezi ya mphingo zinayi ya mtundu wa golide. Usange mbumba iyi yikulongoleka na utali wa 18 na msinkhu wa 12, chithuzithuzi cha pakati chikulongosoreka na manambara agha: [ ⟨0,6⟩ ⟨8,7⟩ ⟨9,12⟩ ⟨10,7⟩ ⟨18,6⟩ ⟨10,5⟩ ⟨9,0⟩ ⟨8,5⟩ ⟨0,6⟩ ]. == Mazuŵa gha vyakulembeka == <references/> == Mabuku na mabuku gha malemba == * {{Cite book |last=Blandino|first=Giovanni|year=1989|title=Philosophia del Cognoscentia e del Scientia|chapter=Le problema del linguas international auxiliari|lang=ia|publisher=[[Pontifical Lateran University|Pontificia Universitas Lateranensis]], [[Pontifical Urban University|Pontificia università urbaniana]]|location=Rome, Italy}} * {{cite book | last = Brauers | first = Karl | year = 1975| title = Grammatica synoptic de Interlingua | publisher = Editiones Interlingua | location = Morges, Switzerland }} * {{cite book |last=Bray |first=Mary Connell |editor=Alexander Gode |editor-link=Alexander Gode |chapter="Foreword" and "Acknowledgements"|title=Interlingua-English; A dictionary of the international language|url=http://www.bowks.net/worldlang/aux/b_IED.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071017122232/http://bowks.net/worldlang/aux/b_IED-foreword.html |archive-date=2007-10-17 |access-date=2010-04-18 |edition=Second|orig-year=1951|year=1971 |publisher=Frederick Ungar Publishing|location=[[New York City|New York]]|isbn=0-8044-0188-8|oclc=162319 |url-status=usurped}} * {{cite book|last=Breinstrup|first=Thomas|year=2006a|url=https://www.interlingua.com/archivos/Prefacio%20-%20Contento.pdf|title=Interlingua course for beginners|location=Bilthoven, Netherlands|publisher=Union Mundial pro Interlingua}} * {{cite web|last=Breinstrup|first=Thomas|date=2006b|url=https://www.interlingua.com/historia/publicationes/spectroscopia.htm|title=Un revolution in le mundo scientific|trans-title=A revolution in the scientific world|lang=ia|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190427122501/http://www.interlingua.com/historia/publicationes/spectroscopia.htm|archive-date=2019-04-27|url-status=live|access-date=2025-01-14|website=Historia de interlingua}} * {{cite web|last=Breinstrup|first=Thomas|date=2006c|orig-date=2001|url=https://www.interlingua.com/historia/diverse/50annos.htm|title=Interlingua: Forte, Fructuose, Futur|lang=ia|website=Historia de interlingua}} * {{cite web |first=Thomas|last=Breinstrup|editor-first1=Th.|editor-last1=Breinstrup |editor-first2=Ingvar|editor-last2=Stenström|editor-first3=Jesper |editor-last3=Olsson |year= 2006d |orig-year=2001 | url = https://www.interlingua.com/historia/biographias/blair.htm | title = Biographias: Hugh Edward Blair | website = Interlingua|lang = ia | access-date = 2025-01-15 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190428002611/http://www.interlingua.com/historia/biographias/blair.htm | archive-date= 2019-04-28 | url-status = live }} * {{cite web |editor-first1=Th.|editor-last1=Breinstrup|year= 2007 |orig-year=2001 |editor-first2=Ingvar|editor-last2=Stenström|editor-first3=Jesper |editor-last3=Olsson | url = https://www.interlingua.com/historia/biographias/stenstrom.htm | title = Biographias: Ingvar Stenström | website = Interlingua |lang = ia | access-date = 2025-01-15 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190426010638/http://www.interlingua.com/historia/biographias/stenstrom.htm | archive-date= 2019-04-26 | url-status = live }} * {{cite web |editor-first1=Th.|editor-last1=Breinstrup |editor-first2=Ingvar|editor-last2=Stenström|editor-first3=Jesper |editor-last3=Olsson | url = https://www.interlingua.com/historia/diverse/organisationes.htm | title = Portrait del organisationes de interlingua | website = Interlingua |year= 2009 |orig-year=2001 |lang = ia | access-date = 2025-01-15 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20061016165344/http://www.interlingua.com/historia/diverse/organisationes.htm | archive-date= 2006-10-16 | url-status = live }} * {{cite web |editor-first1=Th.|editor-last1=Breinstrup |editor-first2=Ingvar|editor-last2=Stenström|editor-first3=Jesper |editor-last3=Olsson |year= 2012 | url = https://www.interlingua.com/historia/biographias/gode.htm | title = Biographias: Alexander Gottfried Friedrich Gode-von Aesch | website = Interlingua|orig-year=2001 |lang = ia | access-date = 2025-01-15 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110514101324/http://www.interlingua.com/historia/biographias/gode.htm | archive-date= 2011-05-14 | url-status = live }} *{{cite journal|last=Falk|first=Julia S.|title=Words without grammar: Linguists and the international language movement in the United States|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_language-communication_1995-07_15_3/page/241|journal=Language and Communication|volume=15|issue=3|pages=241–259|publisher=Pergamon|year=1995|doi=10.1016/0271-5309(95)00010-N}} * {{cite book|last=Falk|first= Julia S.|title=Women, Language and Linguistics: Three American stories from the first half of the twentieth century.|publisher= Routledge|location=London & New York|year=1999}} * {{cite book|first=Sabine|last=Fiedler|editor-first1=Harald |editor-first2=Dmitrij |editor-first3=Peter |editor-first4=Neal R. |editor-last1=Burger |editor-last2=Dobrovol'Skij |editor-last3=Kühn |editor-last4=Norrick |year=2007|chapter=Phraseology in planned languages|title=Phraseology: Ein internationales Handbuch der zeitgenössischen Forschung|volume=2|publisher=De Gruyter Mouton|pages=779–788|doi=10.1515/9783110190762.779|isbn=978-3-11-019831-7 }} * {{cite book |last1=Gode|first1=Alexander|author-link=Alexander Gode|last2=Blair |first2=Hugh E. |author2-link=Hugh E. Blair|title=Interlingua; a grammar of the international language|url=https://archive.org/details/interlinguagramm00gode|access-date=2007-03-05|edition=Second|orig-year=1951|year=1955|publisher=Frederick Ungar Publishing|location=[[New York City|New York]]|isbn=0-8044-0186-1|oclc=147452}} * {{cite book|last=Gopsill|first=Frank Peter|year=1990|title=International languages: a matter for Interlingua|publisher=British Interlingua Society|location=[[Sheffield]], [[England]]|isbn=0-9511695-6-4|oclc=27813762}} * {{cite book|last=Gopsill|first=Frank Peter|year=1994|title=Interlingua today: A course for beginners|publisher=British Interlingua Society|location=[[Sheffield]], [[England]]|isbn=9781898017011}} * {{cite web|last=Gopsill|first=Frank Peter|url=http://geocities.com/hkyson/directorio/interlinguistica/html/lehistoriahtml.htm|title=Le historia antenatal de Interlingua {{!}} 1951-1991|lang=ia|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091027145739/http://geocities.com/hkyson/directorio/interlinguistica/html/lehistoriahtml.htm|archive-date=2009-10-27|url-status=dead|access-date=2025-01-14}} * {{cite web|last1=Gopsill|first1=Frank Peter|last2=Sexton|first2=Brian|url=https://www.interlingua.com/historia/diverse/historia-1.htm|title=Le historia antenatal de Interlingua|lang=ia|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110514114352/http://www.interlingua.com/historia/diverse/historia-1.htm|archive-date=2011-05-14|url-status=live|access-date=2025-01-14|website=Historia de interlingua|date=2006a|orig-date=2001}} * {{cite web|last1=Gopsill|first1=Frank Peter|last2=Sexton|first2=Brian|url=https://www.interlingua.com/historia/diverse/historia-2.htm|title=Profunde recerca duce a un lingua|lang=ia|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221210152200/https://www.interlingua.com/historia/diverse/historia-2.htm|archive-date=2022-12-10|url-status=live|access-date=2025-01-14|website=Historia de interlingua|date=2006b|orig-date=2001}} * {{cite web|last1=Gopsill|first1=Frank Peter|last2=Sexton|first2=Brian|url=http://www.interlingua.com/historia/diverse/historia-3.htm|title=Le natura, si – un schema, no|lang=ia|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220412014242/https://www.interlingua.com/historia/diverse/historia-3.htm|archive-date=2022-04-12|url-status=live|access-date=2025-01-14|website=Historia de interlingua|date=2006c|orig-date=2001}} * {{cite book|author=International Auxiliary Language Association (IALA)|author-link=International Auxiliary Language Association |editor=Alexander Gode |editor-link=Alexander Gode |title=Interlingua-English; A dictionary of the international language|url=http://www.bowks.net/worldlang/aux/b_IED.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071227051537/http://www.bowks.net/worldlang/aux/b_IED.html |archive-date=2007-12-27 |access-date=2010-04-18 |edition=Second|orig-year=1951|year=1971 |publisher=Frederick Ungar Publishing|location=[[New York City|New York]] |isbn=0-8044-0188-8|oclc=162319 |url-status=usurped |ref=CITEREFGode1971}} * {{cite book|last=Morris|first=Alice Vanderbilt|author-link=Alice Vanderbilt Morris|url=http://www.interlingua.fi/ialagr45.htm|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20040702192153/http://www.interlingua.fi/ialagr45.htm|archive-date=2004-07-02|url-status=dead|title=International Auxiliary Language Association General Report 1945|publisher=International Auxiliary Language Association (IALA)|location=New York|year=1945}} * {{cite book|last=Pei|first=Mario|author-link=Mario Pei|title=One Language for the World and How To Achieve It|publisher= [[Devin-Adair Publishing Company|Devin-Adair]]|location= New York|year=1958}} * {{cite book|last1=Sexton|first1=Brian C.|last2= Wilgenhoff|first2=Karel|first3=F. Peter|last3=Gopsill|title=Supplementary Interlingua-English Dictionary|publisher=British Interlingua Society|location=Sheffield|year= 1991}} * {{cite book | last = Stenström | first = Ingvar | year = 1991a | chapter = The Interlingua of IALA: From "the linguists' project" of 1951 to the working "tool of international scientific communication" of 1981 | title = Interlinguistica e Interlingua: Discursos public per Ingvar Stenström e Leland B. Yeager | location = Beekbergen, Netherlands | publisher = Servicio de Libros UMI }} * {{cite book | last = Stenström | first = Ingvar | year = 1991b | chapter = Utilisation de Interlingua in le inseniamento de linguas | trans-chapter=Utilization of Interlingua in the teaching of languages | title = Interlinguistica e Interlingua: Discursos public per Ingvar Stenström e Leland B. Yeager | location = Beekbergen, Netherlands | publisher = Servicio de Libros UMI }} *{{cite book| last1 = Stillman | first1 = E. Clark | last2 = Gode von Aesch | first2 = Alexander | chapter = Le tres principios principal del standardization international in interlingua | language = ia | title = Interlinguistic standardization | location = New York | publisher = International Auxiliary Language Association | year = 1943 | url = https://www.interlingua.com/historia/publicationes/standardisation.htm | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080515131210/http://www.interlingua.com/historia/publicationes/standardisation.htm | archive-date= 2008-05-15 | url-status = live | pages = Articles 82–100 | translator-last= Mulaik | translator-first= Stanley A. | translator-link= Stanley A. Mulaik }} * {{cite web|author=Union Mundial pro Interlingua (UMI)|url=https://www.interlingua.com/historia/index.html |title=Interlingua 2001: communication sin frontieras durante 50 annos|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150422101259/http://www.interlingua.com/historia/index.html |archive-date=2015-04-22|url-status=live|access-date=2025-01-14|lang=ia }} * {{cite book | last = Wilgenhof | first = Karel | year = 1995 | title = Grammatica de Interlingua | publisher = Union Mundial pro Interlingua | location = Beekbergen, Netherlands}} * {{cite book|last=Yeager|first=Leland B.|author-link=Leland B. Yeager|year=1991a|title=Interlinguistica e Interlingua: Discursos public|publisher=Servicio de Libros UMI|location=Beekbergen, Netherlands|chapter=Le linguistica como reclamo pro Interlingua|trans-chapter=Linguistics as an advertisement for Interlingua|lang=ia}} * {{cite book | last = Yeager | first = Leland B.|author-link=Leland B. Yeager| year = 1991b | chapter = Artificialitate, ethnocentrismo, e le linguas oriental: Le caso de Interlingua |trans-chapter=Artificiality, ethnocentrism, and the Oriental languages: The case of Interlingua| title = Interlinguistica e Interlingua: Discursos public per Ingvar Stenström e Leland B. Yeager | location = Beekbergen, Netherlands | publisher = Servicio de Libros UMI}} {{Interlingua}}{{Constructed languages}} [[Category:Interlingua]] [[Category:Viyowoyero vyakupambanapambana| ]] [[Category:Viyowoyero vyakovwira vya pa charu chose]] [[Category:Viyowoyero vyakupangika]] [[Category:Viyowoyero vyakukolerana]] [[Category:Viyowoyero vyakupangika vikayambiskika mu vilimika vya m’ma 1950]] [[Category:1951 mazgu ghakwamba]] [[Category:Viyowoyero vya chitemwa]] qnko9evariiml5req7gyghuptnhoxk9 0 46619 119310 118609 2026-08-13T22:22:12Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260813sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 119310 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|General-purpose programming language}} {{Redirect|Chiyowoyero cha mapulongalamu cha C|Buku|Chiyowoyero cha mapulongalamu cha C}} {{Distinguish|C++|C Sharp (programming language){{!}}C#}} {{Use mdy dates|date=October 2024}} '''C''' (''yakuzunulika kuti'' {{IPAc-en|'|s|iː}}'' – nga ni chilembo [[c]]'')<ref>{{cite web |title=The name is based on, and pronounced like the letter C in the English alphabet |url=https://eng.ichacha.net/pronounce/the%20c%20programming%20language.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221117151137/https://eng.ichacha.net/pronounce/the%20c%20programming%20language.html |archive-date=November 17, 2022 |access-date=November 17, 2022 |website=the c programming language sound |publisher=English Chinese Dictionary |language=en-US}}</ref> ni [[general-purpose programming language|chiyowoyero cha mapulogalamu ya chilato chambula kukazikika]]. Likapangika mu 1970s na [[Dennis Ritchie]] ndipo yikulutilira kugwiliskirika nchito comene ndiposo kukhaska ŵanthu ŵanandi. Mu ka kwatiro, kaŵiro ka C kakulongora makora nkhongono za ma CPU. Likusanga nchito yakukhalilira mu vilemba vya udesi vya [[operating system|Ndondomeko Zilala]] (chomene-mene me ma [[Kernel (operating system)|kenele]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Munoz |first=Daniel |title=After All These Years, the World is Still Powered by C Programming {{!}} Toptal |url=https://www.toptal.com/c/after-all-these-years-the-world-is-still-powered-by-c-programming |access-date=June 15, 2024 |website=Toptal Engineering Blog}}</ref>), [[device driver|sigilo za makina]], na [[protocol stack|ndondomeko zidikanyi]], kweni kugwiliskira ntchito kwake mu [[application software|mapulogalamu gha chilato chikhazikiki]] kakukhila.<ref>{{cite web |date=August 9, 2016 |title=C Language Drops to Lowest Popularity Rating |url=https://www.developer.com/news/c-language-drops-to-lowest-popularity-rating/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220822225609/https://www.developer.com/news/c-language-drops-to-lowest-popularity-rating/ |archive-date=August 22, 2022 |access-date=August 1, 2022 |website=Developer.com |language=en-US}}</ref> C yikugwiriskirika nchito comene mu kazengekero ka makompyuta ivyo vikufuma ku ma [[supercomputer|makompyuta gha utana]] ghakuru nkhanira mpaka ma [[microcontroller]]s na [[embedded system]]s ghachoko chomene-mene. Nga chiyowoyelo cha ma pulogramu icho chikalondezgapo pa chiyowoyelo cha ma pulogramu cha [[B (programming language)|B]], C wakapangika pakwamba ku Bell Labs na Ritchie pakati pa 1972 na 1973 kuti ŵazenge vyakugwiriskira nchito ivyo vikugwira ntchito pa [[Unix]]. Likagwiriskirika nchito pa Kukhazikiskaso kenele ya Ndondomeko Yilala Ya Unix.<ref name="sigplan" /> Mu vilimika vya m’ma 1980, C wakamba kutchuka pachokopachoko. Icho chazgoka chimoza mwa viyowoyero ivyo vikugwiriskirika nchito chomene pakupanga mapulogiramu,<ref name="langpop">{{cite web |url=http://www.langpop.com/ |title=Programming Language Popularity |year=2009 |access-date=January 16, 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20090116080326/http://www.langpop.com/ |archive-date=January 16, 2009}}</ref><ref name="TIOBE-2009">{{cite web |url=http://www.tiobe.com/index.php/content/paperinfo/tpci/index.html | title=TIOBE Programming Community Index |year=2009 |access-date=May 6, 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20090504181627/http://www.tiobe.com/index.php/content/paperinfo/tpci/index.html |archive-date=May 4, 2009}}</ref> na [[compiler|msutuli]] wa C ukusangika pafupifupi pa mazengero gha makompyuta ghose gha mazuŵa ghano na Ndondomeko Zilala Zose. Buku la ''[[The C Programming Language]] (Chiyowoyero cha C)'', ilo likalembeka pamoza na uyo wakalemba chiyowoyero cha C pakwambilila penecho, yikateŵetera kwa vilimika vinandi nga ni muyezo wa ciyowoyero cha C chakufikapo.<ref name="ward198308">{{cite news |last=Ward |first=Terry A. |url=https://archive.org/stream/byte-magazine-1983-08/1983_08_BYTE_08-08_The_C_Language#page/n267/mode/2up |title=Annotated C / A Bibliography of the C Language |work=Byte |date=August 1983 |access-date=January 31, 2015 |pages=268}}</ref><ref name="C in a Nutshell" /> C yaŵikika pa mlingo kufuma mu 1989 na wupu wa [[American National Standards Institute]] (ANSI) na, mwakulondezgapo, mwakukolelana na ŵa [[International Organization for Standardization]] (ISO) na ŵa [[International Electrotechnical Commission]] (IEC). C ni chiyowoyero cha [[Imperative programming|Kulangula]] [[Procedural programming|mwandondomeko]], yakuzomela [[structured programming|kulemba ma pulogalamu ghakundandikwa]], [[lexical variable scope]], na [[Recursion (computer science)|Kawerezgawerezga]], pamoza na [[static type system|kalembero kambula kusintha (ka ma pulogalamu)]]. yikakwatika kuti yi [[compiled|sutulikenge]] kuti yipe chizomelezgo cha [[Low-level programming language|pafupi na pasi]] cha kukhwaska [[Computer memory|memore]] na mazengero gha viyowoyero ghakukolelana makola yene kwa [[machine instructions|malangulo gha makina]], vyose ivi na [[Runtime system|ufighiliro wa runtime]] wakukhira. Nangauli na nkhongono zake zapasi, chiyowoyero ichi chikapangika kuti chikhozgere mapulogiramu ghakupambanapambana. Pulogalamu ya C ya Kulondezga [[Specification (technical standard)|miyezgo]] yakulembeka na chirato cha [[Software portability|upusu wa kunyamulika]] yingasutulilika kuti yende pa ma pulatifomu ghakupambanapambana gha ma kompyuta na Ndondomeko Zilala nakusintha kudoko waka kwa malembero gha udesi ghakhe. Kwamba 2000, C nyengo zose yaŵa pakati pa viyowoyero vinayi vyapachanya na [[TIOBE index]], icho ntchipimo cha kutchuka kwa viyowoyero vyakupanga mapulogalamu.<ref>{{cite web|title=TIOBE Index for September 2024|url=https://www.tiobe.com/tiobe-index/|access-date=September 20, 2024|archive-date=September 18, 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240918165843/https://www.tiobe.com/tiobe-index/|url-status=live}}</ref> == Kuwoneseska mwakudumura == [[File:Ken n dennis.jpg|thumb|[[Dennis Ritchie]] (right), the inventor of the C programming language, with [[Ken Thompson]]]] C ni chiyowoyero cha [[Imperative programming|kulangura]], cha ndondomeko mu udawuko wa [[ALGOL]]. yili na [[type system|kalembero]] kambula kusintha. mu C, [[executable code|vilembero videsi vyakuthyeka]] vyose vikujalilika mu ma [[subroutine]]s (yakuchemekaso ma "function", kweni mu ka ng'anamuliro ka [[functional programming]] chara). [[Function parameter]]s ghakupizgika kwendela value, nangawuri ma [[Array (data type)|arrays]] ghakupizgika nga ma [[Pointer (computer programming)|pointer]], ndiko kuti keyala ya chinthu cha kwamba mu array iyo. ''Pass-by-reference'' yikutetezgeleka mu C pakupizga nkhanira-nkhanira ma pointer kwa chinthu icho chikupangika reference. Program source text ya C ni vilembo vya udesi vya [[Free-form language|free-form]]. Ma [[Semicolon]]s ghakutheleska ma [[Statement (programming)|statements]], apo ma [[curly braces]] ghakugwiliskika kugawa ma statements mu ma [[Block (programming)|blocks]]. Chiyowoyelo cha C chikulongolaso vimanyisko ivi: * Chiyowoyero ichi chili na nambara yichoko, yakukhazikika ya mazgu ghakuzirwa, kusazgapo gulu lose la ma [[control flow]] gha primitive: <code>[[Conditional (computer programming)|if/else]]</code>(panji nthe/pala apo cha), <code>[[For loop|for]]</code>(ya), <code>[[Do while loop|do/while]]</code>(chita nthe/pala), <code>[[While loop|while]]</code>(apo), na <code>[[Switch statement|switch]]</code>(sinthiska). Mazina ghakusoleka na wolemba yakupambaniskika yayi na mazgu ghakuzirwa gha C na mtundu uliwose wa sigil. * Lili na nambala yikuru ya luso-lakupenda, [[bitwise]], na ma operator gha logic * Ma [[Assignment (computer science)|assignment]] yakujumpha yimoza yangachitika mu statement ghamoza. * ma Function: ** Value ya Function yinga yingazelezgeka, para yikukhumbikwa yayi. ** Function na pointer ya yikuzomela [[run-time polymorphism]] ya ''ad hoc''. ** Functions vingalongosoreka yayi mu scope ya lexical ya ma functions yanyakhe. ** Ma Variable lingalongosoreka mukati mwa Function, pamoza na [[lexical variable scope|scope]]. ** Function yingajichema yekha, ntheura [[Recursion (computer science)|recursion]] yikufighililika. * Kulemba Data kuli kwa [[Static typing|static]], kweni [[Strong and weak typing|yikuchichizgika mwakufowoka]]; data yose yili na type, kweni ma [[implicit conversion]]s ghangaŵapo. * Ma types yakulongosoreka na mwene (typedef) na ya kusazga yanandi-yanandi yangachitika. ** Mitundu ya data yakusazgikira yakupambanapambana (struct) yikuzomerezga kuti vinthu vyakukhwaskana na data visangike na kugaŵika nga ni chigaŵa. Ivyo vili mu structs yose vingayaniskika yayi na kugwiliskira nchito opareshoni yimoza yakupangika (vinthu vikwenera kuyaniskika paŵekha). ** [[Union type|Union]] ni chizengero icho chili na viŵaro vyakukhwaskana; likuzomerezga mitundu yinandi ya data kuti yigaŵane malo ghamoza ghakukumbukira. ** ma [[Array (data type)|Array]] Enumerated types nga machitiko kwendela lizgo lakuzirwa la <code>enum</code>. Iwo ŵakusinthika mwawanangwa na manambara gha integer. ** ma [[Enumerated type]]s nga machitiko kwendela lizgo lakuzirwa la <code>enum</code>. Iwo ŵakusinthika mwawanangwa na manambara gha integer. ** ma [[String (computer science)|Strings]] ni ma data type payekha yayi, kweni [[C string handling|yakukhazikiskika]] nga [[Null-terminated string|null-terminated]] character arrays. * Kufika pa mlingo wapasi wa memory ya kompyuta nkhwamacitiko mwa kusintha maadiresi gha makina kuŵa ma pointer. * ma [[Procedure (computer science)|Procedures]] (ma subroutines agho ghakuwezga cha ma value) ni nkhani yapadera ya Fuction, na return type yambula kanthu ya <code>void</code>. * Memore [[Dynamic allocation|yingapika kwa]] pulogalamu kwendela ma calls kwa ma [[library routine]]s. * Preprocessor yikulongosora vinthu vikuruvikuru, kuŵikamo fayilo ya source code, na kuŵika vinthu pamoza. * Pali mtundu wakwamba wa modularity: mafayilo ghangapangika padera na kukolerana pamoza, na kulaŵilira ivyo vikuchitika na vinthu vya data ivyo vikuwoneka ku mafayilo ghanyake kwizira mu mikhaliro yakukhazikika na yakunja. * Ntchito zakusuzga nga ni I/O, kugwiliskira ntchito vingwe, na masamu vikupelekeka nyengo zose ku ndondomeko za layibulare. * Khodi ilo likupangika pamanyuma pa kuwunganya lili na vyakukhumbikwa vyambura kusuzga pa pulatifomu iyo yili pasi, ivyo vikupangiska kuti liŵe lakukwana pakupanga ndondomeko zakugwiliskira ntchito na kugwiliskira ntchito mu ndondomeko zakuŵikika. Nangauli C yikusazgapo yayi vinthu vinyake ivyo vikusangika mu viyowoyero vinyake. (nthe [[Object-oriented programming|object orientation]] na [[garbage collection (computer science)|garbage collection]]), ivi vingakwaniskika panji kuyezgeleka, kanandi kwizira mu kugwiliskira nchito malaibulale gha kuwaro (nthe [[GLib Object System]] panjiso [[Boehm garbage collector]]). === Ubale na viyowoyero vinyake === {{main|Mndandanda wa viyowoyero vya mu banja la C}} Viyowoyero vinandi vya pamanyuma vikabwereka mwaluŵiro panji mwambura kumanyikwa kufuma ku C, nthe [[C++]], [[C Sharp (programming language)|C#]], [[C shell]] ya Unix, [[D (programming language)|D]], [[Go (programming language)|Go]], [[Java (programming language)|Java]], [[JavaScript]] (kusazgapo [[JavaScript#transpilers|transpilers]]), [[Julia (programming language)|Julia]], [[Limbo (programming language)|Limbo]], [[LPC (programming language)|LPC]], [[Objective-C]], [[Perl]], [[PHP]], [[Python (programming language)|Python]], [[Ruby (programming language)|Ruby]], [[Rust (programming language)|Rust]], [[Swift (programming language)|Swift]], [[Verilog]] na [[SystemVerilog]] (viyowoyero vyakulongosora vya hardware).<ref name="vinsp" /> Viyowoyero ivi vyakopa vinandi mwa ma [[control structures]] yawo na vinyake mwa vyakuzirwa kufuma ku C. Ŵanandi ŵa iwo ŵakuwoneskaso kuti ŵakuyana chomene [[Syntax (programming languages)|malango gha kalembero]] na C, ndipo ŵakutemwa kuphatikizapo mazgu ghakumanyikwa na mazgu gha C na ndondomeko za mtundu wakubisika, viyerezgero vya data, na semantics ivyo vingaŵa vyakupambana comene. == Mbiri == === Kukwatika kwakwamba === {| class="wikitable floatright" style="margin-left: 1.5em;" |+Timeline of C language |- ! Year ! Informal<br />name ! Official<br />standard |- | 1972 | first release | {{N/A}} |- | 1978 | [[K&R C]] | {{N/A}} |- | 1989,<br />1990 | [[ANSI C]], C89,<br />ISO C, C90 | ANSI X3.159-1989<br />ISO/IEC 9899:1990 |- | 1999 | [[C99]], C9X | ISO/IEC 9899:1999 |- | 2011 | [[C11 (C standard revision)|C11]], C1X | ISO/IEC 9899:2011 |- | 2018 | [[C17 (C standard revision)|C17]], C18 | ISO/IEC 9899:2018 |- | 2024 | [[C23 (C standard revision)|C23]], C2X | ISO/IEC 9899:2024 |- | Future | [[#C2Y|C2Y]] | {{N/A}} |} Chiyambi cha C chikukolerana chomene na kupanga ndondomeko yakugwira ntchito Ndondomeko yilala ya [[Unix]], iyo yikakhazikiska pakwamba mu chiyowoyero cha [[assembly language|assembly]] pa [[PDP-7]] na [[Dennis Ritchie]] na [[Ken Thompson]], kusazgapo maghanoghano ghanandi kufuma ku ŵanyawo. Paumaliro, ŵakaghanaghana kuti ŵaŵike pulogiramu iyi ku [[PDP-11]]. Mtundu wakwamba wa PDP-11 wa Unix ukapangikaso mu chiyowoyero cha assembly.<ref name="sigplan" /> ==== B ==== {{main|B (programming language)}} Thompson wakakhumbanga chiyowoyero cha pulogiramu yakupangira vinthu vyakugwiriskira ntchito pa pulatifomu yiphya. Wakayezga dankha kulemba [[Fortran]] compiler, kweni mwaluŵiro wakaleka fundo iyi ndipo m’malo mwake wakapanga mtundu wakudumulika wa [[systems programming language]] yakuchekeka [[BCPL]]. ulongosora kwakuzomerezgeka kwa BCPL kukaŵako yayi pa nyengo iyo,<ref name="NFDsZ">{{cite web |url=https://www.lysator.liu.se/c/dmr-on-histories.html |first=Dennis |last=Ritchie |title=BCPL to B to C |website=lysator.liu.se |access-date=September 10, 2019 |archive-date=December 12, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191212221532/http://www.lysator.liu.se/c/dmr-on-histories.html |url-status=live }}</ref> andipo Thompson wakasintha mazgu ghake kuti ghaŵe ghambura ‘mazgu ghanandi’ ndiposo ghakuyana waka na [[ALGOL]] yakupepuka iyo yikumanyikwa kuti SMALGOL.<ref name="Ars">{{Cite web |last=Jensen |first=Richard |date=December 9, 2020 |title="A damn stupid thing to do"—the origins of C |url=https://arstechnica.com/features/2020/12/a-damn-stupid-thing-to-do-the-origins-of-c/ |access-date=March 28, 2022 |website=Ars Technica |language=en-us |archive-date=March 28, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220328143845/https://arstechnica.com/features/2020/12/a-damn-stupid-thing-to-do-the-origins-of-c/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Wakachema chakufumapo [[B (programming language)|''B'']],<ref name="sigplan" /> kuchilongosora kuti "BCPL semantics na mazgu ghanandi gha SMALGOL".<ref name=Ars /> Nge BCPL, B yikakaŵa na [[bootstrapping]] kuti viŵe vyambura kusuzga kutumizga ku makina ghaphya.<ref name=Ars /> Paumaliro, vipangizo vichoko waka vikalembeka mu B chifukwa vikaŵa vyakuchedwa chomene ndipo vikatondeka kusanga mwaŵi wa vinthu vya PDP-11 nga ni addressability ya [[byte]]. ==== B yiphya na C yakwamba ==== Mu 1971 Ritchie wakamba kusintha B, kuti wagwiriskirenge nchito vinthu vya PDP-11 yankhongono comene. Kuwonjezerapo kwakuzirwa kukaŵa mtundu wa data ya malembo. Wakacema ici kuti ''B Muphya'' (NB).<ref name=Ars /> Thompson wakamba kugwiliskira ntchito NB pakulemba kernel [[Research Unix|ya Unix]] kernel, ndipo ivyo wakakhumbanga vikapangiska kuti chiyowoyero chiŵe chiwemi.<ref name="Ars" /><ref name="unixport" /> Kufika mu 1972, mitundu yakusambazga yikasazgikira ku chiyowoyero cha NB: NB yikaŵa na magulu gha <code>int</code> na <code>char</code>. Pointers, luso la kupanga pointers ku mitundu yinyake, ma arrays gha mitundu yose, na mitundu iyo yikwenera kuwelera kufuma ku milimo vyose vikasazgikirapo. Ma arrays mukati mwa mazgu ghakazgoka vimanyikwiro. Ŵakalemba buku liphya lakuwunganya vinthu, ndipo chiyowoyero ichi chikasintha zina kuŵa C.<ref name=sigplan /> C compiler na vinyake ivyo vikapangika nayo vikasazgikika mu [[Version 2 Unix]], uwo ukumanyikwaso kuti [[Research Unix]].<ref name="QtqTh">{{cite tech report |first=M. D. |last=McIlroy |author-link=Doug McIlroy |year=1987 |url=http://www.cs.dartmouth.edu/~doug/reader.pdf |title=A Research Unix reader: annotated excerpts from the Programmer's Manual, 1971–1986 |series=CSTR |number=139 |institution=Bell Labs |format=PDF |page=10 |access-date=February 1, 2015 |archive-date=November 11, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171111151817/http://www.cs.dartmouth.edu/~doug/reader.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> ==== Kulembaso ma Zengero na kenero ya Unix ==== Pa [[Version 4 Unix]], iyo yikafumiskika mu Novembala 1973, [[Unix]] [[kernel (operating system)|kernel]] yikaŵikikaso mu uphya mu C.<ref name="sigplan" /> Pa nyengo iyi, chiyowoyero cha C chikaŵa kuti chasanga vinthu vinyake vyankhongono nga ni mitundu <code>struct</code>. [[C preprocessor|Preprocessor]] yikayambiskika mu 1973 pakuchichizga na [[Alan Snyder (computer scientist)|Alan Snyder]] ndiposo chifukwa cha kumanya kuti nthowa zakuŵikamo mafayilo izo zili mu BCPL na [[PL/I]]. Mtundu wake wakwamba uwo ukapelekeka ukaŵa waka na mafayilo na vinyake vyambura kusuzga vyakusintha: <code>#include</code> na <code>#define</code>. Pamanyuma pa nyengo yichoko waka, likasazgikirapo, chomenechomene na Mike Lesk ndipo pamanyuma na John Reiser, kuti ŵasazgireko macros na mphindano na kuwunganya kwakuzomerezgeka.<ref name="sigplan">{{harvtxt|Ritchie|1993}}</ref> Unix yikaŵa yimoza mwa ma kernel ghakwamba ghakugwiliskira ntchito mu chiyowoyero chinyake padera pa msonkhano . Vinthu ivyo vikachitika pakwamba vikusazgapo ndondomeko ya Multics (iyo yikalembeka mu PL/I ) na Pulogalamu Yakulongozga (MCP) ya Burroughs B5000 (iyo yikalembeka mu ALGOL ) mu 1961. Pafupifupi mu 1977, Ritchie na Stephen C. Johnson ŵakasinthaso vinthu vinyake kuti . chiyowoyero kuti chiwovwire kunyamulika kwa dongosolo la Unix. Johnson's Portable C Compiler ndiyo yikaŵa maziko ghakuŵika C pa mapulatifomu ghaphya.<ref name="unixport">{{cite journal |last1=Johnson |first1=S. C. |author-link1=Stephen C. Johnson |last2=Ritchie |first2=D. M. |author-link2=Dennis Ritchie |title=Portability of C Programs and the UNIX System |journal=Bell System Tech. J. |year=1978 |volume=57 |issue=6 |pages=2021–2048 |doi=10.1002/j.1538-7305.1978.tb02141.x |citeseerx=10.1.1.138.35 |s2cid=17510065 |issn = 0005-8580 }} (Note: The PDF is an OCR scan of the original, and contains a rendering of "IBM 370" as "IBM 310".)</ref> === K&R C ===<!--[[K&R C]] redirects here--> [[File:The C Programming Language, First Edition Cover (2).svg|thumb|240x240px|The cover of the book ''The C Programming Language'', first edition, by [[Brian Kernighan]] and [[Dennis Ritchie]]]] IMu 1978, Brian Kernighan na Dennis Ritchie ŵakasindikizga buku lakwamba la ''Chiyowoyero cha C'' .  Buku ili likamanyikwa kuti ''K&R kufuma ku vimanyikwiro vyakwamba vya awo ŵakalemba, ndipo likateŵetera kwa vilimika vinandi nga ni'' chiyowoyero chambura kumanyikwa . Mtundu wa C uwo ukulongosora ukuchemeka kuti " '''K&R C''' ". Pakuti iyi yikafumiskika mu 1978, sono yikuchemekaso kuti ''C78'' .  Buku lachiŵiri la  likulongosora vya ANSI C standard iyo yikapangika pamanyuma, iyo yikulongosoreka musi umu. ''K&R'' yikayambiska viyowoyero vinandi: * [[Laibulale ya I/O yakumanyikwa|Standard I/O library]] * <code>[[long int]]</code> mtundu wa data * <code>unsigned int</code> mtundu wa data * Compound assignment operators of the form <code>=''op''</code> (such as <code>=-</code>) were changed to the form <code>''op''=</code> (that is, <code>-=</code>) to remove the semantic ambiguity created by constructs such as <code>i=-10</code>, which had been interpreted as <code>i&nbsp;=-&nbsp;10</code> (decrement <code>i</code> by 10) instead of the possibly intended <code>i&nbsp;=&nbsp;-10</code> (let <code>i</code> be −10). Nangauli panyuma pakuti 1989 ANSI standard yalembeka, kwa vilimika vinandi K&R C yikaŵa kuti yichali kuwoneka kuti ni " lowest common denominator " iyo ŵakupanga mapulogiramu gha C ŵakajikanizganga para ŵakukhumba kunyamura chomene, chifukwa mabuku ghanandi ghakale ghakaŵa kuti ghachali kugwiliskirika ntchito, ndiposo chifukwa chakuti K&R yikalembeka makora . C khodi ingaŵa yakuzomerezgeka Standard C nayo. Mu mitundu yakwamba ya C, milimo pera iyo yikuweleska mitundu yinyake padera pa iyo <code>int</code>yikwenera kupharazgika usange yikugwiriskirika nchito pambere nchito yindalongosoreke; ntchito izo zikugwiriskirika nchito kwambura kupharazga dankha zikaŵa kuti zikuwelera mtundu <code>int</code>. Mwa chiyezgelelo: <syntaxhighlight lang="c"> long some_function(); /* This is a function declaration, so the compiler can know the name and return type of this function. */ /* int */ other_function(); /* Another function declaration. Because this is an early version of C, there is an implicit 'int' type here. A comment shows where the explicit 'int' type specifier would be required in later versions. */ /* int */ calling_function() /* This is a function definition, including the body of the code following in the { curly brackets }. Because no return type is specified, the function implicitly returns an 'int' in this early version of C. */ { long test1; register /* int */ test2; /* Again, note that 'int' is not required here. The 'int' type specifier */ /* in the comment would be required in later versions of C. */ /* The 'register' keyword indicates to the compiler that this variable should */ /* ideally be stored in a register as opposed to within the stack frame. */ test1 = some_function(); if (test1 > 1) test2 = 0; else test2 = other_function(); return test2; } </syntaxhighlight> Mtundu <code>int</code>wa vimanyikwiro ivyo vikuyowoyeka vingaŵa kuti vyalekeka mu K&R C, kweni vikukhumbikwa mu vigaŵa vyakulondezgapo. Pakuti vipharazgo vya ntchito vya K&R vikaŵavya uthenga uliwose wakukhwaskana na mphindano za ntchito, kuwoneseska kwa mtundu wa parameter ya ntchito kukachitika yayi, nangauli ŵanyake awo ŵakulemba mabuku ŵangapeleka uthenga wakuchenjezga usange ntchito ya ku malo ghawo yikachemeka na nambara yakubudika ya mphindano, panji usange yikuchemeka mwakupambanapambana ku ntchito yakuwalo . ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito manambara panji mitundu yakupambanapambana ya mphindano. Vipangizo vyapadera nga ni Unix's lint utility vikapangika ivyo (pakati pa vinyake) vingawona usange ntchito yikugwiriskirika nchito mwakuyana mu mafayilo ghanandi ghakufumapo. Mu vyaka ivyo vikalondezgapo panyuma pa kupharazgika kwa K&R C, vinthu vinandi vikasazgikira ku chiyowoyero ichi, ivyo vikakhozgeka na ŵakuwunganya kufuma ku AT&T (makamaka PCC  ) na ŵanyake awo ŵakaguliskanga. Vinthu ivi vikaŵa: * <code>[[void type|void]]</code> functions (i.e., function zambura value yakuwelera) * functions returning <code>[[Struct (C programming language)|struct]]</code> or <code>[[Union (computer science)|union]]</code> types (previously only a single pointer, integer or float could be returned) * [[Assignment (computer science)|assignment]] for <code>struct</code> data types * [[enumerated type]]s (kale, vilongosolero vya preprocessor vya mtengo wakukhazikika wa integer vikagwiriskirika nchito, mwachiyelezgero <code>#define GREEN 3</code>) Chiŵerengero chikuru cha kusazgirako na kusoŵa kwa mgwirizano pa layibulare yakumanyikwa , pamoza na kutchuka kwa chiyowoyero ndiposo kuti nanga mbakulemba Unix ŵakakwaniska yayi kukhazikiska makora mazgu gha K&R, vikapangiska kuti paŵe kukhumbikwa kwa kuŵika vinthu mwakuyana.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.cs.man.ac.uk/~pjj/cs211/c_rationale/node2.html |title=Rationale for American National Standard for Information Systems – Programming Language – C |access-date=July 17, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240717164722/https://www.cs.man.ac.uk/~pjj/cs211/c_rationale/node2.html |archive-date=July 17, 2024}}</ref> === ANSI C na ISO C === {{Main|ANSI C}} <!-- [[WP:NFCC]] violation: [[File:The C Programming Language cover.svg|thumb|240x240px|The cover of the book, ''[[The C Programming Language]]'', second edition by [[Brian Kernighan]] and [[Dennis Ritchie]] covering ANSI C]] --> Mu vilimika vya kumanyuma vya m’ma 1970 na 1980, mitundu ya C yikaŵikika pa ma computer ghakupambambana nthe [[mainframe computer]]s, [[minicomputer]]s, na [[microcomputer]]s, kusazgapo [[IBM PC]], apo ŵanthu ŵakamba kuyimanya chomene. Mu 1983, ŵa [[American National Standards Institute]] (ANSI) ŵakapanga komiti, X3J11, kuti yiŵikepo ndondomeko yakumanyikwa ya C. X3J11 yikakhazikika pa ndondomeko ya C pa kukhazikiska kwa Unix; kweni chigaŵa cha layibulare ya Unix C icho chikunyamulika yayi chikapelekeka ku [[IEEE]] [[working group]] 1003 kuti chiŵe maziko gha 1988 POSIX standard. Mu 1989, muyezo wa C ukazomerezgeka nga ni ANSI X3.159-1989 "Chiyowoyero cha C". Mtundu uwu wa chiyowoyero ichi kanandi ukuchemeka kuti ANSI C , Standard C, panji nyengo zinyake C89. Mu 1990, ANSI C standard (na kusintha kwa mawonekero) yikazomerezgeka na wupu wa pa charu chose (ISO) nga ni ISO / IEC 9899: 1990, iyo nyengo zinyake yikuchemeka C90. Ntheura, mazgu ghakuti "C89" na "C90" ghakung'anamura chiyowoyero chimoza cha pulogiramu. ANSI, nga ni mabungwe ghanyake ghakukhwaskana na malango gha charu, ghakupangaso yayi malango gha C paŵekha, kweni ghakulondezga malango gha C gha pa charu chose, agho ghakusungika na gulu la ntchito ISO / IEC JTC1 / SC22 / WG14. Kuzomerezga kwa charu chose kwa kusintha kwa ndondomeko ya pa charu chose kanandi kukuchitika mu chaka chimoza kufuma apo ISO yikasindikizgikira. Chimoza mwa vigaŵa vya ndondomeko ya C standardization chikaŵa chakuti ŵapange superset ya K&R C, kusazgapo vinthu vinandi ivyo vikayambiskika pamanyuma pake vyambura kumanyikwa. Komiti ya vipimo yikasazgaposo vinthu vinyake vinandi nga ni viyezgelero vya nchito (vyakubwereka kufuma ku C ++), <code>void</code>vimanyikwiro, wovwiri wa vimanyikwiro vya pa caru cose na malo , na kukhozga preprocessor. Nangauli mazgu ghakulembeka gha parameter declarations ghakasazgikirapo kuti ghaŵe na mtundu uwo ukugwiriskirika ncito mu C ++, K&R interface yikalutilira kuzomerezgeka, kuti yikolerane na source code iyo yikaŵapo. C89 yikukhozgeka na ŵakulemba C ŵasono, ndipo makhodi ghanandi gha mazuŵa ghano gha C ghakukhazikika pa iyo. Pulogalamu yiliyose iyo yikulembeka mu Standard C pera ndiposo kwambura kughanaghana kuti yikuthemba pa hardware yizamuchitika makora pa pulatifomu yiliyose iyo yili na C yakukolerana, mu mphaka ya vyakugwiriskira ntchito vyake. Kwambura kucenjera nthena, mapulogiramu ghangawunganya waka pa pulatifomu yinyake panji na munthu munyake uyo wakuwunganya, cifukwa ca, mwaciyelezgero, kugwiliskira nchito malaibulale ghambura kumanyikwa, nga ni malaibulale gha GUI , panji kuthemba pa mikhaliro ya munthu uyo ​​wakuwunganya panji pa pulatifomu nga ni . nga ni kukula kwa mitundu ya data na byte endianness. Mu ivi vingachitika vakuti khodi yikwenera kuŵikika pamoza na ŵakulemba awo ŵakulondezga malango panji ŵa K&R C, <code>__STDC__</code>macro yingagwiliskirika nchito kuti yigaŵire khodi mu vigaŵa vya Standard na K&R kuti yileke kugwiliskirika nchito pa K&R C-based compiler ya vinthu ivyo vikusangika mu Standard pera . C. Pamanyuma pa ndondomeko ya ANSI / ISO standardization, chiyowoyero cha C chikalutilira kuŵa chambura kusintha kwa vyaka vinandi. Mu 1995, kusintha kwa malango 1 ku 1990 C standard (ISO/IEC 9899/AMD1:1995, iyo yikumanyikwa mwambura kumanyikwa kuti C95) kukafumiskika, kuti ŵanozge vinyake na kusazgirako wovwiri ukuru ku vimanyikwiro vya pa caru cose.<ref name="NWUon">{{cite book |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |title=C Integrity |url=https://www.iso.org/standard/23909.html |publisher=International Organization for Standardization |date=March 30, 1995 |access-date=July 24, 2018 |archive-date=July 25, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180725033429/https://www.iso.org/standard/23909.html |url-status=live }}</ref> === C99 === {{Main|C99}} Muyezo wa C ukasinthikaso kuumaliro wa vilimika vya m'ma 1990, ndipo ukapangiska kuti ISO/IEC 9899:1999 yilembeke mu 1999, iyo yikuchemeka kuti " C99 ". Kufuma nyengo iyo, likasinthika katatu na Technical Corrigenda. C99 wakayambiska vinthu vinandi viphya, kusazgapo milimo ya mu mzere , mitundu yinandi yiphya ya data (kusazgapo <code>long long int</code>na <code>complex</code>mtundu wakuyimira manambara ghakusuzga ), ma array gha utali wakusinthasintha na ŵabali ŵa ma array ghakusinthasintha , wovwiri wakukhozga wa IEEE 754 floating point, wovwiri wa variadic macros (macros of variable ). arity ), na kukhozgera vyakuyowoya vya mzere umoza ivyo vikwamba na <code>//</code>, nga umo vikuŵira mu . BCPL panji C ++. Vinandi mwa vinthu ivi vikaŵa kuti vyaŵikika kale nga ni vyakuwonjezera mu ma C compilers ghanandi. C99 ndiyo yikukolerana chomene na C90, kweni yikukhozga chomene mu nthowa zinyake; makamaka, chipharazgo icho chikusoŵa mtundu wakulongosora <code>int</code>chilijeso mwachindunji. Macro yakumanyikwa <code>__STDC_VERSION__</code>yikulongosoreka na mtengo <code>199901L</code>kuti yilongore kuti wovwiri wa C99 ulipo. GCC , Solaris Studio , na ŵanyake awo ŵakulemba C sono ^{[ ''nyengo wuli?'' ]} vikovwira vinandi panji vyose ivyo vili mu C99. C compiler mu Microsoft Visual C++ , nangauli, wakugwiriskira ncito muyezo wa C89 na vigaŵa vya C99 ivyo vikukhumbikwa kuti vikolerane na C++11 . ^{[ ''vikukhumbikwira kusintha'' ]} Kusazgirapo apa, muyezo wa C99 ukukhumba wovwiri wa vimanyikwiro vyakugwiriskira ncito Unicode mu mtundu wa malembo ghakucimbira (mwaciyelezgero <code>\u0040</code>panji <code>\U0001f431</code>) ndipo ukuyowoya wovwiri wa mazina gha Unicode ghambura kupangika. === C11 === {{Main|C11 (C standard revision)}} Ntchito yikamba mu 2007 pa kusintha kunyake kwa C standard, iyo yikuchemeka mwambura kumanyikwa kuti "C1X" m'paka apo yikasindikizgika mwakuzomerezgeka na ISO / IEC 9899:2011 pa Disembala 8, 2011. Komiti ya C standards yikazomerezga malango ghakuchepeska kuzomerezga vinthu viphya ivyo vikaŵa kuti vindachitike . ŵayezgeka na kukhazikiska uko kulipo. C11 standard yikusazgapo vinthu vinandi viphya ku C na layibulare, kusazgapo mtundu wa generic macros, vigaŵa vyambura kumanyikwa, wovwiri wa Unicode wakunozga, ntchito za atomiki, kuŵika vingwe vinandi, na ntchito zakuwonera mphaka. Iwo ukupangiskaso kuti vigaŵa vinyake vya layibulare ya C99 iyo yilipo viŵe vyakusankha, ndipo vikupangiska kuti viŵe vyakukolerana na C ++. Macro yakumanyikwa <code>__STDC_VERSION__</code>yikulongosoreka kuti <code>201112L</code>yikulongora kuti wovwiri wa C11 ulipo. === C17 === {{Main|C17 (C standard revision)}} C17 ni zina lambura kumanyikwa la ISO / IEC 9899: 2018, ilo likumanyikwa na chiyowoyero cha C icho chikasindikizgika mu Juni 2018. Likulongosora yayi vinthu viphya vya chiyowoyero, likulongosora waka vyaukadaulo, na kulongosora ivyo vikubudika mu C11. Macro yakumanyikwa <code>__STDC_VERSION__</code>yikulongosoreka kuti <code>201710L</code>yikulongora kuti wovwiri wa C17 ulipo. === C23 === {{Main|C23 (C standard revision)}} C23 ni zina lambura kumanyikwa la chiyowoyero chikuru cha C chasono. Iwo ukamanyikwanga mwambura kumanyikwa kuti "C2X" kwizira mu kukura kwake kunandi. C23 yikasindikizgika mu Okutobala 2024 nga ni ISO / IEC 9899: 2024.  Macro yakumanyikwa <code>__STDC_VERSION__</code>yikulongosoreka kuti <code>202311L</code>yikulongora kuti wovwiri wa C23 ulipo. === C2Y === C2Y ni zina lambura kumanyikwa la chiyowoyero chikuru cha C, pamanyuma pa C23 (C2X), icho chikugomezga kuti chizamufumiskika pamanyuma mu vyaka khumi vya 2020, ntheura '2' mu "C2Y". Mundandanda wakwamba wa C2Y ukafumiskika mu Febuluwale 2024 nga ni N3220 na gulu lakugwira ntchito la ISO / IEC JTC1 / SC22 / WG14.<ref name="N3220">{{cite web |title=WG14-N3220 : Working Draft, C2y |url=https://www.open-std.org/jtc1/sc22/wg14/www/docs/n3220.pdf |website=open-std.org |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240226053735/https://www.open-std.org/jtc1/sc22/wg14/www/docs/n3220.pdf |archive-date=February 26, 2024 |date=February 21, 2024 |url-status=live}}</ref> === C ya Embedded === {{Main|Embedded C}} Mu mbiri, mapulogalamu gha C ghakuŵikika ghakukhumba kusazgirako kwambura kumanyikwa ku chiyowoyero cha C kuti ghawovwire vinthu vyakuziziswa nga ni masamu ghakukhazikika , mabanki ghanandi ghakupambanapambana ghakukumbukira , na ntchito zakwamba za I / O. Mu 2008, Komiti ya C Standards yikasindikizga lipoti la luso ilo likasazgirako chiyowoyero cha C  kuti limazge nkhani izi mwa kupereka fundo yakuyana kuti vyose ivyo vikugwiriskirika nchito vilondezgekenge. Likusazgapo vinthu vinandi ivyo vikusangika mu C wakumanyikwa yayi, nga ni masamu ghakukhazikika, malo gha adiresi ghakuchemeka, na adiresi ya I/O hardware. == Syntax == {{Main|C syntax}} C yina [[formal grammar|dango la kalembero]] yakuzomeleka yakukhazikika na Muyezo wa C.<ref name="h&s5e">{{cite book |last1=Harbison |first1=Samuel P. |title=C: A Reference Manual |last2=Steele |first2=Guy L. |publisher=[[Prentice Hall]] |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-13-089592-9 |edition=5th |location=[[Englewood Cliffs, NJ]] |author-link2=Guy L. Steele, Jr.}} Contains a [[Backus-Naur form|BNF]] grammar for C.</ref> Kumalizga kwa mizere kanandi nkhwakuzirwa yayi mu C; kweni, mphaka ya mzere yili na ng’anamuro pa nyengo ya preprocessing. Makomenti ghangawoneka pakati pa ma delimiters <code>/*</code> na <code>*/</code>, panjiso (kwamba C99) kulondezga <code>//</code> m’paka kuumaliro wa mzere. makomenti ghakukhozgeka na <code>/*</code> na <code>*/</code> ghaku ŵazgika yayi ndipo ndondomeko iyi ya ma characters yikung’anamulika yayi nga ma delimiters pala yasangika mukati mwa ma [[String literal|string]] panjiso ma character literal.{{sfnp|Kernighan|Ritchie|1988|p=192}} Mafayilo gha C source ghali na vipharazgo na vilongosolero vya ntchito. Malongosolero gha ntchito, nayo, ghali na vipharazgo na mazgu . Vipharazgo vikulongosora mitundu yiphya mwakugwiliskira nchito mazgu ghakuzirwa nga ni <code>struct</code>, <code>union</code>, na <code>enum</code>, panji kugaŵira mitundu ku ndipo panji kusunga malo ghakusungirako vyakusintha viphya, kanandi pakulemba mtundu uwo ukulondezgeka na zina la vyakusintha. Mazgu ghakuzirwa nga ni <code>char</code>na <code>int</code>kulongosora mitundu yakupangika. Vigaŵa vya khodi vikuŵikika mu vingwe ( <code>{</code>ndipo <code>}</code>, nyengo zinyake vikuchemeka "vingwe vyakukhota") kuti vichepeske kukura kwa vipharazgo na kugwira ntchito nga ni mazgu ghamoza gha vigaŵa vyakulongozga. Pakuŵa chiyowoyero chakukhumbikwa chomene, C wakugwiliskira ntchito ''mazgu'' kuti walongosore ivyo munthu wangachita. Mazgu agho ghakumanyikwa comene ni ''mazgu ghakuyowoya'' , agho ghali na mazgu agho ghakwenera kuyezgeka, ndipo ghakulondezgapo pakuŵa semicolon; nga ni chigaŵa cha kuwunika, milimo yingachemeka ndipo vyakusintha vikugaŵirika mitengo yiphya. Kuti musinthe umo mazgu ghakuchitikira mwakulondezganako, C wakupeleka mazgu ghanandi ghakulongozga-kulongozga agho ghakumanyikwa na mazgu ghakuzirwa ghakusungika. Mapulogalamu ghakupangika ghakovwirika na <code>if</code>... [ <code>else</code>] kuchitika kwakuzomerezgeka ndiposo na <code>do</code>... <code>while</code>, <code>while</code>, na <code>for</code>kuchitika mwakuwerezgawerezga (kuzungulira). Mazgu agha <code>for</code>ghali na mazgu ghakupambanapambana ghakwamba, kuyezga, na kuyambiskaso, ghanyake panji ghose ghangalekeka. <code>break</code>ndipo <code>continue</code>lingagwiriskikiya nchitu mukati mwa lupu. Break yikugwiriskirika nchito kuti yifumemo mu mazgu ghakujalira mkati ndipo kulutilira yikugwiriskirika nchito kuti yijumphe ku kuyambiskaso kwake. Paliso <code>goto</code>mazgu ghambura kupangika agho ghakugaŵika mwaluŵiro ku chimanyikwiro chakusankhika mukati mwa ntchito. <code>switch</code>wakusankha a <code>case</code>kuti wakomeke mwakuyana na mtengo wa mazgu gha integer. Kupambana na viyowoyero vinyake vinandi, control-flow yizamuwira ku viyowoyero vinyake <code>case</code>kupatulapo para yamara na a <code>break</code>. Mazgu ghangagwiliskira nchito mitundu yakupambanapambana ya vyakupangika ndipo ghangaŵa na mafoni ghakucemeka. Ndondomeko iyo mphindano za ntchito na operands ku ŵanandi awo ŵakugwira ntchito zikuwonekera zikumanyikwa yayi. Ma evaluation ghangaŵa kuti ghakunjilirapo. Kweni, vyose vyakukhwaskana na vyakuchitika (kusazgapo kusunga ku vyakusintha) vizamuchitika pambere " sequence point " yakulondezgapo yindakwane; fundo zakulondezgapo zikusazgapo umaliro wa mazgu ghakuyowoya ghaliyose, na kunjira na kuwelera kufuma ku foni ya ntchito yiliyose. Mfundo zakulondezganako zikuchitikaso pa nyengo ya kuwunika mazgu agho ghali na ŵanyake awo ŵakugwira ntchito ( <code>&&</code>, <code>||</code>, <code>?:</code>na awo ŵakugwira ntchito na koma ). Ici cikuzomerezga kuti ŵantu awo ŵakupanga mapulogiramu gha C ŵaŵikepo mtima comene kuti ŵasange vyakucitika vyakugomezgeka kuluska umo vikukhumbikwira ku viyowoyero vinyake vyakupangira mapulogiramu. Kernighan na Ritchie ŵakuti mu Mazgu ghakwamba gha ''Chiyowoyero cha C'' : "C, nga ni chiyowoyero chilichose, chili na viheni vyake. Ŵanyake awo ŵakugwira ntchito ŵali na fundo zambura kwenelera; vigaŵa vinyake vya mazgu vingaŵa viwemi."  C standard yikayezga yayi kunozga vinandi vya viheni ivi, chifukwa cha umo kusintha kwanthena uku kukukhwaskira mapulogalamu agho ghalipo kale. === Seti ya Character === Malembo ghakwamba gha C source character set ni nthe malemba agha: * Malembo gha Lowercase na uppercase gha [[ISO basic Latin alphabet]]: <code>a</code>–<code>z</code>, <code>A</code>–<code>Z</code> * vipendo vya Decimal: <code>0</code>–<code>9</code> * vilemba vyakubeka (Graphic characters): <code>! " # % & ' ( ) * + , - . / : ; < = > ? [ \ ] ^ _ { | } ~</code> * [[Whitespace character|malemba ghambula kubekeka (Whitespace characters)]]: ''[[Space (punctuation)|space]]'', ''[[horizontal tab]]'', ''[[vertical tab]]'', ''[[form feed]]'', ''[[newline]]'' Chimanyikwiro cha ''mzere uphya'' chikulongora umaliro wa mzere wa malembo; likwenera yayi kuyana na lizgu limoza leneco, nangauli kuti liŵe lakunozga C wakuliwona nthena. Malembo ghanyake ghakulembeka na ma byte ghanandi ghangaseŵezeskeka mu string literals , kweni ghakunyamulika yayi . Muyezo wasonosono wa C ( C11 ) ukuzomerezga kuti malembo gha Unicode gha vyaru vinandi ghaŵikike mwakunyamulika mukati mwa malembo gha C source mwa kugwiliskira nchito <code>\uXXXX</code>panji <code>\UXXXXXXXX</code>kuŵika makodi (apo <code>X</code>ghakulongora chilembo cha hexadecimal), nangauli chinthu ichi chindagwiriskike nchito chomene.{{update-inline|date=October 2024|reason=C11 superseded by C17 some years ago}} Mazgu ghakwamba gha C ghakukomeka ghali na malembo ghakuyana waka, pamoza na vithuzithuzi vya chenjezgo , backspace , na kuwelera kwa galimoto . Wovwiri wa nyengo yakuchimbira wa malembo ghakusazgikira wasazgikira na kusintha kulikose kwa muyezo wa C. === Mazgu ghakusungika === Mazgu agho ghakulondezgapo ghakulembeka na vilembo vichokovichoko. C89 ili na mazgu 32 ghakusungika, agho ghakumanyikwaso kuti ‘mazgu ghakuzirwa’, agho ghangagwiliskirika nchito yayi pa vinthu vinyake padera pa ivyo ghali kulongosoreka kale: {{div col|colwidth=13em}} * <code>auto</code> * <code>[[Break statement|break]]</code> * <code>case</code> * <code>char</code> * <code>[[const]]</code> * <code>[[Continue (keyword)|continue]]</code> * <code>default</code> * <code>do</code> * <code>[[Double-precision floating-point format|double]]</code> * <code>[[Conditional (computer programming)|else]]</code> * <code>[[Enumerated type|enum]]</code> * <code>[[extern]]</code> * <code>[[Floating-point arithmetic|float]]</code> * <code>[[For loop|for]]</code> * <code>[[goto]]</code> * <code>[[Conditional (computer programming)|if]]</code> * <code>[[Integer (computer science)|int]]</code> * <code>[[Long integer|long]]</code> * <code>[[Register (keyword)|register]]</code> * <code>[[Return statement|return]]</code> * <code>[[Short integer|short]]</code> * <code>[[Signed number representations|signed]]</code> * <code>[[sizeof]]</code> * <code>[[Static (keyword)|static]]</code> * <code>[[Struct (C programming language)|struct]]</code> * <code>[[Switch statement|switch]]</code> * <code>[[typedef]]</code> * <code>union</code> * <code>[[Signed number representations|unsigned]]</code> * <code>[[Void type|void]]</code> * <code>[[Volatile variable|volatile]]</code> * <code>[[While loop|while]]</code> {{div col end}} C89 ili na mazgu 32 ghakusungika, agho ghakumanyikwaso kuti ‘mazgu ghakuzirwa’, agho ghangagwiliskirika nchito yayi pa vinthu vinyake padera pa ivyo ghali kulongosoreka kale {{div col|colwidth=13em}} * <code>[[Inline function|inline]]</code> * <code>[[restrict]]</code> * <code>_Bool</code> ‡ * <code>[[Complex data type|_Complex]]</code> * <code>[[Complex data type|_Imaginary]]</code> {{div col end}} C11 wakasazgapo mazgu ghanyake ghankhondi na ghaŵiri ghakusungika:  (‡ yikulongora zina linyake lakulembera lizgu lakuzirwa la C23) {{div col|colwidth=13em}} * <code>_Alignas</code> ‡ * <code>_Alignof</code> ‡ * <code>_Atomic</code> * <code>_Generic</code> * <code>_Noreturn</code> * <code>_Static_assert</code> ‡ * <code>_Thread_local</code> ‡ {{div col end}} C23 wakasunga mazgu ghanyake khumi na ghankhondi: {{div col|colwidth=13em}} * <code>alignas</code> * <code>alignof</code> * <code>bool</code> * <code>constexpr</code> * <code>false</code> * <code>nullptr</code> * <code>static_assert</code> * <code>thread_local</code> * <code>true</code> * <code>typeof</code> * <code>typeof_unqual</code> * <code>_BitInt</code> * <code>_Decimal32</code> * <code>_Decimal64</code> * <code>_Decimal128</code> {{div col end}} Mazgu ghanandi agho ghasungika sonosono apa ghakwamba na mzere wakulembeka pasi ndipo pamanyuma pake pali chilembo chikuru, chifukwa vimanyikwiro vya fomu iyo vikasungika kale na C standard kuti vigwiriskike nchito waka na kukhazikiska. Pakuti source code ya pulogiramu iyo yilipo yikwenera yayi kugwiliskira nchito vimanyikwiro ivi, yingakhwaskika yayi apo C implementations yikwamba kukhozgera vigaŵa ivi vya chiyowoyero cha pulogiramu. Mitu yinyake yakumanyikwa yikulongosora mazgu ghakuyana waka gha vimanyikwiro vyakulembeka pasi. Mazgu ghanyake ghakasazgikirapo nga ni mazgu ghakuzirwa na malembo ghawo ghakumanyikwa mu C23 ndipo macros ghakuyana waka ghakafumiskikapo. Pambere C89, <code>entry</code>wakasungika nga ni lizgu lakuzirwa. Mu buku lawo lachiŵiri la ''The C Programming Language'' , ilo likulongosora ivyo vikamanyikwa kuti C89, Kernighan na Ritchie ŵakalemba kuti, "The ... [mazgu ghakuzirwa] <code>entry</code>, kale ghakasungika kweni ghakagwiriskirika nchito yayi, ghakusungikaso yayi." na " <code>entry</code>Lizgu lakuzirwa lakubabika wakufwa likufumiskikapo." === Ma Operators === {{Main|Operators in C and C++}} C supports a rich set of operators , iyo ni vimanyikwiro ivyo vikugwiriskirika nchito mukati mwa mazgu kuti vilongosore ivyo vikwenera kuchitika apo ŵakuwunika mazgu agha. C wali na Ma Operators agha: * [[arithmetic|kupenda]]: [[Addition|<code>+</code>]], [[Subtraction|<code>-</code>]], [[Multiplication|<code>*</code>]], [[Division (mathematics)|<code>/</code>]], [[Modulo operation|<code>%</code>]] * [[Assignment (computer science)|kuyaniska]]: <code>=</code> * [[augmented assignment]]: {{codes|+{{=}}|-{{=}}|*{{=}}|/{{=}}|%{{=}}|&{{=}}|{{!}}{{=}}|^{{=}}|&lt;&lt;{{=}}|&gt;&gt;{{=}}|d=,{{space}}}} * [[bitwise logic]]: <code>~</code>, <code>&</code>, <code>|</code>, <code>^</code> * [[bitwise shift]]s: <code>&lt;&lt;</code>, <code>&gt;&gt;</code> * [[Boolean logic]]: <code>!</code>, <code>&&</code>, <code>||</code> * [[?:|conditional evaluation]]: [[?:|<code>? :</code>]] * equality testing: [[Equality (mathematics)|<code>==</code>]], [[Inequality (mathematics)|<code>!=</code>]] * [[Subroutine|calling functions]]: <code>( )</code> * [[Increment and decrement operators|increment and decrement]]: <code>++</code>, <code>--</code> * [[Record (computer science)|member selection]]: <code>.</code>, <code>-></code> * object size: <code>[[sizeof]]</code> * type: <code>[[typeof]]</code>, <code>typeof_unqual</code> ''since C23'' * [[order relation]]s: <code>&lt;</code>, <code>&lt;=</code>, <code>&gt;</code>, <code>&gt;=</code> * [[Pointer (computer programming)|reference and dereference]]: <code>&</code>, <code>*</code>, <code>[ ]</code> * sequencing: [[Comma operator|<code>,</code>]] * [[Order of operations#Programming languages|subexpression grouping]]: <code>( )</code> * [[type conversion]]: <code>(''typename'')</code> C wakugwiriskira ncito operator <code>=</code>(wakugwiriskira ncito mu masamu kurongora kuyana) kurongora mulimo, kulondezga ciyerezgero ca Fortran na PL/I , kweni mwakupambana na ALGOL na vyakufumapo vyake. C wakugwiriskira ncito opareshoni <code>==</code>kuti wayezge usange ŵakuyana waka. Kufanana pakati pa awo ŵakugwira ntchito pa kugaŵira na kulinganiska kungapangiska kuti ŵagwiriskirenge ncito mwangozi yumoza mu malo gha munyake, ndipo nyengo zinandi kupuvya kukupangiska uthenga wakubudika yayi (nangauli ŵanyake awo ŵakuwunganya ŵakupanga chenjezgo). Mwaciyerezgero, mazgu ghakuti conditional <code>if (a == b + 1)</code>ghangalembeka mwambura kwenelera nga ni <code>if (a = b + 1)</code>, agho ghazamupimika nga ni <code>true</code>kwambura kuti mtengo wa <code>a</code>uli <code>0</code>pamanyuma pa mulimo.<ref name="AutoTX-8">{{cite web |url=http://www.cs.ucr.edu/~nxiao/cs10/errors.htm |title=10 Common Programming Mistakes in C++ |website=Cs.ucr.edu |access-date=June 26, 2009 |archive-date=October 21, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081021080953/http://www.cs.ucr.edu/~nxiao/cs10/errors.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> C operator pakwamba nyengo zose nchakupulikikwa yayi. Mwachiyelezgero, uyo wakugwira ntchito <code>==</code>wakukaka chomene kuluska (wakuchitika pambere) awo ŵakugwira ntchito <code>&</code>(bitwise AND) na <code>|</code>(bitwise OR) mu mazgu nga ni <code>x & 1 == 0</code>, agho ghakwenera kulembeka nga ni <code>(x & 1) == 0</code>para ndivyo wakulemba code wakukhumba.<ref name="AutoTX-9">{{cite book |title=C and the 8051 |edition=3rd |last1=Schultz |first1=Thomas |year=2004 |publisher=PageFree Publishing Inc. |location=Otsego, MI |isbn=978-1-58961-237-2 |page=20 |url={{GBurl|id=rI0c8kWbxooC|pg=PT47}} |access-date=February 10, 2012 }}</ref> == "Hello, world" chiyelezgero == {{See also|"Hello, World!" program}} [[File:Hello World Brian Kernighan 1974.jpg|thumb|"Hello, World!" program by [[Brian Kernighan]] (1978)]] Chiyelezgero cha "hello, world" icho chikawoneka mu buku lakwamba la ''K&R'' chazgoka chiyelezgero cha pulogiramu yakwamba mu mabuku ghanandi ghakusambizga vya pulogiramu. Pulogalamu iyi yikusindikizga "hello, world" ku mtundu wakumanyikwa , uwo kanandi ukuŵa pa terminal panji pa skrini. Mtundu wakwamba ukaŵa wakuti:{{sfnp|Kernighan|Ritchie|1978|p=6}}<syntaxhighlight lang="c"> main() { printf("hello, world\n"); } </syntaxhighlight> Pulogalamu yakukolerana na ndondomeko ya "hello, world" ni:{{efn|The original example code will compile on most modern compilers that are not in strict standard compliance mode, but it does not fully conform to the requirements of either C89 or C99. In fact, C99 requires that a diagnostic message be produced.}} <!-- READ THIS BEFORE YOU EDIT! If you think there is a better way, first see talk page archive No. 8 for why. If you still want to change it, discuss it first. --> <syntaxhighlight lang="c"> #include <stdio.h> int main(void) { printf("hello, world\n"); } </syntaxhighlight> Mzere wakwamba wa pulogiramu iyi uli na [[preprocessing directive]], agho ghakulongoreka na <code>#include</code>. ci cikupangiska kuti wakulemba waŵikepo mzere wa khodi uwo na mazgu ghose gha mu <code>[[stdio.h]]</code> fayilo ya mutu, agho ghali na vimanyikwiro vya milimo ya kunjilirapo na kufumamo nga ni <code>printf</code> na <code>scanf</code>. The angle brackets surrounding <code>stdio.h</code> ghakulongora kuti fayilo ya mutu yingasangika mwakugwiliskira nchito nthowa yakupenjera iyo yikutemwa mitu iyo yikupelekeka na compiler ku mitu yinyake iyo yili na zina limoza (kupambana na makoti ghaŵiri agho kanandi ghakusazgapo mafayilo gha mutu gha ku malo panji gha pulojekiti). Mzere wachiŵiri ukulongora kuti ntchito iyo yili na zina <code>main</code>yikulongosoreka. Ntchito iyi <code>main</code>yikugwira ntchito yapadera mu mapulogalamu gha C; malo gha nyengo yakuchitira vinthu ghakuchema <code>main</code>ntchito kuti yimbe kuchita pulogiramu. Mtundu wakulongosora <code>int</code>ukulongora kuti mtengo uwo ukuwelera kwa wakuchema (mu nkhani iyi malo gha nyengo yakuchitira) chifukwa cha kuwunika <code>main</code>ntchito, ni nambala yakukwana. Lizgu lakuzirwa <code>void</code>nga ni mndandanda wa parameter likulongora kuti <code>main</code>ntchito yikutora yayi mphindano. Brace yakujulika yakukhotakhota yikulongora kwamba kwa khodi ilo likulongosora <code>main</code> function. Mzere wakulondezgapo wa pulogiramu iyi ni mazgu agho ''ghakuchema'' (ndiko kuti, ghakupatuska kuchitika) ntchito yakuchemeka <code>printf</code>, iyo mu nkhani iyi yikupelekeka kufuma ku laibulale ya dongosolo . Mu kuyimbira uku, <code>printf</code>ntchito ''yikujumpha'' (ndiko kuti yikuperekeka na) mphindano yimoza, iyo ni adiresi ya mtundu wakwamba mu chingwe cha literal <code>"hello, world\n"</code> . Chingwe cha literal ni ndondomeko yambura kumanyikwa iyo yikuŵikika yekha na wakulemba, na vinthu vya mtundu <code>char</code>na chimanyikwiro cha NULL chaumaliro (ASCII value 0) chikulongora umaliro wa ndondomeko (kuti yizomerezgeke <code>printf</code>kumanya utali wa chingwe). Chimanyikwiro cha NULL chingalembekaso nga ni ndondomeko ya kutchimbira <code>\0</code> . The <code>\n</code>ni ndondomeko ya kutchimbira iyo C yikung’anamura ku chimanyikwiro cha ''mzere uphya'' , icho, pa kufumamo, chikulongora umaliro wa mzere wa sono. Mtengo wakuwelera wa <code>printf</code>ntchito ni wa mtundu <code>int</code>, kweni ukutayika mwakufwasa chifukwa ukugwiriskirika nchito yayi. (Pulogalamu yakupwelelera comene yingayezga mtengo wakuwelera kuti yiwone usange <code>printf</code>mulimo uwu wacita makora.) Semicolon <code>;</code>yikumara mazgu. Chingwe chakujalira cha curly chikulongora umaliro wa khodi ya <code>main</code>ntchito. Malinga na C99 specification na viphya, <code>main</code>ntchito (kupambana na ntchito yinyake) yizamuweleska mtengo wa <code>0</code>para yafika pa <code>}</code>iyo yikumara ntchito.  Mtengo wakuwelera wa <code>0</code>ukung’anamulika na ndondomeko ya nyengo yakuchitira nga ni khodi yakufumamo iyo yikulongora kuti ntchito yikuchitika makora.<ref name="bk21st">{{cite book |last1=Klemens |first1=Ben |author-link=Ben Klemens |title=21st Century C |url=https://archive.org/details/21stcenturyc0000klem |publisher=[[O'Reilly Media]] |year=2013 |isbn=978-1-4493-2714-9}}</ref> == ma Data types == {{Main|C data types}} {{More citations needed section|date=October 2012}} [[File:1999 ISO C Concepts.png|thumb]] [[type system]] ya C ni ya [[static typing|static]] ndipo yili [[Strong and weak typing|weakly typed]], iyo yikuyiyaniska na type system ya ŵazukulu [[ALGOL]] nthe [[Pascal (programming language)|Pascal]].<ref name="Nmlwr">{{cite journal |last1=Feuer |first1=Alan R. |last2=Gehani |first2=Narain H. |date=March 1982 |title=Comparison of the Programming Languages C and Pascal |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_acm-computing-surveys_1982-03_14_1/page/73 |journal=ACM Computing Surveys |volume=14 |issue=1 |pages=73–92 |doi=10.1145/356869.356872 |s2cid=3136859}}</ref> Pali ma built-in types ya ma integer ya milingo yakupambana-pambana, ya signed na ya unsigned, [[floating-point number|ma nambala ya floating-point]] , na ma enumerated types (<code>enum</code>). Mtundu wa integer <code>char</code>kanandi ukugwiriskirika nchito pa malembo gha byte yimoza. C99 wakasazgapo mtundu wa data ya Boolean . Paliso mitundu yakufumiramo kusazgapo ma arrays , pointers , marekodi ( <code>struct</code>), na ma union ( <code>union</code>). C kanandi yikugwiriskirika nchito mu mapulogiramu gha ndondomeko zapasi apo kutchimbira kufuma ku ndondomeko ya mtundu kungaŵa kwakukhumbikwa. Munthu uyo ​​wakulemba mabuku wakuyezgayezga kuwoneseska kuti mazgu ghanandi ghakulembeka makora, kweni uyo wakulemba mapulogiramu wangasintha ivyo vikulembeka mu nthowa zakupambanapambana, panji wakugwiliskira ntchito ''mtundu wa cast'' kuti wasinthe mwakudunjika mtengo kufuma ku mtundu unyake kuya ku unyake, panji wakugwiliskira ntchito vimanyikwiro panji maunioni kuti wazgoreso vigaŵa ivyo vili pasi . ya chinthu cha data mu nthowa yinyake. Ŵanyake ŵakuwona kuti C's declaration syntax njambura kupulikikwa, chomenechomene pa vimanyikwiro vya ntchito . (Maghanoghano gha Ritchie ghakaŵa ghakuti ŵapharazge vimanyikwiro mu vigaŵa ivyo vikuyana na kugwiliskira ntchito kwawo: " kupharazga kukulongora kugwiliskira ntchito ".){{sfnp|Kernighan|Ritchie|1988|p=122}} ''Kusintha kwa masamu'' kwa C kwa nyengo zose kukuzomerezga kuti khodi yiwemi yipangike, kweni nyengo zinyake yingapangiska kuti paŵe vyakuchitika vyambura kulindilirika. Mwachiyelezgero, kuyezgelera manambara ghakukwana ghakusayinirika na ghambura kusayinirika ghakuyana waka kukukhumba kusintha mtengo wakusayinirika kuŵa wambura kusayinirika. Ici cingapangiska kuti paŵe vyakucitika vyambura kulindilirika usange mtengo uwo mwasayinira ngwambura kwenelera. === ma Pointers === C yikukhozgera kugwiliskira nchito vimanyikwiro , mtundu wa vimanyikwiro ivyo vikulemba adiresi panji malo gha chinthu panji ntchito mu kukumbukira. Ma pointer ghangafumiskikapo kuti ''ghasange'' data iyo yasungika pa adiresi iyo yikulongosoreka, panji kuti yicheme ntchito yakulongosoreka. Ma pointer ghangaseŵezeskeka mwakuseŵezeska ntchito panji masamu gha pointer . Kuyimilira kwa nyengo yakuchimbira kwa mtengo wa pointer kanandi ni adiresi ya memory yambura kupangika (panji yikuwonjezgeka na offset-within-word field), kweni pakuti mtundu wa pointer ukusazgapo mtundu wa chinthu icho chikulongoreka, mazgu ghakusazgapo pointer ghangawoneka na mtundu . pa nyengo yakuwunganya. Pointer arithmetic yikupimika yekha na kukula kwa mtundu wa data wakulongozgeka. Vimanyikwiro vikugwiriskirika ncito pa vinthu vinandi mu C. Vingwe vya malemba vikusinthika comene mwakugwiliskira ncito vimanyikwiro mu vigaŵa vya malembo. Kugaŵika kwa kukumbukira kwa nkhongono kukuchitika mwakugwiliskira ntchito vimanyikwiro; chakufumapo cha a <code>malloc</code>kanandi chikuponyeka ku mtundu wa data wa data iyo yikwenera kusungika. Mitundu yinandi ya data, nga ni makuni , yikugwiriskirika ncito comene nga ni <code>struct</code>vinthu ivyo vikugaŵika mwa nkhongono ivyo vikukolerana pamoza mwakugwiliskira ncito vimanyikwiro. Vimanyikwiro vya vimanyikwiro vinyake kanandi vikugwiriskirika nchito mu magulu gha vigaŵa vinandi na magulu gha <code>struct</code>vinthu. Vimanyikwiro vya milimo ( ''vimanyikwiro vya milimo'' ) ni vyakovwira pakujumpha milimo nga ni mphindano ku milimo ya pamwamba (nga ni qsort panji bsearch ), mu matebulo ghakutumizga , panji nga ni callbacks ku awo ŵakulongozga vyakuchitika . Muyezo ''wa null pointer'' ukulongora mwakudunjika kuti palije malo ghakwenelera. Kufumiskiramo mtengo wa null pointer kukulongosoreka yayi, kanandi kukupangiska kuti paŵe suzgo la kugaŵa . Null pointer values ​​ndizo zikovwira pakulongora milandu yapadera nga ni para palije "next" pointer mu node yaumaliro ya mndandanda wakukolerana , panji nga ni chilongolero cha kubudika kufuma ku milimo yakuwelera vimanyikwiro. Mu vigaŵa vyakwenelera mu source code, nga nkhupeleka ku pointer variable, ''null pointer constant'' yingalembeka nga ni <code>0</code>, na panji kwambura kuponya mwakudumura ku mtundu wa pointer, nga ni <code>NULL</code>macro iyo yikulongosoreka na mitu yinandi yakumanyikwa panji, kufuma apo C23 na constant . <code>nullptr</code>. Mu vigaŵa vyakukhazikika, vimanyikwiro vyambura kanthu vikuwoneka ku <code>false</code>, apo vimanyikwiro vinyake vyose vikuwoneka ku <code>true</code>. Vimanyikwiro vyambura kanthu ( <code>void *</code>) vikulongora vinthu vya mtundu wambura kumanyikwa, ndipo ntheura vingagwiliskirika nchito nga ni vimanyikwiro vya data vya "generic". Pakuti kukura na mtundu wa chinthu icho chikulongosoreka vikumanyikwa yayi, vimanyikwiro vyambura kanthu vingafumiskikapo yayi, panji masamu ghakulongora pa iwo ghakuzomerezgeka yayi, nangauli vingaŵa vyambura kusuzga (ndipo mu vigaŵa vinandi vikusinthika) ku na kufuma ku chilongolero chinyake chilichose cha chinthu . mutundu. Kugwiriskira ncito vimanyikwiro mwambura kupwelelera kungaŵa kwakofya. Chifukwa chakuti kanandi ŵakuwonekera yayi, pointer variable yingapangika kuti yilongore malo ghaliyose ghambura kumanyikwa, agho ghangapangiska kuti paŵe vyakuchitika vyambura kukhumbikwa. Nangauli vimanyikwiro ivyo vikugwiriskirika ncito makora vikulongora malo ghakuvikilirika, vingapangika kuti vilongore malo ghambura kuvikilirika mwa kugwiliskira ncito masamu gha vimanyikwiro ghambura kugwira nchito ; vinthu ivyo ŵakulongora vingalutilira kugwiliskirika nchito para vyagaŵika ( dangling pointers ); vingagwiriskikiya nchitu kwambula kuti viŵikika pakwamba ( wild pointers ); panji ŵangapika mwaluŵiro mtengo wambura kuvikilirika mwakugwiliskira nchito cast, union, panji kwizira mu pointer yinyake yakuvunda. Mu vigaŵa vinandi, C wakuzomerezga kugwiliskira ntchito na kusintha pakati pa mitundu ya vimanyikwiro, nangauli ŵakuwunganya ŵakupeleka vyakusankha vyakuwonera vigaŵa vyakupambanapambana. Viyowoyero vinyake vyakupanga mapulogiramu vikumazga masuzgo agha mwa kugwiliskira nchito mitundu yakukanizga comene ya vimanyikwiro. === ma Array === {{See also|C string handling}} <!-- Please be careful when editing this. C does *not* forbid bounds checking, nor does it require that pointers are memory addresses. Of course it does not require bounds checks, either, and all common implementations map those language constructs to the machine in an "obvious way", but there are ANSI-conforming implementations that handle these things in other ways. --> Mitundu ya Array mu C ndiyo yikukhazikika, kukura kwakukhazikika uko kukulongosoreka pa nyengo yakuwunganya. Muyezo wa C99 wasonosono ukuzomerezgaso mtundu wa ma array gha utali wakusinthasintha. Kweniso, vingachitikaso kugaŵira chigaŵa cha kukumbukira (cha kukula kwake) pa nyengo yakuchitira, kugwiriskira ntchito <code>malloc</code>ntchito ya layibulare yakumanyikwa, na kuyiwona nga ni ndondomeko. Pakuti ma array nyengo zose ghakusangika (mu nchito) kwizira mu vimanyikwiro, ma array ghakusangika kanandi ghakuwonekera ''yayi'' pa kukula kwa array iyo yili pasi, nangauli ŵanyake awo ŵakuwunganya ŵangapeleka kuwonekera kwa mphaka nga ni chisankho.  Kuswa kwa mphaka ya Array ntheura nkhwamachitiko ndipo kungapangiska kuti paŵe masuzgo ghakupambanapambana, kusazgapo kufika pa memory kwambura kuzomerezgeka, kunanga data, buffer overruns , na kupatulapo nyengo yakuchitira. C ilije ndondomeko yapadera yakupharazgira ma arrays gha vigaŵa vinandi , kweni m’malo mwake yikuthemba pa kuweleraso mukati mwa mtundu wa ndondomeko kuti yipharazge ma arrays gha ma arrays, agho ghakufiska makora chinthu chimoza. Index values ​​ya "mndandanda wa vigaŵa vinandi" yingaghanaghanirika kuti yikukura mu ndondomeko yikuru ya mzere . Ma array gha vigaŵa vinandi ghakugwiriskirika nchito comene mu ma algorithm gha manambara (comenecomene kufuma ku algebra ya mzere wakugwiriskirika ncito ) kusunga matrices. Kapangidwe ka C array kakuyana makora na mulimo uwu. Kweni, mu mitundu yakwamba ya C mphaka ya mndandanda yikwenera kumanyikwa na mtengo wakukhazikika panji kujumpha mwakudunjika ku ndondomeko yiliyose iyo yikukhumba, ndipo mndandanda wa mndandanda wakukhora ungasangika yayi mwakugwiliskira nchito indexing kaŵiri. (Nthowa yakumazgira ivi yikaŵa yakugaŵira mndandanda na "mzere vector" wakusazgikira wa vimanyikwiro ku mizati.) C99 wakayambiska "mndandanda wa utali wakusintha" uwo ukulongosora nkhani iyi. Chiyelezgero chakulondezgapo chakugwiriskira ncito C ya mazuŵa ghano (C99 panji pamanyuma) cikulongora kugaŵika kwa mndandanda wa vigaŵa viŵiri pa mulu na kugwiriskira ncito mndandanda wa vigaŵa vinandi vyakuŵikapo vimanyikwiro vyakufikapo (ivyo vingagwiliskira ncito mphaka-kuwoneseska pa ŵanandi ŵa C compilers):<syntaxhighlight lang="c"> int func(int N, int M) { float (*p)[N] [M] = malloc(sizeof *p); if (p == 0) return -1; for (int i = 0; i < N; i++) for (int j = 0; j < M; j++) (*p)[i] [j] = i + j; print_array(N, M, p); free(p); return 1; } </syntaxhighlight> Ndipo pano pali kukhazikiska kwakuyana waka pakugwiriskira ncito cigaŵa ca C99 ca ''Auto VLA'': {{efn|Code of <code>print_array</code> (not shown) slightly differs,{{why|date=November 2023}} too.}} <syntaxhighlight lang="c"> int func(int N, int M) { // Caution: checks should be made to ensure N*M*sizeof(float) does NOT exceed limitations for auto VLAs and is within available size of stack. float p[N] [M]; // auto VLA is held on the stack, and sized when the function is invoked for (int i = 0; i < N; i++) for (int j = 0; j < M; j++) p[i] [j] = i + j; print_array(N, M, p); // no need to free(p) since it will disappear when the function exits, along with the rest of the stack frame return 1; } </syntaxhighlight> === Kusinthanika kwa Array–pointer === Mazgu ghakulembeka pasi <code>x[i]</code>(apo <code>x</code>ghakulongora chimanyikwiro) ni shuga wa syntactic wa <code>*(x+i)</code>.  Kugwiriskira ncito cimanyisko ca wakuwunganya ca mtundu wa pointer, adiresi iyo <code>x + i</code>yikulongora kuti ni adiresi yakwamba yayi (iyo yikulongora na <code>x</code>) iyo yikusazgikira na <code>i</code>ma byte, kweni m’malo mwake yikulongosoreka kuti ni adiresi yakwamba iyo yikusazgikira na <code>i</code>kuchulukiskika na kukula kwa an . chinthu icho <code>x</code>chikulongora ku. Mwantheura, <code>x[i]</code>wakusankha <code>i+1</code>chigaŵa cha th cha ndondomeko. Kweniso, mu vigaŵa vinandi vyakuyowoya (kupatulika kwakumanyikwa ni nga ni operand ya <code>sizeof</code>), mazgu gha mtundu wa array ghakusinthika mwaŵene kuŵa pointer ku chinthu chakwamba cha array. Ici cikung'anamura kuti ndondomeko yikukopeka yayi nga ni yose para yacemeka nga ni mphindano ku nchito, kweni m'malo mwake adiresi ya cigaŵa cake cakwamba pera ndiyo yikujumpha. Ntheura, nangauli mafoni ghakugwira ntchito mu C ghakugwiriskira ncito semantics yakujumpha-na-mtengo , ma array ghakujumpha na fundo . Kukura kwa ndondomeko yose <code>x</code>kungamanyikwa mwa kugwiriskira ncito <code>sizeof</code>ku mazgu gha mtundu wa ndondomeko. Kukura kwa chinthu kungamanyikwa pakugwiriskira ntchito opareshoni <code>sizeof</code>ku chinthu chilichose chakufumiskikapo cha ndondomeko <code>A</code>, nga umo vikuŵira mu <code>n = sizeof A[0]</code>. Ntheura, chiŵelengero cha vinthu ivyo vili mu ndondomeko iyo yapharazgika <code>A</code>chingamanyikwa nga ni <code>sizeof A / sizeof A[0]</code>. Wonani kuti usange pali waka chimanyikwiro cha chinthu chakwamba nga umo vikuŵira kanandi mu C code chifukwa cha kusintha kwakujiyimira pakwekha uko kwalongosoreka pacanya apa, uthenga wakukhwaskana na mtundu wose wa ndondomeko na utali wake ukutayika. == Kwendeska Memory == Chimoza mwa vinthu vinyake vyakuzirwa chomene ivyo chiyowoyero cha pulogiramu chikuchita nkhupeleka malo ghakulongozgera memory na vinthu ivyo vikusungika mu memory. C wakupereka nthowa zitatu zikuru zakugaŵira kukumbukira vinthu:<ref name="bk21st" /> * [[Static memory allocation]]: malo gha chinthu ghakuperekeka mu binary pa nyengo yakusonkheska; vinthu ivi vili na mlingo (panji umoyo) usange binary iyo yili navyo yikuŵikika mu kukumbukira. * [[Automatic memory allocation]]: temporary objects can be stored on the [[Call stack|stack]], and this space is automatically freed and reusable after the block in which they are declared is exited. * [[C dynamic memory allocation|Dynamic memory allocation]]: mabuloko ghakukumbukira gha kukula kwake ghangapempheka pa nyengo yakuchitira vinthu mwakugwiliskira ntchito milimo ya layibulare nga ni <code>malloc</code>kufuma ku chigaŵa cha kukumbukira icho chikuchemeka heap ; mabuloko agha ghakukhalilira mpaka apo ghazamufwatulika kuti ghagwiriskike nchitoso mwa kucema nchito ya layibulare <code>realloc</code>panji <code>free</code>. Nthowa zitatu izi ni zakwenelera mu nyengo zakupambanapambana ndipo zili na vyakuguliska vyakupambanapambana. Mwachiyelezgero, kugaŵira kwa kukumbukira kwakukhazikika kuli na mtengo uchoko wakugaŵira, kugaŵira kwakujiyimira paŵekha kungaŵa na mtengo ukuru pachoko, ndipo kugaŵira kwakukumbukira kwakusintha kungaŵa na mtengo ukuru wa kugaŵira na kugaŵira. Kukhalilira kwa vinthu vyambura kusintha nkhwakovwira kusunga uthenga wa boma pa mafoni ghakugwira ntchito, kugaŵira kwakujiyimira pakwekha nkhwambura kusuzga kugwiliskira nchito kweni malo ghakuŵikamo vinthu ghakuŵa ghachoko chomene ndiposo ghakukhala nyengo yichoko waka kuluska malo ghakukumbukira panji gha mulu, ndipo kugaŵira kwakukumbukira kwakukhozga kukuzomerezga kugaŵira vinthu ivyo kukula kwake kukumanyikwa waka pa nyengo yakuchitira. Mapulogalamu ghanandi gha C ghakugwiriskira ncito comene vyose vitatu. Para nchamachitiko, kugaŵira kwakujiyimira pakwekha panji kwakukhazikika kanandi nkhwambura kusuzga comene cifukwa vyakusungirako vikulaŵilirika na uyo wakulemba, ndipo ivi vikufwatura uyo wakupanga pulogiramu ku mulimo uwo ungaŵa wakubudika wa kugaŵira na kufwatura vyakusungirako na mawoko. Kweni, vigaŵa vinandi vya data vingasinthika mu kukura pa nyengo yakuchitira, ndipo pakuti kugaŵira kwakukhazikika (na kugaŵira kwakujiyimira paŵekha pambere C99 yindafike) kukwenera kuŵa na kukula kwakukhazikika pa nyengo yakuwunganya, pali vinthu vinandi ivyo kugaŵira kwakukhozga kukukhumbikwa.  Pambere C99 standard, ma arrays ghakusinthasintha ghakaŵa chiyelezgero chakumanyikwa cha ichi. (Wonani nkhani yakukhwaskana na C dynamic memory allocation kuti muwone chiyelezgero cha ma arrays ghakugaŵika mwakusintha.) Mwakupambana na kugaŵika kwakujiyimira, uko kungatondeka pa nyengo yakuchitira vinthu na vyakuchitika vyambura kumanyikwa, ntchito zakugaŵika zakusintha zikuweleska chimanyikwiro (mu mtundu wa mtengo wa null pointer) apo . malo ghakusungirako ghakukhumbikwa ghangagaŵika yayi. (Static allocation iyo njikuru chomene kanandi yikumanyikwa na linker panji loader , pambere pulogiramu yindambe kugwira ntchito.) Kupatulapo para vyalembeka vinyake, vinthu vyambura kusintha vikuŵa na zero panji null pointer values ​​para pulogiramu yayamba. Vinthu ivyo vikugaŵika mwaŵene ndiposo mwa nkhongono vikuyambiskika pekha usange mtengo wakwamba ukuyowoyeka mwakudunjika; apo yayi pakwamba ŵali na mtengo wambura kumanyikwa (kaŵirikaŵiri, chilichose icho chikuchitika kuti chiŵepo mu kusungirako , icho chingaŵa kuti chikwimira yayi mtengo wakuzomerezgeka wa mtundu uwo). Usange pulogiramu yikuyezga kusanga mtengo uwo undayambike, ivyo vikufumamo vikumanyikwa yayi. Ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakuwunganya mabuku mazuŵa ghano ŵakuyezgayezga kumanya na kuchenjezga za suzgo ili, kweni vyose viŵiri, viwemi vyautesi na viheni vyautesi vingaŵapo. Heap memory allocation yikwenera kukolerana na kugwiliskira ntchito kwake kwenikweni mu pulogiramu yiliyose kuti yigwiriskike nchitoso mwakukwana. Mwaciyelezgero, usange cilongolero cimoza pera ca kugaŵira kukumbukira kwa mulu cikufuma mu msinkhu panji mtengo wake ukulembeka pambere undagaŵike mwakudunjika, mbwenu kukumbukira uko kungasangikaso yayi kuti kugwiriskike ncitoso pamanyuma ndipo kukutayika comene ku pulogiramu, cinthu ico cikumanyikwa kuti kukumbukira ''. nthonya .'' Mwakupambana, nchamacitiko kuti kukumbukira kuŵe kwakufwatuka, kweni kukuyowoyeka pamanyuma, ndipo kukupangiska kuti paŵe vyakucitika vyambura kumanyikwa. Kanandi, vimanyikwiro vya kutondeka vikuwoneka mu cigaŵa ca pulogiramu ico cikukhwaskana yayi na khodi ilo likupangiska kuti paŵe suzgo, ndipo vikuŵa vyakusuzga kumanya usange vyatondeka. Nkhani zanthena izi zikunozga mu viyowoyero ivyo vikuwuskako viswaswa mwaŵene . == Malaibulale == Chiyowoyero cha C chikugwiriskira ncito malaibulale nga ni nthowa yake yikuru yakusazgirako. Mu C, laibulale ni gulu la milimo iyo yili mu fayilo yimoza ya "archive". Laibulale yiliyose kanandi yili na fayilo ya mutu , iyo yili na viyelezgero vya milimo iyo yili mukati mwa layibulare iyo yingagwiliskirika nchito na pulogiramu, na kupharazgira mitundu yapadera ya data na vimanyikwiro vya macro ivyo vikugwiriskirika nchito na milimo iyi. Kuti pulogiramu yigwiriskirenge nchito laibulale, yikwenera kuŵa na fayilo ya mutu wa laibulale, ndipo laibulale yikwenera kukolerana na pulogiramu, iyo mu nyengo zinandi yikukhumba mbendera za compiler (mwachiyelezgero, <code>-lm</code>, chifupi cha "kulumikiza laibulale ya masamu"). Laibulale ya C yakumanyikwa chomene ni C standard library , iyo yikulongosoreka na ISO na ANSI C standards ndipo yikwiza na kukhazikiska kuli kose kwa C (kukhazikiska uko kukukhwaska malo ghachoko waka nga ni ndondomeko zakuŵikika kungapereka waka chigaŵa chichoko wa laibulale yakumanyikwa). Laibulale iyi yikovwira pa ivyo vikunjilizgika na ivyo vikufumamo, kugaŵira kukumbukira, masamu, vingwe vya malembo, na nyengo. Mitu yinandi yakupambanapambana yakumanyikwa (mwaciyelezgero, <code>stdio.h</code>) yikulongosora umo vinthu ivi na vinyake vyakumanyikwa vya layibulare vikuŵikika. Ntchito zinyake zakumanyikwa za C library ni izo zikugwiriskirika nchito na mapulogalamu agho ghakupangika na Unix na Unix-like systems, chomenechomene ntchito izo zikupereka mawonekero ku kernel . Ntchito izi zikulongosoreka mu vigaŵa vyakupambanapambana nga ni POSIX na Single UNIX Specification . Pakuti mapulogiramu ghanandi ghalembeka mu C, pali malaibulale ghanyake ghakupambanapambana agho ghalipo. Malaibulale kanandi ghakulembeka mu C chifukwa C compilers ŵakupanga khodi ya vinthu yakunozga ; ŵakupanga mapulogalamu ŵakupanga ma interface gha layibulare mwakuti ndondomeko zingagwiliskirika nchito kufuma ku viyowoyero vyapachanya nga ni Java , Perl , na Python.<ref name="bk21st" /> === File handling na streams === Fayilo input and output (I / O) ni chigaŵa cha chiyowoyero cha C yayi kweni m'malo mwake chikuchitika na malaibulale (nga ni laibulale ya C standard) na mafayilo ghawo gha mutu wakukolerana (mwachiyelezgero <code>stdio.h</code>). Kugwiliskira ntchito mafayilo kukuchitika chomene kwizira mu I/O yapachanya iyo yikugwira ntchito kwizira mu milonga . Mtsinje ni kufuma pa fundo iyi data flow iyo yikujiyimira paŵekha na vipangizo, apo fayilo ni chipangizo cha simenti. I / O ya pamwamba yikuchitika kwizira mu kukolerana kwa mlonga na fayilo. Mu laibulale ya C standard, buffer (malo ghakukumbukira panji mzere) yikugwiriskirika nchito kwa kanyengo kuti yisungireko data pambere yindatumizgike ku malo ghakumalizgirapo. Ici cikucepeskako nyengo yakulindilira vipangizo ivyo vikucedwa, mwaciyelezgero, hard drive panji solid-state drive . Ntchito za I / O zapasi ni chigaŵa cha laibulale ya C yayi ^{[ ''kulongosora kukukhumbikwa'' ]} kweni kanandi zikuŵa chigaŵa cha mapulogalamu gha "bare metal" (mapulogalamu agho ghakujiyimira paŵekha na ndondomeko yiliyose yakugwiliskira ntchito nga ni mapulogalamu ghanandi ghakuŵikika ). Kupatulapo ŵachoko waka, kukhazikiska kukusazgapo I / O ya msinkhu wapansi. == Vipangizo vya chiyowoyero == {{More citations needed section|date=July 2014}} A number of tools have been developed to help C programmers find and fix statements with undefined behavior or possibly erroneous expressions, with greater rigor than that provided by the compiler. The tool [[Lint (software)|lint]] was the first such, leading to many others. Automated source code checking and auditing are beneficial in any language, and for C many such tools exist, such as [[lint (software)|Lint]]. A common practice is to use Lint to detect questionable code when a program is first written. Once a program passes Lint, it is then compiled using the C compiler. Also, many compilers can optionally warn about syntactically valid constructs that are likely to actually be errors. [[MISRA C]] is a proprietary set of guidelines to avoid such questionable code, developed for embedded systems.<ref name="MI2L0">{{cite web|url=http://www.unix.com/man-page/FreeBSD/1/lint |title=Man Page for lint (freebsd Section 1) |website=unix.com |date=May 24, 2001 |access-date=July 15, 2014}}</ref> There are also compilers, libraries, and operating system level mechanisms for performing actions that are not a standard part of C, such as [[bounds checking]] for arrays, detection of [[buffer overflow]], [[serialization]], [[dynamic memory]] tracking, and [[automatic garbage collection]]. Tools such as [[IBM Rational Purify|Purify]] or [[Valgrind]] and linking with libraries containing special versions of the [[malloc|memory allocation functions]] can help uncover runtime errors in memory usage.<ref>{{Cite web |title=CS107 Valgrind Memcheck |url=https://web.stanford.edu/class/archive/cs/cs107/cs107.1236/resources/valgrind.html |access-date=June 23, 2023 |website=web.stanford.edu}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hastings |first1=Reed |last2=Joyce |first2=Bob |title=Purify: Fast Detection of Memory Leaks and Access Errors |url=https://web.stanford.edu/class/cs343/resources/purify.pdf |journal=Pure Software Inc. |pages=9}}</ref> == magwiliskiro == === Chifukwa chakugwiriskira ntchito mu mapulogalamu gha ndondomeko === [[File:The C Programming Language.png|thumb|Some software written in C]] C yikugwiriskirika nchito comene pa kupanga mapulogiramu gha ndondomeko pakukhazikiska ndondomeko zakugwiliskira nchito na ndondomeko zakuŵikika .  Ichi nchifukwa cha vifukwa vinandi: * Chiyowoyero cha C chikuzomerezga kuti vipangizo vya pa pulatifomu na kukumbukira viŵepo na vimanyikwiro na mtundu wa punning , ntheura vinthu vyakukhwaskana na ndondomeko (mwachiyelezgero, Control/Status Registers, I/O registers ) vingaŵikika na kugwiliskirika ntchito na khodi yakulembeka mu C – vikuzomerezga kuti vilongozgeke mwakukwana pa . pulatifomu iyo yikuchitikapo. * Khodi ilo likupangika pamanyuma pa kuwunganya likukhumba yayi vinthu vinandi vya dongosolo , ndipo lingachemeka kufuma ku khodi yinyake ya boot mu nthowa yakunyoloka – nchakusuzga yayi kuchita. * Mazgu gha chiyowoyero cha C na mazgu ghakuyowoyeka ghakuwoneka makora pa ndondomeko ya malango gha pulosesa yakukhumbikwa, ndipo chifukwa cha ichi pali [[Nyengo yakuchimbira (chigaŵa cha umoyo wa pulogiramu)|nyengo yakuchimbira]] yichoko yakukhumbikwa pa vinthu vya mu dongosolo – vikuchitika mwaluŵiro ku . koma. * Pakuti chiyowoyero cha C chili na ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakugwira ntchito, chingagwiliskira ntchito vinthu vinandi ivyo vili mu ma CPU agho ghakukhumbikwa. Pa malo agho CPU yinyake yili na malango ghanandi ghakubisika, chiyowoyero chinyake chingapangika na panji [[intrinsic function]]s kuti chigwiriskirenge nchito malango agha – chingagwiliskira nchito pafupifupi vyose ivyo vikukhumbikwa na CPU. * Chiyowoyero chikupangiska kuti chiŵe chipusu kuŵika vigaŵa pa vigaŵa vya data ya binary, kuzomerezga kuti data yipulikikwe, kulongozgeka na kusintha – yingalemba vigaŵa vya data, nanga ni mafayilo. * Chiyowoyero ichi chikovwira ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakugwira ntchito, kusazgapo kugwiliskira ntchito vinthu vichokovichoko, kuti ŵaŵe na masamu ghakukwana na maghanoghano, ndipo panji manambara ghakuyandama ghakukura mwakupambanapambana – chingagwiliskira ntchito makora data iyo yili kupangika makora. * C ni chiyowoyero chichoko chomene, chili na mazgu ghachoko waka, ndipo chilije vinthu vinandi ivyo vikupanga khodi yikuru ya chilato – chikupulikikwa. * C ili na mazaza ghakudunjika pa kugaŵira na kugaŵira vyakukumbukira, ivyo vikupereka nchito yiwemi na nyengo yakumanyikwa ku milimo ya kukumbukira, kwambura kufipa mtima na vyakuchitika vya nyengo na nyengo vyakusonkheska vyakuvunda - vili na ntchito yakumanyikwa . * C yikuzomerezga kugwiliskira nchito na kukhazikiska ndondomeko zakupambanapambana za [[C kugaŵira kukumbukira kwa nkhongono|kugaŵira kukumbukira]], kusazgapo {{khodi |lang=c |malloc}} na {{khodi |lang=c |waulere}}; nthowa yakunozga chomene na [[Kulaŵilira kukumbukira kwakukhazikika pa chigaŵa|''mabwalo'']]; panji mtundu wa [[OS kernel]] uwo ungayana na [[Kukumbukira mwaluŵiro|DMA]], kugwiliskira nchito mukati mwa [[kunjilirapo kwakutimbanizga]]s, panji kuphatikizgika na [[kukumbukira kwakuwoneka]] dongosolo. * Kulingana na linker na malo, C code yingachemaso malaibulale agho ghalembeka mu [[chiyowoyero cha msonkhano]], ndipo yingachemeka kufuma ku chiyowoyero cha msonkhano – yikukolerana makora na khodi yinyake ya pasi. * C na [[calling convention]]s yake na linker structures vikugwiriskirika nchito chomene pamoza na viyowoyero vinyake vyapachanya, na kuchema kose ku C na kufuma ku C kukukhozgeka – vikukolerana makora na khodi yinyake yapachanya. * C ili na chilengedwe chakukhwima chomene ndiposo chakukwana, kusazgapo malaibulale, mafuremu, ŵakuwunganya vyakujulika, ŵakunozga na vyakugwiriskira ntchito, ndipo ni de facto standard. Vikuwoneka kuti ŵakwendeska galimoto ŵalipo kale mu C, panji kuti pali CPU yakuyana waka nga ni back-end ya C compiler, ntheura pali kuchepeska chikhuŵilizgo cha kusankha chiyowoyero chinyake. ===Kugwiriskira ncito mu malaibulale ghakugwiriskira ncito makompyuta ghanandi=== C yikovwira awo ŵakupanga mapulogiramu kuti ŵapange ndondomeko yiwemi ya ma algorithm na data, chifukwa chigaŵa cha abstraction kufuma ku hardware nchakuwonda, ndipo mtengo wake ngwakuchepa, nthowa yakuzirwa chomene ya mapulogalamu ghakugwiriskira ntchito makompyuta. Mwaciyelezgero, [[Layibulare ya GNU ya Masamu Ghakukwana]], [[Layibulare ya Sayansi ya GNU]], [[Mathematica]], na [[MATLAB]] vyose panji vigaŵa vinyake vikulembeka mu C. Viyowoyero vinandi vikukhozgera kucema milimo ya layibulare mu . C, mwachiyelezgero, [[Python (chiyowoyero cha kupanga mapulogalamu)|Python]]-kukhazikika pa ndondomeko [[NumPy]] wakugwiriskira ncito C pa vigaŵa vyakugwira nchito comene na vyakukhwaskana na hardware. ===C nga ni chiyowoyero cha pakati=== C nyengo zinyake yikugwiriskirika nchito nga ni [[chiyowoyero cha pakati]] na kukhazikiska viyowoyero vinyake. Nthowa iyi yingagwiliskirika nchito kuti yiŵe yakunyamulika panji yakunozga; pakugwiriskira ncito C nga ni ciyowoyero ca pakati, vipangizo vinyake vyakupangika na makina vikukhumbikwa yayi. C ili na vinthu vinyake, nga ni malango gha mzere-nambala ya preprocessor na makoma ghambura kukhumbikwa ghakusankha ku umaliro wa mindandanda ya initializer, agho ghakovwira kuwunganya khodi iyo yapangika. Kweni vinyake ivyo C wakubudiska vyapangiska kuti paŵe viyowoyero vinyake [[viyowoyero vya C]] ivyo vikupangika mwakupambanapambana kuti vigwiriskike nchito nga ni viyowoyero vyapakati, nga ni [[C--]]. Kweniso, mabuku ghakuru gha mazuŵa ghano [[GNU Compiler Collection|GCC]] na [[LLVM]] ghose ghali na [[kuyimilira kwapakati]] uko kuli C yayi, ndipo mabuku agha ghakovwira viyowoyero vinandi kusazgapo C. === Viyowoyero vinyake ivyo vikulembeka mu C === Chifukwa chakuti C yikusangika chomene ndiposo yikugwira ntchito makora, ntchakuti ŵakuwunganya mabuku , malaibulale na ŵakung’anamura viyowoyero vinyake vyakupanga mapulogiramu kanandi ŵakuvigwiriskira ntchito mu C.  Mwachiyelezgero, kukhazikiska kwa vimanyikwiro vya Python ,  Perl ,  Ruby ,  na PHP  vikulembeka mu C. === Kamoza ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito pakupanga webusayiti === Mu mbiri, C nyengo zinyake wakagwiliskiranga ntchito pakupanga webusayiti mwakugwiliskira ntchito Common Gateway Interface (CGI) nga ni "chipata" cha uthenga pakati pa webusayiti, seva, na bulauza.  C yingaŵa kuti yikasankhika kuluska viyowoyero vyakung’anamulika chifukwa chakuti yikuchitika mwaluŵiro, yikukhazikika, ndiposo yikusangika pafupifupi pa charu chose.  Ntchinthu chakumanyikwaso yayi kuti kupanga mawebusaiti kuchitikenge mu C,  ndipo vinyake vinandi vyakupangira mawebusayiti vilipo. === Ma seva gha pa webusayiti === Ma seva ghaŵiri ghakumanyikwa chomene gha pa webusayiti , Apache HTTP Server na Nginx , ghose ghalembeka mu C. Ma seva agha ghakukolerana na ndondomeko yakugwiliskira ntchito, kutegherezga pa madowoko gha TCP ghakukhumba vya HTTP, ndipo pamanyuma ghakupereka vinthu vyambura kusintha pa webusayiti, panji kupangiska kuti vinyake vikomeke . viyowoyero vyakugwira ntchito kuti 'vipeleke' vinthu nga ni PHP , ivyo vikulembeka chomene mu C. Nthowa ya C yakupangira vinthu pafupi na chisulo yikupangiska kuti ŵazenge mapulogiramu agha ghakugwira ntchito makora chomene. === ma applications gha End-user === C nayo yagwiriskirika ncito comene pakukhazikiska mapulogiramu gha [[End-user (computer science)|end-user]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=After All These Years, the World is Still Powered by C Programming |first1=Daniel |last1=Munoz |url=https://www.toptal.com/c/after-all-these-years-the-world-is-still-powered-by-c-programming |access-date=November 17, 2023 |website=Toptal Engineering Blog |language=en}}</ref> Kweni, mapulogalamu agha ghangalembekaso mu viyowoyero viphya, vyapachanya. ==Ivyo C yingapanga cha== {{Rquote|quote=nkhongono nge ya assembly kwe upusu wa... assembly |author=Dennis Ritchie<ref>{{cite magazine |last1=Metz |first1=Cade |title=Dennis Ritchie: The Shoulders Steve Jobs Stood On |url=https://www.wired.com/2011/10/thedennisritchieeffect/ |magazine=Wired |access-date=April 19, 2022 |archive-date=April 12, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220412005125/http://www.wired.com/2011/10/thedennisritchieeffect/ |url-status=live }}</ref>}} Nangauli C waŵa wakumanyikwa, wakukhwaska ndiposo wakupambana comene, kweni wali na viheni, kusazgapo: * Muyezo wankhongono wakukumbukira ntchito na <code>malloc</code>ndipo <code>free</code>ndiwo wakubudika. Vipusikizgi ni ivi: Memory yikudontha para memory yagaŵirika kweni yikufwatulika yayi; na kufika pa memory iyo yikaŵa kuti yafwatulika kale * The use of pointers and the direct manipulation of memory means corruption of memory is possible, perhaps due to programmer error, or insufficient checking of bad data. * There is some [[type checking]], but it does not apply to areas like [[variadic function]]s, and the type checking can be trivially or inadvertently circumvented. It is [[Strong and weak typing|weakly typed]]. * Since the code generated by the compiler contains few checks itself, there is a burden on the programmer to consider all possible outcomes, to protect against buffer overruns, array bounds checking, [[stack overflow]]s, memory exhaustion, and consider [[Race condition#In software|race conditions]], thread isolation, etc. * The use of pointers and the run-time manipulation of these means there may be two ways to access the same data (aliasing), which is not determinable at compile time. This means that some optimisations that may be available to other languages are not possible in C. FORTRAN is considered faster. * Some of the standard library functions, e.g. <code>scanf</code> or {{code|strncat}}, can lead to [[C standard library#Buffer overflow vulnerabilities|buffer overruns]]. * There is limited standardisation in support for low-level variants in generated code, for example: different function [[calling convention]]s and [[Application binary interface|ABI]]; different [[Data structure alignment|structure packing]] conventions; different byte ordering within larger integers (including endianness). In many language implementations, some of these options may be handled with the preprocessor directive <code>#pragma</code>,<ref>{{Cite web |last=corob-msft |title=Pragma directives and the __pragma and _Pragma keywords |url=https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/cpp/preprocessor/pragma-directives-and-the-pragma-keyword |access-date=September 24, 2022 |website=Microsoft Learn |date=March 31, 2022 |language=en-us |archive-date=September 24, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220924075131/https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/cpp/preprocessor/pragma-directives-and-the-pragma-keyword |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Pragmas (The C Preprocessor) |url=https://gcc.gnu.org/onlinedocs/cpp/Pragmas.html |access-date=September 24, 2022 |website=GCC, the GNU Compiler Collection |archive-date=June 17, 2002 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020617041757/https://gcc.gnu.org/onlinedocs/cpp/Pragmas.html |url-status=live }}</ref> and some with additional keywords e.g. use <code>__cdecl</code> calling convention. But the directive and options are not consistently supported.<ref>{{cite web |title=Pragmas |url=https://www.intel.com/content/www/us/en/develop/documentation/cpp-compiler-developer-guide-and-reference/top/compiler-reference/pragmas.html |publisher=Intel |work=Intel C++ Compiler Classic Developer Guide and Reference |access-date=April 10, 2022 |language=en |archive-date=April 10, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220410113529/https://www.intel.com/content/www/us/en/develop/documentation/cpp-compiler-developer-guide-and-reference/top/compiler-reference/pragmas.html |url-status=live }}</ref> * [[C string handling|String handling]] using the standard library is code-intensive, with explicit memory management required. * The language does not directly support object orientation, [[type introspection|introspection]], run-time expression evaluation, generics, etc. * There are few guards against inappropriate use of language features, which may lead to [[Software maintenance|unmaintainable]] code. In particular, the [[C preprocessor]] can hide troubling effects such as double evaluation and worse.<ref>{{cite web |title=In praise of the C preprocessor |url=https://apenwarr.ca/log/20070813 |website=apenwarr |date=August 13, 2007 |access-date=July 9, 2023}}</ref> This facility for tricky code has been celebrated with competitions such as the ''[[International Obfuscated C Code Contest]]'' and the ''[[Underhanded C Contest]]''. * C lacks standard support for [[exception handling]] and only offers [[return code]]s for error checking. The [[Setjmp.h|<code>setjmp</code> and <code>longjmp</code>]] standard library functions have been used<ref>{{cite web|last1=Roberts |first1=Eric S. |title=Implementing Exceptions in C |date=March 21, 1989 |url=http://bitsavers.informatik.uni-stuttgart.de/pdf/dec/tech_reports/SRC-RR-40.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170115152453/http://bitsavers.informatik.uni-stuttgart.de/pdf/dec/tech_reports/SRC-RR-40.pdf |archive-date=January 15, 2017 |url-status=live |access-date=January 4, 2022 |publisher=[[DEC Systems Research Center]] |id=SRC-RR-40}}</ref> to implement a try-catch mechanism via macros. For some purposes, restricted styles of C have been adopted, e.g. [[MISRA C]] or [[CERT C]], in an attempt to reduce the opportunity for bugs. Databases such as [[Common Weakness Enumeration|CWE]] attempt to count the ways C etc. has vulnerabilities, along with recommendations for mitigation. There are [[#Language tools|tools]] that can mitigate against some of the drawbacks. Contemporary C compilers include checks which may generate warnings to help identify many potential bugs. == Related languages == [[File:Tiobe index 2020 may.png|alt=|thumb|The [[TIOBE index]] graph, showing a comparison of the popularity of various programming languages<ref name="MmjNC">{{cite magazine |url=https://www.wired.com/2013/01/java-no-longer-a-favorite/ |title=Is Java Losing Its Mojo? |first1=Robert |last1=McMillan |date=August 1, 2013 |magazine=[[Wired (magazine)|Wired]] |access-date=March 5, 2017 |archive-date=February 15, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170215115409/https://www.wired.com/2013/01/java-no-longer-a-favorite/ |url-status=live }}</ref>]] {{main|List of C-family programming languages}} C has both directly and indirectly influenced many later languages such as [[C++]] and [[Java (programming language)|Java]].<ref name="kafmy">{{Cite book|title=Pillars of computing : a compendium of select, pivotal technology firms |last1=O'Regan |first1=Gerard |isbn=978-3319214641 |oclc=922324121 |date=September 24, 2015|publisher=Springer }}</ref> The most pervasive influence has been syntactical; all of the languages mentioned combine the statement and (more or less recognizably) expression [[C syntax|syntax of C]] with type systems, data models or large-scale program structures that differ from those of C, sometimes radically. Several C or near-C interpreters exist, including [[Ch (computer programming)|Ch]] and [[CINT]], which can also be used for scripting. When [[object-oriented programming]] languages became popular, [[C++]] and [[Objective-C]] were two different extensions of C that provided object-oriented capabilities. Both languages were originally implemented as [[source-to-source compiler]]s; source code was translated into C, and then compiled with a C compiler.<ref name="dSI6f">{{Cite book |title=Languages and compilers for parallel computing : 16th international workshop, LCPC 2003, College Station, TX, USA, October 2–4, 2003 : revised papers|last1=Rauchwerger |first1=Lawrence |year=2004 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3540246442 |oclc=57965544}}</ref> The [[C++]] programming language (originally named "C with [[Class (programming)|Classes]]") was devised by [[Bjarne Stroustrup]] as an approach to providing [[Object-oriented programming|object-oriented]] functionality with a C-like syntax.<ref name="stroustrup 1993">{{cite web |url=http://www.stroustrup.com/hopl2.pdf |title=A History of C++: 1979–1991 |first1=Bjarne |last1=Stroustrup |author-link=Bjarne Stroustrup |year=1993 |access-date=June 9, 2011 |archive-date=February 2, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190202050609/http://www.stroustrup.com/hopl2.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> C++ adds greater typing strength, scoping, and other tools useful in object-oriented programming, and permits [[generic programming]] via templates. Nearly a superset of C, C++ now{{when|date=August 2022}} supports most of C, with [[Compatibility of C and C++|a few exceptions]]. [[Objective-C]] was originally a very "thin" layer on top of C, and remains a strict [[superset]] of C that permits object-oriented programming using a hybrid dynamic/static typing paradigm. Objective-C derives its syntax from both C and [[Smalltalk]]: syntax that involves preprocessing, expressions, function declarations, and function calls is inherited from C, while the syntax for object-oriented features was originally taken from Smalltalk. In addition to [[C++]] and [[Objective-C]], [[Ch (computer programming)|Ch]], [[Cilk]], and [[Unified Parallel C]] are nearly supersets of C. == See also == {{Portal|Computer programming|Free and open-source software}} * [[Compatibility of C and C++]] * [[Comparison of Pascal and C]] * [[Comparison of programming languages]] * [[International Obfuscated C Code Contest]] * [[List of C-family programming languages]] * [[List of C compilers]] == Notes == {{Notelist}} == References == {{reflist}} == Sources == * {{cite journal |last1=Ritchie |first1=Dennis M. |author-link=Dennis Ritchie |date=March 1993 |title=The Development of the C Language |journal=ACM SIGPLAN Notices |volume=28 |issue=3 |pages=201–208 |doi=10.1145/155360.155580 |publisher=ACM|doi-access=free }} ** By courtesy of the author, also at {{cite web |last1=Ritchie |first1=Dennis M |title=Chistory |url=https://www.bell-labs.com/usr/dmr/www/chist.html |website=www.bell-labs.com |access-date=March 29, 2022}} * {{cite conference |ref=none |last1=Ritchie |first1=Dennis M. |year=1993 |title=The Development of the C Language |pages=201–208 |doi=10.1145/154766.155580 |url=http://www.bell-labs.com/usr/dmr/www/chist.html |book-title=The Second ACM SIGPLAN Conference on History of Programming Languages (HOPL-II) |publisher=[[Association for Computing Machinery|ACM]] |isbn=0-89791-570-4 |access-date=November 4, 2014 |archive-date=April 11, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190411002159/http://www.bell-labs.com/usr/dmr/www/chist.html |url-status=dead }} * {{cite book |last1=Kernighan |first1=Brian W. |author-link=Brian Kernighan |last2=Ritchie |first2=Dennis M. |author-link2=Dennis Ritchie |year=1988 |title=The C Programming Language |url=https://archive.org/details/cprogramminglang0000kern_2ed |publisher=[[Prentice Hall]] |edition=2nd |isbn=0-13-110362-8}} == Further reading == * {{cite book |last1=Plauger |first1=P.J. |author-link=P. J. Plauger |title=The Standard C Library |edition=1 |year=1992 |publisher=Prentice Hall |isbn=978-0131315099}} <small>[https://github.com/wuzhouhui/c_standard_lib ''(source)'']</small> * {{cite book |last1=Banahan |first1=M. |last2=Brady |first2=D. |last3=Doran |first3=M. |title=The C Book: Featuring the ANSI C Standard |edition=2 |year=1991 |publisher=Addison-Wesley |isbn=978-0201544336}} <small>[https://github.com/wardvanwanrooij/thecbook ''(free)'']</small> * {{cite book |last1=Feuer |first1=Alan R. |title=The C Puzzle Book |url=https://archive.org/details/cpuzzlebook0000feue_w2u4 |edition=1 |year=1985 |publisher=Prentice Hall |isbn=0131099345}} * {{cite book |last1=Harbison |first1=Samuel |last2=Steele |first2=Guy Jr. |title=C: A Reference Manual |edition=5 |year=2002 |publisher=Pearson |isbn=978-0130895929}} <small>[https://archive.org/details/creferencemanual00harb ''(archive)'']</small> * {{cite book |last1=King |first1=K.N. |title=C Programming: A Modern Approach |url=https://archive.org/details/cprogrammingmode0000king |edition=2 |year=2008 |publisher=W. W. Norton |isbn=978-0393979503}} <small>[https://archive.org/details/cprogrammingmode0000king ''(archive)'']</small> * {{cite book |last1=Griffiths |first1=David |last2=Griffiths |first2=Dawn |title=Head First C |url=https://archive.org/details/headfirstc0000grif |edition=1 |year=2012 |publisher=O'Reilly |isbn=978-1449399917}} * {{cite book |last1=Perry |first1=Greg |last2=Miller |first2=Dean |title=C Programming: Absolute Beginner's Guide |edition=3 |year=2013 |publisher=Que |isbn=978-0789751980}} * {{cite book |last1=Deitel |first1=Paul |last2=Deitel |first2=Harvey |title=C: How to Program |url=https://archive.org/details/chowtoprogram0000deit_l3v3 |edition=8 |year=2015 |publisher=Pearson |isbn=978-0133976892}} * {{cite book |last1=Gustedt |first1=Jens |title=Modern C |edition=2 |year=2019 |publisher=Manning |isbn=978-1617295812}} <small>''[https://gustedt.gitlabpages.inria.fr/modern-c/ (free)]''</small> == External links == {{Sister project links |v=C |commons=Category:C (programming language) |b=C Programming |voy=no |s=no |wikt=no}} * [https://www.open-std.org/jtc1/sc22/wg14/ ISO C Working Group official website] ** [https://www.open-std.org/JTC1/SC22/WG14/www/standards ISO/IEC 9899], publicly available official C documents, including the C99 Rationale ** {{cite web |url=https://www.open-std.org/JTC1/SC22/WG14/www/docs/n1256.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071025205438/http://www.open-std.org/JTC1/SC22/WG14/www/docs/n1256.pdf |archive-date=October 25, 2007 |url-status=live |title=C99 with Technical corrigenda TC1, TC2, and TC3 included}}&nbsp;{{small|(3.61&nbsp;MB)}} * [https://c-faq.com/ comp.lang.c Frequently Asked Questions] * [https://csapp.cs.cmu.edu/3e/docs/chistory.html A History of C], by Dennis Ritchie * [https://en.cppreference.com/w/c C Library Reference and Examples] {{C programming language|state=expanded}} {{Integrated development environments}} {{Programming languages}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:C (programming language)| ]] [[Category:American inventions]] [[Category:Articles with example C code]] [[Category:C programming language family]] [[Category:Cross-platform software]] [[Category:High-level programming languages]] [[Category:Procedural programming languages]] [[Category:Structured programming languages]] [[Category:Programming languages created in 1972]] [[Category:Programming languages with an ISO standard]] [[Category:Statically typed programming languages]] [[Category:Systems programming languages]] 387wgm8u4ydzd650mn42ohptqdj6716 0 46771 119325 112089 2026-08-13T22:55:47Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Add 5 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260813sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 119325 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|System that supports business decisions}} {{Redirect|Business Information System|the Finnish government service|Business Information System (government service)}} '''Nthowa ya uthenga''' ('''IS''') ni nthowa yakumanyikwa, [[sociotechnical]], ndondomeko ya bungwe iyo yikupangika kuti yitolere, kupanga, [[Kunozga na Kulongozga Uthenga|kusunga]], na [[ kugaŵira uthenga|kugaŵira]] [[uthenga]].<ref>{{kuzunura buku |kumaliya1=Piccoli |wakwamba1=Gabriele |wakumaliya2=Pigni |wakwamba2=Federico |mutu=Nthowa zakumanyiskira ŵalongozgi: na milandu|wakupharazga=Prospect Press |isbn=978-1-943153-50-3 |masamba=28 |buku=4.0 |url=https:// Prospectvt.com/maudindo/ndondomeko-za-uthenga-za-ŵalongozgi/ |kufika-zuŵa=25 Novembala 2018|zuŵa=Julayi 2018 }}</ref> Kufuma pa umo ŵanthu ŵakuwonera vinthu, ndondomeko za uthenga zili na vigaŵa vinayi: ntchito, ŵanthu, kapangikiro (panji maudindo), na luso.<ref name="Ohara et {{kuyowoya za nyuzipepara |kumaliya1=O'Hara |wakwamba1=Margaret |kumaliya2=Watson |wakwamba2=Richard |wakumaliya3=Cavan |wakwamba3=Bruce |mutu=Kulaŵilira vigaŵa vitatu vya kusintha |magazini=Kulaŵilira Nthowa za Uthenga |buku=16 |magazini=3 |zuŵa=1999 |page=64 |url=https:// 220630523 |zuŵa lakufikako=25 Novembala 2018|doi=10.1201/1078/43197.16.3.19990601/31317.9 }}</ref> Nthowa zakumanyiskira vinthu zingalongosoreka kuti ni kusazgako vigaŵa vyakusonkheska, kusunga na [[kupanga data|kupanga data]] ya [[kupanga data]] ya [[kupanga data] [[chinthu cha digito]]s icho chikupanga data ku kupangiska [[kusankha]]<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia|dazi=2020-11-12|mutu=Nthowa za Uthenga|url=https://www.britannica.com/mutu/ndondomeko-ya-uthenga| }}</ref> na data iyo yikugwiriskirika nchito kuti yipeleke uthenga na kuwovwira pa chimanyisko. '''Nthowa ya uthenga wa pa kompyuta''' ni nthowa, iyo yili na ŵanthu na makompyuta agho ghakupanga panji kuzgoŵezga uthenga.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.buku la bizinesi.com/kulongosora/ndondomeko-ya-uthenga.html| title=ndondomeko ya uthenga| ntchito=Dikishonale ya Bizinesi.com| zuŵa lakufikapo=21-09-2014| zuŵa lakusungiramo vinthu vyakale=2020-08-11| 2020811225424. url-mkhaliro = wakufwa}}</ref><ref>{{kuyowoya pa webusayiti| title=Nthowa zakumanyiskira| ntchito=Masambiro gha pa Intaneti pa Webusayiti| url= http://pespmc1.vub.ac.be/ASC/KUmanyiska_Nthowa. url= http://global.britannica.com/EBchecked/mutu/287895/ndondomeko-ya-uthenga |mutu=Nthowa-ya-uthenga| encyclopedia=Britain | D'Atri A., De Marco M., Casalino N. (2008). "Vigaŵa vyakupambanapambana vya masambiro gha ndondomeko ya uthenga", Physica-Verlag, Springer, Germany, pp. 2009-6}}</ref> Lizgu ili nyengo zinyake likugwiriskirikaso nchito ku . kuyowoya waka za kompyuta iyo yili na mapulogiramu gha pa kompyuta. "'''Nthowa zakumanyiskira'''" ni nthowaso ya masambiro ya masambiro ghakukhwaskana na ndondomeko izo zikuyowoya za uthenga na ma netiweki ghakovwira gha [[vipangizo vya pa kompyuta]] na mapulogiramu agho ŵanthu na mabungwe ŵakugwiliskira ntchito pakuwunganya, kusefa, kupanga, kupanga ndiposo [[Kugaŵira makompyuta|kugaŵira]] [[data (kugaŵira makompyuta)|data]].<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-01-16|title=Uteŵeti wa Uthenga na Nthowa Zakumanyiskira: Kasi Pali Mpambano Wuli? 2021-11-13|webusayiti=MzindaU wa Seattle|chiyowoyero=Chi-US}}</ref> Kukhozgera likuŵikika pa ndondomeko ya uthenga iyo yili na mphaka yakusimikizgika, awo ŵakugwiliskira ntchito, awo ŵakunozga, awo ŵakusunga, awo ŵakunjizga, awo ŵakufumamo na nthowa zakudumbiskana izo zayowoyeka pacanya apa.<ref>Jessup, Leonard M.; Yosefe S. Valaci (2008). ''Nthowa zakumanyiskira ŵanthu mazuŵa ghano'' (3rd ed.). Kusindikizga kwa Pearson. Buku la Mazgu p. 416 Mu mabungwe ghanandi, dipatimenti panji chigaŵa icho chikulaŵilira ndondomeko za uthenga na [[kupanga data]] chikumanyikwa kuti "'''ntchito za uthenga'''".<ref>{{cite web | title=Kasi Nthowa zakumanyiskira panji Ntchito zakumanyiskira (IS) ni vichi? | webusayiti=Kulongosora kufuma ku Techopedia | 1027/ndondomeko-za-uthenga-panji-maseŵero-gha-uthenga-ni | zuŵa lakufikapo=6 Malichi 2021}}</ref><ref>{{lembani webusayiti | title=Kasi IS (ndondomeko ya uthenga panji ntchito za uthenga) ni vichi? | webusayiti=Ivyo.com | url=https://nchivichi. zuŵa lakufikapo=6 Malichi 2021}}</ref><ref>{{lembani webusayiti| url=https://www.directory.gov.au/mapotifoliyo/ulimi-maji-na-chilengedwe/dipatimenti-ya-ulimi-maji-na-chilengedwe/gulu-la-maseŵero-ghakukhozga/maseŵero-ghakumanyiska| title=Mauteŵeti gha Uthenga| webusaiti=Chilongozgo| zuŵa=2 Juni 2017| wakupharazga=[[Boma la Australia]]| zuŵa lakufikapo=6 Malichi 2021| zuŵa lakusungiramo vinthu vyakale=27 Malichi 2022| Maji-na-chilengedwe cha ulimi-na-chilengedwe/ kukhozgera-mauteŵeti-gulu/uthenga-mauteŵeti| url-mkhaliro = wakufwa}}</ref><ref>{{kuyowoya pa webusayiti | title=Uthenga Smauteŵeti | webusayiti=Chigaŵa cha Ramsey | zuŵa=12 Seputembala 2015 | url=https://www.ramseycounty.us/boma-linu/madipatimenti/uthenga-na-vyakulemba-vya-boma/uthenga-wa-uthenga| zuŵa lakufika=6 Malichi 2021}}</ref> Nthowa yiliyose yakumanyiskira ŵanthu yikukhumba kovwira ntchito, kulongozga na [[kusankha vinthu]].<ref>{{cite journal|date=2013|title= Chigaŵa chakwamba cha kupanga ndondomeko yakumanyikwa ya pa charu chose chapasi yakugwiriskira ntchito tekinoloje yasono/Software 55312 Kafukufuku|buku=7|magazini=3|peji=250| kuzunura ml -mkhaliro = bot: wakumanyikwa yayi Nkhongono zakale 3, 2007 }}</ref> Nthowa yakumanyiskira ŵanthu ni [[uthenga na luso lwa kuyowoyeskana]] (ICT) ilo wupu ukugwiriskira nchito, ndiposo umo ŵanthu ŵakuchitira na luso ili kuti ŵawovwire pa ndondomeko ya bizinesi.<ref>Kroenke, D . M. (2008). Kukumana na MIS. Holo ya Prentice, Mtsinje wa Saddle Wapachanya, NJ Ŵalembi ŵanyake ŵakupambaniska makora pakati pa ndondomeko ya kumanyiskira ŵanthu vinthu, [[ndondomeko ya kompyuta]], na [[ndondomeko ya bizinesi]]. Nthowa zakumanyiskira ŵanthu zikuŵa na chigaŵa cha ICT kweni zikukhwaskana na ICT pera yayi, zikuŵika mtima pa kugwiliskira ntchito [[tekinoloje ya uthenga]]. Nthowa zakumanyiskira ŵanthu vinthu zikupambanaso na ndondomeko ya bizinesi. Nthowa zakumanyiskira ŵanthu zikovwira kuti ndondomeko za bizinesi zichitikenge makora.<ref>O'Brien, J A. (2003). Kuyambiska kwa ndondomeko za uthenga: vyakuzirwa vya bizinesi ya e-business. McGraw-Hill, Boston, MA Kusintha<ref>Kusintha, S. (2003). "Vifukwa 18 ivyo vikupangiska kuti ndondomeko za ntchito zakuthemba pa IT zikwenera kunjilirapo pa 'Chinthu cha IT' nga ni Nkhani Yikuru ya Munda wa IS"], ​​''Kudumbiskana ya Wupu wa Nthowa Zakumanyiskira Ŵanthu '', 12 (23), Okutobala, pp. 365–394. {{kuyowoya za nyuzipepara | last1 = Sinthani | wakwamba1 = S | chaka = 2013 | title = Nthowa ya Ntchito: Kuwoneseska Mazgu Ghakuzirwa, Kusazgirapo, na Masuzgo gha Munthazi | url = https://kusungirako.usfca.edu/cgi/kuwona ivyo vili mukati.cgi?nkhani=1034&nkhani=pa | journal = Buku la Wupu wa Nthowa Zakumanyiskira | buku = 14 | nkhani = 2| masamba = 72-121 | doi = 10.17705/1jayisi.00323 | doi-access = free }}</ref> wakususka kuti kuwona ndondomeko ya uthenga nga ni mtundu wapadera wa [[ndondomeko ya ntchito]] kuli na vitumbiko vyake. Nthowa ya ntchito ni nthowa iyo ŵanthu panji makina ŵakuchitira ndondomeko na milimo yakugwiliskira ntchito vinthu kuti ŵapange vinthu panji ntchito zakupambanapambana za makasitomala. Nthowa ya uthenga ni nthowa ya ntchito iyo milimo yikupelekeka ku kukora, kutumizga, kusunga, kusanga, kugwiliskira ntchito na kulongora uthenga.<ref>Alter, S. (2006) Nthowa ya Nthowa ya Ntchito: Kulumikiza Ŵanthu, Ndondomeko, na IT ya Bizinesi . Vyakusatira. Nthowa yakusindikizgirako ntchito, CA</ref> Pakuŵa nthena, ndondomeko za uthenga zikukolerana na ndondomeko za data ku chigaŵa chimoza na ndondomeko za milimo ku chigaŵa chinyake.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Bacon|first1=C. James|wakumaliya2=Fitzgerald|wakwamba2=Brian|dazi=2001-04-01|mutu=Nthowa ya ndondomeko ya ndondomeko ya uthenga| DATABASE ya Kulutilira kwa Uthenga Nthowa zakumanyikwa ni mtundu wa [[kuyowoyeskana] mu umo data yikwimira ndipo yikupangika nga ni mtundu wa kukumbukira kwa ŵanthu. Nthowa yakumanyiskira vinthu yingawonekaso kuti ni semi-[[chiyowoyero chakumanyikwa]] icho chikovwira ŵanthu kusankha na kuchita vinthu. Nthowa zakumanyiskira ŵanthu ndizo zikusambizgika chomene pa nkhani ya uthenga wa bungwe.<ref>Beynon-Davies P. (2009). Nthowa zakumanyiskira ŵanthu vya bizinesi. Palgrave, ku Basingstoke ==Kuwonera mwakudumura== Siliva na ŵanyake. (1995) wakapeleka maghanoghano ghaŵiri pa IS agho ghakusazgapo mapulogalamu gha kompyuta, vipangizo, data, ŵanthu, na ndondomeko. =Chiyelezgero cha Kusambizga vya Tekinoloje: Fundo ya Masambiro Ghakuzirwa gha MBA|journal=MIS Kotala|dazi=Sep 1995|masamba=361–390|url=http://misq.org/chiyelezgero-cha-kuchezga-vya-uthenga-wa-maziko-gha-mba-core-course.html?SID =k2fh85s9nd5a2ne85qh5a3luso7}}</ref> [[Association for Computing Machinery]] yikulongosora kuti "Ŵasayansi ŵa ndondomeko ya uthenga [nga] ŵakuŵika mtima [ing] pa kuphatikiza [[umanyi]] mayankho na ndondomeko za bizinesi kuti ŵafiske ivyo vikukhumbikwa pa uthenga wa malonda na mabizinesi ghanyake."<ref name=" masambiro">Gulu lakukolerana la masambiro gha pa kompyuta 2005. Masambiro gha pa kompyuta gha 2005: Lipoti la Kuwoneseska (pdf)] {{CC2005-March06Final.pdf |zuŵa=2014-10-21 }}</ref > Pali mitundu yakupambanapambana ya ndondomeko za uthenga, : kusazgapo [[ndondomeko yakulongozgera malonda]]s, [[ndondomeko yakuwovwira pakusankha]]s, [[ndondomeko yakulongozgera chimanyisko]]s, [[ndondomeko yakulongozgera kusambira]]s, [[ndondomeko yakulongozgera database . system]]s, na ndondomeko zakumanyiskira ŵanthu mu maofesi. Chinthu chakuzirwa chomene ku ndondomeko zinandi za uthenga ni tekinoloje ya uthenga, iyo kanandi yikupangika kuti yiwovwire ŵanthu kuchita milimo iyo wongo wa munthu ukukwaniska yayi, nga ni: kugwiliskira ntchito uthenga unandi, kuchita mawerengero ghakusuzga, na kulongozga vinthu vinandi ivyo vikuchitika pa nyengo yimoza. Ma tekinoloje ghakumanyiska ŵanthu ni chinthu chakuzirwa chomene ndiposo chakukhozga chomene icho chikusangika ku ŵalara ŵa boma.<ref>Rockart et al. (1996) Vinthu 8 vyakuzirwa vya bungwe liphya la IT Sloan Management review.</ref> Makampani ghanandi ghapanga malo gha [[mulongozgi wa uthenga]] (CIO) uyo wakukhala pa wupu wa ŵalara pamoza na [[mulongozgi mulara]]. (CEO), [[mulongozgi wa vya ndalama]] (CFO), [[mulongozgi wa ntchito]] (COO), na . [[mulongozgi wa ŵasayansi]] (CTO). CTO wangateŵeteraso nga ni CIO, ndiposo mwakuyana waka. [[mulongozgi wa chivikiliro cha uthenga]] (CISO) wakuŵika mtima chomene pa [[chivikiliro cha uthenga]] kulongozga. ===Vigaŵa 6=== ''Vigaŵa 6'' ivyo vikwenera kuwungana pamoza kuti vipangiske ndondomeko ya uthenga ni ivi:<ref>{{Cite buku |kumaliya=Stair |kwamba=Ralph |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/ 1305839544 |mutu=Fundo za Nthowa za Kumanyiska |zuŵa=2020 |wakupharazga=Cengage 14.Malo gha Mason, OH. #''Hardware'': Lizgu lakuti hardware likuyowoya za makina na vipangizo. Mu ndondomeko ya mazuŵa ghano yakumanyiskira ŵanthu vinthu, chigaŵa ichi chikusazgapo kompyuta na vinthu vyose ivyo vikovwira. Vipangizo vyakovwira vikusazgapo vipangizo vyakunjilirapo na vyakufumamo, vipangizo vyakusungirako na vipangizo vyakupharazgira. Mu ndondomeko za uthenga za pambere kompyuta yindaŵeko, hardware yingaŵa na mabuku gha ledger na inki. #''Software'': Lizgu lakuti software likuyowoya za mapulogiramu gha pa kompyuta na mabuku (usange ghalipo) agho ghakovwira. Mapulogalamu gha pa kompyuta ni malango agho ghakuŵazgika na makina agho ghakulongozga vigaŵa ivyo vili mu vigaŵa vya hardware kuti vigwirenge ntchito mu nthowa izo zikupangiska kuti paŵe uthenga wakukhumbikwa kufuma mu data. Mapulogalamu ghakusungika pa vinthu vinyake vyakunjilirapo/vyakufumapo, kanandi pa diski panji pa tepi. "Software" ya ndondomeko ya uthenga wa pambere kompyuta yindaŵeko yikaŵa na umo hardware yikanozgekera kuti yigwiriskike nchito (mwachiyelezgero, mitu ya mizati mu buku la ledger) na malango ghakugwiriskira nchito (buku la ndondomeko ya katalogo ya khadi). #''Data'': Data ni fundo izo zikugwiriskirika nchito na ndondomeko kuti zipangiske uthenga wakukhumbikwa. Mu ndondomeko za mazuŵa ghano zakumanyiskira ŵanthu vinthu, kanandi ŵakusunga vinthu ivyo vikuŵazgika na makina pa diski panji pa tepi m’paka apo kompyuta yivikhumbe. Mu ndondomeko za uthenga za pambere kompyuta yindaŵeko, kanandi data yikasungikanga mu nthowa iyo ŵanthu ŵangaŵazga. #''Nthowa'': Ndondomeko ni ndondomeko izo zikulaŵilira umo ndondomeko ya uthenga yikugwilira ntchito. "Nthowa ni ku ŵanthu ivyo mapulogalamu ghali ku hardware" ni ntharika yakumanyikwa iyo yikugwiriskirika nchito kulongosora mulimo wa ndondomeko mu ndondomeko. #''Ŵanthu'': Nthowa yiliyose yikukhumba ŵanthu usange yikukhumba kuŵa yakovwira. Kanandi chinthu icho chikulekeskeka chomene pa ndondomeko iyi ni ŵanthu, ndipo panji ndicho chikupangiska chomene kuti ndondomeko za uthenga zichitike makora panji zitondeke. Ivi vikusazgapo "ŵanthu awo ŵakugwiliskira ntchito makompyuta pera yayi, kweni awo ŵakugwiliskira ntchito na kuteŵetera makompyuta, awo ŵakusunga data, na awo ŵakukhozgera netiweki ya makompyuta".<ref>Kroenke, D. M. (2015). Vinthu vyakuzirwa vya MIS. Masambiro gha Pearson #''Internet'': Intaneti ni chinthu icho chikusazgapo data na ŵanthu. (Nangauli chigaŵa ichi nchakukhumbikwa yayi kuti chigwirenge ntchito.) Data ndiyo bulawuro pakati pa hardware na ŵanthu. Ici cikung’anamura kuti data iyo tikutora ni data pera mpaka apo tikunjilirepo ŵanthu. Pa nyengo iyo, data yikuŵa uthenga. ==Mitundu== [[Fayilo:Chiyelezgero cha Piramidi-ya Vigaŵa Vinayi.png|chigunwe|Mndandanda wa Vigaŵa Vinayi |250px]] Kuwona kwa "chikhalidwe" kwa ndondomeko za Uthenga izo zikusangika mu mabuku ghakusambizgira<ref>Laudon, K.C. na Laudon, J.P. Nthowa zakumanyiskira vyakulongozga, Macmillan, 1988.</ref> mu vilimika vya m’ma 1980 pakaŵa piramidi ya ndondomeko izo zikalongoranga ndondomeko ya bungwe, kanandi [[ndondomeko zakulongozgera malonda]] zikaŵanga pasi pa piramidi, ndipo pamanyuma pake pakaŵanga [ 1 ]. [ndondomeko zakumanyiskira ŵalongozgi]], [[ndondomeko zakovwira pa kusankha vinthu]], ndipo kumalizga na . [[ndondomeko zakumanyiskira ŵalara ŵa boma]] pachanya. Nangauli chiyelezgero cha piramidi chikulutilira kuŵa chakovwira kufuma waka apo chikapangikira, kweni vinthu viphya vinandi vyapangika ndiposo vigaŵa viphya vya ndondomeko za uthenga vyawoneka, vinyake mwa vinthu ivi vikukoleranaso yayi na chiyelezgero chakwamba cha piramidi. Viyelezgero vinyake vya ndondomeko zanthena ni ivi: {{div col}} * [[Mahara ghakupangika]] ndondomeko * [[Pulatifomu ya kompyuta]] * [[Malo ghakusungiramo data]] * [[Nthowa yakuwovwira ŵanthu kusankha vinthu]] * [[Kunozga vyakukhumbikwa vya bizinesi]] * [[Nthowa za bizinesi]] * [[Nthowa za ŵamanyi]] * [[Nthowa yakumanyiskira malo]] * [[Uthenga wa pa charu chose s .dongosolo]] * [[Nthowa yakumanyiskira vyakulongozga]] * [[Database ya vithuzithuzi vinandi|Nthowa yakumanyiskira vithuzithuzi vinandi]] * [[Kuchita kwa ofesi]] * [[Nthowa yakulongozgera ndondomeko]] * [[Ma injini ghakupenjera]] * [[Nthowa yakumanyiskira ŵanthu]]s {{div col kumapeto}} Nthowa yakumanyiskira ŵanthu pa kompyuta (-based) ndiyo yikupangiska kuti IS yigwiriskirenge nchito tekinoloje ya kompyuta kuti yichitenge milimo yinyake panji yose iyo yikunozga. Vigaŵa vyakuzirwa vya ndondomeko ya kumanyiska ŵanthu pa kompyuta ni ivi: *''Hardware'' ni vipangizo nga ni monita, purosesa, printer, na kiyibodi, vyose vikugwira ntchito pamoza kuti vizomerezge, kugwira ntchito, kulongora data, na uthenga. *''Software'' ni mapulogalamu agho ghakuzomerezga kuti hardware yichitenge data. *''Databases'' ni kuwunganya mafayilo panji matebulo ghakukolerana agho ghali na data yakukolerana. *''Networks'' ni nthowa yakukolerana iyo yikupangiska kuti makompyuta ghakupambanapambana ghagaŵire vinthu. *''Nthowa'' ni malango ghakusazga vigaŵa ivyo vili pachanya kuti vipangiske uthenga na kupanga ivyo vikukhumbikwa. Vigaŵa vinayi vyakwamba (hardware, software, database, na network) ndivyo vikupanga ivyo vikuchemeka kuti pulatifomu ya tekinoloje. Ŵantchito ŵa vya tekinoloje ŵangagwiliskira ntchito vigaŵa ivi kuti ŵapange ndondomeko za uthenga izo zikulaŵilira ndondomeko za chivikiliro, ngozi na umo data yikuchitikira. Ivyo ŵakuchita vikumanyikwa kuti ntchito za tekinoloje.<ref>Rainer, R. Mazgu ghakwamba gha Nthowa Yakumanyiskira: Wovwiri na Kusintha Bizinesi Buku Lachinayi. New Jersey: John Wiley na Ŵana ŵake, Inc., 2012. Nthowa zinyake zakumanyiskira ŵanthu vinthu zikovwira vigaŵa vinyake vya mabungwe, zinyake zikovwira mabungwe ghose, ndipo zinyake zikovwira magulu gha mabungwe. Dipatimenti yiliyose panji malo ghakugwilira ntchito mu wupu ghali na msonkho wake wa mapulogiramu ghakugwiriskira ncito panji ndondomeko za uthenga. Nthowa izi zakumanyiskira malo ghakugwira ntchito (FAIS) ni nkhongono zakovwira pa IS yose iyo ni, [[mahara gha bizinesi]] nthowa na [[dashboard]].{{Citation needed|date=May 2013}} Nga umo zina likuyowoyera, FAIS yiliyose likuwovwira ntchito yinyake mu wupu, mwachiyelezgero: kupenda ndalama, ndalama, kupanga-kugwira ntchito kulongozga (POM) IS, malonda IS, na ŵanthu IS. Pa nkhani ya ndalama na kupenda ndalama, ŵalara ŵa boma ŵakugwiliskira ntchito nthowa za IT kuti ŵamanye umo ndalama zizamuŵira na umo bizinesi yikuchitikira, kuti ŵamanye uko ndalama zingafuma makora na umo zingagwiriskikira ntchito, ndiposo kuti ŵachitenge kafukufuku kuti ŵawoneseske kuti wupu uwu uli makora chomene ndiposo kuti malipoti ghose gha vya ndalama na mabuku ghake ghali ghaunenesko. Mitundu yinyake ya ndondomeko ya uthenga wa bungwe ni FAIS, [[ndondomeko yakupangira malonda]]s, [[kunozga vyakugwiriskira ncito vya bizinesi]], [[kujiyimira paŵekha kwa ofesi]] ndondomeko, [[ndondomeko yakumanyiskira ŵalongozgi]], [[ndondomeko yakovwira pa kusankha vinthu]], . [[ndondomeko ya ŵamanyi]], dashibodi ya ŵalaraŵalara, [[dongosolo la kulongozga vyakupeleka]], na [[malonda gha pa kompyuta]] dongosolo. Dashboards ni mtundu wapadera wa IS uwo ukuwovwira ŵalongozgi wose ŵa bungwe. Iwo ŵakupereka mwaŵi wa kusanga uthenga mwaluŵiro ndiposo kusanga mwaluŵiro uthenga wakunozgeka mu nthowa ya malipoti. Nthowa za ŵamanyi zikuyezgayezga kurongosora mulimo wa ŵamanyi ŵa ŵanthu mwa kugwiliskira nchito luso lwa kughanaghana, cimanyisko, na luso mu cigaŵa cinyake. ==Kutukuka== Dipatimenti ya vyakupangapanga mu mabungwe ghakurughakuru yikutemwa chomene kukhuŵilizga pakupanga, kugwiliskira ntchito, na kugwiliskira ntchito vyakupangapanga mu bizinesi. Nthowa na ndondomeko zakupambanapambana zingaseŵezeskeka kuti paŵe na kugwiliskira nchito ndondomeko ya uthenga. Ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakupanga vinthu ŵakugwiliskira nchito nthowa yakupangira vinthu nga ni [[dongosolo la umoyo]] (SDLC), kuti ŵapange ndondomeko ya uthenga mu vigaŵa. Vigaŵa vya umoyo wa kupanga ndondomeko ni ndondomeko, kusanda ndondomeko, na ivyo vikukhumbikwa, ndondomeko ya kupanga, kupanga, kuphatikizga na kuyezga, kukhazikiska na kugwira ntchito, na kupwelelera. Kafukufuku wasonosono apa wakukhumba kupangiska kuti<ref>{{zunurani magazini|kumaliya1=Neumann|kwamba1=Gustaf|kumaliya2=Sobernig|kwamba2=Stefan|kumaliya3=Aram|kwamba3=Michael|mutu=Nthowa zakumanyiskira vinthu vya bizinesi zakusintha|journal=Nthowa zakumanyiskira vinthu vya bizinesi Uinjiniya|zuŵa=Febuluwale 2014|buku=6|magazini=1|masamba=33–36|doi=10.1007/s12599-0305-1|s2cid=15979292}}</ref> na kupima magazini|yakumaliya1=Aram|yakwamba1=Michael|yakumaliya2=Neumann|yakwamba2=Gustaf|mutu=Kusanda kwa vigaŵa vinandi kwa kupanga pamoza kwa ndondomeko za uthenga wa bizinesi|magazini=Nyuzipepara ya Intaneti na Mapulogalamu 1| kulutilira, kukura kwa pamoza kwa ndondomeko zanthena mukati mwa bungwe na wose awo ŵakuchitako ŵanthu ŵekha. Nthowa yakumanyiskira vinthu yingapangika mu nyumba (mukati mwa bungwe) panji kupelekeka ku ŵanyawo. Ivi vingafiskika mwa kupereka vigaŵa vinyake panji ndondomeko yose ku ŵanyake.<ref>{{cite book|title=Using MIS|chaka=2009|wakupharazga=Kroenke|isbn=978-0-13-713029-0|kulembeska| ni kugaŵika kwa malo kwa th .e gulu la chitukuko ([[kufumira ku nyanja]], [[ndondomeko ya uthenga wa pa charu chose]]). Nthowa yakumanyiskira vinthu pa kompyuta, yakulondezga ng’anamuro la [[Langefors]],<ref>{{zunura buku|lakumaliya= Börje Langefors|mulembi-link= Börje Langefors|mutu=Kusanda kwa Visambizgo vya Uthenga Nthowa zakulembera, kusunga, na kuthandazga mazgu gha viyowoyero, ndiposo zakusangirapo fundo kufuma ku mazgu ghanthena agha . mazgu ghakuyowoya. [[Nthowa zakumanyiskira malo mu nzeru za malo|Nthowa zakumanyiskira malo]], nthowa zakumanyiskira malo, na nthowa zakumanyiskira masoka gha chilengiwa ni viyelezgero vya nthowa zakumanyiskira ivyo vikuwoneka, kweni zingawoneka mwakukwana nga ni nthowa zakumanyiskira malo. Kupanga ndondomeko kukuchitika mu vigaŵa ivyo vikusazgapo:<ref>{{zunura buku|mutu=Masambiro gha pa kompyuta|chaka=2008|wakupharazga=Frederick Nyawaya| * Kumanya suzgo na kulongosora * Kuwunganya uthenga * Vinthu ivyo vikukhumbikwa pa ndondomeko yiphya * Kapangilo ka ndondomeko * Kuzenga kwa ndondomeko * Kukhazikiska ndondomeko * Kuwoneseska na kunozga ==Nga ni chilango cha masambiro== {{Wonaniso|Injiniya wa uthenga|Sayansi ya uthenga|Tekinoloje ya uthenga|Kulaŵilira uthenga}} Munda wa masambiro uwo ukuchemeka ''information systems'' ukukhwaska mitu yakupambanapambana kusazgapo kusanda na kupanga ndondomeko, kupanga makompyuta, kuvikilira uthenga, kulongozga database, na ndondomeko zakovwira pakusankha vinthu. ''[[Kulaŵilira uthenga]]'' kukukhwaskana na masuzgo ghakuchitika na ghakusambizgika ghakusonkheska na kusanda uthenga mu malo gha ntchito ya bizinesi kusazgapo vipangizo vyakupangira bizinesi, kupanga mapulogalamu na kukhazikiska, malonda gha pa kompyuta, kupanga vyakupharazgira vya pa intaneti, migodi ya data, na wovwiri wakusankha . ''Kudumbiskana na kupanga ma netiweki'' kukukhwaskana na tekinoloje ya kuyowoyeskana pa foni. Nthowa zakumanyiskira ŵanthu zikukoleska [[bizinesi]] na [[sayansi ya kompyuta]] mwakugwiliskira ntchito visambizgo vya [[uthenga]] na [[kupenda]] kuti ŵasambire mitundu yakupambanapambana ya bizinesi na ndondomeko zakukhwaskana na [[algorithm]]ic <ref>{{ kuzunura Web|url=http://www. Melbourne, Australia}}</ref> pa kuzenga ndondomeko za IT <ref>{{Yowoyani pa webusayiti | url=htt:Masambiro/masambiro/049802 | title=Kuzenga Nthowa za IT – Yunivesite ya RMIT}}</ref><ref>{{kuyowoya pa webusayiti|url=http://www. title=Kupanga ndondomeko – Vigaŵa vya masambiro – Yunivesite ya Swinburne ya Tekinoloje – Melbourne, Australia 52/www. mu chisambizgo cha sayansi ya kompyuta. |wakwamba4=Ben |zuŵa=Julayi 1999 |mutu=Kuŵika mtima Nkhani pa Nthowa Zakumanyiskira Ŵanthu Ŵakale na Uinjiniya wa Nthowa za Bizinesi: Kuwona kwa Bizinesi kwa Nthowa Zakumanyikwa Zakale |journal=Kupharazga kwa AIS |buku=2 |nkhani=7 |masamba=1–27}}</ref><ref name="Archibald1975 ">{{kuzunura magazini |kumaliya=Archibald |kwamba=J.A. |date=May 1975 |title=Masambiro gha sayansi ya kompyuta gha masambiro ghakuru gha visambizgo vinyake |journal=AFIPS Joint Computer Conferences |pages=903–906 |quote=Sayansi ya kompyuta yikuthandazgika mu visambizgo vinandi vyakukhwaskana, ndipo yikugaŵana na visambizgo ivi visambizgo vinyake vichokovichoko- kuti mwachikhaliro ŵali kusangika waka mu . visambizgo vinandi vyakumanyikwa}}</ref><ref zina="Denning1999">{{zunura magazini |yakumaliya=Denning |yakwamba=Peter |dazi=Julayi 1999 |mutu=Sayansi ya Makompyuta: Chisambizgo |magazini=Encyclopaedia ya Sayansi ya Makompyuta ( 2000 Edition) |quote=Chigaŵa cha Sayansi ya Makompyuta: Nangauli sayansi ya kompyuta yikulongosora . vyose viŵiri vyakupangika na ŵanthu na vyakuchitika vya chilengiwa, kuyezgayezga kukuru mu chilango ichi kwalongozgeka ku ndondomeko zakupangika na ŵanthu, chomenechomene ndondomeko zakupangira uthenga na makina}}</ref><ref name="Coy 2004 7–10">{{ cite nyuzipepara |kumaliya=Coy |kwamba=Wolfgang |zuŵa=Juni 2004 |mutu=Pakati pa visambizgo |magazini=ACM SIGCSE Bulletin |buku=36 |magazini=2 |masamba=7–10 |issn= 0097-8418 |quote=Sayansi ya kompyuta yingaŵa mu mtima wa ndondomeko izi. Fumbo leneco ndakuti tileke kughanaghanira mphaka za malango na nthowa zake zakupambanapambana yayi, kweni tijure malango kuti ghagwirenge ntchito pamoza. Tikwenera kusambira kuzenga milatho, kuti tileke kwamba mu mphambano pakati pa visambizgo | 2001 |mutu=Masambiro ghanyake viyerezgero vyakusazga sayansi ya kompyuta na kusanda ndondomeko ya uthenga, viyezgelero, mitego, mwaŵi, kuzomerezgeka, na ivyo vikuchitika |journal=Journal ya Sayansi ya Makompyuta mu Makoleji |volume=17 |issue=2 |e gulu la chitukuko ([[kufumira ku nyanja]], [[ndondomeko ya uthenga wa pa charu chose]]). Nthowa yakumanyiskira vinthu pa kompyuta, yakulondezga ng’anamuro la [[Langefors]],<ref>{{zunura buku|lakumaliya= Börje Langefors|mulembi-link= Börje Langefors|mutu=Kusanda kwa Visambizgo vya Uthenga Nthowa zakulembera, kusunga, na kuthandazga mazgu gha viyowoyero, ndiposo zakusangirapo fundo kufuma ku mazgu ghanthena agha . mazgu ghakuyowoya. [[Nthowa zakumanyiskira malo mu nzeru za malo|Nthowa zakumanyiskira malo]], nthowa zakumanyiskira malo, na nthowa zakumanyiskira masoka gha chilengiwa ni viyelezgero vya nthowa zakumanyiskira ivyo vikuwoneka, kweni zingawoneka mwakukwana nga ni nthowa zakumanyiskira malo. Kupanga ndondomeko kukuchitika mu vigaŵa ivyo vikusazgapo:<ref>{{zunura buku|mutu=Masambiro gha pa kompyuta|chaka=2008|wakupharazga=Frederick Nyawaya| * Kumanya suzgo na kulongosora * Kuwunganya uthenga * Vinthu ivyo vikukhumbikwa pa ndondomeko yiphya * Kapangilo ka ndondomeko * Kuzenga kwa ndondomeko * Kukhazikiska ndondomeko * Kuwoneseska na kunozga ==Nga ni chilango cha masambiro== {{Wonaniso|Injiniya wa uthenga|Sayansi ya uthenga|Tekinoloje ya uthenga|Kulaŵilira uthenga}} Munda wa masambiro uwo ukuchemeka ''information systems'' ukukhwaska mitu yakupambanapambana kusazgapo kusanda na kupanga ndondomeko, kupanga makompyuta, kuvikilira uthenga, kulongozga database, na ndondomeko zakovwira pakusankha vinthu. ''[[Kulaŵilira uthenga]]'' kukukhwaskana na masuzgo ghakuchitika na ghakusambizgika ghakusonkheska na kusanda uthenga mu malo gha ntchito ya bizinesi kusazgapo vipangizo vyakupangira bizinesi, kupanga mapulogalamu na kukhazikiska, malonda gha pa kompyuta, kupanga vyakupharazgira vya pa intaneti, migodi ya data, na wovwiri wakusankha . ''Kudumbiskana na kupanga ma netiweki'' kukukhwaskana na tekinoloje ya kuyowoyeskana pa foni. Nthowa zakumanyiskira ŵanthu zikukoleska [[bizinesi]] na [[sayansi ya kompyuta]] mwakugwiliskira ntchito visambizgo vya [[uthenga]] na [[kupenda]] kuti ŵasambire mitundu yakupambanapambana ya bizinesi na ndondomeko zakukhwaskana na [[algorithm]]ic <ref>{{ kuzunura Web|url=http://www. Melbourne, Australia}}</ref> pa kuzenga ndondomeko za IT <ref>{{Yowoyani pa webusayiti | url=htt:Masambiro/masambiro/049802 | title=Kuzenga Nthowa za IT – Yunivesite ya RMIT}}</ref><ref>{{kuyowoya pa webusayiti|url=http://www. title=Kupanga ndondomeko – Vigaŵa vya masambiro – Yunivesite ya Swinburne ya Tekinoloje – Melbourne, Australia 52/www. mu chisambizgo cha sayansi ya kompyuta. |wakwamba4=Ben |zuŵa=Julayi 1999 |mutu=Kuŵika mtima Nkhani pa Nthowa Zakumanyiskira Ŵanthu Ŵakale na Uinjiniya wa Nthowa za Bizinesi: Kuwona kwa Bizinesi kwa Nthowa Zakumanyikwa Zakale |journal=Kupharazga kwa AIS |buku=2 |nkhani=7 |masamba=1–27}}</ref><ref name="Archibald1975 ">{{kuzunura magazini |kumaliya=Archibald |kwamba=J.A. |date=May 1975 |title=Masambiro gha sayansi ya kompyuta gha masambiro ghakuru gha visambizgo vinyake |journal=AFIPS Joint Computer Conferences |pages=903–906 |quote=Sayansi ya kompyuta yikuthandazgika mu visambizgo vinandi vyakukhwaskana, ndipo yikugaŵana na visambizgo ivi visambizgo vinyake vichokovichoko- kuti mwachikhaliro ŵali kusangika waka mu . visambizgo vinandi vyakumanyikwa}}</ref><ref zina="Denning1999">{{zunura magazini |yakumaliya=Denning |yakwamba=Peter |dazi=Julayi 1999 |mutu=Sayansi ya Makompyuta: Chisambizgo |magazini=Encyclopaedia ya Sayansi ya Makompyuta ( 2000 Edition) |quote=Chigaŵa cha Sayansi ya Makompyuta: Nangauli sayansi ya kompyuta yikulongosora . vyose viŵiri vyakupangika na ŵanthu na vyakuchitika vya chilengiwa, kuyezgayezga kukuru mu chilango ichi kwalongozgeka ku ndondomeko zakupangika na ŵanthu, chomenechomene ndondomeko zakupangira uthenga na makina}}</ref><ref name="Coy 2004 7–10">{{ cite nyuzipepara |kumaliya=Coy |kwamba=Wolfgang |zuŵa=Juni 2004 |mutu=Pakati pa visambizgo |magazini=ACM SIGCSE Bulletin |buku=36 |magazini=2 |masamba=7–10 |issn= 0097-8418 |quote=Sayansi ya kompyuta yingaŵa mu mtima wa ndondomeko izi. Fumbo leneco ndakuti tileke kughanaghanira mphaka za malango na nthowa zake zakupambanapambana yayi, kweni tijure malango kuti ghagwirenge ntchito pamoza. Tikwenera kusambira kuzenga milatho, kuti tileke kwamba mu mphambano pakati pa visambizgo | 2001 |mutu=Masambiro ghanyake viyerezgero vyakusazga sayansi ya kompyuta na kusanda ndondomeko ya uthenga, viyezgelero, mitego, mwaŵi, kuzomerezgeka, na ivyo vikuchitika |journal=Journal ya Sayansi ya Makompyuta mu Makoleji |volume=17 |issue=2 |–21 |issn= 0001-0782 |quote=Nangauli vigaŵa vinyake vikukolerana na mapulogiramu gha kompyuta na mulimo wawo pa kapangilo ka dongosolo lose nkhwakuzirwa chomene, kweni chinthu chikuru icho chikwenera kughanaghaniridwa pa dongosolo ilo likugwiriskira ntchito mapulogiramu ghanandi ni mapulogiramu gha pa kompyuta, na nthowa zinyake . kuti ŵapangire vinthu mwandondomeko ŵandamazge "suzgo la mapulogalamu"—ilo lizamumara yayi m’paka apo mapulogiramu ghapangike ghapulikiskike mwa sayansi . s2cid=14331332 }}</ref> Ŵasambiri ŵanandi ŵa IS ŵadumbiskana za umo ndondomeko za uthenga zikuŵira na maziko ghake agho ghakufuma mu visambizgo vinyake vyakulongosora nga ni [[sayansi ya kompyuta]], [[uinjiniya]], [[masamu]], [[sayansi ya kalongozgiro]], [[ cybernetics]], na ŵanyake.<ref>Culnan, M. J. Kupanga Mapu ya Kapangidwe ka Mahara ka MIS, 2019 . 1980–1985: Kusanda kwakuyowoyeka pamoza, ''MIS Kotala'', 1987, pp. 341–353. Msonkhano Wakwamba wa Pacharu Chose pa Nthowa za Kumanyiskira Ŵanthu'', E. McLean (ed.), Philadelphia, PA, 1980, pp. IYO. 1991, pp. Nthowa zakumanyiskira ŵanthu: Nthowa yakumanyikwa?, McGraw- Hill, London, 1997.</ref> Nthowa zakumanyiskira ŵanthu nazo zingalongosoreka kuti ni msonkho wa vipangizo vyakukhozga, mapulogalamu gha kompyuta, data, ŵanthu, na ndondomeko izo zikukolerana kuti zipangiske uthenga uwemi. ===Mazgu ghakuyana=== [[Fayilo:IS-Ubale-Chart.jpg|thumb|Ubale wa ndondomeko za uthenga na [[tekinoloje ya uthenga]], [[sayansi ya kompyuta]], [[sayansi ya uthenga]], na [[bizinesi]].]] Kuyana waka na sayansi ya kompyuta, visambizgo vinyake vingawoneka kuti ni visambizgo vyakukhwaskana na fawundeshoni ya IS. Chigaŵa cha kusambira IS chikukhwaskana na kusambira visambizgo na mikhaliro yakukhwaskana na vyakuchitika vya ŵanthu na vya tekinoloje, ivyo vikupangiska kuti ndondomeko za uthenga ziŵe zakukura, kugwiliskira ntchito, na vyakuchitika mu mabungwe na ŵanthu.<ref>John, W., na Joe, P (2002) "Kupanga ndondomeko ya ndondomeko ya uthenga." Ed yachitatu. Kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Sussex. John Wiley & Sons Ltd</ref> Kweni, nangauli pangaŵa kugaŵikana kukuru kwa visambizgo pa mphaka, visambizgo vichali vyakupambana na ivyo vikuŵikapo mtima, chilato, na umo vikuchitikira.<ref name="dogpile.com" >{{zunura web|url=http://www.mabuku/makompyuta/leslie-j/2006/mafayilo/ndondomeko zakumanyikwa Nthowa|zuŵa-lakufikira=2017-12-04|zuŵa-lakusungirako=2016-07-31|kusungamo-url=https. 2006.pdf#page=30|url-status=wakufwa}}</ref> Mu fundo yikuru, ''ndondomeko za uthenga'' ni fundo ya sayansi iyo yikulongosora vya ndondomeko, vyakulongozga, na vyakuchitika ivyo vikuchitika pakuwunganya, kupanga, kusunga, kugaŵira, na kugwiliskira ntchito uthenga na tekinoloje yakukolerana nayo mu charu . na mabungwe.<ref name="dogpile.com"/> Lizgu lakuti ''ndondomeko za uthenga'' nalo likugwiriskirika nchito kulongosora mulimo wa bungwe ilo likugwiriskira ncito cimanyisko ca IS mu mafakitale, mabungwe gha boma, na mabungwe ghambura kusanga phindu.<ref name="dogpile.com"/> ''Nthowa zakumanyiskira'' kanandi zikung'anamura kukolerana pakati pa ndondomeko za algorithmic na tekinoloje. Kuchezga uku kungachitika mukati panji ku mphaka ya bungwe. Nthowa ya uthenga ni tekinoloje iyo wupu ukugwiliskira ntchito ndiposo umo mabungwe ghakuchitira na tekinoloje na umo tekinoloje yikugwilira ntchito na ndondomeko ya bizinesi ya wupu. Nthowa zakumanyiskira ŵanthu zikupambana na [[information technology]] (IT) chifukwa nthowa zakumanyiskira vinthu zili na chigaŵa cha uthenga icho chikukolerana na vigaŵa vya ndondomeko. Suzgo linyake ilo lilipo na nthowa iyi ndakuti likukanizga kuti munda wa IS uŵe na chidwi na kugwiliskira ntchito ICT kwambura bungwe, nga ni pa malo ghakuchezgerapo, maseŵero gha pa kompyuta, kugwiliskira ntchito pa foni, na vinyake. kufumba kuti, "Kasi ni vigaŵa wuli vya unenesko ivyo vikukhumbikwa chomene mu chigaŵa cha IS na vigaŵa vinyake?"<ref Basden, A. (2010) Pa Kugwiriskira Ntchito Vigaŵa vya Kung’anamura Kulongosora na Kuchindika Chilango cha IS. ''Nyuzipepara ya pa charu chose yakukhwaskana na vyakukhwaskana na uthenga'', 30, 13–20.] Likugwiriskira nchito vinjeru vya wakufwa [[Herman Dooyeweerd]] kuti lipambaniske vigaŵa vyakupambanapambana panji ‘vigaŵa vya ng’anamuro’. Pepala ili likuti nangauli sayansi ya kompyuta yikusanga kuti [http://www.dooy.info/formative.html yikupangiska] chigaŵa cha kupanga, kupanga vinthu, kupanga vinthu, vyakukhumbikwa chomene, ndiposo vya bizinesi na vyakupangapanga vikusanga kuti [http:// . www.dooy.info//vyachuma.html vyachuma] na [http://www. chidwi chapakati, ndondomeko ya uthenga fild wangasanga [http://www.dooy.info/lingual.html chigaŵa cha chiyowoyero] cha chidwi chapakati apo wakupanga maubwezi na vigaŵa vya visambizgo vyapafupi.</ref> Nthowa iyi, yakuthemba pa filosofe, yikovwira kulongosora yayi . fundo pera, cilato, na ulongozgi, kweniso ucindami, mtende na, udindo wa munda pakati pa vinyake . minda.<wonani> ''Nyuzipepara ya pa charu chose yakulongosora vya uthenga'', 30, 13–20.</ref> [[Business informatics]] ni sambiro lakuyana waka ilo likukhazikika makora mu vyaru vinandi, comenecomene ku Europe. Nangauli ''Nthowa zakumanyiskira ŵanthu'' zayowoyeka kuti zili na "kulongosora-kulongozgeka", ''business informatics'' zili na "mazgoro-kulongosoreka" ndipo zikusazgapo [[uthenga wa tekinoloje]] vinthu na kuzenga na kukhazikiska-kuwoneska . vinthu. ==Nthowa za ntchito== Ŵantchito ŵa mu ndondomeko ya kumanyiska ŵanthu ŵakunjira mu ntchito zakupambanapambana: * Ndondomeko ya ndondomeko ya uthenga *[[Management information system]]s – Nthowa yakumanyiskira vinthu vyakulongozga (MIS) ni nthowa yakumanyiskira vinthu iyo yikugwiriskirika nchito pakusankha vinthu, na kulongozga, kulaŵilira, kusanda, na kuwona vinthu ivyo vikuchitika mu wupu. *[[Kulongozga ntchito]] – Kulongozga ntchito ni nthowa yakuyambiska, kunozga, kuchita, kulaŵilira, na kujara ntchito ya gulu kuti lifiske vilato vinyake na kufiska vigaŵa vinyake vya kupambana pa nyengo yakumanyikwa. *[[Enterprise architecture]] – Nthowa yakulongosoreka makora yakuchitira kafukufuku wa bizinesi, kupanga, kupanga ndondomeko, na kukhazikiska, kugwiliskira ntchito nthowa yakukwana nyengo zose, kuti ndondomeko yiŵe yakunozga na kuchitika. * [[Kupanga mapulogalamu gha kompyuta|Kupanga IS]] * Bungwe la IS * [[Kusambizga vya tekinoloje|Kusambizga vya IS]] * IS chitetezo * IS kufufuza Pali nthowa zakupambanapambana za ntchito mu chilango cha ndondomeko za uthenga. "Ŵakugwira ntchito awo ŵali na luso lwapadera lwa tekinoloje na maluso ghakukhora ghakudumbiskana ŵazamuŵa na chigomezgo chiwemi. Ŵantchito awo ŵali na luso lwa kulongozga na kupulikiska ndondomeko na fundo za bizinesi ŵazamuŵa na mwaŵi uwemi chomene, chifukwa makampani ghakulaŵiska chomene pa tekinoloje kuti ŵasange ndalama zinandi."<ref>{ {kuzunura webusayiti|mupharazgi=Sloan Ntchito Yakukhoma Pakati; Alfred P. Sloan Foundation|chaka=2008|mutu=Nthowa zakumanyiskira ŵanthu Vimanyikwiro vya tekinoloje ni vyakuzirwa chomene pa ntchito ya malonda gha mazuŵa ghano, vikupereka mwaŵi unandi wa ntchito. Munda wa ndondomeko za uthenga ukusazgapo ŵanthu awo ŵali mu mabungwe agho ghakupanga na kuzenga ndondomeko za uthenga, ŵanthu awo ŵakugwiliskira ntchito ndondomeko izo, na ŵanthu awo ŵali na udindo wa kulongozga ndondomeko izo. Kukhumba kwa ŵanchito ŵa IT ŵa chikhalidwe nga mbakupanga mapulogalamu, ŵakusanda vya bizinesi, ŵakusanda ndondomeko, na ŵakupanga vinthu nkhwakuzirwa chomene. Ntchito zinandi izo zikulipilika makora zilipo mu vigaŵa vya tekinoloje ya Information. Pamwamba pa mndandanda uwu pali mulara wa ŵalara ŵa boma (CIO). CIO ndiyo ni mulara uyo wakulaŵilira ntchito ya IS. Mu mabungwe ghanandi, CIO wakugwira ntchito na mulara wa ŵalara (CEO), mulara wa vya ndalama (CFO), na ŵalara ŵanyake. Ntheura, wakuchitako mwamwamphu pa ndondomeko ya kupanga ndondomeko ya gulu. ===Bachelor wa Nthowa Zakumanyiskira Bizinesi=== {{Chigaŵa|Bachelor wa Nthowa Zakumanyiskira Bizinesi}} ==Kafukufuku== Kafukufuku wa ndondomeko za uthenga kanandi [[wakusambizga ŵanthu ŵanandi]] wakukhwaskana na kusambira umo ndondomeko za uthenga zikukhwaskira nkharo ya ŵanthu, magulu, na mabungwe.<ref>Galliers, R.D., [[M. Lynne Markus | Markus, ML]], & Newell, S (Ŵakulemba) (2006). ''Kufufuza Nthowa za Kafukufuku wa Nthowa za Uthenga.'' New York, NY: Routledge. ]] (2002). ''Ma Labyrinths gha Uthenga: Kususka Nzeru za Nthowa.''] Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press</ref> Hevner et al. (2004)<wonani>{{lembani magazini | waumaliro1 = Hevner | last2 = Malichi | last3 = Paki | waumaliro4 = Ram | chaka = 2004 | title = Sayansi ya Kupanga mu Kafukufuku wa Nthowa za Uthenga | magazini = MIS Kotala | buku = 28 | nkhani = 1| masamba = 75-105 | doi = 10.2307/25148625| 25148625| s2cid = 13553735 }}</ref> wakagaŵa kafukufuku mu IS mu vigaŵa viŵiri vya sayansi kusazgapo ''sayansi ya nkharo'' iyo njakupanga na kukhozgera visambizgo ivyo vikulongosora panji kuyowoyerathu nkharo ya ŵanthu panji bungwe na ''sayansi yakupanga'' iyo yikutambasura mphaka . ya nkhongono za ŵanthu na za bungwe mwa kupanga vinthu viphya na vyakupangika mwaluso. Salvatore Malichi na Gerald Smith last1 = Malichi | wakwamba1 = S. | waumaliro2 = Smith | wakwamba2 = G. | chaka = 1995 | mutu = Kupanga na sayansi ya chilengiwa mu Tekinoloje ya Uthenga (IT) | journal = Nthowa Zakovwira Ŵanthu pa Kusankha | buku = 15 | nkhani = 4| masamba = 251-266 | doi=10.1016/0167-9236(94)00041-2| title-link = Uteŵeti wa Uthenga | s2cid = 2625498 }}</ref> wakapanga ndondomeko yakufufuzira vigaŵa vyakupambanapambana vya tekinoloje ya uthenga .nology kusazgapo vyakufuma mu kafukufuku (vyakufuma mu kafukufuku) na milimo yakuchitira kafukufuku uyu (milimo ya kafukufuku). Ŵakasanga ivyo vikafuma mu kafukufuku nga ni ivi: # ''Kuzenga'' ivyo ni fundo izo zikupanga [[chimanyisko cha chigaŵa|mazgu gha chigaŵa]]. Iwo ŵakupanga [[conceptualization]] iyo yikugwiriskirika nchito pakulongosora masuzgo agho ghali mukati mwa chigaŵa na kulongosora umo ŵangamazgira. # ''Chiyelezgero'' icho nchigaŵa cha viganizo panji mazgu ghakulongora ubwezi pakati pa vipangizo. # ''Nthowa'' iyo ni ndondomeko ([[algorithm]] panji ndondomeko) iyo yikugwiriskirika nchito pakuchita mulimo. Nthowa zikukhazikika pa seti ya vipangizo vyakupangika pasi na [[kuyimira chimanyisko|kuyimira]] (chiyelezgero) cha malo ghakumazgira. # ''Instantiation'' ni kumanya chinthu chakupangika mu malo ghake. Kweniso milimo ya kafukufuku kusazgapo: # ''Kuzenga'' chinthu chakupangika kuti chichitenge ntchito yinyake. # ''Kupima'' chinthu chakupangika kuti muwone usange pali ivyo vyachitika. # Kupelekeka kwa chinthu icho chikugwira ntchito chawonekera, nchakukhumbikwa chomene kumanya chifukwa na umo chinthu ichi chikagwilira ntchito panji chikagwiranga ntchito yayi mukati mwa malo ghake. Ntheura, ''theorize'' na ''kulunjiska'' visambizgo vyakukhwaskana na vinthu vyakupangika na IT. Nangauli Nthowa zakumanyiskira ŵanthu nga ni chisambizgo zasintha kwa vyaka vyakujumpha 30 sono,<ref>{{cite journal | lakumaliya1 = Pafupifupi | wakwamba1 = C | chaka = 2000 | title = Nthowa zakumanyiskira ŵanthu: kasi ni sayansi ya mtundu wuli? | magazini = Omega | buku = 28 | nkhani = 5| masamba = 567-579 | doi=10.1016/s0305-0483(99)00072-9| citeseerx = 10.1.1.203.4718 }}</ref> fundo yikuru panji chimanyikwiro cha kafukufuku wa IS chichali kugaŵikana pakati pa ŵasambiri.<ref>{{zunura magazini | waumaliro1 = Benbasat | wakwamba1 = I. | waumaliro2 = Zmud | wakwamba2 = R. | chaka = 2003 | title = Suzgo la kumanyikwa mukati mwa chilango cha IS: kulongosora na kupharazga katundu wakuzirwa wa chilango | magazini = MIS Kotala | buku = 27 | nkhani = 2| masamba = 183-194 | doi = 10.2307/30036527 | 30036527 | s2cid = 6017797 }} {wonani> {{kuyowoya za nyuzipepara | waumaliro1 = Agarwal | wakwamba1 = R. | waumaliro2 = Lukasi | wakwamba2 = H. | chaka = 2005 | title = Suzgo la kumanyikwa kwa ndondomeko za uthenga: kuŵika mtima pa kafukufuku wakuwoneka chomene na wakukhwaska chomene | magazini = MIS Kotala | buku = 29 | nkhani = 3| masamba = 381-398 | doi = 10.2307/25148689 | 25148689 | s2cid = 15537428 }} {wonani> {{kuyowoya za nyuzipepara | waumaliro1 = El Sawy | wakwamba1 = O | chaka = 2003 | mutu = The IS core –IX: Nkhope 3 za chimanyikwiro cha IS: kulumikizgana, kujibika, na kuphatikizgika | journal = Kupharazga kwa wupu wa ndondomeko za uthenga| buku = 12 | masamba = 588-598 | 10.17705/1cais.01239 | doi-access = free }}</ref> Pali maghanoghano ghaŵiri ghakuru ghakuzingilizga mphindano iyi: maghanoghano ghachoko waka ghakuŵika mtima pa chinthu cha IT nga ni nkhani yikuru ya kafukufuku wa IS, na maghanoghano ghakuru agho ghakuŵika mtima pa kuseŵera pakati pa ŵanthu na ŵaluso . vigaŵa vya IT ivyo vikuŵikika mu nyengo yakusinthasintha.<ref>Mansour, O., Ghazawneh, A. (2009) Kafukufuku mu Nthowa za Uthenga: Vinthu ivyo vikuchitika chifukwa cha kusintha kwa nyengo zose kwa nkhongono za IT mu nyengo ya kompyuta ya ŵanthu, mu Molka-Danielsen, J. (Ed.): '' Nkhani za Seminara ya Kafukufuku wa Nthowa za Uthenga za 32 ku Scandinavia'', IRIS 32, Kupanga Kwakusazgapo, Koleji ya Yunivesite ya Molde, Molde, Norway, Ogasiti 2019. 9–12, 2009. {{ISBN|978-82-7962-120-1}}. waumaliro1 = Orlikowski | wakwamba1 = W. | waumaliro2 = Iakono | wakwamba2 = C. | chaka = 2001 | mutu = Kafukufuku wakulongosora: kupenja chomene "IT" mu kafukufuku wa IT—kuchema ku theorizing pa IT artifact | journal = Kafukufuku wa Nthowa za Uthenga | buku = 12 | nkhani = 2| masamba = 121-134 | 12.2.121.9700 s2cid = 10833059 }}</ref> wakuchema ŵasambiri ŵa IS kuti ŵaŵikengepo mtima mwakuyana pa vyose viŵiri vya IT na umo vikuchitikira. Pakuti kusambira vya ndondomeko ya uthenga ni nchito iyo yikugwiriskirika ncito, awo ŵakugwira nchito mu mafakitale ŵakulindilira kuti kafukufuku wa ndondomeko za uthenga wazamusanga vinthu ivyo vingagwiliskirika nchito nyengo yeneyiyo pa nchito. Kweni ivi vikuchitika nyengo zose yayi, chifukwa ŵakusanda vya ndondomeko za uthenga kanandi ŵakusanda nkhani za nkharo mwakukwana chomene kuluska umo ŵadokotala ŵangagomezgera kuti ŵachitenge. Ici cingapangiska kuti ivyo vikusangika pa kafukufuku wa ndondomeko za uthenga viŵe vyakusuzga kupulikiska, ndipo vyapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵasuske.<ref>{{cite journal | waumaliro1 = Kock | wakwamba1 = N. | mlembi-kulumikizga = Ned Kock | mlembi-kulumikizga4 = Heinz Klein | last2 = Imvi | wakwamba2 = P. | last3 = Kukhala | wakwamba3 = R. | waumaliro4 = Klein | wakwamba4 = H. | waumaliro5 = Myers | wakwamba5 = M. | lakumaliya6 = Rockart | wakwamba6 = J. | chaka = 2002 | title = Kukhumbikwa kwa Kafukufuku wa Information Systems Kuwonekeraso: Kufiska Kwakubisika, Layizgo Lambura Kufiskika, Panji Upusikizgi Wakulongozgeka? | journal = Kupharazga kwa wupu wa ndondomeko za uthenga | buku = 8 | nkhani = 23| masamba = 330-346 | doi = 10.17705/1CAIS.00823 | doi-kufika = kwaulere }}</ref> Mu vyaka 10 ivyo vyajumpha, bizinesi yikuyimilirika na kukura kwakukwana kwa mulimo wa Information Systems Function (ISF), chomenechomene pa nkhani ya ndondomeko za bizinesi na ntchito zakovwira. Icho chikazgoka chinthu chikuru chomene kuti .kuwonjezera [[kupanga]] na kukhozgera [[kupanga mtengo]]. Vinthu, vyakulongozga na vyakuzirwa, ''mu Vigaŵa vya Masambiro gha Nthowa za Uthenga'', D'Atri A., De Marco M., Casalino N. (Ŵakulemba), Physica-Verlag, Springer, Heidelberg, Germany, pp. 89-96, {{doi | Wupu wa ŵasayansi ŵa pa charu chose awo ŵakusanda vya ndondomeko ya uthenga, [[Association for Information Systems]] (AIS), na Komiti yake Yichoko ya Ŵasambiri Ŵalara pa Mabuku (202), ŵakapanga mndandanda wa magazini 11 agho AIS yikuwona kuti ‘ngawemi chomene’.<ref >{{Cite web |title=Kafukufuku - Wupu wa vyakumanyikwa (AIS) Kuyana na AIS, mndandanda uwu wa magazini ukumanyiska nkhani zakukhwaskana na nkhani, nthowa, na kusiyana kwa malo. Nthowa zakuwoneseska ni zakukhozga, ŵabali ŵa mu wupu wakulemba ŵakuchindikika na kumanyikwa chomene, ndipo pali ŵaŵazgi ŵa pa charu chose ndipo ŵakupeleka vyawanangwa. Mndandanda uwu ukugwiriskirika ncito (panji ukwenera) kugwiriskirika ncito, pamoza na ŵanyake, nga ni fundo yakurongosora pakukwezgeka na kuŵapo ndiposo, comenecomene, pakupima umo ŵasambiri ŵakucitira makora. Maungano ghanandi gha pa chaka [[:Category:Maungano gha ndondomeko ya uthenga|maungano gha ndondomeko ya uthenga]] ghakuchitika mu vigaŵa vyakupambanapambana vya charu, ndipo ghanandi ghakuwoneseska ŵanyawo. AIS yikulongozga mwaluŵiro [[Msonkhano wa Pacharu Chose pa Nthowa za Kumanyiska]] (ICIS) na [[Msonkhano wa America pa Nthowa za Kumanyiska]] (AMCIS), apo AIS yikulongozga maungano ghakukolerana<ref>{{cite web|url=http:// nyumba.aisnet.org/kulongora maungano|zuŵa-lakufikira=2012-02-10|url ya malo ghakusungirako vinthu vyakale 2012-02-15 kusazgapo [[Msonkhano wa Pacific Asia pa Nthowa za Kumanyiska]] (PACIS), [[Msonkhano wa Europe pa Nthowa za Kumanyiska]] (ECIS), Msonkhano wa Mediterranean pa Nthowa za Kumanyiska (MCIS), Msonkhano wa Pachanya pa Kulaŵilira Vinthu vya Uthenga (Conf-IRM . ) na msonkhano wa pa charu chose wa Wuhan wakukhwaskana na bizinesi ya pa Intaneti (WHICEB). Maungano gha mu chaputala cha AIS<ref>{{lembani pa webusayiti mabuku 478|zuŵa-la-kusungamo=2012-02-27|url-status=wakufwa}}</ref> kusazgapo [[Msonkhano wa ku Australia wakukhwaskana na ndondomeko za uthenga]] (ACIS), [[Kafukufuku wa ndondomeko za uthenga ku Scandinavia|Msonkhano wa Scandinavia pa ndondomeko za uthenga]] (SCIS), [[Msonkhano wa pa charu chose wa ndondomeko za uthenga]] (ISICO), Msonkhano wa Chaputala cha Italy . ya AIS (itAIS), Msonkhano wa Pachaka wa AIS wa Pakati pa Kumanjiliro gha dazi (MWAIS) na Pachaka . Msonkhano wa AIS ya Kummwera (SAIS). EDSIG,<ref>{{lembani webusaiti {cite web|url=http://www.aitp.org|title=Bungwe la Ŵasambizgi ŵa vya Tekinoloje pa Nthowa zakumanyiskira ŵanthu na masambiro gha pa kompyuta<ref>{{lembani pa webusayiti. Msonkhano wa Kafukufuku Wakugwiriskira Ntchito pa Nthowa za Kumanyiska<ref>{{cite Maungano gha ISCAP – EDSIGCON & CONISAR|kwamba=ISCAP na|kumaliya=EDSIG}}</ref> agho ghose ghakuchitika chaka chilichose mu Novembala. ==Wonaniso== {{Col-yambani}} {{Kupumula kwa Col}} ; Nkhani zakuyana * [[Nkhani yakusambizga]] * [[Kuchezga kwa ŵanthu na kompyuta]] * [[Vimanyikwiro]] ** [[Vimanyikwiro vya vyamoyo]] ** [[Vimanyikwiro vya bizinesi]] ** [[Vyakusambizgika vya kemiko]] ** [[Vimanyikwiro vya masoka]] ** [[Vimanyikwiro vya charu]] ** [[Vimanyikwiro vya umoyo]] * [[Sayansi ya uthenga]] * [[Sayansi ya layibulare]] * [[Sayansi ya pa webusayiti]]s {{Kupumula kwa Col}} ; Vigaŵa * [[Wakupanga data]] * [[Kuyezgelera kwa data]] * [[Nthowa yakunozgera data]] * [[Chiyelezgero cha Data]] * [[Malo ghakusungamo data]] * [[KURYA]] * [[Vyakulembeka]] * [[Chiyowoyero cha Markup cha Chiyelezgero cha Kulotezga]] * [[Kumasulira kwa mazgu]] * [[Nthowa zitatu za schema]] {{Kupumula kwa Col}} ; Kukhazikiska * [[Nthowa yakumanyiskira vya bizinesi]] * [[Malo ghakuwoneskera vya chilengiwa]] * [[Bungwe la Kafukufuku wa Ntchito na Sayansi ya Ulongozgi]] (INFORMS) {{col-umaliro}} == Mazgu ghakulongosora == {{Kuwoneska|30em}} ==Kuŵerenga kwakusazgikira== * Mvula, R. Kelly na Cegielski, Casey G. (2009). "Mazgu Ghakwamba gha Nthowa Zakumanyiskira: Kupangiska na Kusintha Bizinesi, Buku Lachitatu"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100628201559/http://www.kuwonjezera [[kupanga]] na kukhozgera [[kupanga mtengo]]. Vinthu, vyakulongozga na vyakuzirwa, ''mu Vigaŵa vya Masambiro gha Nthowa za Uthenga'', D'Atri A., De Marco M., Casalino N. (Ŵakulemba), Physica-Verlag, Springer, Heidelberg, Germany, pp. 89-96, {{doi | Wupu wa ŵasayansi ŵa pa charu chose awo ŵakusanda vya ndondomeko ya uthenga, [[Association for Information Systems]] (AIS), na Komiti yake Yichoko ya Ŵasambiri Ŵalara pa Mabuku (202), ŵakapanga mndandanda wa magazini 11 agho AIS yikuwona kuti ‘ngawemi chomene’.<ref >{{Cite web |title=Kafukufuku - Wupu wa vyakumanyikwa (AIS) Kuyana na AIS, mndandanda uwu wa magazini ukumanyiska nkhani zakukhwaskana na nkhani, nthowa, na kusiyana kwa malo. Nthowa zakuwoneseska ni zakukhozga, ŵabali ŵa mu wupu wakulemba ŵakuchindikika na kumanyikwa chomene, ndipo pali ŵaŵazgi ŵa pa charu chose ndipo ŵakupeleka vyawanangwa. Mndandanda uwu ukugwiriskirika ncito (panji ukwenera) kugwiriskirika ncito, pamoza na ŵanyake, nga ni fundo yakurongosora pakukwezgeka na kuŵapo ndiposo, comenecomene, pakupima umo ŵasambiri ŵakucitira makora. Maungano ghanandi gha pa chaka [[:Category:Maungano gha ndondomeko ya uthenga|maungano gha ndondomeko ya uthenga]] ghakuchitika mu vigaŵa vyakupambanapambana vya charu, ndipo ghanandi ghakuwoneseska ŵanyawo. AIS yikulongozga mwaluŵiro [[Msonkhano wa Pacharu Chose pa Nthowa za Kumanyiska]] (ICIS) na [[Msonkhano wa America pa Nthowa za Kumanyiska]] (AMCIS), apo AIS yikulongozga maungano ghakukolerana<ref>{{cite web|url=http:// nyumba.aisnet.org/kulongora maungano|zuŵa-lakufikira=2012-02-10|url ya malo ghakusungirako vinthu vyakale 2012-02-15 kusazgapo [[Msonkhano wa Pacific Asia pa Nthowa za Kumanyiska]] (PACIS), [[Msonkhano wa Europe pa Nthowa za Kumanyiska]] (ECIS), Msonkhano wa Mediterranean pa Nthowa za Kumanyiska (MCIS), Msonkhano wa Pachanya pa Kulaŵilira Vinthu vya Uthenga (Conf-IRM . ) na msonkhano wa pa charu chose wa Wuhan wakukhwaskana na bizinesi ya pa Intaneti (WHICEB). Maungano gha mu chaputala cha AIS<ref>{{lembani pa webusayiti mabuku 478|zuŵa-la-kusungamo=2012-02-27|url-status=wakufwa}}</ref> kusazgapo [[Msonkhano wa ku Australia wakukhwaskana na ndondomeko za uthenga]] (ACIS), [[Kafukufuku wa ndondomeko za uthenga ku Scandinavia|Msonkhano wa Scandinavia pa ndondomeko za uthenga]] (SCIS), [[Msonkhano wa pa charu chose wa ndondomeko za uthenga]] (ISICO), Msonkhano wa Chaputala cha Italy . ya AIS (itAIS), Msonkhano wa Pachaka wa AIS wa Pakati pa Kumanjiliro gha dazi (MWAIS) na Pachaka . Msonkhano wa AIS ya Kummwera (SAIS). EDSIG,<ref>{{lembani webusaiti {cite web|url=http://www.aitp.org|title=Bungwe la Ŵasambizgi ŵa vya Tekinoloje pa Nthowa zakumanyiskira ŵanthu na masambiro gha pa kompyuta<ref>{{lembani pa webusayiti. Msonkhano wa Kafukufuku Wakugwiriskira Ntchito pa Nthowa za Kumanyiska<ref>{{cite Maungano gha ISCAP – EDSIGCON & CONISAR|kwamba=ISCAP na|kumaliya=EDSIG}}</ref> agho ghose ghakuchitika chaka chilichose mu Novembala. ==Wonaniso== {{Col-yambani}} {{Kupumula kwa Col}} ; Nkhani zakuyana * [[Nkhani yakusambizga]] * [[Kuchezga kwa ŵanthu na kompyuta]] * [[Vimanyikwiro]] ** [[Vimanyikwiro vya vyamoyo]] ** [[Vimanyikwiro vya bizinesi]] ** [[Vyakusambizgika vya kemiko]] ** [[Vimanyikwiro vya masoka]] ** [[Vimanyikwiro vya charu]] ** [[Vimanyikwiro vya umoyo]] * [[Sayansi ya uthenga]] * [[Sayansi ya layibulare]] * [[Sayansi ya pa webusayiti]]s {{Kupumula kwa Col}} ; Vigaŵa * [[Wakupanga data]] * [[Kuyezgelera kwa data]] * [[Nthowa yakunozgera data]] * [[Chiyelezgero cha Data]] * [[Malo ghakusungamo data]] * [[KURYA]] * [[Vyakulembeka]] * [[Chiyowoyero cha Markup cha Chiyelezgero cha Kulotezga]] * [[Kumasulira kwa mazgu]] * [[Nthowa zitatu za schema]] {{Kupumula kwa Col}} ; Kukhazikiska * [[Nthowa yakumanyiskira vya bizinesi]] * [[Malo ghakuwoneskera vya chilengiwa]] * [[Bungwe la Kafukufuku wa Ntchito na Sayansi ya Ulongozgi]] (INFORMS) {{col-umaliro}} == Mazgu ghakulongosora == {{Kuwoneska|30em}} ==Kuŵerenga kwakusazgikira== * Mvula, R. Kelly na Cegielski, Casey G. (2009). "Mazgu Ghakwamba gha Nthowa Zakumanyiskira: Kupangiska na Kusintha Bizinesi, Buku Lachitatu"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100628201559/http://www..html |zuŵa=28.06.2010 * Nkhongono, Davide (2008). ''Kugwiriskira ncito MIS - Buku laciŵiri'']. * Lindsay, Yohane (2000). ''Nthowa zakumanyikwa - Vinthu vyakuzirwa na nkhani'']. Yunivesite ya Kingston, Sukulu ya Nthowa Zakumanyiskira * Dostal, J. [Nthowa zakumanyikwa za sukulu (Skolni informacni systemy).] Mu Infotech 2007 – uthenga wa mazuŵa ghano na tekinoloje ya kuyowoyeskana mu masambiro. Olomouc, EU: Votobia, 2007. s. 540-546. * O’Leary, Timote na Linda. (2008). ''Vinthu vyakuzirwa vyakukhwaskana na kompyuta vyakwamba vya 2008.'' McGraw-Hill pa webusayiti. * Nkhwantha, S.M. "Nthowa zakumanyiskira: Kuwona mwakudumura mbiri", Datamation, 63-69, Nov. 1968. - Kuwonekera kwa mbiri yakwamba ya IS. ==Malinki gha kuwaro== {{chigaŵa cha ŵanthu wose|Nthowa zakumanyikwa}} *[https://aisnet.org/ Wupu wa Nthowa Zakumanyiskira Ŵanthu (AIS)] Webusaiti ya mbiri ya IS na AIS] *[webusayiti. *[www.ercis.org/ Bungwe la Kufufuza vya Nthowa za Kumanyiska Ŵanthu ku Europe] {{Vyakumanyikwa}} {{Sayansi ya kompyuta}} {{Nthowa}} {{Kulaŵilira kwa mazaza}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Nthowa zakumanyikwa}} [[Chigaŵa:Nthowa zakumanyiskira ŵanthu| ]] [[Chigaŵa:Kupanga makompyuta gha bizinesi|*]] [[Chigaŵa:Nthowa]] ==References== {{Short description|System that supports business decisions}} {{Redirect|Business Information System|the Finnish government service|Business Information System (government service)}} {{div col}} {{div col end}} {{See also|Information engineering|Information science|Information technology|Information management}} {{Excerpt|Bachelor of Business Information Systems}} {{Col-begin}} {{Col-break}} {{Col-break}} {{Col-break}} {{col-end}} {{Reflist|30em}} {{commons category|Information systems}} {{Informatics}} {{Computer science}} {{Systems}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Information Systems}} {{cite book |last1=Piccoli |first1=Gabriele |last2=Pigni |first2=Federico |title=Information systems for managers: with cases|publisher=Prospect Press |isbn=978-1-943153-50-3 |pages=28 |edition=4.0 |url=https://prospectpressvt.com/titles/piccoli-information-systems-for-managers/ |access-date=25 November 2018|date=July 2018 }} {{cite journal |last1=O'Hara |first1=Margaret |last2=Watson |first2=Richard |last3=Cavan |first3=Bruce |title=Managing the three levels of change |journal=Information Systems Management |volume=16 |issue=3 |date=1999 |page=64 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/220630523 |access-date=25 November 2018|doi=10.1201/1078/43197.16.3.19990601/31317.9 }} {{cite web| url=http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/information-system.html| title=information system| work=BusinessDictionary.com| access-date=2014-09-21| archive-date=2020-08-11| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200811225424/http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/information-system.html| url-status=dead}} {{cite web| title=Information Systems| work=Principia Cybernetica Web| url= http://pespmc1.vub.ac.be/ASC/INFORM_SYSTE.html}} {{cite encyclopedia| url= http://global.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/287895/information-system |title=Information system| encyclopedia=Britannica | author= Vladimir Zwass |date=2016-02-10}} {{cite web | title=What is Information Systems or Information Services (IS)? | website=Definition from Techopedia | url=https://www.techopedia.com/definition/1027/information-systems-or-information-services-is | access-date=6 March 2021}} {{cite web | title=What is IS (information system or information services)? | website=WhatIs.com | url=https://whatis.techtarget.com/definition/IS-information-system-or-information-services | access-date=6 March 2021}} {{cite web| url=https://www.directory.gov.au/portfolios/agriculture-water-and-environment/department-agriculture-water-and-environment/enabling-services-group/information-services| title=Information Services| website=Directory| date=2 June 2017| publisher=[[Australian Government]]| access-date=6 March 2021| archive-date=27 March 2022| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220327213354/https://www.directory.gov.au/portfolios/agriculture-water-and-environment/department-agriculture-water-and-environment/enabling-services-group/information-services| url-status=dead}} {{cite web | title=Information Services | website=Ramsey County | date=12 September 2015 | url=https://www.ramseycounty.us/your-government/departments/information-and-public-records/information-services| access-date=6 March 2021}} {{cite journal|date=2013|title= The first phase of creating a standardised international innovative technological implementation framework/Software application|url=http://www.inderscience.com/info/inarticle.php?artid=55312|journal= International Journal of Business and Systems Research|volume=7|issue=3|page=250|doi=10.1504/IJBSR.2013.055312|last1=Bulgacs|first1=Simon|access-date=2015-11-02}} {{cite web|url=http://www.sei.cmu.edu/publications/documents/03.reports/03tr002/03tr002glossary.html |title=SEI Report, "Glossary" |access-date=2013-04-02 |url-status=bot: unknown |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070903115947/http://www.sei.cmu.edu/publications/documents/03.reports/03tr002/03tr002glossary.html |archive-date=September 3, 2007 }} {{cite journal | last1 = Alter | first1 = S | year = 2013 | title = Work System Theory: Overview of Core Concepts, Extensions, and Challenges for the Future | url =https://repository.usfca.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1034&context=at | journal = Journal of the Association for Information Systems | volume = 14 | issue = 2| pages = 72–121 | doi = 10.17705/1jais.00323 | doi-access = free }} {{cite journal|author=Marc S. Silver, M. Lynne Markus, [[Cynthia Mathis Beath]]|title=The Information Technology Interactive Model: A Foundation for the MBA Core Course|journal=MIS Quarterly|date=Sep 1995|pages=361–390|url=http://misq.org/the-information-technology-interaction-model-a-foundation-for-the-mba-core-course.html?SID=k2fh85s9nd5a2ne85qh5a3art7}} {{cite journal|last1=Neumann|first1=Gustaf|last2=Sobernig|first2=Stefan|last3=Aram|first3=Michael|title=Evolutionary Business Information Systems|journal=Business & Information Systems Engineering|date=February 2014|volume=6|issue=1|pages=33–36|doi=10.1007/s12599-013-0305-1|s2cid=15979292}} {{cite journal|last1=Aram|first1=Michael|last2=Neumann|first2=Gustaf|title=Multilayered analysis of co-development of business information systems|journal=Journal of Internet Services and Applications|date=2015-07-01|volume=6|issue=1|doi=10.1186/s13174-015-0030-8|s2cid=16502371|url=http://www.jisajournal.com/content/pdf/s13174-015-0030-8.pdf|doi-access=free}} {{cite book|title=Using MIS|year=2009|publisher=Kroenke|isbn=978-0-13-713029-0|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/usingmis00kroe}} {{cite book|last= Börje Langefors|author-link= Börje Langefors|title=Theoretical Analysis of Information Systems|year=1973|publisher=Auerbach|isbn=978-0-87769-151-8}} {{cite book|title=Computer Studies|year=2008|publisher=Frederick Nyawaya|isbn=978-9966-781-24-6}} {{cite web|url=http://www.swinburne.edu.au/study/courses/units/Computer-and-Logic-Essentials-COS10003/local|title=Computer and Logic Essentials – Units of study – Swinburne University of Technology – Melbourne, Australia}} {{cite web|url=http://www.swinburne.edu.au/study/courses/units/Systems-Development-INF60003/local|title=Systems Development – Units of study – Swinburne University of Technology – Melbourne, Australia|access-date=2015-12-06|archive-date=2022-07-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220705191352/https://www.swinburne.edu.au/study/courses/units/Systems-Development-INF60003/local|url-status=dead}} {{cite journal |last1=Kelly |first1=Sue |last2=Gibson |first2=Nicola |last3=Holland |first3=Christopher |last4=Light |first4=Ben |date=July 1999 |title=Focus Issue on Legacy Information Systems and Business Process Engineering: a Business Perspective of Legacy Information Systems |journal=Communications of the AIS |volume=2 |issue=7 |pages=1–27}} {{cite journal |last=Archibald |first=J.A. |date=May 1975 |title=Computer Science education for majors of other disciplines |journal=AFIPS Joint Computer Conferences |pages=903–906 |quote=Computer science spreads out over several related disciplines, and shares with these disciplines certain sub-disciplines that traditionally have been located exclusively in the more conventional disciplines}} {{cite journal |last=Denning |first=Peter |date=July 1999 |title=Computer Science: The Discipline |journal=Encyclopaedia of Computer Science (2000 Edition) |quote=The Domain of Computer Science: Even though computer science addresses both human-made and natural information processes, the main effort in the discipline has been directed toward human-made processes, especially information processing systems and machines}} {{cite journal |last=Coy |first=Wolfgang |date=June 2004 |title=Between the disciplines |journal=ACM SIGCSE Bulletin |volume=36 |issue=2 |pages=7–10 |issn= 0097-8418 |quote=Computer science may be in the core of these processes. The actual question is not to ignore disciplinary boundaries with its methodological differences but to open the disciplines for collaborative work. We must learn to build bridges, not to start in the gap between disciplines |doi=10.1145/1024338.1024340|s2cid=10389644 }} {{cite journal |last=Hoganson |first=Ken |date=December 2001 |title=Alternative curriculum models for integrating computer science and information systems analysis, recommendations, pitfalls, opportunities, accreditations, and trends |journal=Journal of Computing Sciences in Colleges |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=313–325 |issn= 1937-4771 |quote=... Information Systems grew out of the need to bridge the gap between business management and computer science ...}} {{cite book |last1=Davis |first1=Timothy |last2=Geist |first2=Robert |last3=Matzko |first3=Sarah |last4=Westall |first4=James |date=March 2004 |title=Technical Symposium on Computer Science Education {{!}} {{cite journal |last=Hoganson |first=Ken |date=December 2001 |title=Alternative curriculum models for integrating computer science and information systems analysis, recommendations, pitfalls, opportunities, accreditations, and trends |journal=Journal of Computing Sciences in Colleges |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=313–325 |issn= 1937-4771 |quote=The field of information systems as a separate discipline is relatively new and is undergoing continuous change as technology evolves and the field matures}} {{cite journal |last=Khazanchi |first=Deepak |author2=Bjorn Erik Munkvold |date=Summer 2000 |title=Is information system a science? an inquiry into the nature of the information systems discipline |journal=ACM SIGMIS Database |volume=31 |issue=3 |pages=24–42 |issn=0095-0033 |doi=10.1145/381823.381834 |s2cid=52847480 |quote=From this we have concluded that IS is a science, i.e., a scientific discipline in contrast to purportedly non-scientific fields|doi-access=free }} {{cite journal |last=Polack |first=Jennifer |date=December 2009 |title=Planning a CIS Education Within a CS Framework |journal=Journal of Computing Sciences in Colleges |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=100–106 |issn= 1937-4771}} {{cite journal |last=Hayes |first=Helen |author2=Onkar Sharma |date=February 2003 |title=A decade of experience with a common first year program for computer science, information systems and information technology majors |journal=Journal of Computing Sciences in Colleges |volume=18 |issue=3 |pages=217–227 |issn=1937-4771 |quote=In 1988, a degree program in Computer Information Systems (CIS) was launched with the objective of providing an option for students who were less inclined to become programmers and were more interested in learning to design, develop, and implement Information Systems, and solve business problems using the systems approach}} {{cite journal |last1=Freeman |first1=Peter |last2=Hart |first2=David |date=August 2004 |title=A Science of Design for Software-Intensive Systems Computer science and engineering needs an intellectually rigorous, analytical, teachable design process to ensure development of systems we all can live with |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_association-for-computing-machinery-communications_2004-08_47_8/page/19 |journal=Communications of the ACM |volume=47 |issue=8 |pages=19–21 |issn= 0001-0782 |quote=Though the other components' connections to the software and their role in the overall design of the system are critical, the core consideration for a software-intensive system is the software itself, and other approaches to systematizing design have yet to solve the "software problem"—which won't be solved until software design is understood scientifically |doi=10.1145/1012037.1012054|s2cid=14331332 }} {{cite web|url=http://www.booksbw.com/books/computers/leslie-j/2006/files/informationsystems2006.pdf#page=30|title=Scoping the Discipline of Information Systems|access-date=2017-12-04|archive-date=2016-07-31|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160731075131/http://booksbw.com/books/computers/leslie-j/2006/files/informationsystems2006.pdf#page=30|url-status=dead}} {{cite web|publisher=Sloan Career Cornerstone Center; Alfred P. Sloan Foundation|year=2008|url=http://www.careercornerstone.org/infosys/infosys.htm|title=Information Systems|access-date=June 2, 2008}} {{cite journal | last1 = Hevner | last2 = March | last3 = Park | last4 = Ram | year = 2004 | title = Design Science in Information Systems Research | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_mis-quarterly_2004-03_28_1/page/75 | journal = MIS Quarterly | volume = 28 | issue = 1| pages = 75–105 | doi = 10.2307/25148625| jstor = 25148625| s2cid = 13553735 }} {{cite journal | last1 = March | first1 = S. | last2 = Smith | first2 = G. | year = 1995 | title = Design and natural science in Information Technology (IT) | journal = Decision Support Systems | volume = 15 | issue = 4| pages = 251–266 | doi=10.1016/0167-9236(94)00041-2| title-link = Information Technology | s2cid = 2625498 }} {{cite journal | last1 = Avgerou | first1 = C | year = 2000 | title = Information systems: what sort of science is it? | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_omega_2000-10_28_5/page/567 | journal = Omega | volume = 28 | issue = 5| pages = 567–579 | doi=10.1016/s0305-0483(99)00072-9| citeseerx = 10.1.1.203.4718 }} {{cite journal | last1 = Benbasat | first1 = I. | last2 = Zmud | first2 = R. | year = 2003 | title = The identity crisis within the IS discipline: defining and communicating the discipline's core properties | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_mis-quarterly_2003-06_27_2/page/183 | journal = MIS Quarterly | volume = 27 | issue = 2| pages = 183–194 | doi = 10.2307/30036527 | jstor = 30036527 | s2cid = 6017797 }} {{cite journal | last1 = Agarwal | first1 = R. | last2 = Lucas | first2 = H. | year = 2005 | title = The information systems identity crisis: focusing on high- visibility and high-impact research | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_mis-quarterly_2005-09_29_3/page/381 | journal = MIS Quarterly | volume = 29 | issue = 3| pages = 381–398 | doi = 10.2307/25148689 | jstor = 25148689 | s2cid = 15537428 }} {{cite journal | last1 = El Sawy | first1 = O | year = 2003 | title = The IS core –IX: The 3 faces of IS identity: connection, immersion, and fusion | journal = Communications of the Association for Information Systems| volume = 12 | pages = 588–598 | doi = 10.17705/1cais.01239 | doi-access = free }} {{cite journal | last1 = Orlikowski | first1 = W. | last2 = Iacono | first2 = C. | year = 2001 | title = Research commentary: desperately seeking the "IT" in IT research—a call to theorizing about the IT artifact | journal = Information Systems Research | volume = 12 | issue = 2| pages = 121–134 | doi=10.1287/isre.12.2.121.9700| s2cid = 10833059 }} {{cite journal | last1 = Kock | first1 = N. | author-link = Ned Kock | author-link4 = Heinz Klein | last2 = Gray | first2 = P. | last3 = Hoving | first3 = R. | last4 = Klein | first4 = H. | last5 = Myers | first5 = M. | last6 = Rockart | first6 = J. | year = 2002 | title = Information Systems Research Relevance Revisited: Subtle Accomplishment, Unfulfilled Promise, or Serial Hypocrisy? | journal = Communications of the Association for Information Systems | volume = 8 | issue = 23| pages = 330–346 | doi = 10.17705/1CAIS.00823 | doi-access = free }} {{cite web|url=http://home.aisnet.org/displaycommon.cfm?an=1&subarticlenbr=34|title=AIS affiliated conferences|access-date=2012-02-10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120215044835/http://home.aisnet.org/displaycommon.cfm?an=1&subarticlenbr=34|archive-date=2012-02-15|url-status=dead}} {{cite web|url=http://ais.affiniscape.com/displaycommon.cfm?an=1&subarticlenbr=478|title=AIS chapter conferences|website=affiniscape.com|access-date=2012-02-10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120227105218/http://ais.affiniscape.com/displaycommon.cfm?an=1&subarticlenbr=478|archive-date=2012-02-27|url-status=dead}} {{cite web|url=http://www.edsig.org|title=EDSIG Information Systems Educators}} {{cite web|url=http://www.aitp.org|title=Association of Information Technology Professionals}} {{cite web|url=http://www.edsigcon.org|title=ISCAP Conferences – EDSIGCON & CONISAR|first=ISCAP and|last=EDSIG}} {{cite web|url=http://www.conisar.org|title=ISCAP Conferences – EDSIGCON & CONISAR|first=ISCAP and|last=EDSIG}} 44zlzjulw1elfpepdday6rbnndlh4yn 0 46774 119292 112109 2026-08-13T22:01:11Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260813sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 119292 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|Nthowa ya vyamoyo yakusinthira ungweru kuŵa nkhongono ya kemiko}} {{pp-vandalism|small=yes}} [[File:Photosynthesis en.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|Chithunzithunzi cha Usanisinuru mu vyakumera. [[carbohydrate]]s iyo yikupangika yikusungika panji kugwiliskirika nchito na chakumera.]] [[File:Seawifs global biosphere.jpg|upright=1.5|thumb|right|Chithunzithunzi chomwe chikulongora umo vyakumera vikugaŵikira pa charu chose, kusazgapo vya mu nyanja [[phytoplankton]] na vya pa charu chapasi [[vyakumera]]. Mufipa wakufipirwa na wa buluu-wakubiriŵira vikulongora malo agho ghakupanga vinthu vinandi vyakupangika na ungweru mu nyanja na pa charu chapasi.]] '''Usanisinuru'''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Photosynthesis |url=https://www.lexico.com/definition/photosynthesis |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220811182212/https://www.lexico.com/definition/photosynthesis |archive-date=2022-08-11 |access-date=2023-07-15 |website= lexico.com |type= [[Lexico]] UK English Dictionary |publisher= Oxford University Press |url-status=dead }}</ref> (photosynthesis), ni nthowa iyo vyakumera vyakubiriŵira na vyamoyo vinyake vikusinthira nkhongono ya ungweru kuŵa nkhongono ya kemiko. Pa nyengo ya photosynthesis mu vyakumera vyakubiriŵira, nkhongono ya ungweru yikukoleka na kugwiliskirika nchito kusintha maji, carbon dioxide, na minerals kuŵa mphepo ya oxygen na vyamoyo ivyo vikupereka nkhongono zinandi.<ref name="Bryant-2006">{{cite journal |last1= Bryant |first1= Donald A. |last2= Frigaard |first2= Niels-Ulrik |date= Nov 2006 |title= Prokaryotic photosynthesis and phototrophy illuminated |journal= [[Trends in Microbiology]] |volume= 14 |issue= 11 |pages= 488–496 |doi= 10.1016/j.tim.2006.09.001 |pmid= 16997562 |url= https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0966842X06002265 }}</ref> [[Mabakiteriya]] ghanyake ghakuchitaso [[mabakiteriya]], agho ghakugwiliskira ntchito [[bacteriochlorophyll]] kuti ghagaŵire [[hydrogen sulfide]] nga ni [[vyakuchepeskako]] m’malo mwa maji, ndipo ghakupanga [[sulfure]] m’malo mwa mphepo . . [[Archaea]] nga ni ''[[Halobacterium]]'' nawo ŵakuchita mtundu wa [[kukhozga carbon|kukhozga carbon]] kwambura mphepo, apo [[kukhozga]] [[retinal]] na . [[rhodopsin wa tizirombo]] [[vyakufumapo (kemiko)|vyakufumapo]] vyake vikugwiriskirika nchito kuti vikole . ungweru wakubiriŵira na nkhongono [[pampu ya protoni]]s kuti ŵapange mwaluŵiro [[adenosine triphosphate]] (ATP), "ndalama ya nkhongono" ya maselo. Kupanga vinthu vyakupangika na ungweru kwanthena uku kungaŵa kuti ndiko kukaŵa kwakwamba comene pa caru capasi, kufuma mu nyengo ya [[Paleoarchean]], pambere [[cyanobacteria]] yindaŵeko (wonani [[Purple Earth hypothesis]]). Nangauli vinthu ivyo vikuyowoyeka vingaŵa vyakupambana pakati pa [[mitundu]], kweni nyengo zose ndondomeko iyi yikwamba para nkhongono ya ungweru yikukoleka na [[reaction center]]s, mapulotini agho ghali na [[pigment ya photosynthetic]]s panji [[chromophore]]s. Mu vyakumera, mitundu iyi ni [[chlorophyll]]s (chinthu icho chikufuma mu [[porphyrin]] icho chikutora ungweru wakufipirwa na wa buluu, ntheura chikuwoneska ungweru wakubiriŵira) uwo ukusungika mukati mwa [[chloroplast]]s . , zinandi mu maselo gha [[mahamba]]. Mu mabakiteriya, ghakuŵikika mu [[chiŵaro cha plasma]]. Mu vinthu ivi ivyo vikuthemba pa ungweru, nkhongono zinyake zikugwiriskirika ncito kuti ziwuskemo [[ma electron]]s kufuma ku vinthu vyakwenelera, nga ni maji, ndipo vikupanga mphepo ya oxygen. [[Haidrojeni]] uyo wakufwatulika na kugaŵikana kwa maji wakugwiliskirika nchito pakupanga mamolekyu ghaŵiri ghakuzirwa agho ghakucitako nkhongono: kucepeskako [[nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate]] (NADPH) na ATP. Mu vyakumera, ndere, na cyanobacteria, shuga wakupangika na ndondomeko yakulondezgapo ya {{nowrap|kujiyimira paŵekha}} vyakuchitika ivyo vikuchemeka [[Calvin cycle]]. Mu nthowa iyi, mphepo ya carbon dioxide iyo yili mu mlengalenga yikusazgako vinthu ivyo vikupangika kale, nga ni [[ribulose bisphosphate]] (RuBP).<ref>{{cite book |last1= Reece |first1= Jane B. |last2= Urry |first2= Lisa A. |last3= Cain |first3= Michael L. |last4= Wasserman |first4= Steven A. |last5= Minorsky |first5= Peter V. |last6= Jackson |first6= Robert B. |last7= Campbel |first7= Neil A. |year= 2011 |title= Biology |edition= International |publisher= [[Pearson Education]] |location= Upper Saddle River, NJ |isbn= 978-0-321-73975-9 |pages= [https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781256158769/page/235 235, 244] |quote=This initial incorporation of carbon into organic compounds is known as carbon fixation |url= https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781256158769/page/235 }}</ref> Kugwiriskira ncito ATP na NADPH ivyo vikupangika na vyakucitika ivyo vikuthemba pa ungweru, vyakupangika ivyo vikufumamo vikuŵa [[vyakucepeskako vyamoyo|vikucepeskeka]] na kufumiskikapo kuti vipangiske vyakurya vinyake vyakupangika na thupi, nga ni [[glucose]]. Mu mabakiteriya ghanyake, nthowa zakupambanapambana nga ni [[reverse Krebs cycle]] zikugwiriskirika ncito kuti zifiske umaliro umoza. Vinyama vyakwamba ivyo vikapanga vyakurya vikwenera kuti [[vikasintha]] kumayambiro kwa [[mbiri ya kusintha kwa umoyo]] mwakugwiliskira nchito [[vyakuchepeska]] nga ni haidrojeni panji haidrojeni sulfide, m’malo mwa maji, nga ni magwero gha ma electron.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors= Olson JM |title= Photosynthesis in the Archean era |journal= [[Photosynthesis Research]] |volume= 88 |issue= 2 |pages= 109–117 |date= May 2006 |bibcode= 2006PhoRe..88..109O |doi= 10.1007/s11120-006-9040-5 |pmid= 16453059 |s2cid= 20364747 }}</ref> Pamanyuma pake, ma Cyanobacteria ghakawoneka; [[Oxygen cycle|oxygen yakujumphizga]] iyo ŵakapanga yikawovwira chomene kuti [[oxygen pa charu chapasi]].,<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors= Buick R |date= Aug 2008 |title= When did oxygenic photosynthesis evolve? |journal= [[Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, Series B]] |volume= 363 |issue= 1504 |pages= 2731–2743 |doi= 10.1098/rstb.2008.0041 |pmc= 2606769 |pmid= 18468984 }}</ref> ivyo vikapangiska kuti vinthu vyamoyo vyakusuzga viŵeko. Pafupifupi nkhongono izo zikukoleka na vyakupangapanga vya pa caru cose zikuŵa pafupifupi 130 [[terawatts]],<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Nealson KH, Conrad PG |title=Life: past, present and future |journal=[[Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, Series B]] |volume= 354 |issue= 1392 |pages= 1923–1939 |date= Dec 1999 |pmid=10670014 |pmc=1692713 |doi=10.1098/rstb.1999.0532}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1= Whitmarsh |first1= John |last2= Govindjee |year= 1999 |chapter= Chapter 2: The photosynthetic process |editor1= Singhal G.S. |editor2= Renger G. |editor3= Sopory S.K. |editor4= Irrgang K.D. |editor5= Govindjee |title= Concepts in photobiology: photosynthesis and photomorphogenesis |location= Boston |publisher= [[Kluwer Academic Publishers]] |pages= 11–51 |isbn= 978-0-7923-5519-9 |quote= It is estimated that photosynthetic organisms remove {{val|100|e=15}} grams of carbon/year fixed by photosynthetic organisms. This is equivalent to {{val|4|e=18|u=kJ|up=yr}} of free energy stored in reduced carbon. (in Part 8: "Global photosynthesis and the atmosphere") |chapter-url= http://www.life.illinois.edu/govindjee/paper/gov.html#80 |access-date= 2012-07-07 |archive-date= 2010-08-14 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20100814191216/http://www.life.illinois.edu/govindjee/paper/gov.html#80 |url-status= live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |vauthors=Steger U, Achterberg W, Blok K, Bode H, Frenz W, Gather C, Hanekamp G, Imboden D, Jahnke M, Kost M, Kurz R, Nutzinger HG, Ziesemer T |year= 2005 |title= Sustainable development and innovation in the energy sector |publisher= [[Springer (publisher)|Springer]] |location= Berlin |page= 32 |isbn= 978-3-540-23103-5 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=duVJsAqXlkEC&q=photosynthesis%20terawatt&pg=PA32 |quote= The average global rate of photosynthesis is 130 TW. |access-date= 2016-02-21 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160902191543/https://books.google.com/books?id=duVJsAqXlkEC&lpg=PA32&dq=photosynthesis%20terawatt&pg=PA32#v=onepage&q=photosynthesis%20terawatt&f=false |archive-date= 2016-09-02 |url-status= live }}</ref> which is about eight times the total [[power consumption of human civilization]].<ref>{{cite web |title= World Consumption of Primary Energy by Energy Type and Selected Country Groups, 1980–2004 |format= XLS |publisher= [[Energy Information Administration]] |date= July 31, 2006 |url= http://www.eia.doe.gov/pub/international/iealf/table18.xls |access-date=2007-01-20 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061109125803/http://www.eia.doe.gov/pub/international/iealf/table18.xls |archive-date=November 9, 2006 }}</ref> Vyamoyo ivyo vikupanga vinthu vyakupangika na ungweru vikusinthaso pafupifupi 100–115 biliyoni [[tani]]s (91–104 Pg [[Madango gha kukura (ukuru)|petagrams]], panji mabiliyoni gha matani gha metric), gha carbon kuŵa [[Biomass (ecology)| vyamoyo]] pa chaka.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors= Field CB, Behrenfeld MJ, Randerson JT, Falkowski P |date= Jul 1998 |title= Primary production of the biosphere: integrating terrestrial and oceanic components |journal= [[Science (journal)|Science]] |volume= 281 |issue= 5374 |pages= 237–240 |bibcode= 1998Sci...281..237F |doi= 10.1126/science.281.5374.237 |pmid= 9657713 |url= http://www.escholarship.org/uc/item/9gm7074q |access-date= 2018-04-20 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20180925215921/https://escholarship.org/uc/item/9gm7074q |archive-date= 2018-09-25 |url-status= live }}</ref><ref name="McGraw-Hill-2007">{{cite book |chapter= Photosynthesis |title= McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science & Technology |volume= 13 |location= New York |publisher= [[McGraw-Hill]] |year= 2007 |isbn= 978-0-07-144143-8 }}</ref> Photosynthesis was discovered in 1779 by [[Jan Ingenhousz]] who showed that plants need light, not just soil and water. ==Kuwoneseska mwakudumura== {{Main article|Kukhazikika kwa carbon}} [[File:Simple photosynthesis overview.svg|thumb|Usanisinuru ichi chikusintha ungweru wa dazi kuŵa nkhongono ya kemiko, kugaŵa maji kuti ghafumiske O₂, na kukhozga CO₂ kuŵa shuga.]] Vinyama vinandi ivyo vikupanga vyakurya na ungweru ni [[photoautotroph]]s, ico cikung’anamura kuti vikukwaniska [[Kupanga vyakupangika na kemiko|kupanga]] vyakurya mwaluŵiro kufuma ku [[carbon dioxide]] na [[maji]] mwakugwiliskira nchito [[nkhongono]] kufuma ku ungweru. Ndipouli, ni vyamoyo vyose yayi ivyo vikugwiliskira nchito carbon dioxide nga ni mtundu wa atomu za carbon kuti vipangiske vyakurya vyakupangika na ungweru; [[photoheterotroph]] ŵakugwiliskira nchito vinthu vyakupangika na vyamoyo, m’malo mwa mphepo ya carbon dioxide, nga ni nthowa yakupangira carbon dioxide.<ref name="Bryant-2006"/> Mu [[vyakumera]]s, [[nyere]], na [[cyanobacteria]], mphepo iyo yikupangika na ungweru yikufumiska mphepo. '''Usanisinuru wa oksijeni''' iyi ndiyo mtundu wakumanyikwa chomene wa photosynthesis uwo ukugwiriskirika nchito na vyamoyo. Vyakumera vinyake ivyo vikutemwa mthunzi (sciophytes) vikupanga mphepo yichoko chomene pa nyengo ya photosynthesis mwakuti vikugwiliskira ntchito vyose pavekha m’malo mwa kuvifumiska kuti viŵe mu mlengalenga.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=L8DHHSO2RFsC&dq=Sciophytes+shade+plants+compensation+uptake+aerobic+respiration&pg=PA282 Plants: Diversity and Evolution]</ref> Nangauli pali mphambano zinyake pakati pa mphepo iyo yikupangika mu vyakumera, mu nyanja, na mu cyanobacteria, kweni ndondomeko yose yikuyana waka mu vyamoyo ivi. Paliso mitundu yinandi ya [[anoxygenic photosynthesis]], iyo yikugwiriskirika ntchito chomene na mabakiteriya, agho ghakurya carbon dioxide kweni ghakufumiska yayi mphepo.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1= George |first1= Drishya M. |last2= Vincent |first2= Annette S. |last3= Mackey |first3= Hamish R. |date= 2020 |title= An overview of anoxygenic phototrophic bacteria and their applications in environmental biotechnology for sustainable Resource recovery |journal= Biotechnology Reports (Amsterdam, Netherlands) |volume= 28 |pages= e00563 |doi= 10.1016/j.btre.2020.e00563 |issn= 2215-017X |pmc= 7714679 |pmid= 33304839 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last= Fuchs |first= Georg |date= 1987 |chapter= Carbon Dioxide Reduction by Anaerobic Bacteria |editor-last= Aresta |editor-first= M. |editor2-last= Forti |editor2-first= G. |title= Carbon Dioxide as a Source of Carbon: Biochemical and Chemical Uses |place= Dordrecht |publisher= Springer Netherlands |language= en |pages= 263–273 |doi= 10.1007/978-94-009-3923-3_14 |isbn= 978-94-009-3923-3 |chapter-url= https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-009-3923-3_14 |access-date= 2024-06-10 }}</ref> Carbon dioxide wakusinthika kuŵa shuga mu nthowa iyo yikuchemeka [[kuŵika carbon]]; nkhongono zakupangika na ungweru wa dazi zikutora nkhongono kufuma ku ungweru wa dazi kuti zisinthe carbon dioxide kuŵa [[carbohydrate]]s. Kukhazikika kwa carbon ni [[kutentha]] [[redox]] vyakuchitika. Mu ndondomeko yikuru, kupanga vyakurya vyakupangika na ungweru nkhwakupambana na [[kupuma kwa maselo]]: nangauli kupanga vinthu vyakupangika na ungweru ni nthowa yakuchepeskeramo carbon dioxide kuŵa vyakurya vyakupangika na thupi, kupuma kwa maselo ni nthowa yakupangira vyakurya vyakupangika na thupi panji [[vyakurya]] vinyake kuŵa carbon dioxide. Vyakurya ivyo vikugwiriskirika nchito pa kupuma kwa maselo ni vyakurya vyakupangika na thupi, amino acid na mafuta. Vinthu ivi vikupangika na oxidation kuti vipangiske carbon dioxide na maji, ndiposo kuti vifumiske nkhongono za kemiko kuti vilongozge [[metabolism]] ya vyamoyo. Photosynthesis na kupuma kwa maselo ni ndondomeko zakupambanapambana, chifukwa vikuchitika kwizira mu ndondomeko zakupambanapambana za vyakuchitika vya kemiko ndiposo mu [[chipinda cha maselo]]s ghakupambanapambana (kupuma kwa maselo mu [[mitochondria]]).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1= Stefano |first1= George B. |last2= Snyder |first2= Christopher |last3= Kream |first3= Richard M. |date= 2015-07-17 |title= Mitochondria, Chloroplasts in Animal and Plant Cells: Significance of Conformational Matching |journal= Medical Science Monitor: International Medical Journal of Experimental and Clinical Research |volume= 21 |pages= 2073–2078 |doi= 10.12659/MSM.894758 |issn= 1643-3750 |pmc= 4517925 |pmid= 26184462 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1= Shimakawa |first1= Ginga |last2= Matsuda |first2= Yusuke |last3= Burlacot |first3= Adrien |date= 2024 |title= Crosstalk between photosynthesis and respiration in microbes |journal= Journal of Biosciences |volume= 49 |issue= 2 |pages=45 |doi= 10.1007/s12038-023-00417-4 |issn= 0973-7138 |pmid= 38516912 |url= https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38516912 }}</ref> Chigaŵa chose [[equation ya kemiko|equation]] ya vyakupangapanga nga umo vikayowoyekera pakwamba na [[C. B. van Niel|Cornelis van Niel]] ni:{{sfn|Whitmarsh|Govindjee|1999|p=13}} : {{underset|carbon<br/>dioxide|CO₂}} + {{underset|electron donor|2H₂A}} + {{underset|light energy|[[photons]]}} → {{underset|[[carbohydrate]]|[CH₂O]}} + {{underset|oxidized<br/>electron<br/>donor|2A}} + {{underset|water|H₂O}} Pakuti maji ghakugwiriskirika ncito nga ni uyo wakupeleka ma electron mu kupanga vinthu vyakupangika na mphepo, equation ya ndondomeko iyi njakuti .: : {{underset|carbon<br/>dioxide|CO₂}} + {{underset|water|2H₂O}} + {{underset|light energy|photons}} → {{underset|carbohydrate|[CH₂O]}} + {{underset|oxygen|O₂}} + {{underset|water|H₂O}} Equation iyi yikukhozgera kuti maji ghose ghakuchitapo kanthu mu [[#Vinthu ivyo vikuthemba pa ungweru|vinthu ivyo vikuthemba pa ungweru]] ndiposo ni chinthu icho chikufuma mu [[#Vinthu ivyo vikuthemba pa ungweru|vinthu ivyo vikuthemba pa ungweru]], kweni vikuwuskapo ''n'' Mamolekyu gha maji kufuma ku chigaŵa chilichose ghakupereka equation ya net: : {{underset|carbon<br/>dioxide|CO₂}} + {{underset| water |H₂O}} + {{underset|light energy|photons}} → {{underset|carbohydrate|[CH₂O]}} + {{underset| oxygen |O₂}} Nthowa zinyake zikunjilirapo pa vinthu vinyake (nga ni [[arsenite]]) kuti viŵe maji mu mulimo wa kupeleka magesi; mwachiyelezgero, tumatumbo tunyake tukugwiriskira nchito ungweru wa dazi kuti tupangiske arsenite kuŵa [[arsenate]]:<ref>''Kupanga vyakurya vyambura mphepo'', [[Nkhani za Makemiko na Uinjiniya]], '''86''', 33, August 18, 2008, p. 36</ref> Equation ya vyakuchitika ivi ni: : {{underset|carbon<br/>dioxide|CO₂}} + {{underset|<br/>arsenite|(AsO{{su|b=3|p=3−}})}} + {{underset|light energy|photons}} → {{underset|<br/>arsenate|(AsO{{su|b=4|p=3−}})}} + {{underset|carbon<br/>monoxide|CO}}(likugwiriskirika nchito kupanga vinthu vinyake mu vyakuchitika vyakulondezgapo)<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors= Kulp TR, Hoeft SE, Asao M, Madigan MT, Hollibaugh JT, Fisher JC, Stolz JF, Culbertson CW, Miller LG, Oremland RS | author10-link= Ronald Oremland |date= Aug 2008 |title= Arsenic(III) fuels anoxygenic photosynthesis in hot spring biofilms from Mono Lake, California |journal= Science |volume= 321 |issue= 5891 |pages= 967–970 |bibcode= 2008Sci...321..967K |doi= 10.1126/science.1160799 |pmid= 18703741 |s2cid= 39479754 |url= https://semanticscholar.org/paper/b193d8bd3632fb917e5d3a7fc9cb9d11fb817669 |access-date= 2020-01-17 |archive-date= 2020-07-28 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20200728092205/https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Arsenic(III)-Fuels-Anoxygenic-Photosynthesis-in-Hot-Kulp-Hoeft/b193d8bd3632fb917e5d3a7fc9cb9d11fb817669 |url-status= live }}</ref> Photosynthesis yikuchitika mu vigaŵa viŵiri. Mu chigaŵa chakwamba, ''vyakuchitika vyakuthemba pa ungweru'' panji ''vyakuchitika vyakuthemba pa ungweru'' vikutora nkhongono ya ungweru na kuvigwiliskira ntchito kuti vipangire chinthu icho chikunyamura haidrojeni [[NADPH]] na molekyulu yakusungirako nkhongono [[Adenosine triphosphate|ATP ]. ]]. Pa nyengo yachiŵiri, ''vyakuchitika vyakujiyimira paŵekha vya ungweru'' vikugwiriskira ntchito vinthu ivi kuti vikole na kuchepeska carbon dioxide. Vinyama vinandi ivyo vikugwiriskira ncito mphepo ya oxygen vikugwiriskira ncito [[Visible spectrum|ungweru wakuwoneka]] pa vyakucitika ivyo vikuthemba pa ungweru, nangauli pafupifupi vitatu vikugwiriskira ncito ungweru wa shortwave [[infrared]] panji, mwakudunjika, ungweru wakufipirwa comene.<ref>{{cite web |title= Scientists discover unique microbe in California's largest lake |website= bio-medicine.org |date= January 2005 |url= http://www.bio-medicine.org/biology-news/Scientists-discover-unique-microbe-in-Californias-largest-lake-203-1/ |access-date= 2009-07-20 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20090712152053/http://www.bio-medicine.org/biology-news/Scientists-discover-unique-microbe-in-Californias-largest-lake-203-1/ |archive-date= 2009-07-12 |url-status= dead }}</ref> Vyamoyo vinyake vikugwiliskira nchito mitundu yakupambanapambana ya photosynthesis. Ŵanyake [[archaea]] ŵakugwiliskira nchito nthowa yipusu iyo ŵakugwiliskira nchito mtundu wakuyana waka na uwo ŵakugwiliskira nchito pa vinyama kuti ŵawone. [[bacteriorhodopsin]] wakusintha umo wakupangikira para wakuwona ungweru wa dazi, ndipo wakugwira ntchito nga ni pampu ya protoni. Ici cikupangiska kuti paŵe proton gradient mwaluŵiro comene, ndipo pamanyuma pake yikusinthika kuŵa nkhongono ya kemiko. Nthowa iyi yikukhwaskana na kukhazikika kwa carbon dioxide yayi ndipo yikufumiska yayi mphepo ya oksijeni, ndipo yikuwoneka kuti yikasintha padera na mitundu yakumanyikwa comene ya photosynthesis.<ref>{{Cite book |vauthors= Ingrouille M, Eddie B |date= 2006-08-17 |title= Plants: Diversity and Evolution |publisher= Cambridge University Press |pages= 13–14 |isbn= 978-1-139-45546-6 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=L8DHHSO2RFsC&dq=bacteriorhodopsin+photosynthesis+evolved+separately&pg=PA14 }}</ref> ==Viŵaro vyakupangika na ungweru na viŵaro vinyake== {{Main|Chloroplast|Thylakoid}} [[File:Chloroplast.svg|thumb|upright=1.4|right|'''Chloroplast ''':{{ordered list |outer membrane |intermembrane space |inner membrane (1+2+3: envelope) |stroma (aqueous fluid) |thylakoid lumen (inside of thylakoid) |thylakoid membrane |granum (stack of thylakoids) |thylakoid (lamella) |starch |ribosome |plastidial DNA |plastoglobule (drop of lipids)}} ]] Mu mabakiteriya agho ghakupanga vyakurya, mapulotini agho ghakuwunganya ungweru kuti ghapangire vyakurya ghakuŵikika mu [[cell membrane]]s. Mu kawonekero kake kapusu comene, ici cikukhwaskana na membrane iyo yikuzingilizga selo ilo.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors= Tavano CL, Donohue TJ |date= December 2006 |title= Development of the bacterial photosynthetic apparatus |journal= [[Current Opinion in Microbiology]] |volume= 9 |issue= 6 |pages= 625–631 |doi= 10.1016/j.mib.2006.10.005 |pmc= 2765710 |pmid= 17055774 }}</ref> However, the membrane may be tightly folded into cylindrical sheets called [[thylakoid]]s,<ref name="Mullineaux-1999">{{cite journal |vauthors= Mullineaux CW |year= 1999 |title= The thylakoid membranes of cyanobacteria: structure, dynamics and function |journal= [[Australian Journal of Plant Physiology]] |volume= 26 |issue= 7 |pages= 671–677 |doi= 10.1071/PP99027 }}</ref> or bunched up into round [[vesicle (biology)|vesicles]] called ''intracytoplasmic membranes''.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors= Sener MK, Olsen JD, Hunter CN, Schulten K |date= October 2007 |title= Atomic-level structural and functional model of a bacterial photosynthetic membrane vesicle |journal= [[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America]] |volume= 104 |issue= 40 |pages= 15723–15728 |bibcode= 2007PNAS..10415723S |doi= 10.1073/pnas.0706861104 |doi-access= free |pmc= 2000399 |pmid= 17895378 }}</ref> Vinthu ivi vingazura mu vigaŵa vinandi vya mukati mwa selo, ndipo ivi vikupangiska kuti membrane yiŵe na malo ghakuru chomene ndipo ntheura yikupangiska kuti mabakiteriya ghatore ungweru unandi.<ref name="Mullineaux-1999"/> Mu vyakumera na mu nyanja, vyakupangika na ungweru vikuchitika mu [[viŵaro]] ivyo vikuchemeka [[chloroplast]]. [[Selo la chakumera]] lakumanyikwa likuŵa na ma chloroplast pafupifupi 10 panji 100. Chloroplast yikujalirika na chingwe. Nthimbo iyi yili na nkhombo ya mkati ya phospholipid, nkhombo ya kuwaro ya phospholipid, na malo gha pakati pa nkhombo. Pafupi na membrane iyi pali maji gha maji agho ghakuchemeka stroma. Mukati mwa stroma muli milu ya thylakoids (grana), iyo ni malo ghakupangira vyakurya. Ma thylakoid ghakuwoneka nga ni madisiki ghakuphapha. Thylakoid iyo yikujalirika na membrane ya thylakoid, ndipo mukati mwa buku ilo likujalirika muli lumen panji malo gha thylakoid. Mu membrane ya thylakoid muli vigaŵa vyakuzirwa ndiposo [[mapulotini gha membrane yakuzungulira]] vyakupangika na ungweru. Vyakumera vikutora ungweru chomenechomene mwakugwiliskira ntchito [[mtundu]] [[chlorophyll]]. Chigaŵa cha girini cha ungweru chikukoleka yayi kweni chikuwoneka, ndicho chifukwa chake vyakumera vinandi vikuŵa na mtundu wa girini. Padera pa chlorophyll, vyakumera vikugwiriskiraso ncito mitundu nga ni [[carotene]] na [[xanthophyll]].<ref>{{cite book |vauthors=Campbell NA, Williamson B, Heyden RJ |title=Biology Exploring Life |publisher=[[Prentice Hall]] |location=Upper Saddle River, New Jersey |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-13-250882-7 |url=http://www.phschool.com/el_marketing.html |access-date=2009-02-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141102041816/http://www.phschool.com/el_marketing.html |archive-date=2014-11-02 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Nyengo zikugwiliskiraso ntchito chlorophyll, kweni paliso mitundu yinyake yakupambanapambana nga ni [[phycocyanin]], [[carotene]]s, na [[xanthophyll]]s mu [[nyere zakubiriŵira]], [[phycoerythrin]] mu [[nyere zakufipa]] (rhodophytes) na [[fucoxanthin]] mu [[nyere za bulawuni]] na [[diatoms]] ivyo vikupangiska kuti paŵe mitundu yakupambanapambana. Vinthu ivi vikuŵikika mu vyakumera na mu nyanja mu vigaŵa ivyo vikuchemeka kuti mapulotini gha antenna. Mu mapulotini agha, mitundu ya vithuzithuzi yikuŵikika kuti yigwirenge ntchito pamoza. Kusazgako kwa mapulotini kwanthena uku kukuchemekaso kuti [[complex yakuvuna ungweru]]. <ref>{{cite journal | title=Molecular mechanism of SRP-dependent light-harvesting protein transport to the thylakoid membrane in plants | vauthors = Ziehe D, Dünschede B, Schünemann D | journal=Photosynthesis Research | volume=138 | issue=3 | pages=303–313 | date=December 2018 | pmid=29956039 | pmc=6244792 | doi=10.1007/s11120-018-0544-6 | bibcode = 2018PhoRe.138..303Z }}</ref> Nangauli maselo ghose agho ghali mu vigaŵa vyakubiriŵira vya chakumera ghali na chloroplasts, kweni ghanandi ghakusangika mu vigaŵa ivyo vikupangika mwapadera ivyo vikuchemeka [[mahamba|mahamba]]. Mitundu yinyake iyo yikuzgoŵera malo gha ungweru wankhongono wa dazi na [[arid]]ity, nga ni mitundu yinandi ya ''[[Euphorbia]]'' na [[cactus]], yili na viŵaro vyawo vikuru vyakupangira vyakurya mu vimiti vyawo. Maselo agho ghali mu viŵaro vya mukati mwa hamba, agho ghakuchemeka [[viŵaro vya mesophyll|mesophyll]], ghangaŵa na maselo gha pakati pa 450,000 na 800,000 pa sikweya milimita yiliyose ya hamba. Pamwamba pa hamba pali [[wax]]y [[Plant cuticle|cuticle]] iyo yikuvikilira hamba ku [[kuthukira]] kwa maji ghanandi ndipo yikuchepeska kunjira kwa [[ultraviolet]] panji . [[buluu]] [[ungweru]] kuti [[kutentha]] kuchepeskeke. Layer ya [[Mahamba#Epidermis|epidermis]] iyo yikuwoneka makora yikupangiska kuti ungweru ujumphe mu maselo gha [[Mesophyll tissue|palisade]] gha mesophyll uko vinthu vinandi ivyo vikupangika na ungweru vikuchitika. ==Kuzgora kwakuthemba pa ungweru== {{Main|Kuzgora kwakuthemba pa ungweru}} [[File:Thylakoid membrane 3.svg|thumb|upright=1.4|right|Kuzgora kwakuthemba pa ungweru kwa Usanisinuru pa chiŵaro cha thylakoid]] Mu [[vyakucitika vyakuthemba pa ungweru]], [[molekyu]] yimoza ya mtundu [[chlorophyll]] yikutora [[photon]] yimoza ndipo yikutaya [[elekitironi] yimoza]. Elekitironi iyi yikutoleka na mtundu wakusinthika wa chlorophyll uwo ukuchemeka [[pheophytin]], uwo ukujumpha elekitironi ku molekyulu ya [[quinone]], kwamba kwenda kwa elekitironi pasi pa [[unyolo wakunyamura elekitironi]] uwo ukulongozgera ku umaliro . [[Redox|kuchepeska]] kwa [[Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate|NADP]] ku [[Nikotinamide adenine dinukleotide phosphate | NADPH]]. Kusazga apo, ivi vikupangiska kuti paŵe [[Nkhongono za magesi|Nkhongono za protoni]] (nkhongono) pa [[nkhongono ya chloroplast]], iyo yikugwiriskirika nchito na [[ATP synthase]] pakupanga [[Adenosine triphosphate|ATP]] . . Paumaliro, molekyulu ya chlorophyll yikusangaso elekitironi iyo yikataya para molekyulu ya [[maji]] yagaŵika mu nthowa yakuchemeka [[Photodissociation|photolysis]], iyo yikufumiska [[oxygen]].. Equation yose ya vyakuchitika vyakuthemba pa ungweru pasi pa mikhaliro ya magesi yambura kuzungulira mu vyakumera vyakubiriŵira ni:<ref name="Raven-2005">{{cite book |vauthors= Raven PH, Evert RF, Eichhorn SE |year= 2005 |title= Biology of Plants |edition= 7th |location= New York |publisher= [[W. H. Freeman and Company]] |pages= [https://archive.org/details/biologyofplants00rave_0/page/124 124–127] |isbn= 978-0-7167-1007-3 |url= https://archive.org/details/biologyofplants00rave_0 |url-access= registration }}</ref> {{block indent|2 H₂O + 2 NADP⁺ + 3 ADP + 3 P_i + light → 2 NADPH + 2 H⁺ + 3 ATP + O₂}} Ni [[wavelength]] yose yayi ya [[ungweru]] iyo yingawovwira kuti vinthu viŵeko. Nthowa yakupangira vinthu [[action spectrum]] yikuthemba pa mtundu wa [[pigment yakuwovwira]] iyo yilipo. Mwaciyerezgero, mu [[vyakumera vyakubiriŵira]], mtundu wa nchito ukuyana waka na [[mtundu wa kuyamwa]] kwa [[chlorophyll]]s na [[carotenoid]]s na nsonga zakuyamwa mu ungweru wa violet-buluu na wakufipa. Mu [[red algae]], spectrum ya nchito ni ungweru wa buluu-wobiriŵira, uwo ukupangiska kuti [[algae]] izi zigwiriskirenge ncito ungweru wa buluu kuti zikule mu maji ghakunyang’amira agho ghakusefa ma wavelength ghatali (ungweru wakufipa) agho ghakugwiriskirika ncito . na vyakumera vyakubiriŵira ivyo vikuŵa pachanya pa charu. Chigaŵa icho chikukoleka yayi cha [[Electromagnetic spectrum|light spectrum]] ndicho chikupereka [[vyamoyo vyakupangika na ungweru]]s [[mtundu]] wawo (mwachiyelezgero, vyakumera vyakubiriŵira, ndere zakufipa, [[mabakiteriya gha pepo]]) ndipo ni . ivyo vikugwira ntchito viŵi yayi pa photosynthesis mu [[vyamoyo]] vyakuyana waka. ===Z scheme=== [[File:Z-scheme.png|thumb|upright=3|center|"Scheme ya Z"]] Mu [[vyakumera]]s, [[vyakuchitika vyakuthemba pa ungweru]]s vikuchitika mu [[chiŵaro cha thylakoid]]s cha [[chloroplast]]s uko vikulongozga kupanga [[Adenosine triphosphate|ATP]] na . [[NADPH]]. Ivyo vikuchitika chifukwa cha ungweru vikuŵa vya mitundu yiŵiri: [[Photophosphorylation | vyakuzungulira na vyambura kuzungulira]]. Mu vyakuchitika vyambura kuzungulira, ma photon ghakukoleka mu ungweru-kuvuna [[antenna complex]]es wa [[Photosystem|photosystem II]] na [[chlorophyll]] na vinyake [[vinthu vyakovwira]] (wonani chithuzithuzi " Z-chiŵembu"). Kuyamwa kwa photon na antenna complex kukufwatura electron na nthowa iyo yikuchemeka [[kupatukana kwa mtengo uwo ukupangika na photon]]. Nthowa ya antenna yili pakatikati pa molekyulu ya [[chlorophyll]] iyo yili mu malo ghakucitirapo vinthu ghakupangika na vithuzithuzi II. Elekitironi iyo yikufwatuka yikutoleka na [[Elekitironi wakuzomerezga|elekitironi-wakuzomerezga]] molekyulu yakwamba, [[pheophytin]]. Apo ma electron ghakunyamulika kwizira mu [[Unyolo wa kutumizga magesi|unyolo wa kutumizga magesi]] (icho chikuchemeka ''Z-scheme'' icho chikulongoreka pa chithuzithuzi), [[nkhongono ya chemiosmotic]] yikupangika na kupompa [[Hydron . (kemistri)|maprotoni]] ([[Haidrojeni|H]]⁺) kuzingilira [[Nyengo ya maselo|nyengo]] na kunjira mu [[malo gha thylakoid]]. ATP synthase [[enzyme]] yikugwiriskira ncito [[nkhongono ya chemiosmotic]] iyo kuti yipangire ATP pa nyengo ya [[kuwoneka]], apo [[NADPH]] ni cipangizo ca [[redox]] cakumalira mu ''Z- . dongosolo''. Elekitironi yikunjira mu chlorophyll [[molekyu]] mu [[Vithuzithuzi I]]. Ku malo agha likukondweskaso [[ungweru]] uwo ukukoleka na [[photosystem]] iyo. Kufuma apo elekitironi yikujumpha mu unyolo wa [[electron acceptor]]s iyo yikupelekerako [[nkhongono]] zake zinyake. Nkhongono izo zikupelekeka ku ŵapokelera magesi zikugwiriskirika nchito kuti zisunthire [[ion ya haidrojeni]]s kujumpha mu membrane ya thylakoid ku [[Lumen (anatomy)|lumen]]. Paumaliro, elekitironi yikugwiriskirika ncito kuti [[Redox|kucepeskako]] coenzyme [[Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate|NADP]] na [[Hydron (kemiko)|H⁺]] ku NADPH (iyo yili na . ntchito mu ungweru-wakujiyimira paŵekha); pa nyengo iyo, nthowa ya elekitironi iyo yikumara. Nthowa yakuzungulira yikuyana waka na iyo yikuzungulira yayi kweni yikupambana chifukwa yikupanga ATP pera, ndipo palije NADP yakuchepeskeka (NADPH) iyo yikupangika. Kuchitapo kanthu kwakuzungulira kukuchitika pa photosystem I pera. Para electron yafumiskikapo pa photosystem, electron yikujumpha mu mamolekyu ghakupokelera electron na kuwelera ku photosystem I, kufuma apo yikafumiskikira, ndicho chifukwa chake zina lakuti ''cyclic reaction''. ===photolysis ya maji=== {{Main|Photodissociation|Kusinthika kwa Okisijeni}} [[#Z scheme|Kunyamura kwa magesi gha mzere]] kwizira mu nthowa ya vithuzithuzi yizamufumapo [[Malo ghakupangira vinthu vyakuthupi| malo ghakupangira vinthu]] ya nthowa ya vithuzithuzi iyo [[oxidized]]. Kukwezga electron yinyake kuzamukhumbikwira dankha kuchepeskaso malo ghakuchitikirapo vinthu. Ma elekitironi ghakukondweska agho ghakutayika kufuma ku malo ghakucitirapo vinthu ([[P700]]) gha [[photosystem I]] ghakunjilirapo na kusamuska kufuma ku [[plastocyanin]], agho ma elekitironi ghake ghakufuma ku kunyamura kwa ma elekitironi kwizira mu [[photosystem II]]. Photosystem II, nga ni chigaŵa chakwamba cha ''Z-scheme'', yikukhumbikwira kuti paŵe chinthu cha kuwaro cha magesi kuti chichepeske malo ghake ghakuchitira vinthu ghakupangika na oxidized [[Chlorophyll a|chlorophyll ''a'']]. Chinthu icho chikupangiska kuti vyakumera vyakubiriŵira na [[cyanobacteria]] viŵe na ma electron ghakupangira vyakurya, ni maji. Ma molekyulu ghaŵiri gha maji ghakupangika na oxidation na nkhongono ya vigaŵa vinayi vyakulondezgapo vyakupatukana vya nkhongono vya photosystem II kuti viŵe na molekyulu ya [[Diatomic molecule|diatomic]] oxygen na [[hydrogen]] ayoni zinayi. Ma electron agho ghakupangika ghakusamuskika ku [[tyrosine]] ghakukhalapo agho ghakupangika na nkhongono ya [[P680|P680{{sup|+}}]]. Ici cikupangiska kuti P680 yiŵeso na luso lwa kutora fotoni yinyake na kufwatura [[Photodissociation|kupatukana na vithuzithuzi]] elekitironi yinyake. Kusintha kwa maji ku [[kupangiska|kupangiska]] mu photosystem II na chigaŵa cha redox-active icho chili na ma ayoni ghanayi gha [[manganese]] na [[ayoni ya calcium]]; [[chinthu icho chikupangiska kuti maji ghaŵe na oksijeni]] ichi chikukaka [[mamolekyu gha maji]] ghaŵiri ndipo chili na vinthu vinayi ivyo vikupangiska kuti maji ghaŵe na oxidizing (vithuzithuzi vya Kok vya S-state). Ma ayoni gha haidrojeni ghakufumiskika mu [[Thylakoid#Lumen|thylakoid lumen]] ndipo ntheura ghakovwira pa nkhongono ya chemiosmotic iyo yikupangiska kuti [[ATP yipangike]]. Oxygen ni [[By-product|waste product]] wa vyakuchitika ivyo vikuthemba pa ungweru, kweni vyamoyo vinandi pa [[Charu chapasi]] vikugwiliskira ntchito oxygen na nkhongono zake kuti [[vyamoyo vipume]], kusazgapo [[vyamoyo ivyo vikupanga vyakurya vya ungweru]]. <ref>{{Cite web |url= https://www2.lbl.gov/vkyachan/ |title= Yachandra / Yano Group |publisher= Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory |access-date= 2019-07-22 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20190722054431/https://www2.lbl.gov/vkyachan/ |archive-date= 2019-07-22 |url-status= dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors= Pushkar Y, Yano J, Sauer K, Boussac A, Yachandra VK |date= February 2008 |title= Structural changes in the Mn4Ca cluster and the mechanism of photosynthetic water splitting |journal= [[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America]] |volume= 105 |issue= 6 |pages= 1879–1884 |bibcode= 2008PNAS..105.1879P |doi= 10.1073/pnas.0707092105 |doi-access= free |pmc= 2542863 |pmid= 18250316 }}</ref> ==Kuzgora kwambula kuthemba pa ungweru== ===chizingili cha Calvin=== {{Main|Light-independent reactions|Carbon fixation}} Mu [[vyakuchitika vyakujiyimira paŵekha vya ungweru|vyakujiyimira paŵekha vya ungweru]] (panji "mdima") vyakuchitika, enzyme [[RuBisCO]] yikukora [[carbon dioxide|CO₂]] kufuma ku [[ Mlengalenga wa caru capasi|mlengalenga]] ndipo, mu [[Nthowa ya vyamoyo|ndondomeko]] iyo yikuchemeka [[Calvin cycle]], yikugwiriskira ncito . likupangika sonosono [[NADPH]] ndipo likufumiska [[Triose|shuga wa carbon zitatu]], ilo pamanyuma likupangika [[Kusintha kwa maji|kuphatikizgika]] kuti lipangire [[sucrose]] na [[starch]]. Equation yose ya vyakuchitika vyambura kujiyimira paŵekha vya ungweru mu [[vyakumera vyakubiriŵira]] ni<ref name="Raven-2005"/>{{rp|128}} {{block indent|3 CO₂ + 9 ATP + 6 NADPH + 6 H⁺ → C₃H₆O₃-phosphate + 9 ADP + 8 P_i + 6 NADP⁺ + 3 H₂O}} [[File:Calvin-cycle4.svg|thumb|right|upright=1.4|Kuwonekera kwa msinkhu wa Calvin na [[Kukhazikika kwa carbon ya vyamoyo|kukhazikika kwa carbon]]]] [[Kuŵika carbon]] kukupanga [[Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate|shuga wapakati wa carbon zitatu]], uyo pamanyuma wakusinthika kuŵa vinthu vyaumaliro vya [[carbohydrate]]. [[Monosaccharide|shuga wa carbon wambura kusuzga]] uyo wakupangika na ungweru wakugwiliskirika nchito kuti wapangire [[vyakupangika na vyamoyo]] vinyake, nga ni vyakuzengazenga [[cellulose]], [[Vinthu vyakwamba (chemistry)|vyakupangika]] vya [ 1 ]. [lipid]] na [[amino acid]] vyakupangika na vyamoyo, panji nga ni mafuta mu [[kupuma kwa maselo]]. Ici cikucitika mu [[vyakumera]] pera yayi, kweniso mu [[vinyama]] apo [[carbon]] na [[nkhongono]] kufuma ku vyakumera vikujumpha mu [[unyolo wa vyakurya]]. [[Kukhazikika kwa carbon ya vyamoyo|kukhazikika]] panji [[Redox|kuchepeskako]] kwa [[kaboni dioxide]] ni nthowa iyo carbon dioxide wakusazgikira na [[shuga wa carbon dioxide]], [[ribulose 1,5]. -bisphosphate]], ku [[Kupanga (kemiko)|kupanga]] viŵiri [[molekyu]] vya chinthu chitatu cha carbon, . [[glycerate 3-fosifeti]], uyo wakuchemekaso kuti 3-fosifosifaiti. Glycerate 3-phosphate, para pali [[Adenosine triphosphate|ATP]] na [[NADPH]] ivyo vikupangika pa nyengo ya vigaŵa vyakuthemba pa ungweru, vikuchepeskeka ku [[glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate]]. Ici cikucemekaso kuti 3-phosphoglyceraldehyde (PGAL) panji, mwakudumura, kuti [[triose]] phosphate. Vinthu vinandi (vinthu vinkhondi pa vinthu vinkhondi na chimoza) vya glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate ivyo vikupangika vikugwiriskirika nchito kuti vipangiskeso ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate mwakuti ndondomeko iyi yilutilire. Ntheura, ma phosphate gha triose agho ghakupangikaso yayi kanandi ghakusazganako na kupanga ma phosphate gha [[hexose]], agho paumaliro ghakupanga [[sucrose]], [[starch]], na [[cellulose]], ndiposo [[shuga]] na . [[mafupa]]. [[Shuga]] uyo wakupangika pa nyengo ya carbon [[kusintha kwa thupi]] wakupanga [[mafupa gha carbon]] agho ghangagwiliskirika nchito pa [[kusintha kwa thupi]] ghanyake nga ni kupanga [[amino acid]] na [[lipids]]. ===Nthowa zakuŵikamo carbon=== ====Pa mtunda==== {{Main|C4 carbon fixation|CAM photosynthesis|Alarm photosynthesis}} [[File:HatchSlackpathway2.svg|thumb|right|upright=1.4|Overview of [[C4 carbon fixation]]. (Chithunzithunzi ichi chikulongora mwakubudika [[lactic acid]] m'malo mwa [[pyruvate]], ndipo [[Mitundu yose ya makemikolo|mitundu]] yose iyo yikumara na "-ate" yikulongoreka nga ni asidi wakukolerana, nga ni [[malic acid]]. na vinyake).]] Mu [[Xerophyte|malo ghakotcha na ghakuwomira]], vyakumera vikujara [[stomata]] vyawo kuti maji ghaleke kutayika. Pa nyengo iyi, {{co2}} yizamucepa ndipo mphepo [[mpweya]], iyo yikupangika na [[vyakucitika vya ungweru]] vya kupanga vyakurya, yizamusazgikira, ndipo ivi vipangiskenge kuti [[kupuma kwa ungweru]] kusazgikirengeko na [[oxygenase]]. Ntchito ya [[Rubisco| kuchepa kwa carbon kukhazikika. Vyakumera vinyake vikuŵa na [[kusintha|kusintha]] nthowa zakusazgirako {{co2}} mu mahamba mu nyengo izi.<ref name="Williams-2013">{{cite journal |vauthors= Williams BP, Johnston IG, Covshoff S, Hibberd JM |date= September 2013 |title= Phenotypic landscape inference reveals multiple evolutionary paths to C4 photosynthesis |journal= [[eLife]] |volume= 2 |pages= e00961 |doi= 10.7554/eLife.00961 |doi-access= free |pmc= 3786385 |pmid= 24082995 }}</ref> Vyakumera ivyo vikugwiriskira ncito nthowa ya [[C4 kuŵika carbon|C₄ kuŵika carbon]] vikuŵika carbon dioxide mu [[Maselo (vyamoyo)|maselo]] gha [[mesophyll]] mwa kusazgako . ku molekyulu ya kaboni yitatu [[phosphoenolpyruvate]] (PEP), ivyo vikuchitika [[Kupangiska|kupangiska]] na . [[enzyme]] yakuchemeka [[PEP carboxylase]], iyo yikupanga asidi wa carbon zinayi [[asidi wa oxaloacetic]]. Oxaloacetic acid panji [[malate]] iyo yikupangika na nthowa iyi yikupangika [[Kusintha (vyakumera)|kusinthika]] ku maselo ghapadera [[bundle sheath]] uko kuli enzyme [[RuBisCO]] na enzyme zinyake za Calvin cycle, ndipo . apo {{co2}} wakufumiskika na [[kuwuskapo]] wa asidi wa carbon zinayi ni . ntheura ŵakukhazikika na mulimo wa RuBisCO ku vigaŵa vitatu vya carbon [[3-phosphoglyceric acid]]. Kupatukana kwa thupi kwa RuBisCO kufuma ku mphepo-kupanga ungweru kukuchepeska photorespiration na kusazgirako {{co2}} kukhazikika ndipo, ntheura, [[photosynthetic nkhongono]] ya [[hamba]].<ref>{{cite book |vauthors= Taiz L, Geiger E |year= 2006 |title= Plant Physiology |edition= 4th |publisher= [[Sinauer Associates]] |isbn= 978-0-87893-856-8 |url= https://archive.org/details/plantphysiology0000taiz_y5k4 |url-access= registration }}</ref> [[C4 carbon fixation|{{c4}} vyakumera]] vingapanga shuga munandi kuluska [[C3 carbon fixation|{{c3}} vyakumera]] mu nyengo za ungweru ukuru na [[Thermophile|kutentha]]. Vinthu vinandi vyakuzirwa [[vyakulima]] ni vyakumera vya {{c4}}, kusazgapo [[chimanga]], [[mabele]], [[mijuwa]], na [[mapira]]. Vyakumera ivyo vikugwiriskira ncito yayi PEP-carboxylase pakukhozga carbon vikucemeka C₃ vyakumera cifukwa cakuti [[Kusintha kwa carbon|kusintha kwa carbon]] kwakwamba, uko kukupangika na RuBisCO, kukupanga asidi wa carbon watatu 3-phosphoglyceric mwaluŵiro mu 1990. [[Msinkhu wa Calvin-Benson]]. Pafupifupi 90% ya vyakumera vikugwiriskira ncito {{c3}} carbon, pakuyaniska na 3% ivyo vikugwiriskira ncito {{c4}} carbon;<ref>{{cite book |vauthors= Monson RK, Sage RF |title= C₄ plant biology |publisher= [[Academic Press]] |location=Boston |year=1999 |pages= 551–580 |chapter= The Taxonomic Distribution of {{chem|C|4}} Photosynthesis |isbn= 978-0-12-614440-6 |chapter-url= https://books.google.com/books?id=H7Wv9ZImW-QC&pg=PA551 |access-date= 2019-04-17 |archive-date= 2023-01-19 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20230119181847/https://books.google.com/books?id=H7Wv9ZImW-QC&pg=PA551 |url-status= live }}</ref> however, the evolution of {{c4}} in over sixty plant lineages makes it a striking example of [[convergent evolution]].<ref name="Williams-2013"/> [[C2 photosynthesis|C₂ photosynthesis]], which involves carbon-concentration by selective breakdown of photorespiratory glycine, is both an evolutionary precursor to {{c4}} and a useful [[#Carbon concentrating mechanisms|carbon-concentrating mechanism]] in its own right.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors= Lundgren MR |date= December 2020 |title= C 2 photosynthesis: a promising route towards crop improvement? |journal= New Phytologist |volume= 228 |issue= 6 |pages= 1734–1740 |doi= 10.1111/nph.16494 |doi-access= free |pmid= 32080851 }}</ref> [[Vinthu vyakumera]], nga ni [[cacti]] na vinandi [[vyakumera]], vikugwiliskiraso ntchito PEP carboxylase kuti vikole mphepo ya carbon dioxide mu nthowa iyo yikuchemeka [[CAM photosynthesis|Kusintha kwa asidi wa Crassulacean]] (CAM). Kupambana na {{c4}} metabolism, iyo ''pa malo'' yikupatuska {{co2}} kukhazikika ku PEP kufuma ku msinkhu wa Calvin, CAM ''pa nyengo'' yikupatuska ndondomeko ziŵiri izi. Vyakumera vya CAM vikuŵa na [[Leaf#Anatomy|mahamba]] ghakupambana na vyakumera vya {{c3}}, ndipo vikunozga {{co2}} usiku, apo stomata yawo njakujulika. Maluwa gha CAM ghakusunga {{co2}} chomenechomene mu mtundu wa [[malic acid]] kwizira mu kupanga [[phosphoenolpyruvate]] ku [[oxaloacetate]], iyo pamanyuma yikuchepeskeka ku malate. Kufumiskikapo kwa malate muhanya kukufumiska {{co2}} mukati mwa mahamba, ntheura kukupangiska kuti carbon yiŵe yakukhora ku 3-phosphoglycerate na RuBisCO. CAM yikugwiriskirika ncito na [[mitundu]] ya vyakumera 16,000.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors= Dodd AN, Borland AM, Haslam RP, Griffiths H, Maxwell K |date= April 2002 |title= Crassulacean acid metabolism: plastic, fantastic |journal= [[Journal of Experimental Botany]] |volume= 53 |issue= 369 |pages= 569–580 |doi= 10.1093/jexbot/53.369.569 |doi-access= free |pmid= 11886877 }}</ref> [[Calcium oxalate|Calcium-oxalate]]-vyakumera ivyo vikuwunjika, nga ni ''[[[[Amaranthus hybridus]]'' na ''[[Colobanthus quitensis]],'' vikulongora kusintha kwa nthowa yakupangira vyakurya apo calcium oxalate [[Druse ( vyakumera)|makristalo]] ghakugwira ntchito nga ni nkhongono [[Kaboni sinki|kaboni viziŵa]], kupereka mphepo ya carbon dioxide (CO₂) ku maselo ghakupanga vyakurya para ma stomata ghakujalika pacoko waka panji ghose. Nthowa iyi yikacemeka kuti [[alamu photosynthesis]]. Pa nyengo ya [[Kusuzgika maghanoghano (vyamoyo)|kusuzgika maghanoghano]] (mwachiyelezgero, [[Kusoŵa kwa maji|kusoŵa kwa maji]]), [[oxalate]] iyo yikufuma mu makristalo gha calcium oxalate yikusinthika kuŵa CO₂ na . [[oxalate oxidase]] enzyme, ndipo CO₂ iyo yikupangika yingawovwira [[Calvin . mzere]] vyakuchitika. Kuchitapo kanthu [[haidrojeni peroxide]] (H₂O₂), [[Chinthu chakupangika na oxalate oxidase], chingaŵa [[Kulekeska (chemistry )|kuwuskapo]] na [[catalase]]. Alarm photosynthesis yikwimira mtundu wa photosynthesis uwo ukwenera kusazgikira ku nthowa zakumanyikwa makora za C4 na CAM. Ndipouli, alarm photosynthesis, mwakupambana na nthowa izi, yikugwira nchito nga ni pampu ya biochemical iyo yikutora carbon kufuma mukati mwa viŵaro (panji kufuma mu [[dongo]]) ndiposo kufuma mu mlengalenga yayi.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Tooulakou G, Giannopoulos A, Nikolopoulos D, Bresta P, Dotsika E, Orkoula MG, Kontoyannis CG, Fasseas C, Liakopoulos G, Klapa MI, Karabourniotis G |display-authors= 6 |date= August 2016 |title= Alarm Photosynthesis: Calcium Oxalate Crystals as an Internal CO2 Source in Plants |journal= Plant Physiology |volume= 171 |issue= 4 |pages= 2577–2585 |doi= 10.1104/pp.16.00111 |pmc= 4972262 |pmid= 27261065 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors= Gómez-Espinoza O, González-Ramírez D, Bresta P, Karabourniotis G, Bravo LA | title=Decomposition of Calcium Oxalate Crystals in ''Colobanthus quitensis'' under CO₂ Limiting Conditions |journal= Plants |volume= 9 |issue= 10 |pages= 1307 | date= October 2020 |doi= 10.3390/plants9101307 |doi-access= free |pmc= 7600318 |pmid= 33023238 }}</ref> ====Mu maji==== [[Cyanobacteria]] ŵali na [[carboxysome]]s, awo ŵakusazgirako unandi wa {{co2}} kuzungulira RuBisCO kuti ŵasazgireko msinkhu wa kupanga vyakurya. Enzyme, [[carbonic anhydrase]], iyo yili mukati mwa carboxysome, yikufumiska CO₂ kufuma ku [[ma ayoni gha maji]] (HCO{{su|b=3|p=−}} ). Pambere CO₂ yindathandazgike kufumamo<!-- ya vichi? -->, RuBisCO wakukhazikika mukati mwa carboxysome mwaluŵiro wakuyiwuskapo. Ma ayoni gha HCO{{su|b=3|p=−}} ghakupangika kufuma ku CO₂ kuwaro kwa selo na carbonic anhydrase yinyake ndipo ghakupompa mwamwamphu mu selo na puloteni wa membrane. Iwo ŵangajumpha yayi pa membrane apo ŵakuŵa na charge, ndipo mukati mwa cytosol ŵakuzgokaso kuŵa CO₂ pachoko na pachoko chomene kwambura wovwiri wa carbonic anhydrase. Ici cikupangiska kuti ma ayoni gha HCO{{su|b=3|p=−}} ghawunjikike mukati mwa selo kufuma apo ghakuthandazgikira mu ma carboxysomes. 2003 |mutu= Nthowa zakuŵikamo CO2 mu cyanobacteria: vigaŵa vya maselo, kusiyana kwawo na kusintha kwawo |magazini= [[Buku la Kuyezga vyakumera]] |buku= 54 |magazini= 383 |masamba= 609–622 |doi= 10.1093/jxb/erg076 |doi-access= yaulere |pmid= 12554704 [}}</f> [Pyrenoid]]s mu [[nyere]] na . [[hornwort]] nayo yikuchita kuti yiŵikepo mtima pa {{co2}} kuzungulira RuBisCO.<ref>{{Cite journal |vauthors=Badger MR, Andrews JT, Whitney SM, Ludwig M, Yellowlees DC, Leggat W, Price GD |year= 1998 |title= The diversity and coevolution of Rubisco, plastids, pyrenoids, and chloroplast-based CO₂-concentrating mechanisms in algae |journal= [[Canadian Journal of Botany]] |volume= 76 |issue= 6 |pages= 1052–1071 |doi= 10.1139/b98-074 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors=((Robison, T. A.)), ((Oh, Z. G.)), ((Lafferty, D.)), ((Xu, X.)), ((Villarreal, J. C. A.)), ((Gunn, L. H.)), ((Li, F.-W.)) | journal=Nature Plants | title=Hornworts reveal a spatial model for pyrenoid-based CO2-concentrating mechanisms in land plants | pages=1–11 | publisher=Nature Publishing Group | date=3 January 2025 | issn=2055-0278 | doi=10.1038/s41477-024-01871-0}} </ref> ==Ndondomeko na vyakuchitika== [[Nthowa ya vyamoyo|ndondomeko]] yose ya photosynthesis yikuchitika mu vigaŵa vinayi:<ref name="McGraw-Hill-2007"/> {| class="wikitable" |- ! Stage !! Event !Site!! Time scale |- | 1 || [[Energy transfer]] in [[Light-harvesting complex|antenna chlorophyll]] | rowspan="3" |[[Thylakoid membranes]] in the [[chloroplast]]s|| [[Femtosecond]] to [[picosecond]] |- | 2 || [[Electron transfer|Transfer of electrons]] in [[photochemical reactions]] || [[Picosecond]] to [[nanosecond]] |- | 3 || [[Electron transport chain]] and [[ATP synthesis]]|| [[Microsecond]] to [[millisecond]] |- | 4 || [[Biological carbon fixation|Carbon fixation]] and export of stable [[Product (chemistry)|products]] |[[Stroma (fluid)|Stroma]] of the chloroplasts and the cell [[cytosol]]|| [[Millisecond]] to [[second]] |} ==Kugwira ntchito makora== {{Main|Kupanga vinthu mwakukwana}} [[Vyakumera]]s kanandi [[Photophosphorylation|kusintha ungweru kuŵa nkhongono ya kemiko]] na [[kugwira ntchito kwa ungweru]] kwa 3–6%.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.fao.org/docrep/w7241e/w7241e05.htm#1.2.1%20photosynthetic%20efficiency |title= Chapter 1 – Biological energy production |vauthors= Miyamoto K |work= Renewable biological systems for alternative sustainable energy production (FAO Agricultural Services Bulletin – 128) |publisher= Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations |access-date= 2009-01-04 |df=dmy-all |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130907040322/http://www.fao.org/docrep/w7241e/w7241e05.htm#1.2.1%20photosynthetic%20efficiency |archive-date= 2013-09-07 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Ehrenberg-2017">{{cite journal |vauthors= Ehrenberg R |date= 2017-12-15 |title= The photosynthesis fix |journal= Knowable Magazine |publisher= Annual Reviews |url= https://www.knowablemagazine.org/article/sustainability/2017/photosynthesis-fix |doi= 10.1146/knowable-121917-115502 |access-date= 2018-04-03 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20220407053057/https://knowablemagazine.org/article/sustainability/2017/photosynthesis-fix |archive-date= 2022-04-07 |url-status=live |doi-access=free }}</ref> Kuŵala uko kukukoleka uko kukusinthika yayi ni [[Kuthandazgika|kuthandazgika]] chomenechomene nga ni [[kutentha]], na [[chigaŵa]] chichoko (1–2%) chikufumiskikaso nga ni [[chlorophyll fluorescence]] pa nyengo yitali (kufipa) [[ utali wa mafunde]]s. Fundo iyi yikuzomerezga [[kupima]] kwa [[Kuchitika kwa ungweru|kuchitika kwa ungweru]] kwa ungweru mwakugwiliskira ntchito chlorophyll [[fluorometer]]<ref name="Maxwell-2000">{{cite journal |vauthors= Maxwell K, Johnson GN |date= April 2000 |title= Chlorophyll fluorescence – a practical guide |url= https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-experimental-botany_2000-04_51_345/page/659 |journal= Journal of Experimental Botany |volume= 51 |issue= 345 |pages= 659–668 |doi= 10.1093/jexbot/51.345.659 |doi-access= free |pmid= 10938857 }}</ref> Kugwira ntchito kwa vyakumera vyeneko kukupambana na [[Ungweru#Ungweru|ungweru]] uwo ukusinthika, [[Kuŵala|nkhongono ya ungweru]], [[kutentha]], na chiŵelengero cha [[Carbon dioxide mu mlengalenga wa pa charu chapasi|carbon . dioxide mu mlengalenga]], ndipo yingaŵa yakupambanapambana kufuma pa 0.1% m’paka pa 8%.<ref>{{cite web |vauthors= Govindjee, Rajni |title= What is Photosynthesis? |publisher= Biology at Illinois |url= http://www.life.illinois.edu/govindjee/whatisit.htm |access-date= 2014-04-17 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20140527074801/http://www.life.illinois.edu/govindjee/whatisit.htm |archive-date= 2014-05-27 |url-status= dead |df= dmy-all }}</ref> By comparison, [[photovoltaic module|solar panels]] convert light into [[electric energy]] at an efficiency of approximately 6–20% for [[Mass production|mass-produced]] panels, and above 40% in [[laboratory]] devices. [[Scientist]]s are studying photosynthesis in hopes of developing plants with increased [[Crop yield|yield]].<ref name="Ehrenberg-2017"/> Kugwira ntchito kwa ungweru na mdima kungapimika, kweni ubwezi pakati pa viŵiri ivi ungaŵa wakusuzga. Mwaciyelezgero, [[Vinthu ivyo vikucitika pa ungweru|vinthu ivyo vikucitika pa ungweru]] vikupanga [[Adenosine triphosphate|ATP]] na [[NADPH]] nkhongono [[molekyu]], izo [[C3 zikupanda|C<sub>3</sub . > vyakumera]] vingagwiriskikiya nchitu pa [[Kuŵika carbon mu vyamoyu|kuŵika carbon]] pamwenga [[kupuma kwakuthuzi]].<ref>{{kuzunura buku|ŵalembi=DeEll JA, Toivonen PM|chaka=2006|mutu=Kugwiliskira Ntchito Kwakuchitika kwa Kuwoneka kwa Chlorophyll mu Kuwoneka kwa Chlorophyll mu Kuwoneka kwa Chlorophyll. Ŵapharazgi ŵa Masambiro|malo=Dordrecht, Netherlands|masamba=39–78|isbn=9781461504153|mutu-url=nkhombo-url= 2023-01-19|url-status=live}}< /ref> [[Elekitironi|Elekitironis]] yingasefukiraso ku elekitironi yinyake . Baker NR, Oxborough K |chaka= 2004 |mutu= Mutu 3: Kuŵala kwa chlorophyll nga ni kafukufuku wa vyakupangapanga vyakupangika na ungweru Kupanga vinthu vyakuthupi |malo=Dordrecht, Netherlands |mupharazgi= Springer |masamba=66–79 |url ya mutu= 2023-01-19 |url-status=live }}< /ref><nowiki><ref></nowiki>{{kuyowoya za nyuzipepara|ŵalembi=Flexas J, Escalnona JM, Medrano H|dazi=Januwale 1999|mutu=Ubale pakati pa CO {{chigaŵa|2}} 116|journal=Chakumera, Selo na Chilengiwa|buku=22|magazini=1|masamba=39 -48|chitani=Fryer MJ, Andrews JR, Oxborough K, Blowers DA, Baker NR chaka 1998|issue=2|pages=571–580|doi=10.1104 / masamba 116.2.571 35114|pmid=9490760}}</ref> Pa chifukwa ichi, nchambura kumanyikwa kuti [[mulembi]]s wakupambaniska pakati pa ntchito iyo yikuchitika pasi pa [[Photorespiration#Vinthu ivyo vikukhwaska kupuma kwa ungweru|vinthu ivyo vikukhwaska yayi kupuma kwa ungweru na pasi pa viyezgo vya kupuma kwa ungweru]. ].<ref>{{zunurani magazini|ŵalembi=Earl H, Said Ennahli S|chaka=2004|mutu=Kuyezgayezga kwenda kwa magesi ghakupangika na ungweru kwizira mu chlorophyll fluorometry kwambura kuzura kwa ungweru wa Photosystem II|magazini=2|buku=82|masamba=177–182=2b0.0P ..177E 16151873|s2cid=291238}}<nowiki> = Ubale pakati pa chipambi cha quantum . ya kunyamura kwa magesi ghakupangika na ungweru na kuzimya ungweru wa chlorophyll |journal= Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - Nkhani Zakumanyikwa |buku = 990 | }}</wonani zina="Baker-2008">{{zunurani magazini |ŵalembi= Baker NR |chaka= 2008 |mutu= Kuwoneka kwa chlorophyll: Kafukufuku wa vyakupangika na ungweru </nowiki>''mu vivo'' |magazini= Kuwoneseskamo kwa chaka na chaka kwa vyamoyo vya vyakumera |buku= 59 | masamba= 89-113 10.1146/annurev.arplant.59.032607.092759 | [[Kuwoneka kwa chlorophyll]] kwa [[photosystem II]] kungapima umo ungweru ukuchitira, ndipo [[Chipangizo chakuwonera mphepo ya infrared|chipangizo chakuwonera mphepo ya infrareds]] chingapima [[umo mdima ukuchitira]].<nowiki><ref name="Bernacchi-2002"></nowiki>{{Bernacchi CJ, Portis AR, Nakano H, von Caemmerer S, Long SP|chaka=2002|mutu=Kuzgora kwa kutentha kwa mesophyll. Ivyo vikupangiska kuti munthu wamanye umo enzyme ya Rubisco yikuchitira vinthu ndiposo umo vikuŵira na mphaka pa umo vyakumera vikupangikira.}}</ref> Chlorophyll wakuphatikizgika [[fluorometer]] na [[Nthowa yakusinthaniska mpweya|nthowa yakusinthaniska mpweya]] yingafufuza vyose ivyo vikuchitika pa ungweru na mdima para ŵakusanda ŵakugwiliskira ntchito [[Nthowa za pa kompyuta|nthowa]] ziŵiri zakupambana pamoza. <zina la ref="Ribas-Carbo-2010">{{zunurani magazini |ŵalembi= Ribas-Carbo M, Flexas J, Robinson SA, Tcherkez GG |chaka= 2010 |mutu=''Mu vivo'' kuyezga kupuma kwa vyakumera |journal= Kafukufuku wa pa Intaneti wa pa Yunivesite ya Wollongong}}</ref> Vinthu vyakuwonera mphepo za Infrared na vinyake [ [Hygrometer|vyakuwonera chinyezi]] vikuŵa vyakuzirwa chomene kuti vipimire [[Kusambizga . (vyamoyo)|kusambizga vyakupangika na ungweru]] vya [[CO2|CO₂]] na vya [[Kusintha kwakuyana|Δ]]H₂O kugwiriskira ncito [[Nthowa|kugomezgeka nthowa]]. CO₂ kanandi yikupimika mu {{Abbr|μmols|maikromole}}/([[Sikweya mita|m²]]/[[Sekondi|s]]), [[Vigaŵa-pa notation|vigaŵa pa]] miliyoni, panji buku pa miliyoni; ndipo [[H2O|H₂O]] yikupimika chomene mu {{Abbr|mmols|milimole}}/(m²/s) panji mu {{Abbr| mbars|milibari}}. Pakupima [[kusazgikira kwa CO2|Kusazgikira kwa CO₂]], ΔH₂O, kutentha kwa mahamba, [[kufinyikizgika kwa barometric]], malo gha mahamba, na [[kuthukira kwa mahamba . ]] (PAR), vikuŵa vyamachitiko kupenda, "A" panji kusambizga carbon, "E" panji [[kuthukira]], "gs" panji [[stomatal . kulongozga]], na "Ci" panji CO ya mukati mwa maselo. kusinthaniska miyeso, kasi ŵangatiphalira vici pa ivyo vikupangiska kuti ŵantu ŵaleke kucita vinthu ivyo vikupangika na ungweru? Nthowa na uko vikupangiska kuti paŵe viheni |buku= Buku la Kuyezga vyakumera |buku= 54 |magazini= 392 |masamba= 2393–2401 |doi= 10.1093/jxb/erg262 |doi-access=waulere |pmid= 37}f Ndipouli, nchakumanyikwa comene kugwiliskira nchito . chlorophyll fluorescence ya [[kupima kusuzgika kwa vyakumera]], apo nchakwenelera, chifukwa vigaŵa ivyo vikugwiriskirika nchito chomene [[Kuyezga kusuzgika kwa vyakumera#Fv/Fm|FV/FM]] na [[Kuyezga kusuzgika kwa vyakumera#Y(II) panji ΔF/Fm . ' na ETR|Y(II) panji F/FM']] vingapimika mu masekondi ghachoko waka, kuzomerezga kufufuza kwa vikuru . unandi wa vyakumera.<ref zina = "Baker-2008"/> [[Nthowa yakusinthaniska mpweya|Nthowa yakusinthaniska mpweya]] iyo yikupereka kulaŵilira kwa CO₂ mlingo, pachanya na pasi pa [[Kupanikizgika kwakuzungulira|kuzungulira]], yikuzomerezga nchito yakumanyikwa ya kuyezga ma curve gha A / Ci . , pa vigaŵa vyakupambanapambana vya CO₂, kuti vimanyiske umo chakumera chikuchitira pakupanga vyakurya.<ref name="Long-2003"/> Kusazgikira kwa chlorophyll fluorometer – ndondomeko ya kusinthana kwa mphepo yikuzomerezga [[Kurongosora na kurongosora makora|kurongosora makora]] kuyezga kwakuzgora kwa ungweru na nthowa zake. Nangauli nthowa zakusinthana na mpweya zingapima Ci, panji kuti substomatal . CO₂ mlingo, kusazgirapo kwa vipimilo vya chlorophyll vyakuphatikizgika vyakuwoneka vikupangiska kuti vipimiro vyakwenelera vya C_C, vipimilo vya CO₂ ivyo vikusangika pa malo agha . ya [[kupangika]] mu chloroplast, kuti yinjire mu malo gha Ci.<ref . 2002 Mutu: Kuzgora kwa kutentha kwa nesophyll. Ivyo vikupangiska kuti munthu wamanye umo enzyme ya Rubisco yikuchitira vinthu ndiposo umo vikuŵira na vinthu vinyake ivyo vikupangiska kuti thupi lileke kuŵa na vyakumera. |pmid= 12481082 }}</ref> CO₂ unandi mu chloroplast ukuzgoka wakukwaniska kupimika na kuyezga kwa mesophyll conductance panji g_m pakugwiriskira ncito ndondomeko yakukolerana.<ref name="Bernacchi-2002 journal |vauthors= Yin X, Struik PC |chaka= 2009 |mutu= Kughanaghaniraso kwa visambizgo apo ŵakuyezgayezga kuthandazgika kwa mesophyll ku CO{{sub|2}} mu mahamba gha vyakumera vya C3 mwa kusanda kusinthana kwa mphepo yakusazgikana na miyezo ya chlorophyll ya fluorescence = joroscence | Chakumera, Selo na Chilengedwe |volume= 32 |masamba= 1513–1524 [1524] |doi= 10.1111 / j.1365-3040.2009.02016.x | Nthowa zakupimira ungweru izo zikupangika na ungweru zili kupangika kuti zipimire mwaluŵiro yayi unandi wa ungweru uwo hamba likutora, kweni para munthu wakusanda [[chlorophyll fluorescence]], [[P700]]- na P515-absorbance, na [[kusinthana kwa mpweya]], wakusanga vinthu vinandi vyakukhwaskana na . , mwachiyelezgero, [[chithunzithunzi]]s, [[quantum . nkhongono]] na CO<sub">2<meta /> mitengo ya kusambizga. Na vyakwimbira vinyake, nanga ni wavKuthemba kwa utali wa nkhongono ya chithunzithunzi kungaŵa [[kusanda]].<nowiki><ref>{{kuzunura magazini |ŵalembi= Schreiber U, Klughammer C, Kolbowski J |chaka= 2012 |mutu= Kuyezgelera kwa utali wa mafunde-kuthemba pa vigaŵa vya magesi vya chithunzithunzi kunyamura na mtundu uphya wa PAM ya mitundu yinandi 113 |magazini= 1–3 |masamba= 127–144 | 22729479</nowiki> [[Cinthu]] ico cikumanyikwa kuti [[quantum walk]] cikupangiska kuti nkhongono za ungweru ziŵe zakukwana comene. Mu selo la [[Algae|alga]], [[mabakiteriya]], panji chakumera, muli mamolekyu agho ghakuwona ungweru ghakuchemeka [[Chromophore|chromophores]] agho ghali kuŵikika mu nthowa yakuwoneka nga ni antenna iyo yikuchemeka photocomplex. Para [[photon]] yakoleka na chromophore, yikusinthika kuŵa [[quasiparticle]] iyo yikuchemeka kuti [[exciton]], iyo yikujumpha kufuma ku chromophore kuya ku chromophore ku malo ghakuchitikira vinthu vya chromophore, msonkho wa . mamolekyu agho ghakukolera nkhongono zake mu mtundu wa kemiko uwo ukusangika ku selo. Katundu wa mafunde wa exciton wakupangiska kuti wabenekelere malo ghakuru na kuyezga nthowa zinandi izo zingaŵapo pa nyengo yimoza, ndipo ivi vikupangiska kuti nyengo yeneyiyo "wasankhe" nthowa yiwemi chomene, apo wazamuŵa na mwaŵi ukuru wakuti wafike uko wakuluta mu nyengo yichoko waka. Chifukwa chakuti kwenda kwa quantum uko kukuchitika pa nyengo yakutentha chomene kuluska umo vinthu vya quantum vikuchitikira kanandi, vikuchitika waka pa mtunda ufupi chomene. Vinthu ivyo vikupangiska kuti chigaŵa ichi chileke kuŵa na mafunde kwa nyengo yichoko waka pambere chindaŵasangeso para chafwatulika kufuma ku malo ghake ghakujalika kwizira mu "hop" yakumanyikwa. Ntheura kwenda kwa electron ku malo ghapakati pa vithuzithuzi kukuvumbika mu mndandanda wa viphapha vyakumanyikwa vya hops na kwenda kwa quantum.<nowiki><ref></nowiki>{{kuzunura nkhani|ŵalembi=Palmer J|dazi=21 Juni 2013|mutu=Biology ya Quantum: Kukhala makora kwizira mu makanika ya quantum|magazini=Nkhani za BBC|url=2014/03/umoyo wa quantum/ 2014/03/quantum-life/|zuŵa=10 Malichi 2014|mndandanda=Mtundu wa Unenesko|wakupharazga=Nova: PBS pa Intaneti; WGBH Boston|archive-date=3 July 2017|url -mkhaliro=wamoyo}}</ref><ref><nowiki>{{zunurani nyuzipepara |ŵalembi= Hildner R, Brinks D, Nieder JB, Cogdell RJ, van Hulst NF |zuŵa= Juni 2013 |mutu= Kusintha kwa nkhongono kwakukolerana kwa quantum pa nthowa zakupambanapambana mu vigaŵa vimoza vyakuvunira ungweru |journal= Sayansi |buku= 340 |magazini= pages 6139 = 1448-1451 2013Sci...340.1448H |doi= 10.1126/sayansi.1235820 |</nowiki> == Kusintha kwa vinthu == {{yikuru|Kusintha kwa vyakupangapanga vyakuwoneka}} {{Nyengo ya umoyo}} [[Vinthu vyakukhalamo]] vya ivyo vikughanaghanirika kuti ni [[Vinthu vyakupangika na mapulotini|vyamoyo]] ivyo vikupangika na ungweru [[vyamoyo]] vyasangika kuti vyakhalako vyaka 3.4 biliyoni.<nowiki><ref></nowiki>{{zunurani magazini|ŵalembi=Davis K|date=2 October 2004|mutu=Kupanga vinthu vyakupangika na ungweru kukayamba mwaluŵiro chomene|magazini=Munthu Muphya wa Sayansi|url=https://www.newsscientist.com/nkhani/mg18424671.600-kupanga-mawonekero-ghakwamba-mwaluŵiro nadi.html|zuŵa-lakufikapo=8 Seputembala 2017|archive-url=Nkhani/mg18424671.600-photosynthesis-yayamba-mwaluŵiro nadi.html|archive-date=May 1 2015|url-mkhalidwe=wamoyo}}</ref><ref>{{kuzunura magazini |ŵalembi= Hooper R |dazi= 19 Ogasiti 2006 |mutu= Kuvumbura m'maŵa wa kupanga vinthu vyakupangika na ungweru |journal= Munthu Muphya wa Sayansi |url= 200-kuvumbura-m'maŵa-wa-kupanga-vyakupangapanga.html |zuŵa-lakufikapo= 8 Seputembala 2017 |archive-url= 19125654.200-kuvumbura-m'mawa-wa-kupanga-vinthu.html |archive-date= 24 May | url-mkhaliro= wamoyo }}</ref> Vinyake sonosono apa [[Kafukufuku|masambiro]] ghakulongoraso kuti vyakupangika na ungweru vingaŵa kuti vikayamba pafupifupi vyaka 3.4 biliyoni ivyo vyajumpha,<ref>{{zunurani magazini |ŵalembi= Cardona T |zuŵa= Malichi 2018 |mutu= Chiyambi cha Archean chakwamba cha heterodimeric Photosystem I |magazini = Heliyon |buku= 4 |magazini= 3 |masamba= 10.1016/j.heliyon.2018.e00548 |doi-access= kwaulere |pmc= 5857716 |s = Howard V |date= 7 March 2018 |title= Photosynthesis Yikayamba Vilimika Biliyoni Yimoza Kujumpha Umo Tikaghanaghaniranga, Kafukufuku Wakulongora kuti |ntchito= [[Magazini ya Astrobiology]] |url= https://www.astrobio.net/nayo-mu-nkhani/photosynthesis-yikayamba-vyaka-biliyoni-vyakumasinda-maghanoghano-ghakusambira-ghakulongora/ |zuŵa-lakufikira= 23 March 2018 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20201001223438. |zuŵa lakusungiramo vinthu vyakale= Okutobala 1, 2020 |url-mkhaliro= ŵakufwa }}</ref> nangauli [[umboni]] wakwamba wakulongosora umo vinthu vikupangika na ungweru ukufumira ku [[viŵaro vya thylakoid]] ivyo vikusungika mu ma [[chert]] gha vyaka 1.75 biliyoni.<ref>{{cite journal | Catherine F. |wakumaliya2= Lara |wakwamba2= Yannick J. |wakumaliya3= Lambion |wakwamba3= Alexandre |wakumaliya4= Javaux |wakwamba4= Emmanuelle J. |dazi= 2024 |mutu= Ma thylakoids ghakale chomene mu maselo ghakuwoneka ghakulongora mwaluŵiro kuti mphepo yikupangika na mphepo |journal= Chilengiwa |buku= 625 |magazini= 7995 |pa9 bibkhodi= 2024Natur.625..529D | doi = 10.1038 / s41586-023-06896-7 | }}</ref> [[Kusintha kwa mphepo|Oxygenic photosynthesis]] ndiyo yikupangiska chomene [[oxygen]] mu [[Mlengalenga wa Charu chapasi|Mlengalenga wa Charu chapasi]], ndipo kuwoneka kwake kwakwamba nyengo zinyake kukuchemeka kuti [[soka la oksijeni]]. [[Geology|Geological]] ukaboni ukulongora kuti mphepo yakupangika na ungweru, nga ni iyo yikuchitika mu [[cyanobacteria]], yikaŵa yakuzirwa chomene mu nyengo ya [[Paleoproterozoic]] pafupifupi vyaka viŵiri biliyoni ivyo vyajumpha. Kupanga vinthu vya mazuŵa ghano mu [[vyakumera]]s na [[prokaryote]]s vinandi ivyo vikupanga vinthu vyakupangika na ungweru vikupangika na mphepo, kugwiliskira nchito [[maji]] nga ni [[wakupeleka magesi]], agho ghakupangika [[oxidized]] ku mphepo ya maselo mu [[ malo ghakupangira vinthu vyakupangika na ungweru]]. ===Kukhala pamoza na kufumapo kwa ma chloroplasts=== [[Fayilo:Plagiomnium affine laminazellen.jpeg|thumb|left|Maselo gha vyakumera agho ghali na chloroplasts ghakuwoneka (kufuma ku moss, ''[[Plagiomnium affine]]'')]] Magulu ghanandi gha [[vinyama]]s ghapanga [[symbiosis|symbiotic]] ubwezi na [[algae]] wakupangika na ungweru. Vinthu ivi vikusangika chomene mu [[makorali]], [[siponji]], na [[anemone ya mu nyanja]]. [[Ŵasayansi]] ŵakughanaghana kuti ivi vikuchitika chifukwa chakuti [[pulani ya thupi]]s yipusu chomene na [[malo ghapachanya]]s ghakuru gha vinyama ivi pakuyaniska na [[volume]]s zawo.<ref><nowiki>{{cite magazini |ŵalembi= Venn AA, Loram JE, Douglas AE |mutu= Kukolerana kwa vyakupangika na ungweru mu vinyama |magazini= Buku la Kuyezga 1069–1080 |chaka= 2008 |pmid= 18267943 |doi= 10.1093/jxb/erm328 | [vinyama vyakukhwaŵa]], nga ni </nowiki>''[[Elysia viridis]]'' na ''[[Elysia chlorotica]],'' nawo ŵakusunga ubwezi wa symbiotic na [[Chloroplast|chloroplasts]] awo ŵakukora kufuma ku mtundu wa algae mu [[Mollusca#Kurya, kugaya, na kufumiska|vyakurya vyawo]]. ndipo pamanyuma ŵakusunga mu mathupi ghawo (wonani [[Kleptoplasty]]). Ici cikovwira kuti vinyama ivi vikhaleko waka na ungweru kwa myezi yinandi pa nyengo yimoza.<nowiki><ref>{{zunurani magazini |ŵalembi= Rumpho ME, Summer EJ, Manhart JR |dazi= Meyi 2000 |mutu= Vinyama vya mu nyanja ivyo vikugwira ntchito na nkhongono za zuŵa. 123 |magazini= 1 |masamba= 29–38 |doi= 10.1104/pp.123.1.29 |pmc= 1539252 |p02}re ></nowiki>{{Kuzunura magazini|ŵalembi=Muscatine L, Greene RW|chaka=1973|mutu=Chloroplasts na algae nga ni vyamoyo ivyo vikukhala pamoza mu vinyama vyakuchemeka molluscs|magazini=Kuwoneseskamo kwa vyamoyo vya pa charu chose|buku=36|masamba=137–169|isbn=978-04-362 -0|pakati=4587388|doi=10.1016/S0074-7696(08)60217-X}}</ref> Vinyake vya [[jini]]s kufuma ku chakumera [[selo nucleus]] vyasamuskika ku [[slug]]. s, mwakuti ma chloroplast ghaŵe na [[mapulotini]] agho ghakukhumbikwira kuti . Kupona. jini psbO ku somba za mu nyanja za Elysia chlorotica 105 |magazini= 46 |masamba= 17867–17871 |bibcode= 2008PNAS..10517867R |doi= 10.1073/04-9 ulele 19004808 Nthowa yinyake yakukolerana comene yingalongosora umo ma chloroplast ghakambira. Ma chloroplasts ghali na vinthu vinandi vyakuyana na [[mabakiteriya]], kusazgapo [[chromosome]] wakuzungulira, mtundu wa prokaryotic [[ribosome]], na vyakuyana waka [[Banja la mapulotini ghakupangika na ungweru|mapulotini agho ghali mu malo ghakupangika na ungweru]].< 1998 |mutu= Kusintha kwa mapulasitiki: kufumapo, kusiyanasiyana, vyakuchitika |journal= Maghanoghano ghasono mu Genetics & Kukura |buku= 8 |magazini= 6 |masamba= 655–661 |doi= 10.1016/S0959-437X(98)80033-6 = 9914199 }}</ref><ref>{{kuzunura magazini |ŵalembi=Reyes-Prieto A, Weber AP, Bhattacharya D |chaka=2007 |mutu=Kufuma na kukhazikika kwa plastid mu nyanja na vyakumera |magazini=Kuwoneseska kwa chaka na chaka kwa Majini |buku=41 |masamba=147–168 [[endosymbiotic theory]] yikulongora kuti mabakiteriya ghakupanga vyakurya ghakasangika (na [ar]cy) [[eukaryotic]] kuti ŵapange maselo ghakwamba gha vyakumera. Ntheura, ma chloroplasts ghangaŵa mabakiteriya ghakupanga vyakurya the-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20201001223438. |zuŵa lakusungiramo vinthu vyakale= Okutobala 1, 2020 |url-mkhaliro= ŵakufwa }}</ref> nangauli [[umboni]] wakwamba wakulongosora umo vinthu vikupangika na ungweru ukufumira ku [[viŵaro vya thylakoid]] ivyo vikusungika mu ma [[chert]] gha vyaka 1.75 biliyoni.<ref>{{cite journal | Catherine F. |wakumaliya2= Lara |wakwamba2= Yannick J. |wakumaliya3= Lambion |wakwamba3= Alexandre |wakumaliya4= Javaux |wakwamba4= Emmanuelle J. |dazi= 2024 |mutu= Ma thylakoids ghakale chomene mu maselo ghakuwoneka ghakulongora mwaluŵiro kuti mphepo yikupangika na mphepo |journal= Chilengiwa |buku= 625 |magazini= 7995 |pa9 bibkhodi= 2024Natur.625..529D | doi = 10.1038 / s41586-023-06896-7 | }}</ref> [[Kusintha kwa mphepo|Oxygenic photosynthesis]] ndiyo yikupangiska chomene [[oxygen]] mu [[Mlengalenga wa Charu chapasi|Mlengalenga wa Charu chapasi]], ndipo kuwoneka kwake kwakwamba nyengo zinyake kukuchemeka kuti [[soka la oksijeni]]. [[Geology|Geological]] ukaboni ukulongora kuti mphepo yakupangika na ungweru, nga ni iyo yikuchitika mu [[cyanobacteria]], yikaŵa yakuzirwa chomene mu nyengo ya [[Paleoproterozoic]] pafupifupi vyaka viŵiri biliyoni ivyo vyajumpha. Kupanga vinthu vya mazuŵa ghano mu [[vyakumera]]s na [[prokaryote]]s vinandi ivyo vikupanga vinthu vyakupangika na ungweru vikupangika na mphepo, kugwiliskira nchito [[maji]] nga ni [[wakupeleka magesi]], agho ghakupangika [[oxidized]] ku mphepo ya maselo mu [[ malo ghakupangira vinthu vyakupangika na ungweru]]. ===Kukhala pamoza na kufumapo kwa ma chloroplasts=== [[Fayilo:Plagiomnium affine laminazellen.jpeg|thumb|left|Maselo gha vyakumera agho ghali na chloroplasts ghakuwoneka (kufuma ku moss, ''[[Plagiomnium affine]]'')]] Magulu ghanandi gha [[vinyama]]s ghapanga [[symbiosis|symbiotic]] ubwezi na [[algae]] wakupangika na ungweru. Vinthu ivi vikusangika chomene mu [[makorali]], [[siponji]], na [[anemone ya mu nyanja]]. [[Ŵasayansi]] ŵakughanaghana kuti ivi vikuchitika chifukwa chakuti [[pulani ya thupi]]s yipusu chomene na [[malo ghapachanya]]s ghakuru gha vinyama ivi pakuyaniska na [[volume]]s zawo.<ref><nowiki>{{cite magazini |ŵalembi= Venn AA, Loram JE, Douglas AE |mutu= Kukolerana kwa vyakupangika na ungweru mu vinyama |magazini= Buku la Kuyezga 1069–1080 |chaka= 2008 |pmid= 18267943 |doi= 10.1093/jxb/erm328 | [vinyama vyakukhwaŵa]], nga ni </nowiki>''[[Elysia viridis]]'' na ''[[Elysia chlorotica]],'' nawo ŵakusunga ubwezi wa symbiotic na [[Chloroplast|chloroplasts]] awo ŵakukora kufuma ku mtundu wa algae mu [[Mollusca#Kurya, kugaya, na kufumiska|vyakurya vyawo]]. ndipo pamanyuma ŵakusunga mu mathupi ghawo (wonani [[Kleptoplasty]]). Ici cikovwira kuti vinyama ivi vikhaleko waka na ungweru kwa myezi yinandi pa nyengo yimoza.<nowiki><ref>{{zunurani magazini |ŵalembi= Rumpho ME, Summer EJ, Manhart JR |dazi= Meyi 2000 |mutu= Vinyama vya mu nyanja ivyo vikugwira ntchito na nkhongono za zuŵa. 123 |magazini= 1 |masamba= 29–38 |doi= 10.1104/pp.123.1.29 |pmc= 1539252 |p02}re ></nowiki>{{Kuzunura magazini|ŵalembi=Muscatine L, Greene RW|chaka=1973|mutu=Chloroplasts na algae nga ni vyamoyo ivyo vikukhala pamoza mu vinyama vyakuchemeka molluscs|magazini=Kuwoneseskamo kwa vyamoyo vya pa charu chose|buku=36|masamba=137–169|isbn=978-04-362 -0|pakati=4587388|doi=10.1016/S0074-7696(08)60217-X}}</ref> Vinyake vya [[jini]]s kufuma ku chakumera [[selo nucleus]] vyasamuskika ku [[slug]]. s, mwakuti ma chloroplast ghaŵe na [[mapulotini]] agho ghakukhumbikwira kuti . Kupona. jini psbO ku somba za mu nyanja za Elysia chlorotica 105 |magazini= 46 |masamba= 17867–17871 |bibcode= 2008PNAS..10517867R |doi= 10.1073/04-9 ulele 19004808 Nthowa yinyake yakukolerana comene yingalongosora umo ma chloroplast ghakambira. Ma chloroplasts ghali na vinthu vinandi vyakuyana na [[mabakiteriya]], kusazgapo [[chromosome]] wakuzungulira, mtundu wa prokaryotic [[ribosome]], na vyakuyana waka [[Banja la mapulotini ghakupangika na ungweru|mapulotini agho ghali mu malo ghakupangika na ungweru]].< 1998 |mutu= Kusintha kwa mapulasitiki: kufumapo, kusiyanasiyana, vyakuchitika |journal= Maghanoghano ghasono mu Genetics & Kukura |buku= 8 |magazini= 6 |masamba= 655–661 |doi= 10.1016/S0959-437X(98)80033-6 = 9914199 }}</ref><ref>{{kuzunura magazini |ŵalembi=Reyes-Prieto A, Weber AP, Bhattacharya D |chaka=2007 |mutu=Kufuma na kukhazikika kwa plastid mu nyanja na vyakumera |magazini=Kuwoneseska kwa chaka na chaka kwa Majini |buku=41 |masamba=147–168 [[endosymbiotic theory]] yikulongora kuti mabakiteriya ghakupanga vyakurya ghakasangika (na [ar]cy) [[eukaryotic]] kuti ŵapange maselo ghakwamba gha vyakumera. Ntheura, ma chloroplasts ghangaŵa mabakiteriya ghakupanga vyakurya the-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20201001223438. |zuŵa lakusungiramo vinthu vyakale= Okutobala 1, 2020 |url-mkhaliro= ŵakufwa }}</ref> nangauli [[umboni]] wakwamba wakulongosora umo vinthu vikupangika na ungweru ukufumira ku [[viŵaro vya thylakoid]] ivyo vikusungika mu ma [[chert]] gha vyaka 1.75 biliyoni.<ref>{{cite journal | Catherine F. |wakumaliya2= Lara |wakwamba2= Yannick J. |wakumaliya3= Lambion |wakwamba3= Alexandre |wakumaliya4= Javaux |wakwamba4= Emmanuelle J. |dazi= 2024 |mutu= Ma thylakoids ghakale chomene mu maselo ghakuwoneka ghakulongora mwaluŵiro kuti mphepo yikupangika na mphepo |journal= Chilengiwa |buku= 625 |magazini= 7995 |pa9 bibkhodi= 2024Natur.625..529D | doi = 10.1038 / s41586-023-06896-7 | }}</ref> [[Kusintha kwa mphepo|Oxygenic photosynthesis]] ndiyo yikupangiska chomene [[oxygen]] mu [[Mlengalenga wa Charu chapasi|Mlengalenga wa Charu chapasi]], ndipo kuwoneka kwake kwakwamba nyengo zinyake kukuchemeka kuti [[soka la oksijeni]]. [[Geology|Geological]] ukaboni ukulongora kuti mphepo yakupangika na ungweru, nga ni iyo yikuchitika mu [[cyanobacteria]], yikaŵa yakuzirwa chomene mu nyengo ya [[Paleoproterozoic]] pafupifupi vyaka viŵiri biliyoni ivyo vyajumpha. Kupanga vinthu vya mazuŵa ghano mu [[vyakumera]]s na [[prokaryote]]s vinandi ivyo vikupanga vinthu vyakupangika na ungweru vikupangika na mphepo, kugwiliskira nchito [[maji]] nga ni [[wakupeleka magesi]], agho ghakupangika [[oxidized]] ku mphepo ya maselo mu [[ malo ghakupangira vinthu vyakupangika na ungweru]]. ===Kukhala pamoza na kufumapo kwa ma chloroplasts=== [[Fayilo:Plagiomnium affine laminazellen.jpeg|thumb|left|Maselo gha vyakumera agho ghali na chloroplasts ghakuwoneka (kufuma ku moss, ''[[Plagiomnium affine]]'')]] Magulu ghanandi gha [[vinyama]]s ghapanga [[symbiosis|symbiotic]] ubwezi na [[algae]] wakupangika na ungweru. Vinthu ivi vikusangika chomene mu [[makorali]], [[siponji]], na [[anemone ya mu nyanja]]. [[Ŵasayansi]] ŵakughanaghana kuti ivi vikuchitika chifukwa chakuti [[pulani ya thupi]]s yipusu chomene na [[malo ghapachanya]]s ghakuru gha vinyama ivi pakuyaniska na [[volume]]s zawo.<ref><nowiki>{{cite magazini |ŵalembi= Venn AA, Loram JE, Douglas AE |mutu= Kukolerana kwa vyakupangika na ungweru mu vinyama |magazini= Buku la Kuyezga 1069–1080 |chaka= 2008 |pmid= 18267943 |doi= 10.1093/jxb/erm328 | [vinyama vyakukhwaŵa]], nga ni </nowiki>''[[Elysia viridis]]'' na ''[[Elysia chlorotica]],'' nawo ŵakusunga ubwezi wa symbiotic na [[Chloroplast|chloroplasts]] awo ŵakukora kufuma ku mtundu wa algae mu [[Mollusca#Kurya, kugaya, na kufumiska|vyakurya vyawo]]. ndipo pamanyuma ŵakusunga mu mathupi ghawo (wonani [[Kleptoplasty]]). Ici cikovwira kuti vinyama ivi vikhaleko waka na ungweru kwa myezi yinandi pa nyengo yimoza.<nowiki><ref>{{zunurani magazini |ŵalembi= Rumpho ME, Summer EJ, Manhart JR |dazi= Meyi 2000 |mutu= Vinyama vya mu nyanja ivyo vikugwira ntchito na nkhongono za zuŵa. 123 |magazini= 1 |masamba= 29–38 |doi= 10.1104/pp.123.1.29 |pmc= 1539252 |p02}re ></nowiki>{{Kuzunura magazini|ŵalembi=Muscatine L, Greene RW|chaka=1973|mutu=Chloroplasts na algae nga ni vyamoyo ivyo vikukhala pamoza mu vinyama vyakuchemeka molluscs|magazini=Kuwoneseskamo kwa vyamoyo vya pa charu chose|buku=36|masamba=137–169|isbn=978-04-362 -0|pakati=4587388|doi=10.1016/S0074-7696(08)60217-X}}</ref> Vinyake vya [[jini]]s kufuma ku chakumera [[selo nucleus]] vyasamuskika ku [[slug]]. s, mwakuti ma chloroplast ghaŵe na [[mapulotini]] agho ghakukhumbikwira kuti . Kupona. jini psbO ku somba za mu nyanja za Elysia chlorotica 105 |magazini= 46 |masamba= 17867–17871 |bibcode= 2008PNAS..10517867R |doi= 10.1073/04-9 ulele 19004808 Nthowa yinyake yakukolerana comene yingalongosora umo ma chloroplast ghakambira. Ma chloroplasts ghali na vinthu vinandi vyakuyana na [[mabakiteriya]], kusazgapo [[chromosome]] wakuzungulira, mtundu wa prokaryotic [[ribosome]], na vyakuyana waka [[Banja la mapulotini ghakupangika na ungweru|mapulotini agho ghali mu malo ghakupangika na ungweru]].< 1998 |mutu= Kusintha kwa mapulasitiki: kufumapo, kusiyanasiyana, vyakuchitika |journal= Maghanoghano ghasono mu Genetics & Kukura |buku= 8 |magazini= 6 |masamba= 655–661 |doi= 10.1016/S0959-437X(98)80033-6 = 9914199 }}</ref><ref><nowiki>{{kuzunura magazini |ŵalembi=Reyes-Prieto A, Weber AP, Bhattacharya D |chaka=2007 |mutu=Kufuma na kukhazikika kwa plastid mu nyanja na vyakumera |magazini=Kuwoneseska kwa chaka na chaka kwa Majini |buku=41 |masamba=147–168 </nowiki>[[endosymbiotic theory]] yikulongora kuti mabakiteriya ghakupanga vyakurya ghakasangika (na [ar]cy) [[eukaryotic]] kuti ŵapange maselo ghakwamba gha vyakumera. Ntheura, ma chloroplasts ghangaŵa mabakiteriya ghakupanga vyakurya thpa kuzgoŵera umoyo mukati mwa maselo gha vyakumera. Nga ni [[mitochondria]], ma chloroplast ghali na [[DNA]] yawo, ghakupambana na [[DNA ya nyukiliya]] ya maselo ghawo ghakupokelera vyakumera ndipo majini agho ghali mu DNA ya ma chloroplast agha ghakuyana waka na agho ghakusangika mu [[cyanobacteria]].<nowiki><ref >{{kuzunura nyuzipepara |ŵalembi= Raven JA, Allen JF |chaka= 2003 |mutu= Genomics na kusintha kwa ma chloroplast: kasi cyanobacteria yikachitira vichi vyakumera? 209 |doi= 10.1186/gb-2003-4-3-209 | > DNA mu makhodi gha makoloroplasiti gha </nowiki>[[redox]] mapulotini nga ni agho ghakusangika mu malo agho ghakupangiska kuti vinthu viŵeko. [[CoRR Hypothesis]] yikuyowoya kuti malo agha ghakukolerana gha majini na vinthu vyawo vya majini ghakukhumbikwa kuti redox yilongozgeke [[kulongosora kwa majini]], ndipo yikupangiska kuti DNA yilutilire kuŵapo mu [[Organelle|organelles]] ya bioenergetic.<nowiki><ref ></nowiki>{{kuzunura nyuzipepara|ŵalembi=Allen JF|zuŵa=Disembala 2017|mutu=Nkhani ya CoRR ya majini mu viŵaro vya thupi|journal=Buku la Theoretical Biology|buku=434|masamba=50–57|bibcode=2017JThBi.434...50A|}}</wonani> === Mitundu ya eukaryotic yakupangika na ungweru === Vyamoyo vyakukolerana na [[kleptoplasty]] vikupatulika: * [[Glaucophyte|Glaucophytes]] na [[Nsomba zakufipa|zofipa]] na [[Viridiplantae|nsomba zakubiriŵira]]—zikupangika [[Archaeplastida]] ([[Chamoyo cha maselo ghamoza|uni]]- na [[Chamoyo cha maselo ghanandi| maselo ghanandi]]) * [[Cryptophyceae|vinyama vyakubisika]]—clade [[Cryptista]] (vya maselo ghamoza) * [[Haptophyte|Haptophytes]]—clade [[Haptista]] (ya maselo ghamoza) * [[Dinoflagellate|Dinoflagellates]] na [[Chromerida|chromerids]] mu mtundu ukuru [[Myzozoa]], na [[Pseudoblepharisma]] mu mtundu [[Ciliate|Ciliophora]]—clade [[Alveolata]] (wa maselo ghamoza ) * [[Vyakumera vyakumera]]—clade [[Vyakumera vyakumera|Vinthu vyakumera]] (vya maselo ghamoza na ghanandi) * [[[[[[[]]]]] zitatu za [[[[[[]]]] za [[[[Cercozoa]]] mu mtundu wa [[Cercozoa]]—wa [[Rhizaria]] (wa maselo ghamoza) * Ma [[Euglenid|euglenids]]—magulu [[Excavata]] (gha maselo ghamoza) Kupaturapo vinyama vyakuchemeka euglenids, ivyo vikusangika mukati mwa [[Excavata]], vyose ivi ni vya [[Diaphoretickes]]. Archaeplastida na Paulinella wakupanga vyakurya ŵakasanga ma plastids ghawo, agho ghakuzingilizgika na viŵaro viŵiri, kwizira mu [[Endosymbiont|endosymbiosis]] mu vyakuchitika viŵiri vyakupambana, mwa kuzingilizga cyanobacterium. Ma plastids mu magulu ghanyake ghose ghali na chiyambi cha algal wakufipa panji wakubiriŵira, ndipo ghakuchemeka kuti "mizere yakufipa" na "mizere yakubiriŵira". Chinthu chimoza pera icho chikumanyikwa kuti chikupatulika ni ciliate [[Pseudoblepharisma|Pseudoblepharisma tenue]], iyo padera pa ma plastids ghake agho ghakafuma ku mtundu wa algae wakubiriŵira nayo yili na [[bakiteriya wa sulfure wa pepo]] nga ni symbiont. Mu dinoflagellates na euglenids ma plastids ghakuzingilizgika na viŵaro vitatu, ndipo mu mizere yakukhalira na vinayi. A [[nucleomorph]], vyakukhalapo vya nyukiliya ya algal yakwamba iyo yili pakati pa viŵaro vya mukati na vya kuwaro vya plastid, vikusangika mu vinyama vyakuchemeka cryptophytes (kufuma ku alga yakufipa) na chlorarachniophytes (kufuma ku alga yakubiriŵira).<nowiki><ref></nowiki>{{cite magazini|ŵalembi=Keeling PJ|zuŵa=Febuluwale 2020|mutu=Vinthu ivyo vikukhala mu thupi chiyambi, kugaŵikana na chimaliziro cha plastids|journal=International Buku la Astrobiology|buku=20|magazini=3|masamba=241–250|doi=10.1101/2020.20.957134|Dinoflagellates zinyake izo zikataya luso lwawo lwa kupanga vyakurya pamanyuma zikaŵaso na luso ili kwizira mu vyakuchitika viphya vya endosymbiotic na algae zakupambanapambana. Nangauli vikukwaniska kupanga vyakurya, magulu ghanandi gha eukaryotic agha ni [[mixotroph]]s ndipo ghakuchita [[heterotroph]]y mu vigaŵa vyakupambanapambana. ===Mitundu ya prokaryotic yakupangika na ungweru=== Nthowa zakwambilira zakupangira vyakurya, nga ni izo zili mu [[Mabakiteriya gha sulfure wakubiriŵira|wakubiriŵira]] na [[sulfure wa pepo]] na [[Chloroflexota|wakubiriŵira]] na [[mabakiteriya ghambura sulfure gha pepo]], ŵakughanaghana kuti ghakaŵa [[Anoxygenic photosynthesis . |anoxygenic]], ndipo ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito mamolekyu ghanyake ghakupambanapambana padera pa maji nga ni [[wakupeleka magesi]]s. Ŵakughanaghana kuti mabakiteriya gha sulfure gha girini na gha pepo ghakagwiliskira nchito [[hydrogen]] na [[sulfure]] nga ni vyakupeleka vya magesi. Mabakiteriya ghambura sulfure ghakubiriŵira ghakagwiliskiranga ntchito [[amino acid|amino]] na vinyake [[asidi wakupangika na vyakumera]] nga ni awo ŵakupeleka magesi. Mabakiteriya gha pepo ghambura sulfure ghakagwiliskiranga ntchito mamolekyu ghakupambanapambana ghambura kumanyikwa. Kugwiriskira ncito mamolekyu agha kukukolerana na ukaboni wa ŵasayansi ŵa vyakumera uwo ukulongora kuti mphepo ya pa caru capasi yikaŵa yikuru comene [[Kucepeskako malo|kucepeskako]] pa [[Mbiri ya Caru capasi#Hadean na Archean Eons|nyengo iyo]].<ref>{{cite book | vauthors= Gale J |dazi= 2009 |mutu= Sayansi ya vyamoyo vya mu mlengalenga vya pa charu chapasi: The kufumapo, kusintha kwa umoyo na munthazi wa umoyo pa charu chapasi icho chili mu chivulupi ?id=64zn0nxDVUYC&pg=PA112 |zuŵa-lakufikira= 2019-04-17 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20230119181850/mabuku. 19 |url-mkhalidwe= wamoyo }}</wonani> Kupatulapo pa ivyo vingachitika of [[Asgard (archaea)|Heimdallarchaeota]], kupanga vinthu vyakupangika na ungweru kukusangika yayi mu [[archaea]]. nkhongono kwizira mu kupanga vinthu vyakupangika na ungweru.|s2cid=119341330|arxiv=1810.05150|bibcode=2021IJAsB..20..241D|}} {{kuŵika kufumapo|template=zunura nkhani|url=27-Oct ries-a-1.4878288/umoyo-wa-kuwusa-wa-pepo-pa-charu chapasi-ungaŵa kuti-ukaŵa-wakulamulirika-na-vinyama-vichokovichoko-vya-pepo-1.4878298|mutu=Ufumu wa pepo: umoyo pa charu chapasi ungaŵa kuti nyengo yinyake ukaŵa na tizirombo tuchokotuchoko twa pepo|dazi=26 Okutobala 2018|ntchito=CBC/Radio-Canada}}</ref> Mmalo mwa chlorophyll ŵakugwiliskira ntchito rhodopsins, iyo yikusintha nkhongono ya ungweru kuŵa . ion gradients kweni yingapangiska yayi kuti magesi ghasunthike Ivyo vikuchitika. = 140 |masamba= 233-249 153285864 |s2cid= 153285864 }} , Rodrigez-Valera F, Ford Doolittle W, Papke RT |dazi= Meyi 2007 |mutu= Kusintha kwa mapampu gha rhodopsin ion mu haloarchaea |magazini= BMC Kusintha kwa Biology | ..79S |kuchita= 10.1186/1471-2148-7-79 |kufika pa doi= kwaulere | Mu [[mabakiteriya]] mitundu eyiti ya vyakupangapanga vyakupangika na ungweru yikumanyikwa sono:<ref><nowiki>{{cite journal |vauthors= Xiong J |mutu= Kupanga vinthu vyakupangika na ungweru: kasi mtundu wake ukaŵa wuli? |magazini= Genome Biology |buku= 7 |magazini= 12 |masamba= 245 |dazi= 2006 |pmid= 17210067 |pmc= 1794423 | Paoli L, Ruscheweyh HJ, Forneris CC, Hubrich F, Kautsar S, Bhushan A, Lotti A, Clayssen Q, Salazar G, Milanese A, Carlström CI, Papadopoulou C, Gehrig D, Karasikov M, Mustafa H, Larralde M, Carroll LM, Sánchez P, Zayed AA, Cronin DR, Acinas SG, Bork P, Bowler C, Delmont TO, Gasol JM, Gossert AD, Kahles A, Sullivan MB, Wincker P, Zeller G, Robinson SL, Piel J, Sunagawa S | kulongora-ŵalembi= 6 |zuŵa= Julayi 2022 |mutu= Nkhongono ya vyamoyo vya 607 |magazini= 7917 |masamba= 111–118 |doi= 10.1038/s43705-022-00201-9 | Mutu: kulongosora vyamoyo na vyamoyo |journal= Kafukufuku wa Photosynthesis |buku= 142 |magazini= 1 |masamba= 87–103 |zuŵa= Okutobala 2019 | 15841 J, Koblížek M |zuŵa= Meyi 2014 |mutu= Mtundu wakugwira ntchito 2 111 |magazini= 21 |masamba= 7795–7800 |bibcode= 2014PN11.7.AS. = 10.1073/pnas.1400295111 |kufika pa doi= kwaulere | pmc= 4040607 |</nowiki> * [[Cyanobacteria]], ni vinyama pera ivyo vikupanga vinthu vyakupangika na mphepo ndipo ni vinyama pera ivyo vikuŵa na mitundu yiŵiri ya vyakupangika na ungweru (mtundu I (RCI), uwo ukumanyikwaso kuti mtundu wa Fe-S, na mtundu wachiŵiri (RCII), uwo ukumanyikwaso kuti mtundu wa quinone . ). Ma prokaryote ghankhondi na ghaŵiri agho ghakhalako ghali na [[anoxygenic photosynthesis]] ndipo ghakugwiriskira ncito mitundu ya mtundu wa I panji wa II. * [[Mabakiteriya gha sulfure wakubiliwira|Chlorobi]] (mabakiteriya gha sulfure wakubiliwira) Mtundu I * [[Mabakiteriya gha Helio]] Mtundu I * [[Mabakiteriya ya Chlorasido]] Mtundu I * [[Pseudomonadota|Proteobacteria]] (mabakiteriya gha sulfure gha pepo na mabakiteriya gha pepo ghambura sulfure) Mtundu wachiŵiri (wonani: [[Mabakiteriya gha pepo]]) * [[Chloroflexota]] (mabakiteriya ghakubiriŵira ghambura sulfure) Mtundu wachiŵiri * [[Maluwa ghakuzirwa]] Mtundu wachiŵiri * Eremiobacterota Mtundu II === Cyanobacteria na kusintha kwa vyakumera vyakupangika na ungweru === Nkhongono ya vyamoyo yakugwiliskira nchito maji nga ni nthowa yakupangira ma electron mu vyakupangapanga vikasintha kamoza, mu [[musekuru wakumanyikwa]] wa [[cyanobacteria]] uyo walipo sono (uyo kale wakacemekanga blue-gree .n nyere). Malemba gha vyakumera ghakulongora kuti kusintha uku kukachitika kumayambiro kwa mdauko wa charu chapasi, pafupifupi vyaka 2450–2320 miliyoni ivyo vyajumpha (Ma), ndipo, ŵakughanaghana kuti, kale chomene.<nowiki><ref></nowiki>{{cite journal|vauthors=Tomitani A, Knoll AH, Cavanaugh CM, Ohno T|zuŵa=Epulero 2006|mutu=Mabakiteriya gha mu nyanja: Vinthu vyakukhalamo 2010-08-26 mabakiteriya / cyanofr.html|magazini=14|buku=103|masamba=5442–5447|bibcode=2006PNAS|do=5.430 10.1073/pnas.0600999103|kufika pa webusayiti .html|kusungika-zuŵa=2010-08-24|url-status=dead}}</ref> Pakuti mlengalenga wa pa charu chapasi ukaŵavya mphepo pafupifupi pa nyengo iyo ŵakaghanaghananga kuti vinthu vyakupangika na ungweru vikupangika, ŵakugomezga kuti cyanobacteria yakwamba iyo yikapanga vinthu vyakupangika na ungweru yikapanga yayi mphepo.{{ref> lembani buku |ŵalembi= Smith A |chaka= 2010 |mutu= Sayansi ya vyakumera |mupharazgi= Sayansi ya Garland |malo= New York |isbn= 978-0-8153-4025-6 |url= 5 |zuŵa lakufikapo= 2019-04-17 |zuŵa lakusungirako= 2023-01-19 |archive-url= 20230119181851 / mabuku. /ref> Ukaboni uwo ulipo kufuma ku masambiro gha vyamoyo vya pa charu chapasi gha [[Archean]] (>2500 Ma) [[libwe la mchenga]]s likulongora kuti umoyo ukaŵako 3500 Ma, kweni fumbo lakuti nyengo iyo mphepo ya oxygen yikapangikira yindazgoreke. Windo lakuwonekerathu la vyamoyo vyakale pa cyanobacteria [[kusintha]] likajulika pafupifupi 2000 Ma, kuvumbura vyamoyo vyakupambanapambana kale vya cyanobacteria. Cyanobacteria yikalutilira kuŵa yikuru [[yakupanga chomene]] ya mphepo mu nyengo yose ya [[Proterozoic Eon]] (2500–543 Ma), chifukwa chakuti kapangikiro ka redox ka nyanja kakatemwanga vyamoyo ivyo vikakwaniska [[kukhozga nayitrogeni]].<ref> {{Kuzunura nyuzipepara |kumaliya1= Olson |wakwamba1= Stephanie L. |kumaliya2= Reinhard |wakwamba2= Christopher T. |wakumaliya3= Lyons |wakwamba3= Timothy W. |dazi=2016 |mutu=Kuchedwa kwa Kupokera Mpweya Wakuthupi na Kuchedwa Kupokera Mpweya wa Charu Chapasi |magazini= Mpaka mu Vinyama Vichokovichoko |buku= 7 |masamba= 152 10.3389/fmicb.2016.01526 | |wakumaliya2=Bianchini |wakwamba2= Giorgio |wakumaliya3= Wilson |wakwamba3= Jamie D. |wakumaliya4= Knoll |wakwamba4= Andrew H. Ntchito ya vyamoyo vichokovichoko 2021.05.008 1878-4380 |pmid= 34229911 }}</ref> [[Nyengo zakubiriŵira]] zikakolerana na cyanobacteria nga ni vinyama vikuru ivyo vikupanga mphepo pa [[mashelufu gha pa charu chose]] pafupi na umaliro wa [[Proterozoic]], kweni na [[Mesozoic]] (251-66 Ma) kuwala kwa dinoflagellates, coccolithophorids, na diatoms ndivyo vikapangiska kuti [[kupanga kwakwamba]] kwa mphepo mu maji gha mu nyanja kuŵe nga umo vikuŵira mazuŵa ghano. Cyanobacteria yikulutilira kuŵa yakuzirwa ku [[vyamoyo vya mu nyanja]]s nga ni [[Oxygen cycle|ŵanthu ŵakwamba awo ŵakupanga oxygen]] mu gyres za nyanja, nga ni awo ŵakupangiska kuti nayitrogeni waŵe wakukhora, ndipo, mu kawonekero kakusinthika, nga ni [[plastid]]s ya nyanja . mchere. 2008 |mutu= The Cyanobacteria: Biology ya Mamolekyulu, Genomics na Kusintha kwa Vinthu |buku= 1st |wakupharazga= Caister Academic Press | id = xgMahO1BXrQC | 2019-04-17 |zuŵa-la-kusungirako= 2023-01-19 |kusungamo-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20230119181852/https://mabuku. url-mkhalidwe= wamoyo }}</ref> == Mbiri ya kuyezga== ===Kusanga=== Nangauli vigaŵa vinyake vya photosynthesis vindamanyikwe makora, kweni equation yose ya photosynthesis yikumanyikwa kufuma mu vilimika vya m’ma 1800. [[Fayilo:Chithunzithunzi cha Jan. 1674]] [[Jan Baptist van Helmont|Jan van Helmont]] wakamba [[kufufuza]] wa [[Nthowa ya vyamoyo|ndondomeko]] pakati pa vilimika vya m’ma 1600 apo wakapima makora [[ukuru]] wa [[dongo . ]] [[chakumera]] chikaŵa kuti chikugwiriskira nchito ndiposo unandi wa chakumera apo chikakura. Pamanyuma pakuwona kuti unandi wa dongo ukasintha vichoko waka, iyo [[Hypothesis|hypothesized]] kuti unandi wa [[Kukura kwa vyakumera|kukura]] chakumera ukwenera kufuma ku [[maji]], [[Chinthu cha kemiko|chinthu . ]] wakasazgapo pa chakumera icho chikaŵa mu mphika. Ivyo wakaghanaghananga vikaŵa vyakuti [[Kurongosora makora na kurongosora makora|kurongosora makora]] – vinandi ivyo vikusangika vikufuma ku [[carbon dioxide]] pamoza na maji. Ndipouli, ici cikaŵa cilongolero cakuti cigaŵa cikuru ca vyakumera [[Biomass (ecology)|biomass]] yikufuma ku vinthu ivyo vikupangika na ungweru, ku dongo yayi. [[Joseph Priestley]], [[wasayansi wa vya kemiko]] ndiposo [[Muteŵeti (Ukhristu)|muteŵeti]], wakasanga kuti apo wakapatura [[buku]] la mphepo pasi pa [[chiŵiya]] chakuzgoŵezgeka na kuwotcha [ . [kandulo]] mu iyo (iyo yikafumiska [[Carbon dioxide|CO₂]]), kandulo yikaŵanga yakuwotcha chomene . mwaluŵiro, chomene pambere chindamare [[Kandulo#Wax|wax]]. Wakasangaso kuti [[mbeŵa]] yingaŵaso [[Kupuma|"kupweteka"]] mphepo. Pamanyuma wakalongora kuti chakumera chingawezgerapo mphepo iyo kandulo na mbeŵa vikapwetekeka. K, Kawai G, Griffiths A |dazi= Seputembala 2012 |mutu= Chiyelezgero cha Charu chapasi chambura kukhora mu 2012. Chiŵiya cha belu cha Priestley |journal= Extreme Physiology & Medicine |buku= 1 |magazini= 1 |masamba= 4 |doi= 10.1186/2046-7648-1-4 | </ref> Mu 1779, [[Jan Ingenhousz]] wakawerezgapo [[kuyezga]] kwa Priestley. Wakasanga kuti ni nkhongono ya [[ungweru wa dazi]] pa chakumera ichi icho chingapangiska kuti chiwuske mbeŵa mu maora ghachoko waka. = Gest H |chaka= 2000 |mutu= Kuchindika kwa vyaka 200 kwa Dr. Jan Ingen-Housz, MD (1730-1799), mupayiniya wa kufufuza vyakupangika na ungweru |journal= Kafukufuku wa vyakupangika na ungweru |buku= 63 |magazini= 2 |masamba= 183–190 |doi= 10.1023/A:1006460024843 |ci-mi2d=8p2d=8 | 22970505 Mu 1796, [[Jean Senebier]], wa ku Switzerland [[muliska]], [[wasayansi wa vyakumera]], na [[wasayansi wa vyakumera]], [[Chilongolero cha sayansi|wakalongora]] kuti [[vyakumera vyakubiriŵira]] vikurya carbon dioxide ndipo . kufwatura mphepo ya oksijeni pasi pa nkhongono ya [[ungweru]]. Pakati pajumpha nyengo yichoko waka, [[Nicolas-Théodore de Saussure]] wakalongora kuti kusazgikira kwa unandi wa chakumera apo chikukura kungaŵa chifukwa cha kutora CO₂ pera yayi kweni chifukwa cha kusazgirako maji. Ntheura, fundo yakuti [[vyamoyo]] vikugwiriskira ncito nthowa yakupangira [[vyakurya]] (nga ni [shuga]]) yikalongosoreka.<ref>{{cite book |vauthors = Rabinowitch EI |mulembi-link1= Eugene Rabinowitch |zuŵa= 1945 |mutu= Kupanga vinthu vyakuthupi na Nthowa zakuyana waka |buku= 1 |kwizira mu= [[Layibulare ya vyamoyo vyakupambanapambana]] |url= https://www. |kusungamo-url= 2020-08-06 |url-status= }}</ref> ===Kunozga=== [[Cornelis Van Niel]] wakasanga vinthu vinyake vyakuzirwa ivyo vikalongosoranga [[kemistri]] ya vyakupangika na ungweru. Pakusambira [[mabakiteriya gha sulfure gha pepo]] na [[mabakiteriya ghakubiriŵira]], ndiyo wakaŵa wakwamba kulongora kuti ungweru ukuthemba pa [[Redox|redox reaction]] uwo haidrojeni [[Wakuchepeska|wakuchepeska]] ( wakupeleka [[atomu]] yake nga ni [[elekitironi]] na [[protoni]] ku) carbon dioxide. [[Robert Emerson (wasayansi)|Robert Emerson]] wakasanga kuti ungweru ukuchita vinthu viŵiri mwa kuyezga umo vyakumera vikupangira vinthu mwakugwiliskira ntchito ungweru wa mafunde ghakupambanapambana. Na mtundu wakufipa pera, vyakuchitika vya ungweru vikaponderezgeka. Para ŵasazgako buluu na muswesi, ivyo vikafumamo vikaŵanga vinandi chomene. Ntheura, pakaŵa vithuzithuzi viŵiri, chimoza chikatora mafunde yakukwana 600&nbsp;nm, chinyake chikatora mafunde agho ghakukwana 700&nbsp;nm. Yakwamba yikumanyikwa kuti PSII, yachiŵiri ni PSI. PSI ili na chlorophyll "a" pera, PSII yili na chlorophyll "a" chomene na chlorophyll "b" yinandi iyo yilipo, pakati pa mitundu yinyake. Ivi vikusazgapo phycobilins, ivyo ni mitundu yakufipa na ya buluu ya mtundu wa mtundu wakufipa na wa buluu, mwakuyana, na fucoxanthol ya mtundu wa mtundu wa bulawuni na diatoms. Nthowa iyi yikupangiska chomene para kuyamwa kwa quanta kukuyana mu PSII na PSI, kukhozgera kuti nkhongono yakunjilirapo kufuma ku antenna complex yikugaŵika pakati pa PSI na PSII, iyo yikupereka nkhongono ku photochemistry.<ref name="McGraw-Hill -2007"/> [[Robin Hill (wasayansi wa vyamoyo)|Robert Hill]] wakaghanaghananga kuti chinthu chinyake icho chikuchitika chikaŵa na chinthu chapakati pa b₆ (sono ni plastoquinone), ndipo chinyake chikafuma ku cytochrome f kufika pa sitepe mu 1990. nthowa zakupangira vyakurya vyakupangika na carbohydrate. Ivi vikukolerana na plastoquinone, iyo yikukhumbikwira nkhongono kuti yichepeske cytochrome f. Vinthu vinyake ivyo ŵakayezga kuti ŵalongore kuti mphepo iyo yikupangika apo vyakumera vyakubiriŵira vikufuma mu maji vikachitika na Hill mu 1937 na 1939. Wakalongora kuti [[chloroplast]]s izo zili paŵekha zikufumiska mphepo para pali vinthu vyambura kumanyikwa ivyo vikuchepeska mphepo nga ni [[iron . ]] [[oxalate]], [[ferisiyanidi]] panji [[benzoquinone]] pamanyuma pakuti ŵaŵa pa ungweru. Mu Hill vyakuchitika:<ref><nowiki>{{zunurani magazini |ŵalembi= Walker DA |mulembi-link1= David Alan Walker |chaka= 2002 |mutu= 'Ndipo uyo walipo kuŵala' – kuwonga kwa Robert Hill na ivyo wakachita |magazini= Kafukufuku wa vyakupangapanga vyakuthupi |buku= 73 |magazini= 1–3 |masamba= 51–54 |doi = 10.1023 / A: 1020479620680 | pmid = 16245102 | 2015-08-27 |url ya vyakusungiramo vinthu vyakale=20080309113247/http.</nowiki> : 2 H2 O + 2 A + (ungweru, ma chloroplast) → 2 AH 2 + O 2 A ndiyo wakuzomerezga magesi. Ntheura, para pali ungweru, chinthu icho chikupokera magesi chikuchepa ndipo mphepo ya oksijeni yikupangika. [[Sam Ruben|Samuel Ruben]] na [[Martin Kamen]] ŵakagwiliskira nchito [[Radionuclide|ma isotopu ghakupangika na ungweru]] kuti ŵamanye usange mphepo iyo yikufuma mu vyakupangapanga vyakupangika na ungweru yikufuma mu maji. [[Fayilo:Melvin Calvin.jpg|chigunwe|kumanzere|170px| [[Melvin Calvin]] na [[Andrew Benson]], pamoza na [[James Bassham]], ŵakalongosora umo vyakumera vikuŵira (nthowa yakuchepeskeramo carbon) mu vyakumera. Nthowa iyo carbon yikuchepeskeka yikumanyikwa kuti [[Calvin cycle]], kweni ŵasayansi ŵanandi ŵakuti ni nthowa ya Calvin-Benson, Benson-Calvin, panji nanga ni nthowa ya Calvin-Benson-Bassham (panji CBB). [[Mphoto ya Nobel]]–wasayansi uyo wakapokera mphoto [[Rudolph A. Marcus]] pamanyuma pake wakamanya umo unyolo wa magesi ghakunyamulira magesi ukugwilira ntchito na kuzirwa kwake. [[Otto Heinrich Warburg]] na [[Dean Burk]] ŵakasanga kuti I-quantum photosynthesis yikugaŵa CO₂, iyo yikupangika na kupuma. 1931 Otto Warburg - Mbiri ya umoyo wake]. } Mphoto ya Nobel.org (1970-08-01). Vikasangika pa 2011/11/03.</ref> Mu 1950, ukaboni wakwamba wakuyezgayezga wakuti kuli [[photophosphorylation]] ''mu vivo'' ukalongosoreka na [[Otto Kandler]] kugwiliskira nchito maselo ghambura kupwetekeka gha ''[[Chlorella]]'' na kumasulira ivyo wakasanga kuti vikuthemba pa ungweru . [[Adenosine triphosphate|ATP]] kupanga. |ŵalembi= Kandler O |lembi-link= Otto Kandler |chaka= 1950 |mutu= Umoyo wakupangira vinthu vyakupangika na phosphatha na photosynthesis. I. Kusintha kwa phosphate mu Chlorella pyrenoidosa chifukwa cha kusintha kwa ungweru. 10.1515/znb-1950-0806 |s2cid= 97588826 |url= 1950-5b-0423.pdf |zuŵa-lakufikapo= 2018-06-26 |archive-url= Nkhongono zakuti: “ZNB-1950-5b-0423.pdf |zuŵa lakusungirako vinthu vyakale= 2018- 06-24 |url-mkhalidwe= wamoyo }}</wonani> Mu 1954, [[Daniyeli I. Arnon]] na ŵanyake. ŵakasanga kuti ''mu vitro'' mu [[chloroplast]]s yakupatulika na wovwiri wa P³². -link1= Daniel I. Arnon |chaka= 1954 |mutu= Kupanga vinthu vyakupangika na ungweru na kujipatura makoloroplasiti. II. Photophosphorylation, kusintha kwa ungweru kuŵa nkhongono ya phosphate cite magazini |ŵalembi= Arnon DI |mulembi-link= Daniel I. Arnon |chaka= 1956 |mutu= Kusintha kwa phosphorus na kupanga vyakumera |magazini= Kuwoneseskamo kwa chaka na chaka kwa umo vyakumera vikupangikira |buku= 7 |masamba= 325–354 |doi= 10.1146 pp.0716. .001545 }}</wonani> [[Louis N. M. Duysens]] na [[Jan Amesz]] ŵakasanga kuti chlorophyll “a” yizamutora ungweru umoza, yizamupangiska kuti cytochrome f yiŵe na oxidation, apo chlorophyll “a” (na vinyake ivyo vikupangiska kuti thupi liŵe na ungweru) yizamutora ungweru unyake kweni yizamuchepeska cytochrome yeneyiyo iyo yikupangika na oxidation . , kuyowoya kuti viŵiri vyakuchitika vya ungweru vili mu mzere. ===Kukula kwa fundo=== Mu 1893, nkhwantha ya vyakumera ya ku America [[Charles Reid Barnes]] wakayowoya mazgu ghaŵiri, ''kupanga vinthu vyakupangika na ungweru'' na ''kupanga vinthu vyakupangika na ungweru'', ghakukhwaskana na ndondomeko ya vyamoyo ya ''kupanga vinthu vyakusuzga vya carbon kufuma ku carbonic acid, para pali . chlorophyll, pasi pa nkhongono ya ungweru''. Lizgu lakuti ''kupanga vyakurya'' likufumira ku [[Chiyowoyero cha Chigiriki|Chigiriki]] ''phōs'' ([[wikt:φῶς#Chigiriki Chakale|φῶς]], kuwala) na ''sýnthesis'' ([[wikt :σύνθεσις#Wakale Chigiriki|σύνθεσις]], kuŵika pamoza),<ref name="Buku la Mazgu Ghakulongosora Mazgu gha pa Intaneti">{{kuyowoya pa webusayiti |mutu= Photosynthesis |ntchito= [[Buku la Mazgu Ghakulongosora Mazgu pa Intaneti]] |url= http://www.etymonline.com / index.php? nyengo = kupanga vyakuthupi & kuzomerezgeka_mu_fulemu = 0 |dazi-lakufikapo= 2013-05-23 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130307020959/http. -zuŵa= 03-03-2013 Liddell HG, Scott R = 1999.04.0057:dikishonale= [[Buku la Mazgu gha Chigiriki na Chingelezi]] |wakupharazga= [[Perseus Project ]] }}</ref><ref>{{zunura buku la sayansi |ŵalembi= Liddell HG, Scott R qp3dd8renkdkzsf69qpaffehdsd0cmd 0 46778 119313 118823 2026-08-13T22:33:22Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260813sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 119313 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Charu cha Chirwa ku kumanjiliro gha dazi gha Ulaya}} {{Redirect|UK|other uses|Ufumu Ubanyi (disambiguation)|and|UK (disambiguation)}} {{pp-extended|small=yes}} {{Use British English|date=April 2012}} {{Use dmy dates|date=June 2024}} {{Infobox country | common_name = Ufumu Ubanyi | linThemba_name = Ufumu Ubanyi<!--Note: "the" required here as this entry used to create wikilinks--> | conventional_long_name = Ufumu Ubanyi wa Briteni Yilala na Ayelandi Yimpoto | image_flag = Flag of the United Kingdom (1-2).svg | alt_flag = Mbendera iyo yili na mtanda wakufipirwa uwo uli na mphepete zituŵa ndipo ukuŵikika pa saltire wakufipirwa, iyo nayo yili na mphepete zituŵa, iyo yili pa saltire yituŵa pa mtundu wa mlengalenga . | image_coat = | other_symbol = [[File:Coat of arms of the United Kingdom (2022, both variants).svg|250px]]<br>Kugwiriskira ntchito pakukhwaskana na Skotilandi (kumalyero) na malo ghanyake (kumazere) | other_symbol_type = [[Chidindo cha mahomwa cha Ufumu Ubanyi|Coats of arms]]: | national_anthem = "[[Chiuta thaskani Themba]]"{{Efn|"Chiuta thaskani Themba" ni [[sumu yafuko]] mwa mwambo, dango yayi, ndipo palije mtundu wakuzomerezgeka. Kanandi vesi lakwamba pera ndilo likuyimbika, nangauli vesi lachiŵiri nalo kanandi likuyimbikaso pa viphikiro vya boma na vya ŵanthu wose.<ref>{{Cite web |title=sumu yafuko |url=https://www.royal.uk/encyclopedia/national-anthem |access-date=10 April 2024 |website=The Royal Family |archive-date=20 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240520130352/https://www.royal.uk/encyclopedia/national-anthem |url-status=live }}</ref> Mazgu ''Themba'', ivyo vikugwiriskirika nchito sono, vikusinthika na ''Fumukazi'' pala fumu ni mwanakazi.}}<br /><div style="display:inline-block;margin-top:0.4em;">[[File:United_States_Navy_Band_-_God_Save_the_Queen.ogg|Chiuta thaskani Themba / Queen <!-- Do not change file name due to computer error without ensuring that the file is playable. -->]]</div> | image_map = {{Switcher|[[File:Europe-UK (orthographic projection).svg|upright=1.15|frameless]]|Show globe|[[File:Europe-UK.svg|upright=1.15|frameless]]|Show map of Europe|[[File:United Kingdom (+overseas territories and crown Dependencies) in the World (+Antarctica claims).svg|upright=1.15|frameless]]|Show [[British Overseas Territories]] and [[vithembeliro vya mphumphu]]|[[File:Territorial waters - United Kingdom.svg|upright=1.15|frameless]]|Show [[Exclusive economic zone of the United Kingdom|its exclusive economic zones]]|default=1}} | map_caption = | capital = [[Landani]] | coordinates = {{Coord|51|30|N|0|7|W|type:city_region:GB}} | largest_city = cha boma | languages_type = [[Chiyowoyero cha fuko]] | languages = {{indented plainlist| * [[Chingerezi|Chingerezi]] <!--Note: Just English, don't add "British English".--> }} | languages2_type = Regional and minority languages{{Efn|chiScots, chiScots cha ku Ulista, chiWelichi, chiCornish, chiGaeliki cha chi Skoti na Chiayirishi vikuŵikika mu gulu la [[Chiyowoyero cha chigaŵa|chigaŵa]] panji [[Chiyowoyero chichoko|chichoko]] viyowoyero pasi pa [[Council of Ulaya]] ya [[Ulayaan Charter for Regional panji Minority Languages]].<ref name="reglang">{{Cite web |title=List of declarations made with respect to treaty No. 148 |url=http://conventions.coe.int/treaty/Commun/ListeDeclarations.asp?CL=ENG&NT=148&VL=1 |access-date=12 December 2013 |publisher=[[Council of Ulaya]] |archive-date=12 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131212175720/http://conventions.coe.int/treaty/Commun/ListeDeclarations.asp?CL=ENG&NT=148&VL=1 |url-status=dead }}</ref> These include defined obligations to promote those languages.<ref>{{Cite web |title=chiWelichi language on GOV.UK – Content design: planning, writing and managing content – Guidance |url=https://www.gov.uk/guidance/content-design/chiWelichi-language-on-gov-uk |access-date=3 August 2018 |website=gov.uk |archive-date=4 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180804014121/https://www.gov.uk/guidance/content-design/welsh-language-on-gov-uk |url-status=live }}; {{Cite news |title=Welsh language scheme |work=GOV.UK |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/organisations/department-for-transport/about/welsh-language-scheme |access-date=3 August 2018 |archive-date=4 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180804014119/https://www.gov.uk/government/organisations/department-for-transport/about/welsh-language-scheme |url-status=live }}; {{Cite news |title=Welsh language scheme |work=GOV.UK |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/organisations/home-office/about/welsh-language-scheme |access-date=3 August 2018 |archive-date=2 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180802010917/https://www.gov.uk/government/organisations/home-office/about/welsh-language-scheme |url-status=live }}</ref> See also [[Languages of Ufumu Ubanyi]]. chiWelichi has limited ''[[officially]]'' official status in Welosi, as well as in the provision of national government services provided for Welosi.}} | languages2 = {{Hlist <!--Anglo--> |[[Chiyowoyero cha chiScots|chiScots]] |[[chiScots cha ku Ulista dialects|chiScots cha ku Ulista]] <!--Brittonic--> |[[chiWelichi language|chiWelichi]] |[[chiCornish language|chiCornish]] <!--Goidelic--> |[[chiGaeliki cha chi Skoti]]<!--Keep "chiGaeliki cha chi Skoti"; people will find "Gaelic" confusing, as the Irish language is also commonly called "Gaelic"--> |[[Chiyowoyero cha Chiayirishi|Chiayirishi]] |[[Chidumbano cha Mawoko cha ku Britain]] }} | ethnic_groups = {{unbulleted list | 83.0% [[Ŵanthu ŵazungu mu Ufumu Ubanyi|ŵazungu]] | 8.6% [[Ŵanthu ŵa ku Briteni wachi Asia|ŵamwenyi-kuru]] | 3.7% [[Ŵafipa|ŵafipa]] | 2.7% [[Ŵosazgika (Ufumu Ubanyi ethnicity category)|Ŵosazgika]] | 2.0% [[Mafuko mu Ufumu Ubanyi|ŵanyakhe]] }} | ethnic_groups_year = [[2021 Ufumu Ubanyi chipendo|2021]] | ethnic_groups_ref = {{Efn|name=chipendo2021/22|Scotland held its chipendo a year later after Mangalande, Welosi and Ayelandi Yimpoto due to the COVID-19 pandemic. As a result, the data shown is from two separate years.}}<ref name="2021 chipendo - ethnicity - Mangalande and Welosi">{{cite web |title=Ethnic group |url=https://www.ons.gov.uk/datasets/TS021/editions/2021/versions/3/filter-outputs/2c225a7b-0b5a-4a56-825e-2d6df1c6be93 |date=28 March 2023 |website=Office for National Statistics |access-date=28 May 2024 |archive-date=28 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240528084856/https://www.ons.gov.uk/datasets/TS021/editions/2021/versions/3/filter-outputs/2c225a7b-0b5a-4a56-825e-2d6df1c6be93 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="2021 chipendo - ethnicity - Ayelandi Yimpoto">{{cite web |url=https://www.nisra.gov.uk/system/files/statistics/chipendo-2021-ms-b01.xlsx |title=MS-B01 Ethnic group |author=<!--Not stated--> |date=30 November 2023 |website=[[Ayelandi Yimpoto Statistics and Research Agency]] |access-date=28 May 2024 |archive-date=12 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230812142657/https://www.nisra.gov.uk/system/files/statistics/chipendo-2021-ms-b01.xlsx |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="2021 chipendo - ethnicity and religion - Scotland">{{Cite web |title=Ethnic group, national identity, language and religion |url=https://www.scotlandschipendo.gov.uk/search-the-chipendo#/location/topics/list?topic=Ethnic%20group,%20national%20identity,%20language%20and%20religion&categoryId=1 |access-date=28 May 2024 |website=Scotland's chipendo |archive-date=14 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210514142653/https://www.scotlandschipendo.gov.uk/search-the-chipendo#/location/topics/list?topic=Ethnic%20group,%20national%20identity,%20language%20and%20religion&categoryId=1 |url-status=live }}</ref> | religion = {{unbulleted list | 46.5% [[Chisopa ku Ufumu Ubanyi#Christianity|Christianity]] | 37.8% [[Kuleka kusopa ku Ufumu Ubanyi|kuleka kusopa]] | 6.0% [[Chisilamu ku Ufumu Ubanyi|Chisilamu]] | 1.6% [[Chihindu ku Ufumu Ubanyi|Chihindu]] | 0.8% [[ChiSikhi ku Ufumu Ubanyi|ChiSikhi]] | 0.4% [[chiBuda ku Ufumu Ubanyi|chiBuda]] | 0.4% [[chiYuda ku briteni|Judaism]] | 0.6% [[Chisopa ku Ufumu Ubanyi|zinyakhe]] | 5.9% not stated }} | religion_year = 2021 | religion_ref = {{Efn|name=Census2021/22}}<ref name="2021 census - religion - England and Wales">{{cite web |title=Religion (detailed) |url=https://www.ons.gov.uk/datasets/TS031/editions/2021/versions/4/filter-outputs/0ec10f6a-4f46-4655-b634-57e540601744 |date=5 April 2023 |website=Office for National Statistics |access-date=28 May 2024 |archive-date=28 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240528153440/https://www.ons.gov.uk/datasets/TS031/editions/2021/versions/4/filter-outputs/0ec10f6a-4f46-4655-b634-57e540601744 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="2021 census - religion - Northern Ireland">{{cite web |url=https://www.nisra.gov.uk/system/files/statistics/census-2021-ms-b21.xlsx |title=MS-B21 Religion - full detail |author=<!--Not stated--> |date=31 May 2023 |website=Northern Ireland Statistics and Research Agency |access-date=28 May 2024 |archive-date=13 June 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240613221149/https://www.nisra.gov.uk/system/files/statistics/census-2021-ms-b21.xlsx |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="2021 census - ethnicity and religion - Scotland" /> | demonym = {{hlist |[[ŵina briteni|mwene briteni]] |[[m'Briteni]] }} | government_type = Usuma [[ufumu wamalango#Mangalande, Scotland and Ufumu Ubanyi|Mphara yamarango ufumu wamalango]]{{Efn|Although Ufumu Ubanyi has traditionally been seen as a [[unitary state]], an alternative description of the UK as a "union state", put forward by, among others, [[Vernon Bogdanor]],<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bradbury |first=Jonathan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c3QWEAAAQBAJ&q=%2522union+state%2522+UK+unitary&pg=PA19 |title=Constitutional Policy and Territorial Politics in the UK: Volume 1: Union and Devolution 1997–2012 |date=2021 |publisher=Policy Press |isbn=978-1-5292-0588-6 |pages=19–20 |access-date=3 October 2021 |archive-date=2 October 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241002204328/https://books.google.com/books?id=c3QWEAAAQBAJ&q=%2522union+state%2522+UK+unitary&pg=PA19#v=onepage&q=%2522union%20state%2522%20UK%20unitary&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> has become increasingly influential since the adoption of devolution in the 1990s.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Leith |first=Murray Stewart |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PeBvAAAAQBAJ&q=Uk+%2522unitary+state%2522&pg=PA39 |title=Political Discourse and National Identity in Scotland |date=2012 |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |isbn=978-0-7486-8862-3 |page=39 |access-date=3 October 2021 |archive-date=2 October 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241002204223/https://books.google.com/books?id=PeBvAAAAQBAJ&q=Uk+%2522unitary+state%2522&pg=PA39#v=onepage&q=Uk%20%2522unitary%20state%2522&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> A union state is considered to differ from a unitary state in that while it maintains a central authority it also recognises the authority of historic rights and infrastructures of its component parts.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Gagnon |first1=Alain-G. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g0ahE2fTxS0C&q=%2522union+state%2522+UK+unitary&pg=PA47 |title=Multinational Democracies |last2=Tully |first2=James |date=2001 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-80473-8 |page=47 |access-date=3 October 2021 |archive-date=2 October 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241002204329/https://books.google.com/books?id=g0ahE2fTxS0C&q=%2522union+state%2522+UK+unitary&pg=PA47#v=onepage&q=%2522union%20state%2522%20UK%20unitary&f=false |url-status=live }}; {{Cite book |last=Bogdanor |first=Vernon |title=Constitutional Reform in Ufumu Ubanyi: Practice and Principles |date=1998 |publisher=Hart Publishing |isbn=978-1-901362-84-8 |editor-last=Beatson |editor-first=Jack |location=Oxford |page=18 |chapter=Devolution: the Constitutional Aspects |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YEEgDsCYmbQC&q=%2522union+state%2522+UK+unitary&pg=PA18 }}</ref>}} | leader_title1 = [[ufumu wa Ufumu Ubanyi|ufumu]] | leader_name1 = [[Charles III]] | leader_title2 = [[Nduna Yidangi ya Ufumu Ubanyi|Nduna Yidangi]] | leader_name2 = [[Keir Starmer]] <!--Do NOT change the name to Sir Keir Starmer without discussion in the talk page. --> | legislature = [[Mphara yamarango ya Ufumu Ubanyi|Mphara yamarango]] | upper_house = [[Nyumba ya ŵatemi]] | lower_house = [[Nyumba bweka ya Ufumu Ubanyi|Nyumba bweka]] | sovereignty_type = [[Kupangika kwa Ufumu Ubanyi wa Briteni Yilala na Ayelandi Yimpoto|Kupangika]] | established_event1 = [[Malango mu Malango gha Welosi 1535 na 1542|Malango mu Malango gha Welosi]] | established_date1 = 1535 and 1542 | established_event2 = [[Kubanya Mphuphu]] | established_date2 = 24 March 1603 | established_event3 = [[Chipulikano cha Kubanya]] | established_date3 = 22 July 1706 | established_event4 = [[Milimo ya chipulikano cha 1707|Milimo ya chipulikano cha Mangalande na Skotilandi]] | established_date4 = 1 May 1707 | established_event5 = [[Milimo ya chipulikano cha 1800|Milimo ya chipulikano cha Briteni Yilala na Ayilandi]] | established_date5 = 1 January 1801 | established_event6 = [[Lamulo la Irish Free State 1922|Dango la Irish Free State]] | established_date6 = 6 December 1922 | area_label = Total{{efn|name=ONSArea|[[Ofesi ya Viŵelengero vya Charu Chose|ONS]] Kupima kwa malo kwakuzomelezgeka, 'area to mean high water'. Excludes the [[vithembeliro vya mphumphu]] and [[Madera gha ku Britain gha ku vyaru vinyake]].}} | area_km2 = 244376 | area_footnote = <ref name="ONS Standard Area Measurement">{{cite web |url=https://geoportal.statistics.gov.uk/datasets/ons::standard-area-measurements-for-administrative-areas-december-2023-in-the-uk/about |title=Standard Area Measurements for Administrative Areas (December 2023) in the UK |author=<!--Not stated--> |date=31 May 2024 |website=[[ONS Open Geography Portal|Open Geography Portal]] |publisher=Office for National Statistics |access-date=7 June 2024 |archive-date=7 June 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240607052407/https://geoportal.statistics.gov.uk/datasets/ons::standard-area-measurements-for-administrative-areas-december-2023-in-the-uk/about |url-status=live }}</ref> | area_rank = 78th | area_sq_mi = auto | area_label2 = Land{{efn|name=ONSLandArea|[[Office for National Statistics|ONS]] Standard Area Measurement, 'area to mean high water excluding inland water'. Excludes the [[vithembeliro vya mphumphu]] and [[Madera gha ku Britain gha ku vyaru vinyake]].}} | area_data2 = {{convert|{{UK subdivision area|GSS=K02000001}}|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} | percent_water = | population_estimate = {{IncreaseNeutral}} 68,265,209<ref name="ONS.UK-Population">{{cite web |title=Population estimates for the UK, Mangalande, Welosi, Scotland and Ayelandi Yimpoto: mid-2023 |url=https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/populationandmigration/populationestimates/bulletins/annualmidyearpopulationestimates/latest |publisher=[[Office for National Statistics]] (ONS) |website=www.ons.gov.uk |date=2024-10-08}}</ref> | population_estimate_year = 2023 | population_estimate_rank = 21st | population_chipendo = 66,940,559{{Efn|name=chipendo2021/22}}<ref name="2021 chipendo - population - Mangalande and Welosi">{{cite web |title=Population and household estimates, Mangalande and Welosi: chipendo 2021, unrounded data |url=https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/populationandmigration/populationestimates/bulletins/populationandhouseholdestimatesMangalandeandWelosi/chipendo2021unroundeddata |date=2 November 2022 |website=Office for National Statistics |access-date=28 May 2024}}</ref><ref name="2021 chipendo - population - Ayelandi Yimpoto">{{cite web |url=https://www.nisra.gov.uk/statistics/chipendo/2021-chipendo |title=2021 chipendo |author=<!--Not stated--> |website=[[Ayelandi Yimpoto Statistics and Research Agency]] |access-date=28 May 2024 |archive-date=3 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170703182652/https://www.nisra.gov.uk/statistics/chipendo/2021-chipendo |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="2021 chipendo - population - Scotland">{{Cite web |title=Quality Assurance report – Unrounded population estimates and ethnic group, national identity, language and religion topic data |website=Scotland's chipendo |date=21 May 2024 |url=https://www.scotlandschipendo.gov.uk/2022-results/scotland-s-chipendo-2022-quality-assurance-reports/quality-assurance-report-unrounded-population-estimates-and-ethnic-group-national-identity-language-and-religion-topic-data/ |access-date=28 May 2024 |archive-date=28 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240528160444/https://www.scotlandschipendo.gov.uk/2022-results/scotland-s-chipendo-2022-quality-assurance-reports/quality-assurance-report-unrounded-population-estimates-and-ethnic-group-national-identity-language-and-religion-topic-data/ |url-status=live }}</ref> | population_chipendo_year = 2021 | population_chipendo_rank = | population_density_km2 = 281 | population_density_sq_mi = auto | population_density_rank = 51st | pop_den_footnote = <ref name="ONS.UK-Population"/> | GDP_PPP = {{increase}} $4.282&nbsp;trillion<ref name="IMF DataMapper">{{cite web |url=https://www.imf.org/external/datamapper/profile/GBR |title=IMF DataMapper: Ufumu Ubanyi |website=[[International Monetary Fund]] |date=22 October 2024 |access-date=11 November 2024}}</ref> | GDP_PPP_year = 2024 | GDP_PPP_rank = 10th | GDP_PPP_per_capita = {{increase}} $62,574<ref name="IMF DataMapper" /> | GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 28th | GDP_nominal = {{increase}} $3.588&nbsp;trillion<ref name="IMF DataMapper" /> | GDP_nominal_year = 2024 | GDP_nominal_rank = 6th | GDP_nominal_per_capita = {{increase}} $52,423<ref name="IMF DataMapper" /> | GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 20th | Gini = 35.4 | Gini_year = 2021 | Gini_change = decrease | Gini_ref = <ref>{{Cite web |title=Income inequality |url=https://data.oecd.org/inequality/income-inequality.htm |access-date=12 February 2024 |website=OECD Data |publisher=[[OECD]] |archive-date=1 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220701171540/https://data.oecd.org/inequality/income-inequality.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> | HDI = 0.940<!--number only--> | HDI_year = 2022<!-- Please use the year to which the data refers, not the publication year.--> | HDI_change = increase<!--increase/decrease/steady--> | HDI_ref = <ref name="UNHDR">{{cite web|url=https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2023-24reporten.pdf|title=Human Development Report 2023/24|language=en|publisher=[[United Nations Development Programme]]|date=13 March 2024|access-date=13 March 2024|archive-date=13 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240313164319/https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2023-24reporten.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> | HDI_rank = 15th | currency = [[Pound&nbsp;sterling]]{{Efn|Some of the devolved countries, vithembeliro vya mphumphu and British Overseas Territories issue their own sterling banknotes or currencies, or use another nation's currency. See [[List of British currencies]].}} ([[£]]) | currency_code = GBP | utc_offset = +0 | time_zone = [[Greenwich Mean Time|GMT]] | utc_offset_DST = +1 | time_zone_DST = [[Nyengo ya Chihanya ya ku Britain|BST]]{{Efn|Kweniso ŵakawona kuti [[vithembeliro vya mphumphu]]. Kuti mumanye vinandi, wonani [[Nyengo ku Ufumu Ubanyi]].}} | DST_note = | date_format = {{Abbr|dd|day}}/{{Abbr|mm|month}}/{{Abbr|yyyy|year}} ([[Anno Domini|AD]]){{efn|The UK Government uses the [[ISO 8601]] format, {{Abbr|yyyy|year}}-{{Abbr|mm|month}}-{{Abbr|dd|day}} for machine-readable dates and times.<ref>{{cite web |title=Formatting dates and times in data |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/open-standards-for-government/date-times-and-time-stamps-standard |date=9 August 2022 |website=[[gov.uk]] |publisher=[[Government of Ufumu Ubanyi|HM Government]] |access-date=1 June 2024 |archive-date=9 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240509092813/https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/open-standards-for-government/date-times-and-time-stamps-standard |url-status=live }}</ref> See [[Date and time notation in Ufumu Ubanyi]].}} | drives_on = kumalyero{{Efn|Except two overseas territories: [[Gibraltar]] and the [[British Indian Ocean Territory]]}} | calling_code = [[Telephone numbers in Ufumu Ubanyi|+44]]{{Efn|[[Telephone numbers in Ufumu Ubanyi#Telephone numbers in Overseas Territories|Excludes most overseas territories]]}} | cctld = [[.uk]]{{Efn|The [[.gb]] domain is also reserved for the UK, but has been little used.}} }} '''Ufumu Ubanyi wa Briteni Yilala na Ayelandi Yimpoto''', ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakumanyikwa kuti '''Ufumu Ubanyi''' ('''UKhe''') panjiso '''Briteni''',{{Efn|Usage is mixed. The ''[https://www.theguardian.com/guardian-observer-style-guide-u Guardian]'' and ''[https://www.telegraph.co.uk/style-book/places-and-people Telegraph]'' use ''Briteni'' nga ni lizgu lakuyana waka la Ufumu Ubanyi. Ŵanyake ŵakutemwa kugwiliskira ntchito ''Briteni'' nga yifupi ya [[Briteni Yilala]]. [[Ofesi ya Kabineti]] ya [[Uteŵeti wa Digito wa Boma]] wa ku Britain. [https://www.gov.uk/guidance/style-guide/a-to-z-of-gov-uk-style#great-Briteni style guide] kuti mugwiriskirenge ncito pa [[gov.uk]] wakulimbikiska kuti: "Gwiliskirani nchito UK na Ufumu Ubanyi mwakutemwa Briteni na Britain (bizinesi ya UK, ndondomeko ya UK ya vyaru vinyake, kazembe na mulaŵiliri mulara). Kweni kazembe wa Britain, kazembe wa UK yayi."}} ni chalo<!-- Lizgu lakuti "chalo" likasankhika chifukwa cha Pempho la 2022 lakuti ŵayowoyepo. Dumbiskani dankha ivyo vingasinthika pa tchati cha kudumbiskana. --> mu [[Kumpoto chakumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Ulaya]], pafupi na mphepete mwa nyanja ya [[Charu chikuru cha Ulayaan|chigaŵa chikuru cha kontinenti]]. Lili na [Mangalande]], [[Scotland]], [[Welosi]], na [[Ayelandi Yimpoto]]. na [[Jersey]] ni [[vithembeliro vya mphumphu]] ndipo ni chigaŵa cha UK yayi.}} UK yikusazgapo chirwa cha . [[Briteni Yilala]], chigaŵa cha kumpoto chakumafumiro gha dazi kwa chirwa cha [[Ireland]], ndipo vigaŵa vinandi vya [[Mndandanda wa virwa vya Ufumu Ubanyi|virwa vichokovichoko]] ivyo vili mukati mwa [[Virwa vya Britain]], vikukhwaska. Yimpoto wakugaŵana [[Mpaka wa Ireland–Ufumu Ubanyi|mphaka ya charu]] na [[Mphaka ya Ireland]]; apo yayi, Ufumu Ubanyi wakuzingilizgika na [[Nyanja ya Atlantic]], [[Nyanja ya Kumpoto]], [[Njira ya Chingelezi]], [[Nyanja ya Celtic]], na [[Nyanja ya Ireland]]. Ufumu Ubanyi wakaŵa na ŵanthu ŵakukwana 68.2&nbsp;miliyoni mu 2023. Msumba ukuru ndiposo msumba ukuru chomene wa Mangalande na Ufumu Ubanyi ni [[Landani]], [[Msumba ukuru wa Landani|uwo msumba wake ukuru chomene]] ndiwo ukuru chomene mu [ [Kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Ulaya]], ndipo kuli ŵanthu 100,000. 14.9 miliyoni. Mizinda ya [[Edinburgh]], [[Cardiff]], na [[[[Belfast]] ni mizinda yikuruyikuru ya charu cha Scotland, Welosi, na Ayelandi Yimpoto, mwakuyana waka. UK yakhala ŵanthu ŵakukhalamo nyengo zose kufuma mu nyengo ya[[Neolithic]]. Mu AD&nbsp;43, [[Kupoka kwa Ŵaroma ku Briteni]] kukayamba; [[umaliro wa muwuso wa Ŵaroma ku Briteni|Kufumapo kwa Ŵaroma]] ukalondezgeka na [[Kukhala kwa Ŵaanglo-Saxon ku Briteni|Kukhala kwa Ŵaanglo-Saxon]]. Mu 1066, [[Ŵa Norman ŵakapoka Mangalande|ŵaNorman ŵakapoka Mangalande]]. Paumaliro wa [[Nkhondo za Roses]], boma la England likakhazikika ndipo likamba kukura na mazaza, ndipo ivi vikapangiska kuti mu vilimika vya m’ma 1500 mu [[Malango mu Malango gha Welosi 1535 na 1542|kupoka Welosi]], ndipo . kukhazikiska [[Ufumu wa Britain]]. Mu vilimika vya m’ma 1600, mulimo wa fumuy wa ku Britain ukacepeskeka, comenecomene cifukwa ca [[Nkhondo ya Ŵanthu ŵa ku England]]. Mu 1707, [[Ufumu wa Mangalande]] na [[Ufumu wa Scotland]] ŵakakolerana pasi pa [[Phangano la Mgwirizano]] kuti ŵapange [[Ufumu wa Briteni Yilala]]. [[Malimo gha Union 1800]] ghakasazgapo [[Ufumu wa Ireland]] kuti ŵapange [[Ufumu wa Ubanyi wa Briteni Yilala na Ireland]] mu 1801. Vigaŵa vinandi vya Ireland [[vikapatukana|vikapatukana]] kufuma ku UK mu 1922 . nga ni [[Boma Lakufwatuka la Ireland]], na [[Dango la Maudindo gha Ufumu na Mphara yamarango 1927]]. wakalenga Ufumu Ubanyi uyo walipo sono. UK [[Mbiri ya mafakitale#Kusintha kwa Mafakitale ku Ulaya|yikaŵa charu chakwamba cha mafakitale]] ndipo yikaŵa [[nkhongono yikuru]] pa charu chose kwa nyengo yitali mu vilimika vya m'ma 1800 na kwamba kwa vilimika vya m'ma 1900, chomenechomene mu nyengo ya ''[[Pax Britannica . ]]'' pakati pa 1815 na 1914. Ufumu wa Britain ndiwo ukaŵa pakwamba . [[nkhongono za vyaru]] kwa nyengo yitali ya vilimika vya m’ma 1800, malo agho ghakakhozgekanga na [[British Agricultural Revolution|kutukuka kwake kwa ulimi]], mulimo wake nga ni [[mtundu wa malonda]] wakuwusa, nkhongono yikuru ya mafakitale, [[Mndandanda wa . Vinthu viphya vya ku Britain na ivyo ŵakasanga mu vilimika vya m’ma 1800|vinthu vinyake vyakuzirwa ivyo ŵakasanga pa nkhani ya tekinoloje]], ndiposo . kukwera kwa [[Landani] wa mu vilimika vya m’ma 1800] kuŵa malo ghakuru ghakusangirako ndalama pa caru cose. Pa nyengo iyo ukaŵa pa msinkhu wake mu vilimika vya m’ma 1920, Ufumu wa Britain ukaŵa pafupifupi kotala ya charu chose na ŵanthu ŵake, ndipo ukaŵa [[Mndandanda wa maufumu ghakuru#Maufumu pa msinkhu wawo ukuru|ufumu ukuru chomene mu mdauko]]. Kweni, [[Mbiri ya Ufumu Ubanyi mu nyengo ya Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Charu Chose|kunjilirapo kwake mu Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Charu Chose]] na [[Mbiri ya ŵasilikari ŵa Ufumu Ubanyi mu nyengo ya Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Charu Chose|Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Charu Chose]] vikananga [[Chuma cha Ufumu wa Britain . |Nkhongono zachuma za Briteni]] na chiphalizgano cha pa charu chose chapasi cha [[kuwuskapo ŵakoloni]] vikapangiska kuti vyaru vinandi ivyo vikaŵa pasi pa Britain viŵe na wanangwa. United Kingdom ni [[constitutional monarchy]] na [[parliamentary democracy]].{{Efn|The United Kingdom does not have a codified constitution but an unwritten one formed of Acts of Parliament, court judgments, traditions, and conventions.<ref>{{Citation |title=What is the UK Constitution? |date=9 August 2018 |url=https://www.ucl.ac.uk/constitution-unit/what-uk-constitution/what-uk-constitution |publisher=The Constitution Unit of UCL |access-date=6 February 2020 |archive-date=7 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181107060057/http://www.ucl.ac.uk/constitution-unit/whatis/uk-constitution |url-status=live }}</ref>}} The UK has three distinct jurisdictions: [[English law|England and Wales]], [[Scots law|Scotland]], and [[Law of Northern Ireland|Northern Ireland]]. Since 1999, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have their own governments and parliaments which control various [[Devolution in the United Kingdom|devolved]] matters. A [[developed country]] with [[Economy of the United Kingdom|an advanced economy]], the UK ranks among the [[List of countries by GDP (nominal)|largest economies by nominal GDP]], and is one of the world's [[List of countries by exports|largest exporters]] and [[List of countries by imports|importers]]. It is a [[nuclear state]] with one of the world's [[List of countries by military expenditures|highest military budgets]]. The UK has been a [[Permanent members of the United Nations Security Council|permanent member of the UN Security Council]] since its first session in 1946. It is a member of the [[Commonwealth of Nations]], [[Council of Europe]], [[G7]], [[OECD]], [[NATO]], [[Five Eyes]], [[AUKUS]] and [[Comprehensive and Progressive Agreement for Trans-Pacific Partnership|CPTPP]]. Its [[Anglicisation|influence]] can be observed in the legal and political systems of many of [[List of countries that have gained independence from the United Kingdom|its former colonies]], and [[Culture of the United Kingdom|its culture]] remains globally influential, particularly [[English-speaking world|in language]], [[British literature|literature]], [[Music of the United Kingdom|music]] and [[Sport in the United Kingdom|sport]]. [[English language|English]] is the world's [[List of languages by total number of speakers|most widely spoken language]] and the [[list of languages by number of native speakers|third-most spoken native language]]. == Etymology and terminology == {{Anchor|Etymology}}<!--linked--> {{See also|Britain (place name)|Terminology of the British Isles}} The [[Acts of Union 1707]] declared that the [[Kingdom of England]] and [[Kingdom of Scotland]] were "United into One Kingdom by the Name of Great Britain".{{Efn|Compare to section 1 of both of the 1800 [[Acts of Union (1800)|Acts of Union]] which reads: "the kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland shall{{spaces}}... be united into one kingdom, by the name of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland".}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Treaty (act) of the Union of Parliament 1706 |url=http://www.scotshistoryonline.co.uk/union.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190527074630/http://www.scotshistoryonline.co.uk/union.html |archive-date=27 May 2019 |access-date=23 August 2011 |publisher=Scots History Online |postscript=; }} {{Cite book |last1=Barnett, Hilaire |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LYc1tSYonrQC&pg=PA165 |title=Constitutional & Administrative Law |last2=Jago, Robert |publisher=Routledge |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-415-56301-7 |edition=8th |location=Abingdon |page=165 |access-date=29 September 2020 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328140722/https://books.google.com/books?id=LYc1tSYonrQC&pg=PA165 |url-status=live }}</ref> The term "United Kingdom" has occasionally been used as a description for the former [[Kingdom of Great Britain]], although its official name from 1707 to 1800 was simply "Great Britain".<ref>"After the political union of England and Scotland in 1707, the nation's official name became 'Great Britain{{'"}}, ''The American Pageant, Volume 1'', Cengage Learning (2012); "From 1707 until 1801 ''Great Britain'' was the official designation of the kingdoms of England and Scotland". ''The Standard Reference Work: For the Home, School and Library, Volume 3'', Harold Melvin Stanford (1921); "In 1707, on the union with Scotland, 'Great Britain' became the official name of the British Kingdom, and so continued until the union with Ireland in 1801". ''United States Congressional serial set, Issue 10; Issue 3265'' (1895); {{Cite web |last=Gascoigne, Bamber |author-link=Bamber Gascoigne |title=History of Great Britain (from 1707) |url=http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.asp?historyid=ab07 |access-date=18 July 2011 |publisher=History World |archive-date=27 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190527205230/http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.asp?historyid=ab07 |url-status=live }}</ref> The [[Acts of Union 1800]] formed the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland]]. Following the [[partition of Ireland]] and the independence of the [[Irish Free State]] in 1922, which left [[Northern Ireland]] as the only part of the island of Ireland within the United Kingdom, the name was changed in 1927 to the "United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Cottrell, P. |url=https://archive.org/details/irishcivilwar00cott_573 |title=The Irish Civil War 1922–23 |year=2008 |isbn=978-1-84603-270-7 |page=[https://archive.org/details/irishcivilwar00cott_573/page/n85 85] |publisher=Bloomsbury USA |url-access=limited}}</ref> Although the United Kingdom is a sovereign country, England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland are also widely referred to as [[countries]].<ref>{{Citation |last1=S. Dunn |title=An Alphabetical Listing of Word, Name and Place in Northern Ireland and the Living Language of Conflict |year=2000 |place=[[Lewiston, New York]] |publisher=[[Edwin Mellen Press]] |quote=One specific problem – in both general and particular senses – is to know what to call Northern Ireland itself: in the general sense, it is not a country, or a province, or a state – although some refer to it contemptuously as a statelet: the least controversial word appears to be jurisdiction, but this might change. |last2=H. Dawson}}; {{Cite web |date=15 December 2011 |title=Changes in the list of subdivision names and code elements |url=http://www.iso.org/iso/iso_3166-2_newsletter_ii-3_2011-12-13.pdf |access-date=28 May 2012 |website=ISO 3166-2 |publisher=International Organization for Standardization |archive-date=19 September 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160919073956/http://www.iso.org/iso/iso_3166-2_newsletter_ii-3_2011-12-13.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> The UK Prime Minister's website has used the phrase "countries within a country" to describe the United Kingdom.<ref name="page823">{{Cite web |date=10 January 2003 |title=Countries within a country |url=http://www.number10.gov.uk/Page823 |archive-url=http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20080909013512/http://www.number10.gov.uk/Page823 |archive-date=9 September 2008 |access-date=8 March 2015 |publisher=Prime Minister's Office}}</ref> Some statistical summaries, such as those for the twelve [[NUTS of the United Kingdom|NUTS 1 regions]], refer to Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland as "regions".<ref>{{Cite web |title=Statistical bulletin: Regional Labour Market Statistics |url=http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/dcp171778_346117.xml |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141224045523/http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/dcp171778_346117.xml |archive-date=24 December 2014 |access-date=5 March 2014}}; {{Cite web |title=13.4% Fall In Earnings Value During Recession |url=http://www.gmb.org.uk/newsroom/fall-in-earnings-value-during-recession |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140103194604/http://www.gmb.org.uk/newsroom/fall-in-earnings-value-during-recession |archive-date=3 January 2014 |access-date=5 March 2014}}</ref> Northern Ireland is also referred to as a "province".<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Dunn, Seamus |title=An Alphabetical Listing of Word, Name and Place in Northern Ireland and the Living Language of Conflict |last2=Dawson, Helen |publisher=[[Edwin Mellen Press]] |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-7734-7711-7 |location=[[Lewiston, New York]]}}; {{Cite book |last=Murphy, Dervla |title=[[A Place Apart]] |publisher=Penguin |year=1979 |isbn=978-0-14-005030-1 |location=London}}</ref> With regard to Northern Ireland, the descriptive name used "can be controversial, with the choice often revealing one's political preferences".<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Whyte |first1=John |title=Interpreting Northern Ireland |last2=FitzGerald |first2=Garret |publisher=Clarendon Press |year=1991 |isbn=978-0-19-827380-6 |location=Oxford |author-link=John Henry Whyte |author-link2=Garret FitzGerald}}</ref> The term "Great Britain" conventionally refers to the island of Great Britain, or politically to England, Scotland and Wales in combination.<ref>{{Cite news |date=19 December 2008 |title=Guardian Unlimited Style Guide |publisher=Guardian News and Media Limited |location=London |url=https://www.theguardian.com/styleguide/page/0,,184840,00.html |access-date=23 August 2011 }}; {{Cite news |date=19 August 2002 |title=BBC style guide (Great Britain) |work=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/programmes/radio_newsroom/1099593.stm#g |access-date=23 August 2011 |archive-date=15 February 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090215074832/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/programmes/radio_newsroom/1099593.stm#g |url-status=live }}; {{Cite web |title=Key facts about the United Kingdom |url=http://www.direct.gov.uk/en/Governmentcitizensandrights/LivingintheUK/DG_10012517 |archive-url=http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20121015000000/http://www.direct.gov.uk/en/Governmentcitizensandrights/LivingintheUK/DG_10012517 |archive-date=15 October 2012 |access-date=8 March 2015 |website=Government, citizens and rights |publisher=HM Government }}</ref> It is sometimes used as a loose synonym for the United Kingdom as a whole.<ref>[[New Oxford American Dictionary]]: "Great Britain: England, Wales, and Scotland considered as a unit. The name is also often used loosely to refer to the United Kingdom."</ref> The word ''England'' is occasionally used incorrectly to refer to the United Kingdom as a whole, a mistake principally made by people from outside the UK.<ref>"When people say England, they sometimes mean Great Britain, sometimes the United Kingdom, sometimes the British Isles — but never England." — {{Citation |last=George Mikes |title=How To Be An Alien |year=1946 |publisher=Penguin}} {{ISBN|978-0-582-41686-4}}; {{Cite web |title=England OR United Kingdom (UK)? {{!}} Vocabulary {{!}} EnglishClub |url=https://www.englishclub.com/vocabulary/cw-uk-england.htm |access-date=16 October 2022 |website=englishclub.com |archive-date=16 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221016192638/https://www.englishclub.com/vocabulary/cw-uk-england.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> The [[Britain (place name)|term "Britain"]] is used as a synonym for [[Great Britain]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=Britain Meaning in the Cambridge English Dictionary |url=https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/britain |website=dictionary.cambridge.org |access-date=19 June 2018 |archive-date=20 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180620024348/https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/britain |url-status=live }}; {{Cite web |title=Definition of Britain in English by Oxford Dictionaries |url=https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/britain |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160926204707/https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/britain |archive-date=26 September 2016 |website=Oxford Dictionaries – English }}</ref><ref name="Britain-Col">{{Cite web |title=Britain definition and meaning |url=https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/britain |website=collinsdictionary.com |publisher=Collins English Dictionary |access-date=19 June 2018 |archive-date=20 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180620024837/https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/britain |url-status=live }}</ref> but also sometimes for the United Kingdom.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Britain – Definition for English-Language Learners |url=http://learnersdictionary.com/definition/Britain |website=learnersdictionary.com |publisher=Merriam-Webster's Learner's Dictionary |access-date=19 June 2018 |archive-date=20 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180620024648/http://learnersdictionary.com/definition/Britain |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Britain-Col" /> Usage is mixed: the [[Government of the United Kingdom|UK Government]] style guide prefers the term "UK" rather than "Britain" or "British" (except when referring to embassies{{Efn|"UK" embassies became "British" embassies in 1961.<ref>{{Cite news |date=21 October 1961 |title='Cold U.K.' Becomes British |work=[[The Times]] |page=8}}</ref>}}),<ref>{{Cite web |date=21 November 2024 |orig-date=23 February 2016 |title=Style guide: A to Z |url=https://www.gov.uk/guidance/style-guide/a-to-z |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241122222025/https://www.gov.uk/guidance/style-guide/a-to-z |archive-date=22 November 2024 |publisher=UK Government}}</ref> while other government documents acknowledge that both terms refer to the United Kingdom and that elsewhere "British government" is used at least as frequently as "United Kingdom government".<ref name="PCGN-uk-guide">{{Cite web |last=Permanent Committee on Geographical Names |title=Toponymic guidelines for the United Kingdom |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/toponymic-guidelines |website=gov.uk |date=17 May 2023 |publisher=UK Government |access-date=17 June 2018 |archive-date=17 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180617165832/https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/toponymic-guidelines |url-status=live }}</ref> The UK [[Permanent Committee on Geographical Names]] recognises "United Kingdom", "UK" and "U.K." as shortened and abbreviated geopolitical terms for the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland in its toponymic guidelines; it does not list "Britain" but notes that "it is only the one specific nominal term 'Great Britain' which invariably excludes Northern Ireland".<ref name="PCGN-uk-guide" /> The [[BBC]] historically preferred to use "Britain" as shorthand only for Great Britain, though the present style guide does not take a position except that "Great Britain" excludes Northern Ireland.<ref>{{Cite web |title=BBC News style guide – Names |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/academy/en/articles/art20130702112133537 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191110082858/https://www.bbc.co.uk/academy/en/articles/art20130702112133537 |archive-date=10 November 2019 |access-date=9 November 2019 |website=BBC Academy |publisher=BBC}}; {{Cite web |title=Alphabetical checklist |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/academy/journalism/news-style-guide/article/art20130702112133551 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180326162901/http://www.bbc.co.uk/academy/journalism/news-style-guide/article/art20130702112133551 |archive-date=26 March 2018 |access-date=17 June 2018 |website=BBC News |publisher=BBC}}</ref> The adjective "British" is commonly used to refer to matters relating to the United Kingdom and is used in law to refer to United Kingdom citizenship and [[British nationality law|nationality]].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Bradley, Anthony Wilfred |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HT_GS2zgN5QC&pg=PA36 |title=Constitutional and administrative law |last2=Ewing, Keith D. |publisher=Pearson Longman |year=2007 |isbn=978-1-4058-1207-8 |edition=14th |volume=1 |location=Harlow |page=36 |access-date=29 September 2020 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328140723/https://books.google.com/books?id=HT_GS2zgN5QC&pg=PA36 |url-status=live }}</ref>{{Efn|Historically, the term ''British'' was used to refer to members and institutions within the British Empire and later Commonwealth and was not limited to the geographical British Isles. The UK Government adopted the term for its exclusive use only in 1961, but in recognition of its wider usage first sought the prior consent of Australia, Canada and New Zealand.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Curran |first1=James |title=The Unknown Nation: Australia after Empire |url=https://archive.org/details/unknownnationaus0000curr |last2=Ward |first2=Stuart |date=2010 |publisher=Melbourne University Publishing |isbn=978-0-522-85645-3 |location=Carlton, Vic |pages=[https://archive.org/details/unknownnationaus0000curr/page/26 26]–7}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Ward |first=Stuart |title=Untied kingdom: A Global History of the End of Britain |date=2023 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-14599-3 |at=Chapter 1 |language=en}}</ref>}} People of the United Kingdom use several different terms to describe their national identity and may identify themselves as being [[British people|British]], [[English people|English]], [[Scottish people|Scottish]], [[Welsh people|Welsh]], [[People of Northern Ireland|Northern Irish]], or [[Irish people|Irish]];<ref>{{Cite web |year=2010 |title=Which of these best describes the way you think of yourself? |url=http://www.ark.ac.uk/nilt/2010/Community_Relations/NINATID.html |access-date=1 July 2010 |website=Northern Ireland Life and Times Survey 2010 |publisher=ARK&nbsp;– Access Research Knowledge |archive-date=23 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923175111/http://www.ark.ac.uk/nilt/2010/Community_Relations/NINATID.html |url-status=live }}</ref> or as having a combination of different national identities.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ethnicity and National Identity in England and Wales |url=https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/culturalidentity/ethnicity/articles/ethnicityandnationalidentityinenglandandwales/2012-12-11 |access-date=25 June 2020 |website=Office for National Statistics |archive-date=21 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220121012603/https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/culturalidentity/ethnicity/articles/ethnicityandnationalidentityinenglandandwales/2012-12-11 |url-status=live }}; {{Cite book |last=Schrijver, Frans |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=u8gZklxHTMUC&pg=PA275 |title=Regionalism after regionalisation: Spain, France and the United Kingdom |publisher=Amsterdam University Press |year=2006 |isbn=978-90-5629-428-1 |pages=275–277 |access-date=29 September 2020 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328140905/https://books.google.com/books?id=u8gZklxHTMUC&pg=PA275#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> == History == {{Main|Formation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland|History of the British Isles}} {{Further|History of the constitution of the United Kingdom|Timeline of British history}} === Prior to the Treaty of Union === {{Main|History of England|History of Wales|History of Scotland|History of Ireland}} {{see|Kingdom of England|Kingdom of Scotland}} [[File:Stonehenge, Condado de Wiltshire, Inglaterra, 2014-08-12, DD 18.JPG|thumb|[[Stonehenge]] in [[Wiltshire]] is a ring of stones, each about {{Cvt|13|ft|0|order=flip}} high, {{Cvt|7|ft|0|order=flip}} wide and 25 [[tonne]]s, erected 2400–2200&nbsp;BC.]] Settlement by [[Cro-Magnons]] of what was to become the United Kingdom occurred in waves beginning by about 30,000 years ago.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/wales/south_west/7069001.stm "Ancient skeleton was 'even older'] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210213081240/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/wales/south_west/7069001.stm|date=13 February 2021}}". [[BBC News]]. 30 October 2007. Retrieved 27 April 2011.</ref> The island has been continuously inhabited only since the last retreat of the ice around 11,500 years ago. By the end of the [[Prehistoric Britain|region's prehistoric period]], the population is thought to have belonged largely to a culture termed [[Insular Celts|Insular Celtic]], comprising [[Britons (historical)|Brittonic Britain]] and [[Gaelic Ireland]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Koch, John T. |url=https://archive.org/details/celticculturehis00koch_128 |title=Celtic culture: A historical encyclopedia |publisher=ABC-CLIO |year=2006 |isbn=978-1-85109-440-0 |location=Santa Barbara, CA |page=[https://archive.org/details/celticculturehis00koch_128/page/n1016 973] |url-access=limited}}</ref> [[File:Baños Romanos, Bath, Inglaterra, 2014-08-12, DD 39-41 HDR.JPG|alt=Photograph of the Baths showing a rectangular area of greenish water surrounded by yellow stone buildings with pillars. In the background is the tower of the abbey.|thumb|The [[Roman Baths (Bath)|Roman Baths]] in [[Bath, Somerset]], are a well-preserved ''[[thermae]]'' from [[Roman Britain]].]] The [[Roman conquest of Britain|Roman conquest]], beginning in 43 AD, and the 400-year [[Roman Britain|rule of southern Britain]], was followed by an invasion by [[Germanic peoples|Germanic]] [[Anglo-Saxon]] settlers, reducing the Brittonic area mainly [[Wales#Post-Roman era|to what was to become Wales]], [[Cornwall]] and, until the latter stages of the Anglo-Saxon settlement, the [[Hen Ogledd]] (northern England and parts of southern Scotland).<ref>{{Cite book |title=[[Encyclopaedia of Wales|The Welsh Academy Encyclopaedia of Wales]] |publisher=University of Wales Press |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-7083-1953-6 |editor-last=Davies |editor-first=John |editor-link=John Davies (historian) |location=Cardiff |page=[https://archive.org/details/welshacademyency0000unse/page/915 915] |editor-last2=Jenkins |editor-first2=Nigel |editor-link2=Nigel Jenkins |editor-last3=Baines |editor-first3=Menna |editor-last4=Lynch |editor-first4=Peredur I. |editor-link4=Peredur Lynch}}</ref> Most of the [[Anglo-Saxon England|region settled by the Anglo-Saxons]] became unified as the Kingdom of England in the 10th century.<ref>{{Cite magazine |title=Short Athelstan biography |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/athelstan.shtml |magazine=BBC History |access-date=9 April 2013 |archive-date=13 February 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070213191353/http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/athelstan.shtml |url-status=live }}</ref> Meanwhile, [[Dál Riata|Gaelic speakers in north-west Britain]] (with connections to the north-east of Ireland and traditionally supposed to have migrated from there in the 5th century)<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mackie, J.D. |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofscotlan00mack_0/page/18 |title=A History of Scotland |publisher=Penguin |year=1991 |isbn=978-0-14-013649-4 |location=London |pages=[https://archive.org/details/historyofscotlan00mack_0/page/18 18–19] |author-link=J.D. Mackie}}; {{Cite book |last=Campbell, Ewan |title=Saints and Sea-kings: The First Kingdom of the Scots |url=https://archive.org/details/saintsseakingsfi0000camp |publisher=Canongate |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-86241-874-8 |location=Edinburgh |pages=[https://archive.org/details/saintsseakingsfi0000camp/page/8 8]–15}}</ref> united with the [[Picts]] to create the [[Kingdom of Scotland]] in the 9th century.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Haigh |first=Christopher |url=https://archive.org/details/cambridgehistori0000unse_a9n8/page/30 |title=The Cambridge Historical Encyclopedia of Great Britain and Ireland |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1990 |isbn=978-0-521-39552-6 |page=[https://archive.org/details/cambridgehistori0000unse_a9n8/page/30 30]}}</ref> [[File:Bayeux Tapestry WillelmDux.jpg|thumb|The [[Bayeux Tapestry]] depicts the [[Battle of Hastings]], 1066, and the events leading to it.]] In 1066, the [[Normans]] invaded England from northern France. After [[Norman conquest of England|conquering England]], they seized [[Norman invasion of Wales|large parts of Wales]], [[Norman invasion of Ireland|conquered much of Ireland]] and were invited to settle in Scotland, bringing to each country [[feudalism]] on the Northern French model and [[Norman-French]] culture.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ganshof, F.L. |url=https://archive.org/details/feudalism0000gans_j4b5 |title=Feudalism |publisher=University of Toronto |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-8020-7158-3 |page=165 |url-access=registration}}</ref> The [[Anglo-Normans|Anglo-Norman]] [[ruling class]] greatly influenced, but eventually assimilated with, the local cultures.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Chibnall, Marjorie |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qJl5Jm-IndUC&pg=PA115 |title=The Debate on the Norman Conquest |publisher=Manchester University Press |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-7190-4913-2 |pages=115–122 |author-link=Marjorie Chibnall |access-date=20 March 2023 |archive-date=26 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326164802/https://books.google.com/books?id=qJl5Jm-IndUC&pg=PA115 |url-status=live }}</ref> Subsequent [[House of Plantagenet|medieval English kings]] completed the [[conquest of Wales]] and tried unsuccessfully [[Wars of Scottish Independence|to annex Scotland]]. Asserting its independence in the 1320 [[Declaration of Arbroath]], Scotland maintained its independence thereafter, albeit in [[Anglo-Scottish Wars|near-constant conflict with England]]. In 1215, the [[Magna Carta]] was the first document to state that no government was above the law, that citizens have rights protecting them, and that they were entitled to a [[fair trial]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Magna Carta |url=https://www.parliament.uk/about/living-heritage/evolutionofparliament/originsofparliament/birthofparliament/overview/magnacarta/ |access-date=27 May 2024 |publisher=parliament.uk }} {{Cite web |title=The contents of Magna Carta |url=https://www.parliament.uk/about/living-heritage/evolutionofparliament/originsofparliament/birthofparliament/overview/magnacarta/magnacartaclauses/ |access-date=27 May 2024 |publisher=parliament.uk |archive-date=28 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220828101448/https://www.parliament.uk/about/living-heritage/evolutionofparliament/originsofparliament/birthofparliament/overview/magnacarta/magnacartaclauses/ |url-status=live }} {{Cite web |title=Magna Carta Key Facts |url=https://www.britannica.com/summary/Magna-Carta-Key-Facts |access-date=27 May 2024 |publisher=Britannica |archive-date=27 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240527191804/https://www.britannica.com/summary/Magna-Carta-Key-Facts |url-status=live }}</ref> The English monarchs, through inheritance of [[Angevin Empire|substantial territories in France]] and claims to the French crown, were also heavily involved in conflicts in France, most notably the [[Hundred Years' War]], while the [[List of Scottish monarchs|Kings of Scots]] were in [[Auld Alliance|an alliance with the French]] during this period.<ref>Keen, Maurice. [https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/middle_ages/hundred_years_war_01.shtml "The Hundred Years' War"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131214092949/http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/middle_ages/hundred_years_war_01.shtml |date=14 December 2013 }}. BBC History.</ref> [[Early modern Britain]] saw religious conflict resulting from the [[Reformation]] and the introduction of [[Protestant]] state churches in each country.<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/479892/Protestantism/41558/The-Reformation-in-England-and-Scotland The Reformation in England and Scotland] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150515015218/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/479892/Protestantism/41558/The-Reformation-in-England-and-Scotland |date=15 May 2015 }} and [https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/293754/Ireland/22978/The-Reformation-period Ireland: The Reformation Period & Ireland under Elizabeth I] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150521133445/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/293754/Ireland/22978/The-Reformation-period |date=21 May 2015 }}, Encyclopædia Britannica Online.</ref> The [[English Reformation]] ushered in political, constitutional, social and cultural change in the 16th century and [[State religion|established]] the [[Church of England]].&nbsp;Moreover, it defined a national identity for England and slowly, but profoundly, changed people's religious beliefs.<ref>{{Cite web |title=English Reformation c1527-1590 |url=https://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/education/resources/the-english-reformation-c1527-1590/ |access-date=20 January 2023 |website=The National Archives |language=en-GB |archive-date=2 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221202002512/https://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/education/resources/the-english-reformation-c1527-1590/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Wales was [[Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542|fully incorporated into the Kingdom of England]],<ref>{{Cite magazine |date=5 November 2009 |title=British History in Depth&nbsp;– Wales under the Tudors |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/tudors/wales_tudors_01.shtml |magazine=BBC History |access-date=21 September 2010 |archive-date=7 February 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120207145836/http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/tudors/wales_tudors_01.shtml |url-status=live }}</ref> and Ireland was constituted as a kingdom in personal union with the English crown.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Nicholls |first=Mark |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofmodernb0000nich |title=A history of the modern British Isles, 1529–1603: The two kingdoms |publisher=Blackwell |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-631-19334-0 |location=Oxford |pages=171–172 |url-access=registration}}</ref> In what was to become Northern Ireland, the lands of the independent Catholic Gaelic nobility were confiscated and [[Plantation of Ulster|given to Protestant settlers]] from England and Scotland.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Canny |first=Nicholas P. |url=https://archive.org/details/makingirelandbri00cann |title=Making Ireland British, 1580–1650 |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-19-925905-2 |pages=189–200 |url-access=registration}}</ref> In 1603, the kingdoms of England, Scotland and Ireland were united in a [[personal union]] when [[James I of England|James VI, King of Scots]], inherited the crowns of England and Ireland and moved his court from [[Edinburgh]] to London; each country nevertheless remained a separate political entity and retained its separate political, legal, and religious institutions.<ref>Ross, D. (2002). ''[[iarchive:chronologyofscot0000ross|Chronology of Scottish History]]''. Glasgow: Geddes & Grosset. p. 56. {{ISBN|978-1-85534-380-1}}; Hearn, J. (2002). ''Claiming Scotland: National Identity and Liberal Culture''. Edinburgh University Press. p. 104. {{ISBN|978-1-902930-16-9}}</ref> In the mid-17th century, all three kingdoms [[Wars of the Three Kingdoms|were involved in a series of connected wars]] (including the [[English Civil War]]) which led to the temporary overthrow of the monarchy, with the [[execution of Charles I|execution of King Charles I]], and the establishment of the short-lived [[unitary republic]] of the [[Commonwealth of England]], Scotland and Ireland.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=English Civil Wars |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/187936/English-Civil-Wars |access-date=28 April 2013 |archive-date=2 May 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150502204708/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/187936/English-Civil-Wars |url-status=live }}; {{Cite web |date=14 March 2010 |title=Scotland and the Commonwealth: 1651–1660 |url=http://www.archontology.org/nations/uk/scotland/01_laws.php |access-date=9 March 2015 |publisher=Archontology.org |archive-date=16 July 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120716194016/http://www.archontology.org/nations/uk/scotland/01_laws.php |url-status=live }}</ref> Although the [[Restoration (1660)|monarchy was restored]], the [[Interregnum (1649–1660)|Interregnum]] along with the [[Glorious Revolution]] of 1688 and the subsequent [[Bill of Rights 1689]] in England and [[Claim of Right Act 1689]] in Scotland ensured that, unlike much of the rest of Europe, [[royal absolutism]] would not prevail, and a professed Catholic could never accede to the throne. The [[British constitution]] would develop on the basis of [[constitutional monarchy]] and the [[parliamentary system]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lodge |first=Richard |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EBSpvBxGyqcC |title=The History of England&nbsp;– From the Restoration to the Death of William III (1660–1702) |publisher=Read Books |year=2007 |isbn=978-1-4067-0897-4 |page=8 |orig-date=1910 |access-date=29 September 2020 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328140723/https://books.google.com/books?id=EBSpvBxGyqcC |url-status=live }}</ref> With the founding of the [[Royal Society]] in 1660, science was greatly encouraged. During this period, particularly in England, the development of [[English navy|naval power]] and the interest in [[Age of Discovery|voyages of discovery]] led to the acquisition and settlement of [[First British Empire|overseas colonies]], particularly in North America and the Caribbean.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Tudor Period and the Birth of a Regular Navy |url=http://www.royal-navy.org/lib/index.php?title=Tudor_Period_and_the_Birth_of_a_Regular_Navy_Part_Two |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111103013901/http://www.royal-navy.org/lib/index.php?title=Tudor_Period_and_the_Birth_of_a_Regular_Navy_Part_Two |archive-date=3 November 2011 |access-date=8 March 2015 |website=Royal Navy History |publisher=Institute of Naval History }}; {{Cite book |last=Canny |first=Nicholas |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eQHSivGzEEMC |title=The Origins of Empire, The Oxford History of the British Empire Volume I |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-19-924676-2 |ref=refOHBEv1 |access-date=29 September 2020 |archive-date=11 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230111135256/https://books.google.com/books?id=eQHSivGzEEMC |url-status=live }}</ref> Though previous attempts at uniting the two kingdoms within Great Britain in 1606, 1667, and 1689 had proved unsuccessful, the attempt initiated in 1705 led to the [[Treaty of Union]] of 1706 being agreed and ratified by both parliaments. {{Clear left}} === Union of England and Scotland === {{Main|Treaty of Union|Kingdom of Great Britain}} [[File:John_Wilson_Carmichael_-_The_opening_engagement_at_Trafalgar;_H.M.S._'Royal_Sovereign'_raking_the_stern_of_the_Spanish_flagship_'Santa_Ana'.jpg|thumb|The opening engagement at the [[Battle of Trafalgar]], by [[James Wilson Carmichael|J.W. Carmichael]]]] On 1 May 1707, the Kingdom of Great Britain was formed, the result of the [[Acts of Union 1707]] between the [[Kingdom of England]] and [[Kingdom of Scotland]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Articles of Union with Scotland 1707 |url=http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/pathways/citizenship/rise_parliament/docs/articles_union.htm |access-date=19 October 2008 |publisher=UK Parliament |archive-date=8 June 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120608152446/http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/pathways/citizenship/rise_parliament/docs/articles_union.htm |url-status=live }}; {{Cite web |title=Acts of Union 1707 |url=http://www.parliament.uk/about/living-heritage/evolutionofparliament/legislativescrutiny |access-date=6 January 2011 |publisher=UK Parliament |archive-date=27 December 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101227033859/http://www.parliament.uk/about/living-heritage/evolutionofparliament/legislativescrutiny/ |url-status=live }}; {{Cite web |title=Treaty (act) of Union 1706 |url=http://www.scotshistoryonline.co.uk/union.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190527074630/http://www.scotshistoryonline.co.uk/union.html |archive-date=27 May 2019 |access-date=3 February 2011 |publisher=Scottish History online }}</ref> In the 18th century, cabinet government developed under [[Robert Walpole]], in practice the first prime minister (1721–1742). A series of [[Jacobite uprisings]] sought to remove the Protestant [[House of Hanover]] from the throne and restore the Catholic [[House of Stuart]]. The Jacobites were finally defeated at the [[Battle of Culloden]] in 1746, after which the [[Scottish Highlanders]] were forcibly assimilated into Scotland by revoking the feudal independence of [[Scottish clan chief|clan chiefs]]. The British colonies in North America that broke away in the [[American Revolutionary War|American War of Independence]] became the [[United States]]. British imperial ambition turned towards Asia, particularly to [[India]].<ref>Library of Congress, [https://books.google.com/books?id=BQDgr_XvsHoC&pg=PA73 ''The Impact of the American Revolution Abroad''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328140724/https://books.google.com/books?id=BQDgr_XvsHoC&pg=PA73 |date=28 March 2024 }}, p. 73.</ref> British merchants played a leading part in the [[Atlantic slave trade]], mainly between 1662 and 1807 when British or British-colonial [[slave ships]] transported nearly 3.3&nbsp;million slaves from Africa.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Morgan |first=Kenneth |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SGcwgJz5rQMC&pg=PA12 |title=Slavery and the British Empire: From Africa to America |publisher=Oxford University Press, USA |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-19-156627-1 |page=12 |access-date=5 October 2020 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328141229/https://books.google.com/books?id=SGcwgJz5rQMC&pg=PA12#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> The slaves were taken to work on [[Plantation economy|plantations]], principally in the [[History of the British West Indies|Caribbean]] but also [[British America|North America]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Morgan |first=Kenneth |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SGcwgJz5rQMC&pg=PA15 |title=Slavery and the British Empire: From Africa to America |publisher=Oxford University Press, US |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-19-156627-1 |page=15 |access-date=5 October 2020 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328141229/https://books.google.com/books?id=SGcwgJz5rQMC&pg=PA15#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> However, with pressure from the [[Abolitionism in the United Kingdom|abolitionism movement]], Parliament banned the trade in 1807, banned slavery in the British Empire in 1833, and Britain took a leading role in the movement to abolish slavery worldwide through the [[blockade of Africa]] and pressing other nations to end their trade with a series of treaties.<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/devon/content/articles/2007/03/20/abolition_navy_feature.shtml Sailing against slavery] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081103004954/https://www.bbc.co.uk/devon/content/articles/2007/03/20/abolition_navy_feature.shtml |date=3 November 2008 }}. BBC Devon. 2007.; {{Cite book |last=Lovejoy |first=Paul E. |url=https://archive.org/details/transformationsi0000love/page/290 |title=Transformations in Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-521-78012-4 |edition=2nd |location=New York |page=[https://archive.org/details/transformationsi0000love/page/290 290] }}</ref> === United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland === {{Main|History of the United Kingdom|Acts of Union (1800)|United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland}} [[File:Victoria in her Coronation robes.jpg|thumb|[[Queen Victoria|Victoria]] reigned as [[Monarchy of the United Kingdom|Queen of the United Kingdom]] and [[Empress of India]] during the 19th century.]] In 1800 the parliaments of Great Britain and Ireland each passed an Act of Union, uniting the two kingdoms and creating the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland on 1 January 1801.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Act of Union |url=http://www.actofunion.ac.uk/actofunion.htm#act |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120415061235/http://www.actofunion.ac.uk/actofunion.htm#act |archive-date=15 April 2012 |access-date=15 May 2006 |publisher=Act of Union Virtual Library}}</ref> After the defeat of France at the end of the [[French Revolutionary Wars]] and [[Napoleonic Wars]] (1792–1815), the United Kingdom emerged as the principal naval and imperial power (with London the [[List of largest cities throughout history|largest city in the world from about 1830]]).<ref>Tellier, L.-N. (2009). ''Urban World History: an Economic and Geographical Perspective''. Quebec: PUQ. p. 463. {{ISBN|978-2-7605-1588-8}}.</ref> [[Royal Navy#1815–1914|Unchallenged at sea]], British dominance was later described as ''[[Pax Britannica]]'' ("British Peace"), a period of [[International relations of the Great Powers (1814–1919)|relative peace among the great powers]] (1815–1914) during which the [[British Empire]] became the global [[hegemon]] and [[foremost power]]<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Mathias |first=P. |title=The First Industrial Nation: the Economic History of Britain, 1700–1914 |url=https://archive.org/details/firstindustrialn00unse |publisher=Routledge |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-415-26672-7 |location=London}}; {{Cite book |last=Ferguson |first=Niall |url=https://archive.org/details/empire00nial |title=Empire: The rise and demise of the British world order and the lessons for global power |publisher=Basic Books |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-465-02328-8 |location=New York |url-access=registration}}</ref><ref name=":4">{{Cite encyclopedia |title=20th-century international relations |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/20th-century-international-relations-2085155 |access-date=6 May 2023 |last=McDougall |first=Walter A. |date=4 May 2023 |author-link=Walter A. McDougall |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190712124130/https://www.britannica.com/topic/20th-century-international-relations-2085155 |archive-date=12 July 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> and adopted the role of [[global policeman]].<ref>Sondhaus, L. (2004). ''Navies in Modern World History''. London: Reaktion Books. p. 9. {{ISBN|978-1-86189-202-7}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Porter |first=Andrew |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oo3F2X8IDeEC |title=The Nineteenth Century, The Oxford History of the British Empire Volume III |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-19-924678-6 |page=332 |ref=refOHBEv3}}</ref> From 1853 to 1856, Britain took part in the [[Crimean War]], allied with the [[Ottoman Empire]] against [[Russian Empire|Tsarist Russia]],<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Benn |first=David Wedgwood |title=The Crimean War and its lessons for today |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_international-affairs_2012-03_88_2/page/387 |journal=[[International Affairs (journal)|International Affairs]] |volume=88 |issue=2 |date=March 2012 |pages=387–391 |jstor=41428613 |publisher=Oxford University Press|doi=10.1111/j.1468-2346.2012.01078.x }}</ref> participating in the naval battles of the [[Baltic Sea]] known as the [[Åland War]] in the [[Gulf of Bothnia]] and the [[Gulf of Finland]], among others.<ref>[https://runeberg.org/nfbs/0252.html ''Nordisk familjebok'' (1913), s. 435] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231209123019/https://runeberg.org/nfbs/0252.html |date=9 December 2023 }} (in Swedish)</ref> Following the [[Indian Rebellion of 1857|Indian Rebellion in 1857]], the British government led by [[Henry John Temple, 3rd Viscount Palmerston|Lord Palmerston]] assumed [[direct rule]] over [[British Raj|India]]. Alongside the formal control it exerted over its own colonies, British dominance of much of world trade meant that it effectively [[Informal Empire|controlled the economies]] of regions such as [[East Asia]] and [[Latin America]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Porter |first=Andrew |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oo3F2X8IDeEC |title=The Nineteenth Century, The Oxford History of the British Empire Volume III |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-19-924678-6 |page=8 |ref=refOHBEv3 }}; {{Cite book |last=Marshall |first=P.J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S2EXN8JTwAEC |title=The Cambridge Illustrated History of the British Empire |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-521-00254-7 |pages=156–157 |ref=refMarshall |access-date=29 September 2020 |archive-date=16 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230116094154/https://books.google.com/books?id=S2EXN8JTwAEC |url-status=live }}</ref> Throughout the [[Victorian era]], political attitudes favoured [[free trade]] and [[laissez-faire]] policies. Beginning with the [[Great Reform Act]] in 1832, Parliament gradually [[Reform Acts|widened the voting franchise]], with the [[Representation of the People Act 1884|1884 Reform Act]] championed by [[William Ewart Gladstone|William Gladstone]] granting [[suffrage]] to a majority of males for the first time. The British population increased at a dramatic rate, accompanied by rapid [[Urbanization|urbanisation]], causing significant social and economic stresses.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Tompson |first=Richard S. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H5kcJqmXk2oC&pg=PA63 |title=Great Britain: a reference guide from the Renaissance to the present |publisher=Facts on File |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-8160-4474-0 |location=New York |page=63}}</ref> By the late 19th century, the [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservatives]] under [[Benjamin Disraeli]] and [[Robert Gascoyne-Cecil, 3rd Marquess of Salisbury|Lord Salisbury]] initiated a period of [[Scramble for Africa|imperial expansion in Africa]], maintained a policy of [[splendid isolation]] in Europe, and attempted to contain Russian influence in [[Emirate of Afghanistan|Afghanistan]] and [[Qajar Iran|Persia]], in what came to be known as the [[Great Game]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fromkin |first=David |date=1980 |title=The Great Game in Asia |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/20040512 |journal=Foreign Affairs |volume=58 |issue=4 |pages=936–951 |doi=10.2307/20040512 |jstor=20040512 |issn=0015-7120 |access-date=4 June 2023 |archive-date=12 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210412053528/https://www.jstor.org/stable/20040512 |url-status=live }}</ref> During this time, [[Canada]], [[Australia]] and [[New Zealand]] were granted self-governing [[dominion]] status.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hosch, William L. |title=World War I: People, Politics, and Power |publisher=Britannica Educational Publishing |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-61530-048-8 |series=America at War |location=New York |page=21}}</ref> At the turn of the century, Britain's industrial dominance became challenged by the [[German Empire]] and the [[United States]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Zarembka |first=Paul |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NSrwpggmHigC&pg=PP1 |title=Contradictions: Finance, Greed, and Labor Unequally Paid |date=2013 |publisher=Emerald Group Publishing |isbn=978-1-78190-670-5 |access-date=21 October 2020 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328141231/https://books.google.com/books?id=NSrwpggmHigC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> The [[Edwardian era]] saw [[Liberal welfare reforms|social reform]] and [[Irish Home Rule movement|home rule for Ireland]] become important domestic issues, while the [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party]] emerged from an alliance of [[Trade unions in the United Kingdom|trade unions]] and small socialist groups in 1900, and [[suffragettes]] campaigned for women's right to vote.<ref>Sophia A. Van Wingerden, ''The women's suffrage movement in Britain, 1866–1928'' (1999) ch 1.</ref> === World wars and partition of Ireland === {{Main|History of the United Kingdom during the First World War|Partition of Ireland|Interwar Britain|United Kingdom home front during the Second World War|Military history of the United Kingdom during World War II}} [[File:Wreaths Are Laid at the Cenotaph, London During Remembrance Sunday Service MOD 45152052.jpg|thumb|Wreaths being laid during the [[Remembrance Sunday]] service at the [[The Cenotaph|Cenotaph]] in Whitehall, London]] Britain was one of the principal [[Allies of World War I|Allies]] that defeated the [[Central Powers]] in the [[First World War]] (1914–1918). Alongside their French, Russian and (after 1917) American counterparts,<ref>Turner, John (1988). ''Britain and the First World War''. London: Unwin Hyman. pp. 22–35. {{ISBN|978-0-04-445109-9}}.</ref> British armed forces were engaged across much of the British Empire and in several regions of Europe, particularly on the [[Western Front (World War I)|Western Front]].<ref name="Westwell&Cove" /> The high fatalities of [[trench warfare]] caused the loss of much of a generation of men, with lasting social effects in the nation and a great disruption in the social order. Britain had suffered 2.5&nbsp;million casualties and finished the war with a huge national debt.<ref name="Westwell&Cove">Westwell, I.; Cove, D. (eds) (2002). ''History of World War I, Volume 3''. London: Marshall Cavendish. pp. 698, 705. {{ISBN|978-0-7614-7231-5}}.</ref> The consequences of the war persuaded the government to expand the right to vote in national and local elections to all adult men and most adult women with the [[Representation of the People Act 1918]].<ref name="Westwell&Cove" /> After the war, Britain became a permanent member of the Executive Council of the [[League of Nations]] and received a [[League of Nations mandate|mandate]] over a number of former German and [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] colonies. Under the leadership of [[David Lloyd George]], the British Empire reached its greatest extent, covering a fifth of the world's land surface and a quarter of its population.<ref>Turner, J. (1988). ''Britain and the First World War''. Abingdon: Routledge. p. 41. {{ISBN|978-0-04-445109-9}}.</ref> By the mid-1920s, most of the British population could listen to [[BBC]] radio programmes.<ref>{{Cite web |date=15 June 2020 |title=100 years of radio since Marconi's big breakthrough |url=https://www.ofcom.org.uk/about-ofcom/latest/features-and-news/100-years-of-radio |access-date=17 November 2020 |website=Ofcom |archive-date=4 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200804031332/https://www.ofcom.org.uk/about-ofcom/latest/features-and-news/100-years-of-radio |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=History of the BBC: The origins of BBC Local Radio |url=https://www.bbc.com/historyofthebbc/research/local-radio |access-date=18 September 2022 |website=[[BBC]] |last=Linfoot |first=Matthew |archive-date=20 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220920232207/https://www.bbc.com/historyofthebbc/research/local-radio/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Experimental television broadcasts [[History of television#United Kingdom|began in 1929]] and the [[First day of BBC television|first scheduled BBC Television Service]] commenced in 1936.<ref>{{Cite web |title=History of the BBC: 1920s |url=https://www.bbc.com/historyofthebbc/timelines/1920s |access-date=18 September 2022 |website=[[BBC]] |language=en |archive-date=26 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220926064808/https://www.bbc.com/historyofthebbc/timelines/1920s |url-status=live }}</ref> The rise of [[Irish nationalism]], and disputes within Ireland over the terms of [[Irish Home Rule]], led eventually to the [[Partition of Ireland|partition of the island]] in 1921.<ref>[[SR&O 1921]]/533 of 3 May 1921.</ref> [[The Troubles in Ulster (1920–1922)|A period of conflict in what is now Northern Ireland]] occurred from June 1920 until June 1922. The [[Irish Free State]] became independent, initially with [[Dominion]] status in 1922, and [[Statute of Westminster 1931#Irish Free State|unambiguously independent in 1931]]. Northern Ireland remained part of the United Kingdom.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Anglo-Irish Treaty, 6&nbsp;December 1921 |url=http://cain.ulst.ac.uk/issues/politics/docs/ait1921.htm |access-date=15 May 2006 |website=CAIN Web Service |archive-date=14 May 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120514145108/http://cain.ulst.ac.uk/issues/politics/docs/ait1921.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> The [[1928 Equal Franchise Act]] gave women electoral equality with men in national elections. Strikes in the mid-1920s culminated in the [[General Strike of 1926]]. Britain had still not recovered from the effects of the First World War when the [[Great Depression in the United Kingdom|Great Depression]] (1929–1932) led to considerable unemployment and hardship in the old industrial areas, as well as political and social unrest with rising membership in communist and socialist parties. A [[National Government (1931)|coalition government]] was formed in 1931.<ref>Rubinstein, W.D. (2004). ''Capitalism, Culture, and Decline in Britain, 1750–1990''. Abingdon: Routledge. p. 11. {{ISBN|978-0-415-03719-8}}.</ref> [[File:Spitfire and Hurricane in the Battle of Britain Memorial Flight.jpg|thumb|left|[[Supermarine Spitfire|Spitfire]] and [[Hawker Hurricane|Hurricane]] as flown in the [[Battle of Britain]] during the [[Second World War]]]] Nonetheless, "Britain was a very wealthy country, formidable in arms, ruthless in pursuit of its interests and sitting at the heart of a global production system."<ref name="Edgerton2012">{{Cite book|last=Edgerton|first=David|date=2012|title=Britain's War Machine|url=https://www.penguin.co.uk/books/55731/britain-s-war-machine/9780141026107.html|access-date=10 May 2020|publisher=Penguin|language=en|postscript=none|archive-date=28 April 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200428080558/https://www.penguin.co.uk/books/55731/britain-s-war-machine/9780141026107.html|url-status=live}}; {{Cite web |title=Britain's War Machine: Weapons, Resources and Experts in the Second World War |url=https://reviews.history.ac.uk/review/1114 |access-date=10 May 2020 |website=Reviews in History |language=en |archive-date=12 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200612173058/https://reviews.history.ac.uk/review/1114 |url-status=live }}</ref> After [[Nazi Germany]] invaded Poland in 1939, Britain entered the [[Second World War]]. [[Winston Churchill]] became prime minister and head of a [[Churchill war ministry|coalition government]] in 1940. Despite the defeat of its European allies in the first year, Britain and its Empire continued the war against Germany. Churchill engaged industry, scientists and engineers to support the government and the military in the prosecution of the war effort.<ref name="Edgerton2012" /> In 1940, the [[Royal Air Force]] defeated the German [[Luftwaffe]] in the [[Battle of Britain]]. Urban areas suffered heavy bombing during [[the Blitz]]. The [[Grand Alliance (World War II)|Grand Alliance]] of Britain, the United States and the [[Soviet Union]] formed in 1941, leading the [[Allies of World War II|Allies]] against the [[Axis powers]]. There were eventual hard-fought victories in the [[Battle of the Atlantic]], the [[North Africa campaign]] and the [[Italian campaign (World War II)|Italian campaign]]. British forces played important roles in the [[Normandy landings]] of 1944 and the [[liberation of Europe]]. The British Army led the [[Burma campaign]] against Japan, and the [[British Pacific Fleet]] fought Japan at sea. British scientists [[British contribution to the Manhattan Project|contributed to the Manhattan Project]] whose task was to build an atomic weapon.<ref>{{cite book |author=Septimus H. Paul |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fSZpgW-N628C&pg=PA1 |title=Nuclear Rivals: Anglo-American Atomic Relations, 1941–1952 |publisher=Ohio State U.P. |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-8142-0852-6 |pages=1–5}}</ref> Once built, it was decided, with British consent, to use the weapon against Japan.<ref>{{cite web |title=Minutes of a Meeting of the Combined Policy Committee, Washington, July 4, 1945 |url=https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1945Berlinv01/d619 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170918063918/https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1945Berlinv01/d619 |archive-date=18 September 2017 |access-date=22 November 2017 |publisher=United States Department of State}}</ref> === Post-war 20th century === {{Main|Post-war Britain (1945–1979)|Social history of post-war Britain (1945–1979)}} [[File:British Empire 1921.png|thumb|right|upright=1.4|The [[British Empire]] at its territorial peak in 1921]] The UK was one of the [[Big Three (World War II)|Big Three]] powers (along with the US and the Soviet Union) who met to plan the [[Aftermath of World War II|post-war world]];<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Doenecke |first1=Justus D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xdMF9rX6mX8C&pg=PA62 |title=Debating Franklin D. Roosevelt's foreign policies, 1933–1945 |last2=Stoler |first2=Mark A. |year=2005 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=978-0-8476-9416-7 |access-date=19 March 2016 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328141231/https://books.google.com/books?id=xdMF9rX6mX8C&pg=PA62#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}; {{Cite book |last=Kelly |first=Brian |url=https://www.iup.edu/WorkArea/DownloadAsset.aspx?id=37681 |title=The Four Policemen and Postwar Planning, 1943–1945: The Collision of Realist and Idealist Perspectives |publisher=Indiana University of Pennsylvania |access-date=25 August 2015 |archive-date=22 October 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151022125442/https://www.iup.edu/WorkArea/DownloadAsset.aspx?id=37681 |url-status=live }}</ref> it drafted the [[Declaration by United Nations]] with the United States and became one of the five permanent members of the [[United Nations Security Council]]. It worked closely with the United States to establish the [[IMF]], [[World Bank]] and [[NATO]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=22 July 2010 |title=The "Special Relationship" between Great Britain and the United States Began with FDR |url=http://rooseveltinstitute.org/special-relationship-between-great-britain-and-united-states-began-fdr |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180125021103/http://rooseveltinstitute.org/special-relationship-between-great-britain-and-united-states-began-fdr |archive-date=25 January 2018 |access-date=24 January 2018 |publisher=Roosevelt Institute |quote=and the joint efforts of both powers to create a new post-war strategic and economic order through the drafting of the Atlantic Charter; the establishment of the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank; and the creation of the United Nations. }}; {{Cite press release |title=Remarks by the President Obama and Prime Minister Cameron in Joint Press Conference |date=22 April 2016 |publisher=The White House |url=https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/2016/04/22/remarks-president-obama-and-prime-minister-cameron-joint-press |quote=That's what we built after World War II. The United States and the UK designed a set of institutions – whether it was the United Nations, or the Bretton Woods structure, IMF, World Bank, NATO, across the board. |access-date=24 January 2018 |archive-date=8 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210608110653/https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/2016/04/22/remarks-president-obama-and-prime-minister-cameron-joint-press |url-status=live }}</ref> The war left the UK severely weakened and financially dependent on the [[Marshall Plan]],<ref>{{Cite news |date=28 December 2006 |title=Britain to make its final payment on World War II loan from U.S. |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/12/28/business/worldbusiness/28iht-nazi.4042453.html |access-date=25 August 2011 |archive-date=20 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170820022220/http://www.nytimes.com/2006/12/28/business/worldbusiness/28iht-nazi.4042453.html |url-status=live }}</ref> but it was spared the total war that devastated eastern Europe.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Reynolds |first=David |date=17 April 2011 |title=Britain's War Machine by David Edgerton – review |work=The Guardian |location=London |url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2011/apr/17/britains-war-machine-david-edgerton-review |access-date=10 May 2020 |archive-date=12 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200612130213/https://www.theguardian.com/books/2011/apr/17/britains-war-machine-david-edgerton-review |url-status=live }}</ref> In the immediate post-war years, the [[Labour Government 1945–1951|Labour government]] under [[Clement Attlee]] initiated a radical programme of reforms, which significantly impacted British society [[Post-war consensus|in the following decades]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Francis |first=Martin |title=Ideas and policies under Labour, 1945–1951: Building a new Britain |publisher=Manchester University Press |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-7190-4833-3 |pages=225–233}}</ref> Major industries and public utilities were [[Nationalization|nationalised]], a [[welfare state]] was established, and a comprehensive, publicly funded healthcare system, the [[National Health Service]], was created.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lee |first=Stephen J. |url=https://archive.org/details/aspectsbritishpo00lees |title=Aspects of British political history, 1914–1995 |publisher=Routledge |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-415-13103-2 |location=London; New York |pages=[https://archive.org/details/aspectsbritishpo00lees/page/n183 173]–199 |url-access=limited}}</ref> The rise of nationalism in the colonies coincided with Britain's much-diminished economic position after [[History of the United Kingdom during the First World War|its involvement in the First World War]] and [[Military history of the United Kingdom during World War II|the Second World War]], so that a policy of [[decolonisation]] was unavoidable.<ref name=":9">{{cite book |last=Brown |first=Judith |author-link=Judith M. Brown |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CpSvK3An3hwC |title=The Twentieth Century, The Oxford History of the British Empire Volume IV |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-19-924679-3 |ref=refOHBEv4 |access-date=22 July 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140103114315/http://books.google.com/books?id=CpSvK3An3hwC |archive-date=3 January 2014 |url-status=live}} p. 319</ref><ref name=":10">{{cite book |last=Louis |first=Wm. Roger |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NQnpQNKeKKAC |title=Ends of British Imperialism: The Scramble for Empire, Suez and Decolonization |publisher=I.B. Tauris |year=2006 |isbn=978-1-84511-347-6 |ref=refLouis2006 |access-date=22 July 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170222045215/https://books.google.com/books?id=NQnpQNKeKKAC |archive-date=22 February 2017 |url-status=live}} p. 337</ref><ref name=":11">{{cite book |last=Abernethy |first=David |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ennqNS1EOuMC |title=The Dynamics of Global Dominance, European Overseas Empires 1415–1980 |publisher=Yale University Press |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-300-09314-8 |ref=refAbernethy2000 |access-date=22 July 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111214082531/http://books.google.com/books?id=ennqNS1EOuMC |archive-date=14 December 2011 |url-status=live}} p. 146</ref> Independence was granted to India and Pakistan in 1947.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Larres |first=Klaus |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7D66_9YOof4C&pg=PA118 |title=A companion to Europe since 1945 |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4051-0612-2 |location=Chichester |page=118 |access-date=29 September 2020 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328141350/https://books.google.com/books?id=7D66_9YOof4C&pg=PA118 |url-status=live }}</ref> Over the next three decades, most colonies of the British Empire gained their independence, and many became members of the [[Commonwealth of Nations]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 March 2009 |title=Country List |url=http://www.thecommonwealth.org/Templates/System/YearbookHomePage.asp?NodeID=152099&load=countrylist |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130506071236/http://www.thecommonwealth.org/Templates/System/YearbookHomePage.asp?NodeID=152099&load=countrylist |archive-date=6 May 2013 |access-date=8 March 2015 |publisher=[[Commonwealth Secretariat]]}}</ref> [[File:British Airways Concorde G-BOAC 03.jpg|thumb|left|[[Concorde]] was a [[Supersonic speed|supersonic]] airliner that reduced transatlantic flight time from 8 hours to 3.5 hours.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.britishairways.com/en-gb/information/about-ba/history-and-heritage/celebrating-concorde|access-date=30 March 2023|title=Celebrating Concorde|archive-date=17 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230317103939/https://www.britishairways.com/en-gb/information/about-ba/history-and-heritage/celebrating-concorde}}</ref>]] [[File:HMS Invincible Returns From Falklands War.jpg|thumb|left|HMS Invincible returns after defeating Argentine forces in the [[Falklands War]] in 1982.]] The UK was the third country to develop [[Nuclear weapons and the United Kingdom|a nuclear weapons arsenal]] (with its first atomic bomb test, [[Operation Hurricane]], in 1952), but the post-war limits of Britain's international role were illustrated by the [[Suez Crisis]] of 1956. The [[English-speaking world|international spread of the English language]], the world's [[List of languages by total number of speakers|most widely spoken language]] and [[List of languages by number of native speakers|third-most spoken native language]],<ref name=":8">{{Cite web |date=2023 |title=What are the top 200 most spoken languages? |url=https://www.ethnologue.com/insights/ethnologue200/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230618053740/https://www.ethnologue.com/insights/ethnologue200/ |archive-date=18 June 2023 |access-date=25 August 2023 |website=Ethnologue}}</ref> ensured the continuing international influence of [[British literature|its literature]] and [[Culture of the United Kingdom|culture]].<ref name="culture" /><ref name="sheridan" /> As a result of a shortage of workers in the 1950s, the government encouraged immigration from [[Commonwealth countries]]. In the following decades, the UK became a more multi-ethnic society.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Julios |first=Christina |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=s3RQ4dsFEkoC&pg=PA84 |title=Contemporary British identity: English language, migrants, and public discourse |publisher=Ashgate |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-7546-7158-9 |series=Studies in migration and diaspora |location=Aldershot |page=84 |access-date=29 September 2020 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328141350/https://books.google.com/books?id=s3RQ4dsFEkoC&pg=PA84 |url-status=live }}</ref> Despite rising living standards in the late 1950s and 1960s, the UK's economic performance was less successful than many of its main competitors such as France, [[West Germany]] and Japan. The UK was the first democratic nation to [[Representation of the People Act 1969|lower its voting age to 18]] in 1969.<ref name=":22">{{Cite journal |last1=Loughran |first1=Thomas |last2=Mycock |first2=Andrew |last3=Tonge |first3=Jonathan |date=3 April 2021 |title=A coming of age: how and why the UK became the first democracy to allow votes for 18-year-olds |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/13619462.2021.1890589 |journal=Contemporary British History |language=en |volume=35 |issue=2 |pages=284–313 |doi=10.1080/13619462.2021.1890589 |issn=1361-9462 |s2cid=233956982 |access-date=24 May 2024 |archive-date=4 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230604093606/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/13619462.2021.1890589 |url-status=live }}</ref> In the decades-long process of [[European integration]], the UK was a founding member of the [[Western European Union]], established with the [[London and Paris Conferences]] in 1954. In 1960 the UK was one of the seven founding members of the [[European Free Trade Association]] (EFTA), but in 1973 it left to join the [[European Communities]] (EC). In a [[1975 United Kingdom European Communities membership referendum|1975 referendum]] 67% voted to stay in it.<ref>{{Cite news |title=1975: UK embraces Europe in referendum |work=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/june/6/newsid_2499000/2499297.stm |access-date=8 March 2015 |archive-date=20 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180620044520/http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/june/6/newsid_2499000/2499297.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> When the EC became the [[European Union]] (EU) in 1992, the UK was one of the 12 founding member states. From the late 1960s, Northern Ireland suffered communal and paramilitary violence (sometimes affecting other parts of the UK) conventionally known as [[the Troubles]]. It is usually considered to have ended with the 1998 [[Belfast Agreement|Belfast "Good Friday" Agreement]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Aughey |first=Arthur |url=https://archive.org/details/politicsnorthern00augh |title=The Politics of Northern Ireland: Beyond the Belfast Agreement |publisher=Routledge |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-415-32788-6 |location=London |page=[https://archive.org/details/politicsnorthern00augh/page/n15 7] |url-access=limited}}; "The troubles were over, but the killing continued. Some of the heirs to Ireland's violent traditions refused to give up their inheritance." {{Cite book |last=Holland |first=Jack |url=https://archive.org/details/hopeagainsthisto00holl/page/221 |title=Hope against History: The Course of Conflict in Northern Ireland |publisher=Henry Holt |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-8050-6087-4 |location=New York |page=[https://archive.org/details/hopeagainsthisto00holl/page/221 221]}}; Elliot, Marianne (2007). ''The Long Road to Peace in Northern Ireland: Peace Lectures from the Institute of Irish Studies at Liverpool University.'' University of Liverpool Institute of Irish Studies, Liverpool University Press. p. 2. {{ISBN|978-1-84631-065-2}}.</ref> Following a period of widespread economic slowdown and industrial strife in the 1970s, the [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative]] government of the 1980s led by [[Margaret Thatcher]] initiated a radical policy of [[monetarism]], deregulation, particularly of the financial sector (for example, the [[Big Bang (financial markets)|Big Bang]] in 1986) and labour markets, the sale of state-owned companies (privatisation), and the withdrawal of subsidies to others.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Dorey |first=Peter |title=British politics since 1945 |url=https://archive.org/details/britishpoliticss0000dore |publisher=Blackwell |year=1995 |isbn=978-0-631-19075-2 |series=Making contemporary Britain |location=Oxford |pages=[https://archive.org/details/britishpoliticss0000dore/page/164 164]–223}}</ref> In 1982, [[Argentina]] invaded the British territories of [[South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands|South Georgia]] and the [[Falkland Islands]], leading to the 10-week [[Falklands War]] in which Argentine forces were defeated. The inhabitants of the islands are predominantly descendants of British settlers, and strongly favour British sovereignty, expressed in a [[2013 Falkland Islands sovereignty referendum|2013 referendum]]. From 1984, the UK economy was helped by the inflow of substantial [[North Sea oil]] revenues.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Griffiths, Alan |url=http://vig.pearsoned.co.uk/catalog/uploads/Griffiths_C01.pdf |title=Applied Economics |last2=Wall, Stuart |publisher=Financial Times Press |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-273-70822-3 |edition=11th |location=Harlow |page=6 |access-date=26 December 2010 |archive-date=23 August 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090823124048/http://vig.pearsoned.co.uk/catalog/uploads/Griffiths_C01.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> Another British overseas territory, [[Gibraltar]], ceded to Great Britain in the 1713 Treaty of Utrecht,<ref>{{cite wikisource|title=Peace and Friendship Treaty of Utrecht between Spain and Great Britain}}</ref> is [[Port of Gibraltar|a key military base]]. A [[2002 Gibraltar sovereignty referendum|referendum in 2002]] on shared sovereignty with Spain was rejected by 98.97% of voters in the territory. Around the end of the 20th century, there were major changes to the governance of the UK with the establishment of [[devolution|devolved]] administrations for Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Keating |first=Michael |date=1 January 1998 |title=Reforging the Union: Devolution and Constitutional Change in the United Kingdom |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_publius_winter-1998_28_1/page/217 |journal=Publius: The Journal of Federalism |volume=28 |issue=1 |pages=217–234 |doi=10.1093/oxfordjournals.pubjof.a029948}}</ref> The [[Human Rights Act 1998|statutory incorporation]] followed acceptance of the [[European Convention on Human Rights]]. The UK remained a [[List of modern great powers#United Kingdom|great power]] with global diplomatic and military influence and a leading role in the United Nations and [[NATO]].<ref name="David M. McCourt">{{Cite book |last=McCourt |first=David |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lwpOnwEACAAJ&q=Britain+and+World+Power+Since+1945:+Constructing+a+Nation%27s+Role+in+International+Politics |title=Britain and World Power Since 1945: Constructing a Nation's Role in International Politics |publisher=[[University of Michigan Press]] |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-472-07221-7 |access-date=21 October 2020 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328141741/https://books.google.com/books?id=lwpOnwEACAAJ&q=Britain+and+World+Power+Since+1945:+Constructing+a+Nation%27s+Role+in+International+Politics |url-status=live }}</ref> === 21st century === {{Main|Political history of the United Kingdom (1979–present)|Social history of the United Kingdom (1979–present)}} [[File:Brexit Campaigners out side Parliament November 2016.jpg|thumb|right|Pro-[[Brexit]] campaigners outside Parliament in London in November 2016, after the [[Brexit referendum]]]] The UK broadly supported the United States' approach to the "[[war on terror]]" in the early 21st century.<ref>{{Cite news |last=McSmith |first=Andy |date=5 July 2016 |title=The inside story of how Tony Blair led Britain to war in Iraq |work=Independent |location=London |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/chilcot-report-iraq-war-inquiry-tony-blair-george-bush-us-uk-what-happened-a7119761.html |access-date=17 February 2022 |archive-date=4 July 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160704200931/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/chilcot-report-iraq-war-inquiry-tony-blair-george-bush-us-uk-what-happened-a7119761.html |url-status=live }}</ref> British troops fought in the [[War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)|War in Afghanistan]], but controversy surrounded Britain's [[Iraq War|military deployment in Iraq]], which saw the [[15 February 2003 anti-war protests|largest protest in British history]] in opposition to the government led by [[Tony Blair]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Adams |first=Tim |date=11 February 2023 |title='A beautiful outpouring of rage': did Britain's biggest ever protest change the world? |work=The Observer |location=London |url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2023/feb/11/slugs-iraq-war-london-protest-2003-legacy |access-date=5 June 2023 |archive-date=6 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230406052000/https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2023/feb/11/slugs-iraq-war-london-protest-2003-legacy |url-status=live }}</ref> The [[Great Recession]] severely affected the UK economy.<ref name="Latest UK GDP data">{{cite web |date=20 December 2013 |title=Quarterly National Accounts – National accounts aggregates (ABMI Gross Domestic Product: chained volume measures: Seasonally adjusted £m, constant prices) |url=http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/datasets-and-tables/data-selector.html?cdid=ABMI&dataset=qna&table-id=A2 |publisher=Office for National Statistics |access-date=28 July 2023 |archive-date=29 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150929150429/http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/datasets-and-tables/data-selector.html?cdid=ABMI&dataset=qna&table-id=A2 |url-status=live }}</ref> The [[Cameron–Clegg coalition]] government of 2010 introduced [[United Kingdom government austerity programme|austerity measures]] intended to tackle the substantial public deficits.<ref>{{Cite news |date=7 November 2022 |title=What is austerity and where could 'eye-watering' cuts fall now? |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/63304224 |access-date=28 July 2023 |archive-date=28 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230728105646/https://www.bbc.com/news/63304224 |url-status=live }}</ref> Studies have suggested that policy led to significant social disruption and suffering.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Butler |first=Patrick |date=4 October 2022 |title=Over 330,000 excess deaths in Great Britain linked to austerity, finds study |work=The Guardian |location=London |url=https://www.theguardian.com/business/2022/oct/05/over-330000-excess-deaths-in-great-britain-linked-to-austerity-finds-study |access-date=28 July 2023 |archive-date=28 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230728105650/https://www.theguardian.com/business/2022/oct/05/over-330000-excess-deaths-in-great-britain-linked-to-austerity-finds-study |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Mueller |first=Benjamin |date=25 February 2019 |title=What Is Austerity and How Has It Affected British Society? |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/02/24/world/europe/britain-austerity-may-budget.html |access-date=28 July 2023 |archive-date=15 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200915170233/https://www.nytimes.com/2019/02/24/world/europe/britain-austerity-may-budget.html |url-status=live }}</ref> A referendum on [[Scottish independence]] in 2014 resulted in the Scottish electorate [[2014 Scottish independence referendum|voting by 55.3 to 44.7%]] to remain part of the United Kingdom.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Scottish independence referendum – Results |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/events/scotland-decides/results |access-date=18 February 2022 |website=BBC News |archive-date=18 September 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140918212409/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/events/scotland-decides/results |url-status=live }}</ref> In 2016, 51.9% of voters in the United Kingdom [[2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum|voted to leave the European Union]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=24 June 2016 |title=In stunning decision, Britain votes to leave the E.U. |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/britons-head-to-the-polls-for-historic-vote-on-eu/2016/06/23/0d466fb0-34a7-11e6-ab9d-1da2b0f24f93_story.html |access-date=24 June 2016 |first1=Griff |last1=Witte |first2=Karla |last2=Adam |first3=Dan |last3=Balz |archive-date=30 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221130215030/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/britons-head-to-the-polls-for-historic-vote-on-eu/2016/06/23/0d466fb0-34a7-11e6-ab9d-1da2b0f24f93_story.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The [[Brexit|UK left the EU]] in 2020.<ref>{{Cite news |date=1 January 2021 |title=Brexit: New era for UK as it completes separation from European Union |language=en-GB |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-politics-55502781 |access-date=18 February 2022 |archive-date=14 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210114212309/https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-politics-55502781 |url-status=live }}</ref> On 1 May 2021, the [[EU–UK Trade and Cooperation Agreement]] came into force.<ref name="commission.europa.eu">{{Cite web |title=The EU-UK Trade and Cooperation Agreement |url=https://commission.europa.eu/strategy-and-policy/relations-non-eu-countries/relations-united-kingdom/eu-uk-trade-and-cooperation-agreement_en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230325155905/https://commission.europa.eu/strategy-and-policy/relations-non-eu-countries/relations-united-kingdom/eu-uk-trade-and-cooperation-agreement_en |archive-date=25 March 2023 |access-date=25 March 2023}}</ref> The [[COVID-19 pandemic in the United Kingdom|COVID-19 pandemic]] had a severe [[Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in the United Kingdom|impact on the UK's economy]], caused major [[Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on education in the United Kingdom|disruptions to education]] and had [[Social impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in the United Kingdom|far-reaching impacts on society and politics]] in 2020 and 2021.<ref name="GOVUK">{{cite web |url=https://coronavirus.data.gov.uk/ |title=Coronavirus (COVID-19) in the UK |website=[[gov.uk]] |publisher=Government of the United Kingdom |access-date=15 April 2020 |archive-date=14 April 2020 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20200414184317/https://coronavirus.data.gov.uk/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Coronavirus and the impact on output in the UK economy: April 2020|url=https://www.ons.gov.uk/economy/grossdomesticproductgdp/articles/coronavirusandtheimpactonoutputintheukeconomy/april2020|access-date=2 August 2020|publisher=Government of the United Kingdom|website=ons.gov.uk|archive-date=2 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200802031859/https://www.ons.gov.uk/economy/grossdomesticproductgdp/articles/coronavirusandtheimpactonoutputintheukeconomy/april2020|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Walker|first=Andrew|date=10 June 2020|title=Coronavirus: UK economy could be among worst hit of leading nations, says OECD|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/business-52991913|access-date=2 August 2020|archive-date=18 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200818031423/https://www.bbc.com/news/business-52991913|url-status=live}}</ref> The United Kingdom was the first country in the world to use an approved [[COVID-19 vaccine]], developing [[Oxford–AstraZeneca COVID-19 vaccine|its own vaccine]] through a collaboration between [[Oxford University]] and [[AstraZeneca]], which allowed the UK's vaccine rollout to be among the fastest in the world.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Landmark moment as first NHS patient receives COVID-19 vaccination |url=https://www.england.nhs.uk/2020/12/landmark-moment-as-first-nhs-patient-receives-covid-19-vaccination/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230225194320/https://www.england.nhs.uk/2020/12/landmark-moment-as-first-nhs-patient-receives-covid-19-vaccination/|archive-date=25 February 2023|website=NHS|date=8 December 2020 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Oxford University/AstraZeneca COVID-19 vaccine approved |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/news/oxford-universityastrazeneca-covid-19-vaccine-approved |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230225194442/https://www.gov.uk/government/news/oxford-universityastrazeneca-covid-19-vaccine-approved |archive-date=25 February 2023|website=UK Government}}</ref> == Geography == {{Main|Geography of the United Kingdom|Fauna of Great Britain|Flora of Great Britain and Ireland}} [[File:MODIS - Great Britain and Northern Ireland - 2012-06-04 during heat wave (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright|[[Satellite image]] of the United Kingdom (excluding [[Shetland]])]] The total area of the United Kingdom is approximately {{Convert|244376|km2|sqmi|order=flip}},{{efn|name=ONSArea}}<ref name="ONS Standard Area Measurement"/> with a land area of {{convert|242741|km2|sqmi|order=flip}}.<ref name="ONS Standard Area Measurement"/> The country occupies the major part of the [[British Isles]]<ref>Oxford English Dictionary: "British Isles: a geographical term for the islands comprising Great Britain and Ireland with all their offshore islands including the Isle of Man and the Channel Islands."</ref> archipelago and includes the island of Great Britain, the north-eastern one-sixth of the island of Ireland and [[List of islands of the United Kingdom|some smaller surrounding islands]], meaning it comprises [[England]], [[Scotland]], [[Wales]], and [[Northern Ireland]].<ref name="ONS Geography Guide">{{cite web |author=<!--Not stated--> |date=24 August 2023 |title=A Beginners Guide to UK Geography (2023) |url=https://geoportal.statistics.gov.uk/datasets/a-beginners-guide-to-uk-geography-2023/about |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231209115545/https://geoportal.statistics.gov.uk/datasets/a-beginners-guide-to-uk-geography-2023/about |archive-date=9 December 2023 |access-date=9 December 2023 |website=Open Geography Portal |publisher=Office for National Statistics}}</ref> It lies between the North Atlantic Ocean and the North Sea with the southeast coast coming within {{Convert|35|km|mi|0|order=flip}} of the coast of northern France, from which it is separated by the [[English Channel]].<ref name="factbook">{{Cite web |title=United Kingdom |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/united-kingdom |access-date=23 September 2008 |website=[[The World Factbook]] |publisher=Central Intelligence Agency |archive-date=9 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210109221834/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/united-kingdom |url-status=live }}</ref> The [[Royal Observatory, Greenwich|Royal Greenwich Observatory]] in London was chosen as the defining point of the [[Prime Meridian]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=ROG Learning Team |date=23 August 2002 |title=The Prime Meridian at Greenwich |url=http://www.rmg.co.uk/explore/astronomy-and-time/astronomy-facts/history/the-prime-meridian-at-greenwich |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151107023957/http://www.rmg.co.uk/explore/astronomy-and-time/astronomy-facts/history/the-prime-meridian-at-greenwich |archive-date=7 November 2015 |access-date=11 September 2012 |website=Royal Museums Greenwich }}</ref> at the [[International Meridian Conference]] in 1884.<ref>{{Cite news |date=13 August 2015 |title=Greenwich Royal Observatory: How the Prime Meridian line is actually 100 metres away from where it was believed to be |work=Independent |location=London |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/greenwich-royal-observatory-how-the-prime-meridian-line-is-actually-100-metres-away-from-where-it-10452386.html |access-date=13 December 2018 |archive-date=23 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190323081414/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/greenwich-royal-observatory-how-the-prime-meridian-line-is-actually-100-metres-away-from-where-it-10452386.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The United Kingdom lies between latitudes [[49th parallel north|49°]] and [[61st parallel north|61° N]], and longitudes [[9th meridian west|9° W]] and [[2nd meridian east|2° E]]. Northern Ireland shares a {{Convert|360|km|mi|0|adj=on|order=flip}} land boundary with the Republic of Ireland.<ref name="factbook" /> The coastline of Great Britain is {{Convert|17820|km|mi|0|order=flip}} long,<ref name="UK coastline">{{Cite web |last=Darkes |first=Giles |date=January 2008 |title=How long is the UK coastline? |url=http://www.cartography.org.uk/default.asp?contentID=749 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120522042745/http://www.cartography.org.uk/default.asp?contentID=749 |archive-date=22 May 2012 |access-date=24 January 2015 |publisher=The [[British Cartographic Society]]}}</ref> though measurements can vary greatly due to the [[coastline paradox]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Weiner |first=Sophie |date=3 March 2018 |title=Why it's Impossible to Accurately Measure a Coastline |url=https://www.popularmechanics.com/science/environment/a19068718/why-its-impossible-to-accurately-measure-a-coastline/ |access-date=29 June 2024 |website=Popular Mechanics |language=en-US |archive-date=29 June 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240629025825/https://www.popularmechanics.com/science/environment/a19068718/why-its-impossible-to-accurately-measure-a-coastline/ |url-status=live }}</ref> It is connected to continental Europe by the [[Channel Tunnel]], which at {{Convert|50|km|mi|0|order=flip}} ({{Convert|38|km|mi|0|order=flip}} underwater) is the longest underwater tunnel in the world.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Channel Tunnel |url=http://www.eurotunnel.com/ukcP3Main/ukcCorporate/ukcTunnelInfrastructure/ukcInfrastructure |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101218114514/http://www.eurotunnel.com/ukcP3Main/ukcCorporate/ukcTunnelInfrastructure/ukcInfrastructure |archive-date=18 December 2010 |access-date=8 March 2015 |publisher=Eurotunnel}}</ref> The UK contains four terrestrial ecoregions: [[Celtic broadleaf forests]], [[English Lowlands beech forests]], [[North Atlantic moist mixed forests]], and [[Caledonian Forest|Caledonian conifer forests]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Dinerstein |first1=Eric |last2=Olson |first2=David |last3=Joshi |first3=Anup |last4=Vynne |first4=Carly |last5=Burgess |first5=Neil D. |last6=Wikramanayake |first6=Eric |last7=Hahn |first7=Nathan |last8=Palminteri |first8=Suzanne |last9=Hedao |first9=Prashant |last10=Noss |first10=Reed |last11=Hansen |first11=Matt |last12=Locke |first12=Harvey |last13=Ellis |first13=Erle C |last14=Jones |first14=Benjamin |last15=Barber |first15=Charles Victor |display-authors=1 |year=2017 |title=An Ecoregion-Based Approach to Protecting Half the Terrestrial Realm |journal=BioScience |volume=67 |issue=6 |pages=534–545 |doi=10.1093/biosci/bix014 |issn=0006-3568 |pmc=5451287 |pmid=28608869 |doi-access=free |last16=Hayes |first16=Randy |last17=Kormos |first17=Cyril |last18=Martin |first18=Vance |last19=Crist |first19=Eileen |last20=Sechrest |first20=Wes |last21=Price |first21=Lori |last22=Baillie |first22=Jonathan E. M. |last23=Weeden |first23=Don |last24=Suckling |first24=Kierán |last25=Davis |first25=Crystal |last26=Sizer |first26=Nigel |last27=Moore |first27=Rebecca |last28=Thau |first28=David |last29=Birch |first29=Tanya |last30=Potapov |first30=Peter |last31=Turubanova |first31=Svetlana |last32=Tyukavina |first32=Alexandra |last33=de Souza |first33=Nadia |last34=Pintea |first34=Lilian |last35=Brito |first35=José C. |last36=Llewellyn |first36=Othman A. |last37=Miller |first37=Anthony G. |last38=Patzelt |first38=Annette |last39=Ghazanfar |first39=Shahina A. |last40=Timberlake |first40=Jonathan |last41=Klöser |first41=Heinz |last42=Shennan-Farpón |first42=Yara |last43=Kindt |first43=Roeland |last44=Lillesø |first44=Jens-Peter Barnekow |last45=van Breugel |first45=Paulo |last46=Graudal |first46=Lars |last47=Voge |first47=Maianna |last48=Al-Shammari |first48=Khalaf F. |last49=Saleem |first49=Muhammad}}</ref> The area of woodland in the UK in 2023 is estimated to be 3.25&nbsp;million hectares, which represents 13% of the total land area in the UK.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.forestresearch.gov.uk/tools-and-resources/statistics/statistics-by-topic/woodland-statistics/|title=Woodland Statistics, Key findings|access-date=8 July 2023|archive-date=2 August 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230802030149/https://www.forestresearch.gov.uk/tools-and-resources/statistics/statistics-by-topic/woodland-statistics/|url-status=live}}</ref> === Climate === {{Main|Climate of the United Kingdom|}} {{see|Climate of England|Climate of Scotland|Climate of Northern Ireland|Climate of Wales}} [[File:Puffin (Fratercula arctica) with lesser sand eels (Ammodytes tobianus).jpg|thumb|left|An endangered [[Atlantic Puffin]] with its distinctive orange-striped beak feeding on the British coastline<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.rspb.org.uk/birds-and-wildlife/puffin|title=Puffin Bird Facts|website=RSPB|access-date=6 January 2025}}</ref>]] Most of the United Kingdom has a temperate climate, with generally cool temperatures and plentiful rainfall all year round.<ref name="factbook" /> The temperature varies with the seasons seldom dropping below {{Convert|0|C|lk=on}} or rising above {{Convert|30|C}}.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Hottest day of each year from 1900 |url=https://www.trevorharley.com/hottest-day-of-each-year-from-1900.html |website=trevorharley.com |access-date=23 November 2019 |archive-date=16 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230616173152/https://www.trevorharley.com/hottest-day-of-each-year-from-1900.html |url-status=live }}; {{Cite web |title=Coldest day of each year from 1900 |url=https://www.trevorharley.com/coldest-days-of-each-year-from-1900.html |website=trevorharley.com |access-date=23 November 2019 |archive-date=9 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230709173537/https://www.trevorharley.com/coldest-days-of-each-year-from-1900.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Some parts, away from the coast, of upland England, Wales, Northern Ireland and most of Scotland, experience a [[subpolar oceanic climate]]. Higher elevations in Scotland experience a [[Subarctic climate|continental subarctic climate]] and the mountains experience a [[tundra climate]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=9 August 2016 |title=English: A map of Köppen climate types in the United Kingdom (SVG version) |url=https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:UK_K%C3%B6ppen.svg |access-date=23 November 2019 |archive-date=9 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230709202702/https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:UK_K%C3%B6ppen.svg |url-status=live }}</ref> The prevailing wind is from the southwest and bears frequent spells of mild and wet weather from the Atlantic Ocean,<ref name="factbook" /> although the eastern parts are mostly sheltered from this wind. Since the majority of the rain falls over the western regions, the eastern parts are the driest. Atlantic currents, warmed by the [[Gulf Stream]], bring mild winters, especially in the west where winters are wet and even more so over high ground. Summers are warmest in the southeast of England and coolest in the north. Heavy snowfall can occur in winter and early spring on high ground, and occasionally settles to great depth away from the hills.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Atlantic Ocean Circulation (Gulf Stream) |url=http://ukclimateprojections.metoffice.gov.uk/23152 |access-date=8 March 2015 |website=UK Climate Projections |publisher=Met Office |archive-date=17 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181017162552/http://ukclimateprojections.metoffice.gov.uk/23152 |url-status=live }}</ref> The average total annual sunshine in the United Kingdom is 1,339.7 hours, which is just under 30% of the maximum possible.<ref name="ukaverages">{{cite web|url=http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/climate/uk/averages/19712000/areal/uk.html |title=UK 1971–2000 averages |access-date=4 August 2007 |publisher=Met Office |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090705140124/http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/climate/uk/averages/19712000/areal/uk.html |archive-date=5 July 2009 }}</ref> The hours of sunshine vary from 1,200 to about 1,580 hours per year, and since 1996 the UK has been and still is receiving above the 1,981 to 2,010 average hours of sunshine.<ref name="met off climate series">{{Cite web|url=https://www.metoffice.gov.uk/research/climate/maps-and-data/uk-temperature-rainfall-and-sunshine-time-series|title=UK temperature, rainfall and sunshine time series|website=Met Office|access-date=31 December 2022|archive-date=17 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191017203556/https://www.metoffice.gov.uk/research/climate/maps-and-data/uk-temperature-rainfall-and-sunshine-time-series|url-status=live}}</ref> ==== Climate change ==== {{Main articles|Climate change in the United Kingdom|Climate change in Scotland}} Climate change has a serious impact on the country. A third of food price rise in 2023 is attributed to climate change.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Smeeton |first1=George |title=Families hit by £605 food bill as extreme weather and energy crisis bites |url=https://eciu.net/media/press-releases/2023/families-hit-by-605-food-bill-as-extreme-weather-and-energy-crisis-bites |website=Energy & Climate Intelligence Unit |date=28 November 2023 |access-date=19 July 2024 |archive-date=16 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716124143/https://eciu.net/media/press-releases/2023/families-hit-by-605-food-bill-as-extreme-weather-and-energy-crisis-bites |url-status=live }}</ref> As of 2022, the United Kingdom is ranked 2nd out of 180 countries in the [[Environmental Performance Index]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=2022 EPI Results |url=https://epi.yale.edu/epi-results/2022/component/epi |access-date=25 March 2023 |website=Environmental Performance Index |date=3 June 2020 |archive-date=10 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230610151325/https://epi.yale.edu/epi-results/2022/component/epi |url-status=live }}</ref> A law has been passed that [[Greenhouse gas emissions by the United Kingdom|UK greenhouse gas emissions]] will be [[net zero]] by 2050.<ref>{{Cite web |title=UK net zero target |url=https://www.instituteforgovernment.org.uk/explainers/net-zero-target#:~:text=In%20June%202019%2C%20parliament%20passed,to%201990%20levels%20by%202050.&text=Prior%20to%20this%2C%20the%20UK,1990%20levels%2C%20also%20by%202050. |access-date=20 March 2024 |website=Institute for Government| date=20 April 2020 |archive-date=20 March 2024|archive-url=https://archive.today/20240320042051/https://www.instituteforgovernment.org.uk/article/explainer/uk-net-zero-target |url-status=live}}</ref>{{Update after|2050|01|01|category|reason=Hello from 2024! By the time you're reading this, that law will be a little older than 30 years old. Could you check if the UK ever ended up hitting that net zero GHG target?}} === Topography === [[File:uk topo en.jpg|thumb|right|The United Kingdom's topography]] [[Geography of England|England]] accounts for 53% of the UK, covering {{Convert|130395|km2|sqmi|order=flip|-1}}.<ref>{{Cite news |date=11 February 2010 |title=England&nbsp;– Profile |work=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/country_profiles/7327029.stm |access-date=9 October 2010 |archive-date=15 April 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180415064122/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/country_profiles/7327029.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> Most of the country consists of lowland terrain,<ref name="Atlapedia">{{Cite web |last=Latimer Clarke Corporation Pty Ltd |title=United Kingdom – Atlapedia Online |url=http://www.atlapedia.com/online/countries/unitedki.htm |access-date=26 October 2010 |website=Atlapedia.com |archive-date=21 March 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120321191308/http://www.atlapedia.com/online/countries/unitedki.htm |url-status=live }}{{better source needed|date=July 2023}}</ref> with upland and mountainous terrain northwest of the [[Tees–Exe line]] which roughly divides the UK into lowland and upland areas. Lowland areas include [[Cornwall]], the [[New Forest]], the [[South Downs]] and the [[The Broads|Norfolk Broads]]. Upland areas include the [[Lake District]], the [[Pennines]], the [[Yorkshire Dales]], [[Exmoor]], and [[Dartmoor]]. The main rivers and estuaries are the [[River Thames|Thames]], [[River Severn|Severn]], and the [[Humber]]. England's highest mountain is [[Scafell Pike]], at {{Convert|978|m|ft|0}} in the Lake District; its largest island is the [[Isle of Wight]]. [[Geography of Scotland|Scotland]] accounts for 32% of the UK, covering {{Convert|78772|km2|sqmi|order=flip|-1}}.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Scotland Facts |url=http://www.scotland.org/about/fact-file/index.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080621045248/http://www.scotland.org/about/fact-file/index.html |archive-date=21 June 2008 |access-date=16 July 2008 |publisher=Scotland Online Gateway}}</ref> This includes nearly 800 [[List of islands of Scotland|islands]],<ref>{{Cite news |last=Winter |first=Jon |date=1 June 2000 |title=The complete guide to the ... Scottish Islands |work=Independent |location=London |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/travel/uk/the-complete-guide-to-the--scottish-islands-633851.html |access-date=8 March 2015 |archive-date=2 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402164423/http://www.independent.co.uk/travel/uk/the-complete-guide-to-the--scottish-islands-633851.html |url-status=live }}</ref> notably the [[Hebrides]], [[Orkney]] Islands and [[Shetland]] Islands. Scotland is the most mountainous constituent country of the UK, the [[Scottish Highlands|Highlands]] to the north and west are the more rugged region containing the majority of Scotland's mountainous land, including the [[Cairngorms]], [[Loch Lomond and The Trossachs]] and [[Ben Nevis]] which at {{Convert|1345|m|ft|0}}<ref>{{Cite web |date=18 March 2016 |title=Great Britain's tallest mountain is taller |url=https://www.ordnancesurvey.co.uk/blog/2016/03/britains-tallest-mountain-is-taller |access-date=9 September 2018 |publisher=Ordnance Survey |archive-date=9 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180909000504/https://www.ordnancesurvey.co.uk/blog/2016/03/britains-tallest-mountain-is-taller/ |url-status=live }}</ref> is the highest point in the British Isles.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ben Nevis Weather |url=http://www.bennevisweather.co.uk/index.asp |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120510193022/http://www.bennevisweather.co.uk/index.asp |archive-date=10 May 2012 |access-date=26 October 2008 |publisher=Ben Nevis Weather}}</ref><nowiki> </nowiki>[[Geography of Wales|Wales]] accounts for less than 9% of the UK, covering {{Convert|20779|km2|sqmi|order=flip|-1}}.<ref>{{Cite news |date=9 June 2010 |title=Profile: Wales |work=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/country_profiles/6233450.stm |access-date=7 November 2010 |archive-date=26 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180826085704/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/country_profiles/6233450.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> Wales is mostly mountainous, though [[South Wales]] is less mountainous than [[North Wales|North]] and [[mid Wales]]. The highest mountains in Wales are in [[Snowdonia]] and include [[Snowdon]] ({{Langx|cy|Yr Wyddfa}}) which, at {{Convert|1085|m|ft|0}}, is the highest peak in Wales.<ref name="Atlapedia" /> Wales has over {{Convert|1680|mi|0|abbr=off}} of coastline including the [[Pembrokeshire Coast]].<ref name="UK coastline" /> Several islands lie off the Welsh mainland, the largest of which is [[Anglesey]] (''Ynys Môn''). [[Geography of Ireland|Northern Ireland]], separated from Great Britain by the [[Irish Sea]] and [[North Channel (Great Britain and Ireland)|North Channel]], has an area of {{Convert|14160|km2|sqmi|order=flip|-1}} and is mostly hilly. It includes [[Lough Neagh]] which, at {{Convert|388|km2|sqmi|order=flip|0}}, is the largest lake in the British Isles by area,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Geography of Northern Ireland |url=http://cain.ulst.ac.uk/ni/geog.htm |access-date=22 May 2006 |publisher=University of Ulster |archive-date=18 January 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120118133131/http://cain.ulst.ac.uk/ni/geog.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Lough Erne]] which has over 150 islands and the [[Giant's Causeway]] which is a World Heritage Site. The highest peak in Northern Ireland is [[Slieve Donard]] in the [[Mourne Mountains]] at {{Convert|852|m|ft|0}}.<ref name="Atlapedia" /> == Politics == {{Main|Politics of the United Kingdom|Government of the United Kingdom|Monarchy of the United Kingdom}}{{Further|Constitution of the United Kingdom}}{{multiple image | align = right | total_width = 320 | image1 = King Charles III (July 2023).jpg | alt1 = King Charles III | caption1 = [[Charles III]], <Br/> [[Monarchy of the United Kingdom|king]] since 2022 | image2 = Prime Minister Sir Keir Starmer Official Portrait (cropped).jpg | alt2 = Keir Starmer | caption2 = [[Keir Starmer]], <br/> [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|prime minister]] since 2024 }} [[File:Houses of Parliament in 2022 (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|alt=Large sand-coloured building of Gothic design beside brown river. The building has several large towers, including large clock tower.|The [[Palace of Westminster]] in London is the seat of both houses of the Parliament of the United Kingdom.]] The UK is a [[constitutional monarchy]] and a [[parliamentary democracy]]<ref name=":5">[http://www.royal.gov.uk/MonarchUK/HowtheMonarchyworks/Whatisconstitutionalmonarchy.aspx The British Monarchy, "What is constitutional monarchy?"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190604151257/http://www.royal.gov.uk/MonarchUK/HowtheMonarchyworks/Whatisconstitutionalmonarchy.aspx|date=4 June 2019}}. Retrieved 17 July 2013; [https://web.archive.org/web/20210109221834/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/united-kingdom/ "United Kingdom"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210109221834/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/united-kingdom/|date=9 January 2021}} CIA ''The World Factbook''. Retrieved 17 July 2013</ref> operating under the [[Westminster system]], otherwise known as a "democratic parliamentary monarchy".<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Stepan |first1=Alfred |last2=Linz |first2=Juan J. |last3=Minoves |first3=Juli F. |date=2014 |title=Democratic Parliamentary Monarchies |url=http://muse.jhu.edu/content/crossref/journals/journal_of_democracy/v025/25.2.stepan.html |journal=Journal of Democracy |language=en |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=35–36 |doi=10.1353/jod.2014.0032 |issn=1086-3214 |s2cid=154555066}}</ref> It is a [[Centralized government|centralised]], [[unitary state]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Lewer |first=Andrew |date=5 May 2021 |title=The UK is one of the most centralised advanced democracies – it's time that changed |url=https://www.newstatesman.com/spotlight/2021/05/the-uk-is-one-of-the-most-centralised-advanced-democracies-its-time-that-changed |access-date=3 July 2023 |website=New Statesman |language=en-US |archive-date=3 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230703131907/https://www.newstatesman.com/spotlight/2021/05/the-uk-is-one-of-the-most-centralised-advanced-democracies-its-time-that-changed |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Centralisation Nation: Britain's system of local government and its impact on the national economy |url=https://www.centreforcities.org/?post_type=publication&p=40951 |access-date=3 July 2023 |website=Centre for Cities |language=en-US |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328141833/https://www.centreforcities.org/publication/centralisation-nation/ |url-status=live }}</ref> wherein the [[Parliament of the United Kingdom]] is [[Parliamentary sovereignty in the United Kingdom|sovereign]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Parliamentary Sovereignty |url=https://www.parliament.uk/site-information/glossary/parliamentary-sovereignty |access-date=19 July 2021 |website=[[parliament.uk]] |archive-date=11 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210811195135/https://www.parliament.uk/site-information/glossary/parliamentary-sovereignty/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Parliament is made up of the elected [[House of Commons of the United Kingdom|House of Commons]], the appointed [[House of Lords]] and [[the Crown]] (as personified by [[Monarchy of the United Kingdom|the monarch]]).{{Efn|British [[sovereignty]] derives from the Crown, a [[corporation sole]] occupied by the monarch. It is therefore by and through the monarch that Parliament exercises supreme legislative authority over both the executive and judiciary. Distinguished Professor of [[Public Law]] Maurice Sunkin opined the Crown symbolically occupies "…what in other places would be a core element of a written constitution."<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ibanet.org/Relationship-between-UK-Crown-and-law-in-focus-as-Carolean-era-begins|title=Relationship between UK Crown and law in focus as Carolean era begins|author=Polly Botsford|publisher=International Bar Association|publication-date=22 September 2022|access-date=4 July 2023|archive-date=6 May 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230506211218/https://www.ibanet.org/Relationship-between-UK-Crown-and-law-in-focus-as-Carolean-era-begins|url-status=live}}</ref> As a result of this state of constitutional affairs, the monarch is formally referred to as "[[Sovereign|the Sovereign]]" in legislation.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1978/30/section/10|title=Interpretation Act 1978 (c. 30, s. 10)|publisher=The National Archives|access-date=4 July 2023|archive-date=30 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230730073659/https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1978/30/section/10|url-status=live}}</ref>}}<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=Parliament |url=https://www.parliament.uk/about/how/role |access-date=19 July 2021 |website=[[parliament.uk]]}}</ref> The main business of parliament takes place in the two houses,<ref name=":1" /> but [[royal assent]] is required for a bill to become [[Act of Parliament (UK)|an act of parliament]] (that is, [[statute law]]).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Royal Assent |url=https://www.parliament.uk/about/how/laws/passage-bill/lords/lrds-royal-assent |access-date=19 July 2021 |website=[[parliament.uk]] |archive-date=16 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210716022947/https://www.parliament.uk/about/how/laws/passage-bill/lords/lrds-royal-assent/ |url-status=live }}</ref> As a result of parliamentary sovereignty, the [[Constitution of the United Kingdom|British constitution]] is [[Uncodified constitution|uncodified]], consisting mostly of disparate written sources, including parliamentary [[statute]]s, judge-made [[case law]] and international treaties, together with [[British Constitution#Conventions|constitutional conventions]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Carter, Sarah |title=A Guide To the UK Legal System |url=http://www.llrtwitter.com/features/uk2.htm#UK%20Legal%20System |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120505115306/http://www.llrtwitter.com/features/uk2.htm |archive-date=5 May 2012 |access-date=16 May 2006 |publisher=[[University of Kent]] at Canterbury}}</ref> Nevertheless, the [[Supreme Court of the United Kingdom|Supreme Court]] recognises a number of principles underlying the British constitution, such as [[Parliamentary sovereignty in the United Kingdom|parliamentary sovereignty]], the [[rule of law]], [[democracy]], and upholding [[Internationalism (politics)|international law]].<ref>See ''[[R (Miller) v Prime Minister]]'' [2019] UKSC 41 (Parliamentary sovereignty), ''[[R (UNISON) v Lord Chancellor]]'' [2017] [http://www.bailii.org/uk/cases/UKSC/2017/51.html UKSC 51] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230104095357/https://www.bailii.org/uk/cases/UKSC/2017/51.html|date=4 January 2023}}, [67] ff (rule of law), ''[[R (Animal Defenders International) v Secretary of State for Culture Media and Sport]]'' [2008] UKHL 15, [48] (democracy), ''[[R v Lyons]]'' [2002] [https://www.bailii.org/uk/cases/UKHL/2002/44.html UKHL 44] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230122064021/https://www.bailii.org/uk/cases/UKHL/2002/44.html|date=22 January 2023}}, [27] (international law).</ref> [[Charles III|King Charles III]] is the monarch and [[head of state]] of the UK and of 14 other independent countries. These 15 countries are referred to as "[[Commonwealth realm]]s". The monarch is formally vested with all executive authority as the personal embodiment of the Crown and is "fundamental to the law and working of government in the UK".<ref>{{Cite journal |url=https://kclpure.kcl.ac.uk/portal/en/publications/the-constitutional-role-and-working-of-the-monarchy-in-the-united |title=The Constitutional Role and Working of the Monarchy in the United Kingdom |author=Robert Blackburn |journal=Jahrbuch des Öffentlichen Rechts der Gegenwart |series=Neue Folge |year=2022 |volume=70 |pages=181–201 |editor=O. Lepsius |editor2=A. Nußberger |editor3=C. Schönberger |editor4=C. Waldhoff |editor5=C. Walter |name-list-style=amp |publisher=Mohr Siebeck |doi=10.1628/joer-2022-0009 |s2cid=257830288 |publication-date=2 June 2022 |access-date=19 June 2023 |archive-date=19 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230619174428/https://kclpure.kcl.ac.uk/portal/en/publications/the-constitutional-role-and-working-of-the-monarchy-in-the-united |url-status=live }}</ref> The disposition of such powers however, including those belonging to the [[Royal prerogative in the United Kingdom|royal prerogative]], is generally exercised only on the [[Advice (constitutional law)|advice]] of [[ministers of the Crown]] responsible to Parliament and thence to the electorate. Nevertheless, in the performance of official duties, the monarch has "the right to be consulted, the right to encourage, and the right to warn".<ref>[[Walter Bagehot|Bagehot, Walter]] (1867). ''The English Constitution''. London: Chapman and Hall. p. 103.</ref> In addition, the monarch has a number of [[Reserve power#United Kingdom|reserve powers]] at his disposal to uphold [[responsible government]] and prevent [[constitutional crisis|constitutional crises]].{{Efn|For instance, the monarch alone appoints the prime minister and confers [[Orders, decorations, and medals of the United Kingdom|state honours]] in the personal gift of the Crown. When necessary, the monarch may also refuse a [[dissolution of Parliament|dissolution]] or [[Prorogation in the United Kingdom|prorogation of Parliament]], withhold [[royal assent]] to [[Act of Parliament (UK)|primary legislation]], and prevent illegal use of the [[British Armed Forces]], among other reserve powers.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://researchbriefings.files.parliament.uk/documents/CBP-8885/CBP-8885.pdf|title=The Crown and the Constitution|author=David Torrance|publisher=House of Commons Library|publication-date=11 January 2023|access-date=19 June 2023|pages=22|archive-date=2 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230302033737/https://researchbriefings.files.parliament.uk/documents/CBP-8885/CBP-8885.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>}} For [[General elections in the United Kingdom|general elections]] (elections to the House of Commons), the UK is divided into 650 [[United Kingdom constituencies|constituencies]], each of which is represented by one [[Member of Parliament (United Kingdom)|member of Parliament]] (MP) elected by the [[First-past-the-post voting|first-past-the-post]] system.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |title=General elections |url=https://www.parliament.uk/about/how/elections-and-voting/general |access-date=19 July 2021 |website=[[parliament.uk]]}}</ref> MPs hold office for up to five years and must then stand for re-election if they wish to continue to be an MP.<ref name=":2" /> The [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative Party]], colloquially known as the Tory Party or the Tories, and the [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party]] have been the dominant political parties in the UK since the 1920s, leading to the UK being described as a [[two-party system]]. However, since the 1920s other [[List of political parties in the United Kingdom|political parties]] have won seats in the House of Commons, although never more than the Conservatives or Labour.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Raymond |first=C |date=2016 |title=Why British Politics is Not a Two-Party System |url=https://pureadmin.qub.ac.uk/ws/portalfiles/portal/107735631/The_United_Kingdom_is_Not_a_Two_Party_System.pdf |website=Queen's University Belfast |access-date=3 July 2023 |archive-date=9 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230709172832/https://pureadmin.qub.ac.uk/ws/portalfiles/portal/107735631/The_United_Kingdom_is_Not_a_Two_Party_System.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|The prime minister]] is the [[head of government]] in the UK.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Government, Prime Minister and Cabinet |url=http://direct.gov.uk/en/Governmentcitizensandrights/UKgovernment/Centralgovernmentandthemonarchy/DG_073444 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120921004951/http://www.direct.gov.uk/en/Governmentcitizensandrights/UKgovernment/Centralgovernmentandthemonarchy/DG_073444 |archive-date=21 September 2012 |access-date=9 March 2015 |website=Public services all in one place |publisher=[[Directgov]]}}</ref> Acting under the direction and supervision of a [[Cabinet of the United Kingdom|Cabinet]] of senior ministers selected and led by the prime minister, the [[Government of the United Kingdom|Government]] serves as the principal instrument for public policymaking, administers public services and, through the [[Privy Council of the United Kingdom|Privy Council]], promulgates [[statutory instrument (UK)|statutory instruments]] and tenders advice to the monarch.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.instituteforgovernment.org.uk/explainer/cabinet|title=Cabinet|author=Tim Durrant|date=25 March 2020|publisher=Institute for Government|publication-date=25 March 2020|access-date=4 July 2023|archive-date=4 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230704112925/https://www.instituteforgovernment.org.uk/explainer/cabinet|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.parliament.uk/about/how/role/relations-with-other-institutions/parliament-government/|title=Parliament and Government|publisher=UK Parliament|access-date=4 July 2023|archive-date=4 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230704112925/https://www.parliament.uk/about/how/role/relations-with-other-institutions/parliament-government/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mN6SzMefot4C|title=The Monarchy and the Constitution, Chapter 3 – The Basic Constitutional Rules: Influence and the Prerogative|author=Vernon Bogdanor|year=1995 |publisher=Clarendon Press|isbn=978-0-19-829334-7 |publication-date=1995|access-date=4 July 2023}}</ref> Nearly all prime ministers have served concurrently as [[First Lord of the Treasury]]<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Blick |first1=Andrew |last2=Jones |first2=George |date=1 January 2012 |title=The Institution of Prime Minister – History of government |url=https://history.blog.gov.uk/2012/01/01/the-institution-of-prime-minister |access-date=19 July 2021 |website=[[gov.uk]] |archive-date=21 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210721060401/https://history.blog.gov.uk/2012/01/01/the-institution-of-prime-minister/ |url-status=live }}</ref> and all prime ministers have continuously served as First Lord of the Treasury since 1905,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Brown |first=Jack |title=The Prime Ministers |publisher=[[Hodder & Stoughton]] |year=2020 |isbn=978-1-5293-1214-0 |editor-last=Dale |editor-first=Iain |page=303}}</ref> [[Minister for the Civil Service]] since 1968,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Minister for the Civil Service |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/ministers/minister-for-the-civil-service |access-date=19 July 2021 |website=[[gov.uk]] |archive-date=2 September 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170902233116/https://www.gov.uk/government/ministers/minister-for-the-civil-service |url-status=live }}</ref> and [[Minister for the Union]] since 2019.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Woodcock |first=Andrew |date=26 July 2021 |title=Boris Johnson accused of 'cynical rebranding' after appointing himself 'Minister for the Union' |work=[[The Independent|Independent]] |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/boris-johnson-minister-union-scotland-independence-referendum-snp-a9022356.html |access-date=19 July 2021 |archive-date=27 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190727080405/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/boris-johnson-minister-union-scotland-independence-referendum-snp-a9022356.html |url-status=live }}; {{Cite web |title=Minister for the Union |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/ministers/minister-for-the-union |access-date=19 July 2021 |website=[[gov.uk]] |archive-date=19 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200719053618/https://www.gov.uk/government/ministers/minister-for-the-union |url-status=live }}</ref> While appointed by the monarch, in modern times the prime minister is, by [[Constitutional conventions of the United Kingdom|convention]], an MP, the leader of the political party with the most seats in the House of Commons, and holds office by virtue of their ability to [[Confidence motions in the United Kingdom|command the confidence]] of the House of Commons.<ref>{{Cite web |date=October 2011 |title=The Cabinet Manual |url=https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/60641/cabinet-manual.pdf |access-date=19 July 2021 |website=[[gov.uk]] |page=7 |archive-date=15 April 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180415090557/https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/60641/cabinet-manual.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite web |date=October 2011 |title=The Cabinet Manual |url=https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/60641/cabinet-manual.pdf |access-date=19 July 2021 |website=[[gov.uk]] |page=21 |archive-date=15 April 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180415090557/https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/60641/cabinet-manual.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Norton |first=Philip |title=Governing Britain: Parliament, Ministers and Our Ambiguous Constitution |publisher=[[Manchester University Press]] |year=2020 |isbn=978-1-5261-4545-1 |page=130}}</ref> The Prime Minister as of July 2024 is [[Keir Starmer|Sir Keir Starmer]], leader of the [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party]]. Although not part of the United Kingdom, the three [[Crown Dependencies]] of [[Jersey]], [[Guernsey]] and [[Isle of Man]] and 14 [[British Overseas Territories]] across the globe are subject to the sovereignty of the British Crown. The Crown exercises its responsibilities in relation to the Crown Dependencies mainly through the British government's [[Home Office]] and for the British Overseas Territories principally through the [[Foreign Office]].<ref>{{cite book|last= Palan|first= Rolen|editor-last1= Palan|editor-first1= Rolen|editor-last2= Halperin|editor-first2= Sandra|chapter= The second British Empire and the re-emergence of global finance|chapter-url= https://books.google.com/books?id=76QyCgAAQBAJ&dq=%22British+overseas+territories%22+%22crown+dependencies%22+UK+%22British+crown%22&pg=PA48|title= Legacies of Empire: Imperial Roots of the Contemporary Global Order|year= 2015|publisher= Cambridge University Press|isbn= 978-1-107-10946-9|page= 48|access-date= 13 April 2024|archive-date= 2 October 2024|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20241002212946/https://books.google.com/books?id=76QyCgAAQBAJ&dq=%22British+overseas+territories%22+%22crown+dependencies%22+UK+%22British+crown%22&pg=PA48#v=onepage&q=%22British%20overseas%20territories%22%20%22crown%20dependencies%22%20UK%20%22British%20crown%22&f=false|url-status= live}}</ref> === Administrative divisions === {{Main|Countries of the United Kingdom|Administrative geography of the United Kingdom|List of counties in the United Kingdom}} [[File:United Kingdom labelled map7 vector.svg|thumb|upright=0.8|The four countries of the United Kingdom]] The geographical division of the United Kingdom into [[Counties of the United Kingdom|counties]] or shires began in England and Scotland in the early Middle Ages, and was completed throughout Great Britain and Ireland by the early Modern Period.<ref>Hackwood Frederick William: ''The Story of the Shire, Being the Lore, History and Evolution of English County Institutions'' (1851)</ref> Modern local government by elected councils, partly based on the ancient counties, was established by separate Acts of Parliament: in England and Wales [[Local Government Act 1888|in 1888]], Scotland [[Local Government (Scotland) Act 1889|in 1889]] and Ireland [[Local Government (Ireland) Act 1898|in 1898]], meaning there is no consistent system of administrative or geographic demarcation across the UK,<ref>{{Cite web |last=United Nations Economic and Social Council |author-link=United Nations Economic and Social Council |date=August 2007 |title=Ninth UN Conference on the standardization of Geographical Names |url=http://unstats.un.org/unsd/geoinfo/UNGEGN/docs/9th-uncsgn-docs/report%20of%209th%20uncsgn%20n0750902%20en.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091211213055/http://unstats.un.org/unsd/geoinfo/9th-UNCSGN-Docs/E-CONF-98-48-Add1.pdf |archive-date=11 December 2009 |access-date=21 October 2008 |publisher=UN Statistics Division}}</ref> and [[English law|England and Wales]], [[Scots law|Scotland]], and [[Law of Northern Ireland|Northern Ireland]] each have their own distinct jurisdictions.<ref name=":14">{{Cite book |last1=Dewart |first1=Megan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XW_EtwEACAAJ |title=The Scottish Legal System |date=2019 |publisher=[[Bloomsbury Academic]] |isbn=978-1-5265-0633-7 |location=London |page=57 |quote=The laws and legal institutions of Scotland and of England and Wales were not merged by the Union of 1707. Thus, they remain separate 'law areas', with separate court systems (as does Northern Ireland), and it is necessary to distinguish Scots law and English law (and Northern Irish law). |access-date=4 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230704040048/https://books.google.com/books?id=XW_EtwEACAAJ |archive-date=4 July 2023 |url-status=live}}; {{Cite web |title=The justice system and the constitution |url=https://www.judiciary.uk/about-the-judiciary/our-justice-system/jud-acc-ind/justice-sys-and-constitution/#:~:text=The%20United%20Kingdom%20has%20three,of%20Union%201707%20and%201800. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230521180341/https://www.judiciary.uk/about-the-judiciary/our-justice-system/jud-acc-ind/justice-sys-and-constitution/ |archive-date=21 May 2023 |access-date=13 June 2023 |publisher=Courts and Tribunals Judiciary |quote=The United Kingdom has three separate legal systems; one each for England and Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland. This reflects its historical origins and the fact that both Scotland and Ireland, and later Northern Ireland, retained their own legal systems and traditions under the Acts of Union 1707 and 1800.}}</ref> Until the 19th century there was little change to those arrangements, but there has since been a constant evolution of role and function.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Barlow |first=I.M. |title=Metropolitan Government |url=https://archive.org/details/metropolitangove0000barl |publisher=Routledge |year=1991 |isbn=978-0-415-02099-2 |location=London}}</ref> [[Local government in England]] is complex, with the distribution of functions varying according to local arrangements. The upper-tier [[subdivisions of England]] are the nine [[Regions of England|regions]], used primarily for statistical purposes.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Welcome to the national site of the Government Office Network |url=http://www.gos.gov.uk/national |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090606073647/http://www.gos.gov.uk/national |archive-date=6 June 2009 |access-date=3 July 2008 |publisher=Government Offices}}</ref> One of the regions, [[Greater London Authority|Greater London]], has had a directly elected assembly and mayor since 2000 following popular support for the proposal in a [[1998 Greater London Authority referendum|1998 referendum]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=A short history of London government |url=http://www.london.gov.uk/london-life/city-government/history.jsp |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080421023053/http://www.london.gov.uk/london-life/city-government/history.jsp |archive-date=21 April 2008 |access-date=4 October 2008 |publisher=Greater London Authority}}</ref> [[Local government in Scotland]] is divided into [[subdivisions of Scotland|32 council areas]] with a wide variation in size and population. The cities of [[Glasgow]], Edinburgh, [[Aberdeen]] and [[Dundee]] are separate council areas, as is the [[Politics of the Highland council area|Highland Council]], which includes a third of Scotland's area but only just over 200,000&nbsp;people. Local councils are made up of elected councillors, of whom there are 1,223.<ref name="auto1">{{Cite web |title=STV in Scotland: Local Government Elections 2007 |url=http://www.psa.ac.uk/2007/pps/Bennie.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110222124635/http://www.psa.ac.uk/2007/pps/Bennie.pdf |archive-date=22 February 2011 |access-date=2 August 2008 |publisher=Political Studies Association}}</ref> [[Local government in Wales]] consists of 22 unitary authorities, each led by a leader and cabinet elected by the council itself. These include the cities of Cardiff, Swansea and Newport, which are unitary authorities in their own right.<ref name="unitary">{{Cite web |year=2014 |title=Unitary authorities |url=http://gov.wales/topics/localgovernment/local-authorities/?lang=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150310210146/http://gov.wales/topics/localgovernment/local-authorities/?lang=en |archive-date=10 March 2015 |access-date=9 March 2015 |publisher=Welsh Government}}</ref> Elections are held every four years under the first-past-the-post system.<ref name="unitary" /> [[Local government in Northern Ireland]] since 1973, has been organised into 26 district councils, each elected by single transferable vote. Their powers are limited to services such as waste collection, dog control, and maintaining parks and cemeteries.<ref name="Devenport">{{Cite news |last=Devenport |first=Mark |date=18 November 2005 |title=NI local government set for shake-up |work=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/northern_ireland/4449092.stm |access-date=15 November 2008 |archive-date=12 December 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081212221731/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/northern_ireland/4449092.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> In 2008 the executive agreed on proposals to create 11 new councils to replace the existing system.<ref>{{Cite press release |title=Foster announces the future shape of local government |date=13 March 2008 |publisher=Northern Ireland Executive |url=http://www.northernireland.gov.uk/news/news-doe/news-doe-130308-foster-announces-the.htm |access-date=20 October 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080725002254/http://www.northernireland.gov.uk/news/news-doe/news-doe-130308-foster-announces-the.htm |archive-date=25 July 2008}}</ref> ===Devolution=== {{Main|Devolution in the United Kingdom}} [[File:Council of Nations and Regions (54059219744).jpg|thumb|right|Prime Minister Starmer meets with the first ministers of Scotland, Northern Ireland and Wales during the [[Council of Nations and Regions]] summit.]] In the United Kingdom a process of devolution has transferred various powers from the [[Government of the United Kingdom|UK Government]] to three of the four UK countries - Scotland, Northern Ireland and Wales, as well as to the regions of England, which since 1999 have their own governments and parliaments which control various devolved matters.<ref name=":13">{{Cite web |title=Devolution of powers to Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland |url=https://www.gov.uk/devolution-of-powers-to-scotland-wales-and-northern-ireland#devolved-administrations |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130718065448/https://www.gov.uk/devolution-of-powers-to-scotland-wales-and-northern-ireland#devolved-administrations |archive-date=18 July 2013 |access-date=17 April 2013 |publisher=United Kingdom Government |quote=In a similar way to how the government is formed from members from the two Houses of Parliament, members of the devolved legislatures nominate ministers from among themselves to comprise executives, known as the devolved administrations...}}; {{Cite web |title=Country Overviews: United Kingdom |url=http://www.transport-research.info/web/countryprofiles/uk.cfm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100404062853/http://www.transport-research.info/web/countryprofiles/uk.cfm |archive-date=4 April 2010 |access-date=28 March 2010 |url-status=usurped |publisher=Transport Research Knowledge Centre}}</ref> These powers vary and have been moved to the [[Scottish Government]], the [[Welsh Government]], the [[Northern Ireland Executive]] and in England, the [[Greater London Authority]], [[Combined authorities and combined county authorities|Combined Authorities]] and [[Combined authorities and combined county authorities|Combined County Authorities]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Le Sueur |first1=Andrew |last2=Sunkin |first2=Maurice |last3=Murkens |first3=Jo Eric Khushal |title=Public Law: Text, Cases, and Materials |year=2023 |edition=5th |isbn=978-0-19-287061-2 |publisher=Oxford University Press |page=147 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6sLDEAAAQBAJ&dq=Le+sueur+Public+Law%C2%A0fifth+edition&pg=PR3 |access-date=13 April 2024 |archive-date=2 October 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241002213048/https://books.google.com/books?id=6sLDEAAAQBAJ&dq=Le+sueur+Public+Law%C2%A0fifth+edition&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q=Le%20sueur%20Public%20Law%C2%A0fifth%20edition&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> The UK has an [[uncodified constitution]] and constitutional matters are not among the powers that have been devolved. Under the doctrine of [[Parliamentary sovereignty in the United Kingdom|parliamentary sovereignty]], the UK Parliament could, in theory, therefore, abolish the Scottish Parliament, Senedd or Northern Ireland Assembly.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Burrows |first=N. |year=1999 |title=Unfinished Business: The Scotland Act 1998 |journal=The Modern Law Review |volume=62 |issue=2 |pages=241–260 [p. 249] |doi=10.1111/1468-2230.00203 |quote=The UK Parliament is sovereign and the Scottish Parliament is subordinate. The White Paper had indicated that this was to be the approach taken in the legislation. The Scottish Parliament is not to be seen as a reflection of the settled will of the people of Scotland or of popular sovereignty but as a reflection of its subordination to a higher legal authority. Following the logic of this argument, the power of the Scottish Parliament to legislate can be withdrawn or overridden...}}; {{Cite journal |last=Elliot |first=M. |year=2004 |title=United Kingdom: Parliamentary sovereignty under pressure |journal=International Journal of Constitutional Law |volume=2 |issue=3 |pages=545–627, 553–554 |doi=10.1093/icon/2.3.545 |quote=Notwithstanding substantial differences among the schemes, an important common factor is that the UK Parliament has not renounced legislative sovereignty in relation to the three nations concerned. For example, the Scottish Parliament is empowered to enact primary legislation on all matters, save those in relation to which competence is explicitly denied&nbsp;... but this power to legislate on what may be termed "devolved matters" is concurrent with the Westminster Parliament's general power to legislate for Scotland on any matter at all, including devolved matters&nbsp;... In theory, therefore, Westminster may legislate on Scottish devolved matters whenever it chooses... |doi-access=free}}</ref> Though in the [[Scotland Act 2016]] and the [[Wales Act 2017]] it states that the Scottish Government and the Welsh Government "are a permanent part of the United Kingdom's constitutional arrangements".<ref>{{cite web |title=Scotland Act 2016 |url=https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2016/11/part/1/crossheading/the-scottish-parliament-and-the-scottish-government#:~:text=(1)The%20Scottish%20Parliament%20and,the%20United%20Kingdom's%20constitutional%20arrangements. |website=Gov.uk |access-date=28 June 2024 |archive-date=28 June 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240628211304/https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2016/11/part/1/crossheading/the-scottish-parliament-and-the-scottish-government#:~:text=(1)The%20Scottish%20Parliament%20and,the%20United%20Kingdom's%20constitutional%20arrangements. |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Wales Act 2017 |url=https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2017/4/section/1/enacted |access-date=13 July 2024 |archive-date=2 October 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241002212916/https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2017/4/section/1/enacted |url-status=live }}</ref> In practice, it would be politically difficult for the UK Parliament to abolish devolution to the Scottish Parliament and the Senedd, because these institutions were created by referenda.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Gamble |first=A. |year=2006 |title=The Constitutional Revolution in the United Kingdom |journal=Publius |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=19–35 [p. 29] |doi=10.1093/publius/pjj011 |quote=The British parliament has the power to abolish the Scottish parliament and the Welsh assembly by a simple majority vote in both houses, but since both were sanctioned by referenda, it would be politically difficult to abolish them without the sanction of a further vote by the people. In this way, several of the constitutional measures introduced by the Blair government appear to be entrenched and not subject to a simple exercise of parliamentary sovereignty at Westminster.}}</ref> The political constraints placed upon the UK Parliament's power to interfere with devolution in Northern Ireland are greater still, because devolution in Northern Ireland rests upon an international agreement with the [[Government of Ireland]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Meehan |first=E. |year=1999 |title=The Belfast Agreement – Its Distinctiveness and Points of Cross-Fertilization in the UK's Devolution Programme |journal=Parliamentary Affairs |volume=52 |issue=1 |pages=19–31 [p. 23] |doi=10.1093/pa/52.1.19 |quote=[T]he distinctive involvement of two governments in the Northern Irish problem means that Northern Ireland's new arrangements rest upon an intergovernmental agreement. If this can be equated with a treaty, it could be argued that the forthcoming distribution of power between Westminster and Belfast has similarities with divisions specified in the written constitutions of federal states...Although the Agreement makes the general proviso that Westminster's 'powers to make legislation for Northern Ireland' remains 'unaffected', without an explicit categorical reference to reserved matters, it may be more difficult than in Scotland or Wales for devolved powers to be repatriated. The retraction of devolved powers would not merely entail consultation in Northern Ireland backed implicitly by the absolute power of parliamentary sovereignty but also the renegotiation of an intergovernmental agreement.|doi-access=free }}</ref> The UK Parliament restricts the three devolved parliaments' legislative powers in economic policy matters through an act passed in 2020.<ref name=UKIM /> ==== England ==== Unlike Scotland, Northern Ireland and Wales, England does not have a separate devolved government or national parliament,<ref>{{cite web |title=English devolution |url=https://www.instituteforgovernment.org.uk/explainer/english-devolution#:~:text=After%201997%20Labour%20governments%20devolved,assembly%20were%20created%20in%202000. |publisher=Institute for Government |access-date=30 August 2024 |date=21 June 2024 |archive-date=30 August 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240830150949/https://www.instituteforgovernment.org.uk/explainer/english-devolution#:~:text=After%201997%20Labour%20governments%20devolved,assembly%20were%20created%20in%202000. |url-status=live }}</ref> rather a process of devolution of powers from the central government to local authorities has taken place, first in 1998.<ref>{{cite web |title= Devolution explained |url= https://www.local.gov.uk/topics/devolution/devolution-hub/devolution-explained |publisher= Local Government Association |access-date= 30 August 2024 |archive-date= 30 August 2024 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20240830152450/https://www.local.gov.uk/topics/devolution/devolution-hub/devolution-explained |url-status= live }}</ref> The [[Greater London Authority]] (GLA) was set up following a [[1998 Greater London Authority referendum|referendum in 1998]]. Colloquially known as City Hall, it is the devolved regional government body for Greater London. It consists of two political branches: an [[Mayor of London|Executive Mayor]] and the [[London Assembly]], which serves as a check and balance on the Mayor. A [[Combined authorities and combined county authorities|Combined Authority]] (CA) is a type of local government institution introduced in England outside Greater London by the [[Local Democracy, Economic Development and Construction Act 2009]]. CAs allow a group of local authorities to pool appropriate responsibility and receive certain devolved functions from central government in order to deliver transport and economic policy more effectively over a wider area.<ref>{{Cite web |date= 6 March 2023 |title= English devolution |url= https://www.instituteforgovernment.org.uk/explainer/english-devolution |access-date= 4 February 2024 |publisher= Institute for Government |archive-date= 2 October 2024 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20241002212917/https://www.instituteforgovernment.org.uk/explainer/english-devolution |url-status= live }}</ref> A [[Combined authorities and combined county authorities|Combined County Authority]] (CCA) is a similar type of local-government institution introduced in England outside Greater London by the [[Levelling-up and Regeneration Act 2023]], but may only be formed by upper-tier authorities: [[county council]]s and [[Unitary authority|unitary authorities]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=6 April 2023 |title=Combined County Authorities – key differences to Combined Authorities |url=https://www.localgovernmentlawyer.co.uk/governance/314-governance-a-risk-articles/53464-combined-county-authorities-key-differences-to-combined-authorities |access-date=4 February 2024 |website=Local Government Lawyer |archive-date=4 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240204170903/https://www.localgovernmentlawyer.co.uk/governance/314-governance-a-risk-articles/53464-combined-county-authorities-key-differences-to-combined-authorities |url-status=live }}</ref> ==== Scotland ==== [[File:First Minister meets Prime Minister (53840421342).jpg|thumb|Prime Minister Keir Starmer meets with [[First Minister of Scotland]] [[John Swinney]], the head of the [[Scottish Government]], at [[Bute House]], Edinburgh.]] Since 1999, Scotland has had a devolved national government and parliament with wide-ranging powers over any matter that has not been specifically [[Reserved and excepted matters|reserved]] to the UK Parliament.<ref>{{cite web |title=Devolved and Reserved Powers |url=https://www.parliament.scot/about/how-parliament-works/devolved-and-reserved-powers |website=parliament.scot |access-date=11 April 2024 |language=en |archive-date=20 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230920053732/https://www.parliament.scot/about/how-parliament-works/devolved-and-reserved-powers |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=8 April 1999 |title=Scotland's Parliament&nbsp;– powers and structures |work=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/events/scotland_99/the_scottish_parliament/310036.stm |access-date=21 October 2008 |archive-date=18 February 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070218234816/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/events/scotland_99/the_scottish_parliament/310036.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> Their power over economic issues is significantly constrained by an [[United Kingdom Internal Market Act 2020|act of the UK parliament]] passed in 2020.{{refn|name=UKIM|<ref name="Keating21">{{Cite journal |last=Keating |first=Michael |date=2 February 2021 |title=Taking back control? Brexit and the territorial constitution of the United Kingdom |journal=[[Journal of European Public Policy]] |location=Abingdon |publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]] |volume=28 |issue=4 |pages=6–7 |doi=10.1080/13501763.2021.1876156 |quote=The UK Internal Market Act gives ministers sweeping powers to enforce mutual recognition and non-discrimination across the four jurisdictions. Existing differences and some social and health matters are exempted but these are much less extensive than the exemptions permitted under the EU Internal Market provisions. Only after an amendment in the House of Lords, the Bill was amended to provide a weak and non-binding consent mechanism for amendments (equivalent to the Sewel Convention) to the list of exemptions. The result is that, while the devolved governments retain regulatory competences, these are undermined by the fact that goods and services originating in, or imported into, England can be marketed anywhere. |hdl-access=free |hdl=1814/70296 |s2cid=234066376}}</ref><ref name="KenMcEw21">{{Cite journal |last1=Kenny |first1=Michael |author-link=Michael Kenny (political scientist) |last2=McEwen |first2=Nicola |author-link2=Nicola McEwen |date=1 March 2021 |title=Intergovernmental Relations and the Crisis of the Union |journal=Political Insight |publisher=[[SAGE Publishing]] |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=12–15 |doi=10.1177/20419058211000996 |quote=That phase of joint working was significantly damaged by the UK Internal Market Act, pushed through by the Johnson government in December 2020...the Act diminishes the authority of the devolved institutions, and was vehemently opposed by them. |doi-access=free |s2cid=232050477}}</ref><ref name="WolffeDevol">{{Cite journal |last=Wolffe |first=W James |author-link=James Wolffe |date=7 April 2021 |title=Devolution and the Statute Book |url=https://academic.oup.com/slr/advance-article/doi/10.1093/slr/hmab003/6213886 |journal=[[Statute Law Review]] |location=Oxford |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |doi=10.1093/slr/hmab003 |access-date=18 April 2021 |quote=the Internal Market Bill—a Bill that contains provisions which, if enacted, would significantly constrain, both legally and as a matter of practicality, the exercise by the devolved legislatures of their legislative competence; provisions that would be significantly more restrictive of the powers of the Scottish Parliament than either EU law or Articles 4 and 6 of the Acts of the Union...The UK Parliament passed the European Union (Withdrawal Agreement) Act 2020 and the Internal Market Act 2020 notwithstanding that, in each case, all three of the devolved legislatures had withheld consent. |archive-date=21 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210421145355/https://academic.oup.com/slr/advance-article/doi/10.1093/slr/hmab003/6213886 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Wincott21">{{Cite journal |last1=Wincott |first1=Daniel |author-link=Daniel Wincott |last2=Murray |first2=C. R. G. |last3=Davies |first3=Gregory |date=17 May 2021 |title=The Anglo-British imaginary and the rebuilding of the UK's territorial constitution after Brexit: unitary state or union state? |journal=Territory, Politics, Governance |location=Abingdon/Brighton |publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]]; [[Regional Studies Association]] |volume=10 |issue=5 |pages=696–713 |doi=10.1080/21622671.2021.1921613 |quote=Taken as a whole, the Internal Market Act imposes greater restrictions upon the competences of the devolved institutions than the provisions of the EU Single Market which it replaced, in spite of pledges to use common frameworks to address these issues. [[David Hope, Baron Hope of Craighead|Lord Hope]], responsible for many of the leading judgments relating to the first two decades of devolution, regarded the legislation's terms as deliberately confrontational: 'this Parliament can do what it likes, but a different approach is essential if the union is to hold together'. |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="DouganMcEwen20">{{Cite report |url=https://www.centreonconstitutionalchange.ac.uk/publications/uk-and-internal-market-devolution-and-union |title=UK and the Internal Market, Devolution and the Union |last1=Dougan |first1=Michael |last2=Hayward |first2=Katy |date=2020 |publisher=[[University of Edinburgh]]; [[University of Aberdeen]] |pages=2–3 |last3=Hunt |first3=Jo |last4=McEwen |first4=Nicola |last5=McHarg |first5=Aileen |last6=Wincott |first6=Daniel |author-link=Michael Dougan |author-link2=Katy Hayward |access-date=16 October 2020 |author-link4=Nicola McEwen |author-link6=Daniel Wincott |department=Centre on Constitutional Change |archive-date=18 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201018185830/https://www.centreonconstitutionalchange.ac.uk/publications/uk-and-internal-market-devolution-and-union |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Dougan20Brief">{{Cite report |url=https://www.liverpool.ac.uk/media/livacuk/law/2-research/eull/UKIM,Briefing,Paper,-,Prof,Michael,Dougan,15,September,2020.pdf |title=Briefing Paper. United Kingdom Internal Market Bill: Implications for Devolution |last=Dougan |first=Michael |date=2020 |publisher=[[University of Liverpool]] |location=Liverpool |pages=4–5 |author-link=Michael Dougan |access-date=15 October 2020 |archive-date=26 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201026161836/https://www.liverpool.ac.uk/media/livacuk/law/2-research/eull/UKIM,Briefing,Paper,-,Prof,Michael,Dougan,15,September,2020.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=DouHu22>{{cite journal|last1=Dougan|first1=Michael|last2=Hunt|first2=Jo|last3=McEwen|first3=Nicola|last4=McHarg|first4=Aileen|author-link1=Michael Dougan|author-link3=Nicola McEwen|title=Sleeping with an Elephant: Devolution and the United Kingdom Internal Market Act 2020|journal=[[Law Quarterly Review]]|date=2022|url=https://dro.dur.ac.uk/35167/|location=London|publisher=[[Sweet & Maxwell]]|ssrn=4018581|via=[[Durham University|Durham Research Online]]|access-date=4 March 2022|quote=The Act has restrictive – and potentially damaging – consequences for the regulatory capacity of the devolved legislatures...This was not the first time since the Brexit referendum that the Convention had been set aside, but it was especially notable given that the primary purpose of the legislation was to constrain the capacity of the devolved institutions to use their regulatory autonomy...in practice, it constrains the ability of the devolved institutions to make effective regulatory choices for their territories in ways that do not apply to the choices made by the UK government and parliament for the English market.|issn=0023-933X|archive-date=2 August 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220802185022/https://dro.dur.ac.uk/35167/|url-status=live}}</ref>}} The [[Scottish Government]] is a [[Scottish National Party]] minority government,<ref>{{cite web |title=Humza Yousaf's precarious position puts the SNP – and Scotland – at a crossroads |url=https://www.instituteforgovernment.org.uk/comment/humza-yousaf-snp-scotland-crossroads |website=Institute for Government |access-date=26 April 2024 |language=en |date=26 April 2024 |archive-date=26 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240426221203/https://www.instituteforgovernment.org.uk/comment/humza-yousaf-snp-scotland-crossroads |url-status=live }}</ref> led by [[First Minister of Scotland|First Minister]] [[John Swinney]], leader of the Scottish National Party. In 2014, the [[2014 Scottish independence referendum|Scottish independence referendum]] was held, with 55.3% voting against independence from the United Kingdom and 44.7% voting in favour, resulting in Scotland staying within the United Kingdom. [[Local government in Scotland]] is divided into [[subdivisions of Scotland|32 council areas]] with a wide variation in size and population. Local councils are made up of elected councillors, of whom there are 1,223.<ref name="auto1"/> The Scottish Parliament is separate from the Scottish Government. It is made up of 129 elected [[Members of the Scottish Parliament]] (MSPs). It is the law-making body of Scotland, and thus it scrutinises the work of the incumbent Scottish Government and considers any piece of proposed legislation through parliamentary debates, committees and parliamentary questions.<ref>{{cite web |title=What the Scottish Government does |url=https://www.gov.scot/about/what-the-government-does/ |website=gov.scot |access-date=11 April 2024 |language=en |archive-date=8 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190708045359/https://www.gov.scot/about/what-the-government-does/ |url-status=live }}</ref> ==== Wales ==== Since 1999, Wales has had a devolved national government and legislature, known as the Senedd. Elections to the Senedd use the [[additional member system]]. It has more limited powers than those devolved to Scotland.<ref>{{Cite news |date=9 April 1999 |title=Structure and powers of the Assembly |work=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/events/wales_99/the_welsh_assembly/309033.stm |access-date=21 October 2008 |archive-date=7 February 2004 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040207162926/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/events/wales_99/the_welsh_assembly/309033.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> The Senedd can legislate on any matter not specifically reserved to the UK Parliament by [[Acts of Senedd Cymru]]. The [[Welsh Government]] is [[Welsh Labour|Labour]], led by [[First Minister of Wales|First Minister]] [[Eluned Morgan]], who has been the First Minister since 2024. [[Local government in Wales]] consists of 22 unitary authorities, each led by a leader and cabinet elected by the council itself. ==== Northern Ireland ==== The devolved form of government in Northern Ireland is based on the 1998 [[Good Friday Agreement]], which brought to an end a 30-year period of [[Unionism in Ireland|unionist]]-[[Irish nationalism|nationalist]] communal conflict known as [[The Troubles]]. The Agreement was [[1998 Northern Ireland Good Friday Agreement referendum|confirmed by referendum]] and implemented later that year. It established [[power sharing]] arrangements for a devolved government and legislature, referred to as the Executive and Assembly respectively.<ref>{{cite web|title= Good Friday Agreement: What is it?|url= https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-northern-ireland-61968177|website= BBC News|date= 3 April 2023|access-date= 11 April 2024|archive-date= 15 May 2024|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20240515131233/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-northern-ireland-61968177|url-status= live}}</ref> Elections to the Assembly use the [[single transferable vote]] system. The Executive and Assembly have powers similar to those devolved to Scotland.<ref>{{Cite web |date=8 May 2019 |title=Devolution of powers to Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland |url=https://www.gov.uk/guidance/devolution-of-powers-to-scotland-wales-and-northern-ireland |access-date=11 June 2024 |website=GOV.UK |language=en |archive-date=7 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230307093336/https://www.gov.uk/guidance/devolution-of-powers-to-scotland-wales-and-northern-ireland |url-status=live }}</ref> The Executive is led by a [[diarchy]] representing [[Designated Unionist|unionist]] and [[Designated Nationalist|nationalist]] members of the Assembly.<ref name="northernireland1">{{Cite web |date=25 September 2015 |title=Your Executive |url=https://www.northernireland.gov.uk/topics/your-executive |publisher=Northern Ireland Executive |access-date=14 August 2016 |archive-date=21 August 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160821135048/https://www.northernireland.gov.uk/topics/your-executive |url-status=live }}</ref> The [[First Minister and deputy First Minister of Northern Ireland]] are the joint heads of government of Northern Ireland.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Stormont: Why were NI leaders given unequal job titles? |work=BBC News |date=15 May 2022 |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-northern-ireland-61393736 | access-date=2 February 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240202190001/https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-northern-ireland-61393736 |archive-date=2 February 2024}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Northern Ireland Executive: Ministerial Code |date=28 September 2015 |url=https://www.northernireland.gov.uk/topics/your-executive/ministerial-code | access-date=2 February 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240202191115/https://www.northernireland.gov.uk/topics/your-executive/ministerial-code |archive-date=2 February 2024}}</ref> [[Local government in Northern Ireland]] since 2015 has been divided between 11 councils with limited responsibilities.<ref name="Devenport" /> === Foreign relations === {{Main|Foreign relations of the United Kingdom}} [[File:Prime Minister Keir Starmer meets Ireland Taoiseach Simon Harris (53977741364).jpg|thumb|right|Prime Minister Starmer with Irish [[Taoiseach]] [[Simon Harris]]]] The UK is a [[Big Five (United Nations)|permanent member of]] the [[United Nations Security Council]], a member of [[NATO]], [[AUKUS]], the [[Commonwealth of Nations]], the [[G7 finance ministers]], the [[G7 forum]], the [[G-20 major economies|G20]], the [[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development|OECD]], the [[World Trade Organization|WTO]], the [[Council of Europe]] and the [[Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe|OSCE]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=May |first=Theresa |author-link=Theresa May |date=29 March 2017 |title=Prime Minister's letter to Donald Tusk triggering Article 50 |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/prime-ministers-letter-to-donald-tusk-triggering-article-50/prime-ministers-letter-to-donald-tusk-triggering-article-50 |website= |via=Gov.uk |access-date=19 June 2017 |archive-date=5 June 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170605184239/https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/prime-ministers-letter-to-donald-tusk-triggering-article-50/prime-ministers-letter-to-donald-tusk-triggering-article-50 |url-status=live }}</ref> The UK has the [[British Council]] which is a British organisation in over 100 countries specialising in international cultural and educational opportunities. The UK is said to have a "[[Special Relationship]]" with the United States and a close partnership with France – the "[[Entente cordiale]]" – and shares nuclear weapons technology with both countries;<ref>{{Cite web |last=Swaine |first=Jon |date=13 January 2009 |title=Barack Obama presidency will strengthen special relationship, says Gordon Brown |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/barackobama/4226246/Barack-Obama-presidency-will-strengthen-special-relationship-says-Gordon-Brown.html |url-access=subscription |access-date=30 May 2011 |website=[[The Daily Telegraph|The Telegraph]] |publication-place=[[London]] |archive-date=4 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200704192159/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/barackobama/4226246/Barack-Obama-presidency-will-strengthen-special-relationship-says-Gordon-Brown.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Kirchner |first1=Emil Joseph |title=Global Security Governance: Competing Perceptions of Security in the 21st century |url=https://archive.org/details/globalsecuritygo0000unse |last2=Sperling |first2=James |publisher=[[Routledge]] |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-415-39162-7 |edition=illustrated |location=London |page=[https://archive.org/details/globalsecuritygo0000unse/page/100 100] |language=en}}</ref> the [[Anglo-Portuguese Alliance]] is considered to be the oldest binding military alliance in the world. The UK is also closely linked with the Republic of Ireland; the two countries share a [[Common Travel Area]] and co-operate through the [[British-Irish Intergovernmental Conference]] and the [[British-Irish Council]]. Britain's global presence and influence is further amplified through its trading relations, foreign investments, [[official development assistance]] and military engagements.<ref>{{Cite web |last=The Committee Office, House of Commons |date=19 February 2009 |title=DFID's expenditure on development assistance |url=http://www.parliament.the-stationery-office.co.uk/pa/cm200809/cmselect/cmintdev/220/22007.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130112222226/http://www.parliament.the-stationery-office.co.uk/pa/cm200809/cmselect/cmintdev/220/22007.htm |archive-date=12 January 2013 |access-date=28 April 2013 |publisher=UK Parliament}}</ref> Canada, Australia and New Zealand, all of which are former colonies of the British Empire which share King Charles as their head of state, are the most favourably viewed countries in the world by [[British people]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=4 July 2017 |title=Sharp Drop in World Views of US, UK: Global Poll – GlobeScan |url=https://globescan.com/sharp-drop-in-world-views-of-us-uk-global-poll/ |access-date=5 December 2018 |archive-date=3 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190103213529/https://globescan.com/sharp-drop-in-world-views-of-us-uk-global-poll/ |url-status=live }}; {{Cite web |title=From the Outside In: G20 views of the UK before and after the EU referendum' |url=https://www.britishcouncil.org/sites/default/files/from_the_outside_in.pdf |publisher=British Council |access-date=5 December 2018 |archive-date=9 November 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171109225947/https://www.britishcouncil.org/sites/default/files/from_the_outside_in.pdf |url-status=live }}; {{Cite web |date=26 October 2020 |title=New Zealand is Britons' favourite country |url=https://yougov.co.uk/topics/travel/articles-reports/2020/10/26/new-zealand-britons-favourite-country |access-date=8 November 2021 |archive-date=5 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211205213020/https://yougov.co.uk/topics/travel/articles-reports/2020/10/26/new-zealand-britons-favourite-country |url-status=live }}</ref> === Law and criminal justice === <!-- Copyedit done to here --> {{Main|Law of the United Kingdom|Censorship in the United Kingdom|Crime in the United Kingdom}} {{further|English law|Northern Ireland law|Scots law}} [[File:Middlesex Guildhall (cropped).jpg|thumb|The [[Supreme Court of the United Kingdom|Supreme Court]] and [[Judicial Committee of the Privy Council|JCPC]] are housed in [[Middlesex Guildhall]] in [[Parliament Square|Parliament Square, London]].]] The United Kingdom does not have a single legal system as Article 19 of the [[Treaty of Union|1706 Treaty of Union]] provided for the continuation of Scotland's separate legal system.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Treaty (act) of the Union of Parliament 1706 |url=http://www.scotshistoryonline.co.uk/union.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190527074630/http://www.scotshistoryonline.co.uk/union.html |archive-date=27 May 2019 |access-date=5 October 2008 |publisher=Scottish History Online}}</ref> The UK has three distinct [[Legal systems of the world|systems of law]]: [[English law]], [[Courts of Northern Ireland|Northern Ireland law]] and [[Scots law]]. A new [[Supreme Court of the United Kingdom]] came into being in October 2009 to replace the [[judicial functions of the House of Lords|Appellate Committee of the House of Lords]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=1 October 2009 |title=UK Supreme Court judges sworn in |work=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/8283939.stm |access-date=6 October 2009 |archive-date=7 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200207160453/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/8283939.stm |url-status=live }}; {{Cite web |date=July 2003 |title=Constitutional reform: A Supreme Court for the United Kingdom |url=http://www.dca.gov.uk/consult/supremecourt/supreme.pdf |archive-url=http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20090117132005/http://www.dca.gov.uk/consult/supremecourt/supreme.pdf |archive-date=17 January 2009 |access-date=13 May 2013 |publisher=Department for Constitutional Affairs }}</ref> The [[Judicial Committee of the Privy Council]], including the same members as the Supreme Court, is the highest court of appeal for several independent Commonwealth countries, the [[British Overseas Territories]] and the [[Crown Dependencies]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Role of the JCPC |url=http://www.jcpc.uk/about/role-of-the-jcpc.html |access-date=28 April 2013 |publisher=Judicial Committee of the Privy Council |archive-date=14 January 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140114165910/http://www.jcpc.uk/about/role-of-the-jcpc.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Both [[English law]], which applies in England and Wales, and [[Northern Ireland law]] are based on [[common law]] (or [[case law]]) principles.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bainham |first=Andrew |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AF303DEl0MkC&pg=PA298 |title=The international survey of family law: 1996 |publisher=Martinus Nijhoff |year=1998 |isbn=978-90-411-0573-8 |location=The Hague |page=298 |access-date=29 September 2020 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328141743/https://books.google.com/books?id=AF303DEl0MkC&pg=PA298#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> It originated in England in the [[Middle Ages]] and is the basis for many legal systems around the world.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Common Law |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/common-law |access-date=27 May 2024 |publisher=Britannica |date=19 May 2024 |archive-date=6 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210506134920/https://www.britannica.com/topic/common-law |url-status=live }}</ref> The [[courts of England and Wales]] are headed by the [[Senior Courts of England and Wales]], consisting of the [[Court of Appeal of England and Wales|Court of Appeal]], the [[High Court of Justice]] (for civil cases) and the [[Crown Court]] (for criminal cases).<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Australian courts and comparative law |url=http://www.alpn.edu.au/node/66 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130414202207/http://alpn.edu.au/node/66 |archive-date=14 April 2013 |access-date=9 March 2015 |publisher=Australian Law Postgraduate Network}}</ref> [[Scots law]] is a hybrid system based on common-law and [[Civil law (legal system)|civil-law]] principles. The chief courts are the [[Court of Session]], for civil cases,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Court of Session&nbsp;– Introduction |url=http://www.scotcourts.gov.uk/session/index.asp |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080731094308/http://www.scotcourts.gov.uk/session/index.asp |archive-date=31 July 2008 |access-date=8 March 2015 |publisher=Scottish Courts}}</ref> and the [[High Court of Justiciary]], for criminal cases.<ref>{{Cite web |title=High Court of Justiciary&nbsp;– Introduction |url=http://www.scotcourts.gov.uk/justiciary/index.asp |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080912204821/http://www.scotcourts.gov.uk/justiciary/index.asp |archive-date=12 September 2008 |access-date=9 March 2015 |publisher=Scottish Courts}}</ref> The Supreme Court of the United Kingdom serves as the highest court of appeal for civil cases under Scots law.<ref>{{Cite web |title=House of Lords&nbsp;– Practice Directions and Standing Orders Applicable to Civil Appeals |url=https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld199697/ldinfo/ld08judg/bluebook/bluebk03.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131206120915/http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld199697/ldinfo/ld08judg/bluebook/bluebk03.htm |archive-date=6 December 2013 |access-date=8 March 2015 |publisher=UK Parliament}}</ref> Crime in England and Wales increased in the period between 1981 and 1995, though since that peak there has been an overall fall of 66% in recorded crime from 1995 to 2015,<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/ukgwa/20160105160709/http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/dcp171778_419450.pdf |title=Crime in England and Wales, Year Ending June 2015 |publisher=Office for National Statistics |website=UK Government Web Archive |access-date=16 March 2023 |archive-date=16 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230316221317/https://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/ukgwa/20160105160709/http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/dcp171778_419450.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> according to [[Crime statistics in the United Kingdom|crime statistics]]. As of June 2023, the United Kingdom has the highest per-capita incarceration rate in Western Europe.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Sturge |first1=Georgina |title=UK Prison Population Statistics |url=https://researchbriefings.files.parliament.uk/documents/SN04334/SN04334.pdf |publisher=House of Commons Library |access-date=17 October 2023 |archive-date=24 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200224031328/https://researchbriefings.files.parliament.uk/documents/SN04334/SN04334.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Highest to Lowest - Prison Population Total |url=http://www.prisonstudies.org/highest-to-lowest |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231118142542/https://www.prisonstudies.org/highest-to-lowest/prison-population-total |archive-date=18 November 2023 |website=World Prison Brief}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=World Prison Brief data |url=http://www.prisonstudies.org/world-prison-brief |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231106135950/https://www.prisonstudies.org/world-prison-brief-data |archive-date=6 November 2023 |website=World Prison Brief}}</ref> [[United Kingdom labour law|UK labour laws]] establish employment rights including a [[National Minimum Wage Act 1998|minimum wage]], a minimum of 28 days annual holiday, parental leave, statutory sick pay and a [[Pensions Act 2008|pension]]. [[Same-sex marriage]] has been legal in England, Scotland, and Wales since 2014, and in [[Northern Ireland]] since 2020.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Wratten |first1=Marcus |title=Tom Allen to host vital new BBC show marking 10th anniversary of same-sex marriage |url=https://www.thepinknews.com/2023/07/03/tom-allen-bbc-my-big-gay-wedding-same-sex-marriage/ |website=PinkNews |date=3 July 2023 |access-date=2 September 2023 |archive-date=2 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230902195143/https://www.thepinknews.com/2023/07/03/tom-allen-bbc-my-big-gay-wedding-same-sex-marriage/ |url-status=live }}</ref> [[LGBT rights in the United Kingdom|LGBT equality]] in the United Kingdom is considered advanced by modern standards.<ref>{{Cite web |date=5 June 2023 |title=The 203 Worst (& Safest) Countries for LGBTQ+ Travel in 2023 |url=https://www.asherfergusson.com/lgbtq-travel-safety/ |access-date=20 August 2023 |website=Asher & Lyric |archive-date=10 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210910063408/https://www.asherfergusson.com/lgbtq-travel-safety/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=R. Flores |first1=Andrew |title=Social Acceptance of LGBTI People in 175 Countries and Locations |url=https://williamsinstitute.law.ucla.edu/publications/global-acceptance-index-lgbt/ |website=Williams Institute |access-date=11 September 2023 |archive-date=13 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230913091254/https://williamsinstitute.law.ucla.edu/publications/global-acceptance-index-lgbt/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Since leaving the [[European Union|EU]], most disputes under UK-EU agreements are addressed through consultation between the parties. If consultation fails to resolve the issue, either party can request [[arbitration]], typically at the [[Permanent Court of Arbitration|PCA]] in [[Peace Palace|The Hague]].<ref name="commission.europa.eu"/><ref>{{Cite web |title=Disputes under the Trade and Cooperation Agreement |url=https://www.instituteforgovernment.org.uk/explainer/disputes-trade-and-cooperation-agreement |access-date=26 January 2025 |publisher=Institute for Government}}</ref> Under the [[Windsor Framework]], [[Northern Ireland]] matters requiring interpretation of EU law go to the [[European Court of Justice|ECJ]], though the [[Stormont Brake]] can prevent new EU rules from taking effect. === Military === {{Main|British Armed Forces|Military history of the United Kingdom}} {{Multiple image | align = right | image1 = HMS Queen Elizabeth and HMS Prince of Wales meet at sea for the first time.jpg | alt1 = | caption1 = [[HMS Queen Elizabeth (R08)|HMS Queen Elizabeth]] and [[HMS Prince of Wales (R09)|HMS Prince of Wales]] | image2 = Royal Navy Destroyer HMS Defender (D36).jpg | caption2 = Royal Navy Destroyer [[HMS Defender (D36)|HMS Defender]] | image3 = Royal Air Force Eurofighter Typhoon FGR4 MOD 45160575.jpg | caption3 = Royal Air Force [[Eurofighter Typhoon]] Jet | total_width = 300 | perrow = 2 | image4 = Challenger 3.jpg | caption4 = British Army [[Challenger 3]] Main Battle Tank }} The [[British Armed Forces]] consist of three professional service branches: the [[Royal Navy]] and [[Royal Marines]] (forming the [[Naval Service (United Kingdom)|Naval Service]]), the [[British Army]] and the [[Royal Air Force]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ministry of Defence |url=http://www.mod.uk/DefenceInternet/Home |access-date=21 February 2012 |publisher=Ministry of Defence |archive-date=19 February 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120219194140/http://mod.uk/DefenceInternet/Home/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The armed forces of the United Kingdom are managed by the [[Ministry of Defence (United Kingdom)|Ministry of Defence]] and controlled by the [[Defence Council of the United Kingdom|Defence Council]], chaired by the [[Secretary of State for Defence]]. The [[Commander-in-Chief]] is the [[Monarchy of the United Kingdom|British monarch]], to whom members of the forces swear an oath of allegiance.<ref>{{Cite web |date=30 March 2012 |title=Speaker addresses Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II |url=http://www.parliament.uk/business/news/2012/march/speaker-addresses-hm-the-queen |access-date=28 April 2013 |publisher=UK Parliament |archive-date=1 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130501221305/http://www.parliament.uk/business/news/2012/march/speaker-addresses-hm-the-queen/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The Armed Forces are charged with protecting the UK and its overseas territories, promoting the UK's global security interests and supporting international peacekeeping efforts. They are active and regular participants in [[NATO]] (including the [[Allied Rapid Reaction Corps]]), the [[Five Power Defence Arrangements]], [[RIMPAC]] and other worldwide coalition operations. [[Overseas military bases of the United Kingdom|Overseas garrisons]] and facilities are maintained in [[RAF Ascension Island|Ascension Island]], [[Mina Salman|Bahrain]], [[Military of Belize|Belize]], [[Military Forces based in Brunei|Brunei]], [[British Army Training Unit Suffield|Canada]], [[British Forces Cyprus|Cyprus]], [[Diego Garcia]], the [[Military of the Falkland Islands|Falkland Islands]], [[British Forces Germany|Germany]], [[British Forces Gibraltar|Gibraltar]], [[British Army Training Unit Kenya|Kenya]], [[Oman]], [[Al Udeid Air Base|Qatar]] and [[Singapore]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=House of Commons Hansard |url=https://publications.parliament.uk/cgi-bin/newhtml_hl?DB=semukparl&STEMMER=en&WORDS=raf%20diego%20garcia&ALL=RAF&ANY=&PHRASE=%22Diego%20Garcia%20%22&CATEGORIES=&SIMPLE=&SPEAKER=&COLOUR=red&STYLE=s&ANCHOR=50221w33.html_spnew0&URL=/pa/cm200405/cmhansrd/vo050221/text/50221w33.htm#50221w33.html_spnew0 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090309114107/http://www.publications.parliament.uk/cgi-bin/newhtml_hl?DB=semukparl&STEMMER=en&WORDS=raf%20diego%20garcia&ALL=RAF&ANY=&PHRASE=%22Diego%20Garcia%20%22&CATEGORIES=&SIMPLE=&SPEAKER=&COLOUR=red&STYLE=s&ANCHOR=50221w33.html_spnew0&URL=%2Fpa%2Fcm200405%2Fcmhansrd%2Fvo050221%2Ftext%2F50221w33.htm#50221w33.html_spnew0 |archive-date=9 March 2009 |access-date=23 October 2008 |publisher=UK Parliament}}; {{Cite web |title=House of Commons Hansard Written Answers for 17 Jun 2013 (pt 0002) |url=https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm201314/cmhansrd/cm130617/text/130617w0002.htm#13061746000236 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150214025754/http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm201314/cmhansrd/cm130617/text/130617w0002.htm#13061746000236 |archive-date=14 February 2015 |access-date=4 March 2015 |publisher=Publications.parliament.uk}}</ref> According to the [[Stockholm International Peace Research Institute]]<ref name=":7">{{Cite report |url=https://www.sipri.org/publications/2022/sipri-fact-sheets/trends-world-military-expenditure-2021 |title=Trends in World Military Expenditure, 2021 |last1=da Silva |first1=Diego Lopes |last2=Tian |first2=Nan |last3=Béraud-Sudreau |first3=Lucie |last4=Marksteiner |first4=Alexandra |last5=Liang |first5=Xiao |date=April 2022 |publisher=[[SIPRI]] |doi=10.55163/DZJD8826 |access-date=3 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220425064753/https://www.sipri.org/publications/2022/sipri-fact-sheets/trends-world-military-expenditure-2021 |archive-date=25 April 2022 |url-status=live |doi-access=free |type=fact sheet |s2cid=248305949}}</ref> and the [[International Institute for Strategic Studies]],<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |date=January 2021 |title=IISS Military Balance 2021 |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/04597222.2021.1868791?journalCode=tmib20 |url-status=live |journal=The Military Balance |volume=121 |issue=1 |pages=23–29 |doi=10.1080/04597222.2021.1868791 |issn=0459-7222 |s2cid=232050862 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211001220232/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/04597222.2021.1868791?journalCode=tmib20 |archive-date=1 October 2021 |access-date=1 October 2021}}</ref> the UK has the [[List of countries by military expenditures|fourth- or fifth-highest military expenditure]]. Total defence spending in 2024 is estimated at 2.3% of GDP.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Rishi Sunak vows to boost UK defence spending to 2.5% of GDP by 2030 |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-68880171 |access-date=24 April 2024 |publisher=BBC News |date=24 April 2024 |archive-date=23 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240423233438/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-68880171 |url-status=live }}</ref> Following the end of the [[Cold War]], defence policy has a stated assumption that "the most demanding operations" will be undertaken as part of a coalition.<ref>''UK 2005: The Official Yearbook of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland''. Office for National Statistics. p. 89.</ref> == Economy == {{Main|Economy of the United Kingdom}} {{further|Economy of England|Economy of Scotland|Economy of Northern Ireland|Economy of Wales}} [[File:London Skyline (125508655).jpeg|thumb|[[London]] is the largest [[urban economy]] in Europe<ref>{{Cite web |last=Florida |first=Richard |date=16 March 2017 |title=The Economic Power of Cities Compared to Nations |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2017-03-16/top-metros-have-more-economic-power-than-most-nations |access-date=22 February 2024 |website=Bloomberg |archive-date=8 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240308074221/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2017-03-16/top-metros-have-more-economic-power-than-most-nations |url-status=live }}</ref> and, alongside [[New York City|New York]], the city in the world most integrated with the [[World economy|global economy]].<ref>{{Cite web |website=GaWC |title=The World According to GaWC 2020 |url=https://www.lboro.ac.uk/microsites/geography/gawc/world2020t.html |date=21 August 2020 |access-date=3 June 2023 |publisher=Loughborough University |archive-date=12 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220612112616/https://www.lboro.ac.uk/microsites/geography/gawc/world2020t.html |url-status=live }}</ref>]] The UK has a regulated [[social market economy]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=April 2011 |title=Principles for Economic Regulation |url=http://www.bis.gov.uk/assets/biscore/better-regulation/docs/p/11-795-principles-for-economic-regulation |access-date=1 May 2011 |publisher=Department for Business, Innovation & Skills |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110517134052/http://www.bis.gov.uk/assets/biscore/better-regulation/docs/p/11-795-principles-for-economic-regulation |archive-date= 17 May 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Thane |first1=Pat |year=2019 |title=The Origins of the British Welfare State |journal=The Journal of Interdisciplinary History |volume=50 |issue=3 |pages=427–433 |doi=10.1162/jinh_a_01448 |s2cid=208223636 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="ftms">{{cite web |last1=Griffiths |first1=Alan |last2=Wall |first2=Stuart |date=16 July 2011 |title=Applied Economics |url=http://www.ftms.edu.my/pdf/Download/UndergraduateStudent/BusinessEconomics/BC215001S%20-%20BE%20Key%20Text%20-%20Applied%20Economics.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130620120524/http://www.ftms.edu.my/pdf/Download/UndergraduateStudent/BusinessEconomics/BC215001S%20-%20BE%20Key%20Text%20-%20Applied%20Economics.pdf |archive-date=20 June 2013 |access-date=25 September 2014}}</ref> Based on market [[exchange rate]]s, the UK is the [[List of countries by GDP (nominal)|sixth-largest economy]] in the world and the [[List of sovereign states in Europe by GDP (nominal)|second-largest]] in Europe, both by nominal GDP. Its currency, the [[pound sterling]], is the fourth most-traded currency in the [[foreign exchange market]] and the world's fourth-largest [[reserve currency]] (after the [[United States dollar]], [[euro]], and [[yen]]).<ref>{{Cite web |title=World Currency Composition of Official Foreign Exchange Reserves |url=https://data.imf.org/regular.aspx?key=41175 |access-date=10 October 2021 |website=IMF Data |language=en |archive-date=12 May 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160512202858/https://data.imf.org/regular.aspx?key=41175 |url-status=live }}</ref> Sterling was the 2nd best-performing G10 currency against the dollar in 2023 with a gain of about 5%, with only the [[Swiss franc]] performing better.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sterling steady but set for 5% rally in 2023 |url=https://www.reuters.com/markets/currencies/sterling-steady-set-5-rally-2023-2023-12-27/|publisher=Reuters}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Nikkei Asia - Currency |url=https://asia.nikkei.com/Business/Markets/Currencies/Yen-is-worst-performing-G10-currency-for-3rd-straight-year |access-date=23 January 2024 |archive-date=23 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240123142941/https://asia.nikkei.com/Business/Markets/Currencies/Yen-is-worst-performing-G10-currency-for-3rd-straight-year |url-status=live }}</ref> [[London]] is the world capital for foreign exchange trading, with a market share of 38.1% in 2022<ref>{{Cite web |title=BIS Triennial Survey of Foreign Exchange and Over-The-Counter Interest Rate Derivatives Markets in April 2022 – UK Data |url=https://www.bankofengland.co.uk/news/2022/october/bis-triennial-survey-of-foreign-exchange-and-over-the-counter-interest-rate-derivatives-markets |date=27 October 2022 |access-date=21 February 2023 |publisher=Bank of England |archive-date=21 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230221135740/https://www.bankofengland.co.uk/news/2022/october/bis-triennial-survey-of-foreign-exchange-and-over-the-counter-interest-rate-derivatives-markets |url-status=live }}</ref> of the daily $7.5&nbsp;trillion global turnover.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Global FX trading hits record $7.5 trln a day – BIS survey |date=27 October 2022 |url=https://www.reuters.com/markets/us/global-fx-trading-hits-record-75-trln-day-bis-survey-2022-10-27/ |access-date=21 February 2023 |work=Reuters |last1=Jones |first1=Marc |last2=John |first2=Alun |archive-date=21 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230221135739/https://www.reuters.com/markets/us/global-fx-trading-hits-record-75-trln-day-bis-survey-2022-10-27/ |url-status=live }}</ref> [[HM Treasury]], led by the [[Chancellor of the Exchequer]], is responsible for developing and executing the government's [[public finance]] policy and [[economic policy]]. The [[Department for Business and Trade]] is responsible for business, international trade, and enterprise. The [[Bank of England]] is the UK's [[central bank]] and is responsible for issuing notes and coins in the pound sterling. Banks in Scotland and Northern Ireland retain the right to issue their own notes, subject to retaining enough Bank of England notes in reserve to cover their issue. In 2022, the UK became the world's [[List of countries by exports|fourth-largest exporter]] behind only China, the US, and Germany.<ref>{{Cite news |url= https://www.cityam.com/services-trade-sees-uk-become-worlds-fourth-largest-exporter/ |date= 9 April 2024 |title= Services trade sees UK become world's fourth largest exporter |work= City A.M. |location= London |first= Jessica |last= Frank-Keyes |access-date= 2 May 2024 |archive-date= 2 May 2024 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20240502182204/https://www.cityam.com/services-trade-sees-uk-become-worlds-fourth-largest-exporter/ |url-status= live }}</ref> The estimated nominal GDP of the UK for 2024 is £2.765 trillion.<ref>{{Cite press release |date=11 July 2023 |title= United Kingdom: 2023 Article IV Consultation |url= https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/CR/Issues/2023/07/10/United-Kingdom-2023-Article-IV-Consultation-Press-Release-Staff-Report-and-Statement-by-the-535878 |access-date=9 March 2024 |publisher=IMF |archive-date=9 March 2024 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20240309143322/https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/CR/Issues/2023/07/10/United-Kingdom-2023-Article-IV-Consultation-Press-Release-Staff-Report-and-Statement-by-the-535878 |url-status=live }}</ref> This value is 23% higher than the 2019 figure of £2.255 trillion<ref>{{Cite press release |date=February 2022 |title=2021 Article IV Consultation |url= https://www.imf.org/-/media/Files/Publications/CR/2022/English/1GBREA2022001.ashx |access-date=9 March 2024 |publisher=IMF |archive-date=9 March 2024 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20240309143322/https://www.imf.org/-/media/Files/Publications/CR/2022/English/1GBREA2022001.ashx |url-status=live }}</ref> before leaving the EU (at similar US and EU exchange rates to 2019).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sterling Exchange Rates |url= https://www.bankofengland.co.uk/boeapps/database/Rates.asp |access-date=9 March 2024 |publisher=Bank of England |archive-date=9 March 2024 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20240309143322/https://www.bankofengland.co.uk/boeapps/database/Rates.asp |url-status=live }}</ref>{{Efn|Real GDP is an inflation-adjusted GDP, which is needed to study changes in volume rather than value, especially if the currency devalues due to the inflation but does not show current market values.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Real GDP growth |url=https://obr.uk/forecasts-in-depth/the-economy-forecast/real-gdp-growth/ |access-date=9 March 2024 |website=OBR |archive-date=9 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240309143323/https://obr.uk/forecasts-in-depth/the-economy-forecast/real-gdp-growth/ |url-status=live }};{{Cite web |title=Real Gross Domestic Product (Real GDP): How to Calculate It, vs. Nominal |url=https://www.investopedia.com/terms/r/realgdp.asp |access-date=9 March 2024 |website=Investopedia |archive-date=5 February 2005 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050205021005/https://www.investopedia.com/terms/r/realgdp.asp |url-status=live }}</ref>}} Inflation in the UK rose by 2% in the year to May 2024 which was the government's target.<ref>{{cite web|title=Inflation and the 2% target|url=https://www.bankofengland.co.uk/monetary-policy/inflation|website=Bank of England|date=21 March 2024|access-date=4 July 2024|archive-date=13 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171213011045/https://www.bankofengland.co.uk/monetary-policy/inflation|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=UK inflation rate: How quickly are prices rising? |work=BBC News |date=14 January 2011 |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-12196322 |access-date=4 July 2024 |archive-date=3 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240703171307/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-12196322 |url-status=live }}</ref> [[File:Bank-of-England.jpg|thumb|The [[Bank of England]] is the [[central bank]] of the United Kingdom and the model on which most modern central banks have been based.]] The [[Tertiary sector of the economy|service sector]] made up around 80% of the UK's [[Gross value added|GVA]] in 2021.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Hutton |first=Georgina |date=6 December 2022 |title=Industries in the UK |url=https://commonslibrary.parliament.uk/research-briefings/cbp-8353/ |access-date=31 January 2023 |website=UK Parliament: House of Commons Library |archive-date=7 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211007134640/https://commonslibrary.parliament.uk/research-briefings/cbp-8353/ |url-status=live }}</ref> As of 2022, the UK is the world's [[List of countries by service exports|second-largest exporter of services]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Service exports (BoP, current US$) |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/BX.GSR.NFSV.CD?most_recent_value_desc=true&year_high_desc=false |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230526025607/https://data.worldbank.org/ |archive-date=26 May 2023 |access-date=25 August 2023 |website=World Bank Open Data}}</ref> London is one of the world's largest financial centres, ranking second in the world in the [[Global Financial Centres Index]] in 2022. London also has the [[List of cities by GDP|largest city GDP]] in Europe.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Global city GDP rankings 2008–2025 |url=http://www.ukmediacentre.pwc.com/Media-Library/Global-city-GDP-rankings-2008-2025-61a.aspx |date=2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110428032945/http://www.ukmediacentre.pwc.com/Media-Library/Global-city-GDP-rankings-2008-2025-61a.aspx |archive-date=28 April 2011 |access-date=16 November 2010 |publisher=PricewaterhouseCoopers}}</ref> Edinburgh ranks 17th in the world, and sixth in Western Europe in the Global Financial Centres Index in 2020.<ref name="GFCI 27 Rank – Long Finance">{{Cite web |title=GFCI 27 Rank |url=https://www.longfinance.net/programmes/financial-centre-futures/global-financial-centres-index/gfci-27-explore-data/gfci-27-rank |access-date=29 August 2020 |website=Long Finance |archive-date=15 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200815191828/https://www.longfinance.net/programmes/financial-centre-futures/global-financial-centres-index/gfci-27-explore-data/gfci-27-rank/ |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Tourism in the United Kingdom|The country's tourism sector]] is very important to the British economy; London was named as Europe's most popular destination for 2022.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/travel/news-and-advice/london-best-europe-city-tripadvisor-2022-b1996028.html |title=London named Europe's most popular destination for 2022 |website=[[Independent.co.uk]] |date=19 January 2022 |first1=Helen |last1=Coffey |access-date=11 March 2023 |archive-date=11 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230311142939/https://www.independent.co.uk/travel/news-and-advice/london-best-europe-city-tripadvisor-2022-b1996028.html }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://fortune.com/2023/04/25/king-charles-coronation-tourists-money-london-british-economy/ |title=King Charles' coronation is bringing millions of tourists and a cash infusion to London but it probably won't save the British economy |website=[[fortune.com]] |date=25 April 2023 |first1=Kelvin |last1=Chan |agency=The Associated Press |access-date=9 May 2023 |archive-date=2 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230502144950/https://fortune.com/2023/04/25/king-charles-coronation-tourists-money-london-british-economy/ }}</ref> The [[creative industries]] accounted for 5.9% of the UK's GVA in 2019, having grown by 43.6% in real terms from 2010.<ref>{{Cite web |title=DCMS Economic Estimates 2019 (provisional): Gross Value Added |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/dcms-economic-estimates-2019-gross-value-added/dcms-economic-estimates-2019-provisional-gross-value-added |access-date=31 January 2023 |website=gov.uk |archive-date=31 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230131001226/https://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/dcms-economic-estimates-2019-gross-value-added/dcms-economic-estimates-2019-provisional-gross-value-added |url-status=live }}</ref> Creative industries contributed more than £111bn to the UK economy in 2018, growth in the sector is more than five times larger than growth across the UK economy as a whole as reported in 2018.<ref>{{Cite web |year=2020 |title=UK's Creative Industries contributes almost £13 million to the UK economy every hour |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/news/uks-creative-industries-contributes-almost-13-million-to-the-uk-economy-every-hour |access-date=21 February 2023 |publisher=UK Government |archive-date=21 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230221131518/https://www.gov.uk/government/news/uks-creative-industries-contributes-almost-13-million-to-the-uk-economy-every-hour |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Lloyd's of London]] is the world's largest [[insurance]] and [[reinsurance]] market and is located in London.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Lloyd's of London – value proposition |url=https://www.lloyds.com/about-lloyds/value-proposition-coverholder |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230227100951/https://www.lloyds.com/about-lloyds/value-proposition-coverholder |archive-date=27 February 2023|website=Lloyd's of London}}</ref> [[WPP plc]], the world's biggest advertising company, is also based in the UK. The UK is one of the leading retail markets in Europe and is home to Europe's largest e-commerce market.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.great.gov.uk/international/content/investment/sectors/retail/|access-date=18 January 2024|title=Retail|publisher=great.gov.uk|archive-date=18 January 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240118084416/https://www.great.gov.uk/international/content/investment/sectors/retail/|url-status=live}}</ref> With [[Consumer spending|consumption expenditures]] of over $2 trillion in 2023, the UK has the [[List of largest consumer markets|second-largest consumer market]] in Europe.<ref>{{Cite web |date= |title=Households and NPISHs Final consumption expenditure (current US$) |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NE.CON.PRVT.CD?year_high_desc=true |access-date=2024-08-17 |website=World Bank Group |archive-date=12 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612143614/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NE.CON.PRVT.CD?year_high_desc=true |url-status=live }}</ref> [[John Lewis Partnership|John Lewis]] is the UK's largest employee-owned business.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://employeeownership.co.uk/resources/what-the-evidence-tells-us/|access-date=18 January 2024|title=Employee owned businesses - What the evidence tells us|archive-date=2 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231202155249/https://employeeownership.co.uk/resources/what-the-evidence-tells-us/|url-status=live}}</ref> [[File:Evening view across Carlton Hill towards the Castle (13164472813).jpg|thumb|right|[[Edinburgh]] is the financial centre of Scotland and is ranked the 4th largest in Europe and 13th largest internationally.<ref>{{cite web |title=Edinburgh 4th in Europe in new Financial Centres index – Scottish Financial Review |url=https://scottishfinancialreview.com/2020/09/25/edinburgh-4th-in-europe-in-new-financial-centres-index/ |website=scottishfinancialreview.com |access-date=15 December 2024}}</ref>]] The [[Automotive industry in the United Kingdom|British automotive industry]] employs around 800,000 people, with a turnover in 2022 of £67&nbsp;billion, generating £27&nbsp;billion of exports (10% of the UK's total export of goods).<ref name="Auto Output 2022"/> In 2023, the UK produced around 905,100 passenger vehicles and 120,400 commercial vehicles, output was up 17.0% on the previous year.<ref>{{Cite web | date=24 January 2024 | title=December 2023 UK Car Manufacturing | url=https://media.smmt.co.uk/december-2023-uk-car-manufacturing/ | access-date=16 March 2024 | website=SMMT | archive-date=16 March 2024 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240316184018/https://media.smmt.co.uk/december-2023-uk-car-manufacturing/ | url-status=live }}</ref> Britain is known for iconic cars such as [[Mini Hatch|Mini]] and [[Jaguar Cars|Jaguar]],<ref>{{Cite web | date=19 November 2020 | title=Best British cars: Top 50 all-time greatest British-built cars revealed - page 2 | url=https://www.autoexpress.co.uk/best-cars-vans/351729/best-british-cars-top-50-all-time-greatest-british-built-cars-revealed/page-2 | access-date=9 March 2024 | website=Auto Express | archive-date=16 March 2024 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240316184015/https://www.autoexpress.co.uk/best-cars-vans/351729/best-british-cars-top-50-all-time-greatest-british-built-cars-revealed/page-2 | url-status=live }}</ref> also other luxury cars such as [[Rolls-Royce Motor Cars|Rolls-Royce]], [[Bentley]] and [[Range Rover]]. The UK is a major centre for engine manufacturing: in 2022 around 1.5&nbsp;million engines were produced.<ref name="Auto Output 2022">{{cite web |url=https://www.smmt.co.uk/industry-topics/uk-automotive/ |title=UK Automotive |author=<!--Not stated--> |date= |website= |publisher=The Society of Motor Manufacturers and Traders |access-date=14 November 2023 |quote= |archive-date=13 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231113163440/https://www.smmt.co.uk/industry-topics/uk-automotive/ |url-status=live }}</ref> It is also the world's [[List of countries by engine exports|fourth-largest exporter of engines]], as of 2021.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Combustion Engines |url=https://oec.world/en/profile/hs/combustion-engines |access-date=30 September 2023 |website=OEC - The Observatory of Economic Complexity |language=en |archive-date=3 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231003014526/https://oec.world/en/profile/hs/combustion-engines |url-status=live }}</ref> The UK [[auto racing|motorsport]] industry employs more than 40,000 people, comprises around 4,300 companies and has an annual turnover of around £10&nbsp;billion.<ref>{{Cite web |year=2020 |title=UK motorsport industry in pole position for F1's 70th anniversary |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/news/uk-motorsport-industry-in-pole-position-for-f1s-70th-anniversary |access-date=19 February 2023 |publisher=UK Government |archive-date=19 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230219100712/https://www.gov.uk/government/news/uk-motorsport-industry-in-pole-position-for-f1s-70th-anniversary |url-status=live }}</ref> 7 of the 10 [[Formula One]] teams are based in the UK, with their technology being used in supercars and hypercars from [[McLaren Automotive|McLaren]], [[Aston Martin]] and [[Lotus Cars|Lotus]].{{Efn|Car brands here are classed as British based on several of the following criteria: historical heritage, cultural significance, design and engineering base, manufacturing location, headquarters location, UK registered company (even with overseas investors).}} The [[Aerospace industry in the United Kingdom|aerospace industry of the UK]] is the second-largest national aerospace industry in the world<ref>{{cite web |title=United Kingdom - Country Commercial Guide: Aerospace and Defense |url=https://www.trade.gov/country-commercial-guides/united-kingdom-aerospace-and-defense |website=[[International Trade Administration]] |date=3 November 2023 |access-date=17 December 2024}}</ref> and has an annual turnover of around £30&nbsp;billion.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Tovey |first=Alan |date=29 June 2016 |title=Britain's aerospace sector soars amid fears Brexit could clip its wings |work=The Telegraph |location=London |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/business/2016/06/29/britains-aerospace-sector-soars-amid-fears-brexit-could-clip-its |url-status=live |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/business/2016/06/29/britains-aerospace-sector-soars-amid-fears-brexit-could-clip-its |archive-date=10 January 2022}}{{Cbignore}}</ref> The [[British space programme|UK space industry]] was worth £17.5bn in 2020/21 and employed 48,800 people. Since 2012, the number of space organisations has grown on average nearly 21% per year, with 1,293 organisations reported in 2021.<ref>{{Cite web |year=2022 |title=Size & Health of the UK Space Industry 2022 Summary Report |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/the-size-and-health-of-the-uk-space-industry-2022/size-health-of-the-uk-space-industry-2022 |access-date=1 April 2023 |publisher=UK Government |archive-date=31 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230331072353/https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/the-size-and-health-of-the-uk-space-industry-2022/size-health-of-the-uk-space-industry-2022 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |year=2021 |title=Size and Health of the UK Space Industry 2021 |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/the-size-and-health-of-the-uk-space-industry-2021/size-and-health-of-the-uk-space-industry-2021 |access-date=21 February 2023 |publisher=UK Government |archive-date=21 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230221103315/https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/the-size-and-health-of-the-uk-space-industry-2021/size-and-health-of-the-uk-space-industry-2021 |url-status=live }}</ref> The [[UK Space Agency]] has stated in 2023 that it is investing £1.6&nbsp;billion in space-related projects.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/news/new-funding-to-support-space-exploration-using-moon-resources-and-nuclear-power |title=New funding to support space exploration using Moon resources and nuclear power |access-date=11 March 2023 |archive-date=11 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230311195622/https://www.gov.uk/government/news/new-funding-to-support-space-exploration-using-moon-resources-and-nuclear-power }} <!-- (last checked 2023-03-11) --></ref> [[Agriculture in the United Kingdom|Its agriculture industry]] is intensive, highly mechanised and efficient by European standards, producing approximately 60% of the country's overall food requirements and 73% of its indigenous food needs, utilising around 0.9% of the labour force (292,000 workers).<ref>{{Cite web |title=UK Food Security Index 2024 |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/uk-food-security-index-2024/uk-food-security-index-2024 |access-date=19 May 2024 |publisher=Department for the Environment Food & Rural Affairs |archive-date=18 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240518072412/https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/uk-food-security-index-2024/uk-food-security-index-2024 |url-status=live }};{{Cite web |title=Agricultural workforce in England at 1 June 2023 |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/agricultural-workforce-in-england-at-1-june/agricultural-workforce-in-england-at-1-june-2023 |access-date=19 May 2024 |publisher=Department for the Environment Food & Rural Affairs |archive-date=19 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240519211112/https://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/agricultural-workforce-in-england-at-1-june/agricultural-workforce-in-england-at-1-june-2023 |url-status=live }}</ref> Around two-thirds of production is devoted to livestock, one-third to arable crops. The UK retains a significant, though much reduced fishing industry, with at least 49% of UK fish sustainably caught in 2020.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://jncc.gov.uk/our-work/ukbi-b2-sustainable-fisheries|title=Sustainable fisheries: fish stocks harvested within safe limits|website=JNCC|access-date=2024-12-14}}</ref> The UK gains sovereign rights over its [[exclusive economic zone]] from July 2026, enabling it to enforce sustainable fishing practices and protect marine habitats.<ref name="commission.europa.eu" /> It is rich in a variety of other natural resources including coal, petroleum, natural gas, tin, limestone, iron ore, salt, clay, chalk, gypsum, lead, silica and an abundance of arable land.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.bgs.ac.uk/mineralsuk/mines/coal/home.html |title=Coal |website=BGS Minerals UK |access-date=7 July 2015 |archive-date=26 April 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090426141109/http://www.bgs.ac.uk/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The UK has among the highest levels of [[Income inequality in the United Kingdom|income inequality]] in the [[OECD]], but has a very high [[Human Development Index|HDI]] ranking.<ref>{{Cite web |title=House of Commons Research Briefing on Income inequality in the UK. |url=https://commonslibrary.parliament.uk/research-briefings/cbp-7484/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220210104536/https://commonslibrary.parliament.uk/research-briefings/cbp-7484/ |archive-date=10 February 2022 |access-date=1 July 2023 |website=UK Parliament}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Inequality – Income inequality – OECD Data |url=http://data.oecd.org/inequality/income-inequality.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230629183322/https://data.oecd.org/inequality/income-inequality.htm |archive-date=29 June 2023 |access-date=3 July 2023 |website=theOECD |language=en}}</ref> === Science and technology === {{Main|Science and technology in the United Kingdom|Telecommunications in the United Kingdom}} [[File:Cambridge Science Park Napp.jpg|thumb|[[Silicon Fen|Cambridge]] is the most intensive research cluster for science and technology in the world.<ref name="auto">{{Cite book |last=WIPO |url=https://www.wipo.int/global_innovation_index/en/2022/index.html |title=Global Innovation Index 2022, 15th Edition |publisher=World Intellectual Property Organization |year=2022 |isbn=978-92-805-3432-0 |language=en |doi=10.34667/tind.46596 |access-date=16 November 2022 |archive-date=3 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203061259/https://www.wipo.int/global_innovation_index/en/2022/index.html |url-status=live }}; {{Cite web |title=Global Innovation Index 2021 |url=https://www.wipo.int/global_innovation_index/en/2021 |access-date=5 March 2022 |website=[[World Intellectual Property Organization]] |publisher=[[United Nations]] |language=en |archive-date=5 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220305010458/https://www.wipo.int/global_innovation_index/en/2021/ |url-status=live }}; {{Cite web |title=Release of the Global Innovation Index 2020: Who Will Finance Innovation? |url=https://www.wipo.int/global_innovation_index/en/2020/index.html |access-date=2 September 2021 |website=World Intellectual Property Organization |language=en |archive-date=3 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210603121259/https://www.wipo.int/global_innovation_index/en/2020/index.html |url-status=live }}; {{Cite web |title=Global Innovation Index 2019 |url=https://www.wipo.int/global_innovation_index/en/2019/index.html |access-date=2 September 2021 |website=World Intellectual Property Organization |language=en |archive-date=2 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210902101818/https://www.wipo.int/global_innovation_index/en/2019/index.html |url-status=live }}; {{Cite web |title=RTD – Item |url=https://ec.europa.eu/newsroom/rtd/items/691898 |access-date=2 September 2021 |website=ec.europa.eu |archive-date=2 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210902140715/https://ec.europa.eu/newsroom/rtd/items/691898 |url-status=live }}</ref>]] England and Scotland were leading centres of the [[Scientific Revolution]] from the 17th century.<ref>Gascoin, J. "A reappraisal of the role of the universities in the Scientific Revolution", in Lindberg, David C. and Westman, Robert S., eds (1990), ''Reappraisals of the Scientific Revolution''. Cambridge University Press. p. 248. {{ISBN|978-0-521-34804-1}}.</ref> The United Kingdom led the [[Industrial Revolution]] from the 18th century, and has continued to produce scientists and engineers credited with important advances.<ref>Reynolds, E.E.; Brasher, N.H. (1966). ''Britain in the Twentieth Century, 1900–1964''. Cambridge University Press. p. 336. {{OCLC|474197910}}</ref> Major theorists from the 17th and 18th centuries include [[Isaac Newton]], whose [[Newton's laws of motion|laws of motion]] and illumination of [[gravitation|gravity]] have been seen as a keystone of modern science;<ref>Burtt, E.A. (2003) 1924.[https://books.google.com/books?id=G9WBMa1Rz_kC&pg=PA207 ''The Metaphysical Foundations of Modern Science''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326164803/https://books.google.com/books?id=G9WBMa1Rz_kC&pg=PA207 |date=26 March 2023 }}. Mineola, NY: Courier Dover. p. 207. {{ISBN|978-0-486-42551-1}}.</ref> from the 19th century [[Charles Darwin]], whose theory of [[evolution]] by [[natural selection]] was fundamental to the development of modern biology, and [[James Clerk Maxwell]], who formulated classical [[electromagnetic theory]]; and more recently [[Stephen Hawking]], who advanced major theories in the fields of [[cosmology]], [[quantum gravity]] and the investigation of [[black holes]].<ref>Hatt, C. (2006). [https://books.google.com/books?id=BVBvehqrAPQC ''Scientists and Their Discoveries''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326164803/https://books.google.com/books?id=BVBvehqrAPQC |date=26 March 2023 }}. London: Evans Brothers. pp. 16, 30 and 46. {{ISBN|978-0-237-53195-9}}.</ref> The [[Department for Science, Innovation and Technology]] (DSIT) is responsible for helping to encourage, develop and manage the UK's scientific, research, and technological outputs. Scientific research and development remains important in [[Universities in the United Kingdom|British universities]], with many establishing [[science park]]s to facilitate production and co-operation with industry.<ref>Castells, M.; Hall, P.; Hall, P.G. (2004). ''Technopoles of the World: the Making of Twenty-First-Century Industrial Complexes''. London: Routledge. pp. 98–100. {{ISBN|978-0-415-10015-1}}.</ref> In 2022, the UK retained its number one spot for technology in Europe reaching a combined market value of $1&nbsp;trillion. Cambridge was named the number one university in the world for producing successful technology founders.<ref>{{Cite web |date=21 July 2021 |title=London Has Officially Become the Technology Capital of Europe |url=https://brainstation.io/magazine/london-technology-capital-of-europe-100-unicorns |access-date=10 July 2023 |website=BrainStation |language=en-US |archive-date=7 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211007093133/https://brainstation.io/magazine/london-technology-capital-of-europe-100-unicorns |url-status=live }}</ref> In 2024, the UK ranked 5th in the [[Global Innovation Index]], a position determined by approximately 80 indicators encompassing the political environment, education, infrastructure, and knowledge creation, among others.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Global Innovation Index 2024 : Unlocking the Promise of Social Entrepreneurship |url=https://www.wipo.int/web-publications/global-innovation-index-2024/en/ |access-date=2024-11-29 |website=www.wipo.int |language=en}}</ref><ref name="auto"/> During 2022, the UK produced 6.3% of the world's scientific research papers and had a 10.5% share of scientific citations, the third highest in the world for both. The UK ranked 1st in the world for Field-Weighted Citation Impact.<ref>{{Cite web |title=International comparison of the UK research base, 2022 |url=https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/1078073/international-comparison-uk-research-base-2022-accompanying-note.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230305235208/https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/1078073/international-comparison-uk-research-base-2022-accompanying-note.pdf |archive-date=5 March 2023 |access-date=11 March 2023}} (last checked 11 March 2023)</ref> Scientific journals produced in the UK include publications by the ''[[Royal Society]]'', ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]'', the ''[[BMJ|British Medical Journal]]'' and ''[[The Lancet]]''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=McCook, Alison |year=2006 |title=Is peer review broken? |url=http://gaia.pge.utexas.edu/Good/Materials/scientist_02_28_2006.htm |journal=The Scientist |volume=20 |issue=2 |page=26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110816230933/http://gaia.pge.utexas.edu/Good/Materials/scientist_02_28_2006.htm |archive-date=16 August 2011 |access-date=22 June 2011}}</ref> === Transport === {{Main|Transport in the United Kingdom}} [[File:An LNER Azuma train on the East Coast Railway Line, geograph 6275180 by Walter Baxter.jpg|thumb|A high-speed [[East Coast Main Line]] train in [[Northumberland]]]] [[File:Heathrow Terminal 5C Iwelumo-1.jpg|thumb|[[Airports of London|London]] has the [[List of busiest city airport systems by passenger traffic|busiest city airport system]] in the world.]] A radial road network totals {{Convert|29145|mi|km}} of main roads, {{Convert|2173|mi|km}} of motorways and {{Convert|213750|mi|km}} of paved roads.<ref name="factbook" /> The [[M25 motorway|M25]], encircling London, is the largest and busiest bypass in the world.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Moran |first=Joe |url=https://archive.org/details/readingeveryday00mora |title=Reading the Everyday |date=16 November 2005 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-37216-4 |page=[https://archive.org/details/readingeveryday00mora/page/n107 95] |url-access=limited}}</ref> In 2022, there were a total of 40.8&nbsp;million licensed vehicles in Great Britain.<ref name="Transport stats 2022">{{cite web |last1=Wilkinson |first1=Freddie |title=RAC foundation traffic stats |url=https://www.racfoundation.org/motoring-faqs/mobility#:~:text=In%20the%20United%20Kingdom%2C%20there,the%20end%20of%20September%202022. |access-date=24 February 2023 |archive-date=24 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230224202503/https://www.racfoundation.org/motoring-faqs/mobility#:~:text=In%20the%20United%20Kingdom%2C%20there,the%20end%20of%20September%202022. |url-status=live }}</ref> The UK has an extensive railway network of {{Convert|10072|mi|0|abbr=out}}. In Great Britain, the [[British Rail]] network was [[privatisation of British Rail|privatised]] between 1994 and 1997, followed by a rapid rise in passengers. [[Great British Railways]] is a planned state-owned public body that will oversee [[rail transport in Great Britain]]. The UK was ranked eighth among national European rail systems in the 2017 European Railway Performance Index assessing intensity of use, quality of service and safety.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Sylvain Duranton |last2=Agnès Audier |last3=Joël Hazan |last4=Mads Peter Langhorn |last5=Vincent Gauche |date=18 April 2017 |title=The 2017 European Railway Performance Index |url=https://www.bcg.com/en-ch/publications/2017/transportation-travel-tourism-2017-european-railway-performance-index.aspx |publisher=Boston Consulting Group |access-date=4 February 2019 |archive-date=31 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200531104458/https://www.bcg.com/en-ch/publications/2017/transportation-travel-tourism-2017-european-railway-performance-index.aspx |url-status=live }}</ref> The UK has a train direct from London to Paris which takes 2hrs 16mins<ref>{{Cite web |title=London to Paris Trains |url=https://www.eurostar.com/uk-en/train/london-to-paris |access-date=11 May 2024 |publisher=Eurostar|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240511114452/https://www.eurostar.com/uk-en/train/london-to-paris |archive-date=11 May 2024}}</ref> called the [[Eurostar]], it travels through the [[Channel Tunnel]] under the [[English Channel]], at 23.5&nbsp;miles long it is the world's longest undersea tunnel.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Channel Tunnel, Tunnel, Europe |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Channel-Tunnel |access-date=11 May 2024 |publisher=Britannica|date=10 May 2024}}</ref> There is also a car service through the tunnel to France called [[LeShuttle]]. The [[Elizabeth line]], a rail link running between East and West London, was named in honour of [[Queen Elizabeth II]] in 2016 and opened in 2022. It was Europe's largest construction project at the time and is estimated to bring in £42&nbsp;billion to the UK economy.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2 January 2012 |title=Crossrail's giant tunnelling machines unveiled |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-16289051 |access-date=20 June 2018 |archive-date=10 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160410034914/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-16289051 |url-status=live }}; {{Cite news |last=Leftly |first=Mark |date=29 August 2010 |title=Crossrail delayed to save £1bn |work=Independent |location=London |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/business/news/crossrail-delayed-to-save-1631bn-2064629.html |access-date=22 August 2017 |archive-date=16 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201116062835/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/business/news/crossrail-delayed-to-save-1631bn-2064629.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Crossrail to become the Elizabeth line in honour of Her Majesty the Queen |url=https://tfl.gov.uk/info-for/media/press-releases/2016/february/crossrail-to-become-the-elizabeth-line-in-honour-of-her-majesty-the-queen |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230225110413/https://tfl.gov.uk/info-for/media/press-releases/2016/february/crossrail-to-become-the-elizabeth-line-in-honour-of-her-majesty-the-queen|archive-date=25 February 2023|website=Transport for London}}</ref> Another major infrastructure project is [[High Speed 2]] (HS2), a new high speed railway under construction. It will link London with Birmingham, with the potential to extend further north and capable of speeds of up to 225&nbsp;mph.<ref>{{Cite web |title=What is HS2 |url=https://www.hs2.org.uk/what-is-hs2 |website=HS2 |access-date=22 June 2022 |archive-date=21 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220621190841/https://www.hs2.org.uk/what-is-hs2/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=HS2 Trains |url=https://www.hs2.org.uk/building-hs2/trains/ |website=HS2 |access-date=24 February 2023 |archive-date=24 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230224183953/https://www.hs2.org.uk/building-hs2/trains/ |url-status=live }}</ref> In 2014, there were 5.2&nbsp;billion bus journeys in the UK, 2.4&nbsp;billion of which were in London.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bus statistics |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/collections/bus-statistics |website=GOV.UK|date=26 April 2023 }}</ref> The red [[Double-decker bus|double-decker]] bus has entered popular culture as an internationally recognised icon of England.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Our Collection |url=http://www.icons.org.uk/theicons/index.html |access-date=16 August 2014 |publisher=icons.org.uk}}</ref> The [[London Buses|London bus network]] is extensive, with over 6,800 scheduled services every weekday carrying about 6&nbsp;million passengers on over 700 different routes making it one of the most extensive bus systems in the world and the largest in Europe.<ref>[http://www.tfl.gov.uk/corporate/modesoftransport/1548.aspx London Buses], Transport for London. Accessed 10 May 2007.</ref> During 2023, [[List of airports in the United Kingdom and the British Crown Dependencies|UK airports]] handled a total of 272.8&nbsp;million passengers.<ref name="caastats">{{Cite web |title=Size of Reporting Airports 2023 |url=https://www.caa.co.uk/Documents/Download/10288/81d07410-dbcd-46e7-aacc-d0a5accf0d90/16450 |access-date=9 May 2024 |publisher=Civil Aviation Authority}}</ref> In that period the three largest airports were [[London Heathrow Airport]] (79.1&nbsp;million passengers), [[Gatwick Airport]] (40.9&nbsp;million passengers) and [[Manchester Airport]] (28.1&nbsp;million passengers).<ref name="caastats" /> London Heathrow Airport, located {{Convert|15|mi|km|}} west of the capital, is the world's [[List of busiest airports by passenger traffic|second busiest airport by international passenger traffic]] and has the most international passenger traffic of any airport in the world;<ref>{{Cite news |date=25 June 2008 |title=Heathrow 'needs a third runway' |work=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/7472432.stm |access-date=17 October 2008}}; {{Cite press release |title=Statistics: Top 30 World airports |date=July 2008 |publisher=Airports Council International |url=http://www.aci.aero/aci/aci/file/Press%20Releases/2008/TOP30_International%20Passengers_2007.pdf |access-date=15 October 2008}}</ref> it is the hub for the UK flag carrier [[British Airways]], as well as [[Virgin Atlantic]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=29 October 2008 |title=BMI being taken over by Lufthansa |work=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/7697261.stm |access-date=23 December 2009}}</ref> === Energy === {{Main|Energy in the United Kingdom}} [[File:Ardrossan's fan club. - panoramio.jpg|thumb|right|Wind turbines overlooking [[Ardrossan]] in Scotland. The UK is the best site in Europe for wind energy, and [[Wind power in the United Kingdom|its wind power production]] is its fastest-growing supply.]] In 2021, the UK was the world's 14th-largest consumer of energy and the 22nd-largest producer.<ref name="United Kingdom Energy Profile">{{Cite web |title=United Kingdom Energy Profile |url=https://www.eia.gov/international/overview/country/GBR |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230228165225/https://www.eia.gov/international/overview/country/GBR |archive-date=28 February 2023 |access-date=28 February 2023 |publisher=U.S. Energy Information Administration}}</ref> The UK is home to many large energy companies, including two of the six major oil and gas companies – [[BP]] and [[Shell plc|Shell]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Mason |first=Rowena |date=24 October 2009 |title=Let the battle begin over black gold |work=The Telegraph |location=London |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/newsbysector/energy/6424030/Let-the-battle-begin-over-black-gold.html |url-status=live |url-access=subscription |access-date=26 November 2010 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/newsbysector/energy/6424030/Let-the-battle-begin-over-black-gold.html |archive-date=10 January 2022}}{{Cbignore}}; {{Cite news |last=Heath |first=Michael |date=26 November 2010 |title=RBA Says Currency Containing Prices, Rate Level 'Appropriate' in Near Term |work=Bloomberg |location=New York |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/2010-11-25/rba-s-stevens-says-inflation-unlikely-to-fall-much-further.html |url-status=live |access-date=26 November 2010 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120722062837/http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2010-11-25/rba-s-stevens-says-inflation-unlikely-to-fall-much-further.html |archive-date=22 July 2012}}</ref> Renewable electricity sources provided 51% of the electricity generated in the UK in 2024. Wind power was the largest source of electricity in 2024, generating 30% of the UK's total electricity.<ref name="2024 Energy">{{Cite web |title=Britain's Electricity Explained: 2024 Review |url=https://www.neso.energy/news/britains-electricity-explained-2024-review |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250126085830/https://www.neso.energy/news/britains-electricity-explained-2024-review |archive-date=26 January 2025 |access-date=26 January 2025 |publisher=NESO}}</ref> The UK has the largest offshore wind farm in the world, which is located off the coast of Yorkshire.<ref>{{Cite web |date=14 June 2021 |title=Wind energy in the UK: June 2021 |work=UK Government |url=https://www.ons.gov.uk/economy/environmentalaccounts/articles/windenergyintheuk/june2021 |access-date=8 May 2023}}</ref> In 2023, the UK had nine nuclear reactors generating about 15% of the UK's electricity.<ref name="coal-ref">{{Cite web |title=Nuclear Power in the United Kingdom |url=https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/country-profiles/countries-t-z/united-kingdom.aspx |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230228175735/https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/country-profiles/countries-t-z/united-kingdom.aspx |archive-date=28 February 2023 |access-date=28 February 2023 |publisher=World Nuclear Association}}</ref> Unlike Germany and Japan, there are two reactors under construction and more planned.<ref>{{Cite web |date=April 2013 |title=Nuclear Power in the United Kingdom |url=http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/inf84.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130214061431/http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/inf84.html |archive-date=14 February 2013 |access-date=9 April 2013 |publisher=World Nuclear Association}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Nuclear energy: What you need to know |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/news/nuclear-energy-what-you-need-to-know |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230228181113/https://www.gov.uk/government/news/nuclear-energy-what-you-need-to-know |archive-date=28 February 2023 |access-date=28 February 2023 |publisher=UK Government}}</ref> In the late 1990s, nuclear power plants contributed around 25% of the total annual electricity generation in the UK, but this has gradually declined as old plants have been shut down. The UK Government is investing in [[Small Modular Reactors]], [[Nuclear reactor#Future and developing technologies|Advanced Modular Reactors]] and [[Nuclear Fusion|Nuclear Fusion Reators]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=UKAEA implementing the UK's fusion energy strategy |url=https://www.openaccessgovernment.org/ukaea-implementing-the-uks-fusion-energy-strategy/174384/ |publisher=Open Access Government |access-date=27 May 2024}};{{Cite web |title=UK nuclear fusion reactor sets new world record for energy output |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/2415909-uk-nuclear-fusion-reactor-sets-new-world-record-for-energy-output/ |publisher=New Scientist |access-date=27 May 2024}}</ref> research and development. At the end of 2023 it was estimated that there was 1.1 billion boe (barrels of oil equivalent) of ‘proven’ and ‘probable’ [[Oil and gas reserves and resource quantification|gas reserves]] and 2.3 billion boe of ‘proven’ and ‘probable’ [[North Sea oil|oil reserves]] offshore, reducing reliance on imports for energy security and transitioning to renewables.<ref>{{Cite web |title=UK Oil and Gas Reserves and Resources |url=https://www.nstauthority.co.uk/media/vtjkyqnf/uk-reserves-and-resources-report-as-at-end-2023.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250113172052/https://www.nstauthority.co.uk/media/vtjkyqnf/uk-reserves-and-resources-report-as-at-end-2023.pdf |archive-date=13 January 2025 |access-date=1 February 2025 |publisher=North Sea Transition Authority}}</ref> Emissions from UK gas production are roughly four times lower than imported [[Liquefied natural gas|liquefied natural gas]] (LNG), according to the [[North Sea Transition Authority|UK's oil and gas regulator]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=North Sea oil and gas claims fact-checked |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-67945281 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250201182137/https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-67945281 |archive-date=1 February 2025 |access-date=1 February 2025 |publisher=BBC}}</ref> In September 2024 the last coal power station was closed, making [[coal]] no longer a power source in the UK.<ref name="2024 Energy" /> The UK currently has no [[fracking]] (Hydraulic fracturing) for [[shale gas]] despite a large supply, due to environmental concerns.<ref>{{Cite web |title=UK’s last fracking wells to be filled with cement despite dwindling gas stocks |url=https://www.cityam.com/uks-last-fracking-wells-to-be-filled-with-cement-despite-dwindling-gas-stocks/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250201182917/https://www.cityam.com/uks-last-fracking-wells-to-be-filled-with-cement-despite-dwindling-gas-stocks/ |archive-date=1 February 2025 |access-date=1 February 2025 |publisher=City AM}}</ref> === Water supply and sanitation === {{Main|Water supply and sanitation in the United Kingdom}} Access to improved water supply and sanitation in the UK is universal. It is estimated that 96% of households are connected to the sewer network.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/69582/pb6655-uk-sewage-treatment-020424.pdf |title=Sewage Treatment in the UK |publisher=DEFRA |website=assets.publishing.service.gov.uk |date=March 2022 |page=3 |id=PB 6655 |access-date=8 April 2023}}</ref> According to the Environment Agency, total water abstraction for public water supply in the UK was 16,406 [[megalitre]]s per day in 2007.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Environment Agency |url=http://www.environment-agency.gov.uk/research/library/data/112185.aspx |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091125040346/http://www.environment-agency.gov.uk/research/library/data/112185.aspx |archive-date=25 November 2009}}</ref> In England and Wales water and sewerage services are provided by 10 private regional water and sewerage companies and 13 mostly smaller private "water only" companies. In Scotland, water and sewerage services are provided by a single public company, [[Scottish Water]]. In Northern Ireland water and sewerage services are also provided by a single public entity, [[Northern Ireland Water]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=About Us |url=https://www.niwater.com/about |access-date=29 August 2020 |publisher=niwater.com}}</ref> == Demographics == {{Main|Demographics of the United Kingdom|British people|Ceremonial counties of England}} In the [[United Kingdom Census 2011|2011 census]], the population of the United Kingdom was 63,181,775.<ref name="2011census">{{Cite web |date=27 March 2011 |title=2011 Census: Population Estimates for the United Kingdom |url=http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/dcp171778_292378.pdf |access-date=18 December 2012 |publisher=Office for National Statistics}}</ref> It is the [[List of European countries by population|fourth-largest]] in Europe (after Russia, Germany and France), the fifth-largest in the Commonwealth and the [[List of countries by population|22nd-largest]] in the world. In 2012 and 2013, births contributed the most to population growth. In 2014 and 2015, net international migration contributed more to population growth.<ref name="pop2015">{{Cite web |date=23 June 2016 |title=Population Estimates for UK, England and Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland, Mid-2015 |url=https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/populationandmigration/populationestimates/bulletins/annualmidyearpopulationestimates/latest |publisher=Office for National Statistics}}</ref> Between 2001 and 2011, the population increased at an average annual rate of 0.7%.<ref name="2011census" /> The 2011 census also showed that, over the previous 100 years, the proportion of the population aged 0–14 fell from 31 to 18%, and the proportion of people aged 65 and over rose from 5 to 16%.<ref name="2011census" /> In 2018, the [[median age]] of the UK population was 41.7 years.<ref>{{Citation |title=World Factbook EUROPE: United Kingdom |date=12 July 2018 |work=[[The World Factbook]] |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/united-kingdom}}</ref> <!-- Self-maintaining population table --> {{UK population table}} England's population in 2011 was 53&nbsp;million, representing some 84% of the UK total.<ref name="2011 UK censuses">{{Cite web |title=2011 UK censuses |url=http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/guide-method/census/2011/uk-census/index.html |access-date=18 December 2012 |publisher=Office for National Statistics}}</ref> It is one of the [[List of countries and dependencies by population density|most densely populated countries]] in the world, with 420&nbsp;people per square kilometre in mid-2015,<ref name="pop2015" /> with a particular concentration in London and the south-east.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Khan |first=Urmee |date=16 September 2008 |title=England is most crowded country in Europe |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/newstopics/politics/2967374/England-is-most-crowded-country-in-Europe.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080918221002/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/newstopics/politics/2967374/England-is-most-crowded-country-in-Europe.html |archive-date=18 September 2008 |access-date=5 September 2009 |work=The Telegraph |location=London}}</ref> [[London metropolitan area|London's wider metropolitan area]] is the largest in [[Western Europe]], with a population of 14.9&nbsp;million in 2024.<ref name=":12">{{Cite web |title=Major Agglomerations |url=http://citypopulation.de/en/world/agglomerations |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231004094531/https://www.citypopulation.de/en/world/agglomerations/ |archive-date=4 October 2023 |access-date=16 October 2023}}</ref> The 2011 census put Scotland's population at 5.3&nbsp;million,<ref>{{Cite web |last=Carrell |first=Severin |date=17 December 2012 |title=Scotland's population at record high |url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2012/dec/17/scotland-population-record-high |access-date=18 December 2012 |location=London |newspaper=The Guardian}}</ref> Wales at 3.06&nbsp;million and Northern Ireland at 1.81&nbsp;million.<ref name="2011 UK censuses" /> In 2017, the [[total fertility rate]] across the UK was 1.74 children born per woman.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Vital statistics: population and health reference tables |url=https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/populationandmigration/populationestimates/datasets/vitalstatisticspopulationandhealthreferencetables |access-date=6 March 2018 |website=Office for National Statistics}}</ref> While a rising birth rate is contributing to population growth, it remains considerably below the [[baby boom]] peak of 2.95 children per woman in 1964,<ref>{{Cite news |last=Boseley |first=Sarah |date=14 July 2008 |title=The question: What's behind the baby boom? |url=https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2008/jul/14/familyandrelationships.women |access-date=28 August 2009 |work=The Guardian |location=London |page=3}}</ref> or the high of 6.02 children born per woman in 1815,<ref>{{Citation |last=Roser |first=Max |title=Total Fertility Rate around the world over the last centuries |date=2014 |work=[[Our World in Data]], [[Gapminder Foundation]] |url=https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/children-born-per-woman?year=1800&country=GBR |access-date=10 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190705121623/https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/children-born-per-woman?year=1800&country=GBR |archive-date=5 July 2019}}</ref> below the replacement rate of 2.1, but higher than the 2001 record low of 1.63.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Vital Statistics: Population and Health Reference Tables (February 2014 Update): Annual Time Series Data |url=http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/rel/vsob1/vital-statistics--population-and-health-reference-tables/spring-2014-update/annual-table.xls |access-date=27 April 2014 |publisher=[[Office for National Statistics|ONS]]}}</ref> In 2011, 47.3% of births in the UK were to unmarried women.<ref>[http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/tgm/table.do?tab=table&plugin=0&language=en&pcode=tps00018 Tables, Graphs and Maps Interface (TGM) table]. Eurostat (26 February 2013). Retrieved 12 July 2013.</ref> The [[Office for National Statistics]] reported in 2015 that amoung the UK population aged 16 and over, 1.7% identify as gay, lesbian, or bisexual (2.0% of males and 1.5% of females); 4.5% of respondents responded with "other", "I don't know", or did not respond.<ref>{{Cite web |date=5 October 2016 |title=Sexual identity, UK: 2015 – Experimental Official Statistics on sexual identity in the UK in 2015 by region, sex, age, marital status, ethnicity and NS-SEC |url=https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/culturalidentity/sexuality/bulletins/sexualidentityuk/2015 |access-date=19 January 2017 |publisher=[[Office for National Statistics]]}}</ref> The number of [[transgender]] people in the UK was estimated to be between 65,000 and 300,000 by research between 2001 and 2008.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Research report 27: Trans research review |url=http://www.equalityhumanrights.com/about-us/our-work/key-projects/trans-inequalities-reviewed/introduction-to-the-review |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150706020643/http://www.equalityhumanrights.com/about-us/our-work/key-projects/trans-inequalities-reviewed/introduction-to-the-review |archive-date=6 July 2015 |access-date=26 November 2021 |website=equalityhumanrights.com |page=v}}</ref> {{Largest Urban Areas of the United Kingdom}} === Ethnicity === {{Main|Ethnic groups in the United Kingdom}} Historically, indigenous British people were thought to be [[Genetic history of the British Isles|descended from ethnic groups]] that settled there before the 12th century: the [[Celts]], Romans, Anglo-Saxons, Norse and the [[Normans]]. [[Welsh people]] could be the oldest ethnic group in the UK.<ref>{{Cite news |date=19 June 2012 |title=Welsh people could be most ancient in UK, DNA suggests |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-wales-18489735 |access-date=28 April 2013 |work=BBC News}}</ref> The UK has a history of non-white immigration with [[Liverpool]] having the oldest black population in the country, dating back to at least the 1730s during the African slave trade. During this period, it is estimated the Afro-Caribbean population of Great Britain was 10,000 to 15,000<ref>{{Cite web |date=13 January 2011 |title=Victoria and Albert Museum Black Presence |url=http://www.vam.ac.uk/content/articles/s/silver-service-slavery-the-black-presence-in-the-white-home/}}</ref> which later declined after the abolition of slavery.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Winder |first=Robert |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7ORcaQIgdcEC&q=combed&pg=PT94 |title=Bloody Foreigners: The Story of Immigration to Britain |publisher=Little, Brown Book |date=2010 |isbn=978-0-7481-2396-4}}; {{Cite book |last=Costello |first=Ray |title=Black Liverpool: The Early History of Britain's Oldest Black Community 1730–1918 |url=https://archive.org/details/blackliverpoolea0000cost |publisher=Picton Press |date=2001 |isbn=978-1-873245-07-1 |location=Liverpool}}</ref> The UK also has the oldest [[British Chinese|Chinese]] community in Europe, dating to the arrival of Chinese seamen in the 19th century.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Culture and Ethnicity Differences in Liverpool&nbsp;– Chinese Community |url=http://www.mersey-gateway.org/server.php?show=ConWebDoc.1369 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090724204513/http://www.mersey-gateway.org/server.php?show=ConWebDoc.1369 |archive-date=24 July 2009 |access-date=9 March 2015 |publisher=Chambré Hardman Trust}}</ref> {{As of|2011|alt=In [[United Kingdom Census 2011|2011]]}}, 87.2% of the UK population identified themselves as white, meaning 12.8% of the UK population identify themselves as of one of an [[minority group|ethnic minority]] group.<ref name="ethnicity2011">{{Cite web |date=11 October 2013 |title=2011 Census: Ethnic group, local authorities in the United Kingdom |url=http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/rel/census/2011-census/key-statistics-and-quick-statistics-for-local-authorities-in-the-united-kingdom---part-1/rft-ks201uk.xls |access-date=6 March 2015 |publisher=Office for National Statistics}}</ref> {|class="wikitable" style="text-align:right;" |- ! colspan="2" rowspan="2"|Ethnic group ! colspan="2"|Population (absolute) ! colspan="2" |Population (percent) |- ! 2001 ! 2011 !2001<ref>{{Cite news |date=8 January 2004 |title=Population size: 7.9 per cent from a non-White ethnic group |url=http://www.statistics.gov.uk/cci/nugget.asp?id=455 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040619124235/http://www.statistics.gov.uk/cci/nugget.asp?id=455 |archive-date=19 June 2004 |publisher=Office for National Statistics}}</ref> ! 2011<ref name="ethnicity2011" /> |- |style="text-align:left" colspan="2"|white | 54,153,898 |55,010,359 |92.1% |87.1% |- |style="text-align:left" colspan="2"|white: Gypsy, Traveller and {{Nowrap|Irish Traveller}}{{Efn|The 2011 census recorded Gypsies and Travellers as a separate ethnic group for the first time.}} |– |63,193 |– | 0.1% |- |style="text-align:left" rowspan="5"|Asian and Asian British | style="text-align:left"|Indian | 1,053,411 | 1,451,862 |1.8% | 2.3% |- |style="text-align:left"|Pakistani | 747,285 | 1,174,983 |1.3% | 1.9% |- |style="text-align:left"|Bangladeshi | 283,063 | 451,529 |0.5% | 0.7% |- |style="text-align:left"|Chinese | 247,403 | 433,150 |0.4% | 0.7% |- |style="text-align:left"|Other Asian | 247,664 | 861,815 |0.4% | 1.4% |- |style="text-align:left" colspan="2"|black, African, Caribbean and black British{{Efn|In the 2011 census, for the purpose of harmonising results to make them comparable across the UK, the ONS includes individuals in Scotland who classified themselves in the "African" category (29,638 people), which in the Scottish version of the census is separate from "Caribbean or black" (6,540 people),<ref>{{Cite web |date=2013 |title=Table KS201SC – Ethnic group: All people |url=http://www.scotlandscensus.gov.uk/documents/censusresults/release2a/scotland/KS201SC.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924095926/http://www.scotlandscensus.gov.uk/documents/censusresults/release2a/scotland/KS201SC.pdf |archive-date=24 September 2015 |access-date=28 April 2015 |publisher=National Records of Scotland}}</ref> in this "black or black British" category. The ONS note that "the African categories used in Scotland could potentially capture White/Asian/Other African in addition to black identities".<ref>{{Cite web |date=2 November 2011 |title=Ethnic group |url=http://ons.gov.uk/ons/guide-method/measuring-equality/equality/ethnic-nat-identity-religion/ethnic-group/index.html |access-date=27 April 2015 |publisher=Office for National Statistics}}</ref>}} | 1,148,738 | 1,904,684 |2.0% | 3.0% |- |style="text-align:left" colspan="2"|Mixed or multiple ethnic groups | 677,117 | 1,250,229 |1.2% | 2.0% |- |style="text-align:left" colspan="2"|Other ethnic groups | 230,615 | 580,374 |0.4% | 0.9% |- !style="text-align:left" colspan="2"|Total !style="text-align:right"|58,789,194 !style="text-align:right"|63,182,178 !style="text-align:right"|100.0% !style="text-align:right"|100.0% |} Ethnic diversity varies significantly across the UK. 30.4% of London's population and 37.4% of [[Leicester]]'s was estimated to be non-white {{As of|lc=y|2005|06|alt=in 2005}},<ref>{{Cite web |title=Resident population estimates by ethnic group (percentages): London |url=http://neighbourhood.statistics.gov.uk/dissemination/LeadTableView.do;jsessionid=ac1f930dce6eace0153cf12440ca609dc762c8ae598.e38OaNuRbNuSbi0Ma3aNaxiQbNiLe6fznA5Pp7ftolbGmkTy?a=3&b=276743&c=London&d=13&e=13&g=325264&i=1001x1003x1004&m=0&r=1&s=1201351285750 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/68e5HAPQg?url=http://neighbourhood.statistics.gov.uk/dissemination/LeadTableView.do;jsessionid=ac1f930dce6eace0153cf12440ca609dc762c8ae598.e38OaNuRbNuSbi0Ma3aNaxiQbNiLe6fznA5Pp7ftolbGmkTy?a=3&b=276743&c=London&d=13&e=13&g=325264&i=1001x1003x1004&m=0&r=1&s=1201351285750 |archive-date=23 June 2012 |access-date=23 April 2008 |publisher=Office for National Statistics}}; {{Cite web |title=Resident population estimates by ethnic group (percentages): Leicester |url=http://www.neighbourhood.statistics.gov.uk/dissemination/LeadTableView.do?a=3&b=276827&c=Leicester&d=13&e=13&g=394575&i=1001x1003x1004&m=0&r=1&s=1208962134759&enc=1&dsFamilyId=1812 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120505032447/http://www.neighbourhood.statistics.gov.uk/dissemination/LeadTableView.do?a=3&b=276827&c=Leicester&d=13&e=13&g=394575&i=1001x1003x1004&m=0&r=1&s=1208962134759&enc=1&dsFamilyId=1812 |archive-date=5 May 2012 |access-date=23 April 2008 |publisher=Office for National Statistics}}</ref> whereas less than 5% of the populations of [[North East England]], Wales and the [[South West England|South West]] were from ethnic minorities, according to the 2001 census.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Census 2001&nbsp;– Ethnicity and religion in England and Wales |url=http://www.statistics.gov.uk/census2001/profiles/commentaries/ethnicity.asp |access-date=23 April 2008 |publisher=Office for National Statistics}}</ref> {{As of|2016|alt=In 2016}}, 31.4% of primary and 27.9% of secondary pupils at [[state school]]s in England were members of an ethnic minority.<ref>{{Cite report |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/schools-pupils-and-their-characteristics-january-2016 |title=Schools, pupils and their characteristics: January 2016 |date=28 June 2016 |publisher=Department for Education |page=8 |id=SFR 20/2016 |format=PDF}}</ref> === Languages === {{Main|Languages of the United Kingdom}} The [[English language]] is official, and the most widely spoken language in the United Kingdom.<ref>{{Cite web |title=English language&nbsp;– Government, citizens and rights |url=http://www.direct.gov.uk/en/Governmentcitizensandrights/LivingintheUK/DG_10012519 |archive-url=http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20121015000000/http://www.direct.gov.uk/en/Governmentcitizensandrights/LivingintheUK/DG_10012519 |archive-date=15 October 2012 |access-date=23 August 2011 |website=[[Directgov]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Mac Sithigh |first=Daithí |date=17 May 2018 |title=Official status of languages in the UK and Ireland |url=https://pureadmin.qub.ac.uk/ws/portalfiles/portal/141540053/Status_OA_Feb_2018.pdf |journal=Common Law World Review |publisher=Queen's University, Belfast |volume=47 |issue=1 |pages=77–102 |doi=10.1177/1473779518773642 |s2cid=219987922}}</ref> The United Kingdom promotes the language globally to build connections, understanding and trust between people in the UK and countries worldwide.<ref>British Council {{Cite web |title=British Council &#124; the UK's international culture and education organisation |url=https://www.britishcouncil.org/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230201181104/https://www.britishcouncil.org/ |archive-date=1 February 2023 |access-date=5 December 2018}} (last checked 6 February 2023)</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=About BBC Learning English |url=https://www.bbc.com/learningenglish/english/hygiene |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230204204233/https://www.bbc.com/learningenglish/english/hygiene |archive-date=4 February 2023 |access-date=9 February 2023 |website=BBC}}</ref> It is estimated that 95% of the UK's population are [[monolingual]] English speakers.<ref name="BBC languages">{{Cite web |title=Languages across Europe: United Kingdom |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/languages/european_languages/countries/uk.shtml |access-date=4 February 2013 |website=BBC}}</ref> Over 5% of the population are estimated to speak languages brought to the UK as a result of immigration.<ref name="BBC languages" /> South Asian languages are the largest group, which includes [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]], [[Urdu]], [[Bengali language|Bengali]], [[Sylheti language|Sylheti]], [[Hindi]], [[Pahari-Pothwari]], [[Tamil language|Tamil]], and [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]].<ref>Carl Skutsch (2013). ''Encyclopedia of the World's Minorities''. pp.1261. Routledge. Retrieved 3 December 2020.</ref> According to the 2011 census, [[Polish language|Polish]] has become the second-largest language spoken in England and has 546,000 speakers.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Booth |first=Robert |date=30 January 2013 |title=Polish becomes England's second language |url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2013/jan/30/polish-becomes-englands-second-language |access-date=4 February 2012 |work=The Guardian |location=London}}</ref> In 2019, some three-quarters of a million people spoke little or no English.<ref>{{Cite news |date=23 April 2019 |title=The teenagers who translate for their parents |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/av/uk-47982494/the-teenagers-who-translate-for-their-parents |access-date=23 April 2019 |work=BBC News}}</ref> [[File:Bilingual welcome sign Newry.jpg|thumb|[[Bilingual sign]] ([[Irish language|Irish]] and [[English language|English]]) in [[Newry]], [[Northern Ireland]]]] Three indigenous [[Celtic languages]] are spoken in the UK: [[Welsh language|Welsh]], [[Irish language|Irish]] and [[Scottish Gaelic]]. [[Cornish language|Cornish]], which became extinct as a first language in the late 18th century, is being revived and has a small group of second language speakers.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Track |first1=Robert Lawrence |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oLx9AgAAQBAJ&q=%E2%80%9Cthese+people+speak+the+dead+language+as+a+second+language%E2%80%9D&pg=PA63 |title=Language and Linguistics: The Key Concepts |last2=Stockwell, Peter |date=2007 |isbn=978-0-415-41358-9 |page=63 |publisher=Routledge |access-date=4 August 2019}}; {{Cite web |title=Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities, Strasbourg, 1.II.1995 |url=http://conventions.coe.int/Treaty/en/Treaties/Html/157.htm |access-date=9 March 2015 |publisher=Council of Europe}}; {{Cite web |title=European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages, Strasbourg, 5.XI.1992 |url=http://conventions.coe.int/treaty/en/Treaties/Html/148.htm |access-date=9 March 2015 |publisher=Council of Europe}}</ref><ref name="reglang" /> According to the [[2021 United Kingdom census|2021 census]], the [[Welsh-speaking population]] of Wales aged three or older was 538,300 (17.8%).<ref>{{Cite web |date=6 December 2022 |title=Welsh language in Wales (Census 2021) |url=https://gov.wales/welsh-language-wales-census-2021-html |access-date=6 December 2022 |website=gov.wales |language=en}}</ref> In addition, it is estimated that about 200,000 Welsh speakers live in England.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Wynn Thomas |first=Peter |date=March 2007 |title=Welsh today |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/voices/multilingual/welsh.shtml |access-date=5 July 2011 |website=Voices |publisher=BBC}}</ref> In the 2021 census in Northern Ireland 12.4% of people had some [[Irish language in Northern Ireland|Irish language]] ability and 10.4% of people had some facility in the [[Ulster Scots dialect|Ulster-Scots]] language.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Census 2021: Main statistics for Northern Ireland |url=https://www.nisra.gov.uk/system/files/statistics/census-2021-main-statistics-for-northern-ireland-phase-1-statistical-bulletin-language.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240210110853/https://www.nisra.gov.uk/system/files/statistics/census-2021-main-statistics-for-northern-ireland-phase-1-statistical-bulletin-language.pdf |archive-date=10 February 2024 |access-date=10 February 2024}}</ref> Over 92,000 people in Scotland (just under 2% of the population) had some Gaelic language ability, including 72% of those living in the [[Outer Hebrides]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Scotland's Census 2001&nbsp;– Gaelic Report |url=http://www.gro-scotland.gov.uk/press/news2005/scotlands-census-2001-gaelic-report.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130522110328/http://www.gro-scotland.gov.uk/press/news2005/scotlands-census-2001-gaelic-report.html |archive-date=22 May 2013 |access-date=28 April 2013 |publisher=General Register Office for Scotland}}</ref> The number of children being taught either Welsh or Scottish Gaelic is increasing.<ref>{{Cite news |date=12 February 2009 |title=Local UK languages 'taking off' |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/education/7885493.stm |work=BBC News}}</ref> [[Scots language|Scots]], a language descended from early northern [[Middle English]], has limited [[European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages|recognition]] alongside its regional variant, [[Ulster Scots dialects|Ulster Scots]] in Northern Ireland, without specific commitments to protection and promotion.<ref name="reglang" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=Language Data&nbsp;– Scots |url=http://www.eurolang.net/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=2449&Itemid=52&lang=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070623185445/http://eurolang.net/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=2449&Itemid=52&lang=en |archive-date=23 June 2007 |access-date=2 November 2008 |publisher=European Bureau for Lesser-Used Languages}}</ref> As of April 2020, there are around 151,000 users of [[British Sign Language]] (BSL), a [[sign language]] used by deaf people, in the UK.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Brown |first=Hannah |date=23 April 2020 |title='People are dying because of this': Calls for UK Gov to follow Scotland with sign language interpreter at Covid-19 briefing |url=https://www.scotsman.com/news/politics/people-are-dying-because-calls-uk-gov-follow-scotland-sign-language-interpreter-covid-19-briefing-2547989 |access-date=19 December 2021 |work=The Scotsman}}</ref> === Religion === {{Main|Religion in the United Kingdom}} {{Pie chart |thumb = right |caption = Religion in the United Kingdom (2022 census)<ref>{{Cite web |title=Religion - Office for National Statistics |url=https://www.ons.gov.uk/datasets/TS030/editions/2021/versions/1/filter-outputs/ab7776bd-b2ec-44f9-8acc-4c48a21eb41e#get-data |access-date=29 November 2022 |website=ons.gov.uk}}</ref> |label1= Christianity |value1 = 46.53 |color1 = DodgerBlue |label2 = No religion |value2 = 37.75 |color2 = Gold |label3 = Islam |value3 = 5.97 |color3 = Green |label4 = Hinduism |value4 = 1.59 |color4 = DarkOrange |label5 = Sikhism |value5 = 0.79 |color5 = Red |label6 = Buddhism |value6 = 0.43 |color6 = Yellow |label7 = Judaism |value7 = 0.41 |color7 = Indigo |label8 = Other religion |value8 = 0.58 |color8 = Black |label9 = Not stated |value9 = 5.91 |color9 = Brown }} Christianity has dominated [[History of Christianity in Britain|religious life in the United Kingdom]] for more than 1,400 years.<ref>Cannon, John, ed. (2nd edn., 2009). [https://books.google.com/books?id=TYnfhTq2M7EC&pg=PA144 ''A Dictionary of British History'']. Oxford University Press. p. 144. {{ISBN|978-0-19-955037-1}}.</ref> Although a majority of citizens still identify with Christianity in surveys, regular church attendance has fallen dramatically since the middle of the 20th century,<ref>Field, Clive D. (November 2009). [https://web.archive.org/web/20180717052125/http://www.brin.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/2011/12/development-of-religious-statistics.pdf "British religion in numbers"]. BRIN Discussion Series on Religious Statistics, Discussion Paper 001. Retrieved 7 March 2015.</ref> while immigration and demographic change have contributed to the growth of Islam and other faiths.<ref>Yilmaz, Ihsan (2005). [https://books.google.com/books?id=ryrD2YODzxUC&pg=PA291 ''Muslim Laws, Politics and Society in Modern Nation States: Dynamic Legal Pluralisms in England, Turkey, and Pakistan'']. Aldershot: Ashgate Publishing. pp. 55–56. {{ISBN|978-0-7546-4389-0}}.</ref> This has led some commentators to describe the UK as a multi-faith,<ref>Brown, Callum G. (2006). [https://books.google.com/books?id=ryrD2YODzxUC&pg=PA291 ''Religion and Society in Twentieth-Century Britain'']. Harlow: Pearson Education. p. 291. {{ISBN|978-0-582-47289-1}}.</ref> [[secularised]],<ref>Norris, Pippa; Inglehart, Ronald (2004). [https://books.google.com/books?id=dto-P2YfWJIC&pg=PA84 ''Sacred and Secular: Religion and Politics Worldwide'']. Cambridge University Press. p. 84. {{ISBN|978-0-521-83984-6}}.</ref> or [[post-Christian]] society.<ref>Fergusson, David (2004). [https://books.google.com/books?id=Owz4aBSEINgC&pg=PA94 ''Church, State and Civil Society'']. Cambridge University Press. p. 94. {{ISBN|978-0-521-52959-4}}.</ref> In the 2001 census, 71.6% of respondents reported that they were Christians, with the next largest faiths being [[Islam in the United Kingdom|Islam]] (2.8%), [[Hinduism in the United Kingdom|Hinduism]] (1.0%), [[Sikhism in the United Kingdom|Sikhism]] (0.6%), [[Judaism in the United Kingdom|Judaism]] (0.5%), [[Buddhism in the United Kingdom|Buddhism]] (0.3%) and all other religions (0.3%).<ref>{{Cite web |title=UK Census 2001 |url=http://www.statistics.gov.uk/cci/nugget.asp?id=293 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070312034628/http://www.statistics.gov.uk/cci/nugget.asp?id=293 <!--Added by H3llBot--> |archive-date=12 March 2007 |access-date=22 April 2007 |website=Office for National Statistics}}</ref> Of the respondents, 15% stated that they had [[Irreligion in the United Kingdom|no religion]] and a further 7% stated no religious preference.<ref>{{Cite web |date=11 October 2004 |title=Religious Populations |url=http://www.scotland.gov.uk/Publications/2005/02/20757/53570 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110604111413/http://www.statistics.gov.uk/cci/nugget.asp?id=954 |archive-date=4 June 2011 |website=Office for National Statistics}}</ref> A [[Tearfund]] survey in 2007 showed that only one in ten Britons attend church weekly.<ref>{{Cite web |date=4 April 2007 |title=United Kingdom: New Report Finds Only One in 10 Attend Church |url=http://news.adventist.org/2007/04/uite-kigom-ew-report-fis-oly-oe-i-10-atte-church.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111213155625/http://news.adventist.org/2007/04/uite-kigom-ew-report-fis-oly-oe-i-10-atte-church.html |archive-date=13 December 2011 |access-date=9 March 2015 |website=News.adventist.org}}</ref> Between the 2001 and 2011 census, there was a 12% decrease in those who identified as Christian, while the percentage reporting no religious affiliation doubled. This contrasted with growth in the other main religious group categories, with the number of Muslims increasing the most to about 5%.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Philby |first=Charlotte |date=12 December 2012 |title=Less religious and more ethnically diverse: Census reveals a picture of Britain today |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/less-religious-and-more-ethnically-diverse-census-reveals-a-picture-of-britain-today-8406506.html |work=[[The Independent|Independent]] |location=London}}</ref> The Muslim population has increased from 1.6&nbsp;million in 2001 to 2.7&nbsp;million in 2011, making it the second-largest religious group in the UK.<ref>{{Cite web |date=4 April 2013 |title=The percentage of the population with no religion has increased in England and Wales |url=http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/rel/census/2011-census/key-statistics-for-local-authorities-in-england-and-wales/sty-religion.html |website=Office for National Statistics}}</ref> The Church of England is the [[State religion|established church]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2004 |title=The History of the Church of England |url=http://www.cofe.anglican.org/about/history/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100221212004/http://www.cofe.anglican.org/about/history |archive-date=21 February 2010 |access-date=23 November 2008 |website=The Church of England}}</ref> It retains [[Lords Spiritual|representation]] in the UK Parliament, and the British monarch is its [[Supreme Governor of the Church of England|Supreme Governor]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Queen and Church of England |url=http://www.royalinsight.gov.uk/output/Page4708.asp |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061008203611/http://www.royalinsight.gov.uk/output/Page4708.asp |archive-date=8 October 2006 |access-date=5 June 2010 |publisher=British Monarchy Media Centre}}</ref> In [[religion in Scotland|Scotland]], the [[Church of Scotland]] is the [[national church]]. It is not subject to state control, and the British monarch is an ordinary member, required to swear an oath to "maintain and preserve the Protestant Religion and [[Presbyterian polity|Presbyterian Church Government]]" upon his or her accession.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Queen and the Church |url=http://www.royal.gov.uk/MonarchUK/QueenandChurch/History.aspx |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110605025533/http://www.royal.gov.uk/MonarchUK/QueenandChurch/History.aspx |archive-date=5 June 2011 |publisher=The British Monarchy (Official Website)}}</ref><ref name="reglang" /><ref>{{Cite web |date=22 February 2010 |title=Our structure |url=https://www.churchofscotland.org.uk/about-us/our-structure |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200125192732/https://www.churchofscotland.org.uk/about-us/our-structure |archive-date=25 January 2020 |website=churchofscotland.org.uk}}</ref> The [[Church in Wales]] was disestablished in 1920 and, because the [[Church of Ireland]] was disestablished in 1870 before the [[partition of Ireland]], there is no established church in Northern Ireland.<ref>Weller, Paul (2005). [https://books.google.com/books?id=tHc88PzAPLMC&pg=PA80 ''Time for a Change: Reconfiguring Religion, State, and Society'']. London: Continuum. pp. 79–80. {{ISBN|978-0-567-08487-3}}.</ref> Although there are no UK-wide data in the 2001 census on adherence to individual Christian denominations, it has been estimated that 62% of Christians are Anglican, 13.5% Catholic, 6% Presbyterian, and 3.4% Methodist, with smaller numbers of other denominations.<ref>Peach, Ceri, [https://books.google.com/books?id=i6ER_z8gcD4C "United Kingdom, a major transformation of the religious landscape"], in H. Knippenberg. ed. (2005). ''The Changing Religious Landscape of Europe''. Amsterdam: Het Spinhuis. pp. 44–58. {{ISBN|978-90-5589-248-8}}.</ref> === Migration === {{Main|Historical immigration to Great Britain|Modern immigration to the United Kingdom}} {{See also|Foreign-born population of the United Kingdom}} [[File:United Kingdom foreign born population by country of birth.png|thumb|upright=1.35|Estimated foreign-born population by country of birth from April 2007&nbsp;to March 2008]] [[File:British expats countrymap.svg|thumb|upright=1.35|Estimated number of British citizens living overseas by country in 2006]] Immigration is contributing to a rising UK population,<ref>{{Cite news |date=21 August 2008 |title=Immigration and births to non-British mothers pushes British population to record high |url=https://www.standard.co.uk/news/immigration-and-births-to-nonbritish-mothers-pushes-british-population-to-record-high-6816318.html |work=London Evening Standard}}</ref><ref name="bbc-23-05-2024">{{cite news |title=Migration: How many people come to the UK and how are the salary rules changing? |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-48785695 |work=BBC News |date=23 May 2024}}</ref> with arrivals and UK-born children of migrants accounting for about half of the population increase between 1991 and 2001. According to statistics released in 2015, 27% of UK live births in 2014 were to mothers born outside the UK.<ref>{{Cite web |date=15 July 2015 |title=Births in England and Wales: 2014 |url=http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/rel/vsob1/birth-summary-tables--england-and-wales/2014/index.html |website=Office for National Statistics}}</ref> The ONS reported that net migration rose from 2009 to 2010 by 21% to 239,000.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Travis |first=Alan |date=25 August 2011 |title=UK net migration rises 21 per cent |url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2011/aug/25/uk-net-migration-rises-21 |work=The Guardian |location=London}}</ref> In 2013, approximately 208,000 foreign nationals were naturalised as British citizens, the highest number since 1962. This figure fell to around 125,800 in 2014. Between 2009 and 2013, the average number of British citizenships granted annually was 195,800. The most common origins of those naturalised in 2014 were Indian, Pakistani, [[Philippines|Filipino]], [[Nigeria]]n, [[Bangladesh]]i, [[Nepal]]i, Chinese, South African, Polish and [[Somalia|Somali]].<ref name="Blinder2015">{{Cite web |last=Blinder |first=Scott |date=27 March 2015 |title=Naturalisation as a British Citizen: Concepts and Trends |url=http://www.migrationobservatory.ox.ac.uk/sites/files/migobs/Briefing%20-%20Naturalisation%20as%20a%20British%20Citizen%20-%20Concepts%20and%20Trends_0.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150916052200/http://www.migrationobservatory.ox.ac.uk/sites/files/migobs/Briefing%20-%20Naturalisation%20as%20a%20British%20Citizen%20-%20Concepts%20and%20Trends_0.pdf |archive-date=16 September 2015 |access-date=1 August 2015 |publisher=The Migration Observatory, University of Oxford}}</ref> The number of grants of settlement, which confer [[Permanent residency|permanent residence]] in the UK but not citizenship,<ref>{{Cite web |last=Blinder |first=Scott |date=11 June 2014 |title=Settlement in the UK |url=http://www.migrationobservatory.ox.ac.uk/briefings/settlement-uk |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150906232123/http://migrationobservatory.ox.ac.uk/briefings/settlement-uk |archive-date=6 September 2015 |access-date=1 August 2015 |publisher=The Migration Observatory, University of Oxford}}</ref> was approximately 154,700 in 2013, higher than the previous two years.<ref name="Blinder2015" /> Long-term net migration (the number of people immigrating minus the number emigrating) reached a record of 764,000 in 2022, with immigration at 1.26&nbsp;million and emigration at 493,000.<ref>{{cite news |title=Net migration drops to 685,000 after hitting record levels, as even more arrived in UK last year than previously thought |url=https://www.lbc.co.uk/news/net-migration-drops-to-685-000/ |date=23 May 2024 |work=[[LBC]]}}</ref> In 2023, net migration was 685,000; 10% of the total who came to the UK in that year were EU Nationals.<ref name="bbc-23-05-2024"/> More EU Nationals left the UK than arrived.<ref name="bbc-23-05-2024"/> [[British diaspora|Emigration]] was an important feature of British society in the 19th century. Between 1815 and 1930, around 11.4&nbsp;million people emigrated from Britain and 7.3&nbsp;million from Ireland. Estimates show that by the end of the 20th century, some 300&nbsp;million people of British and Irish descent were permanently settled around the globe.<ref>Richards (2004), pp. 6–7.</ref> {{asof|2006}} at least 5.5&nbsp;million UK-born people lived abroad,<ref name="BritsAbroad">{{Cite web |last1=Sriskandarajah |first1=Dhananjayan |last2=Drew |first2=Catherine |date=11 December 2006 |title=Brits Abroad: Mapping the scale and nature of British emigration |url=http://www.ippr.org/publicationsandreports/publication.asp?id=509 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070828011816/http://www.ippr.org/publicationsandreports/publication.asp?id=509 |archive-date=28 August 2007 |access-date=9 March 2015 |publisher=Institute for Public Policy Research}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=Brits Abroad: world overview |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/shared/spl/hi/in_depth/brits_abroad/html/default.stm |access-date=20 April 2007 |publisher=BBC}}; {{Cite news |last=Casciani |first=Dominic |date=11 December 2006 |title=5.5&nbsp;m Britons 'opt to live abroad' |work=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/6210358.stm |access-date=20 April 2007}}</ref> mainly in Australia, Spain, the United States and Canada.<ref name="BritsAbroad" /><ref>{{Cite news |date=11 December 2006 |title=Brits Abroad: Country-by-country |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/6161705.stm |work=BBC News}}</ref> === Education === {{Main|Education in the United Kingdom|Universities in the United Kingdom}} {{Further|Education in England|Education in Scotland|Education in Wales|Education in Northern Ireland}} [[File:1 christ church hall 2012.jpg|thumb|The [[University of Oxford]] is widely regarded as one of the world's leading universities.]] Education in the United Kingdom is a [[Devolution|devolved]] matter, with each country having a separate education system. About 38% of the United Kingdom population has a university or [[college degree]], which is the highest percentage in Europe, and among the highest percentage in the world.<ref>{{Cite web |date=24 September 2012 |title=The Most Educated Countries in the World |url=https://finance.yahoo.com/news/the-most-educated-countries-in-the-world.html;_ylt=AlaWy8IcyeBaviKi7_.WJyhE6odG;_ylu=X3oDMTJrY2d2NGZyBG1pdANDeFMgRmluYW5jaWFsbHkgRml0IEFydGljbGUgQXJ0aWNsZSBCb2R5IFByb2QEcG9zAzMEc2VjA01lZGlhQXJ0aWNsZUJvZHlBc3NlbWJseQ--;_ylg=X3oDMTNjdGVoaXJqBGludGwDdXMEbGFuZwNlbi11cwRwc3RhaWQDY2IyOTRhMGEtYmY2OS0zYTdlLThlYTUtZWFlNTU3YWI1ZTc3BHBzdGNhdANleGNsdXNpdmVzfGZpbmFuY2lhbGx5Zml0BHB0A3N0b3J5cGFnZQ--;_ylv=3?page=1 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160204213400/http://finance.yahoo.com/news/the-most-educated-countries-in-the-world.html%3B_ylt%3DAlaWy8IcyeBaviKi7_.WJyhE6odG%3B_ylu%3DX3oDMTJrY2d2NGZyBG1pdANDeFMgRmluYW5jaWFsbHkgRml0IEFydGljbGUgQXJ0aWNsZSBCb2R5IFByb2QEcG9zAzMEc2VjA01lZGlhQXJ0aWNsZUJvZHlBc3NlbWJseQ--%3B_ylg%3DX3oDMTNjdGVoaXJqBGludGwDdXMEbGFuZwNlbi11cwRwc3RhaWQDY2IyOTRhMGEtYmY2OS0zYTdlLThlYTUtZWFlNTU3YWI1ZTc3BHBzdGNhdANleGNsdXNpdmVzfGZpbmFuY2lhbGx5Zml0BHB0A3N0b3J5cGFnZQ--%3B_ylv%3D3?page=1 |archive-date=4 February 2016 |access-date=20 April 2016 |website=Yahoo Finance}}; {{Cite magazine |date=27 September 2012 |title=And the World's Most Educated Country Is… |url=https://newsfeed.time.com/2012/09/27/and-the-worlds-most-educated-country-is/ |magazine=Time |location=New York |access-date=20 April 2016}}</ref> The United Kingdom is home to [[List of universities in the United Kingdom|many universities]], including the [[University of Oxford]] and [[University of Cambridge]] which often achieve first place on global rankings.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Times Higher Education World University Rankings 2024 |date=25 September 2023 |url=https://www.timeshighereducation.com/world-university-rankings/2024/world-ranking |access-date=17 April 2024 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=QS World University Rankings 2024|url=https://www.topuniversities.com/university-rankings/world-university-rankings/2024 |access-date=17 April 2024 |language=en}}</ref> University education has varied tuition fees in different regions of the UK. England and Wales have a fixed maximum annual fee for all UK citizens, contingent on attaining a certain level of income. Only those who reach a certain salary threshold (£21,000) pay this fee through [[Taxation in the United Kingdom|general taxation]]. Northern Ireland and Scotland have a reduced maximum fee or no fee for citizens where it is their home region. Some NHS courses have bursaries which pay the fee and in 2017 it was stated that each doctor gets subsidised by £230,000 during their training.<ref>{{Cite web |date=20 October 2014 |title=Undergraduate Tuition Fess and Student Loans |url=https://www.ucas.com/money-and-student-life/money/student-finance/undergraduate-tuition-fees-and-student-loans |access-date=24 February 2024 |website=UCAS}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=More undergraduate medical education places |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/news/more-undergraduate-medical-education-places |access-date=24 February 2024 |website=gov.uk}}</ref> In 2022, the [[Programme for International Student Assessment]] (PISA), coordinated by the [[OECD]], ranked the overall knowledge and skills of British 15-year-olds as 14th in the world in reading, mathematics and science. The average British student scored 494, above the OECD average of 478.<ref>{{Cite web |title=PISA 2022 Results |url=https://www.datapandas.org/ranking/pisa-scores-by-country |access-date=24 February 2024 |website=Data Pandas}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=PISA 2022 UK Results |url=https://www.oecd.org/publication/pisa-2022-results/country-notes/united-kingdom-9c15db47#chapter-d1e11 |access-date=24 February 2024 |website=OECD|date=4 December 2023 }}</ref> === Healthcare === {{Main||Healthcare in the United Kingdom}}{{Further|Healthcare in England|Healthcare in Scotland|Healthcare in Wales|}}[[File:QEUH.jpg|thumb|right|[[NHS Scotland]]'s [[Queen Elizabeth University Hospital]] in Glasgow, the largest hospital campus in Europe]] The modern system of [[Universal service|universal]] [[Publicly funded health care|publicly funded healthcare]] in the United Kingdom has its origins in the creation of the [[National Health Service]] (NHS) in 1949, which still exists and is the primary healthcare provider in the United Kingdom. The widespread popularity of the NHS has led to it being described as a "national religion".<ref>{{Cite news |last=Gill |first=Martha |date=9 July 2023 |title=To those who claim the NHS has turned into a British religion, I say: keep the faith |url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2023/jul/09/nhs-british-religion-keep-faith-nhs-at-75 |access-date=16 July 2023 |work=The Observer |language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=14 April 2020 |title=Is the NHS our new national religion? – Religion Media Centre |url=https://religionmediacentre.org.uk/news/is-the-nhs-our-new-national-religion/ |access-date=16 July 2023 |website=religionmediacentre.org.uk}}</ref> Healthcare in the United Kingdom is a [[Devolution|devolved matter]] and each country has its own system of universal publicly funded healthcare, although private healthcare is also available. Public healthcare is provided to all [[British nationality law|UK permanent residents]] and is mostly free at the point of need, being paid for from [[Taxation in the United Kingdom|general taxation]]. The [[World Health Organization]], in 2000, ranked the provision of healthcare in the United Kingdom as fifteenth best in Europe and eighteenth in the world.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/worldhealthrepor00worl |title=The world health report 2000&nbsp;– Health systems: improving performance |publisher=World Health Organization |date=2000 |isbn=978-92-4-156198-3 |editor-last=Haden |editor-first=Angela |location=Geneva |access-date=5 July 2011 |editor-last2=Campanini |editor-first2=Barbara}}; {{Cite web |last=World Health Organization |author-link=World Health Organization |title=Measuring overall health system performance for 191 countries |url=http://pages.stern.nyu.edu/~wgreene/Statistics/WHO-COMP-Study-30.pdf |access-date=5 July 2011 |publisher=New York University}}</ref> Since 1979, expenditure on healthcare has increased significantly.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fisher |first=Peter |title=The NHS from Thatcher to Blair |url=http://www.healthp.org/node/71 |journal=NHS Consultants Association |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181120124807/http://www.healthp.org/node/71 |archive-date=20 November 2018 |access-date=19 December 2018 |quote=The Budget&nbsp;... was even more generous to the NHS than had been expected amounting to an annual rise of 7.4 per cent above the rate of inflation for the next five years. This would take us to 9.4 per cent of GDP spent on health ie around EU average.}}</ref> The 2018 [[OECD]] data, which incorporates in health a chunk of what in the UK is classified as social care, has the UK spending £3,121 per person.<ref>{{Cite news |date=24 September 2019 |title=Swindells: They aren't 'your' patients |url=https://www.hsj.co.uk/policy-and-regulation/swindells-they-arent-your-patients/7025988.article? |access-date=19 November 2019 |publisher=Health Service Journal}}</ref> In 2017, the UK spent £2,989 per person on healthcare, near the median for members of the [[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=29 August 2019 |title=How does UK healthcare spending compare with other countries? |url=https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/healthandsocialcare/healthcaresystem/articles/howdoesukhealthcarespendingcomparewithothercountries/2019-08-29 |access-date=5 October 2019 |publisher=Office of National Statistics}}</ref> Regulatory bodies are organised on a UK-wide basis such as the [[General Medical Council]], the [[Nursing and Midwifery Council]] and non-governmental-based, such as the [[Medical royal college|Royal College]]s. Political and operational responsibility for healthcare lies with four national [[executive (government)|executives]]; [[healthcare in England]] is the responsibility of the UK Government; [[healthcare in Northern Ireland]] is the responsibility of the [[Northern Ireland Executive]]; [[healthcare in Scotland]] is the responsibility of the [[Scottish Government]]; and [[healthcare in Wales]] is the responsibility of the [[Welsh Government]]. Each [[National Health Service]] has different policies and priorities, resulting in contrasts.<ref>{{Cite news |date=28 August 2008 |title='Huge contrasts' in devolved NHS |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/7586147.stm |work=BBC News}}; {{Cite news |last=Triggle |first=Nick |date=2 January 2008 |title=NHS now four different systems |work=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/7149423.stm}}</ref> == Culture == {{Main|Culture of the United Kingdom}} The culture of the United Kingdom is influenced by the nation's island status, [[History of the United Kingdom|its history]], and being a [[political union]] of four countries with each preserving distinctive traditions, customs and symbolism. British influence can be observed in [[English language|the language]], culture and [[Common law|legal systems]] of many of [[List of countries that have gained independence from the United Kingdom|its former colonies]], in particular, the United States, Australia, Canada, New Zealand, and Ireland, a common culture known as the [[Anglosphere]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Julian Go |title=Constitutionalism and political reconstruction |date=2007 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-15174-1 |editor-last=Arjomand |editor-first=Saïd Amir |pages=92–94 |chapter=A Globalizing Constitutionalism?, Views from the Postcolony, 1945–2000 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kYmmnYKEvE0C&pg=PA94}}</ref>{{Sfn|Ferguson|2004|p=307}} The influence of the United Kingdom has led to it being described as a [[cultural superpower]].<ref name="culture">{{Cite journal|url=http://www.britishpoliticssociety.no/British%20Politics%20Review%2001_2011.pdf |title=The cultural superpower: British cultural projection abroad |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180916155419/http://www.britishpoliticssociety.no/British%20Politics%20Review%2001_2011.pdf|archive-date=16 September 2018 |url-status=dead |journal=British Politics Review |location=Norway |volume=6 |issue=1 |date=Winter 2011 |issn=1890-4505 |publisher=British Politics Society}}</ref><ref name="sheridan">{{Cite news |last=Sheridan |first=Greg |date=15 May 2010 |title=Cameron has chance to make UK great again |work=The Australian |location=Sydney |url= http://www.theaustralian.com.au/news/opinion/cameron-has-chance-to-make-uk-great-again/story-e6frg6zo-1225866975992 |access-date=20 May 2012}}</ref> A global survey in 2023 ranked the UK 3rd in the 'Most Influential Countries' rankings, behind the US and China.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Most Influential Countries |url=https://www.usnews.com/news/best-countries/most-influential-countries |access-date=14 March 2024 |website=U.S. News & World Report}}</ref> === Literature === {{Main|British literature}} {{multiple image | align = right | total_width = 320 | image1 = PG 1063Burns Naysmith.jpg | alt1 = Robert Burns | caption1 = [[Robert Burns]] (1759–1796) | image2 = William Shakespeare by John Taylor, edited.jpg | alt2 = William Shakespeare | caption2 = [[William Shakespeare]] (1564–1616) | footer = Burns and Shakespeare are considered the [[national poet]]s of Scotland and England respectively. }} British literature includes that associated with the United Kingdom, the [[Isle of Man]] and the [[Channel Islands]]. Most British literature is in English. In 2022, 669&nbsp;million physical books were sold in the UK, which is the most ever.<ref>{{Cite web |title=UK publishing industry reports record-breaking year in 2022 |url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2023/apr/17/uk-publishing-industry-reports-record-breaking-year-in-2022 |access-date=9 May 2024 |work=The Guardian|date=17 April 2023}}</ref> Britain is renowned for [[Literature for children|children's literature]], writers includes [[Daniel Defoe]], [[Rudyard Kipling]], [[Lewis Carroll]] and [[Beatrix Potter]] who also illustrated her own books. Other writers include [[A.A. Milne]], [[Enid Blyton]], [[J.R.R. Tolkien]], [[Roald Dahl]], [[Terry Pratchett]], and [[J.K. Rowling]] who wrote the best selling book series of all time.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Best-selling Book Series Of All Time |url=https://wordsrated.com/best-selling-book-series-of-all-time-statistics/ |access-date=18 May 2024 |publisher=Wordsrated|date=20 July 2023}}</ref> The English playwright and poet [[William Shakespeare]] is generally regarded as the greatest dramatist ever.<ref>{{Cite web |title=William Shakespeare (English author) |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/537853/William-Shakespeare |access-date=26 February 2006 |publisher=Britannica Online encyclopedia}}; {{Cite encyclopedia |title=MSN Encarta Encyclopedia article on Shakespeare |url=http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761562101/Shakespeare.html |access-date=26 February 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060209154055/http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761562101/Shakespeare.html |archive-date=9 February 2006}}; {{Cite encyclopedia |title=William Shakespeare |publisher=Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia |url=http://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/Shakespeare%2c+William |access-date=26 February 2006}}</ref> Other important English writers are [[Geoffrey Chaucer]], known for [[The Canterbury Tales]], the poet [[William Wordsworth]], and other [[Romantic Poetry|romantic poets]], also the novelists [[Charles Dickens]], [[H. G. Wells]], [[George Orwell]], and [[Ian Fleming]]. The 20th-century English crime writer [[Agatha Christie]] is the [[List of best-selling fiction authors|best-selling novelist]] of all time.<ref>{{Cite news |date=19 December 2005 |title=Mystery of Christie's success is solved |work=The Telegraph |location=London |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1505799/Mystery-of-Christies-success-is-solved.html |url-status=live |url-access=subscription |access-date=14 November 2010 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1505799/Mystery-of-Christies-success-is-solved.html |archive-date=10 January 2022}}{{Cbignore}}</ref> Twelve of the top 25 of 100 novels by British writers chosen by a BBC poll of global critics were written by women; these included works by [[George Eliot]], [[Virginia Woolf]], [[Charlotte Brontë|Charlotte]], [[Emily Brontë]], [[Mary Shelley]], [[Jane Austen]], [[Doris Lessing]], and [[Zadie Smith]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Ciabattari |first=Jane |date=December 2015 |title=The 25 greatest British novels |work=BBC Culture |url=https://www.bbc.com/culture/article/20151204-the-25-greatest-british-novels |access-date=29 December 2021}}</ref> [[Scottish literature|Scotland's contributions]] include [[Arthur Conan Doyle]] (the creator of [[Sherlock Holmes]]), [[Walter Scott|Sir Walter Scott]], [[J. M. Barrie]], [[Robert Louis Stevenson]], and the poet [[Robert Burns]]. More recently [[Hugh MacDiarmid]] and [[Neil M. Gunn]] contributed to the [[Scottish Renaissance]], with grimmer works from [[Ian Rankin]] and [[Iain Banks]]. Scotland's capital, Edinburgh, was UNESCO's first worldwide [[City of Literature]].<ref>{{Cite web |year=2004 |title=Edinburgh, United Kingdom, UNESCO City of Literature |url=http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/creativity/creative-industries/creative-cities-network/literature/edinburgh |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130528152834/http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/creativity/creative-industries/creative-cities-network/literature/edinburgh |archive-date=28 May 2013 |url-status=dead |access-date=9 March 2015 |work=Unesco}}</ref> Welsh literature includes Britain's oldest known poem, ''[[Y Gododdin]]'', which was composed most likely in the late 6th century. It was written in [[Cumbric language|Cumbric]] or [[Old Welsh]] and contains the earliest known reference to [[King Arthur]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Early Welsh poetry |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/wales/history/sites/themes/society/language_poetry.shtml |access-date=29 December 2010 |work=BBC Wales}}</ref> The Arthurian legend was further developed by [[Geoffrey of Monmouth]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lang, Andrew |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dKJiPyyTevgC |title=History of English Literature from Beowulf to Swinburne |publisher=Wildside Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-8095-3229-2 |location=Holicong, PA |page=42 |orig-date=1913}}</ref> Poet [[Dafydd ap Gwilym]] (''fl.''&nbsp;1320–1370) is regarded as one of the greatest European poets of his age.<ref>{{Cite web |year=2011 |title=Dafydd ap Gwilym |url=http://www.academi.org/dafydd-ap-gwilym-eng |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120324034938/http://www.literaturewales.org/dafydd-ap-gwilym-eng |archive-date=24 March 2012 |url-status=dead |access-date=3 January 2011 |website=[[Literature Wales|Academi.org]] |quote=Dafydd ap Gwilym is widely regarded as one of the greatest Welsh poets of all time, and amongst the leading European poets of the Middle Ages.}}</ref> [[Daniel Owen]] is credited as the first Welsh-language novelist, publishing ''[[Rhys Lewis (novel)|Rhys Lewis]]'' in 1885. The best-known of the [[Anglo-Welsh poetry|Anglo-Welsh poets]] are [[Dylan Thomas]] and [[R. S. Thomas]], the latter nominated for the [[Nobel Prize in Literature]] in 1996. Leading Welsh novelists of the twentieth century include [[Richard Llewellyn]] and [[Kate Roberts (author)|Kate Roberts]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://newsalerts.bbc.co.uk/1/low/wales/551486.stm |title=True birthplace of Wales's literary hero |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200316173733/http://newscdn.bbc.net.uk/2/hi/uk_news/wales/551486.stm |archive-date=16 March 2020 |url-status=dead |website=BBC News |date=5 December 1999 |access-date=28 April 2012}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Kate Roberts: Biography |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/wales/northwest/halloffame/arts/kateroberts.shtml |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120724104228/http://www.bbc.co.uk/wales/northwest/halloffame/arts/kateroberts.shtml |archive-date=24 July 2012 |url-status=dead |access-date=19 February 2017 |website=BBC Wales}}</ref> Northern Ireland's most popular writer is [[C. S. Lewis]] who was born in [[Belfast]] and wrote [[The Chronicles of Narnia]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Chronicles of Narnia Book Series Statistics |url=https://wordsrated.com/the-chronicles-of-narnia-book-series-statistics/ |access-date=18 May 2024 |publisher=Wordsrated|date=19 July 2023}}</ref> Irish writers, living at a time when all of Ireland was part of the United Kingdom, include [[Oscar Wilde]],<ref>{{Cite book |last=Varty |first=Anne |title=A Preface to Oscar Wilde |date=2014 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-89231-1 |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=A9YFBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA231 231–232]}}; {{Cite encyclopedia |title=Oscar Wilde |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopedia.com]] |publisher=[[Cengage]] |url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/people/literature-and-arts/english-literature-19th-cent-biographies/oscar-wilde |access-date=10 December 2019}}</ref> [[Bram Stoker]],<ref>{{Cite book |last=Moss |first=Joyce |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780787637286 |title=British and Irish Literature and Its Times: The Victorian Era to the Present (1837–) |publisher=Gale Group |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-7876-3729-3 |page=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780787637286/page/107 107] |url-access=registration}}</ref> and [[George Bernard Shaw]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Holroyd |first=Michael |url=https://archive.org/details/bernardshaw00holr/page/384 |title=Bernard Shaw, Volume 2: 1898–1918: The Pursuit of Power |publisher=Chatto & Windus |year=1989 |isbn=978-0-7011-3350-4 |page=[https://archive.org/details/bernardshaw00holr/page/384 384] }}; {{Cite web |title=G B Shaw |url=https://www.bl.uk/people/g-b-shaw |access-date=10 December 2019 |website=Discovering Literature: 20th century |publisher=[[British Library]] |archive-date=9 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200809155152/https://www.bl.uk/people/g-b-shaw |url-status=dead }}</ref> There have been many authors whose origins were from outside the United Kingdom but who moved to the UK, including [[Joseph Conrad]],<ref>{{Cite book |last=Middleton |first=Tim |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Azd1f8NBpUoC&pg=PA159 |title=Joseph Conrad |publisher=Routledge |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-415-26851-6 |page=159}}</ref> [[T. S. Eliot]],<ref>{{Cite book |last=Cooper |first=John Xiros |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XqmNjQzhwV4C&pg=PA111 |title=The Cambridge Introduction to T. S. Eliot |date=2006 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-139-45790-3 |page=111}}</ref> [[Kazuo Ishiguro]],<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sim |first=Wai-chew |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WcKLAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT201 |title=Kazuo Ishiguro |date=2009 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-135-19867-1 |page=201}}</ref> Sir [[Salman Rushdie]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=Salman Rushdie |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100433765 |access-date=10 December 2019 |website=Oxford Reference |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]}}</ref> and [[Ezra Pound]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Campbell |first=James |date=17 May 2008 |title=Home from home |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2008/may/17/poetry3 |access-date=10 December 2019}}; {{Cite book |last=Nadel |first=Ira |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ECiGDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA90 |title=Ezra Pound: A Literary Life |date=2004 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=978-0-230-37881-0 |page=90}}</ref> === Philosophy === {{Main|British philosophy}} The United Kingdom is famous for '[[British Empiricism]]', a branch of the philosophy that states that only knowledge verified by experience is valid, and 'Scottish Philosophy', sometimes referred to as the '[[Scottish School of Common Sense]]'.<ref>{{Cite book |url=http://www.rrbltd.co.uk/bibliographies/scottish_v5_bibliog.pdf |title=A bibliography of Scottish common sense philosophy: Sources and origins |publisher=Thoemmes Press |year=2000 |editor-last=Fieser, James |location=Bristol |access-date=17 December 2010 |archive-date=9 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230409171906/https://www.rrbltd.co.uk/bibliographies/scottish_v5_bibliog.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> The most famous philosophers of British Empiricism are [[John Locke]], [[George Berkeley]]{{Efn|Berkeley is in fact Irish but was called a 'British empiricist' due to the territory of what is now known as the [[Republic of Ireland]] being in the UK at the time.}} and [[David Hume]]; while [[Dugald Stewart]], [[Thomas Reid]], and [[Sir William Hamilton, 9th Baronet|William Hamilton]] were major exponents of the Scottish "common sense" school. Two Britons are also notable for the ethical theory of [[utilitarianism]], a moral philosophy first used by [[Jeremy Bentham]] and later by [[John Stuart Mill]] in his short work ''[[Utilitarianism (book)|Utilitarianism]]''.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Palmer, Michael |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=s7y5MJOuN30C&pg=PA66 |title=Moral Problems in Medicine: A Practical Coursebook |publisher=Lutterworth Press |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-7188-2978-0 |location=Cambridge |page=66}}; {{Cite book |last=Scarre, Geoffrey |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8A4xLnzfqYwC&pg=PA82 |title=Utilitarianism |publisher=Routledge |year=1995 |isbn=978-0-415-12197-2 |location=London |page=82}}</ref> === Music === {{Main|Music of the United Kingdom}} {{see|Music of England|Music of Scotland|Music of Northern Ireland|Music of Wales}} <!----Caution should be taken to ensure that the sections are not simply a listing of names or mini biographies of individuals accomplishments.----> [[File:Royal Albert Hall, BBC Proms 2017.jpg|thumb|[[The Proms]] is a classical music festival, most closely associated with [[Henry Wood]] and held at the [[Royal Albert Hall]], which regularly plays music by [[Edward Elgar]] and other British composers.]] Various styles of music have become popular in the UK, including the indigenous [[folk music]] of [[Folk music of England|England]], [[Music of Wales#Folk music|Wales]], [[Folk music of Scotland|Scotland]], and [[Folk music of Northern Ireland|Northern Ireland]]. Historically, there has been exceptional Renaissance music from the [[Tudor period]], with masses, madrigals and lute music by [[Thomas Tallis]], [[John Taverner]], [[William Byrd]], [[Orlando Gibbons]], and [[John Dowland]]. After the [[Stuart Restoration]], an English tradition of dramatic masques, anthems and airs became established, led by [[Henry Purcell]], followed by [[Thomas Arne]] and others. The German-born composer [[George Frideric Handel]] became a [[Naturalization|naturalised]] [[British nationality law|British citizen]] in 1727, when he composed the anthem ''[[Zadok the Priest]]'' for the [[coronation of George II]]; it became the traditional ceremonial music for anointing all future monarchs. Handel's many oratorios, such as his famous ''[[Messiah (Handel)|Messiah]]'', were written in the English language.<ref>{{Cite web |date=20 July 2009 |title=British Citizen by Act of Parliament: George Frideric Handel |url=http://www.parliament.uk/parliamentary_publications_and_archives/parliamentary_archives/handel_and_naturalisation.cfm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100326164147/http://www.parliament.uk/parliamentary_publications_and_archives/parliamentary_archives/handel_and_naturalisation.cfm |archive-date=26 March 2010 |access-date=9 March 2015 |publisher=UK Parliament}}; {{Cite news |last=Andrews |first=John |date=14 April 2006 |title=Handel all'inglese |work=Playbill |location=New York |url=http://www.playbillarts.com/features/article/4236.html |access-date=11 September 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080516210558/http://www.playbillarts.com/features/article/4236.html |archive-date=16 May 2008}}</ref> In the second half of the 19th century, as [[Arthur Sullivan]] and his librettist [[W. S. Gilbert]] wrote their popular [[Savoy opera]]s, [[Edward Elgar]]'s wide range of music rivalled that of his contemporaries on the continent. Increasingly, however, composers became inspired by the English countryside and its [[folk music]], notably [[Gustav Holst]], [[Ralph Vaughan Williams]], and [[Benjamin Britten]], a pioneer of modern British opera. Among the many post-war composers, some of the most notable have made their own personal choice of musical identity: [[Peter Maxwell Davies]] (Orkney), [[Harrison Birtwistle]] (mythological), and [[John Tavener]] (religious).<ref>{{Cite Grove|title=Great Britain|first1=Nicholas|last1=Iemperley|date = 2002| url =https://doi.org/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.O006236 |url-access=subscription}}; {{Cite Grove|title=England (i)|date = 2001| url = https://doi.org/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.40044|url-access= subscription|first1=Stephen|last1= Banfield|first2= Ian|last2= Russell}}; {{Cite Grove|title=Wales| date=2001|first1=Geraint|last1= Lewis|first2= Lyn|last2= Davies|first3= Phyllis|last3= Kinney| url = https://doi.org/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.41108 | url-access=subscription}}; {{Cite Grove|title=Scotland| first1=Kenneth |last1= Elliott| first2= Francis|last2= Collinson| first3= Peggy |last3= Duesenberry |url = https://doi.org/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.40113 | url-access = subscription | date = 2001}}; {{Cite Grove|title= Ireland| first1 = Harry |last1=White |first2 = Nicholas| last2= Carolan| url= https://doi.org/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.13901|url-access= subscription| date = 2011}}; {{Cite web |title=British 20th century composers |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/zdjw7p3/revision/1 |access-date=21 April 2022 |website=[[BBC]]}}</ref> Recent classical singers include: [[Alfie Boe]], [[Bryn Terfel]], [[Katherine Jenkins]], [[Michael Ball]], [[Roderick Williams]], [[Russell Watson]], and [[Sarah Brightman]], while [[Nicola Benedetti]] and [[Nigel Kennedy]] are renowned for their violin ability.<ref>{{Cite web |date=21 June 2022 |title=30 of the greatest violinists on record |url=https://www.gramophone.co.uk/features/article/30-of-the-greatest-violinists-on-record |access-date=4 March 2024 |website=Gramophone}};{{Cite web |date=1 January 2020 |title=Katherine Jenkins has officially sold the most classical albums this century |url=https://www.classicfm.com/radio/shows-presenters/classic-fm-chart/katherine-jenkins-most-classical-albums/ |access-date=4 March 2024 |website=Classic FM}};{{Cite web |date=6 May 2023 |title=Who is Roderick Williams, the British baritone and composer at the King's coronation? |url=https://www.classicfm.com/discover-music/roderick-williams-composer-baritone-singing-roles/ |access-date=4 March 2024 |website=Classic FM}};{{Cite web |date=23 February 2024 |title=Michael Ball |url=https://www.eno.org/artists/michael-ball-2/ |access-date=4 March 2024 |website=English National Opera}};{{Cite web |title=Alfie Bow |url=https://www.classicfm.com/artists/alfie-boe/ |access-date=4 March 2024 |website=Classic FM}};{{Cite web |date=11 July 2023|title=Sarah Brightman facts |url=https://www.smoothradio.com/news/music/sarah-brightman-age-husband-songs/ |access-date=4 March 2024 |website=Smooth Radio}}</ref> According to ''[[The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians]]'', the term "[[pop music]]" originated in Britain in the mid-1950s to describe [[rock and roll]]'s fusion with the "new youth music".<ref>R. Middleton, et al., [http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/public/book/omo_gmo "Pop"], ''Grove music online'', retrieved 14 March 2010. {{Subscription required}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110113160329/http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/public/book/omo_gmo|date=13 January 2011}}</ref> ''The Oxford Dictionary of Music'' states that artists such as [[the Beatles]] and [[the Rolling Stones]] drove pop music to the forefront of popular music in the early 1960s.<ref>"Pop", [http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/public/book/omo_t237 ''The Oxford Dictionary of Music''], retrieved 9 March 2010.{{Subscription required}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171112170116/http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/public/book/omo_t237|date=12 November 2017}}</ref> Birmingham became known as the birthplace of [[heavy metal music|heavy metal]], with the band [[Black Sabbath]] starting there in the 1960s.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Birmingham, England ... the unlikely birthplace of heavy metal |language=en |work=CNN |date=1 July 2011 |first1=Laura |last1=Allsop |url=http://www.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/europe/07/01/birmingham.home.of.metal/index.html |access-date=28 February 2022 |postscript=;}} {{Cite web |last=Bentley |first=David |date=4 June 2013 |title=Midlands rocks! How Birmingham's industrial heritage made it the birthplace of heavy metal |url=http://www.birminghampost.co.uk/whats-on/music/birmingham-birthplace-of-heavy-metal-4031445 |access-date=28 February 2022 |website=[[Birmingham Post]] |language=en}}</ref> In the following years, Britain took part in the development of [[rock music]], with British acts pioneering [[hard rock]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Rolling Stones {{!}} Biography & History |url=https://www.allmusic.com/artist/the-rolling-stones-mn0000894465/biography |access-date=22 July 2020 |website=AllMusic |language=en-us}}</ref> [[raga rock]], [[Heavy metal music|heavy metal]],<ref>{{Cite book |last=Tom Larson |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vGJ7XmA8rjIC&pg=PA183 |title=History of Rock and Roll |publisher=Kendall/Hunt Pub. |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-7872-9969-9 |pages=183–187}}</ref> [[space rock]], [[glam rock]],<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Glam Rock |url=http://encarta.msn.com/dictionary_561509274/glam_rock.html |access-date=21 December 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090828224412/http://encarta.msn.com/dictionary_561509274/glam_rock.html |archive-date=28 August 2009 |encyclopedia=[[Encarta]] }}</ref> [[Gothic rock]],<ref>{{Cite web |year=2004 |title=NME Originals: Goth |url=https://www.nme.com/originals/4 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080126150121/http://www.nme.com/originals/4 |archive-date=26 January 2008 |access-date=30 September 2013 |website=[[NME]]}}</ref> [[psychedelic rock]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=Pop/Rock » Psychedelic/Garage |url=https://www.allmusic.com/subgenre/psychedelic-garage-ma0000002800 |access-date=6 August 2020 |publisher=[[AllMusic]]}}</ref> and [[punk rock]].<ref>{{Cite magazine |year=2001 |title=The Sex Pistols |url=https://www.rollingstone.com/music/artists/TheSexPistols/;kw=%5Bnews,artists,9620,40534,40572%5D |magazine=RollingStone.com |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130201183919/http://www.rollingstone.com/music/artists/TheSexPistols/;kw=%5Bnews,artists,9620,40534,40572%5D |archive-date=1 February 2013 |access-date=24 May 2010}}</ref> British acts also developed [[neo soul]] and created [[dubstep]].<ref>Henderson, Alex (1 August 2003). [https://web.archive.org/web/20101104165122/http://allmusic.com/explore/essay/british-soul-t2160 British Soul]. Allmusic. Retrieved 6 March 2011.; [http://www.allmusic.com/style/dubstep-ma0000004465 AllMusic – Dubstep] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170923151236/http://www.allmusic.com/style/dubstep-ma0000004465|date=23 September 2017}} "Absorbed and transfigured elements of techno, drum'n' bass and dub"; {{Cite news |last=Goldman |first=Vivien |date=31 January 2012 |title=Local Groove Does Good: The Story Of Trip-Hop's Rise From Bristol |work=NPR |url=https://www.npr.org/sections/therecord/2012/01/31/142607358/local-groove-does-good-the-story-of-trip-hops-rise-from-bristol}}</ref> The modern UK produces some of the most prominent English-speaking rappers along with the United States, including [[Stormzy]], [[Kano (rapper)|Kano]], [[Yxng Bane]], [[Ramz (rapper)|Ramz]], [[Little Simz]], and [[Skepta]].<ref>{{Cite magazine |title=5 U.K. Rappers Primed to Take Over America in 2018 |url=https://www.billboard.com/articles/columns/hip-hop/8097878/uk-rappers-to-watch-2018 |magazine=Billboard |access-date=18 June 2018}}</ref> The Beatles have international sales of over 1&nbsp;billion units and are the [[List of best-selling music artists|biggest-selling]] and [[Cultural impact of the Beatles|most influential band in the history of popular music]].<ref name="Beatles sales">{{Cite web |title=1960–1969 |url=http://www.emimusic.com/about/history/1960-1969/# |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140425011032/http://www.emimusic.com/about/history/1960-1969 |archive-date=25 April 2014 |access-date=9 March 2015 |publisher=EMI Group}}</ref><ref name="McCartney">{{Cite magazine |date=8 June 1992 |title=Paul At Fifty |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,975715-2,00.html |magazine=Time |location=New York |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090206120350/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,975715-2,00.html |archive-date=6 February 2009}}</ref><ref name="Guinness">[https://books.google.com/books?id=rdU1xtIWJz0C Most Successful Group] ''[[The Guinness Book of Records]]'' 1999, p. 230. Retrieved 19 March 2011.</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=25 November 2010 |title=Beatles a big hit with downloads |work=Belfast Telegraph |url=http://www.belfasttelegraph.co.uk/entertainment/music/news/beatles-a-big-hit-with-downloads-15013117.html |access-date=16 May 2011}}</ref> Other prominent British contributors to popular music over the last 50 years include the Rolling Stones, [[Pink Floyd]], [[Queen (band)|Queen]], [[Led Zeppelin]], the [[Bee Gees]], and [[Elton John]], all of whom have worldwide record sales of 200&nbsp;million or more.<ref>{{Cite press release |title=British rock legends get their own music title for PlayStation3 and PlayStation2 |date=2 February 2009 |publisher=[[EMI]] |url=http://www.emimusic.com/news/2009/singstar®-queen-to-be-launched-by-sony-computer-entertainment-europe |access-date=9 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140423012539/http://www.emimusic.com/news/2009/singstar%C2%AE-queen-to-be-launched-by-sony-computer-entertainment-europe |archive-date=23 April 2014}}; {{Cite news |last=Khan |first=Urmee |date=17 July 2008 |title=Sir Elton John honoured in Ben and Jerry ice cream |work=The Telegraph |location=London |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/newstopics/celebritynews/2305273/Sir-Elton-John-honoured-in-Ben-and-Jerry-ice-cream.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080730164432/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/newstopics/celebritynews/2305273/Sir-Elton-John-honoured-in-Ben-and-Jerry-ice-cream.html |archive-date=30 July 2008}}; {{Cite news |last=Alleyne |first=Richard |date=19 April 2008 |title=Rock group Led Zeppelin to reunite |work=The Telegraph |location=London |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1562875/Rock-group-Led-Zeppelin-to-reunite.html |url-status=live |url-access=subscription |access-date=31 March 2010 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1562875/Rock-group-Led-Zeppelin-to-reunite.html |archive-date=10 January 2022}}{{Cbignore}}; {{Cite news |date=11 July 2006 |title=Floyd 'true to Barrett's legacy' |work=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/5170644.stm}}; {{Cite news |last=Holton |first=Kate |date=17 January 2008 |title=Rolling Stones sign Universal album deal |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/entertainmentNews/idUSL1767761020080117 |access-date=26 October 2008}}; {{Cite news |last=Walker |first=Tim |date=12 May 2008 |title=Jive talkin': Why Robin Gibb wants more respect for the Bee Gees |work=Independent |location=London |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/music/features/jive-talkin-why-robin-gibb-wants-more-respect-for-the-bee-gees-826116.html |access-date=26 October 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111013215157/http://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/music/features/jive-talkin-why-robin-gibb-wants-more-respect-for-the-bee-gees-826116.html |archive-date=13 October 2011}}</ref> The [[Brit Awards]] are the [[British Phonographic Industry|BPI's]] annual music awards, and some of the British recipients of the [[Brit Award for Outstanding Contribution to Music|Outstanding Contribution to Music]] award include [[the Who]], [[David Bowie]], [[Eric Clapton]], [[Rod Stewart]], [[the Police]], and [[Fleetwood Mac]] (who are a British-American band).<ref>[https://www.theguardian.com/news/datablog/2012/feb/22/brit-awards-winners-list-2012 "Brit awards winners list 2012: every winner since 1977"]. ''The Guardian'' (London). Retrieved 28 February 2012.</ref> <!-- Please note that the following list of recent musicians and groups includes only those selling more than 30&nbsp;million records. -->More recent UK music acts that have had international success include [[George Michael]], [[Oasis (band)|Oasis]], [[Spice Girls]], [[Radiohead]], [[Coldplay]], [[Arctic Monkeys]], [[Robbie Williams]], [[Amy Winehouse]], [[Susan Boyle]], [[Adele]], [[Ed Sheeran]], [[Lewis Capaldi]], [[One Direction]], [[Harry Styles]], and [[Dua Lipa]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=12 January 2020 |title=Harry Styles Has Weathered the Post-Boy Band Storm Better Than Most |url=https://consequenceofsound.net/2020/01/harry-styles-solo-career |access-date=15 September 2020 |website=Consequence of Sound |language=en-US}}; {{Cite magazine |date=16 July 2020 |title=10 Years of One Direction: The Story of the World's Biggest Boy Band, Told With the Fans Who Made It Happen |magazine=Billboard |url=http://www.billboard.com/articles/columns/pop/9419436/one-direction-ten-year-anniversary-fan-interviews |access-date=15 September 2020}}; {{Cite news |last=Corner, Lewis |date=16 February 2012 |title=Adele, Coldplay biggest-selling UK artists worldwide in 2011 |work=Digital Spy |url=http://www.digitalspy.co.uk/music/news/a366130/adele-coldplay-biggest-selling-uk-artists-worldwide-in-2011.html |access-date=22 March 2012}}; {{Cite web |title=Ed Sheeran's career journey: From street busker to global superstar |url=https://planetradio.co.uk/hits-radio/entertainment/celebrity/ed-sheeran-career-timeline/ |access-date=7 January 2023 |website=PlanetRadio.co.uk |last=Magliola |first=Anna Sky |date=30 November 2022}}; {{Cite web|url=https://open.spotify.com/artist/6M2wZ9GZgrQXHCFfjv46we|title=Dua Lipa, 77.5M Monthly listeners|date=6 May 2024|publisher=Spotify}}</ref> [[File:Finnieston Bridge Glasgow at night.jpg|thumb|left|[[Glasgow]] in Scotland was recognised as the [[City of Music (UNESCO)|UNESCO City of Music]] in 2008, the first UK city and third internationally to be recognised.<ref>{{cite web |title=Glasgow UNESCO City of Music |url=https://www.glasgowlife.org.uk/arts-music-and-culture/glasgow-unesco-city-of-music#:~:text=Our%20UNESCO%20status,United%20Nations%20Sustainable%20Development%20Goals. |website=Glasgow Life |access-date=26 December 2024 |language=en}}</ref>]] A number of UK cities are known for their music. Acts from Liverpool have had 54 UK chart number 1 hit singles, more per capita than any other city worldwide.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Hughes |first=Mark |date=14 January 2008 |title=A tale of two cities of culture: Liverpool vs Stavanger |work=Independent |location=London |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/this-britain/a-tale-of-two-cities-of-culture-liverpool-vs-stavanger-770076.html?r=RSS |access-date=2 August 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180618175425/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/this-britain/a-tale-of-two-cities-of-culture-liverpool-vs-stavanger-770076.html?r=RSS |archive-date=18 June 2018}}</ref> Glasgow's contribution was recognised in 2008 when it was named a [[UNESCO]] [[City of Music (UNESCO)|City of Music]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=20 August 2008 |title=Glasgow gets city of music honour |work=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/scotland/glasgow_and_west/7570915.stm |access-date=2 August 2009}}</ref> Manchester played a role in the spread of dance music such as [[acid house]], and from the mid-1990s, [[Britpop]]. London and Bristol are closely associated with the origins of [[electronic music]] sub-genres such as [[drum and bass]] and [[trip hop]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Out of the melting pot: The origins and evolution of drum'n'bass |url=https://www.redbull.com/gb-en/history-of-drum-and-bass-music |access-date=1 August 2021 |website=Red Bull|date=25 June 2020 }}</ref> UK dance music traces its roots back to the black British [[Sound system (Jamaican)|Sound System Culture]] and the [[New Age travellers|New Age Traveller]] movement of the 60s and 70s,<ref>{{Cite web |date=3 August 2023 |title=Parties, protest and police: the neglected histories of UK dance music |url=https://www.dazeddigital.com/music/article/60511/1/ed-gillet-new-book-party-lines-politics-history-uk-dance-music-clubbing |access-date=27 February 2024 |website=Dazed}}</ref> it also has influences from [[New Wave music|New Wave]] and [[Synth-pop]] such as from bands [[New Order (band)|New Order]] and [[Depeche Mode]]<ref>{{Cite web |date=22 August 2022 |title=Depeche Mode — Pioneers In Electronic Music |url=https://medium.com/hd-pro/depeche-mode-pioneers-in-electronic-music-1f0e4a984fff |access-date=27 February 2024 |website=Medium}}</ref> and also has influences from the [[House music|Chicago House]] and [[Detroit techno|Detroit Techno]] scenes. In the late 80's, dance music exploded with [[Rave]] culture mainly [[Acid House]] tracks which were made mainstream with novelty records (such as Smart E's [[Sesame's Treet]] and the Prodigy's [[Charly (song)|Charly]])<ref>{{Cite web |date=20 January 2001 |title=Rave |url=https://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/search?q=rave |access-date=27 February 2024 |website=Oxford Music Online}}</ref> and the [[Balearic beat|Balearic sound]] brought back from the Ibiza club scene. This led on to genres such as [[UK Garage]], [[Speed Garage]], [[Drum and bass]], [[Jungle music|Jungle]], [[Trance music|Trance]], and [[Dubstep]]. Influential UK dance acts past and present include [[808 State]], [[Orbital (band)|Orbital]], [[the Prodigy]], [[Underworld (band)|Underworld]], [[Roni Size]], [[Leftfield]], [[Massive Attack]], [[Groove Armada]], [[Fatboy Slim]], [[Faithless]], [[Basement Jaxx]], [[Chemical Brothers]], [[Sub Focus]], [[Chase & Status]], [[Disclosure (band)|Disclosure]], [[Calvin Harris]], and [[Fred Again]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Mixmag's Greatest Dance Act of all Time Revealed |date=19 January 2012|url=http://www.mixmag.net/words/news/mixmags-greatest-dance-act-revealed |archive-date=14 April 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120414045620/http://www.mixmag.net/words/news/mixmags-greatest-dance-act-revealed}};{{Cite web |date=26 February 2024 |title=Fred Again: who is the DJ who has thousands queuing for a 'secret rave' at the Sydney Opera House? |url=https://www.theguardian.com/music/2024/feb/27/fred-again-dj-sydney-opera-house-secret-show-tickets-sell-out-profile-bio-details |access-date=27 February 2024 |website=The Guardian}}</ref> Other influential UK DJs include [[Judge Jules]], [[Pete Tong]], [[Carl Cox]], [[Paul Oakenfold]], [[John Digweed]], and [[Sasha (dj)|Sasha]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Top 100 DJs Poll results 2003|url=http://djmag.com/top100chart.asp|archive-date=7 December 2003|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20031207071739/http://djmag.com/top100chart.asp}}</ref> === Visual art === {{Main|Art of the United Kingdom|Architecture of the United Kingdom}} [[File:Morris Evenlode printed textile.jpg|thumb|[[William Morris]] textile design, 1883]] [[File:Angel of the North - 6150534524.jpg|thumb|The [[Angel of the North]] sculpture by [[Antony Gormley]] has become a symbol of [[northern England]].]] Major British artists include: the [[Romanticism|Romantics]] [[William Blake]], [[John Constable]], [[Samuel Palmer]], and [[J. M. W. Turner]]; the [[portrait]] painters [[Joshua Reynolds|Sir Joshua Reynolds]] and [[Lucian Freud]]; the landscape artists [[Thomas Gainsborough]] and [[L. S. Lowry]]; the pioneer of the [[Arts and Crafts Movement]] [[William Morris]]; the figurative painter [[Francis Bacon (artist)|Francis Bacon]]; the [[Pop artist]]s [[Peter Blake (artist)|Peter Blake]], [[Richard Hamilton (artist)|Richard Hamilton]], and [[David Hockney]]; the pioneers of [[Conceptual art]] movement [[Art & Language]];<ref>{{Cite news |last=Tate |title=Art & Language – Art Term {{!}} Tate |work=Tate |url=https://www.tate.org.uk/art/art-terms/a/art-language |access-date=8 September 2018}}</ref> the collaborative duo [[Gilbert and George]]; the [[Abstract art|abstract]] artist [[Howard Hodgkin]]; and the sculptors [[Antony Gormley]], [[Anish Kapoor]], and [[Henry Moore]]. During the late 1980s and 1990s the [[Saatchi Gallery]] in London helped to bring to public attention a group of multi-genre artists who would become known as the "[[Young British Artists]]": [[Damien Hirst]], [[Chris Ofili]], [[Rachel Whiteread]], [[Tracey Emin]], [[Mark Wallinger]], [[Steve McQueen (director)|Steve McQueen]], [[Sam Taylor-Wood]], and the [[Jake and Dinos Chapman|Chapman Brothers]] are among the better-known members of this loosely affiliated movement. The [[Royal Academy]] in London is a key organisation for the promotion of the visual arts in the United Kingdom. Major schools of art in the UK include: the six-school [[University of the Arts London]], which includes the [[Central Saint Martins College of Art and Design]] and [[Chelsea College of Art and Design]]; [[Goldsmiths, University of London]]; the [[Slade School of Fine Art]] (part of [[University College London]]); the [[Glasgow School of Art]]; the [[Royal College of Art]]; and [[The Ruskin School of Drawing and Fine Art]] (part of the University of Oxford). The [[Courtauld Institute of Art]] is a leading centre for the teaching of the [[history of art]]. Important art galleries in the United Kingdom include the [[National Gallery]], [[National Portrait Gallery (London)|National Portrait Gallery]], [[Tate Britain]], and [[Tate Modern]] (the most-visited modern art gallery in the world, with around 4.7&nbsp;million visitors per year).<ref>{{Cite news |last=Bayley |first=Stephen |date=24 April 2010 |title=The startling success of Tate Modern |work=The Times |location=London |url=http://entertainment.timesonline.co.uk/tol/arts_and_entertainment/visual_arts/article7105032.ece |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110429173928/http://entertainment.timesonline.co.uk/tol/arts_and_entertainment/visual_arts/article7105032.ece |url-status=dead |archive-date=29 April 2011 |access-date=19 January 2011}} {{Subscription required}}</ref> === Cinema === {{Main|Cinema of the United Kingdom|Theatre of the United Kingdom}} The United Kingdom has had a considerable influence on the history of the cinema. The British directors [[Alfred Hitchcock]], whose film ''[[Vertigo (film)|Vertigo]]'' is considered by some critics as the [[List of films considered the best|best film of all time]],<ref>{{Cite news |date=2 August 2012 |title=Vertigo is named 'greatest film of all time' |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/entertainment-arts-19078948 |access-date=18 August 2012}}</ref> and [[David Lean]] who directed [[Lawrence of Arabia (film)|Lawrence of Arabia]] are among the most critically acclaimed directors ever.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Directors' Top Ten Directors |url=http://www.bfi.org.uk/sightandsound/topten/poll/directors-directors.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120517155218/http://www.bfi.org.uk/sightandsound/topten/poll/directors-directors.html |archive-date=17 May 2012 |publisher=British Film Institute}}</ref> Recent popular directors include: [[Christopher Nolan]], [[Sam Mendes]], [[Steve McQueen (director)|Steve McQueen]], [[Richard Curtis]], [[Danny Boyle]], [[Tony Scott]], and [[Ridley Scott]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=The 24 Best British Directors of All Time |date=13 May 2023 |url=https://movieweb.com/best-british-directors-of-all-time/ |access-date=17 February 2024 | publisher=Movieweb }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Top 22 U.K. Film Directors |url=https://www.imdb.com/list/ls062383258/ |access-date=17 February 2024 | publisher=IMDB }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=5 of the best … Richard Curtis films |url=https://www.thetimes.com/culture/tv-radio/article/5-of-the-best-richard-curtis-films-tzxx9fv2h |work=The Times |access-date=4 June 2024|date=17 April 2024}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=The UK's top 50 film directors |date=23 May 2012 |url=https://www.televisual.com/news/the-uk-s-top-50-film-directors_bid-357/ |access-date=17 February 2024 | publisher=Televisual }}</ref> Many British actors have achieved international fame and critical success. Some of the most commercially successful films have been produced in the United Kingdom, including two of the [[List of highest-grossing film series|highest-grossing film franchises]] (''[[Harry Potter (film series)|Harry Potter]]'' and ''[[James Bond (film series)|James Bond]]'').<ref>{{Cite news |date=11 September 2007 |title=Harry Potter becomes highest-grossing film franchise |work=The Guardian |location=London |url=https://www.theguardian.com/film/2007/sep/11/jkjoannekathleenrowling |access-date=2 November 2010}}</ref> 2019 was a particularly good year for British films which grossed around £10.3&nbsp;billion globally which was 28.7% of global box office revenue.<ref>{{Cite web |title=UK Film Industry Statistics 2023 |date=10 April 2023 |url=https://www.socialfilms.co.uk/blog/uk-film-industry-statistics |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240217211749/https://www.socialfilms.co.uk/blog/uk-film-industry-statistics |archive-date=17 February 2024 |access-date=17 February 2024}}</ref> UK box-office takings totalled £1.25&nbsp;billion in 2019, with around 176&nbsp;million admissions.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The UK box office in 2019 |url=https://www2.bfi.org.uk/sites/bfi.org.uk/files/downloads/bfi-uk-box-office-2019.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240217214846/https://www2.bfi.org.uk/sites/bfi.org.uk/files/downloads/bfi-uk-box-office-2019.pdf |archive-date=17 February 2024 |access-date=17 February 2024}}</ref> In 2023 UK film and television studio stage space stands at 6.9&nbsp;million sq ft, with 1&nbsp;million sq ft added in the past year with more in development.<ref>{{Cite web |title=UK Film and Television Studios Market Report |url=https://content.knightfrank.com/research/2439/documents/en/uk-film-and-television-studios-market-2023-10567.pdf |access-date=17 February 2024 | publisher=Knight Frank }}</ref> The annual [[British Academy Film Awards|BAFTA Film Awards]] are hosted by the [[British Academy of Film and Television Arts]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=26 February 2001 |title=Baftas fuel Oscars race |work=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/1190562.stm |access-date=14 February 2011}}</ref> === Cuisine === {{Main|British cuisine}} {{Further|English cuisine|Northern Irish cuisine|Scottish cuisine|Welsh cuisine}} [[File:Fish, chips and mushy peas.jpg|thumb|[[Fish and chips]], a traditional British dish, served with lemon, tartar sauce and mushy peas]] British cuisine developed from influences reflective of its land, settlements, arrivals of new settlers and immigrants, trade and colonialism. The food of England has historically been characterised by simplicity of approach and a reliance on the high quality of natural produce.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Else |first=David |title=Inghilterra |publisher=EDT srl |date=2007 |isbn=978-88-6040-136-6|page=76}}</ref> The traditional [[Sunday roast]] is one example, featuring a [[roasting|roasted joint]], usually of beef, lamb, chicken, or pork, often [[free range]] (and generally grass-fed, in the case of beef). Roasts are served with either roasted or boiled vegetables, [[Yorkshire pudding]], and [[gravy]]. Other traditional meals include [[meat pie]]s and [[stew]]s. A 2019 YouGov poll rated classic British food, with more than 80% of eaters liking: Sunday roast, Yorkshire pudding, fish and chips, crumpets, and full English breakfast.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://yougov.co.uk/topics/consumer/articles-reports/2019/06/12/classic-british-cuisine-ranked-britons|date=11 June 2019|title=Classic British cuisine ranked by Britons}}</ref> The UK is home to a large selection of [[fine dining]]. In, 2024 there were 187 restaurants with a [[Michelin Star]]; 49 of them consider their cuisine to be 'Modern British'.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://guide.michelin.com/en/gb/restaurants/all-starred |title=United Kingdom |publisher=Michelin Guide |access-date=13 May 2024}}</ref> Sweet foods are common within British cuisine, and there is a long list of [[List of British desserts|British desserts]]. Afternoon tea is a light afternoon meal served with tea in tea rooms and hotels around the United Kingdom, with the tradition dating back to around 1840.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The tea-rific history of Victorian afternoon tea |url=https://www.britishmuseum.org/blog/tea-rific-history-victorian-afternoon-tea |access-date=11 April 2023 |publisher=The British Museum}}</ref> A poll from July 2024 revealed that 3% of the UK population follows a [[vegan]] diet, 6% are [[vegetarian]], and 13% identify as [[flexitarian]] (following a mainly vegetarian diet).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Dietary choices of Brits (e.g. vegeterian, flexitarian, meat-eater etc) | url=https://yougov.co.uk/topics/society/trackers/dietery-choices-of-brits-eg-vegeterian-flexitarian-meat-eater-etc | access-date=26 November 2024 | date=8 July 2024 | website=YouGov.co.uk}}</ref> The [[British Empire]] facilitated knowledge of [[Indian cuisine]] with its "strong, penetrating spices and herbs". British cuisine has absorbed the cultural influence of those who have [[Immigration to the United Kingdom since 1922|settled in Britain]], producing hybrid dishes, such as [[chicken tikka masala]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=19 April 2001 |title=Robin Cook's chicken tikka masala speech |work=The Guardian |location=London |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2001/apr/19/race.britishidentity |access-date=7 September 2021}}; {{Cite news |last=BBC E-Cyclopedia |date=20 April 2001 |title=Chicken tikka masala: Spice and easy does it |publisher=BBC |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/special_report/1999/02/99/e-cyclopedia/1285804.stm |access-date=28 September 2007}}</ref> The British have embraced world cuisine and regularly eat recipes or fast food from other European countries, the Caribbean and Asia. The UK has many [[gastropub]]s and is the birthplace of many alcoholic drinks including many beer styles such as [[pale ale]], [[India pale ale]], [[bitter (beer)|bitter]], [[brown ale]], [[porter (beer)|porter]], and [[stout]]. The number of [[craft beer]]s and microbreweries have expanded rapidly in the last two decades.<ref>{{Cite web |title=A guide to British Beer |url=https://www.expatica.com/uk/lifestyle/food-drink/british-beer-469903/ |access-date=25 November 2024 |website=Expatica}}</ref> Other popular alcoholic drinks produced in the UK include [[Scotch whisky]], [[Wine from the United Kingdom|English wine]], [[gin]], [[perry]], and [[cider]]. === Media === {{Main|Media of the United Kingdom}} [[File:Media City Footbridge and BBC Offices (geograph 2685261).jpg|thumb|[[MediaCityUK]] in [[Salford]], [[Greater Manchester]], is one of the largest media production facilities in Europe.]] The [[BBC]], founded in 1922, is the UK's publicly funded radio, television and Internet broadcasting corporation, and is the oldest and largest broadcaster in the world.<ref name="MediaNewsline">{{Cite web |title=BBC: World's largest broadcaster & Most trusted media brand |url=http://www.medianewsline.com/news/151/ARTICLE/4930/2009-08-13.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101005004930/http://www.medianewsline.com/news/151/ARTICLE/4930/2009-08-13.html |archive-date=5 October 2010 |access-date=23 September 2010 |publisher=Media Newsline}}</ref><ref name="ProspectMag">{{Cite web |title=Digital license |url=http://www.prospectmagazine.co.uk/?p=64654 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111107024637/http://www.prospectmagazine.co.uk/2009/07/digitallicense |archive-date=7 November 2011 |access-date=9 March 2015 |publisher=Prospect}}</ref><ref name="AboutBBC">{{Cite news |title=About the BBC&nbsp;– What is the BBC |work=BBC Online |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/info/purpose/what.shtml |access-date=9 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100116202334/http://www.bbc.co.uk/info/purpose/what.shtml |archive-date=16 January 2010}}</ref> It operates television and radio stations across the UK and abroad and its domestic services are funded by the [[Television licensing in the United Kingdom|television licence]].<ref>{{Cite journal |date=13 August 2009 |title=BBC: World's largest broadcaster & Most trusted media brand |url=http://www.medianewsline.com/news/151/ARTICLE/4930/2009-08-13.html |journal=Media Newsline |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110510090842/http://www.medianewsline.com/news/151/ARTICLE/4930/2009-08-13.html |archive-date=10 May 2011 |access-date=19 June 2011}}; {{Cite web |date=April 2010 |title=TV Licence Fee: facts & figures |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/pressoffice/keyfacts/stories/licencefee.shtml |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110427080539/http://www.bbc.co.uk/pressoffice/keyfacts/stories/licencefee.shtml |archive-date=27 April 2011 |publisher=BBC Press Office}}</ref> The [[BBC World Service]] is an [[International broadcasting|international broadcaster]] owned and operated by the BBC, and the world's largest.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Microsoft Word – The Work of the BBC World Service 2008–09 HC 334 FINAL.doc |url=https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm200910/cmselect/cmfaff/334/334.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201021001645/https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm200910/cmselect/cmfaff/334/334.pdf |archive-date=21 October 2020 |access-date=16 February 2011}}</ref> It broadcasts radio news, speech and discussions in more than 40 languages.<ref>{{Cite web |title=News in your language – BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/ws/languages |website=Bbc.co.uk}}; {{Cite web |title=BBC World Service |url=https://www.facebook.com/pages/category/Media-News-Company/bbcworldservice/about |website=Facebook.com}}</ref> Other major players in the UK media include [[ITV plc|ITV]], which operates 11 of the 15 regional television broadcasters that make up the [[ITV (TV network)|ITV Network]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=Publications & Policies: The History of ITV |url= http://www.itv.com/aboutitv/publications-policies |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110411224117/http://www.itv.com/aboutitv/publications-policies |archive-date=11 April 2011 |website=ITV.com}}</ref> and [[Sky UK|Sky]].<ref>{{Cite journal |title=Direct Broadcast Satellite Television |url= http://www.newscorp.com/operations/dbst.html |journal=News Corporation |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110604095622/http://www.newscorp.com/operations/dbst.html |archive-date=4 June 2011}}</ref> Newspapers produced in the United Kingdom include the ''[[Daily Mail]]'', ''[[The Guardian]]'', [[The Daily Telegraph|''The Telegraph'']], ''[[The Times]]'', and the ''[[Financial Times]]''.<ref>{{Cite news |date=10 October 2008 |title=ABCs: National daily newspaper circulation September 2008 |work=The Guardian |location=London |url= https://www.theguardian.com/media/table/2008/oct/10/abcs-pressandpublishing |access-date=17 October 2008}}</ref> Magazines and journals published in the United Kingdom that have achieved worldwide circulation include ''[[The Spectator]]'', ''[[The Economist]]'', ''[[New Statesman]]'', and ''[[Radio Times]]''. London dominates the media sector in the UK: national newspapers and television and radio are largely based there, although [[MediaCityUK]] in Manchester is also a significant national media centre. Edinburgh and Glasgow, and Cardiff, are important centres of newspaper and broadcasting production in Scotland and Wales, respectively.<ref>William, D. (2010). [https://books.google.com/books?id=7yg45P35KDMC ''UK Cities: A Look at Life and Major Cities in England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland'']. Eastbourne: Gardners Books. {{ISBN|978-9987-16-021-1}}, pp. 22, 46, 109 and 145.</ref> The UK publishing sector, including books, directories and databases, journals, magazines and business media, newspapers and news agencies, has a combined turnover of around £20&nbsp;billion and employs 167,000 people.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Publishing |url=http://www.culture.gov.uk/what_we_do/creative_industries/3280.aspx |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110505104322/http://www.culture.gov.uk/what_we_do/creative_industries/3280.aspx |archive-date=5 May 2011 |publisher=Department of Culture, Media and Sport}}</ref> In 2015, the UK published 2,710 book titles per million inhabitants, more than any other country, with much of this exported to other [[Anglophone]] countries.<ref>{{Cite web |last=<!--Not stated--> |date=2016 |title=Annual Report 2015–2016 |url=https://www.internationalpublishers.org/images/reports/Annual_Report_2016/IPA_Annual_Report_2015-2016_interactive.pdf |access-date=14 January 2021 |website=internationalpublishers.org |publisher=International Publishers Association |page=16 |archive-date=31 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230831205753/https://www.internationalpublishers.org/images/reports/Annual_Report_2016/IPA_Annual_Report_2015-2016_interactive.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> In 2010, 82.5% of the UK population were Internet users, the [[List of countries by number of Internet users|highest proportion]] among the 20 countries with the largest total number of users in that year.<ref>{{Cite journal |title=Top 20 countries with the highest number of Internet users |url=http://www.internetworldstats.com/top20.htm |journal=Internet World Stats |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110610104435/http://www.internetworldstats.com/top20.htm |archive-date=10 June 2011 |access-date=19 June 2011}}</ref> The [[Video games in the United Kingdom|British video game industry]] is the largest in Europe, and, since 2022, the UK has the [[List of video games markets by country|largest video game market]] in Europe by sales, overtaking [[Video games in Germany|Germany]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dring |first=Christopher |date=12 January 2023 |title=European console and PC game sales fall 7.1% in 2022 |url=https://www.gamesindustry.biz/european-console-and-pc-game-sales-fall-71-over-2021 |access-date=30 September 2023 |website=GamesIndustry.biz |language=en}}</ref> It is the world's third-largest producer of video games after [[Video games in Japan|Japan]] and the [[Video games in the United States|United States]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=About UK Video Games Industry |url=https://tiga.org/about-tiga-and-our-industry/about-uk-video-games-industry |access-date=6 June 2023 |website=TIGA |language=en-GB}}</ref> === Sport === {{Main|Sport in the United Kingdom|Great Britain at the Olympics}} [[File:City vs United FA Cup final 2023.jpg|thumb|right|The [[2023 FA Cup final]] at [[Wembley Stadium]] between [[Manchester City]] and [[Manchester United]]]] [[File:Old 18th tee lr.jpg|thumb|right|Golf originated from the [[Old Course at St Andrews]] in Scotland]] [[Association football]], [[tennis]], [[table tennis]], [[badminton]], [[rugby union]], [[rugby league]], [[rugby sevens]], [[golf]], [[boxing]], [[netball]], [[water polo]], [[field hockey]], [[English billiards|billiards]], [[darts]], [[Rowing (sport)|rowing]], [[rounders]], and [[cricket]] originated or were substantially developed in the UK, with the rules and codes of many modern sports invented and codified in late 19th-century [[Victorian Britain]].{{efn|In 2012, the president of the IOC, [[Jacques Rogge]], stated, "This great, sports-loving country is widely recognised as the birthplace of modern sport. It was here that the concepts of sportsmanship and fair play were first codified into clear rules and regulations. It was here that sport was included as an educational tool in the school curriculum."<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.olympic.org/Documents/Games_London_2012/London_2012_Opening_ceremony_Speech_Jacques_Rogge.pdf |title=Opening Ceremony of the Games of the XXX Olympiad |website=Olympic.org |access-date=30 November 2013 |date=27 July 2012 |archive-date=19 August 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130819135346/http://www.olympic.org/Documents/Games_London_2012/London_2012_Opening_ceremony_Speech_Jacques_Rogge.pdf |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-oly-preview-ad-idUKBRE86M0I720120723 |title=Unparalleled Sporting History |work=Reuters |access-date=30 November 2013 |last=Mehaffey |first=John |location=London |archive-date=25 May 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525164121/http://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-oly-preview-ad-idUKBRE86M0I720120723 |url-status=dead}}</ref>}} A 2003 poll found that football is the most popular sport in the UK.<ref name="sports poll">{{Cite web |date=22 December 2003 |title=Rugby Union 'Britain's Second Most Popular Sport' |url=http://www.ipsos-mori.com/researchpublications/researcharchive/928/Rugby-Union-Britains-Second-Most-Popular-Sport.aspx |access-date=28 April 2013 |publisher=Ipsos-Mori}}</ref> England is recognised by [[FIFA]] as the birthplace of club football, and the [[Football Association]] is the oldest of its kind, with the [[Laws of the Game (association football)|rules of football]] first drafted in 1863 by [[Ebenezer Cobb Morley]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Rudd |first=Alyson |date=7 April 2008 |title=The father of football deserves much more |work=The Times |location=London |url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/sport/football/article3694775.ece |url-access=subscription |access-date=29 January 2015}}; {{Cite web |date=24 October 2007 |title=Sheffield FC: 150 years of history |url=https://www.fifa.com/worldfootball/clubfootball/news/newsid=621801.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071025033006/http://www.fifa.com/worldfootball/clubfootball/news/newsid=621801.html |archive-date=25 October 2007 |access-date=29 January 2015 |publisher=[[FIFA]]}}</ref> Each of the [[Home Nations]] (England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland) has its own football association, national team and [[league system]], and each is individually a governing member of the [[International Football Association Board]] alongside FIFA. The English top division, the [[Premier League]], is the most watched football league in the world.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Ebner |first=Sarah |date=2 July 2013 |title=History and time are key to power of football, says Premier League chief |work=The Times |location=London |url=http://www.thetimes.co.uk/tto/public/ceo-summit/article3804923.ece |url-access=subscription |access-date=30 November 2013}}</ref> The first international football match was contested by [[England national football team|England]] and [[Scotland national football team|Scotland]] on 30&nbsp;November 1872.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Mitchell, Paul |author-link=Paul Mitchell (broadcaster) |date=November 2005 |title=The first international football match |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/scotland/sportscotland/asportingnation/article/0012/index.shtml |access-date=15 December 2013 |publisher=BBC Sport Scotland}}</ref> England, Scotland, [[Wales national football team|Wales]], and [[Northern Ireland national football team|Northern Ireland]] usually compete as separate countries in international competitions.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Harlow |first=Phil |date=5 August 2008 |title=Why is there no GB Olympics football team? |work=[[BBC Sport]] |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/olympics/football/7529807.stm |access-date=31 December 2010}}</ref> In 2003, rugby union was ranked the second most popular sport in the UK.<ref name="sports poll" /> The sport was created in [[Rugby School]], Warwickshire, and the [[1871 England versus Scotland rugby union match|first rugby international]] took place on 27&nbsp;March 1871 between [[England national rugby union team|England]] and [[Scotland national rugby union team|Scotland]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-coventry-warwickshire-25946757 |title=Six ways the town of Rugby helped change the world |work=BBC News |access-date=29 January 2015 |date=1 February 2014}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Godwin |first1=Terry |last2=Rhys |first2=Chris |year=1981 |title=The Guinness Book of Rugby Facts & Feats |url=https://archive.org/details/guinnessbookofru0000godw |page=[https://archive.org/details/guinnessbookofru0000godw/page/10 10] |publisher=Guinness Superlatives |isbn=978-0-85112-214-4}}</ref> England, Scotland, [[Wales national rugby union team|Wales]], [[Ireland national rugby union team|Ireland]], [[France national rugby union team|France]], and [[Italy national rugby union team|Italy]] compete in the [[Six Nations Championship]], which is the premier international rugby union tournament in the northern hemisphere. [[Sports governing bodies]] in [[Rugby union in England|England]], [[Rugby union in Scotland|Scotland]], [[Rugby union in Wales|Wales]], and [[Rugby union in Ireland|Ireland]] organise and regulate the game separately.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Louw, Jaco |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0-IiowvNomMC&pg=PA95 |title=The Girlfriends Guide to Rugby |last2=Nesbit, Derrick |publisher=South Publishers |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-620-39541-0 |location=Johannesburg}}</ref> Every four years, the Home Nations make a combined team known as the [[British and Irish Lions]] which tours Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa. The United Kingdom hosted the [[Summer Olympic Games]] in [[1908 Summer Olympics|1908]], [[1948 Summer Olympics|1948]], and [[2012 Summer Olympics|2012]], with London acting as the host city on all three occasions. Birmingham hosted the [[2022 Commonwealth Games]], the seventh time a [[Countries of the United Kingdom|country of the United Kingdom]] hosted the [[Commonwealth Games]] (England, Scotland, and Wales have each hosted the Commonwealth Games at least once).<ref>{{Cite news |title=The journey of India in Commonwealth Games in 2022 |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/readersblog/allaboutsports/the-journey-of-india-in-commonwealth-games-in-2022-44477/ |access-date=29 June 2023}}</ref> === Symbols === {{Main|Symbols of the United Kingdom, the Channel Islands and the Isle of Man|l1 = Symbols of the United Kingdom}} [[File:Queen Elizabeth II Platinum Jubilee 2022 - Platinum Pageant (52123378222).jpg|thumb|Union Jack flags on [[The Mall, London|The Mall]], London]] The [[flag of the United Kingdom]] is the [[Union Flag]] (also referred to as the Union Jack).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Union Jack or Union Flag? |url=https://www.flaginstitute.org/wp/uk-flags/the-union-jack-or-the-union-flag |access-date=26 September 2022 |website=The Flag Institute |language=en-GB}}</ref> It was created in 1606 by the superimposition of the [[flag of England]], representing [[Saint George]], on the [[flag of Scotland]], representing [[Saint Andrew]], and was updated in 1801 with the addition of [[Saint Patrick's Flag]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=college-of-arms.gov.uk |url=https://www.college-of-arms.gov.uk/resources/union-flag-approved-designs |access-date=14 January 2022 |publisher=The College of Arms}}</ref> Wales is not represented in the Union Flag, as Wales had been conquered and annexed to England prior to the formation of the United Kingdom. The possibility of redesigning the Union Flag to include representation of Wales was discussed in 2007.<ref>{{Cite news |date=27 November 2007 |title=Welsh dragon call for Union flag |work=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/7114248.stm |access-date=17 October 2008}}</ref> The [[national anthem]] of the United Kingdom is "[[God Save the King]]", with "King" replaced with "Queen" in the lyrics whenever the monarch is a woman. [[Britannia]] is a [[national personification]] of the United Kingdom, originating from [[Roman Britain]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Britannia on British Coins |url=http://www.24carat.co.uk/britanniaframe.html |access-date=25 June 2006 |publisher=Chard}}</ref> Beside [[The Lion and the Unicorn]] and the [[Welsh Dragon|dragon]] of heraldry, the [[bulldog]] is an iconic animal and commonly represented with the Union Flag.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Baker |first=Steve |title=Picturing the Beast |url=https://archive.org/details/picturingbeastan0000bake_x9v8 |publisher=University of Illinois Press |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-252-07030-3 |page=[https://archive.org/details/picturingbeastan0000bake_x9v8/page/52 52]}}</ref> A rare personification is a character originating in the 18th century, [[John Bull]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=<!--Not stated--> |title=Who is John Bull |url=https://www.loc.gov/wiseguide/jan04/johnbull.html |access-date=11 January 2022 |publisher=The Library of Congress}}</ref> [[National symbols of England|England]], [[National symbols of Wales|Wales]], and [[National symbols of Scotland|Scotland]] each have their own national symbols, including their national flags. [[National symbols of Ireland, the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland|Northern Ireland]] also has symbols, many of which are shared with the [[Republic of Ireland]]. == See also == * [[Outline of the United Kingdom]] ** [[Outline of England]] ** [[Outline of Northern Ireland]] ** [[Outline of Scotland]] ** [[Outline of Wales]] * [[Index of United Kingdom-related articles]] * [[International rankings of the United Kingdom]] * [[Historiography of the United Kingdom]] * [[Historiography of the British Empire]] * [[United Kingdom–Crown Dependencies Customs Union]] == Notes == {{Notelist}} == References == {{Reflist}} == External links == {{Sister project links|n=Category:United Kingdom|voy=United Kingdom|d=Q145}} * [https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-18023389 United Kingdom] from [[BBC News]] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20210109221834/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/united-kingdom/ United Kingdom]. ''[[The World Factbook]]''. [[Central Intelligence Agency]]. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20090406224510/http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/british.htm United Kingdom] from ''UCB Libraries GovPubs'' (archived 6 April 2009) * {{Wikiatlas|United Kingdom}} * {{OSM relation|62149}} * [http://www.ifs.du.edu/ifs/frm_CountryProfile.aspx?Country=GB Key Development Forecasts for the United Kingdom] from [[International Futures]] === Government === * [http://www.gov.uk/ Official website of HM Government] * [http://www.royal.gov.uk/ Official website of the British Monarchy] * [http://www.number10.gov.uk/ Official website of the British Prime Minister's Office] === Travel === * [https://web.archive.org/web/20210213081243/https://www.visitbritain.com/gb/en Official tourist guide to Britain] <!-- Please discuss links on the talk page before adding them to this list – remember to read the WP:EL guideline.--> {{United Kingdom topics}} {{Navboxes |list = {{United Kingdom constituents and affiliations}} {{British Isles}} {{Sovereign states of Europe}} {{Commonwealth realms}} {{English official language clickable map}} {{The Commonwealth}} }} {{Portal bar|United Kingdom|England|Northern Ireland|Scotland|Wales|Europe|Countries}} {{Authority control}} {{Coord|55|N|3|W|type:country_region:GB|display=title}} [[Category:United Kingdom| ]] [[Category:British Islands]] [[Category:Countries in Europe]] [[Category:English-speaking countries and territories]] [[Category:G20 members]] [[Category:Island countries]] [[Category:Member states of NATO]] [[Category:Member states of the Commonwealth of Nations]] [[Category:Member states of the Council of Europe]] [[Category:Member states of the United Nations]] [[Category:OECD members]] 50xotuwkq4s6y64fophyc5gykzhb0p9 0 46902 119319 118870 2026-08-13T22:47:23Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260813sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 119319 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Largest Christian church, led by the Pope}} {{Good article}} {{Pp|small=yes}} {{Infobox Christian denomination |icon = Emblem of the Papacy SE.svg |icon_width = 25px |icon_alt = Emblem of the Holy See |name = Tchalitchi la Katolika |native_name = Ecclesia Catholica |native_name_lang = la |image = Saint Peter's Basilica facade, Rome, Italy.jpg |imagewidth = 300px |alt = Saint Peter's Basilica |caption = Tchalitchi la St. Peter, ilo ni tchalitchi likuru chomene pa charu chose |abbreviation = |main_classification = Ŵakatolika |type = |scripture = [[Baibolo la Katolika|Baibolo]] |theology = [[Cisambizgo ca Katolika]] |polity = [[Ndondomeko za boma la bishopu]]<ref name=Episcopal_Polity>{{cite book|title=Notes of the Episcopal Polity of the Holy Catholic Church|last=Marshall|first=Thomas William|year=1844|location=London|publisher=Levey, Rossen and Franklin|id={{ASIN|1163912190|country=uk}}}}</ref> |governance = Malo Ghatuŵa na Curia ya Ŵaroma |leader_title = [[Papa]] |leader_name = {{incumbent pope}} |leader_title1 = |leader_name1 = |leader_title2= |leader_name2 = |leader_title3 = |leader_name3 = |fellowships_type = [[Tchalitchi la Katolika na maluso ghake|Matchalitchi ghanyake<br />''sui iuris'']] |fellowships =Tchalitchi la Cilatini na 23 Matchalitchi gha Katolika gha Kumafumiro gha Dazi |fellowships_type1 = |fellowships1 = |division_type = Ma Diocese |division = {{plainlist| * Archdioceses: [[List of Catholic archdioceses|640]] * Dioceses: [[List of Catholic dioceses (alphabetical)|2,851]]}} |division_type1 = [[Parish in the Catholic Church|Parishes]] |division1 = 221,700 |division_type2 = |division2 = |division_type3 = |division3 = |associations = |area = [[Catholic Church by country|Worldwide]] |language = [[Ecclesiastical Latin]] and [[native languages]] |liturgy = [[Catholic particular churches and liturgical rites#Rites|Western and Eastern]] |headquarters = [[Vatican City]] |founder = {{Ubl | [[Jesus in Christianity|Jesus]], according to | [[Sacred tradition#In the Catholic and Orthodox churches|sacred tradition]]}} |founded_date = [[Christianity in the 1st century|1st century]] |founded_place = [[Judaea (Roman province)|Judaea]], [[Roman Empire]]<ref name="RCC">{{cite web|last=Stanford|first=Peter|title=Roman Catholic Church|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/christianity/catholic/catholic_1.shtml|website=BBC Religions|publisher=BBC|access-date=1 February 2017}}</ref>{{sfn|Bokenkotter|2004|p=18}} |parent = |merger = |absorbed = |separations = |merged_into = |defunct = |congregations_type = |congregations = |members = 1.378&nbsp;billion (2021)<ref name="AnnuarioPontificio">{{cite news |url=https://www.osservatoreromano.va/it/news/2023-03/quo-052/pubblicati-l-annuario-pontificio-2023-e-l-annuarium-statisticum.html |title=Pubblicati l'Annuario Pontificio 2023 e l'Annuarium Statisticum Ecclesiae 2021 |date=3 March 2023 |work=[[L'Osservatore Romano]] |language=it |access-date=3 March 2023 |url-status=live}}</ref> |ministers_type = [[Hierarchy of the Catholic Church|Clergy]] |ministers = {{plainlist| * [[Bishop in the Catholic Church|Bishops]]: 5,340 * [[Priesthood in the Catholic Church|Priests]]: 407,872 * [[Deacon]]s: 49,176 * (2021)<ref name="AnnuarioPontificio"/> }} |missionaries = |churches = |hospitals = [[Catholic Church and health care|5,500]]<ref name="World Development p.40">Calderisi, Robert. ''Earthly Mission – The Catholic Church and World Development''; TJ International Ltd; 2013; p.40</ref> |nursing_homes = |aid = |primary_schools = [[Catholic school|95,200]]<ref>{{cite journal|title=Laudato Si|journal=Vermont Catholic|volume=8|issue=4, ''2016–2017, Winter''|pages=73|url=http://www.onlinedigeditions.com/publication/index.php?i=365491&m=&l=&p=1&pre=&ver=html5#{%22page%22:74,%22issue_id%22:365491}|access-date=19 December 2016}}</ref> |secondary_schools = 43,800 |tax_status = |tertiary = |other_names = |publications = |website = {{Official URL}} |slogan = |logo = |footnotes = }} {{Catholic Church sidebar}} {{Christianity|expanded=hide}} '''Tchalitchi la Katolika''', ndilo tchalitchi likuru chomene pa charu chose.<ref name="AnnuarioPontificio"/><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Roman-Catholicism|title=Roman Catholicism|encyclopedia=[[Encyclopedia Britannica]]|last=Marty|first=Martin E.|date=29 April 2021|access-date=17 June 2021}}</ref> Likuŵa limoza la mawupu ghakale chomene pa charu chose, ndipo lili na udindo ukuru chomene pa nkhani ya mbiri ya ŵanthu ŵa ku Western.<ref>Mark A. Noll. ''The New Shape of World Christianity'' (Downers Grove, IL: IVP Academic, 2009), 191.</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Haynes |first=Jeffrey |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i5teCwAAQBAJ&dq=%22catholic+church%22+oldest+institution&pg=PT75 |title=Routledge Handbook of Religion and Politics |date=13 January 2016 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-28746-9 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Varghese |first=Alexander P. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dqCg8aqgus8C&dq=%22catholic+church%22+oldest+institution&pg=PA457 |title=India : History, Religion, Vision And Contribution To The World |date=2008 |publisher=Atlantic Publishers & Dist |isbn=978-81-269-0904-9 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="O'CollinsPref">[[Gerald O'Collins|O'Collins]], p. v (preface).</ref> Tchalitchi ili lili na matchalitchi 24, kusazgapo Tchalitchi la Latin na 23 la Eastern Catholic, agho ghali na ma diocese na ma eparchy pafupifupi 3,5000<ref>{{Cite web |date=20 November 2005 |title=Statistics by Country, by Catholic Population [Catholic-Hierarchy] |url=https://www.catholic-hierarchy.org/country/sc1.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230304155457/https://www.catholic-hierarchy.org/country/sc1.html |archive-date=4 March 2023 |access-date=4 March 2023 |work=[[Catholic-Hierarchy.org]] |publisher=David M. Cheney}}</ref>pa charu chose. Papa, uyo ni bishopu wa ku Roma, ndiyo ni muliska mulara wa mpingo.<ref>{{cite web|title=Lumen gentium|url=https://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_const_19641121_lumen-gentium_en.html|website=www.vatican.va|access-date=11 October 2020}}</ref> Bishopu wa ku Roma, uyo wakumanyikwa na zina lakuti Holy See, ndiyo wakulamulira tchalitchi. Wupu uwo ukulamulira mu Rome uli na maofesi ghake mu msumba wa Vatican, uwo uli ku chigaŵa chichoko cha Rome, mu Italy. Visambizgo vikuruvikuru vya Cikatolika vikusangika mu cisambizgo ca Cikatolika ca ku Nicaea. Tchalitchi la Katolika likusambizga kuti ni tchalitchi limoza, lituŵa, la Katolika na la ŵapositole ilo likakhazikiskika na Yesu Khristu mu mulimo wake ukuru,<ref name="Catholic News Service">{{cite web |title=Vatican congregation reaffirms truth, oneness of Catholic Church |url=http://www.catholicnews.com/data/stories/cns/0703923.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20070710201403/http://www.catholicnews.com/data/stories/cns/0703923.htm |archive-date=10 July 2007 |access-date=17 March 2012 |publisher=Catholic News Service}}</ref>{{sfn|Bokenkotter|2004|p=7}}{{refn|group=note|While the Catholic Church considers itself to be the authentic continuation of the Christian community founded by Jesus Christ, it teaches that other Christian churches and communities can be in an imperfect communion with the Catholic Church.<!--See List Refs--><ref name=note1cite1/><ref name=note1cite2/><!--/List Refs-->}} kuti mabishopu ghake ndigho ghakunjira mu malo gha ŵapositole ŵa Khristu, ndiposo kuti papa ndiyo wakunjira mu malo gha Petrosi Mutuŵa, uyo Yesu Khristu wakamupa mazaza.<ref>Holy Bible: Matthew {{bibleverse-nb||Matthew|16:19|ESV}}</ref> Likuti likulondezga ivyo ŵapositole ŵakasambizganga, ndipo likusungilira unenesko wa mu Malemba na ivyo likusambizga'''.'''<ref name="CCC_890">{{Cite CCC|2.1|890}}</ref> Visambizgo vya cisopa ca Katolika ca ku mafumiro gha dazi nga ni visambizgo vya cisopa ca Katolika, visambizgo vya cisopa ca Katolika ca ku mafumiro gha dazi, visambizgo vya cisopa ca Katolika ca ku Roma, na visambizgo vinyake vya cisopa ca Katolika ca ku Latin, vikulongora kuti visambizgo vya cisopa na vyauzimu vikukolerana.<ref>{{Cite CCC|2.1|835|quote=The rich variety of ... theological and spiritual heritages proper to the local churches 'unified in a common effort shows all the more resplendently the catholicity of the undivided Church'.(cf. [[Second Vatican Council]], Dogmatic Constitution on the Church [[Lumen gentium]], 23)}}</ref><ref name="Gunton2">Colin Gunton. "Christianity among the Religions in the Encyclopedia of Religion", Religious Studies, Vol. 24, number 1, page 14. In a review of an article from the Encyclopedia of Religion, Gunton writes: "[T]he article [on Catholicism in the encyclopedia] rightly suggests caution, suggesting at the outset that Roman Catholicism is marked by several different doctrinal, theological and liturgical emphases."</ref> Pa visungusungu vinkhondi na viŵiri, Ciphikiro Ciphya ndico nchakuzirwa comene, ndipo cikukondwelereka mu Misa.<ref>{{Cite CCC|2.1|1322–1327|quote=[T]he Eucharist is the sum and summary of our faith}}</ref> Tchalitchi likusambizga kuti para wasembe wakupeleka cingwa na vinyo kuŵa sembe, vikuzgoka thupi na ndopa za Khristu. Ŵanakazi awo ŵakuchindikika ni Mariya, mama wa Ciuta, na Fumukazi ya Kuchanya.{{refn|name=marian_dogmas|{{cite web|url=http://www.catholicnewsagency.com/resources/mary/general-information/the-four-marian-dogmas/|publisher=Catholic News Agency|title=The Four Marian Dogmas|access-date=25 March 2017}}|}} Visambizgo vya Cikatolika vikulongora kuti nchakuzirwa comene kovwira ŵalwari, ŵakavu, na ŵakusuzgika. Tchalitchi la Katolika lili na masukulu ghanandi gha Katolika, maunivesite na makoleji, vipatala, na nyumba za ŵalanda pa charu chose.<ref name="Geopolitics">{{cite journal|last=Agnew|first=John|title=Deus Vult: The Geopolitics of Catholic Church|journal=Geopolitics|date=12 February 2010|volume=15|issue=1|pages=39–61|doi=10.1080/14650040903420388|s2cid=144793259}}</ref> Pali mawupu ghanandi agho ghakovwira ŵanthu. Tchalitchi la Katolika lawovwira chomene ŵanthu ŵa ku Western pa nkhani ya vinjeru, maluso, sumu, na sayansi. Ŵakatolika ŵakukhala pa caru cose capasi cifukwa ca umishonale, kusamira ku vyaru vinyake, na kuzgoka. Kwambira mu ma 1900, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakukhala ku Southern Hemisphere, chifukwa cha kusuzgika chomene ku Middle East na ku Europe. Tchalitchi la Katolika likakolerananga na tchalitchi la Eastern Orthodox m'paka mu 1054 apo pakachitika chisopa cha East-West Schism. Pambere ungano wa ku Efeso undachitike mu 431 C.E., ŵa Ekleziya ya kumafumiro gha dazi nawo ŵakaŵa mu umoza uwu, nga umo vikaŵira na ŵa Ekleziya ya Orthodox pambere ungano wa ku Chalcedon undachitike mu 451 C.E.; wose ŵakapambananga cifukwa ca kupambana maghanoghano pa nkhani ya Khristu. Matchalitchi gha Katolika gha kumafumiro gha dazi, agho ghali na ŵanthu pafupifupi 18 miliyoni, ghakwimira Ŵakhristu ŵa kumafumiro gha dazi awo ŵakawelera panji ŵakalutilira kukolerana na papa pa nyengo ya kugaŵikana uku panji pamanyuma pake. Mu vilimika vya m'ma 1500, Ŵaprotesitanti nawo ŵakamba kugaluka. Kwambira kuumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1900, Tchalitchi la Katolika lakususkika cifukwa ca visambizgo vyake vyakukhwaskana na kugonana, kususka ŵanakazi, ndiposo umo likucitira na nkhani za kugonana na ŵaliska. == Zina == {{Further|Chikatolika|Chikatolika cha Ŵaroma}} [[File:Ignatius of Antiochie, poss. by Johann Apakass (17th c., Pushkin museum).jpg|thumb|left|Lizgu lakuti "Tchalitchi la Katolika" (ilo likung'anamura "Tchalitchi la pa Charu Chose") likalembeka kakwamba na mutuŵa Ignatius wa ku Antiyoke mu kalata yake ya ku Smyrna. ({{circa|110|lk=no}}&nbsp;AD).<ref>John Meyendorff, ''Catholicity and the Church'', St Vladimirs Seminary Press, 1997, {{ISBN|0-88141-006-3}}, p. 7</ref> Ignatius wa ku Antiyoke ndiyo wakambiska kugwiliskira nchito lizgu lakuti "Ukhristu" ({{Lang-el|Χριστιανισμός|links=no}}) {{circa|100|lk=no}}&nbsp;AD.<ref>{{Citation | last1 =Elwell | first1 =Walter | last2 =Comfort | first2 =Philip Wesley | year =2001 | title =Tyndale Bible Dictionary | publisher =Tyndale House Publishers | isbn =0-8423-7089-7|pages=266, 828}}</ref> He died in Rome, with his [[relic]]s located in the [[Basilica of San Clemente al Laterano]].|253x253px]] Mazgu ghakuti Katolika (kufuma ku Chigiriki: καθολικός, romanized: katholikos, lit. 'universal') ghakamba kugwiliskirika ntchito pakulongosora vya tchalitchi mu vyaka vya m'ma 100 C.E.<ref>MacCulloch, ''Christianity'', p. 127.</ref> Lizgu lakuti "tchalitchi cha Katolika" (mu Cigiriki καθολικὴ ἐκκλησία, ilo lili kulembeka kuti he katholike ekklesia) likamba kusangika mu kalata iyo St. Ignatius wa ku Antiyoke wakalembera ŵanthu ŵa ku Smyrna mu 110 C.E.{{refn|group=note|Quote of St Ignatius to the Smyrnaeans ({{Circa|110 AD|lk=no}})}}, iyo yikati: "Kose uko kuli bishopu, ŵanthu ŵaŵenge kwenekuko, nga umo kuliri Yesu, ndipo uko kuli mpingo wa [katholike]".<ref name="CathEnc1910_Catholic"/> Mu Catechetical Lectures (c. 350) ya Cyril wa ku Yerusalemu, zina lakuti "Tchalitchi la Katolika" likagwiliskirika nchito kuti liŵe lapadera na magulu ghanyake agho ghakajichemanga "tchalitchi".<ref name="CathEnc1910_Catholic">{{cite encyclopedia |url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03449a.htm |encyclopedia=The Catholic Encyclopedia |title=Catholic |last=Thurston |first=Herbert |author-link=Herbert Thurston |place=New York |publisher=Robert Appleton Company |date=1908 |access-date=17 August 2012|editor-first=Kevin |editor-last=Knight |editor-link=Knight |volume=3}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tertullian.org/fathers2/NPNF2-07/Npnf2-07-23.htm |title=Cyril of Jerusalem, Lecture XVIII, 26 |publisher=Tertullian.org |date=6 August 2004 |access-date=17 August 2012}}</ref> Fundo yakuti "Chisopa cha Katolika" yikayowoyeka chomene mu dango la De fide Catolica ilo likapelekeka mu 380 na Theodosius I.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://webu2.upmf-grenoble.fr/Haiti/Cours/Ak/Constitutiones/Thessalonique.htm |title=Edictum de fide catholica |access-date=9 October 2017 |archive-date=8 February 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120208135704/http://webu2.upmf-grenoble.fr/Haiti/Cours/Ak/Constitutiones/Thessalonique.htm }}</ref> Kufuma waka mu 1054 apo pakaŵa kuswa malango kwa East na West, tchalitchi la Eastern Church likamba kumanyikwa na zina lakuti "Orthodox".<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/topic/Eastern-Orthodoxy "Eastern Orthodoxy"], ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' online.</ref> Tchalitchi la ku Western ilo likukolerana na Papa nalo likucemeka kuti "Chatoliki", ndipo likalutilira kucemeka nthena nanga ni apo pakaŵa kusintha kwa visopa mu ma 1500, apo awo ŵakaleka kuwungana ŵakamba kucemeka "Ŵaprotesitanti".<ref>"catholic, adj. and n." [[Oxford English Dictionary]] Online. Oxford University Press, June 2014. Web. 7 August 2014. Excerpt: "After the separation of East and West 'Catholic' was assumed as its descriptive epithet by the Western or Latin Church, as 'Orthodox' was by the Eastern or Greek. At the Reformation, the term 'Catholic' was claimed as its exclusive right by the body remaining under the Roman obedience, in opposition to the 'Protestant' or 'Reformed' National Churches. These, however, also retained the term, giving it, for the most part, a wider and more ideal or absolute sense, as the attribute of no single community, but only of the whole communion of the saved and saintly in all churches and ages. In England, it was claimed that the Church, even as Reformed, was the national branch of the 'Catholic Church' in its proper historical sense." Note: The full text of the OED definition of "catholic" can be consulted [[Wikipedia talk:Requests for mediation/Roman Catholic Church/Archive 17|here]].</ref><ref name="McBrien">McBrien, Richard (2008). ''The Church''. Harper Collins. p. xvii. Online version available [https://web.archive.org/web/20090827023130/http://browseinside.harpercollins.com/index.aspx?isbn13=9780061245213 Browseinside.harpercollins.com] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090827023130/http://browseinside.harpercollins.com/index.aspx?isbn13=9780061245213 |date=27 August 2009 }}. Quote: "[T]he use of the adjective 'Catholic' as a modifier of 'Church' became divisive only after the East–West Schism... and the Protestant Reformation. ... In the former case, the Western Church claimed for itself the title ''Catholic'' Church, while the East appropriated the name ''Orthodox'' Church. In the latter case, those in communion with the Bishop of Rome retained the adjective "Catholic", while the churches that broke with the Papacy were called ''Protestant''."</ref> Apo "Tchalitchi la Ŵaroma" likuyowoyeka pakulongosora Diocese ya Roma kufuma apo Ufumu wa Ŵaroma ukawira m'ma 500 C.E. m'paka m'ma 1500 C.E., "Tchalitchi la Katolika" likuyowoyeka pa mpingo wose wa Chingelezi kufuma apo Ŵaprotesitanti ŵakambiska chisopa cha Katolika m'ma 1500 C.E.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/167063 |title=Roman Catholic, n. and adj. |work=Oxford English Dictionary|access-date=24 October 2017|url-access=subscription}}</ref> Kweniso, ŵanji ŵakuyowoya za Tchalitchi la Cilatini kuti "Roman Catholic" kupambanako na matchalitchi gha Katolika gha kumafumiro gha dazi.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://catholicnewsherald.com/88-news/fp/5548-eastern-catholics-where-are-they-where-should-they-be|title=Eastern Catholics: Where are they? Where should they be?|work=[[Catholic News Herald]]|publisher=[[Roman Catholic Diocese of Charlotte|Diocese of Charlotte]]|date=12 March 2020|access-date=19 March 2022}}</ref> Nyengo zinyake mazgu ghakuti "Roman Catholic" ghakusangika mu mabuku agho ghakupharazgika na Tchalitchi la Katolika. Zina lakuti "Tchalitchi la Katolika" likuyowoya za tchalitchi lose. Zina lakuti "Tchalitchi la Katolika" likusangikaso mu mabuku gha Vatican II (1962-1965), <ref>{{cite web |title=Documents of the II Vatican Council |url=https://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040605190838/https://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/ |archive-date=5 June 2004 |access-date=4 May 2009 |publisher=Vatican.va. |quote=Note: The pope's signature appears in the Latin version.}}</ref> First Vatican Council (1869-1870),<ref>{{cite web |date=29 June 1868 |title=Decrees of the First Vatican Council – Papal Encyclicals |url=http://www.papalencyclicals.net/councils/ecum20.htm}}</ref> Council of Trent (1545-1563),<ref>[https://history.hanover.edu/texts/trent/trentall.html "The Bull of Indiction of the Sacred Oecumenical and General Council of Trent under the Sovereign Pontiff, Paul III."] ''The Council of Trent: The Canons and Decrees of the Sacred and Oecumenical Council of Trent''. Ed. and trans. J. Waterworth. London: Dolman, 1848. Retrieved from History.Hanover.edu, 12 September 2018.</ref> na mabuku ghanyake ghanandi.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/13121a.htm|title=Catholic Encyclopedia: Roman Catholic|website=www.newadvent.org}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ewtn.com/library/ANSWERS/HOWNAME.HTM|title=Kenneth D. Whitehead|website=www.ewtn.com}}</ref> ==Mbili== [[File:Perugino - Entrega de las llaves a San Pedro (Capilla Sixtina, 1481-82).jpg|left|thumb|upright=1.25|alt=Painting a haloed Jesus Christ passing keys to a kneeling man.|This [[fresco]] (1481–82) by [[Pietro Perugino]] in the [[Sistine Chapel]] shows Jesus giving the [[Keys of Heaven|keys of heaven]] to [[Saint Peter]].]] <!--{{POV-section|date=October 2014}} (Addressed on talkpage archive:[[Talk:Catholic Church/Archive 53#History Section]])--> <!--See corresponding sections in the body of the history section for sources--> Chisopa cha Cikhristu chili na visambizgo vya Yesu, uyo wakaŵako na kupharazga mu nyengo ya Ŵakhristu ŵakwambilira mu cigaŵa ca Yudeya mu Ufumu wa Roma. Baibolo likusambizga kuti Ŵakhristu ŵakwambilira awo Yesu Khristu wakaŵakhazikiska ndiwo ŵakalutilira na Tchalitchi la Katolika. Cikristu cikapharazgika mu caru cose ico cikateŵeteranga Ŵaroma, nangauli ŵakasuzgikanga cifukwa ca kususkana na cisopa cautesi. Mu 313 C.E., Fumu Constantine yikazomerezga kuti Ŵakhristu ŵaunenesko ŵaŵe mu chisopa chawo. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Germany awo ŵakanjira mu caru ca Romu mu vilimika vya m'ma 400 na 600 C.E., ŵanandi awo pakwamba ŵakaŵa Ŵakhristu ŵa cisopa ca Arian, ŵakamba kusopa Cikatolika kuti ŵaŵe ŵabwezi ŵa papa na nyumba za ŵasofi. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 700 na 800 C.E., Ŵasilamu ŵakamba kulamulira chigaŵa cha Meditereniyani, ndipo ichi chikapangiska kuti ŵaleke kukolerana na ŵanthu ŵa ku mpoto kwa Europe. Kweniso chikachitiska kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Romu ŵaleke kukolerana na ŵanthu ŵa ku Byzantine. Nkhondo izo zikaŵa na mazaza mu tchalitchi, chomenechomene mazaza gha bishopu wa ku Romu, zikafika paheni chomene mu vyaka vya m'ma 1100. Mu nyengo ya Ŵakhristu ŵakwambilira, pakaŵa kugaŵikana mu mpingo. Ndipouli, matchalitchi gha ku mafumiro gha dazi ghacoko waka ghakaŵa kuti ghalutilira kukolerana na Roma, ndipo ghanyake ghakamba kukolerana na matchalitchi agha mu vyaka vya m'ma 1500 na kunthazi. Ciraliro caumaliro, cithunzi ca Leonardo da Vinci ca kuumaliro wa 1490, ico cikulongora ciphikiro caumaliro ca Yesu na ŵapositole ŵake khumi na ŵaŵiri pambere wandapayikike. Ŵapositole ŵanandi ŵali kusungika mu Romu, kusazgapo mutuŵa Petrosi. Ŵasembe ŵakwambilira mu vyaru vya ku Europe ŵakawovwira kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Greece na Roma ŵaleke kusuzgika. Nyengo yikati yajumphapo, tchalitchi likamba kulamulira ŵanthu ŵa ku vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi. Ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakaŵako mu nyengo ya Renaissance, tchalitchi likaŵawovwiranga. Ndipouli, mu virimika vya m'ma 1500, ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵakalongozganga visambizgo vya Ciphwitikizgo ŵakamba kususka cisopa, comenecomene awo ŵakalongozganga visopa. Nyengo yeneyiyo, ŵanthu ŵakufuma ku Spain na Portugal ŵakamba kupharazga mu Africa, Asia, na ku vyaru vinyake vya ku Asia. Mu 1870, Wupu Wakwamba wa ku Vatican ukati papa wangabuda yayi, ndipo ufumu wa Italy ukatoranga msumba wa Roma. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1900, maboma gha ku Mexico na Spain ghakatambuzga na kukoma ŵalongozgi ŵanandi ŵa visopa. Mu nyengo ya Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Caru Cose, tchalitchi likasuska muwuso wa Nazi, ndipo likavikilira Ŵayuda ŵanandi ku Ŵanazi. Nkhondo yikati yamara, wanangwa wa kusopa ukasuzgika comene mu vyaru vya Chikomyunizimu ivyo vikaŵa pafupi na Soviet Union. Mu ma 1960, Wupu wa Vatican wachiŵiri ukapangiska kuti paŵe kusintha kwa maluso gha tchalitchi, ndipo ŵanthu awo ŵakakhozgeranga chisopa ichi ŵakayowoya kuti "ŵakajura mawindo". Nangauli tchalitchi likususkika comene, kweni nyengo zinandi likukhozgera panji kukhozga visambizgo vyautesi vyakukhwaskana na kugonana na ŵanalume. ===Nyengo ya ŵapositole na upapa=== [[File:DambachVille StEtienne 14.JPG|left|thumb|Jesus' commission to [[Saint Peter]]]] Cipangano Ciphya, comenecomene mabuku gha Makani Ghawemi, ghakuyowoya za milimo na visambizgo vya Yesu, umo wakasankhira ŵapositole ŵake 12 na mulimo wake ukuru wa kuŵatuma, ndipo wakaŵaphalira kuti ŵalutilire kucita mulimo wake. Buku la Milimo la Ŵapositole likuyowoya umo mpingo wa Ŵakhristu ukambira na umo uthenga wawo ukathandazgikira mu ufumu wa Roma. Tchalitchi la Katolika likusambizga kuti uteŵeti wake ukambira pa Pentekoste, mazuŵa 50 pamanyuma pa zuŵa ilo ŵanthu ŵakugomezga kuti Khristu wakawuskika. Pa Pentekoste, ŵapositole ŵakagomezga kuti ŵakapokera mzimu utuŵa, uwo ukaŵawovwira kuti ŵambe kulongozga mpingo. Tchalitchi la Katolika likusambizga kuti mabishopu agho ghakulongozgeka na bishopu wa ku Romu ndigho ghakanjira mu malo gha ŵapositole.<ref>{{Cite CCC|2.1|880,883}}</ref> Mu buku la Mateyu, Khristu wakati Petrosi ni "libwe" ilo lizamuzengera mpingo wake. Tchalitchi la Katolika likuti bishopu wa ku Romu, uyo ni papa, ndiyo ni muhaliri wa Petrosi. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakusanda vya Baibolo ŵakuti Petrosi ndiyo wakaŵa bishopu wakwamba wa Romu. Ŵanyake ŵakuti udindo wa upapa ukuyana yayi na fundo yakuti Petrosi wakaŵa bishopu wa ku Romu panji kuti wakaŵa ku Romu. Ŵasambiri ŵanandi ŵakugomezga kuti mpingo wa Katolika ukaŵa na ŵaliska ŵanandi m'paka pakati pa vyaka vya m'ma 100 C.E., apo ŵaliska ŵakamba kugwiliskira ntchito zina lakuti "bishopu wa Roma". Pa cifukwa ici, Oscar Cullmann, Henry Chadwick, na Bart D. Ehrman wakakayikanga usange Petrosi wakaŵa na udindo wa kuŵa papa. Raymond E. Brown wakayowoyaso kuti nchambura kwenelera kuyowoya za Petrosi nga ni bishopu wa ku Roma, kweni Ŵakhristu ŵa nyengo iyo ŵakamuwonanga kuti wakaŵa na "milimo iyo yikamovwira comene kuti paŵe udindo wa papa mu mpingo". Brown wakati maudindo agha "ghakawovwira comene kuti bishopu wa ku Roma, bishopu wa mu msumba uwo Petrosi wakafwira ndiposo uko Paulosi wakacitira ukaboni unenesko wa Khristu, waŵe wakulondezga Petrosi pa mulimo wa kupwelelera mpingo wa pa caru cose".<ref name="REB">{{cite book|last=Brown|first=Raymond E.|year=2003|title=101 Questions and Answers on the Bible|url={{googlebooks|b8ubeFP6JUYC|page=132|plainurl=y}}|publisher=Paulist Press|isbn=978-0-8091-4251-4|pages=132–134}}</ref> ===Kale na Ufumu wa Roma=== Vinthu vikaŵa makora mu Ufumu wa Ŵaroma mwakuti ŵanthu ŵakamba kusambira vinthu viphya. Pakuti mu ufumu uwu mukaŵa misewu yinandi na maji ghanandi, chikaŵa chipusu kwenda, ndipo pakaŵa mtende (Pax Romana). Ufumu uwu ukawovwira kuti ŵanthu ŵamanye makora mitheto ya Ŵagiriki. Mwakupambana na visopa vinandi mu Ufumu wa Roma, Ŵakhristu ŵakeneranga kukana ŵachiuta ŵanyake wose. Cifukwa cakuti Ŵakhristu ŵakakananga kukolerana na viphikiro vyautesi, ŵakatondekanga kucita vinthu vinandi vya mu caru, ndipo ici cikapangiska ŵanthu awo ŵakaŵa Ŵakhristu yayi, kusazgapo ŵalara ŵa boma, kopa kuti Ŵakhristu ŵakukwiyiska ŵachiuta na kunanga mtende wa ufumu. Cifukwa ca nthambuzgo izi, Ŵakhristu ŵakamba kujighanaghanira ŵekha m'paka apo Cikristu cikazomerezgekera mu vilimika vya m'ma 300 C.E.<ref name="macculloch155and164">MacCulloch, ''Christianity'', pp. 155–159, 164.</ref>[[File:Basilica di San Pietro 1450.jpg|thumb|19th-century drawing by [[Henry William Brewer]] of [[Old Saint Peter's Basilica]], originally built in 318 by [[Emperor Constantine]]]] Mu 313, Themba Constantine I likapeleka dango lakuti Chikhristu chiŵe chakuzomerezgeka, ndipo mu 330 Constantine wakasamuskira msumba ukuru wa ufumu ku Constantinople, uko sono ni Istanbul, Turkey. Mu 380, dango la ku Tesalonika likazgora Chikhristu cha ku Nicaea kuŵa tchalitchi la boma la Ufumu wa Roma. Mu nyengo ya maungano ghaŵiri gha Ekumeniki, pakaŵa mipingo yinkhondi na yiŵiri, ndipo yikamba kulamulira pakati pa vyaka vya m'ma 500 C.E. Fumu Justinian I ndiyo yikalamuliranga vinthu vya ku Roma, Constantinople, Antiyoke, Yerusalemu, na Alexandria.<ref name="Valliere2012">{{cite book|last=Valliere|first=Paul|year= 2012|title=Conciliarism|url={{googlebooks|Qrt3Z7fyzlUC|page=92|plainurl=y}}|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-01574-6|page=92}}</ref><ref name="Bartholomew2008">{{cite book|last=Patriarch|first=Bartholomew|year=2008|title=Encountering the Mystery|url={{googlebooks|4_UB3_UpIcQC|page=3|plainurl=y}}|publisher=Random House|isbn=978-0-385-52561-9|page=3}}</ref> Mu 451 C.E., pa ungano uwo ukacitikira ku Chalcedon, ŵaliska ŵa ku Constantinople ŵakakhozga cisambizgo cawo cakuti cisambizgo ici "ncaciŵiri kwa bishopu wa ku Roma". Kwamba mu 350 C.E. m'paka mu 500 C.E., mabishopu panji kuti ŵapapa ŵa ku Romu ŵakalutilira kuŵa na mazaza ghanandi chifukwa ŵakakhozgeranga ŵalongozgi ŵa tchalitchi la Orthodox. Themba Justinian, ilo mu vigaŵa ivyo likalamuliranga likakhazikiska muwuso wa ŵapositole, umo "likakhazikiskiranga malango ghake ghakukhwaskana na kusopa na kulondezga malango, kweniso likalanguranga vigomezgo vya Tchalitchi", likakhazikiskaso mazaza ghake pa Roma na vigaŵa vinyake vya kumanjiliro gha dazi, ndipo likambiska nyengo ya ufumu wa Ŵapapa wa Byzantium (537-752 C.E.), apo ŵasembe ŵa ku Romu ŵakakhumbikwiranga kuzomerezgeka na themba ku Constantinople panji mwimiliri wake ku Ravenna kuti ŵaŵe ŵapositole.<ref>[[Eamon Duffy|Duffy, Eamon]]. 1997. ''Saints & Sinners: A History of the Popes''. Yale University Press. pp. 66–67</ref> Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Germany awo ŵakanjira mu Ufumu wa Roma mu vyaka vyakulondezgapo, ŵakamba kugomezga cisopa ca Arian, ico Tchalitchi la Katolika likati nchambura kugomezgeka. Mphindano ya cisopa iyo yikaŵapo pakati pa mafumu gha ku Germany na ŵanthu awo ŵakalongozgekanga na Cikatolika yikamara mu 497 C.E. apo Clovis I, uyo wakaŵa fumu ya Ŵafrank, wakazgoka Mukatolika, ndipo wakajibatika ku ufumu wa papa na nyumba za cisopa. Ŵasilikari ŵa Visigoth mu Spain ŵakamulondezga mu 589, ndipo ŵa Lombard mu Italy mu ma 600 C.E. Chikhristu cha ku Western, chomenechomene mu nyumba zake za ŵachiuta, chikawovwira chomene kuti ŵanthu ŵasungilire ŵanthu awo ŵakaŵako kale. Kwizira mu dango lake, Benedict wa ku Nursia (c. 480-543), yumoza wa awo ŵakambiska chisopa cha ku Western monasticism, wakasintha chomene vinthu mu vyaru vya ku Europe. Mu nyengo iyi, ŵanthu ŵa ku Ireland ŵakamba kusambira chomene ndipo ŵamishonale ŵakwambilira ŵa ku Ireland, nga ni Columbanus na Columba, ŵakathandazga Chikhristu na kukhazikiska nyumba za ŵachiuta mu vyaru vya ku Europe.<ref name="Cahill_Thomas">{{cite book |last=Cahill |first=Thomas |title=[[How the Irish Saved Civilization|How The Irish Saved Civilization: The Untold Story of Ireland's Heroic Role from the Fall of Rome to the Rise of Medieval Europe]] |date=1995 |publisher=[[Penguin Random House]] |location=[[New York City]]}}</ref> ===Nyengo zapakati na Kuwukaso=== [[File:Chartres Cath+Gare.JPG|left|upright=1.2|thumb|[[Chartres Cathedral]], completed 1220]] Tchalitchi la Katolika ndilo likaŵa likuru comene mu vyaru vya ŵazungu kufuma mu nyengo yakale mpaka mu nyengo yithu yino.<ref name="O'CollinsPref"/> Mu msumba uwu ndimo mukaŵa vyakuvwara vyakucemeka Romanesque, Gothic, Renaissance, Mannerist, na Baroque.<ref>Woods, pp. 115–27</ref> Ŵanthu awo ŵakaŵako mu nyengo ya Renaissance, nga ni Raphael, Michelangelo, Leonardo da Vinci, Botticelli, Fra Angelico, Tintoretto, Titian, Bernini na Caravaggio, ni viyelezgero vya ŵanthu awo ŵakasambizgika vinthu vyakupambanapambana.<ref>Duffy, p. 133.</ref> Paul Legutko, wakulemba mdauko wa ku Yunivesite ya Stanford, wakayowoya kuti Chalichi la Katolika "ndico cikupangiska kuti vinthu viŵe makora, maghanoghano, sayansi, malango, na mawupu agho tikughacemera kuti civilisation ya ku Western".<ref>{{cite web|title=Review of ''How the Catholic Church Built Western Civilisation''|first=Thomas Jr.|last=Woods|url=http://www.nrbookservice.com/products/bookpage.asp?prod_cd=c6664|work=National Review Book Service|access-date=16 September 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060822150152/http://www.nrbookservice.com/products/BookPage.asp?prod_cd=c6664|archive-date=22 August 2006}}</ref> Ku Manjiliro gha dazi [[Vikhristu]], mayunivesite ghakwamba ku Europe ghakakhazikiska ŵamonke ŵa Tchalitchi la Katolika.<ref>{{cite book|title=Managing the University Campus: Information to Support Real Estate Decisions|first=Alexandra |last= Den Heijer| isbn=9789059724877| year =2011|publisher=Academische Uitgeverij Eburon| quote= Many of the medieval universities in Western Europe were born under the aegis of the Catholic Church, usually as cathedral schools or by papal bull as Studia Generali.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Encyclopedia of Christian Education|first=Mark|last= A. Lamport |year= 2015| page =484|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield| isbn=9780810884939|quote= All the great European universities-Oxford, to Paris, to Cologne, to Prague, to Bologna—were established with close ties to the Church.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Encyclopedia of the Developing World|first=Thomas |last=B M. Leonard|year= 2013| isbn=9781135205157| page = 1369|publisher=Routledge|quote= Europe established schools in association with their cathedrals to educate priests, and from these emerged eventually the first universities of Europe, which began forming in the eleventh and twelfth centuries.}}</ref> Kufuma mu vilimika vya m’ma 1000 kuya munthazi, masukulu ghanyake ghakale gha katedrale [[Yunivesite ya mu nyengo ya Ŵamitundu|ghakazgoka mayunivesite]] (wonani, mwaciyelezgero, [[Yunivesite ya Oxford]], [[Yunivesite ya Paris]] na [[Yunivesite ya Bologna]]). Pakwamba, masambiro ghapachanya ghakaŵa gha Ŵakhristu [[sukulu za katedrale]] panji [[sukulu za ŵasembe]] (''Scholae monasticae''), awo ŵakalongozgekanga na [[ŵasembe]] na [[ŵasembe]]. Ukaboni wa masukulu agha ukaŵapo mu vilimika vya m’ma 6th century&nbsp;CE.<ref name="auto">Riché, Pierre (1978): "Education and Culture in the Barbarian West: From the Sixth through the Eighth Century", Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, {{ISBN|0-87249-376-8}}, pp.&nbsp;126–127, 282–298</ref> Mayunivesite ghaphya agha ghakasazgirako masambiro gha ŵasambizgi ŵa visopa, ŵaloya, ŵanchito ŵa boma, na madokota.<ref>Rudy, ''The Universities of Europe, 1100–1914'', p. 40</ref> Kanandi ŵanthu ŵakuwona kuti yunivesite iyi ni sukulu iyo yikambira mu [[Mbiri ya Chikhristu|Mkhristu wa mu Nyengo Yapakati]].<ref name=verger1999>{{cite book |last=Verger |first=Jacques |date=1999 |author-link=:fr:Jacques Verger|title=Culture, enseignement et société en Occident aux XIIe et XIIIe siècles |edition=1st |language=fr |publisher=Presses universitaires de Rennes in Rennes |isbn=978-2-86847-344-8 |url=https://openlibrary.org/works/OL822497W |access-date=17 June 2014}}</ref><ref>Verger, Jacques. "The Universities and Scholasticism," in The New Cambridge Medieval History: Volume V c. 1198–c. 1300. Cambridge University Press, 2007, 257.</ref><ref name="Rüegg, Walter 1992, pp. XIX">Rüegg, Walter: "Foreword. The University as a European Institution", in: ''A History of the University in Europe. Vol. 1: Universities in the Middle Ages'', Cambridge University Press, 1992, {{ISBN|0-521-36105-2}}, pp. XIX–XX</ref> Kuwukira kukuru kwa Ŵasilamu mu [[Chikhristu mu vilimika vya m’ma 700|pakati pa vilimika vya m’ma 700]] kukayamba nkhondo yitali pakati pa [[Chikhristu na Chisilamu]] mu chigaŵa chose cha Meditereniyani. Mwaluŵiro [[Ufumu wa Byzantium]] ukataya vyaru vya kumafumiro gha dazi [[ufumu wa ŵasekuru]]s vya [[Mulongozgi wa Orthodox wa Ŵagiriki wa ku Yerusalemu|Yerusalemu]], [[Mulongozgi wa Alexandria|Alexandria]] na [[Mulongozgi wa Antiokeya wakaŵa|Mulongozgi wa ku Antiokeya wa] Konstantinople|Konstantinople]], msumba ukuru wa ufumu uwu. Chifukwa cha [[Kuthereska kwa Ŵasilamu kwakwamba|Kuwusa kwa Chisilamu pa Meditereniyani]], boma la Frank, ilo likaŵa pakatikati pa nyanja iyo, likakwaniska kusintha kuŵa nkhongono yakuwusa iyo yikapanga Western Europe mu Middle Ages.<ref>{{cite book|last=Pirenne|first=Henri|year=1980|title=Medieval Cities: Their Origins and the Revival of Trade|others=Frank D. Halsey (trans.)|location=Princeton, NJ|publisher=Princeton University Press|orig-date=1925|url={{googlebooks|TKUN4UdfVaQC|page=27|plainurl=y}}|isbn=978-0-691-00760-1|pages=27–32}}</ref> Nkhondo za [[Nkhondo ya Toulouse (721)|Toulouse]] na [[Nkhondo ya Poitiers (732)|Poitiers]] zikalekeska kuluta panthazi kwa Chisilamu ku Manjiliro gha dazi ndipo [[Kuzingilizgika kwa Constantinople (717–718)|kuzingilizgika kwa Constantinople]] iyo yikatondeka yikalekeska ku Mafumiro gha dazi. Pakati pajumpha vilimika 20 panji 30, mu 751, Ufumu wa Byzantium ukataya msumba wa Ravenna uwo [[Exarchate of Ravenna|ukalamuliranga]] vigaŵa vichokovichoko vya Italy, kusazgapo Roma, ivyo vikazomerezga kuti viŵe na mazaza pa ŵa Lombard. Kuwa kwa Ravenna kukang’anamuranga kuti kukhozgeka na exarch uyo wakaŵakoso yayi kukapempheka yayi pa nyengo ya chisankho mu 752 cha [[Papa Stephen II]] ndiposo kuti ŵapapa ŵakachichizgika kupenja malo ghanyake kuti ŵaŵe na mazaza gha boma kuti ŵaŵavikilire.<ref>{{cite book|last=Richards|first=Jeffrey|year=2014|title=The Popes and the Papacy in the Early Middle Ages|publisher=Routledge|url={{googlebooks|Zod9AwAAQBAJ|page=230|plainurl=y}}|isbn=978-1-317-67817-5|page=230}}</ref> Mu 754, pa pempho la mwaluŵiro la Papa Stephen, themba la Frank [[Pepin Mufupi]] likapoka Ŵalombard. Pamanyuma pake [[Kupeleka kwa Pepin|wakapeleka chawanangwa]] vyaru ivyo kale vikaŵa vya exarchate kwa papa, ntheura wakambiska [[Vigaŵa vya Papa]]. Roma na Byzantine East ŵazamuŵa na nkhondo yinyake mu nyengo ya [[kugaŵikana kwa Photian]] mu vilimika vya m’ma 860, apo [[Photios I wa ku Constantinople | Nangauli kugaŵikana uku kukagowokerana, kweni nkhani izo zikaŵa kuti zindamazgike zingapangiska kuti ŵagaŵikaneso.<ref>{{cite book|last=Walker|first=Willston|year=1985|title=History of the Christian Church|publisher=Simon and Schuster|url={{googlebooks|bFw8PtQhpVoC|page=250|plainurl=y}}|isbn=978-0-684-18417-3|pages=250–251}}</ref> Mu vilimika vya m’ma 1000, kuyezgayezga kwa [[Hildebrand wa ku Sovana]] kukapangiska kuti paŵe [[Koleji ya Ŵakadinala]] kuti ŵasankhe ŵapapa ŵaphya, kwamba na [[Papa Alexander II]] mu [[Chisankho cha Papa, 1061|chisankho cha Papa cha 1061]]. Alexander Wachiŵiri wakati wafwa, Hildebrand wakasankhika kuti waŵe m’malo mwake, nga ni [[Papa Gregory VII]]. Nthowa yakwamba ya chisankho cha College of Cardinals iyo Gregory VII wakawovwira kukhazikiska yalutilira kugwira ntchito m’paka mu vilimika vya m’ma 2000. Papa Gregory VII wakambiskaso [[Kusintha kwa Gregory]] pa nkhani ya kujiyimira paŵekha kwa ŵalongozgi ŵa visopa ku ŵamazaza ŵa caru. Ici cikapangiska kuti paŵe [[Nkhondo ya Kuŵika Ndalama]] pakati pa tchalitchi na [[Fumu Yituŵa ya Roma]], iyo yikaŵa na mazaza ghakusankha mabishopu na ŵapapa.<ref name="Vidmar107">Vidmar, ''The Catholic Church Through the Ages'' (2005), pp. 107–11</ref><ref name="Duffy78">Duffy, ''Saints and Sinners'' (1997), p. 78, quote: "By contrast, Paschal's successor [[Pope Eugene II|Eugenius II]] (824–7), elected with imperial influence, gave away most of these papal gains. He acknowledged the Emperor's sovereignty in the papal state, and he accepted a constitution imposed by Lothair which established imperial supervision of the administration of Rome, imposed an oath to the Emperor on all citizens, and required the pope–elect to swear fealty before he could be consecrated. Under [[Pope Sergius II|Sergius II]] (844–7) it was even agreed that the pope could not be consecrated without an imperial mandate and that the ceremony must be in the presence of his representative, a revival of some of the more galling restrictions of Byzantine rule."</ref> Mu 1095, [[Ufumu wa Byzantine|Byzantine]] themba [[Alexios I Komnenos|Alexius I]] wakapempha [[Papa Urban II]] kuti wamovwire kulimbana na nkhondo za Ŵasilamu izo zikaŵa kuti zawukiraso ŵasilikari ŵawo. 8</ref> ivyo vikapangiska kuti Urban wambe [[Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Mtanda]] iyo yikaŵa na chilato chakuti wawovwire Ufumu wa Byzantine na kuwezgerapo [[Charu Chatuŵa]] ku mazaza gha Ŵakhristu.{{sfn|Bokenkotter|2004|pp=140–141}} Mu [[Ubale] wa Chikhristu pakati pa vilimika vya m’ma 1900, 1111. tchalitchi lakwamba la Chigiriki na Tchalitchi la Chilatini vikaŵapatura mu [[East–West Schism]], chigaŵa chinyake chifukwa cha kugaŵikana pa [[papa]] mazaza. [[Nkhondo Yachinayi ya Mtanda]] na kupoka Constantinople na ŵasilikari ŵakugaluka ŵakalongora kuti ŵakaswa malango ghaumaliro. Mu nyengo iyi, matchalitchi ghakuru gha chigothi ku France ghakaŵa ghakumanyikwa chomene. Mu vilimika vya m’ma 1200 [[magulu ghakupemphapempha]] ghakakhazikiska [[Francis wa ku Assisi]] ​​na [[Dominic Mutuŵa|Dominic de Guzmán]]. ''Studia conventualia'' na ''[[sukulu yikuru|studia yikuru]]'' ya malango ghakupemphapempha ŵakawovwira chomene pa kusintha kwa [[sukulu ya katedrale]] iyo yikakhozgekanga na tchalitchi na sukulu za pa nyumba ya ufumu, nga ni ya [[Charlemagne]] ku [[Aachen]], ku mayunivesite gha [[Aachen]], kuŵa gha pro.<ref>Woods, pp. 44–48</ref> [[Masambiro|Masambiro]] ŵasambizgi ŵa visopa na ŵafilosofe nga ni wasembe wa ku Dominican [[Thomas Aquinas]] ŵakasambiranga na kusambizga pa masambiro agha. Aquinas ''Summa Theologica'' yikaŵa chinthu chakuzirwa chomene pa nkhani ya vinjeru pakusazga chiharo cha [[filosofe yakale ya ku Greece|ŵafilosofe ŵakale ŵa ku Greece]] nga ni Plato na Aristotle na ivyo vikaŵa mu chivumbuzi cha Ŵakhristu.{{sfn|Bokenkotter|2004|pp=158–159}} Mu vilimika vya m’ma 1300, ŵanthu ŵakamba kuwona nkhondo pakati pa tchalitchi na boma. Kuti ŵaleke kukhazikika mu Roma, [[Papa Clement V|Clement V]] mu 1309 wakazgoka wakwamba pa ŵapapa ŵankhondi na ŵaŵiri awo ŵakakhalanga mu msumba wakukhora wa [[Avignon]] kumwera kwa France mu nyengo iyo yikamanyikwanga kuti [[Upapa wa Avignon]]. Upapa wa Avignon ukamara mu 1376 apo papa wakawelera ku Roma, kweni mu 1378 ukalondezgeka na [[Kugaŵikana kwa Kumanjiliro gha dazi|Kugaŵikana kwa Kumanjiliro gha dazi]] uko kukatora vyaka 38, ndipo awo ŵakatenge ŵaŵe ŵapapa ku Roma, Avignon na (pamanyuma pa 1409) Pisa.<ref name="McManners232"/> Nkhani iyi yikamazgika chomene mu 1415–17 pa [[Council of Constance]], ndipo awo ŵakakhumbanga kuti ŵaŵe na boma ku Roma na Pisa ŵakazomera kuleka ntchito ndipo uyo wakakhumbanga boma wachitatu wakafumiskikapo na ŵakadinala, awo ŵakachita chisankho chiphya na zina lakuti [[Papa Martin V|Martin V]] papa.<ref name="McManners240">McManners, p. 240</ref> [[File:Lightmatter Sistine Chapel ceiling.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.25|Nyengo ya Renaissance yikaŵa nyengo ya golide ya [[luso lwa Ŵakatolika]]. Pa cithuzithuzi: [[Siling’i ya Nyumba ya Kusopa ya Sistine]] iyo yikapenteka na [[Michelangelo]].]] Mu 1438, [[Council of Florence]] yikawungana, iyo yikaŵa na kudumbiskana kwakukhora uko kukaŵika mtima pa kupulikiska mphambano za visopa pakati pa Mafumiro gha dazi na Kumanjiliro gha dazi, na cigomezgo cakuti matchalitchi gha Katolika na gha Orthodox ghazamukoleranaso.<ref>{{cite book|last=Geanakoplos|first=Deno John|year=1989|title=Constantinople and the West|url=https://archive.org/details/constantinoplewe0000gean|location=Madison, WI|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|isbn=978-0-299-11880-8}}</ref> Matchalitchi ghanandi gha kumafumiro gha dazi ghakakoleranaso, ndipo ghakapanga chigaŵa chikuru cha [[Matchalitchi gha Katolika gha kumafumiro gha dazi]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Collinge|first=William J.|year=2012|title=Historical Dictionary of Catholicism|publisher=Scarecrow Press|url={{googlebooks|LR0Nyt3bi_MC|page=169|plainurl=y}}|isbn=978-0-8108-5755-1|page=169}}</ref> == Bungwe == [[File:Emblem of the Papacy SE.svg|thumb|"Nizamukupani makiyi gha ufumu wa kuchanya, ndipo chilichose icho muzamukaka pa charu chapasi chizamukakika kuchanya, ndipo chilichose icho muzamufwatura pa charu chapasi chizamufwatuka kuchanya." Yesu kwa Petrosi mu [[Uthenga Uwemi wa Mateyu]], Matthew 16:19.]] Mpingo wa Katolika ukulondezga ndondomeko ya episcopal polity, iyo yikulongozgeka na mabishopu awo ŵapokera sakramenti ya Holy Orders awo ŵakupika mazaza ghakulongozga mukati mwa mpingo.[186][187] Pali vigaŵa vitatu vya ŵaliska: episcopate, iyo yili na mabishopu agho ghali na mazaza pa malo agho ghakuchemeka diocese panji eparchy; presbyterate, iyo yili na ŵasembe awo ŵakuŵikika na mabishopu ndipo ŵakugwira ntchito mu madayosisi gha mu chigaŵa panji mu mabungwe gha visopa; na udikoni, uwo uli na ŵadikoni awo ŵakovwira mabishopu na ŵasembe pa milimo yakupambanapambana ya uteŵeti. Paumaliro uyo wakulongozga Mpingo wose wa Katolika ni bishopu wa ku Roma, uyo wakumanyikwa kuti papa (mu Chilatini: papa, lit. 'dada'), uyo mazaza ghake ghakuchemeka Mpando Mutuŵa (Sancta Sedes mu Chilatini).[188] Pakuyana waka na kapangikiro ka dayosizi pali mabungwe ghakupambanapambana gha visopa agho ghakugwira ntchito mwakujiyimira paŵekha, kanandi ghakulongozgeka na mazaza gha papa pera, nangauli nyengo zinyake ghakulongozgeka na bishopu wa malo agha. Mabungwe ghanandi gha visopa ghakuŵa na ŵanalume panji ŵanakazi pera kweni ghanyake ghakuŵa na wose ŵaŵiri. Kweniso, ŵantu ŵambura kusopa ŵakuwovwira pa milimo yinandi ya cisopo pa nyengo ya kusopa. === Mpando Wakupatulika, upapa, Curia ya Roma, na Koleji ya Ŵakadinali === Ŵalongozgi ŵa Tchalitchi la Katolika ŵakulongozgeka na papa—sono ni Papa Francis, uyo wakasankhika pa 13 March 2013 na msonkhano wa ŵapapa.[118] Ofesi ya papa yikumanyikwa kuti papacy. Tchalitchi la Katolika likuyowoya kuti Khristu wakambiska upapa apo wakapeleka makiyi gha Kuchanya kwa Petrosi Mutuŵa. Mazaza ghake gha tchalitchi ghakuchemeka Holy See, panji Mpando wa Ŵapositole (kung'anamura Mpando wa mpositole Petrosi).[119][120] Ŵanthu awo ŵakuteŵetera papa mwaluŵiro ni Roman Curia, wupu ukuru uwo ukulaŵilira bizinesi ya zuŵa na zuŵa ya Tchalitchi la Katolika. Papa nayo ni muwusi wa Vatican City,[121] msumba-boma lichoko ilo lili mu msumba wa Roma, uwo ni gulu lakupambana na Holy See. Ni nga ni mutu wa Holy See, nga ni mutu wa Vatican City State yayi, apo papa wakupokelera ŵamishonale ŵa vyaru na kuŵatumira ŵamishonale ŵake ŵa boma.[122] Mpando Wakupatulika ukupelekaso malango, kukongozga na mendulo, nga ni malango gha chivalry agho ghakafuma mu nyengo ya Middle Ages. Nangauli tchalitchi lakumanyikwa la Saint Peter lili mu msumba wa Vatican, pachanya pa malo ghakumanyikwa gha dindi la Saint Peter, tchalitchi likuru la papa la Dayosizi ya Roma ni Archbasilica ya Saint John Lateran, iyo yili mukati mwa msumba wa Roma, nangauli yili na mwaŵi wa kuzomerezgeka na Holy. Malo gha kadinala ni udindo wa ntchindi uwo ŵapapa ŵakupeleka ku ŵaliska ŵanyake, nga mbalongozgi ŵa mu Roman Curia, mabishopu agho ghakuteŵetera mu misumba yikuruyikuru na ŵasambizgi ŵakumanyikwa ŵa visopa. Kuti ŵamupe ulongozgi na wovwiri pa kulamulira, papa wangaluta ku College of Cardinal.[123] Pamanyuma pa nyifwa panji kuleka kwa papa,[wonani 3] ŵabali ŵa College of Cardinals awo ŵali pasi pa vyaka 80 ŵakuchita nga ni koleji ya visankho, ŵakukumana mu msonkhano wa papa kuti ŵasankhe uyo wazamuŵalondezga.[125] Nangauli conclave yingasankha mwanalume waliyose wa Katolika kuŵa papa, kufuma mu 1389 ŵakasankhika waka makadinala.[126] === Dango la Canon === Catholic canon law (Chilatini: jus canonicum) ni ndondomeko ya malango na fundo za malango izo zikupangika na kukhozgeka na ŵalara ŵa boma la Katolika kuti ŵalongozge bungwe lake la kuwaro na boma ndiposo kuti ŵalongozge na kulongozga milimo ya Ŵakatolika ku mulimo wa tchalitchi. Lamulo la canon la Tchalitchi la Latin ndilo likaŵa lakwamba la mazuŵa ghano la malango gha ku Manjiliro gha dazi,[115] ndipo ndilo dongosolo lakale chomene ilo likulutilira kugwira ntchito ku Manjiliro gha dazi,<ref>{{Cite web |first1=Edward N. |last1=Peters |author1-link=Edward N. Peters |url=http://canonlaw.info |title=CanonLaw.info Home Page |access-date=11 June 2013}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |first1=Raymond |last1=Wacks |author1-link=Raymond Wacks |title=Law: A Very Short Introduction, 2nd Ed. |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2015 |page=13 |isbn=978-0198745624}}</ref> apo mitheto yakupambanapambana ya malango gha Katolika ya Kummaŵa yikulamulira matchalitchi 23 gha ku Eastern Catholic particular sui iuris. Malango ghawemi gha tchalitchi, ghakukhazikika mwachindunji panji mwambura kumanyikwa pa dango la Chiuta ilo likusintha yayi panji dango la chilengiwa, ghakupokera mazaza ghakuzomerezgeka pa nkhani ya malango gha pa charu chose kufuma ku kupharazgika na wakupanga malango mulara—Pontiff Mukuru—uyo wali na mazaza ghose ghakuŵika malango, ghakulongozga munthu, na ghakweruzga mu]. mazaza kufuma ku kupharazgika na wakupanga malango uyo wali pasi pa wakupanga malango mulara, kwali ni wakupanga malango wambura kumanyikwa panji wakupeleka malango. Nkhani yeneco ya mu mabuku gha malango nja visambizgo panji nkharo pera yayi, kweni yikukhwaska vyose umo munthu waliri. Lili na vinthu vyose vyambura kumanyikwa vya ndondomeko ya malango yakukhwima: malango, makhoti, ŵaloya, ŵeruzgi, malango ghakumanyikwa makora gha Tchalitchi la Chilatini pamoza na malango gha Matchalitchi gha Katolika gha Kumafumiro gha dazi, fundo zakulongosora malango, na penalties. Malango gha mu Tchalitchi la Katolika ghakukhwaskana na umoyo na gulu la Tchalitchi ndipo ghakupambana na malango gha boma. Mu munda wake ukupereka nkhongono ku malango gha boma pera mwa kuŵika malango ghanyake mu nkhani nga nkhupwelelera ŵana ŵachoko. Mwakuyana waka, dango la boma lingapereka nkhongono mu munda wake ku dango la canon, kweni mwa kuŵika waka dango lakumanyikwa, nga umo vikuŵira na nthengwa za canon. Pasono, 1983 Code of Canon Law yikugwira ntchito ku Mpingo wa Chilatini. Malango ghakupambana gha 1990 gha Matchalitchi gha Kummaŵa (CCEO, pamanyuma pa vimanyikwiro vyakwamba vya Chilatini) ghakugwira ntchito ku Matchalitchi gha Katolika gha Kummaŵa ghakujiyimira paŵekha. === Matchalitchi gha Chilatini na gha ku Mafumiro gha dazi === Mu vyaka chikwi vyakwamba vya mdauko wa Katolika, mitundu yakupambanapambana ya Chikhristu yikapangika mu vigaŵa vya Chikhristu vya Kumanjiliro gha dazi na Kummaŵa kwa Europe, Asia na Africa. Nangauli matchalitchi ghanandi gha ku mafumiro gha dazi ghakukoleranaso yayi na Tchalitchi la Katolika pamanyuma pa Kugaŵikana Kukuru kwa 1054 (na kugaŵikana kwakwamba kwa Nestorian na Chalcedonian Schism), matchalitchi 23 ghakujiyimira paŵekha gha mitheto ya kumafumiro gha dazi ghakutorapo mbali mu chiyanjano cha Katolika, icho chikumanyikwaso kuti "church one:i'i's). Tchalitchi likuru chomene ndiposo lakumanyikwa chomene ni Tchalitchi la Chilatini, ilo ndilo pera ilo likulondezga mitheto ya ku Manjiliro gha dazi, ndipo lili na ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 1 biliyoni pa charu chose. Pakuyowoya za ŵalondezgi ŵachoko chomene pakuyaniska na Tchalitchi la Chilatini, ni Matchalitchi 23 ghakujiyimira pawokha gha Katolika gha Kummaŵa agho ghali na ŵanthu ŵakukwana 17.3 miliyoni kufuma mu 2010. Tchalitchi la Chilatini likulongozgeka na papa na mabishopu gha mu dayosizi agho wali kusankhika na iyo mwaluŵiro. Papa wakuchita mulimo wa ŵasekuru pa Tchalitchi la Chilatini, ilo likuwoneka kuti likapanga chigaŵa chakwamba ndiposo chikuru cha Chikhristu cha Kumanjiliro gha dazi, chiharo cha vigomezgo vinyake na mitheto iyo yikafuma ku Europe na kumpoto chakumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Africa, vinyake mwa ivyo vikahara na visopo vinandi vya Chikhristu ivyo vikulondezgapo kufuma kwawo ku Reformation. Matchalitchi gha Katolika gha kumafumiro gha dazi ghakulondezga mitheto na uzimu wa Chikhristu cha kumafumiro gha dazi ndipo ni matchalitchi agho nyengo zose ghakulutilira kukolerana chomene na Tchalitchi la Katolika panji agho ghasankha kunjiraso mu ubwezi wose mu vyaka vinandi ivyo vikalondezgapo pa East–West Schism panji kugaŵikana kwakwambilira. Matchalitchi agha ni mitundu ya Ŵakhristu ŵa Katolika awo mitundu yawo ya kusopa yikulongora kuti ŵali na mdauko na mitheto yakupambanapambana m’malo mwa kupambana mu visambizgo. Kweni chifukwa chakuti papa wakazomerezga Matchalitchi gha Katolika gha Kumafumiro gha dazi, ivi vyapangiska kuti paŵe mphindano pa nkhani ya kukolerana kwa matchalitchi gha Eastern Orthodox na matchalitchi ghanyake gha kumafumiro gha dazi. Kuyana na mdauko, kucicizgika kuti ŵalondezgenge mitheto ya Cikhristu ca ku Manjiliro gha dazi iyo yikacitikanga na Tchalitchi la Latin ilo likaŵa na ŵanthu ŵanandi, kukapangiska kuti ŵanjirepo (kusintha Cilatini) pa mitheto yinyake ya Ŵakatolika ŵa ku Mafumiro gha dazi. Chikalata chachiŵiri cha Vatican Council, Orientalium Ecclesiarum, chikazengeka pa kusintha kwakumanyuma kuti chikhozgereso wanangwa wa Ŵakatolika ŵa kumafumiro gha dazi kuti ŵalutilire kuŵa na mikhaliro yawo yakupambanapambana ya chisopa. Mpingo sui iuris ukulongosoreka mu Code of Canons for the Eastern Churches nga ni "gulu la ŵakugomezgeka ŵa Chikhristu awo ŵakukolerana na ŵalongozgi" awo ŵakumanyikwa na papa mu udindo wake nga ni mulara wapacanya pa nkhani za visambizgo mukati mwa mpingo. Lizgu ili ni chinthu chiphya icho CCEO yikapanga kuti yilongore kuti Matchalitchi gha Katolika gha ku Mafumiro gha dazi ghakujiyimira paŵekha, agho ghakulutilira kukolerana chomene na papa, kweni ghali na ndondomeko ya boma na mitheto ya chisopa yakupambana na ya Tchalitchi la Latin. Nangauli mabuku gha Tchalitchi la Chilatini ghakugwiliskira ntchito lizgu ili mwakudunjika yayi, kweni ŵakuzomerezga kuti likuyana waka. Matchalitchi ghanyake gha Katolika gha kumafumiro gha dazi ghakulamulirika na patriarch uyo wakusankhika na sinodi ya mabishopu gha tchalitchi ilo, ghanyake ghakulongozgeka na archbishop mulara,[124] ghanyake ghali pasi pa metropolitan, ndipo ghanyake ghakupangika nga ni eparchies paŵekha. Mpingo uliwose uli na mazaza pa vigaŵa vya bungwe lake la mukati, mitheto ya chisopa, kalendara ya chisopa na vinyake vya uzimu wake, vikulondezga waka mazaza gha papa. Roman Curia ili na dipatimenti yinyake, Mpingo wa Matchalitchi gha Kumafumiro gha dazi, kuti yiŵe paubwezi nawo. Kanandi papa wakusankha yayi mabishopu panji ŵalongozgi ŵa visopa mu Matchalitchi gha Katolika gha Kummaŵa, ndipo wakuchedweska ndondomeko yawo ya boma la mukati, kweni wanganjilirapo usange wakuwona kuti nchakwenelera. === Ma dayosizi, ma parishi, mabungwe, na mabungwe === Vyaru vinyake, vigaŵa, panji misumba yikuruyikuru yikuteŵetereka na matchalitchi ghanyake agho ghakumanyikwa kuti ma dayosizi mu Tchalitchi la Chilatini, panji ma eparchies mu Matchalitchi gha Katolika gha Kummaŵa, ndipo matchalitchi ghanyake ghakulaŵilirika na bishopu. Kufuma mu 2008, Mpingo Katolika uli na madayosisi 2,795. Mabishopu mu charu chinyake mba membala ŵa msonkhano wa ŵabishopu ŵa charu panji ŵa chigaŵa. Ma dayosizi ghagaŵika mu ma parishi, ndipo lililose lili na wasembe yumoza panji ŵanandi, ŵadikoni, panji ŵateŵeti ŵa tchalitchi ŵambura kusambizgika. Ma Parish ndiwo ghakuchitiska chikondwelero cha zuŵa na zuŵa cha masakramenti na kupwelelera ŵaliska ŵa ŵanthu ŵambura kusopa. Kufuma mu 2016, pali ma parishi 221,700 pa charu chose. Mu Tchalitchi la Chilatini, ŵanalume ŵa Katolika ŵangateŵetera nga mbadikoni panji ŵasembe mwa kupokera udindo wa sakramenti. Ŵanalume na ŵanakazi ŵangateŵetera nga mbateŵeti ŵapadera ŵa Mgonero Utuŵa, nga mbaŵazgi (ŵasambizgi), panji nga mbateŵeti ŵa pa jotchero. Kuyana na mdauko, ŵanyamata na ŵanalume ŵakazomerezgekanga waka kuteŵetera nga mbateŵeti ŵa pa jotchero; kweni kufuma mu 1990s, ŵasungwana na ŵanakazi nawo ŵazomerezgeka. Ŵakatolika ŵakuŵikika, pamoza na ŵantu ŵambura kusopa, ŵanganjira mu umoyo wakupatulika panji paŵekha, nga ni hermit panji mwali wakupatulika, panji mwa kunjira mu wupu wa umoyo wakupatulika (wupu wa cisopo panji wupu wa ŵantu ŵambura kusopa) umo ŵangacitira malumbiro ghakukhozgera khumbo lawo la kulondezga vigaŵa vitatu vya chavertistigel na eselyun, . kupulikira. Viyelezgero vya mabungwe gha umoyo wakupatulika ni ŵa Benedictine, ŵa Carmelite, ŵa Dominican, ŵa Franciscan, ŵa Mishonale ŵa Chitemwa, Ŵasilikari ŵa Khristu na Ŵadumbu ŵa Lusungu. "Mabungwe gha chisopa" ni lizgu la mazuŵa ghano ilo likukhwaska "malango gha chisopa" na "mipingo ya chisopa," iyo nyengo yinyake yikaŵa yakupambana mu malango gha chisopa. Mazgu ghakuti "ndondomeko ya chisopa" na "bungwe la chisopa" ghakugwiriskirika nchito nga ni mazgu ghakuyana waka. Kwizira mu vyakovwira vya Katolika na vinyake, Mpingo Wa Katolika ndiwo ukupeleka masambiro na wovwiri wa umoyo pa charu chose chapasi kwambura boma. === Kuŵa membala === Chikatolika ndicho chisopa chachiŵiri pa charu chose, chikuluska Chisilamu cha Sunni pera.[115] Ŵanthu ŵa mu tchalitchi, awo ŵakulongosoreka kuti mba Katolika ŵakubatizika, ŵakaŵa 1.345 biliyoni kuumaliro wa 2019, awo ni 18% ya ŵanthu ŵa pa charu chose. Brazil ndiyo yili na ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa Katolika pa charu chose, ndipo pamanyuma pake pali Mexico, Philippines, na United States.[117] Ŵakatolika ŵakuyimira pafupifupi hafu ya Ŵakhristu wose. Kugaŵika kwa malo kwa Ŵakatolika pa charu chose kukulutilira kusintha, na 18.7% ku Africa, 48.1% ku America, 11.0% ku Asia, 21.2% ku Europe, na 0.8% ku Oceania. Ŵateŵeti ŵa Katolika ŵakusazgapo ŵaliska ŵakuŵikika, ŵateŵeti ŵa tchalitchi ŵambura kusambizgika, ŵamishonale, na ŵasambizgi ŵa katekisimu. Kweniso ku umaliro wa 2019, pakaŵa ŵaliska ŵakuŵikika 467,938, kusazgapo mabishopu 5,364, ŵasembe 414,336 (ŵa dayosizi na ŵa chisopa), na ŵadikoni 48,238 (ŵanyengo zose). Ŵateŵeti ŵambura kuŵikika ŵakaŵa ŵasambizgi ŵa katekisimu 3,157,568, ŵamishonale ŵambura kusambizgika 367,679, na ŵateŵeti ŵambura kusambizgika ŵa matchalitchi 39,951. Ŵakatolika awo ŵali kujipeleka ku umoyo wa cisopo panji wakupatulika m’malo mwa nthengwa panji kuŵa ŵambura kutora panji kutengwa, nga ni umoyo panji nchito ya ubwezi, ŵakusazgapo ŵanalume 54,559 ŵakusopa na ŵanakazi 705,529 ŵakusopa. Iwo ŵakuŵikika yayi, panji ŵakuwoneka kuti mbateŵeti pekha usange nawo ŵakuchitako chimoza mwa vigaŵa vya ŵateŵeti ŵambura kumanyikwa ivyo vili pachanya apa. ==Chisambizgo== Chisambizgo cha Katolika chakura mu vyaka vinandi ivyo vyajumpha, ndipo chikulongora visambizgo vyakudunjika vya Ŵakhristu ŵakwambilira, kulongosora kwakuzomerezgeka kwa vigomezgo vyakugaluka na vya orthodox na makhonsolo gha visopo vyose na mu ng’ombe za ŵapapa, ndiposo mphindano za vya chisopa na ŵasambiri. Mpingo ukugomezga kuti nyengo zose ukulongozgeka na Mzimu Mutuŵa apo ukumanya nkhani ziphya za chisopa ndipo ukuvikilirika kwambura kubudiska kuti uleke kugwa mu visambizgo vyambura kwenelera para ŵasankha mwakukhora pa nkhani yinyake. Likusambizga kuti kuvumbulika kuli na mtundu umoza wakuyana, Chiuta, na nthowa ziŵiri zakupambanapambana zakupharazgira: Malemba Ghatuŵa na Mitheto Yakupatulika, ndipo ivi vikung’anamulika nadi na Magisterium. Malemba Ghakupatulika ghali na mabuku 73 gha Baibolo la Katolika, ndipo ghali na mabuku 46 gha Testamente Lakale na 27 gha Testamente Lasono. Sacred Tradition yili na visambizgo ivyo mpingo ukugomezga kuti vikapelekeka kufuma mu nyengo ya ŵapositole. Malemba Ghakupatulika na Mwambo Wakupatulika vyose pamoza vikumanyikwa kuti "kuŵika chipulikano" (depositum fidei mu Chilatini). Ivi vikung'anamulikaso na Magisterium (kufuma ku magister, Chilatini "msambizgi"), mazaza ghakusambizga gha tchalitchi, agho ghakuchitika na papa na College of Bishops pamoza na papa, Bishopu wa Roma.[179] Chisambizgo cha Katolika chikulongosoreka mwakudumura mu Katekisimu wa Tchalitchi la Katolika, ilo likalembeka na Holy See. === Mtundu wa Chiuta === Ŵakatolika ŵakugomezga kuti Yesu Khristu ni "Munthu Wachiŵiri" wa Utatu, Chiuta Mwana. Mu chinthu icho chikumanyikwa kuti Kuzgoka Munthu, kwizira mu nkhongono ya Mzimu Mutuŵa, Chiuta wakakolerana na chilengiwa cha munthu kwizira mu kubabika kwa Khristu mu nthumbo ya Mariya Namwali Mutumbikika. Ntheura, Khristu wakupulikiskika kuti ni Ciuta wakukwana ndiposo munthu wakukwana, kusazgapo kuŵa na mzimu wa munthu. Ŵakusambizgika kuti mulimo wa Khristu pa charu chapasi ukaŵa wakupeleka ku ŵanthu visambizgo vyake na kupereka chiyelezgero chake kuti ŵalondezgenge nga umo vili kulembekera mu mabuku ghanayi gha Uthenga Uwemi. Ŵanthu ŵakugomezga kuti Yesu wakakhala wambura kwananga apo wakaŵa pa charu chapasi, ndipo wakazomerezga kuti ŵamukome kwambura urunji mwa kupayikika pa khuni, nga ni sembe yake kuti waphemaniske ŵanthu na Chiuta; kugowokerana uku kukumanyikwa kuti Chisisi cha Paska. Lizgu la Chigiriki lakuti "Khristu" na la Chihebere lakuti "Mesiya" ghose ghakung'anamura "wakuphakazgika", ghakung'anamura chigomezgo cha Ŵakhristu chakuti nyifwa na chiwuka cha Yesu ni kufiskika kwa mauchimi gha mesiya gha mu Testamente Lakale. Mpingo Wa Katolika ukusambizga mwakusimikizga kuti "Mzimu Mutuŵa wakufuma kwa Ŵadada na Mwana kwamuyirayira, kufuma ku fundo ziŵiri yayi kweni kufuma ku fundo yimoza". Iwo ukuyowoya kuti Ŵadada, nga ni "fundo yambura fundo", ndiwo ŵakwamba kufuma ku Mzimu, kweniso kuti iyo, nga ni Ŵadada ŵa Mwana yumoza pera, wali na Mwana fundo yimoza iyo Mzimu wakufumiramo. Chigomezgo ichi chikulongosoreka mu fundo ya ''Filioque'' iyo yikasazgikira ku mtundu wa Chilatini wa Nicene Creed wa 381 kweni yikasazgikira yayi mu mtundu wa Chigiriki wa chigomezgo icho chikagwiriskirika nchito mu Chikhristu cha Kummaŵa. === Mtundu wa tchalitchi === Mpingo Katolika ukusambizga kuti ni "tchalitchi limoza launenesko",[172][173] "sakaramenti la chiponosko cha ŵanthu wose", na "chisopa chimoza chaunenesko". Kuyana na Katekisimu, Mpingo Katolika ukulongosorekaso mu Chigomezgo cha Nicene kuti "Mchalitchi umoza, utuŵa, wa Katolika, na wa ŵapositole". Vinthu ivi vyose pamoza vikumanyikwa kuti Vimanyikwiro Vinayi vya Mpingo. Mpingo ukusambizga kuti uyo wakambiska ni Yesu Khristu. Testamente Lasono likulemba vinthu vinandi ivyo ŵanthu ŵakuwona kuti vikaŵa vyakuzirwa chomene pakukhazikiska Tchalitchi la Katolika, kusazgapo milimo na visambizgo vya Yesu ndiposo kusankha ŵapositole kuŵa ŵakaboni ŵa uteŵeti wake, masuzgo ghake, na chiwuka chake. Mulimo Ukuru, wakati wawuka, wakaphalira ŵapositole kuti ŵalutilire mulimo wake. Kuza kwa Mzimu Mutuŵa pa ŵapositole, mu chinthu icho chikumanyikwa kuti Pentekoste, chikuwoneka nga ni kwamba kwa uteŵeti wa pa wumba wa Mpingo Katolika. Mpingo ukusambizga kuti mabishopu ghose ghakupatulika ghakwenelera ghali na mzere wakulondezgapo kufuma ku ŵapositole ŵa Khristu, uwo ukumanyikwa kuti mzere wa ŵapositole. Makamaka, Bishopu wa Roma (papa) wakuwoneka kuti ni uyo wakalondezgapo mpositole Simoni Petrosi, udindo uwo wakupokerapo udindo wake pa mpingo. Chigomezgo cha Katolika chikuti mpingo "ni kuŵapo kwa Yesu kwakulutilira pa charu chapasi" ndipo ndilo pera ilo lili na nthowa zose za chiponosko. Kwizira mu suzgo (kusuzgika) kwa Khristu uko kukapangiska kuti wakomeke pa khuni nga umo vikulongosolekera mu Mauthenga Ghawemi, ŵakuti Khristu wakajipanga yekha kuŵa sembe kwa Chiuta Ŵadada kuti waphemaniske ŵanthu na Chiuta; Chiwuka cha Yesu chikumupangiska kuŵa mwana wakwamba kufuma ku ŵakufwa, wakwamba pakati pa ŵabali ŵanandi. Pakuphemana na Chiuta na kulondezga mazgu na milimo ya Khristu, munthu wanganjira mu Ufumu wa Chiuta. Mpingo ukuwona kuti liturgy yake na masakramenti ghake vikukhozga lusungu ilo likusangika kwizira mu sembe ya Khristu kuti likhozge ubwezi wa munthu na Khristu na kovwira pakuthereska kwananga. === Kweruzgika kwaumaliro === Tchalitchi la Katolika likusambizga kuti, para munthu waliyose wafwa waka, mzimu wake uzamupokera cheruzgo chinyake kufuma kwa Chiuta, mwakuyana na zakwananga zawo na ubwezi wawo na Khristu. Chisambizgo ichi chikukhozgeraso zuŵa linyake ilo Khristu wazamukhalapo na kweruzga ŵanthu wose. Kweruzgika kwaumaliro uku, mwakuyana na chisambizgo cha tchalitchi, kuzamumara mdauko wa ŵanthu na kwamba kwa vyose viŵiri, kuchanya na charu chapasi viphya na viwemi ivyo vizamuwusika na Chiuta mu urunji. Kuyana na umo munthu wakweruzgikira para wafwa, ŵakugomezga kuti mzimu unganjira mu chimoza mwa vigaŵa vitatu vya umoyo wa pamanyuma pa nyifwa: * Kuchanya ni mkhaliro wa kukolerana kwambura kumara na kacitiro ka Ciuta ka Ciuta, ontologically yayi, kweni mwa lusungu. Ni umoyo wamuyirayira, umo mzimu ukughanaghanira Chiuta mu chimwemwe chambura kumara. * Purgatory ni nyengo ya nyengo yichoko waka yakutozgera mizimu iyo, nangauli yili kuŵikika kucanya, yikupatukana yayi na kwananga ndipo ntheura yinganjira yayi kuchanya nyengo yeneyiyo.Mu Purigatoriyo, mzimu ukusuzgika, ndipo ukutozgeka na kufikapo. Mizimu iyo yili mu purigatoriyo yingawovwirika kuti yifike kuchanya na malurombo gha ŵakugomezgeka pa charu chapasi na kuŵeyelera kwa ŵatuŵa. * Kuzengeka kwaumaliro: Paumaliro, awo ŵakulutilira kukhala mu mkhaliro wa kwananga kwakufwa ndipo ŵakulapa yayi pambere ŵandafwe ŵakujiŵika ku gehena, kupatukana na Ciuta kwamuyirayira.[178] Mpingo ukusambizga kuti palije uyo wakususkika ku gehena kwambura kuti wasankha mwakufwatuka kukana Chiuta. Palije uyo wali kuŵikika kale ku gehena ndipo palije uyo wangamanya mwakusimikizga uyo wali kuzengeka mulandu ku gehena. Chikatolika chikusambizga kuti kwizira mu lusungu lwa Chiuta munthu wangalapa nyengo yiliyose pambere wandafwe, kuŵalirika na unenesko wa chipulikano cha Chikatolika, ndipo ntheura wangasanga chiponosko. Ŵasambiri ŵanyake ŵa chisopa ŵa Katolika ŵakughanaghana kuti mizimu ya ŵana ŵachoko awo ŵandabatizike na awo mbakhristu yayi awo ŵalije kwananga kwa nyifwa kweni ŵakufwa mu kwananga kwakwamba ŵakuŵikika ku limbo, nangauli ichi nchisambizgo cha boma cha tchalitchi yayi. Nangauli Mpingo Wakatolika ukusambizga kuti ndiyo pera ndiyo yili na nthowa zose za chiponosko, yikuzomerezgaso kuti Mzimu Mutuŵa wangagwiliskira ntchito mitundu ya Ŵakhristu iyo yili kupatukana na iyo kuti "yikhuŵirizge ku umoza wa Katolika" na "kutemwa na kulongozgera ku Mpingo wa Katolika this and paravation to peoples",[184] muli vinthu vinyake vya chisambizgo chakwenelera, nangauli vikusazgana na viheni. Likusambizga kuti waliyose uyo wakuponoskeka wakuponoskeka kwizira mu Mpingo Katolika kweni ŵanthu ŵangaponoskeka kuwaro kwa nthowa zambura kumanyikwa izo zikumanyikwa kuti ubatizo wa khumbo, ndiposo na kukomeka pambere ŵandabatizike, uko kukumanyikwa kuti ubatizo wa ndopa, ndiposo para mikhaliro ya kuleka kumanya kwambura kuthereskeka yilipo, nangauli invincible is not a ignorance of me5. === Ŵatuŵa na kujipeleka === Mutuŵa (uyo wakumanyikwaso kuti hallow) ni munthu uyo wakumanyikwa kuti wali na msinkhu wapadera wa utuŵa panji wakuyana panji pafupi na Chiuta, apo kuzgoka mutuŵa ni chinthu icho tchalitchi la Chikhristu likupharazga kuti munthu uyo wafwa wakaŵa mutuŵa, pa kupharazga uko munthu wakusazgikika mu "canon of sagn", panji list. Ŵanthu ŵakwamba awo ŵakachindikika nga mbatuŵa ŵakaŵa awo ŵakakomeka chifukwa cha chipulikano chawo. Nthano zakusopa zakukhwaskana na nyifwa zawo zikawonekanga kuti zikukhozgera unenesko wa cipulikano cawo mwa Khristu. Kweni mu vilimika vya m’ma 400 C.E., “ŵakuzomera”—ŵanthu awo ŵakazomera cipulikano cawo mwa kufwa yayi kweni na mazgu na umoyo—ŵakamba kucindikika pakweru. Mu Tchalitchi la Katolika, mu matchalitchi gha Katolika gha Chilatini na gha Kumafumiro gha dazi, mulimo wa kuŵika munthu kuŵa mutuŵa ukusungikira ku Mpando wa Ŵapositole ndipo ukuchitika pa umaliro wa ndondomeko yitali iyo yikukhumbikwira ukaboni ukuru wakuti munthu uyo wakukhumba kuŵikika munthu mutuŵa wakakhala na kufwa mu nthowa ya ciyerezgero ndiposo yituŵa mwakuti ngwakwenelera kumanyikwa kuti ni saint. Kuzomerezga kwa tchalitchi kuti munthu ni mutuŵa kukung’anamura kuti munthu uyo sono wali Kuchanya ndipo wangachemeka pakweru na kuzunulika mu chisopa cha tchalitchi, kusazgapo mu Litany of the Saints. Kuŵikika pa malo ghatuŵa kukuzomerezga kuti ŵanthu wose ŵamusopenge mutuŵa mu liturgy ya Rite ya Ŵaroma; kuti ŵazomerezgeke kusopa waka pa malo ghawo, beatification pera ndiyo yikukhumbikwa. Kusopa ni "mikhaliro ya kuwaro ya kusopa" iyo ni chigaŵa cha liturgy yakuzomerezgeka ya Tchalitchi la Katolika yayi kweni ni chigaŵa cha mikhaliro yauzimu yakumanyikwa ya Ŵakatolika. Vinthu ivi vikusazgapo mikhaliro yakupambanapambana yakukhwaskana na kusopa ŵatuŵa, comenecomene kusopa Namwali Mariya. Vinyake ivyo vikuchitika pakusopa ni Masiteshoni gha Mtanda, Mtima Wakupatulika wa [[Yesu Khristu|Yesu]], Nkhope Yituŵa ya Yesu, ma scapulars ghakupambanapambana, ma novena ku ŵatuŵa ŵakupambanapambana, maulendo gha pa chisopa na kusopa ku Sakramenti Lakutumbikika, na kusopa vikozgo vya mutuŵa. Mabishopu gha pa Second Vatican Council ghakakumbuska Ŵakatolika kuti "kusopa kukwenera kulembeka mwakuti kuŵe kwakukolerana na nyengo za chisopa, kukolerana na chisopa chakupatulika, mu nthowa yinyake chikufumiramo, ndipo chikulongozga ŵanthu ku chisopa ichi, chifukwa, nadi, chisopa mwa mtundu wake chikuluska chomene." === Namwali Mariya === [[File:Murillo-inmaculada del coro-sevilla-mba.JPG|alt=|thumb|Namwali Mariya Mutumbikika wakuchindikika chomene mu Tchalitchi la Katolika, ŵakumupharazga kuti ni Mama wa Chiuta, wambura kwananga kwakwambilira ndiposo wakuŵeyelera.]] Mariology wa Katolika wakuyowoya za visambizgo na visambizgo vyakukhwaskana na umoyo wa Mariya, nyina wa Yesu, ndiposo umo ŵakugomezgeka ŵakuchindikira Mariya. Mariya wakuchindikika chomene, wakupharazgika kuti ni Mama wa Chiuta (Chigiriki: Θεοτόκος, Chiroma: Theotokos, lit. 'Wakunyamura Chiuta'), ndipo wakugomezga kuti wakakhala mwaliri umoyo wake wose. Visambizgo vinyake ni visambizgo vya Immaculate Conception (kutora nthumbo yake kwambura banga la kwananga kwakwamba) na Kukwezgeka kwa Mariya (kuti thupi lake likatoleka mwaluŵiro kucanya pa umaliro wa umoyo wake). Visambizgo vyose ivi vikalongosoreka kuti ni visambizgo vyambura kubudiska, na Papa Pius IX mu 1854 na Papa Pius XII mu 1950 mwakuyana, kweni pamanyuma pakuti ŵadumbiskana na mabishopu gha Katolika pa charu chose kuti ŵakhorweske kuti ichi nchigomezgo cha Katolika. Kweni mu matchalitchi gha Katolika gha kumafumiro gha dazi, ŵakulutilira kukondwelera chiphikiro cha Kukwezgeka kwa Chiuta pasi pa zina lakuti Dormition of the Mother of God pa zuŵa limoza.Chisambizgo chakuti Mariya wakafwa pambere ŵandamuwone kuti ni munthu wakuzirwa chikwamba pambere fundo yakuti wakafwa yayi. St John Damascene wakalemba kuti "St Juvenal, Bishopu wa Yerusalemu, pa ungano wa Chalcedon (451), wakamanyiska Themba Marcian na Pulcheria, awo ŵakakhumbanga kuŵa na thupi la Mama wa Chiuta, kuti Mariya wakafwa pamaso pa Ŵapositole wose, kweni kuti dindi lake likasangika pa upon wa St Thomas, apo likajulika; Ŵapositole ŵakadumura kuti thupi likatoleka kucanya." Kusopa kwa Mariya nchigaŵa ca kusopa kwa Katolika kweni nkhwakupambana na kusopa Ciuta. Ntchito zikusazgapo malurombo na luso lwa Marian, sumu, na vyakuzengazenga. Viphikiro vinandi vya chisopa cha Marian vikukondwelereka mu chaka chose cha Mpingo ndipo wakuchindikika na maudindo ghanandi nga ni Fumukazi ya Kuchanya. Papa Paul VI wakamuchema kuti Mama wa Mpingo chifukwa, pakubaba Khristu, wakuwoneka kuti ni mama wauzimu wa chiŵaro chilichose cha Thupi la Khristu. Chifukwa cha mulimo wake ukuru mu umoyo wa Yesu, malurombo na kujipeleka nga ni Hail Mary, Rosary, Salve Regina na Memorare ni mikhaliro ya Katolika yakumanyikwa chomene. Ulendo wa ku malo ghakuwonekerapo gha Marian ghanandi agho ghakukhozgeka na tchalitchi, nga ni Lourdes, Fátima, na Guadalupe, nawo ni visopa vyakumanyikwa vya Katolika. ===Nyengo ya Kusanga Charu=== {{Main|Mpingo wa Katolika na Nyengo ya Kusanga Charu}} [[Nyengo ya Kusanga Charu]], iyo yikamba mu vyaka vya m'ma 1400, yikapangiska kuti mazaza gha ndyali na chikhalidwe gha ku Western Europe ghafalikire pa charu chose. Chifukwa cha udindo ukuru uwo vyaru vya [[Spain]] na [[Portugal]], ivyo vikaŵa vya Chikatolika chomene, vikachita mu kulamulira vyaru vinyake (Western colonialism), Chikatolika chikafalikira ku [[Americas]], [[Asia]], na [[Oceania]] kwizira mu ŵakwendakwenda, ŵakuthereska vyaru (conquistadors), na ŵamishonale. Chikafalikiraso kwizira mu kusintha kwa vyaru na ŵanthu mwakugwiriska ntchito ndondomeko za ndyali na chikhalidwe za ulamuliro wa ŵakoloni. [[Papa Alexander VI]] wakapeleka [[Spanish Empire|Spain]] na [[Portuguese Empire|Portugal]] wanangwa wa kulamulira malo ghanandi agho ghakasangika sonosono,<ref name="Koschorke13">Koschorke, pp. 13, 283</ref> ndipo ndondomeko ya ''[[Patronato real|patronato]]'' yikapangiska kuti ŵalaraŵalara ŵa boma, m'malo mwa Vatican, ndiwo ŵaŵenge na mazaza ghakusankha ŵasembe na ŵalara ŵa mpingo mu vyaru viphya.<ref>Hastings (1994), p. 72</ref> Mu 1521, wakwendakwenda wa ku Portugal [[Ferdinand Magellan]] wakapembuzga ŵanthu ŵakwamba ŵa Chikatolika mu [[Spanish East Indies|Philippines]].<ref name="Koschorke21">Koschorke, p. 21</ref> Kumalo ghanyake, ŵamishonale ŵa ku Portugal pamoza na Mjesuiti wa ku Spain [[Francis Xavier]] ŵakapharazga uthenga uwemi ku India, China, na Japan.<ref name="Koschorke3">Koschorke, pp. 3, 17</ref> Ulamuliro wa ŵaFrance mu [[Americas]], uwo ukamba mu vyaka vya m'ma 1500, ukapangiska kuti paŵe ŵanthu ŵakuyowoya Chifurenchi ndipo ŵakaŵa ŵa Chikatolika, ndipo ŵanthu ŵambura kuŵa Ŵakatolika ŵakakanizgika kukhazikika mu [[Quebec]].<ref>Lyons (2013), p. 17</ref> ===Kusintha kwa Chiprotesitanti na Kusintha kwa Mpingo wa Katolika (Counter-Reformation)=== {{Main|Protestant Reformation|Counter-Reformation}} {{multiple image | footer = [[Martin Luther]] (kumazere), uyo pakwamba wakaŵa mmonke wa [[Order of Saint Augustine|gulu la Augustine]], wakapharazga ''[[Ninety-five Theses]]'' (kumalyero) mu 1517. | align = left | image1 = Martin Luther by Cranach-restoration.jpg | width1 = 186 | caption1 = | alt1 = | image2 = Luther 95 Thesen.png | width2 = 140 | caption2 = | alt2 = }} Mu 1415, [[Jan Hus]] wakawotcheka pa moto chifukwa chakuti wakasuskikanga kuti wakasambizganga visambizgo vyautesi (heresy), kweni ivyo wakachitanga pakukhumbanga kusintha mpingo vikakhozga [[Martin Luther]], mmonke wa [[Order of Saint Augustine|gulu la Augustine]] ku Germany wa mazuŵa ghano. Mu 1517, Luther [[History of Lutheranism#The start of the Reformation|wakatuma]] ''[[Ninety-five Theses]]'' zake ku mabishopu ghanandi.{{sfn|Bokenkotter|2004|p=215}} Mu mabuku agha wakasuska visambizgo vinyake vikuru vya Chikatolika na kuguliska [[indulgence]]s. Pamanyuma pa [[Leipzig Debate]], ichi chikapangiska kuti wafumiskike mu Mpingo wa Katolika (excommunication) mu 1521.{{sfn|Bokenkotter|2004|p=215}}<ref name="Vidmar184">Vidmar, p. 184.</ref> Ku [[Switzerland]], [[Huldrych Zwingli]], [[John Calvin]], na ŵakusintha ŵanyake ŵa Chiprotesitanti ŵakalutilira kususka visambizgo vya Chikatolika. Kususka uku ndiko kukambiska Kusintha kwa Chiprotesitanti (Reformation), uko kukapangiska kuti paŵe visopo vinandi vya [[Protestantism|Chiprotesitanti]].{{sfn|Bokenkotter|2004|pp=223–224}} Kukasoŵaso ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵakasunganga visambizgo vya Chiprotesitanti mwakubisika mukati mwa Mpingo wa Katolika ([[crypto-protestantism|crypto-Protestantism]]).<ref>{{cite journal|last=Fernández|first=Luis Martínez|title=Crypto-Protestants and Pseudo-Catholics in the Nineteenth-Century Hispanic Caribbean|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-ecclesiastical-history_2000-04_51_2/page/347|journal=Journal of Ecclesiastical History|volume=51|issue=2|pages=347–365|year=2000|doi=10.1017/S0022046900004255|s2cid=162296826}}</ref> Pa nyengo yeneyiyo, [[Henry VIII]] wakalomba [[Pope Clement VII]] kuti wapereke [[Annulment (Catholic Church)|chilango chakukanizga nthengwa]] yake na [[Catherine of Aragon]]. Apo papa wakakana, Henry VIII wakapangiska kuti [[Acts of Supremacy]] zipasikike, ndipo wakajizgora yekha kuŵa [[Supreme Head of the Church of England|Mulongozgi Mukuru wa Mpingo wa England]]. Ichi chikambiska [[English Reformation]] ndipo pamanyuma pake chikapangiska kuti [[Anglicanism]] yikure.{{sfn|Bokenkotter|2004|pp=235–237}} Kusintha kwa Chiprotesitanti kukapangiska nkhondo pakati pa [[Schmalkaldic League]] ya Ŵaprotesitanti na Themba la Ufumu Watuŵa wa Roma, [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]], pamoza na ŵabwezi ŵake ŵa Chikatolika. Nkhondo yakwamba ya vyaka 9 yikamara mu 1555 na [[Peace of Augsburg]], kweni mphindano zikalutilira ndipo zikambiska nkhondo yikuru chomene ya [[Thirty Years' War]], iyo yikamba mu 1618.<ref name="Vidmar233"/> Ku France, pakati pa 1562 na 1598 pakaŵa nkhondo zakuchemeka [[French Wars of Religion]] pakati pa [[Huguenot]]s (Ŵacalvinist ŵa ku France) na ŵankhondo ŵa [[Catholic League (French)|French Catholic League]], awo ŵakawovwirikanga na mapapa ghakupambanapambana.<ref name="Duffy177">Duffy, ''Saints and Sinners'' (1997), pp. 177–178</ref> Nkhondo izi zikamaliska apo [[Pope Clement VIII]] wakazomerezga, nangauli mwakusuzgika, kuti Themba [[Henry IV of France|Henry IV]] lipharazge [[Edict of Nantes]] mu 1598, ilo likapeleka wanangwa wa chisopa na kuzomerezga Ŵaprotesitanti ŵa ku France kukhala mwamtende.<ref name="Vidmar233">Vidmar, ''The Catholic Church Through the Ages'' (2005), p. 233</ref><ref name="Duffy177"/> [[Council of Trent]] (1545–1563) ndiyo yikaŵa nkhongono yikuru ya [[Counter-Reformation]], kusintha uko Mpingo wa Katolika ukachita pakuzgora Kusintha kwa Chiprotesitanti. Pa nkhani ya chisambizgo, yikakhozgeraso visambizgo vikuru vya Chikatolika nga ni [[transubstantiation]] na kuti munthu wapokere chiponosko kwizira mu chipulikano, chitemwa, na chigomezgo.{{sfn|Bokenkotter|2004|pp=242–244}} Mu vyaka vyakulondezgapo, Chikatolika chikafalikira chomene pa charu chose, chomenechomene kwizira mu ŵamishonale na [[imperialism]]. Ndipouli, nkhongono yake pa ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe yikamba kuchepa chifukwa cha kukura kwa [[religious scepticism]] pa nyengo ya [[Enlightenment]] na pamanyuma pake.<ref>Maxwell, Melvin. ''Bible Truth or Church Tradition'', p. 70</ref> ===Nyengo ya Ungweru na Nyengo Yasono=== {{Main|Nyengo ya Ungweru}} {{Persecutions of the Catholic Church sidebar}} [[File:São Miguel das Missões (Brazil).jpg|thumb|left|Vikaya vya [[Jesuit Reduction|misumba ya Ayeswiti]] ku [[São Miguel das Missões]] ku Brazil]] Kwambira mu vyaka vya m'ma 1600, [[Nyengo ya Ungweru]] yikamba kufumba na kususka nkhongono na mazaza gha [[Mpingo wa Katolika]] pa umoyo wa ŵanthu ŵa ku vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi.<ref name="Pollard8">Pollard, pp. 7–8</ref> Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1700, ŵalembi nga ni [[Voltaire]] na [[Encyclopédistes]] ŵakalemba mazgu ghakususkira chomene chisopa na [[Mpingo wa Katolika]]. Chimoza mwa vinthu ivyo ŵakasuskanga chikaŵa [[revocation of the Edict of Nantes|kufumiskikapo kwa Edict of Nantes]] mu 1685 na Fumu [[Louis XIV of France]], ico chikamalizga ndondomeko ya vyaka pafupifupi 100 ya kuzomerezga [[Huguenot]] ŵa Chiprotesitanti kusopa mwawanangwa. Apo upapa ukakananga [[Gallicanism]], [[French Revolution|Chiwukirano cha ku France]] cha 1789 chikapeleka mazaza ku boma, chikaparanya matchalitchi ghanandi, chikambiska [[Cult of Reason]],{{sfn|Bokenkotter|2004|pp=283–285}} ndipo ŵasungwana ŵanyake ŵa chisopa ([[Martyrs of Compiègne|ŵanakazi ŵa ku Compiègne]]) ŵakakomeka chifukwa cha chipulikano chawo pa nyengo ya ''[[Reign of Terror]]''.<ref>{{CathEncy|wstitle=The Sixteen Blessed Teresian Martyrs of Compiègne}}</ref> Mu 1798, Jenerale wa [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon Bonaparte]], [[Louis-Alexandre Berthier]], wakanjira mu [[Italian Peninsula]], ndipo wakakora [[Papa Pius VI]], uyo wakafwira mu jele. Pamanyuma pake Napoleon wakawuskaso [[Mpingo wa Katolika]] ku France kwizira mu [[Concordat of 1801]].<ref name="Collins176">Collins, p. 176</ref> Kumara kwa [[Napoleonic Wars]] kukawovwira kuti Mpingo wa Katolika uwuskeso nkhongono zake ndipo [[Papal States]] zikaweleraso.<ref>Duffy, pp. 214–216</ref> Mu 1854, [[Papa Pius IX]], na wovwiri wa mabishopu ghanandi gha Katolika awo wakaŵafumbapo pakati pa 1851 na 1853, wakapharazga [[Immaculate Conception]] kuŵa [[dogma in the Catholic Church|chisambizgo chakwimikika cha Mpingo wa Katolika]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.vatican.va/holy_father/john_paul_ii/audiences/alpha/data/aud19930324en.html|title=John Paul II, General Audience|publisher=Vatican.va|date=24 March 1993|access-date=30 June 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110810175256/https://www.vatican.va/holy_father/john_paul_ii/audiences/alpha/data/aud19930324en.html|archive-date=10 August 2011}}</ref> Mu 1870, [[First Vatican Council|Msonkhano Wakwamba wa Vatican]] ukakhozga chisambizgo cha [[papal infallibility|kusabudiska kwa papa]] para wakupharazga chisambizgo cha chipulikano mwakuzomerezgeka.<ref name="Leith">Leith, ''Creeds of the Churches'' (1963), p. 143</ref><ref name="Duffy232">Duffy, ''Saints and Sinners'' (1997), p. 232</ref> Ivi vikakanizga maghanoghano gha [[Conciliar Church|conciliarism]]. Kususkana pa nkhani iyi na zinyake kukapangiska gulu linyake kupatukana na Mpingo wa Katolika na kupanga [[Old Catholic Church|Mpingo Wakale wa Katolika]].<ref name="Fahlbusch">Fahlbusch, ''The Encyclopedia of Christianity'' (2001), p. 729</ref> [[Kukolerana kwa Italy]] mu vyaka vya m'ma 1860 kukasazgapo [[Papal States]], kusazgapo Roma mu 1870, mu [[Kingdom of Italy|Ufumu wa Italy]], ndipo ivi vikamalizga mazaza gha papa pa vyaru. Pakuzgora, [[Papa Pius IX]] wakamuchimbizga mu mpingo [[Victor Emmanuel II|Fumu Victor Emmanuel II]], wakakana kupokera malipiro gha charu, ndipo wakakana [[Dango la Law of Guarantees]] ilo likamupa wanangwa wapadera. Kuti waleke kuwoneka nga wali pasi pa boma la Italy, wakakhala nga ni "[[mukaidi wa ku Vatican]]".<ref>{{cite book|last=Kertzer|first=David I.|year=2006|title=Prisoner of the Vatican|publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt|url={{googlebooks|y_4eaFsFdI4C|pg=PT155|plainurl=y}}|isbn=978-0-547-34716-5|page=PT155}}</ref> Suzgo ili, ilo likachemekanga kuti [[Roman Question|Soka la Roma]], likamara mu 1929 apo pakachitika [[Lateran Treaties|Mapangano gha Lateran]]. Pa nyengo iyi, Holy See yikazomera kuti Italy ndiyo yikaŵa na mazaza pa Papal States zakale, ndipo Italy yikazomera kuti Vatican City ni boma lakujiyimira palokha pasi pa mazaza gha papa.<ref>{{cite book|chapter='Utterly Faithless Specimens': Italians in the Catholic Church in America|first=Peter R.|last=D'Agostino|editor-last=Connell|editor-first=William J.|editor2-last=Gardaphé|editor2-first=Fred|title=Anti-Italianism: Essays on a Prejudice|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|year=2010|chapter-url={{googlebooks|qp_GAAAAQBAJ|page=33|plainurl=y}}|isbn=978-0-230-11532-3|pages=33–34}}</ref> Ŵamishonale ŵa Katolika kanandi ŵakawovwiranga ndipo ŵakakhozgeranga kuwukira kwa maboma gha ku Europe pa [[kupoka Africa]] muumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1800. Kuyana na mulembi wa mdauko wa visopa [[Adrian Hastings]], ŵamishonale ŵa Katolika kanandi ŵakakhumbanga yayi kuvikilira wanangwa wa ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa panji kuŵawovwira kuti ŵajiwonenge kuti mbakuyana waka na ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe. Ivi vikaŵa vyakusiyana na ŵamishonale ŵa Chiprotesitanti, awo kanandi ŵakasuskanga ukali na urunji uheni wa maboma gha ukoloni.<ref>Adrian Hastings, ''The Church in Africa, 1450 – 1950'', Oxford: Clarendon, 1996, 394–490</ref> ===Vyaka vya m'ma 20=== {{Main|Mpingo wa Katolika mu vyaka vya m'ma 20}} Mu vyaka vya m'ma 20, kufika kwa mpingo pa charu chose kukalutilira kukukura, nangauli maboma ghaulamuliro agho ghakasuskanga Chikatolika ghakakwera ndipo ma ufumu gha ku Europe ghakawa. Pamoza na ivi, ŵanthu ŵanandi ku vyaru vya ku mpoto kwa charu ŵakaleka kulondezga chisopa nga kale. Mu nyengo ya ŵapapa [[Benedict XV]] na [[Pius XII]], [[Mpando Mutuŵa]] ukayezga kulutilira kuŵa wakusankhapo yayi pa nkhondo za pa charu, uku ukuchita ntchito ya kuphalizgira mtende na kovwira awo ŵakasuzgika chifukwa cha nkhondo. Mu ma 1960, [[Papa John XXIII]] wakachema [[Msonkhano Wachiŵiri wa Vatican]], uwo ukaleta kusintha kukuru mu mwambo na machitiro gha mpingo. Mu chigaŵa chaumaliro cha vyaka vya m'ma 20, nyengo yitali ya ulamuliro wa [[Papa John Paul II]] yikawovwira ku [[kuwa kwa chikomyunizimu]] mu Europe, ndipo yikapeleka papa udindo uphya wa pa charu chose. ; Nkhondo Yakwamba ya pa Charu Chose Papa [[Pius X]] (1903–1914) wakakhazikiska so kujiyimira kwa ofesi ya papa mwa kufumiska veto ya maboma gha Chikatolika pa kusankha papa. Ŵalondezgi ŵake [[Benedict XV]] (1914–1922) na [[Pius XI]] (1922–1939) ŵakakhozga kujiyimira kwa boma la Vatican mu Italy. Benedict XV wakasankhika pa nyengo iyo [[Nkhondo Yakwamba ya pa Charu Chose]] yikambanga. Wakaŵa wakuyesga kuphalizgira pakati pa ŵankhondo na kukhazikiska ofesi ya wovwiri ya Vatican kuti yovwire awo ŵakasuzgika na nkhondo na kuweleska mbumba pamoza. Wakapeleka maudindo ghanandi gha mtende, kweni ndondomeko yake ya “Dès le début” ya 1 Ogasiti 1917 yikakanika na vyaru vyankhondo. ; Vyaka vya pakati pa nkhondo Maboma ghanandi agho ghakasuskanga mpingo ghakafuma mu vyaka vya m'ma 20. Mu Mexico, [[Dango la Calles]] la 1926 ilo likapatula mpingo na boma likapangiska [[Nkhondo ya Cristero]], umo ŵasembe ŵakujumpha 3,000 ŵakachimbizgika panji kukomeka, matchalitchi ghakachitirika nkhaza, mautumiki ghakasekeka, masisitere ghakachitikirika nkhaza ndipo ŵasembe ŵakakakika na kuwomberwa. Pamanyuma pa [[Revolution ya Okutobala]] ya 1917, kusuzgika kwa mpingo na Akatolika mu [[Soviet Union]] kukalutilira mpaka mu ma 1930, uku ŵasembe, ŵamonke na ŵanthu wamba ŵakukomeka panji kuchimbizgika, vinthu vya chisopa kutoreka na matchalitchi kujara. Mu [[Nkhondo ya ku Spain]] ya 1936–1939, ŵalongozgi ŵa Katolika ŵakakolerana na ŵa [[Nationalist]] ŵa [[Francisco Franco]] kulimbana na boma la [[Popular Front]], ŵakuti nkhaza izo ŵa Republic ŵakachitanga pa mpingo ndizo zikaŵachitiska. [[Papa Pius XI]] wakachema vyaru ivi kuti “katatu yakofya”. [[File:V-2 Rocket On Meillerwagen.jpg|thumb|Nangauli kufuma mu ma 1960 [[Papa Pius XII]] wakasuskika kuti wakachita yayi vyakukwana kovwira Ŵayuda ku [[Holocaust]], ŵakumuvikilira ŵakuti wakaŵa wakovwira mwakubisika magulu gha Akatolika agho ghakalimbana na Nazi, nga ni gulu ilo likalongozgekanga na wasembe [[Heinrich Maier]]. Maier wakawovwira ŵa Allies kulimbana na ma rocket gha V-2 agho ghakapangikanga na ŵakayidi ŵa ma camp gha Nazi.]] Papa [[Pius XI]] wa nyengo ya pakati pa nkhondo wakasintha machitiro gha upapa mwa kuwoneka mu St Peter’s Square, kukhazikiska [[Vatican Radio]] na [[Pontifical Academy of Sciences]], kusankha ŵabishopu 40 ŵa ku vyaru vinyake na kupanga mapangano 15, kusazgapo [[Lateran Treaty]] na Italy iyo yikakhazikiska [[Boma la Vatican City]]. Pamanyuma pa kuswa kwa [[Reichskonkordat]] ya 1933 pakati pa mpingo na [[Nazi Germany]], Pius XI wakafumiska kalata ya papa ya 1937 yakuti ''[[Mit brennender Sorge]]'', iyo yikasuska poyera kusuzgika kwa mpingo na Ŵa Nazi kweniso fundo zawo za [[kupulikira visopa vya ŵakale]] na [[kusankha mtundu umoza kuti ngwapachanya]]. ; Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya pa Charu Chose Wakulondezgapo wake [[Papa Pius XII]] wakalongozga Mpingo wa Katolika pa nyengo ya [[Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya pa Charu Chose]] na kuyambika kwa [[Cold War]]. Nga umo ŵapapa ŵa kale ŵakachitiranga, Pius XII wakayezga kulutilira kuŵa wakusankhapo yayi poyera pa nkhondo, ndipo wakakhazikiska njira za wovwiri kuti zovwire awo ŵakasuzgika, kweni mwakubisika wakawovwira [[kulimbana na Hitler]] ndipo wakapelekanga uthenga kwa ŵa Allies. Kalata yake yakwamba ya papa, ''[[Summi Pontificatus]]'' (1939), yikalongora chitima pa [[kuwukira Poland mu 1939]] ndipo yikakumbuska chisambizgo cha Chikatolika chakususka [[kusankhana mtundu]]. Wakalongora nkhawa pa kukomeka kwa ŵanthu chifukwa cha mtundu pa [[Vatican Radio]], ndipo wakachitapo kanthu mwa dipulomasiyo kuti wayezge kulekeska kusamuskika kwa Ŵayuda mu vyaru vinyake kufuma mu 1942 mpaka 1944. Ndipouli, kulutilira kwake kuŵa wakusankhapo yayi poyera na kuyowoya mwachenjezgo kwapangiska kususkika kukuru na kukambirana. Nangauli vikaŵa nthena, mu vyaru vyose ivyo vikaŵa pasi pa Germany, ŵasembe ŵakachita ntchito yikuru pakuvikilira Ŵayuda. Mwakulemba mdauko wa ku Israel [[Pinchas Lapide]] wakayezgera kuti Akatolika ŵakavikilira pakati pa Ŵayuda 700,000 na 860,000. Kusuzgika kwa Mpingo wa Katolika na Ŵa Nazi kukaŵa kukuru chomene mu Poland, ndipo [[kulimbana kwa Akatolika na Nazi Germany]] kukachitika mu nthowa zakupambanapambana. Ŵasembe ŵa Katolika 2,579 ŵakatumika ku [[Dachau Concentration Camp]], kusazgapo ŵa Germany 400. Ŵasembe, masisitere na ŵabale ŵanandi ŵakakakika, kutorereka ku ma camp gha kusuzgirako ŵanthu, kutambuzgika na kukomeka, kusazgapo ŵatuŵa [[Maximilian Kolbe]] na [[Edith Stein]]. Akatolika ŵakalwa ku vigaŵa vyose viŵiri vya nkhondo. Ŵasembe ŵa Katolika ŵakaŵa na udindo ukuru mu boma la fascist la [[Slovakia]] ilo likakolerananga na Ŵa Nazi, kukopera malango ghawo ghakususka Ŵayuda na kuŵawovwira kuchita Holocaust mu Slovakia. [[Jozef Tiso]], pulezidenti wa boma la Slovakia na wasembe wa Katolika, wakovwiranga kutumizga Ŵayuda ŵa Slovakia ku ma camp gha kukomekera ŵanthu. Vatican yikasuska kutumizgika uku ku Slovakia na mu maboma ghanyake gha Nazi nga ni [[Vichy France]], Croatia, [[Bulgaria]], Italy na Hungary. Gulu la Akatolika lakulimbana na Nazi ilo likalongozgekanga na wasembe [[Heinrich Maier]] likapelekanga ku ŵa Allies mapulani na malo ghakupangirako ma bomba gha [[V-1 flying bomb]], ma rocket gha [[V-2]], [[Tiger tank]], [[Messerschmitt Me 163 Komet]] na ndege zinyake, kuti ŵa Allies ŵalase mafakitale gha Germany. Uthenga unandi ukaŵa wakuzirwa ku [[Operation Hydra (1943)|Operation Hydra]] na [[Operation Crossbow]], ntchito zikuru zakunozgekera [[Operation Overlord]]. Maier wakovwiranga nkhondo yakulimbana na Ŵa Nazi chifukwa wakaŵa na fundo yakuti “bomba lililose ilo likugwa pa mafakitale gha vilwero likufupikiska nkhondo ndipo likuponoska ŵanthu wamba”. [[File:Members of the Royal 22e Regiment in audience with Pope Pius XII.jpg|thumb|right|Ŵasilikari ŵa ku Canada ŵa [[Royal 22e Regiment]] pa nyengo yakukumana na [[Papa Pius XII]] pamanyuma pa [[Kuwomboreka kwa Rome]] mu 1944 pa nyengo ya [[Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya pa Charu Chose]]]] Pafupifupi mu 1943, [[Adolf Hitler]] wakanozga kutora papa na kumukakilira ku Germany. Wakapeleka dango ku General Wolff wa SS kuti wanozge ntchito iyi. Nangauli [[Papa Pius XII]] wakulumbika kuti wakawovwira kuponoska Ŵayuda masauzandi ghanandi pa nyengo ya [[Holocaust]], mpingo wakasuskikaso chifukwa cha kusambizga kwake kwa nyengo yitali uko ŵanyake ŵakuti kukalimbikiska [[kususka Ŵayuda]], kweniso chifukwa chakuchita yayi vyakukwana kulekeska nkhaza za Ŵa Nazi. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa Nazi awo ŵakachita milandu ŵakachimbilira ku vyaru vinyake pamanyuma pa Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya pa Charu Chose chifukwa ŵakaŵa na ŵakuvikilirira ŵankhongono kufuma ku Vatican. Kusankha umo Pius XII wakeneranga kuweruzgikira kukusuzga chifukwa ma archive gha mpingo gha nyengo yake nga ni nuncio, mlembi mukuru wa boma na papa ghali kujara panji ghandaŵikike makora. Mu [[Yugoslavia]] iyo yikabwanganduka, mpingo ukatemwanga boma la fascist la Katolika la ku Croatia la [[Ustaše]] ilo likakhazikiskika na Ŵa Nazi chifukwa cha kususka chikomyunizimu na chifukwa cha chigomezgo chakuti mphamvu ya Chikatolika yingaweleraso mu chigaŵa ichi pamanyuma pa kuwa kwa [[Austria-Hungary]]. Ndipouli, mpingo ukaŵa usindandikazomerezge mwalamulo [[Independent State of Croatia]] (NDH). Nangauli wakamanya za [[kukomeka kwa Aserbia Ŵa Orthodox mu Independent State of Croatia]], [[Holocaust mu Independent State of Croatia]] na kukomeka kwa ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵambura kuŵa A-Croatia, mpingo ukaŵa usindayowoyepo poyera kususka, ndipo ukatemwanga kugwiliskira ntchito dipulomasiyo. Polemba za malo gha Vatican pa nkhani iyi, mdauko [[Jozo Tomasevich]] wakalemba kuti “vikuwoneka kuti Mpingo wa Katolika wakawovwiranga chomene boma la Ustaše na ndondomeko zake.” ; Kuyambika kwa Cold War Pamanyuma pa nkhondo, maboma gha chikomyunizimu mu [[Central Europe]] na [[Eastern Europe]] ghakakanizga chomene wanangwa wa chisopa. Nangauli ŵasembe na ŵanthu ŵa umoyo wa chisopa ŵanyake ŵakakolerananga na maboma agha, ŵanandi ŵakakakika, kuchimbizgika panji kukomeka. Mpingo ukaŵa na udindo ukuru pa [[kuwa kwa chikomyunizimu]] mu Europe, chomenechomene mu [[Polish People’s Republic]]. Mu 1949, kupambana kwa ŵa Communist mu [[Nkhondo ya ku China]] kukapangiska kuchimbizgika kwa ŵamishonale wose ŵa ku vyaru vinyake. Boma liphya likakhazikiskaso [[Patriotic Church]] ndipo likasankhanga ŵabishopu lake. Pakwamba, kusankhika uku kukakanika na Rome, kweni pamanyuma ŵanandi ŵakazomerezgeka. Mu ma 1960, pa nyengo ya [[Cultural Revolution]], ŵa Communist ŵa ku China ŵakajara malo ghose gha chisopa. Matchalitchi gha ku China ghakati ghanjira so, ghakalutilira kuŵa pasi pa ulamuliro wa Patriotic Church. Ŵasembe ŵanandi ŵa Katolika ŵakalutilira kutumizgika ku jele chifukwa chakukana kukanira kugomezgeka kwawo ku Rome. ====[[Msonkhano Wachiŵiri wa Vatican]]==== {{Main|Msonkhano Wachiŵiri wa Vatican|Mbiri ya Mpingo wa Katolika kufuma mu 1962|Mzimu wa Vatican II}} [[File:Second Vatican Council by Lothar Wolleh 003.jpg|right|thumb|Ŵabishopu ŵakupulika pa nyengo ya Msonkhano Wachiŵiri wa Vatican.]] [[Msonkhano Wachiŵiri wa Vatican]] (1962–1965) ukaleta kusintha kukuru chomene mu machitiro gha Chikatolika kufuma pa nyengo ya [[Msonkhano wa Trent]], vyaka 400 ivyo vikajumpha. Wakwambiskika na [[Papa John XXIII]], msonkhano uwu ukasintha machitiro gha Mpingo wa Katolika, kuŵikapo chilolezgo chakuti misa yichitikenge mu [[chiyowoyero cha ŵanthu]], na kukhozga “kunjilirapo mwakumanya na mwakugwira ntchito” pa mauthenga gha liturugiya. Cholinga chake chikaŵa chakuti mpingo uŵe pafupi chomene na charu cha sono (''aggiornamento''), ndipo ŵakawovwira ŵakati ichi chikaŵa “kujura mawindo” gha mpingo. Kusazgapo kusintha kwa liturugiya, msonkhano uwu ukapangiska kusintha kwa umo mpingo ukawonera [[ecumenism]], kweniso ukachema kuti paŵe ubwezi uwemi na visopa vinyake ivyo vili vyachikhristu yayi, chomenechomene [[Chiyuda]], mu chikalata chake ''[[Nostra aetate]]''. Ndipouli, msonkhano uwu ukabwereska mkangano ukuru pa kugwiliskira ntchito kusintha uku. Ŵakukhozga “[[Mzimu wa Vatican II]]” nga ni wakusambira vya chisopa wa ku Switzerland [[Hans Küng]] ŵakati Vatican II “yikafika kutali yayi” pa kusintha ndondomeko za mpingo. Kweni [[Akatolika ŵa chikhalidwe]] nga ni [[Archbishop]] [[Marcel Lefebvre]] ŵakasuska chomene msonkhano uwu, ŵakuti kusintha kwa liturugiya “kwakabwangandura Sembe Yituŵa ya Misa na masakramenti”, kusazgapo vinthu vinyake. Visambizgo vinyake vya Mpingo wa Katolika vikamba kufufuzgika chomene pa nyengo ya msonkhano uwu na pamanyuma pake. Chimoza mwa visambizgo ivi chikaŵa chakukhwaskana na ubudi wa [[kuvimbikira kubaba]]. Kuŵapo kwa [[kuvimbikira kubaba kwa mahomoni]] (nga ni “mapilisi”), uko ŵanyake ŵakawonanga kuti kukapambana na nthowa zakale, kukapangiska John XXIII kukhazikiska komiti kuti yimuphalire nkhani za makhaliro na chisambizgo cha chisopa pa nthowa yiphya iyi. Pamanyuma pake [[Papa Paul VI]] wakasazgirapo komiti iyi udindo wakufufuza nthowa zose mwakufwatuka, ndipo lipoti laumaliro ilo likafuma yayi likamanyikwanga kuti likasimikizganga kuzomerezga nthowa zinyake za kuvimbikira kubaba. Paul VI wakazomerezgana yayi na fundo izo zikapelekeka, ndipo wakafumiska kalata ya papa ''[[Humanae vitae]]'', iyo yikati yikakhozga chisambizgo chakukhazikika cha mpingo chakususka kuvimbikira kubaba. Kalata iyi yikaphalira mwakudunjika kuti nthowa za mahomoni nazo zili kuletsedwa. Ichi chikapangiska kuyankha kwakususkika chomene na Akatolika ŵanandi. ====[[Papa John Paul II]]==== {{Main|Papa John Paul II}} [[File:President Ronald Reagan and Nancy Reagan Meeting with Pope John Paul Ii at The Papal Library Vatican Pontifical Palace During Visit to The Vatican - DPLA - 5f33de6fe59d61cb712405563ab04adc.jpg|thumb|left|[[Papa John Paul II]] wakuwoneka nga ni munthu wakovwira chomene pa kumara kwa [[Cold War]] na [[kuwa kwa chikomyunizimu]]. Pano wali na pulezidenti wa United States [[Ronald Reagan]] na muwoli wake [[Nancy Reagan]] mu 1982.]] Mu 1978, [[Papa John Paul II]], uyo wakaŵa [[Archbishop wa Kraków]] mu [[Polish People’s Republic]], wakazgoka papa wakwamba wambura kuŵa wa ku Italy mu vyaka 455. Nyengo yake ya upapa ya vyaka 26 na hafu yikaŵa yimoza mwa zitali chomene mu mdauko. [[Mikhail Gorbachev]], pulezidenti wa [[Soviet Union]], wakati papa wa ku Poland wakovwira kufulumizgiska kuwa kwa chikomyunizimu mu Europe. John Paul II wakayezga kupharazga uthenga wa chisopa ku charu icho chikamba kuŵa [[chakuleka chisopa]]. Wakakhazikiska [[World Youth Day]] nga ni “kukumana kwa ŵawukirano ŵa pa charu chose na papa”, ndipo sono kukuchitika vyaka viŵiri panji vitatu vyose. Wakaluta ku vyaru 129, kujumpha papa waliyose, ndipo wakagwiliskira ntchito wayilesi na televizioni pakuthandazga visambizgo vya mpingo. Wakasindika chomene [[ulemu wa ntchito]] na wanangwa wa ŵantchito kuŵa na [[malipiro ghakukwana]] na malo ghakuvikilirika gha ntchito mu kalata yake ya papa ''[[Laborem exercens]]''. Wakasindika visambizgo vinandi vya mpingo, kusazgapo kuchenjezga pa makhaliro ghaheni gha [[kubapa]], [[kufwa mwakovwira munthu]], na kugwiliskira ntchito chomene [[chilango cha nyifwa]], mu kalata yake ''[[Evangelium Vitae]]''. Kufuma kuumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 20, Mpingo wa Katolika wasuskika chifukwa cha visambizgo vyake pa [[mikhaliro ya kugonana]], chifukwa cha kutondeka kwake [[kusankha ŵanakazi kuŵa ŵasembe]], na chifukwa cha umo wachitira na [[milandu ya nkhaza za kugonana mu Mpingo wa Katolika]]. Mu 1992, Vatican yikazomera kuti yikanangiska pakusuzga [[Galileo]] vyaka 359 ivyo vikajumpha chifukwa chakulongora kuti charu chikuzingilira zuŵa. ===Mwaka wa m'ma 21=== Mu 2005, pamanyuma pa nyifwa ya Yohane Paulo II, [[Papa Benedict XVI]], uyo wakaŵa mulongozgi wa [[Mpingo wa Chisopa cha Chikhristu|Mpingo wa Chisopa cha Chikhristu wa Chisambizgo cha Chipulikano]] pasi pa Yohane Paulo II, wakasankhika kuŵa papa. Wakumanyikwa chifukwa cha kusungilira [[mikhaliro ya Chikhristu]] ya kale kwimikana na [[kusazgika kwa chisopa mu umoyo wa ŵanthu]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.deseretnews.com/article/1,5143,635185276,00.html |title=Benedict's encyclical offers hope for world |work=Deseret News |first=Jerry Earl |last=Johnston |date=18 February 2006 |access-date=12 September 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402092429/http://www.deseretnews.com/article/1%2C5143%2C635185276%2C00.html |archive-date=2 April 2015}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20120307235713/http://www.deseretnews.com/article/635185276/Benedicts-encyclical-offers-hope-for-world.html WebCitation archive]</ref> ndiposo chifukwa cha kusazomerezga chomene kugwiliskira ntchito [[Misa ya Tridentine]] iyo yikusangika mu [[Buku la Misa la ku Roma]] la 1962, iyo wakayichema "Mawonekedwe Ghanthazi".<ref>Gledhill, Ruth [http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/europe/article667813.ece "Pope set to bring back Latin Mass that divided the Church"] ''The Times'' 11 October 2006. Retrieved 21 November 2010 [https://web.archive.org/web/20110805040153/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/europe/article667813.ece WebCitation archive]</ref> Mu 2012, pa chikumbusko cha vyaka 50 kufuma ku [[Vatican II]], ungano wa [[Msonkhano wa Ŵabishopu (Chikatolika)|Msonkhano wa Ŵabishopu]] ukadumbiskana vya kupharazga upya makani gha chisopa kwa [[Ŵakatolika awo ŵali kuleka kulondezga chisopa]] mu charu [[charu chakutukuka|chakutukuka]].<ref name="Summary">{{Citation |contribution=Summary of the synod assemblies |date=9 March 2005 | contribution-url = https://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/synod/documents/rc_synod_20050309_documentation-profile_en.html#V._SUMMARY_OF_THE_SYNOD_ASSEMBLIES |title=Synodal Information |place=Rome, IT |publisher=The Vatican}}</ref> Pakuyowoya vya kufoka chifukwa cha uchekuru, Benedict wakalekera udindo wa upapa mu 2013, ndipo wakaŵa papa wakwamba kuchita nthena mu vyaka pafupifupi 600.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.cnn.com/2013/02/12/world/europe/pope-benedict-resignation/ |first1=Laura |last1=Smith-Spark |first2=Hada |last2=Messia |title=Pope's resignation was not forced by health issues, spokesman says |work=CNN |date=13 February 2013 |access-date=30 March 2015}}</ref> Kulekeŵa kwake kukapangiska mphindano pakati pa Ŵakatolika ŵachoko awo ŵakuti Benedict wakalekera yayi nadi udindo wa upapa.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2 March 2021|title=Former pope Benedict says 'fanatical' Catholics still won't believe he's not the pope|url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/mar/02/former-pope-benedict-fanatical-catholics-wont-believe-resignation|access-date=25 May 2021|website=The Guardian|language=en}}</ref> ====Papa Francis==== {{Main|Papa Francis}} Papa Francis, uyo sono ndiyo papa wa Mpingo wa Katolika, wakalondezgana na Papa Benedict XVI mu 2013 ndipo wakaŵa papa wakwamba kufuma ku [[Amerika]], wakwamba kufuma ku [[Chigaŵa cha kumwera kwa charu chapasi]], kweniso papa wakwamba kufuma kuwaro kwa Europe kufuma pa nyengo ya Msyriya [[Papa Gregory III|Gregory III]], uyo wakawusa mu vyaka vya m'ma 8. Papa Francis wakumanyikwa chifukwa cha [[kujiyuyura kwake]], kugomezgapo lusungu lwa Chiuta, kupwelelera ŵanthu [[umpoveri|ŵakavu]] na [[chilengedwe]], kweniso kujipereka kwake ku [[mazgu gha pakati pa visopa vyakupambanapambana]]. Ŵakulemba vya vyakusanguluska na vya ndyali Rachel Donadio wa mu ''[[The Atlantic]]'' na Brandon Ambrosino wa mu ''[[Vox Media|Vox]]'' ŵakayowoya kuti Papa Francis wali na nthowa yakupulikikwa mwambura mwambo chomene ya kulongozga upapa kuluska ŵapapa awo ŵakamwambiranga.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Donadio|first=Rachel|date=27 October 2019|title=Pope Francis, the Revolutionary, Takes On the Traditionalists|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2019/10/pope-francis-revolutionary-culture-war/600877/|access-date=19 June 2021|website=The Atlantic|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Ambrosino|first=Brandon|date=13 July 2018|title=Everything you need to know about Pope Francis|url=https://www.vox.com/2018/7/13/17570124/who-is-pope-francis|access-date=19 June 2021|website=Vox|language=en}}</ref> == Notes == <references group="note"/> == References == {{reflist}} ==External links== {{Sister project links|wikt=no|v=no|b=Catholicism}} * {{URL|https://www.vatican.va|Vatican.va}} Holy See official website * {{YouTube|u=vatican|The Vatican}} {{Catholic Church footer}} {{Navboxes top|title= Articles related to Catholic Church}} {{Seven Sacraments}} {{Roman Curia footer}} {{Popes}} {{Papal symbols and rituals}} {{Holy See}} {{Particular churches sui iuris footer}} {{History of the Catholic Church}} {{History of Christianity}} {{Christianity footer}} {{Religion topics}} {{Western culture}} {{Navboxes bottom}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Tchalitchi la Katolika| ]]<!-- Leave the empty space as is standard --> n6v4wsqynykxkrc20b70ni159byevup 0 47219 119289 118819 2026-08-13T21:56:13Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260813sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 119289 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|Nthowa ya kulongozga ntchito ya gulu kuti vilato na vilingo vifiskike pa nyengo yakutemeka}} {{Distinguish|Ulamuliro wa katundu}}{{Use American English|date=November 2021}} {{Use mdy dates|date=November 2021}} {{Business administration}} '''Ulamuliro wa milimo''' ni nthowa ya kulaŵilira ntchito ya [[Project team|gulu]] kuti vilato vyose vya mulimo vifiskike mukati mwa vyakulimira ivyo vyapeleka.<ref>{{cite book|isbn=0072230622|page=[https://archive.org/details/pmpprojectmanage00jose/page/354 354]|title=PMP Project Management Professional Study Guide |url=https://archive.org/details/pmpprojectmanage00jose|last1=Phillips |first1=Joseph |year=2004 |publisher=McGraw-Hill/Osborne }}</ref> Ukaboni uwu kanandi ukulembeka mu [[project initiation documentation|vinyake vyakulongozga mulimo]], ivyo vikunozgeka pakwamba kwa nthowa yakupanga vinthu. Vyakulimira vikuru ni [[Scope (project management)|mumpaka wa ntchito]], nyengo, na [[budget|chuma chakutemeka]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=Baratta|first=Angelo|date=2006|title=The triple constraint a triple illusion|url=https://www.pmi.org/learning/library/triple-constraint-erroneous-useless-value-8024|access-date=22 December 2022|website=PMI}}</ref> Chigezgo chachiŵiri ni [[operations research|kunozga chomene]] kugaŵira kwa vyakukhumbikwa na kuvigwiliskira ntchito kuti vilato ivyo vikaŵikika kale vifiskike. Chilato cha ulamuliro wa milimo ni kupanga mulimo wakufiskika uwo ukukolerana na vilato vya mwenecho. Mu vyakuchitika vinandi, chilato cha ulamuliro wa milimo ni kusontha panji kunozga dango la mwenecho kuti vilato vyake vifiskike mwakwenelera. Vilato vya mwenecho vikati vyakhazikika, vikwenera kulongozga vyakusankha vyose ivyo ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵali mu mulimo uwu ŵakupanga—chiyelezgero, ŵalaŵiliri ba milimo, ŵanozgi ba vyakuoneka, ŵazengi ŵakuru, na ŵazengi ŵachoko. Vilato vya ulamuliro wa milimo ivyo vili kulembeka uheni panji ivyo vili kukanizgika chomene vikuŵika nthumbo nthowa ya kusankha vinthu. [[Project|Mulimo]] (Project) ni ntchito ya kanyengo na ya chapadera iyo yapangika kuti yifumiske katundu, uteŵeti, panji chakufumapo chinyake na pakwambira na pakumalira (kanandi pakuŵa na mphaka ya nyengo, ndiposo mphaka ya chuma panji ŵantchito) iyo yikuchitika kuti yifiske vilato vyapadera, chomenechomene kuti yifiske kusintha kuwemi panji kusazgirapo mtengo.<ref>{{cite book|isbn=9780273710974|title=The Definitive Guide to Project Management: The Fast Track to Getting the Job Done on Time and on Budget |url=https://archive.org/details/definitiveguidet0000noke|last1=Nokes |first1=Sebastian |last2=Kelly |first2=Sean |year=2007 |publisher=Pearson Education. Prentice Hall Financial Times }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pmi.org/About-Us/About-Us-What-is-Project-Management.aspx|title=What is Project Management?|publisher=[[Project Management Institute]]|access-date=2014-06-04}}</ref> Kachitiro ka milimo ka kanyengo aka kakupambana na ntchito ya mazuŵa ghose (panji kachitiro),<ref>{{cite book|isbn=0787971138|page=[https://archive.org/details/rightprojectsdon0000dins_y7g6/page/35 35]|title=Right Projects Done Right: From Business Strategy to Successful Project Implementation |url=https://archive.org/details/rightprojectsdon0000dins_y7g6|last1=Dinsmore |first1=Paul C. |last2=Cooke-Davies |first2=Terence J. |date=4 November 2005 |publisher=Wiley }}</ref> izo ni ntchito zakuzunzikazunzi, zanyengozose panji zakufika pafupi kuŵa zanyengozose kuti zifumiske katundu panji uteŵeti. Pa kachitiro, [[management|ulamuliro]] wa nthowa zakupangira vinthu zakupambana izi ukukhumbikwa luso la luso lapadera na nthowa za ulamuliro.<ref name="Cattani201u1">{{cite book|title=Project-Based Organizing and Strategic Management|first1=Gino |last1=Cattani|first2=Simone|last2=Ferriani|first3=Lars|last3=Frederiksen|first4=Florian|last4=Täube|publisher=Emerald|location=Leeds, England|year=2011|isbn=978-1780521930|series=Advances in Strategic Management|volume=28}}</ref> ==Mbiri== Pambere chaka cha 1900 chindafike, milimo ya [[civil engineering|unyanziri wa chizengi]] kanandi yikalamuliranga na ŵanozgi ŵakale, ŵanyanziri, na [[master builder (occupation)|ŵazengi ŵakuru]] ŵenecho, chiyelezgero, [[Vitruvius]] (m'ma 100 BCE), [[Christopher Wren]] (1632–1723), [[Thomas Telford]] (1757–1834), na [[Isambard Kingdom Brunel]] (1806–1859).<ref>{{cite book|isbn=9780566087721|edition=9|title=Project Management|last=Lock|first=Dennis}}</ref> M'ma 1950, mawupu ghakayamba kugwiliskira ntchito vilwero na maluso gha ulamuliro wa milimo mwakulongozgeka chomene pa milimo yakusuzga ya unyanziri.<ref name="YHK05">{{cite book|first=Young-Hoon|last=Kwak|year=2005|chapter=A brief History of Project Management|title=The story of managing projects|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_1567205062|publisher=Bloomsbury Academic |editor= [[Elias G. Carayannis]]|isbn=1567205062}}</ref> [[File:Henry Gantt.jpg|thumb|170px|[[Henry Gantt]] (1861–1919), mapiŵi wa maluso gha kupanga ndondomeko na ulamuliro]] Nga ni chisambizgo, ulamuliro wa milimo ukakura kufuma mu vigaŵa vinandi kusazgapo chizengi cha boma, unyanziri, na ntchito zikuru za [[Defense (military)|uvikiliro wa nkhondo]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Global Project Management Handbook|url=https://archive.org/details/globalprojectman00clel_0|chapter=1: The evolution of project management|isbn=0071460454|last1=Cleland |first1=David |last2=Gareis |first2=Roland |date=25 May 2006 |publisher=McGraw-Hill Education }}</ref> Ŵasekuru ŵaŵiri ŵa ulamuliro wa milimo ni [[Henry Gantt]], uyo wakumbika kuti ni mapiŵi wa maluso gha kupanga ndondomeko na ulamuliro,<ref>{{cite book|isbn=190349401X|page=xxii|title=Project Management Pathways |url=https://archive.org/details/projectmanagemen0000unse_s8n5|last1=Stevens |first1=Martin |year=2002 |publisher=Association for Project Management }}</ref> uyo wakumanyikwa chomene chifukwa cha kugwiliskira ntchito [[Gantt chart|tchati cha Gantt]] nga ni chilwero cha ulamuliro wa milimo (panji ''Harmonogram'' iyo yikapelekeka dankha na [[Karol Adamiecki]]);<ref>{{cite journal|jstor=255537 |last1=Marsh |first1=Edward R. |title=The Harmonogram of Karol Adamiecki |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_academy-of-management-journal_1975-06_18_2/page/358 |journal=The Academy of Management Journal |year=1975 |volume=18 |issue=2 |pages=358–364 }}</ref> ndipo uyo munyake ni [[Henri Fayol]] chifukwa cha kupanga milimo yinkhondi ya ulamuliro iyo yikapanga fawundeshoni ya kumanyuma kwa ulamuliro wa milimo na mapulogiramu.<ref>{{cite book|isbn=0415369770|pages=96–101|title=Fifty Key Figures in Management |last1=Witzel |first1=Morgen |year=2003 |publisher=Psychology Press }}</ref> Wose ŵaŵiri Gantt na Fayol ŵakaŵa ŵasambi ŵa maghanoghano gha [[Frederick Winslow Taylor]] pa nkhani ya [[scientific management|ulamuliro wa sayansi]]. Ntchito yake ni yeneiyo yikajula nthowa ku vilwero vya mazuŵa gano vya ulamuliro wa milimo kusazgapo [[work breakdown structure]] (WBS) na kugaŵira kwa vyakugwiliskira ntchito. M'ma 1950 mukaŵa pakwambira na pakumalira pa nyengo ya mazuŵa gano ya ulamuliro wa milimo, apo vigaŵa vikuru vya [[engineering|unyanziri]] vikakolerana kuti vigwire ntchito nga ni chimoza. Ulamuliro wa milimo ukamba kumanyikwa nga ni chisambizgo chapadera icho chikufuma mu chisambizgo cha ulamuliro pamoza na nthowa ya unyanziri.<ref name="ClGa06">{{cite book|isbn=0071460454|pages=[https://archive.org/details/globalprojectman00clel_0/page/2 1]–4|quote=It was in the 1950s when project management was formally recognized as a distinct contribution arising from the management discipline.|title=Global Project Management Handbook: Planning, Organizing and Controlling International Projects|url=https://archive.org/details/globalprojectman00clel_0|last1=Cleland |first1=David |last2=Gareis |first2=Roland |date=25 May 2006 |publisher=McGraw-Hill Education }}</ref> Ku United States, pambere m'ma 1950 ghandafike, milimo yikalamuliranga mwavyaka-vyaŵaka, pakugwiliskira ntchito chomene [[Gantt chart|matchati gha Gantt]] na maluso gha boma yayi. Pa nyengo iyo, nthowa ziŵiri za masamu za [[Schedule (project management)|kupanga mndandanda wa milimo]] zikapangika. Nthowa ya [[Critical Path Method|nthowa yakuzirwa chomene]] (CPM) yikapangika nga ni ntchito yakukolerana pakati pa [[DuPont|Wupu wa DuPont]] na [[Remington Rand|Wupu wa Remington Rand]] pakulaŵilira milimo ya kunozga malo ghapangira vinthu. Nthowa ya [[Program Evaluation and Review Technique|kupima na kulaŵilira pulogiramu]] (PERT), yikapangika na Ofesi ya Milimo Yapadera ya Ŵasilikari ŵa pa Maji ya ku U.S. pamoza na [[Lockheed Corporation]] na [[Booz Allen Hamilton]] nga ni chigaŵa cha pulogiramu ya sitima zapasi ya [[Polaris missile]].<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1287/opre.7.5.646|url=http://www.mosaicprojects.com.au/PDF/PM-History_PERT-Original_Paper.pdf|title=Application of a technique for research and development program evaluation|year=1959 |last1=Malcolm |first1=D. G. |last2=Roseboom |first2=J. H. |last3=Clark |first3=C. E. |last4=Fazar |first4=W. |journal=Operations Research |volume=7 |issue=5 |pages=646–669 |bibcode=1959OpRes...7..646M }}</ref> [[PERT]] na CPM vikuyanako chomene mu kachitiro kake kweni vichali na kupambana kunyake. CPM yikugwiliskira ntchito ku milimo iyo yikughanaghana nyengo zakutemeka; nyengo izo ntchito yiliyose yichitikirenge zikumanyikwa. PERT, ku chigaŵa chinyake, yikuzomerezga nyengo za ntchito izo zili na mwaŵi wa kusintha; nyengo izo ntchito yiliyose yichitikirenge zili na kukayika panji zikupambana. Chifukwa cha kupambana kukuru uku, CPM na [[PERT]] vikugwiliskira ntchito pa malo ghakupambana. Maluso gha masamu agha ghakazara luŵiro mu makampani ghawekha yanandi. [[File:Pert chart colored.svg|thumb|240px|[[PERT|Tchati cha PERT]] cha mulimo wa myezi yinkhondi na vilingo vinkhondi]] Pa nyengo yimoza, apo nthowa za kupanga mndandanda wa milimo zikapangikanga, luso la [[Estimation (project management)|kupimira]] mtengo wa mulimo, ulamuliro wa mtengo na sayansi ya chuma ya unyanziri vikaŵa mukukura, na ntchito ya Hans Lang na ŵanyake. Mu 1956, Wupu wa America wa Ŵanyanziri ŵa Mtengo (sono ni [[AACE International]]) ukapangika na ŵalaŵiliri ŵakwambilira ŵa ulamuliro wa milimo na vigaŵa vyakukolerana na kupanga ndondomeko, kupimira mtengo, na ulamuliro wa milimo. AACE yikalutilira na ntchito yake ndipo mu 2006, yikafumiska nthowa yakwamba yakukolerana ya kusamalira milimo yose (total cost management framework). Mu 1969, [[Project Management Institute]] (PMI) ukapangika ku USA.<ref>{{cite book|isbn=0566078228|title=Advanced Project Management: A Structured Approach |last1=Harrison |first1=F. L. |last2=Lock |first2=Dennis |year=2004 |page=34|publisher=Gower Publishing }}</ref> PMI wakufumiska buku lakwamba la ''[[A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge]]'' (PMBOK Guide) mu 1996 na William Duncan nga ni mulembi mukuru, ilo likulongosora maluso gha ulamuliro wa milimo agho ngakuzunzikazunzi ku "milimo yinandi, nyengo yinandi."<ref>{{cite journal|last=Saladis|first=F. P.|year=2006|title=Bringing the PMBOK® guide to life|journal=PMI Global Congress|location=Seattle, WA|publisher=Project Management Institute|url=https://www.pmi.org/learning/library/bringing-pmbok-guide-life-practical-8009}}</ref> ==Mitundu== Nthowa za ulamuliro wa milimo zingagwiliskira ntchito ku mulimo uliwose. Kanandi zikunozgeka kuyana na mtundu wa mulimo chifukwa cha ukulu, kachitiro, panji chigaŵa cha ntchito. Chiyelezgero, chigaŵa cha chizengi, icho chikulaŵilira vya kupeleka vinthu nga ni nyumba, nthowa, na maburiji, chapanga nthowa yake yapadera ya ulamuliro wa milimo iyo yikuchemeka ''construction project management'' ndipo mwenemumo ŵalaŵiliri ŵa milimo ŵangasambizgika na kupokera vikalata.<ref name="Contruction_Project_Management">{{cite web|url=http://cmaanet.org/certified-construction-manager|title=Certified Construction Manager|publisher=CMAA|access-date=23 November 2013|archive-date=28 November 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131128105639/http://cmaanet.org/certified-construction-manager|url-status=dead}}</ref> Chigaŵa cha [[information technology|luso la uthenga]] (IT) nacho chakula mwakuti chipange nthowa yake ya ulamuliro wa milimo iyo yikuchemeka ''IT project management'' iyo yikupambana pakulaŵilira vya kupeleka katundu wa luso na uteŵeti uwo ukukhumbikwa kujumpha mu vigaŵa vyakupambana nga ni kupanga ndondomeko, kusontha, kupanga, kupima, na kupeleka. ''[[Biotechnology]] project management'' yikulaŵilira chomene vya kusuzga kwa kafukufuku wa luso la vyamoyo na kukuza kwake.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pce.uw.edu/certificates/biotechnology-project-management.html|title=Certificate in Biotechnology Project Management|publisher=University of Washington|access-date=23 November 2013}}</ref> ''Localization project management'' yikusazgapo kugwiliskira ntchito maluso yanandi gha ulamuliro wa milimo pa ntchito za kung'anamura nangauli ŵanandi ŵakuwona ulamuliro uwu nga ni chisambizgo chakupambana chomene. Chiyelezgero, ŵalaŵiliri ŵa milimo ŵali na ntchito yakuzirwa pakunozga kung'anamura nanga ni apo ŵakuyowoya yayi chiyowoyero cha kung'anamura uko, chifukwa ŵakumanya makora vilato vya sambiro kuti ŵapange vyakusankha vyakwenelera.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sha |first1=Mandy |last2=Immerwahr |first2=Stephen |date=2018-02-19 |title=Survey Translation: Why and How Should Researchers and Managers be Engaged? |url=https://www.surveypractice.org/article/3248-survey-translation-why-and-how-should-researchers-and-managers-be-engaged |journal=Survey Practice |language=en |volume=11 |issue=2 |pages=1–10 |doi=10.29115/SP-2018-0016 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Mwakuyanako, ''research study management'' nayo yingagwiliskira ntchito nthowa ya ulamuliro wa milimo.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sha |first1=Mandy |last2=Childs |first2=Jennifer Hunter |date=2014-08-01 |title=Applying a project management approach to survey research projects that use qualitative methods |url=https://www.surveypractice.org/article/2865-applying-a-project-management-approach-to-survey-research-projects-that-use-qualitative-methods |journal=Survey Practice |language=en |volume=7 |issue=4 |pages=1–8 |doi=10.29115/SP-2014-0021 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Kuliso ulamuliro wa milimo ya boma uwo ukulaŵilira milimo yose ya boma, iyo yingachitika na mawupu gha boma panji kupeleka ku makampani gha kunja. Kugaŵirapo kunyake kwa ulamuliro wa milimo kuli pa mtundu wa vinthu vyakuoneka (hard) panji vyosakhwaseka (soft). Chakupambana yayi pakati pa mitundu yose ya ulamuliro wa milimo ni chakuti yikulaŵilira vilato vitatu vyakuzirwa: nyengo, khalidwe la ntchito, na mtengo. Milimo yiwemi ni yeneiyo yamalizgika pa mndandanda wa nyengo, mukati mwa chuma chakutemeka, ndipo kuyana na vilingo vya khalidwe ivyo vikazomerezgeka kale.<ref>{{Cite book|title=A Practical Guide to Localization|url=https://archive.org/details/practicalguideto0000esse|last=Esselink|first=Bert|publisher=John Benjamins Publishing Company|year=2000|isbn=978-9-027-21956-5|location=Amsterdam/Philadelphia|pages=[https://archive.org/details/practicalguideto0000esse/page/428 428]}}</ref> Pa mtundu uliwose wa ulamuliro wa milimo, ŵalaŵiliri ŵa milimo ŵakupanga na kugwiliskira ntchito vilingo vyakuzunzikazunzi (templates) ivyo ni vyapadera ku chigaŵa icho ŵakuchita ntchito. Ichi chikuzomerezga kuti ndondomeko za milimo ziŵe zakufiskika chomene na zakuzunzikazunzi, na chilato chakuti chisazgirepo khalidwe la ntchito, kuchepeska mtengo wa kupeleka, na kuchepeska nyengo yakufiskira vyakufumapo vya mulimo. ==Nthowa== Sambiro la mu 2017 likati kufiskika kwa mulimo uliwose kukuthemba pa umo vigaŵa vinayi vikukolerana na kachitiro ka vinthu uko kukukhwaska mulimo, ivi vikuchemeka ''ma P yanayi'':<ref>{{cite book|isbn=9781498757911|title=Project Feasibility: Tools for Uncovering Points of Vulnerability |url=https://archive.org/details/projectfeasibili0000mesl|last1=Mesly |first1=Olivier |date=15 December 2016 |publisher=CRC Press, Taylor & Francis }}.</ref> * ''Ndondomeko (Plan)'': Milimo ya kupanga ndondomeko na kunegherera. * ''Kachitiro (Process):'' Nthowa yose ku milimo yose na ulamuliro wa mulimo. * ''Ŵanthu (People):'' Kusazgapo umo ŵakukolerana na kuyowoyeskana. * ''Mazaza (Power):'' Mizere ya ulamuliro, ŵakupanga vyakusankha, mapulani gha mawupu, malango gha kachitiro na vinyake vyanthena. Pali nthowa zinandi za kulinganya na kumalizga milimo ya mulimo, kusazgapo vigaŵa-vigaŵa, kachitiro kakuchepeska waste (lean), kachitiro kakuzunzikazunzi (iterative), na kachitiro kakusazgirapo (incremental). Paliso vinthu vinyake ivyo vikasazgika ku kupanga ndondomeko ya milimo, chiyelezgero, kuyana na vyakufumapo (kuyana na katundu) panji milimo (kuyana na kachitiro). Nanga nthowa iyo yagwiliskirika ntchito yiŵe ya mtundu uli, kughanaghanira mwakupwelelera kukwenera kupelekeka ku vilato vya mulimo vyose, nyengo, na mtengo, ndiposo ntchito na milimo ya ŵose awo ŵalimo na [[Project stakeholder|ŵeneco ŵa mulimo]].<ref>Cf. The Bridger (blog), [http://www.thebridger.co.uk/project-management-pmp-prince-2-or-an-iterative-or-agile-variant/ "Project management: PMP, Prince 2, or an Iterative or Agile variant"]</ref> ===Ulamuliro wa kufiska vyandulo=== {{Main|Benefits realisation management}} Ulamuliro wa kufiska vyandulo (BRM) ukusazgirapo maluso gha ulamuliro wa milimo mwa kulaŵilira chomene pa vyakufumapo (vyandulo) vya mulimo m'malo mwa katundu panji vyakufumapo waka, ndipo panyuma pake kupima umo ichi chikuchitikira kuti mulimo uŵe pa nthowa. Ichi chingawovwira kuchepeska mwaŵi wa mulimo wakumala kuŵa wakutondeka chifukwa cha kupeleka vinthu ivyo vikazomerezgeka (outputs) kweni kutondeka kupeleka vyandulo (outcomes) vya vinthu ivyo. Sazgapo apo, BRM yikukhumba kusimikizga kukolerana kwa vilato vya mulimo na nthowa za bizinesi. ===Nthowa ya nthowa yakuzirwa chomene=== {{Main|Critical path method}} Nthowa ya nthowa yakuzirwa chomene (CPM) ni nthowa ya masamu ya kusankha mndandanda wa milimo. Ni nthowa ya mazuŵa ghose iyo yikugwiliskirika ntchito pakupanga ndondomeko ya milimo iyo yikunegherereka. Nthowa ya CPM yikupima ndondomeko ya milimo, ntchito iyo yikukhumbikwa, umo vikuthembana, na nyengo ya mwaŵi (float time) kuti yasankhe utali wa mulimo uwo ukukhumbikwa. Mwantheura, kuyana na kulongosora, nthowa yakuzirwa ni nthowa ya ntchito pa tchati iyo yirije nyengo ya mwaŵi yiliyose yakuŵapo (panji nyengo yichoko chomene). ===Ulamuliro wa milimo wa mnyololo wakuzirwa=== {{Main|Critical chain project management}} Ulamuliro wa milimo wa mnyololo wakuzirwa (CCPM) ni kugwiliskira ntchito kwa [[theory of constraints]] (TOC) pakupanga ndondomeko na kusamalira milimo ndipo yapangika kuti yamalane na kukayika uko kukuŵapo pa kusamalira milimo, uku yikughanaghanira kuchepa kwa [[Resource (project management)|vyakugwiliskira ntchito]] (vya thupi, luso la ŵanthu, ndiposo ulamuliro na mwaŵi wa wovwiri) ivyo vikukhumbikwa kuti mulimo uchitike. Chilato ni kusazgirapo kwenda kwa milimo mu wupu ([[throughput]]). Pakugwiliskira ntchito vigaŵa vitatu vyakwamba vya vigaŵa vinkhondi vya TOC, vyakulimira vya nthowa ya milimo yose, ndiposo vyakugwiliskira ntchito, vikuzunulika. Kuti vyakulimira ivi vigwire ntchito, milimo pa mnyololo wakuzirwa yikupelekeka mwaŵi wakwamba kuluska milimo yinyake yose. ===Ulamuliro wa mtengo uwo wapangika=== {{Main|Earned value management}} Ulamuliro wa mtengo uwo wapangika (EVM) ukusazgirapo ulamuliro wa milimo na maluso gha kunozga kulaŵilira kwa mulimo.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Mahmoudi |first1=Amin |last2=Bagherpour |first2=Morteza |last3=Javed |first3=Saad Ahmed |date=2021 |title=Grey Earned Value Management: Theory and Applications |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/tem.2019.2920904 |journal=IEEE Transactions on Engineering Management |volume=68 |issue=6 |pages=1703–1721 |doi=10.1109/tem.2019.2920904 |bibcode=2021ITEM...68.1703M |s2cid=202102868 |issn=0018-9391|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Ichi chikulongora umo mulimo ukulutira ku nthazi mwa ntchito na mtengo. ===Ulamuliro wa milimo wakuzunzikazunzi na wakusazgirapo=== {{See also|Iterative and incremental development}}Pa masambiro ghakuzirwa gha ulamuliro wa milimo, chawonekera kuti nthowa za vigaŵa-vigaŵa ntha zikukolerana makora na milimo iyo ni yikulu chomene na ya makampani yanandi, na vinthu ivyo vikukhumbikwa ivyo ni vyambura kulongosoreka makora, vyakukayikiska, panji vyakusintha luŵiro, panji milimo iyo yili na mwaŵi ukulu wa ngozi, kuthembana, na maluso gha mazuŵa gano agho ghakusintha luŵiro. Vinthu vyakusuzga ivi vikusamalika makora na nthowa yakupenja-penja panji yakuzunzikazunzi na yakusazgirapo. Nthowa zinandi za ulamuliro wa milimo yakuzunzikazunzi na yakusazgirapo zakura, kusazgapo [[Agile Project Management|ulamuliro wa milimo wa agile]], [[dynamic systems development method]], na [[extreme project management]]. Nthowa ya [[Scrum (project management)|Scrum]] ni nthowa iyo yikugwiliskirika ntchito chomene iyo yikugaŵa vilato vya ntchito mu kuzunzikazunzi uko kukuchemeka 'sprints'.<ref name="m255">{{cite book | last1=Layton | first1=Mark C. | last2=Morrow | first2=David | title=Scrum For Dummies | publisher=John Wiley & Sons | date=2018-04-16 | isbn=978-1-119-46769-4 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YeJVDwAAQBAJ&q=scrum+framework+sprints | access-date=2025-11-13 | page=1}}</ref><ref name="b047">{{cite book | last=Larman | first=Craig | title=Agile and Iterative Development: A Manager's Guide | publisher=Addison-Wesley Professional | date=2004 | isbn=978-0-13-111155-4 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=76rnV5Exs50C&dq=scrum++sprints&pg=PA113 | access-date=2025-11-13 | page=113}}</ref> ===Ulamuliro wa milimo wa Lean=== {{Main|Lean project management}} Ulamuliro wa milimo wa Lean ukugwiliskira ntchito maghanoghano kufuma mu [[lean manufacturing|kupanga vinthu kwa lean]] kuti upeleke vyandulo na waste yichoko ndiposo nyengo yifupi. ===Ndandanda ya umoyo wa mulimo=== Pali vigaŵa vinkhondi ku ndandanda ya umoyo wa mulimo; ivyo vikumanyikwa nga ni magulu gha kachitiro. Gulu lililose la kachitiro likulongora mndandanda wa kachitiro kakukolerana pakusamalira ntchito mu vigaŵa vyakupambana ivyo vikwenera kumala. Mtundu uwu wa nthowa ya mulimo kanandi ukuchemeka "traditional"<ref name="wysocki">{{cite book |title=Effective Project Management: Traditional, Adaptive, Extreme |last=Wysocki |first=Robert K. |publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]] |year=2013 |isbn=978-1118729168 |edition=Seventh }}</ref> panji "[[Waterfall model|waterfall]]".<ref name="Roy70">{{cite journal|first=Winston W.|last=Royce|url=http://www.cs.umd.edu/class/spring2003/cmsc838p/Process/waterfall.pdf|title=Managing the Development of Large Software Systems|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160315200930/http://www.cs.umd.edu/class/spring2003/cmsc838p/Process/waterfall.pdf|archive-date=2016-03-15|journal=Technical Papers of Western Electronic Show and Convention (WesCon)|date=August 25–28, 1970|location=Los Angeles}}</ref> Magulu gha kachitiro vinkhondi ni:[[File:Project Management (phases).png|thumb|right|320px|Vigaŵa vyakupambana vya mulimo wa unyanziri]] # [[Project Initiation Documentation|Kuyambiska]] # [[project planning|Kupanga Ndondomeko]] # Kufiska # Kulaŵilira na Kulongozga # Kumalizga [Image of the project management lifecycle phases] Mawupu ghanyake ghangagwiliskira ntchito kusintha kwa vigaŵa ivi vya mulimo na kuvithya mazina ghanyake kuti vikolerane na wupu. Chiyelezgero, pakugwira ntchito pa kusontha kwa nyumba na chizengi, milimo kanandi yikuluta mu vigaŵa nga ni kupanga ndondomeko-pakwamba, kusontha kwa ghanoghano, kusontha kwa tchati, kukuza kusontha, vithuzi vya chizengi (panji vikalata vya dango), na ulamuliro wa chizengi. Nangauli nthowa ya vigaŵa-vigaŵa yikugwira ntchito makora ku milimo yichoko na yakulongosoreka makora, kanandi yikuzisa chigezgo panji kutondeka pa milimo yikulu chomene, panji iyo ni yakusuzga chomene panji iyo yili na vyambura kulongosoreka makora, nkhani, na ngozi. ===Ulamuliro wakuthemba pa kachitiro=== {{Main |Process-based management}} Kusazgapo ulamuliro wakuthemba pa kachitiro kwendeskeka na kugwiliskira ntchito kwa nthowa za kukhwima (maturity models) nga ni [[OPM3]] na [[CMMI]] (capability maturity model integration). [Image of the Capability Maturity Model] ===Ulamuliro wa kupanga kwa mulimo=== {{Main |Project production management}} Ulamuliro wa kupanga kwa mulimo ni kugwiliskira ntchito ulamuliro wa kachitiro (operations management) pa kupeleka milimo ya chuma. Nthowa ya ulamuliro wa kupanga kwa mulimo yili pa muwono wakuti mulimo uli nga ni nthowa ya kupangira vinthu, mwenemumo mulimo ukung'anamura vyakunjizga (vinthu vyambura kunozgeka, uthenga, ŵantchito, makina) kuŵa vyakufumapo (katundu na uteŵeti).<ref>{{Cite book|title=Modern construction management|last1=McCaffer|first1=Ronald|last2=Harris|first2=Frank|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|year=2013|isbn=978-1118510186|page=5|oclc=834624541}}</ref> ===Kupanga ndondomeko yakuthemba pa katundu=== {{Main|Product-based planning}} Kupanga ndondomeko yakuthemba pa katundu ni nthowa ya ulamuliro wa milimo iyo yili na kulinganya, yakuthemba pa kuzunula katundu yose (milimo iyo yikupelekeka) iyo yikukasazgirapo pa kufiska vilato vya mulimo. Mwantheura, yikulongosora mulimo uwemi nga ni uwo ukulaŵilira katundu uwo wafuma m'malo mwa kachitiro panji ntchito waka.<ref name="managing">Office for Government Commerce (1996) ''Managing Successful Projects with PRINCE2'', p14</ref> Kugwiliskira ntchito chomene kwa nthowa iyi ni [[PRINCE2]].<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.ogc.gov.uk/methods_prince_2__background.asp| archive-url = http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20110822131357/http://www.ogc.gov.uk/methods_prince_2__background.asp| url-status = dead| archive-date = 2011-08-22| title = OGC – PRINCE2 – Background}}</ref> == {{anchor|Project development stages}} Magulu gha kachitiro == [[File:Project development stages.jpg|thumb|230px|Vigaŵa vya kukuza mulimo<ref name="VA03">{{cite web|work=VA Office of Information and Technology |year=2003 |url=http://www.ppoe.oit.va.gov/docs/VA_IT_PM_Guide.pdf |title=Project Management Guide |url-status=unfit |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090114104001/http://www.ppoe.oit.va.gov/docs/VA_IT_PM_Guide.pdf |archive-date=January 14, 2009 }}</ref>]] Mwavyakale (kuyana na nthowa ya ulamuliro wa milimo iyo yikugwiliskirika ntchito), ulamuliro wa milimo ukusazgapo vigaŵa vinandi: magulu gha kachitiro gha ulamuliro wa milimo yanayi panji yankhondi, na nthowa ya ulamuliro. Nanganthowa panji mazina agho yikugwiliskira ntchito yaŵe ya mtundu uli, kachitiro kakuyana ka ulamuliro wa milimo panji vigaŵa vya kukuza vigwiliskirikenge ntchito. Magulu gha kachitiro ghakuru kanandi ghakusazgapo:<ref name="PMI 10">[[Project Management Institute|PMI]] (2010). ''A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge'', pp. 27–35.</ref> * Kuyambiska * Kupanga Ndondomeko * Kupanga panji Kufiska * Kulaŵilira na Kulongozga * Kumalizga Mu vigaŵa vya milimo ivyo vili na chigaŵa chikuru chakupenja-penja (chiyelezgero, [[research and development|kafukufuku na kukuza]]), vigaŵa ivi vingasazgirapo vigaŵa vya kusankha (vyakusankha vya kuluta panji kuleka) apo kulutilira kwa mulimo kukuchezgeka na kusankhika. Ulamuliro wa milimo ukuthemba pa unandi wa maungano kuti ulongozge kachitiro ka vinthu. Chiyelezgero, pali ungano wa kuyambiska, uwo kanandi ukusazgapo ŵeneco ŵa mulimo pa kuyambika kwa mulimo. Maungano gha milimo panji makomiti gha milimo ghakuzomerezga gulu la mulimo kulongosora na kulaŵilira ndondomeko za kachitiro. Makomiti ghakulongozga ghakugwiliskira ntchito pakusamuka pakati pa vigaŵa na kumalana na nkhani. Ndondomeko ya milimo yose na mawoneshero gha mapulogiramu vikuchitika mu mawupu agho ghakwendeska milimo yinandi pa nyengo yimoza. Maungano gha masambiro agho yasambirika ghakuchitika kuti yakhozge masambiro. Maungano ghose agha ghakugwiliskira ntchito maluso agho ghakusangika mu [[meeting science|sayansi ya maungano]], chomenechomene pakulongosora chilato, mndandanda wa ŵanthu, na nthowa za kachitiro. ===Kuyambiska=== [[File:Initiating Process Group Processes.jpg|thumb|left|280px|Kachitiro ka gulu lakuyambiska<ref name="VA03"/>]] Kachitiro kakuyambiska kakusankha kachitiro na mumpaka wa mulimo.<ref>Nathan, Peter; Gerald Everett Jones (2003). ''PMP certification for dummies'', p. 63.</ref> Usange chigaŵa ichi ntha chachitika makora, mwaŵi nguchoko wakuti mulimo uŵe uwemi pakufiska vyakukhumbikwa vya bizinesi. Vinthu vyakuzirwa vya ulamuliro wa milimo ivyo vikukhumbikwa apa ni kupulikiska malo gha bizinesi na kusimikizga kuti ulamuliro wose wakukhumbikwa wasazgika mu mulimo. Kusoŵa kulikose kukwenera kulembeka ndipo fundo yakunozga yikwenera kupelekeka. Chigaŵa chakuyambiska chikwenera kusazgapo ndondomeko iyo yikusazgapo vigaŵa vyakulondolapo. Vigaŵa ivi vingalembeka mu mndandanda wa vikalata ivyo vikuchemeka Vikalata vya Kuyambiska Mulimo. Vikalata vya Kuyambiska Mulimo ni mndandanda wa vikalata ivyo vikupangika kuti vipange ndondomeko ya utali wa mulimo. Ivi kanandi vikusazgapo: * fundo ya mulimo (ghanoghano kumanyuma kwa mulimo, chilato chose, utali wa nyengo) * [[Scope (project management)|mumpaka wa mulimo]] (ko mulimo ukuluta na kachitiro kake) * [[product breakdown structure]] (PBS) (kugaŵira kwa vyakufumapo na vigaŵa vyake) * [[work breakdown structure]] (WBS) (kugaŵira kwa ntchito iyo yikwenera kuchitika, mpaka ku milimo ya mazuŵa ghose) * [[responsibility assignment matrix]] (RACI – Responsible, Accountable, Consulted, Informed) (ntchito na milimo yakukolerana na vyakufumapo) * mndandanda wa nyengo wa kanyengo (vilingo vyakuzirwa, mazuŵa ghakuzirwa, nyengo yakumalizga) * kupima vyakukhumbikwa vya bizinesi kuyana na vilato ivyo vingapimika * kulaŵilira kachitiro ka vinthu ka panyengo iyi * [[financial analysis|kupima chuma]] kwa mitengo na vyandulo, kusazgapo [[budget|chuma chakutemeka]] * [[stakeholder analysis|kupima ŵeneco ŵa mulimo]], kusazgapo ŵagwiliskiri ntchito na ŵantchito wovwiri wa mulimo * [[project charter|dango la mulimo]] kusazgapo mitengo, ntchito, vyakufumapo, na mndandanda wa nyengo * [[SWOT analysis|kupima SWOT]]: nkhongono, kutereka, mwaŵi, na ngozi ku bizinesi ===Kupanga Ndondomeko=== [Image of project planning process] Pamanyuma pa chigaŵa chakuyambiska, mulimo ukunozgeka mu ndondomeko yakwenelera (wonani [[File:Planning Process Group Activities.jpg|chiyelezgero cha tchati cha kachitiro]]).<ref name="VA03"/> Chilato chikuru ni kunozga nyengo, mtengo, na vyakugwiliskira ntchito mwakwenelera kuti papimike ntchito yakukhumbikwa na kulaŵilira ngozi panyengo yakufiska mulimo. Nga ni umo viliri mu gulu la kuyambiska, kutondeka kunozga ndondomeko yakwenelera kukuchepeska mwaŵi wa mulimo wakufiska vilato vyake. [[Project planning|Kupanga ndondomeko ya mulimo]] kanandi kukuŵa na:<ref>{{cite book | author = Kerzner, Harold | year = 2003 | title = Project Management: A Systems Approach to Planning, Scheduling, and Controlling | url = https://archive.org/details/projectmanagemen0000kerz_h0w8 | url-access = registration | edition = 8th | publisher = Wiley | isbn = 0-471-22577-0| author-link = Harold Kerzner }}</ref> * kusankha nthowa ya ulamuliro wa mulimo yakulondezga (chiyelezgero, usange ndondomeko yilinganyikenge [[Waterfall model|yose pakwamba]], [[Iterative and incremental development|mwakuzunzikazunzi]], panji mu [[Rolling-wave planning|maghonjo gha kulutilira]]); * kupanga [[scope statement|longosoro la mumpaka wa mulimo]]; * kusankha gulu lakunozga ndondomeko; * kuzunula vyakufumapo na kupanga ndondomeko ya kugaŵira katundu na ntchito; * kuzunula milimo yakukhumbikwa kuti vyakufumapo vifiskike na kulunganya milimo mu ndondomeko yakukolerana; * kupima vyakugwiliskira ntchito vyakukhumbikwa pa milimo; * kupima nyengo na mtengo wa milimo; * kupanga mndandanda wa nyengo; * kupanga chuma chakutemeka (budget); * kunozgera ngozi; * kupanga nthowa zakusimikizgira khalidwe la ntchito; * kupokera chizomerezgo cha boma kuti ntchito yambe. Vinthu vinyake, nga ni kunozgera nthowa ya kuyowoyeskana na ulamuliro wa mumpaka wa ntchito, kuzunula ntchito na milimo ya ŵanthu, kusankha vinthu vyakugula vya mulimo, na kuchita ungano wa kuyambiska navyo ni vyakukhumbikwa. Pa milimo ya [[new product development|kupanga katundu muphya]], kusontha kwa kachitiro ka katundu wakumalizga kungachitika panyengo yimoza na milimo ya kupanga ndondomeko ndipo kungawovwira gulu lakunozga panyengo yakuzunula vyakufumapo na milimo ya ndondomeko. ===Kufiska=== [[File:Executing Process Group Processes.jpg|thumb|320px|Kachitiro ka gulu lakufiska<ref name="VA03"/>]] Panyengo yakufiska, munthu wakwenera kumanya malango gha ndondomeko agho ghakukhumbikwa kuchitika. Chigaŵa chakufiska chikuzomerezga kuti vyakufumapo vya ndondomeko ya ulamuliro wa mulimo vichitike mwakwenelera. Chigaŵa ichi chikusazgapo kugaŵira makora, kukoleranya, na kulaŵilira ŵantchito na vyakugwiliskira ntchito vinyake nga ni vinthu na chuma. Chifumapo cha chigaŵa ichi ni vyakufumapo vya mulimo (project deliverables). ===Vyakulembeka vya mulimo=== Kulemba chilichose mu mulimo ni nthowa yakuzirwa yakufiskira vilato. Kuti chuma, mumpaka wa ntchito, na kachitiro ka luŵiro vilutilire, mulimo wakwenera kuŵa na vikalata vya thupi vyakukolerana na ntchito yiliyose. Kufumira mu vikalata vyakwenelera, ntchipusu kuwona usange vyakukhumbikwa vya mulimo vifiskika panji yayi. Kweniso, vikalata vikupeleka uthenga wa ivyo vyamalizgika kale pa mulimo uwo. Vyakulembeka mu mulimo wose vikupeleka nthowa ya ukaboni kwa waliyose uwo wakukhumba kuweleramo na kulaŵiska ntchito iyo yikachitika kale. Mu vyakuchitika vinandi, kulemba ni nthowa yiwemi chomene yakulaŵiliramo na kulongozga vigaŵa vyapadera vya mulimo. Na vikalata vyakwenelera, kufiskika kwa mulimo kungalondezgeka na kuwoneka apo mulimo ukuluta panji. Usange vyachitika makora, kulemba kungamba kuŵa msana wa kufiskika kwa mulimo. ===Kulaŵilira na Kulongozga=== [[File:Monitoring and Controlling Process Group Processes.jpg|thumb|320px|Kachitiro ka gulu lakulaŵilira na kulongozga<ref name="VA03"/>]]Kulaŵilira na kulongozga kuli na vigaŵa ivyo vikuchitika kuti kuwoneke umo mulimo ukufiskikira mwakuti masuzgo agho ghangaŵapo ghamanyikwe pa nyengo yake na nthowa zakunozgera zitolereke usange nkhwakukhumbikwa. Chandulo chikuru ni chakuti kachitiro ka mulimo kakuwonereka na kupimika nyengo na nyengo kuti pamanyikwe kupambana na ndondomeko ya ulamuliro wa mulimo. Kulaŵilira na kulongozga vikusazgapo:<ref name="JPL00">Lewis, James P. (2000). ''The project manager's desk reference: a comprehensive guide to project planning, scheduling, evaluation, and systems''. p. 185.</ref> * Kupima milimo ya mulimo iyo yikuchitika ('apo tili'); * Kulaŵilira vigaŵa vya mulimo (mtengo, khama, mumpaka, na vinyake) pakuyaniska na ndondomeko ya ulamuliro wa mulimo ('apo tikwenera kuŵa'); * Kuzunula nthowa zakunozgera kuti masuzgo na ngozi vimalane navyo mwakwenelera ('Kasi tingawelera bwanji pa nthowa yiwemi'); * Kuchitapo kanthu pa vinthu ivyo vingatimbanya ulamuliro wa kusintha mwakuti masinthidwe ghazomerezgeka pera ndigho ghachitike. Mawonekero ghaŵiri ghakuru ghakovwira pakulaŵilira na kulongozga milimo. Ku chigaŵa chinyake, [[contract|magulu gha mapangano]] ghakupeleka malango na vyakukhuŵilizga ivyo kanandi vikovwirika na vilango. Ku chigaŵa chinyake, ŵasambi ŵa bizinesi na ulamuliro ŵaŵika pamaso ntchito ya ŵakukoleranya (abo ŵakuchemekaso ŵeneco ŵa milimo) kuti vilato vya mulimo vifiskike. Pa nyengo yimoza, kafukufuku wasono mu ulamuliro wa milimo wafumbura umo mapangano na ŵakukoleranya ŵakugwilira ntchito pamoza. Ŵanyake ŵayowoya kuti nthowa ziŵiri izi zikugwira ntchito nga ni zakunjira mu malo mwa zinyake. Mu milimo ya vigaŵa vinandi, kachitiro ka kulaŵilira na kulongozga kukupeleka uthenga pakati pa vigaŵa vya mulimo, kuti kachitike nthowa zakunozgera panji zakutchinjilizga kuti mulimo ukolerane na ndondomeko ya ulamuliro wa mulimo. Kupwelelera mulimo ni kachitiro kakulutilira, ndipo kikusazgapo:<ref name="PMI 10"/> * Kulutilira kovwira ŵagwiliskiri ntchito ŵakumalizga * Kunozga maunandi (errors) * Kunozga katundu panyengo na panyengo [[File:Project Management (project control).png|thumb|240px|Ghanjo la kulaŵilira na kulongozga]] Pa chigaŵa ichi, [[auditor|ŵapimi ŵa maakaunti]] ŵakwenera kulaŵiska pa umo masuzgo gha ŵagwiliskiri ntchito ghakunozgekera mwaluŵiro na mwakwenelera. Mu mulimo uliwose wa chizengi, mumpaka wa ntchito ungasintha. Kusintha nkhwakuyana na kwakwenelera mu kachitiro ka chizengi. Masinthidwe ghangaŵa chifukwa cha kusintha kwa kusontha kwakukhumbikwa, kusintha kwa malo, kusangika kwa vinthu, masinthidwe ghakuchemeka na ŵazengi, unyanziri wa mtengo, na kukhwaskika na ŵanthu ŵachitatu. Kuluska kufiska kusintha uko, kusintha kanandi kukhumbikwa kulembeka kuti kulongore ivyo vyazengeka nadi. Ichi chikuchemeka ulamuliro wa kusintha (change management). Mwantheura, mwenecho kanandi wakhumba ukaboni wakumalizga wakulongora masinthidwe ghose. Chifumapo cha khama ili ni icho mu makampani ŵakuchema "as-built drawings". Kulembeka kwa vikalata vya chizengi ni ntchito yakuzirwa chomene iyo yikuchitika na wovwiri wa mapulogiramu gha pa kompyuta panji kupwelelera vikalata vya thupi. Usange masinthidwe ghasazgika mu mulimo, usambazi wa mulimo ukwenera kupimikaso. Nkhwakuzirwa kuleka kutaya chilato chakwamba cha mulimo. Usange masinthidwe ghasazgikana chomene, chifumapo icho chikulindizgika chingatondeka kulongora chifukwa cha chuma icho chikapelekeka pakwamba. Ulamuliro wa milimo uwemi ukumanya vigaŵa ivi, ndipo ukulondezga na kulaŵilira umo vinthu vikulutira, mwakuti mulimo ukhale mukati mwa nyengo na chuma icho chikapangika pakwamba kwa mulimo. ===Kumalizga=== [Image of the project closing process] [[File:Closing Process Group Processes.jpg|thumb|270px|Kachitiro ka gulu lakumalizga<ref name="VA03"/>]] Kumalizga kuli na kupokelera kwa boma kwa mulimo na kuumalizga. Milimo ya ulamuliro yikusazgapo kusungira vikalata (archiving) na kulemba masambiro agho yasambirika (lessons learned). Chigaŵa ichi chili na:<ref name="PMI 10"/> * '''Kumalizga pangano''': Malizgani na kunozga pangano lililose (kusazgapo kumalana na nkhani zilizose zambura kumala) na kumalizga pangano lililose lakukhwaska mulimo panji chigaŵa cha mulimo. * '''Kumalizga mulimo''': Malizgani milimo yose mu magulu ghose gha kachitiro kuti mulimo panji chigaŵa cha mulimo chimalizgike mwaboma. Chigaŵa ichi chikusazgapo kupimaso kwa pamanyuma pa kufiska mulimo (post-implementation review). Ichi ni chigaŵa chakuzirwa cha mulimo kuti gulu la mulimo lisambirepo pa ivyo vyachitika na kuvigwiliskira ntchito ku milimo ya nthazi. Kanandi kupima uku kuli na kulaŵiska pa vinthu ivyo vyenda makora na kupima vinthu ivyo vyenda uheni pa mulimo kuti pasangike masambiro. ===Ulongozgi wa mulimo na nthowa zake=== '''Ulongozgi wa mulimo''' ukufiska kachitiro kakusimikizga na kulongozga panyengo yakuchita mulimo kuti ukhalire pa kachitiro na vilato ivyo vili kulembeka.<ref>{{cite book|isbn=9783540434993|page=[https://archive.org/details/processmanagemen0000unse/page/27 27]|title=Process Management: A guide for the design of business processes |url=https://archive.org/details/processmanagemen0000unse|last1=Becker |first1=Jarg |last2=Kugeler |first2=Martin |last3=Rosemann |first3=Michael |year=2003 |publisher=Springer }}</ref> Ukwenera kukhazikika nga ni ntchito yakujiyimira payekha mu ulamuliro wa milimo. Ntchito yakukolerana ya [[cost engineering|unyanziri wa mtengo]] yikulaŵilira chomene ulamuliro wa mtengo wa mulimo. Milimo yinyake mu ulongozgi wa mulimo yikusazgapo: * kupanga vigaŵa vyakovwira pakupeleka uthenga wakwenelera na kuunozga * kukhazikiska nthowa ya kuyowoyeskana panyengo yakupambana pa vigaŵa vya mulimo * kukuza luso la uthenga la mulimo lakuthemba pa intranet panji kukhazikiska nthowa ya kupimira kachitiro ka mulimo (KPI) * kupima kupambana kwa vinthu na kupanga maghanoghano gha malango gha mulimo * kukhazikiska nthowa zakufiskira ndondomeko yakwenelera ya mulimo, kachitiro ka ntchito, ulongozgi, na ulamuliro * kupanga uthenga wambura kubisika pakati pa vigaŵa vya mulimo. Kufiskika kwa milimo iyi kungachitika mwa kugwiliskira ntchito nthowa na vilwero vya ulongozgi wa mulimo. Nthowa izi zikusazgapo: * kupima chuma (investment analysis) * kupima mtengo na chandulo (cost–benefit analysis) * kupima chandulo cha mtengo (value benefit analysis) * kafukufuku wa ŵanthu ŵaluso (expert surveys) * masamu gha chiyelezgero (simulation calculations) * kupima ngozi (risk-profile analysis) * kupima kwa vilingo (milestone trend analysis) * kupima mtengo (cost trend analysis) * kuyaniska pakati pa chilato na icho chachitika nadi. Ulongozgi wa mulimo ni chigaŵa cha mulimo icho chikuusunga pa nthowa, panyengo, na mukati mwa chuma.<ref name="JPL00"/> Ulongozgi ukwamba pakwamba kwa mulimo na kupanga ndondomeko ndipo ukumalira panyuma pa kufiska mulimo na kupimaso kwake. Milimo yingapimika (audited) apo mulimo ukulutilira. Kupima kwa boma kanandi kuli pa ngozi panji kukolerana na malango. Mulimo uliwose ukwenera kupimika usange ukukhumbikwa ulongozgi uli: ulongozgi unandi chomene ukutaya nyengo, ulongozgi uchoko chomene uli na ngozi yikulu. Nthowa za ulongozgi zikukhumbikwa pa mtengo, [[risk|ngozi]], khalidwe la ntchito, kuyowoyeskana, nyengo, kusintha, kaguliro ka vinthu, na ŵantchito. Kweniso, ŵapimi ŵa maakaunti ŵakwenera kulaŵiska pa umo milimo yiliri yakuzirwa ku vyakulembeka vya chuma, umo ŵeneco ŵa mulimo ŵakuthemera pa ulongozgi, na unandi wa ulongozgi uwo ulipo. ==Vimanyikwiro vya milimo== Pali vimanyikwiro vinkhondi vyakuzirwa vya mulimo: (i) Ukwenera kuŵa na mazuŵa ghakutemeka gha kuyambira na kumalizga. (ii) Ukuchitika na kumalizgika na gulu la ŵanthu. (iii) Chifumapo chake ni kupeleka kwa katundu panji uteŵeti wapadera. (iv) Ni wa kanyengo pera. (v) Ukukulirako na kulongosoreka m'mipata m'mipata. Viyelezgero ni: kusontha galimoto liphya panji kulemba buku. === Kusuzga kwa mulimo === [Image of the Cynefin framework] Kusuzga na kachitiro kake vili na ntchito yakuzirwa mu ulamuliro wa milimo. Nangauli pali kudumbiskana kunandi pa nkhani iyi, masambiro ghakulongora kusoŵa kwa kulongosora na kupulikiska makora kusuzga pa nkhani ya kusamalira milimo yakusuzga. Kusuzga kwa mulimo ni chimanyikwiro cha mulimo icho chikupangiska kuti kuŵe kwakusuzga kupulikiska, kuwonerera, na kusunga kachitiro kake kose, nanga pangaŵa uthenga wakukwana pa mulimo uwo. Kuzunula milimo yakusuzga nkhwakuzirwa chomene ku malo gha unyanziri gha milimo yinandi. Chifukwa chakuti kusuzga kwa mulimo na kachitiro kake vili vyakukolerana chomene, nkhwakuzirwa kulongosora na kupima kusuzga kwa mulimo kuti ulamuliro uŵe uwemi. Kusuzga kungachitika mu nthowa izi: * Kusuzga kwa ndondomeko (structural complexity): kuli na vigaŵa vinandi vyakupambana ivyo vili vyakukolerana. Kanandi vikusazgapo unandi, mitundu, na umo vigaŵa vya mulimo vikuthemerana. * Kusuzga kwa kachitiro (dynamic complexity): kuli na vinthu nga ni kukayika, kusintha, na kavuluvulu. Kuyana na '''Cynefin framework''', milimo yakusuzga yingagaŵika mu: [[File:Simple, complicated, complex, and really complex projects.png|thumb|Milimo yambura kusuzga, yakusuzga panji, yakusuzga chomene, na ya kavuluvulu - kuyana na Cynefin framework]] * '''Yambura kusuzga''' (simple/clear): Vinthu vikumanyikwa kale, vili vyakukhazikika, ndipo chifukwa na chifumapo vili vyambura kubisika. Yingamalizgika na malango gha mazuŵa ghose na nthowa ziwemi. * '''Yakusuzga panji''' (complicated): Vinthu vinyake vikumanyikwa yayi kweni vingaŵako. Mulimo uwu ungagaŵika mu vigaŵa vichoko vyambura kusuzga. Ungamalizgika na ŵanthu ŵaluso, kupima, na kugaŵa vigaŵa. * '''Yakusuzga''' (complex): Vinthu vinandi vikumanyikwa yayi, ndipo kachitiro kake kakuzizwa. Chifumapo chake ni chikuru kuluska kusazga kwa vigaŵa vyake. * '''Yakusuzga chomene''' (chaotic): Vinthu vikumanyikwa yayi nalo. Palije nthowa iyo yikuwoneka poyera. Chifukwa na chifumapo vili vyambura kumanyikwa nanga pangaŵa panyuma pakuchita. Pakugwiliskira ntchito kupima kusuzga kwa ntchito, Elliott Jaques wakugaŵa milimo na ntchito ya mulimo mu vigaŵa vinkhondi na viŵiri vya kusuzga kwa mulimo kuyana na utali wa nyengo na kusuzga kwa chifumapo cha mulimo. Vyandulo kufuma mu kupima Kusuzga kwa Mulimo ni kunozga mwaŵi wa ŵanthu pakupeleka nyengo yakwenelera ya kumalizga mulimo, pamoza na luso lakwenelera la mulaŵiliri wa mulimo na gulu lake. === Kusuzga kuwemi, kwakwenelera, na kuheni === [[File:Positive complexity.png|thumb|Nthowa ya kusuzga kuwemi, kwakwenelera na kuheni iyo yikapelekeka na Stefan Morcov]] Mwakuyanako na malango gha kusuzga kwakukhumbikwa, kusuzga kwa mulimo nyengo zinyake kukukhumbikwa kuti mulimo ufiske vilato vyake, ndipo nyengo zinyake kukuŵa na vyandulo viwemi. Kuyana na ivyo kusuzga kukupangiska, Stefan Morcov wakayowoya kuti kugaŵika mu Kuwemi, Kwakwenelera, panji Kuheni. * '''Kusuzga kuwemi''' ni kusuzga uko kukusazgirapo mtengo ku mulimo, ndipo chandulo chake ku kufiskika kwa mulimo ni chikuru kuluska vinthu viheni ivyo vikuchitika. * '''Kusuzga kwakwenelera''' (requisite) ni kusuzga uko kukhumbikwa kuti mulimo ufiske vilato vyake, panji uko chandulo chake chikuyana na vinthu viheni, panji mtengo wakunozgera vinthu viheni ni ukuru kuluska kusuzga uko. * '''Kusuzga kuheni''' ni kusuzga uko kukukandizga kufiskika kwa mulimo. == Ŵalaŵiliri ŵa milimo == [[Project manager|Mulaŵiliri wa mulimo]] ni munthu uyo wali na luso mu ulamuliro wa milimo. Vigaŵa vinandi vya kupanga vinthu, unyanziri wa kusontha, na unyanziri wa mafakitale vili na ŵalaŵiliri ŵa milimo. == Kufiskika kwa mulimo pakuyaniska na kachitiro ka ulamuliro == Pali nthowa ya kutimbanya kufiskika kwa mulimo na kufiskika kwa ulamuliro wa mulimo. Kufiskika kwa mulimo kuli na mawonero ghaŵiri: * mawonero gha kachitiro, i.e. kupeleka vyakufumapo vyakwenelera; ichi chikuchemeka kachitiro ka ulamuliro wa mulimo panji ukhondo wa mulimo. * mawonero gha chifumapo, i.e. kupeleka vyandulo viwemi; ichi chikuchemeka kachitiro ka mulimo (panji nyengo zinyake kufiskika kwa mulimo). Vilingo vya kufiskika kwa ulamuliro wa mulimo vili vyakupambana na vilingo vya kufiskika kwa mulimo. Ulamuliro wa mulimo ukuchemeka wakufiskika usange mulimo uwo wapika wamalizgika mukati mwa nyengo iyo yikazomerezgeka, wafiska mumpaka uwo ukazomerezgeka na kuŵa mukati mwa chuma icho chikazomerezgeka. Vilingo vyakuzirwa vikusida vyandulo vyakuzirwa vya pamanyuma pa kumalizga mulimo ivyo vili na vigaŵa vinayi: chifumapo (katundu), chandulo (outcomes), na kukhwaskika kwa nthazi (impact) panyengo ya umoyo wa katundu uyo. Vilingo vya pamanyuma ivi vikulongora kachitiro ka katundu wa mulimo, uteŵeti panji chifumapo, panyuma pa kumalizga mulimo na kuupeleka. Mu mazgu ghamanyaka, mulimo ukuchemeka wakufiskika, usange wafiska vilato vya bizinesi ivyo vikazunulika pakwamba kwa mulimo. ===Ulamuliro wa Ngozi=== [Image of project risk assessment matrix] Dipatimenti ya Uvikiliro ya ku United States yikunena kuti "Mtengo, Mndandanda wa Nyengo, Kachitiro, na Ngozi" ni vinthu vinayi ivyo ŵanthu ŵaluso mu kaguliro ka vinthu (procurement) ŵakulaŵiska na kuyaniska pakulondezga umo pulogiramu yiliri.<ref>{{cite web|title=DoDD 5000.01|url=http://www.dtic.mil/whs/directives/corres/pdf/500001p.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090825031855/http://www.dtic.mil/whs/directives/corres/pdf/500001p.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=August 25, 2009|publisher=United States Department of Defense|access-date=20 November 2007}}</ref> Paliso vilingo vya vyaru vyose (international standards). Ulamuliro wa ngozi ukugwiliskira ntchito nthowa ya kuzunula masuzgo gha nthazi na kupulikiska ivyo vingachitika kuti patoleke vyakusankha vyakovwira pa milimo. Nthowa ya ulamuliro wa ngozi mu kampani (ERM) nayo yili na ntchito ikuru mu ulamuliro wa ngozi wose. ===Ndondomeko ya kugaŵira ntchito na zinyake=== '''Ndondomeko ya kugaŵira ntchito''' (WBS) ni ndondomeko yakukolerana iyo yikulongora umo milimo yakukhumbikwa pakufiska chilato yikugaŵikira mu vigaŵa vichoko – chiyelezgero pa mndandanda wa milimo (portfolio), pulogiramu, mulimo, na pangano. WBS yingalaŵiska pa katundu, uteŵeti, panji kachitiro ka bizinesi (wonani chiyelezgero mu [[File:NASA NF 533 reporting structure.jpg|ndondomeko ya lipoti ya NASA (2001)]]).<ref name="NASA01">[http://nodis3.gsfc.nasa.gov/displayDir.cfm?Internal_ID=N_PR_9501_002D_&page_name=Chp2&format=PDF NASA NPR 9501.2D]. May 23, 2001.</ref> Padera pa WBS ya kusamalira mumpaka wa mulimo, paliso ndondomeko ya kugaŵira gulu (OBS), ndondomeko ya kugaŵira mtengo (CBS), na ndondomeko ya kugaŵira ngozi (RBS). WBS yingapangika pakuyambira na chilato chakumalizga na kuchigaŵira m’mipata yakwenelera kuyana na ukulu, nyengo, na udindo (chiyelezgero: nthowa zikuru, vigaŵa vya nthowa, milimo, na vigaŵa vya milimo), ivyo vikusazgapo masitepu ghose ghakukhumbikwa kufiska chilato.<ref name="Stellman05"/> Ndondomeko iyi yikupeleka chimango chakukolerana pakupeleka ndondomeko yose na ulongozgi wa pangano, ndipo ni fawundeshoni ya kugaŵa ntchito mu vigaŵa vyakumanyikwa apo pangano la ntchito lingapangikira na malipoti gha luso, nyengo, mtengo, na maora gha ntchito kukhazikika. Ichi ni chigaŵa chakuzirwa chomene pakupima usange ndondomeko njiwemi, ndipo ni chinthu chakwamba icho chikugwiriskira ntchito panyengo yakunozgera mulimo. Chiyelezgero, WBS yikugwiriskira ntchito panyengo iyo mndandanda wa nyengo ya mulimo ukupangika, mwakuti kagwiliskiridwe ntchito ka vigaŵa vya ntchito kakhalire mu vyakulembeka. Kuyana na ndondomeko ya kugaŵira ntchito (WBS), nthowa zinyake zakugaŵira ni: ndondomeko ya kugaŵira gulu (OBS), ndondomeko ya kugaŵira katundu (PBS), ndondomeko ya kugaŵira mtengo (CBS), ndondomeko ya kugaŵira ngozi (RBS), na ndondomeko ya kugaŵira vyakugwiliskira ntchito (ResBS). ===Vilingo vya vyaru vyose=== Pali vilingo vinandi vya ulamuliro wa milimo, kusazgapo: * Vilingo vya ISO nga ni [[ISO 9000]] vya ulamuliro wa khalidwe la ntchito, na [[ISO 10006]]:2003. * [[ISO 21500]]:2012 – ''Ulongozgi pa ulamuliro wa milimo''. Ichi chikaŵa chilingo chakwamba cha vyaru vyose chakukhwaska ulamuliro wa milimo icho chikafumiskika na ISO. * ISO 21502:2020, ISO 21503:2022 (Ulongozgi wa mapulogiramu), na ISO 21504:2015 (Ulongozgi wa mndandanda wa milimo). * [[ISO 31000]]:2009 – Ulamuliro wa ngozi. * Individual Competence Baseline (ICB) kufuma ku International Project Management Association (IPMA). * [[Capability Maturity Model]] (CMM) kufuma ku Software Engineering Institute. * [[PMBOK Guide]] kufuma ku Project Management Institute (PMI). * [[PRINCE2]] kufuma ku AXELOS. * PM²: Nthowa ya ulamuliro wa milimo iyo yikapangika na European Commission. ===Ulamuliro wa mapulogiramu na nthowa za milimo=== Milimo yinyake, nanga yingaŵa yakuyana panji yakupambana, yingalaŵilirika nga ni ulamuliro wa mapulogiramu. Mapulogiramu ni mndandanda wa milimo iyo yikovwira chilato chimoza. Apo milimo yiliyose yili na mumpaka na nyengo yakumanyikwa, chilato cha pulogiramu chikulongosoreka mu nthowa yakufatuka panji. Kusazgapo pa mapulogiramu na mndandanda wa milimo (portfolios), paliso nthowa zinyake nga ni: nthowa za milimo (project networks), milimo yakuru (mega-projects), panji mapulogiramu ghakuru (mega-programs). Milimo yakuru iyi yikuzunulika kuti njapadera chomene pa ukulu, mtengo, na luso lwakukhumbikwa. ===Ulamuliro wa mndandanda wa milimo=== Makampani ghanandi ghakugwiliskira ntchito icho chikuchemeka [[project portfolio management]] (PPM) nga ni nthowa yakusankhira milimo yakwenelera na kugwiliskira ntchito luso la ulamuliro wa milimo pakupeleka vyandulo ku ŵanthu panji mabungwe. Mndandanda wa milimo (portfolios) ni mndandanda wa milimo yakuyana. Ulamuliro wa mndandanda vikovwira kuti vinthu vyende makora na kuchepeska ngozi mwa kugwiliskira ntchito nthowa zakuyana pa milimo yose. Kanandi makampani ghakupanga maofesi gha ulamuliro wa milimo (PMO) kuti ghasamalire mndandanda uwu mu nthowa yakunozgeka. ===Mapulogiramu gha ulamuliro wa milimo=== '''Mapulogiramu gha ulamuliro wa milimo''' (software) ni mapulogiramu gha mu kompyuta agho ghakovwira pakupanga ndondomeko, kunozga, na kulaŵilira vyakugwiliskira ntchito, na kufiska mapulani. Kuyana na umo pulogiramu yiliri, yingasazgapo kupima mtengo, mndandanda wa nyengo, ulongozgi wa chuma, kugaŵira ŵantchito, kuyowoyeskana, na ulamuliro wa vikalata. [[Comparison of project management software|Kuyaniska kwa mapulogiramu agha]] kukulongora vimanyikwiro vyakupambana ivyo vili mu mapulogiramu ghakupambana. ===Ulamuliro wa milimo wa pa nthazi=== Ulamuliro wa milimo wa pa nthazi (VPM) ni ulamuliro wa mulimo uwo ukuchitika na gulu lakutali (virtual team). Kulaŵilira mulimo wa pa nthazi nkhwakupambana chomene na milimo ya mazuŵa ghose, chifukwa kukusazgapo nkhani za ntchito ya kutali, kukolerana kwa vyaru na vyaru (mitheto, nyengo yakupambana, na viyowoyero). --- ==Wonaniso== * [[Construction management]] (Ulamuliro wa chizengi) * [[Cost engineering]] (Unyanziri wa mtengo) * [[Software project management]] (Ulamuliro wa milimo ya mapulogiramu) * [[Systems engineering]] (Unyanziri wa nthowa) * [[Kickoff meeting]] (Ungano wa kuyambiska) * [[Glossary of project management]] (Mndandanda wa mazgu gha ulamuliro wa milimo) ==Vyakunozgera== {{Reflist|30em}} 57nehkv20g6vj92hd5mh4apk1389r3s 3 47402 119253 119217 2026-08-13T12:36:22Z Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi 11606 119253 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Archives}} == Wow == @[[User:Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi|Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi]] Greetings, wow, muli makola? I am super impressed by your work here. It's good to see you here and can't imagine how happy I am to see someone editing here. Yewo chomene. Chonde pitilizgani kuchita ntchito iwemi iyi. And again, welcome :). [[user:Tumbuka Arch|<span style='color: #FFFFFF;background-color: #191970;'>'''''Tumbuka Arch'''''</span>]][[user talk:Tumbuka Arch|'''<span style='color: #B20000;background-color: #FFFFFF;'>^★_★^★</span>''']] 23:43, 22 Meyi 2026 (UTC) :Forgot to mention your English Wikipedia work also, amazing! [[user:Tumbuka Arch|<span style='color: #FFFFFF;background-color: #191970;'>'''''Tumbuka Arch'''''</span>]][[user talk:Tumbuka Arch|'''<span style='color: #B20000;background-color: #FFFFFF;'>^★_★^★</span>''']] 23:44, 22 Meyi 2026 (UTC) ::Hi, would you mind linking the page [[Palau]] to https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q695, since I cannot yet. Thank you so much! [[User:Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi|Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi]] ([[User talk:Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi|pakuchezgela]]) 01:11, 23 Meyi 2026 (UTC) == Chonde ikani "Email" == Hi, please add email. If you use from a new device or location, you may be locked out forever with no means of retrieving your account. Email helps with password resets, private emails, etc. Yewo chomene. [[user:Tumbuka Arch|<span style='color: #FFFFFF;background-color: #191970;'>'''''Tumbuka Arch'''''</span>]][[user talk:Tumbuka Arch|'''<span style='color: #B20000;background-color: #FFFFFF;'>^★_★^★</span>''']] 00:01, 23 Meyi 2026 (UTC) :Thank you. I am also letting you know the articles I am creating are very very short. I am planning on expanding them all soon, when I get more info. Thanks! [[User:Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi|Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi]] ([[User talk:Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi|pakuchezgela]]) 01:07, 23 Meyi 2026 (UTC) :I don't have a email yet, I am from Mozambique and I only just moved to Australia and are trying to set an email. Thanks. [[User:Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi|Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi]] ([[User talk:Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi|pakuchezgela]]) 01:10, 23 Meyi 2026 (UTC) ::@[[User:Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi|Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi]], please can you make a temporary email and link it to this account. Thank you. [[user:Tumbuka Arch|<span style='color: #FFFFFF;background-color: #191970;'>'''''Tumbuka Arch'''''</span>]][[user talk:Tumbuka Arch|'''<span style='color: #B20000;background-color: #FFFFFF;'>^★_★^★</span>''']] 13:16, 19 Julayi 2026 (UTC) :::I will look into it. Thanks. [[User:Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi|Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi]] ([[User talk:Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi|pakuchezgela]]) 12:27, 21 Julayi 2026 (UTC) == Join Wikimedia Community User Group Malawi == Hello @[[User:Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi|Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi]], '''Wikimedia Community User Group Malawi''' welcomes Wikimedia contributors from Malawi and contributors interested in Malawi-related knowledge to participate in building a stronger Wikimedia community. We invite contributors from Tumbuka, English and Chewa Wikipedias, Wikimedia Commons, Wikidata, and other Wikimedia projects to become participating members of the community. If you would like to participate: # Visit the [[:Meta:Wikimedia_Community_Malawi/Founding_and_Participating|Founding and Participating Members]] page. # Open the '''Participating members''' section directly: [[:Meta:Wikimedia_Community_Malawi/Founding_and_Participating#List_of_participants]] # Add your Wikimedia username under the list of participating members. # Sign your entry by adding <nowiki>#~~~~</nowiki> after your username. Your participation will help strengthen Wikimedia projects in Malawi, including Wikipedia, Wikimedia Commons, Wikidata, and Malawian language content. Participants may contribute to community discussions, outreach activities, edit-a-thons, language projects, cultural documentation, and other free knowledge initiatives. Everyone interested in creating, improving, and sharing free knowledge is welcome to participate. Thank you. [[user:Tumbuka Arch|<span style='color: #FFFFFF;background-color: #191970;'>'''''Tumbuka Arch'''''</span>]][[user talk:Tumbuka Arch|'''<span style='color: #B20000;background-color: #FFFFFF;'>^★_★^★</span>''']] 14:07, 19 Julayi 2026 (UTC) :@[[User:Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi|Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi]] thanks. And here too: https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Community_User_Group_Malawi/Founding_and_Participating [[user:Tumbuka Arch|<span style='color: #FFFFFF;background-color: #191970;'>'''''Tumbuka Arch'''''</span>]][[user talk:Tumbuka Arch|'''<span style='color: #B20000;background-color: #FFFFFF;'>^★_★^★</span>''']] 08:20, 20 Julayi 2026 (UTC) ::Of course, anytime! Nyengo zose nkhukondwa kutorapo mbali. '''''[[User:Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi|Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi]]'''''[[User talk:Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi|'''<span style='color: #00008b;background-color: #FFFFFF;'>_★^★_★</span>''']] 12:35, 21 Julayi 2026 (UTC) == Admin flag == @[[User:Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi|Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi]] Hi, I would like to nominate you as an admin so that you move some pages without leaving a redirect, import templates, delete pages that you would consider not useful, protect pages, etc. Let me know if it is okay with you. Yewo chomene. [[user:Tumbuka Arch|<span style='color: #FFFFFF;background-color: #191970;'>'''''Tumbuka Arch'''''</span>]][[user talk:Tumbuka Arch|'''<span style='color: #B20000;background-color: #FFFFFF;'>^★_★^★</span>''']] 15:14, 21 Julayi 2026 (UTC) :I would love that, thanks. Completely ok. However, I am a bit worried I am too new to be an admin. Anyways, thank you so much. Yewo chomene. '''''[[User:Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi|Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi]]'''''[[User talk:Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi|'''<span style='color: #00008b;background-color: #FFFFFF;'>_★^★_★</span>''']] 00:05, 22 Julayi 2026 (UTC) ::@[[User:Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi|Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi]] if you are nervous about that, then take your time. At least notify when you will need it after couple of months. [[user:Tumbuka Arch|<span style='color: #FFFFFF;background-color: #191970;'>'''''Tumbuka Arch'''''</span>]][[user talk:Tumbuka Arch|'''<span style='color: #B20000;background-color: #FFFFFF;'>^★_★^★</span>''']] 10:07, 23 Julayi 2026 (UTC) == Lets wake up Tumbuka Wiktionary == @[[User:Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi|Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi]] Can we please wake this project up? It has been almost 4 years now and it is not yet ready. It only needs few entries to get going. 10 entries from you, me and the lest of other editors then it will be published. We already requested it [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Requests_for_new_languages/Wiktionary_Tumbuka here], the main page is [https://incubator.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wt/tum/Jani_likulu here]. This how its articles [https://incubator.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wt/tum/Malawi look like here], and others are on main page. If it has some entries, I will then post on Meta. See last time I posted there and what the response [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Talk:Language_committee/2024#Request_for_Approval_of_Tumbuka_Wiktionary was this]. Thanks. [[user:Tumbuka Arch|<span style='color: #FFFFFF;background-color: #191970;'>'''''Tumbuka Arch'''''</span>]][[user talk:Tumbuka Arch|'''<span style='color: #B20000;background-color: #FFFFFF;'>^★_★^★</span>''']] 17:35, 21 Julayi 2026 (UTC) :One issue - I do not have an interest in actively expanding a Wiktionary. My main focus is Wikipedia, unfortunately. '''''[[User:Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi|Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi]]'''''[[User talk:Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi|'''<span style='color: #00008b;background-color: #FFFFFF;'>_★^★_★</span>''']] 00:04, 22 Julayi 2026 (UTC) ::@[[User:Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi|Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi]] Great! [[user:Tumbuka Arch|<span style='color: #FFFFFF;background-color: #191970;'>'''''Tumbuka Arch'''''</span>]][[user talk:Tumbuka Arch|'''<span style='color: #B20000;background-color: #FFFFFF;'>^★_★^★</span>''']] 10:05, 23 Julayi 2026 (UTC) == Translation notification: Event:Open Heritage-Wikidata Contest == Hello Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi, You are receiving this notification because you signed up as a translator to chiTumbuka on Meta-Wiki. The page [[:metawikipedia:Event:Open Heritage-Wikidata Contest|Event:Open Heritage-Wikidata Contest]] is available for translation. You can translate it here: * [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&group=page-Event%3AOpen+Heritage-Wikidata+Contest&language=tum&action=page&action_source=translation_notification translate to chiTumbuka] The priority of this page is medium. The deadline for translating this page is 2026-08-15. <div lang="en" class="mw-content-ltr">Hello, We are looking forward to translating this page. We highly appreciate your support Best</div> Your help is greatly appreciated. Translators like you help Meta-Wiki to function as a truly multilingual community. To unsubscribe or to change your notification preferences for translations, please visit [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:TranslatorSignup Special:TranslatorSignup]. Thank you! Meta-Wiki translation coordinators‎, 18:54, 10 Ogasiti 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:SanBonne@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:NotifyTranslators --> g71sz3ds3zetndbqwm0058137rt8hsg 119255 119253 2026-08-13T12:38:02Z Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi 11606 Replaced content with "{{Archives}}" 119255 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Archives}} m21jk90jbbpksm9c6cybkhntm9dybv3 0 47765 119321 118886 2026-08-13T22:49:27Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260813sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 119321 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Mulara wa charu na boma la United States}} {{Hatnote group| {{For-multi|list ya mapulezidenti ŵa United States|List of presidents of the United States}} {{Other uses}} }} {{Pp-move}} {{Pp-extended|small=yes}} {{Use American English|date=March 2021}} {{Use mdy dates|date=September 2022}} {{Infobox official post | post = Mulara | body = wa United States | insignia = Seal Of The President Of The United States Of America.svg | insigniasize = 145 | insigniacaption = [[Seal of the president of the United States|Chidindo cha pulezidenti]] | flag = Flag of the President of the United States of America.svg | flagsize = 145 | flagborder = yes | flagcaption = [[Flag of the president of the United States|Mbendera ya pulezidenti]] | image = Official Presidential Portrait of President Donald J. Trump (2025) (cropped)(2).jpg | incumbent = [[Donald Trump]] | incumbentsince = January 20, 2025 | department = {{plainlist| * [[Executive branch of the U.S. government]] * [[Executive Office of the President]] }} | style = {{plainlist| * [[President (government title)|Mulara wa boma]]<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1891/08/02/archives/how-to-address-the-president-he-is-not-your-excellency-or-your.html |agency=The Washington Star |title=How to Address the President; He Is Not Your Excellency or Your Honor, But Mr. President |date=August 2, 1891 |newspaper=The New York Times |url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.usgs.gov/usgs-manual/handbook/hb/431-2-h/chap4.html |title=USGS Correspondence Handbook—Chapter 4 |date=July 18, 2007 |publisher=United States Geological Survey |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120926000950/http://www.usgs.gov/usgs-manual/handbook/hb/431-2-h/chap4.html |archive-date=September 26, 2012 |access-date=November 15, 2012}}</ref> (mwakawiro) * [[The Honourable#United States|Mweneko]]<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.ita.doc.gov/ita_sec/Address%20and%20Salutation.htm |title=Models of Address and Salutation |publisher=[[International Trade Administration]] |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100720073107/http://www.ita.doc.gov/ita_sec/Address%20and%20Salutation.htm |archive-date=July 20, 2010 |access-date=September 4, 2010 }}</ref> (mwakuzirwika) * [[Excellency|Mwenekeso]]<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120927014351/http://www.un.int/protocol/documents/Hspmfm.pdf "Heads of State, Heads of Government, Ministers for Foreign Affairs"], Protocol and Liaison Service, [[United Nations]]. Retrieved November 1, 2012.</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/2010/09/01/remarks-president-obama-president-mubarak-his-majesty-king-abdullah-prim |title=Remarks by President Obama, President Mubarak, His Majesty King Abdullah, Prime Minister Netanyahu and President Abbas Before Working Dinner |last=The White House Office of the Press Secretary |date=September 1, 2010 |publisher=[[National Archives and Records Administration]] |via=White House |access-date=July 19, 2011}}</ref> (pa vyakukhwaskana na vyalo) }} | type = {{plainlist| * [[Head of state]] * [[Head of government]] * [[Commander-in-chief]] }} | abbreviation = POTUS | member_of = {{plainlist| * [[Cabinet of the United States|Cabinet]] * [[United States Domestic Policy Council|Domestic Policy Council]] * [[National Economic Council (United States)|National Economic Council]] * [[United States National Security Council|National Security Council]] }} | residence = [[White House]] | seat = [[Washington, D.C.]] | appointer = [[United States Electoral College|Electoral College]] panji kwizira mu kulondeka | termlength = Vyaka vinayi | termlength_qualified = ([[Twenty-second Amendment to the United States Constitution|wakusazgikaso kamoza pera]]) | constituting_instrument = [[Constitution of the United States]] (1789) | succession = [[United States presidential line of succession|Mndandanda wa ŵakusazgapo]] | formation = {{start date and age|1789|3|4|p=1|br=1}}<ref name="formation">"The conventions of nine states having adopted the Constitution, Congress, in September or October, 1788, passed a resolution in conformity with the opinions expressed by the Convention and appointed the first Wednesday in March of the ensuing year as the day, and the then seat of Congress as the place, 'for commencing proceedings under the Constitution.' <p>"Both governments could not be understood to exist at the same time. The new government did not commence until the old government expired. It is apparent that the government did not commence on the Constitution's being ratified by the ninth state, for these ratifications were to be reported to Congress, whose continuing existence was recognized by the Convention, and who were requested to continue to exercise their powers for the purpose of bringing the new government into operation. In fact, Congress did continue to act as a government until it dissolved on the first of November by the successive disappearance of its members. It existed potentially until March 2, the day preceding that on which the members of the new Congress were directed to assemble." {{ussc|name=Owings v. Speed|link=supreme.justia.com|volume=18|page=420|pin=422|year=1820|reporter=Wheat|reporter-volume=5}}</p></ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Maier |first=Pauline |title=Ratification: The People Debate the Constitution, 1787–1788 |url=https://archive.org/details/ratificationpeop00paul |date=2010 |publisher=Simon & Schuster |isbn=978-0-684-86854-7 |location=New York, New York |page=[https://archive.org/details/ratificationpeop00paul/page/433 433] |author-link=Pauline Maier}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://constitutioncenter.org/blog/march-4-a-forgotten-huge-day-in-american-politics/ |title=March 4: A forgotten huge day in American history |date=March 4, 2013 |publisher=[[National Constitution Center]] |access-date=July 29, 2018 |archive-date=February 24, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180224184927/https://constitutioncenter.org/blog/march-4-a-forgotten-huge-day-in-american-politics |url-status=dead }}</ref> | first = [[George Washington]]<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.mountvernon.org/library/digitalhistory/digital-encyclopedia/article/presidential-election-of-1789/ |title=Presidential Election of 1789 |publisher=Mount Vernon Ladies' Association |access-date=July 29, 2018}}</ref> | salary = $400,000 pa chaka{{efn|In addition to $100,000 in travel reimbursement, $19,000 for entertainment and $50,000 for additional expenses.<ref name="cnbc">{{Cite news |last=Elkins |first=Kathleen |date=February 19, 2018 |title=Here's the last time the president of the United States got a raise |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2018/02/16/how-much-the-president-on-the-united-states-gets-paid.html |access-date=October 22, 2025 |agency=[[CNBC]]}}</ref>}} | website = {{URL|https://www.whitehouse.gov/|whitehouse.gov}} }} {{Politics of the United States}} {{United States constitutional law}} The '''pulezidenti<!--"pulezidenti" is uncapitalized as per [[MOS:JOBTITLES]]. Specifically, it is uncapitalized because it is preceded by the modifier "the" (see [[MOS:JOBTITLES]] bullet 3 and table column 2 example 1)--> wa United States''' ('''POTUS'''){{efn|Lizgu lakuti POTUS likambira mu [[Phillips Code]], nthowa yakulemba mwakudumura iyo yikapangika mu 1879 na [[Walter P. Phillips]] kuti yithandizge kutumiza mwaluŵiro malipoti gha manyuzipepala kwizira pa telegraph.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Safire |first=William |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=q6ARDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA564 |title=Safire's Political Dictionary |date=2008 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-534061-7 |page=564}}</ref>}} ni [[head of state|mulongozgi wa charu]] na [[head of government|mulongozgi wa boma]] wa [[United States]]. Pulezidenti wakulongozga [[Federal government of the United States#Executive branch|nthambi yakulongozga]] ya [[Federal government of the United States|boma la federo]] ndipo ni [[Powers of the president of the United States#Commander-in-chief|mulara mukuru]] wa [[United States Armed Forces]]. Nkhongono za upulezidenti zikasazgikira<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ford|first=Henry Jones|date=1908|title=The Influence of State Politics in Expanding Federal Power|journal=Proceedings of the American Political Science Association|volume=5|pages=53–63|doi=10.2307/3038511|jstor=3038511| issn=1520-8605}}</ref> kufuma apo pulezidenti wakwamba, [[George Washington]], wakambira uteŵeti mu 1789.<ref name=formation /> Nangauli nkhongono za pulezidenti zikakwera na kuchepa nyengo na nyengo, upulezidenti wakhala na ntchito yikuru mu ndyali za America kufuma kwamba kwa vyaka vya m'ma 20, ndipo vikulutilira mu vyaka vya m'ma 21 na kuŵa na kusazgikira kwa nkhongono mu maulamuliro gha [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] na [[George W. Bush]].<ref>{{Cite magazine |date=September 11, 2021 |title=How 9/11 Radically Expanded The Power of the U.S. Government |url=https://time.com/6096903/september-11-legal-history/ |access-date=September 29, 2023 |magazine=Time}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Peterson |first=Erin |title=Presidential Power Surges |url=https://hls.harvard.edu/today/presidential-power-surges/ |access-date=September 29, 2023 |publisher=Harvard Law School}}</ref> Mu vyaka vya m'ma 21, pulezidenti ni yumoza wa ŵanthu ŵankhongono chomene mu ndyali pa charu chose ndipo ni mulongozgi wa [[superpower|charu chankhongono]].<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://time.com/4657665/steve-bannon-donald-trump/|title=Is Steve Bannon the Second Most Powerful Man in the World?|last=Von Drehle|first=David|date=February 2, 2017|magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2008/jan/03/uselections2008.world|title=Who should be the world's most powerful person?|date=January 3, 2008|newspaper=The Guardian}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.newsweek.com/meacham-history-power-83117|title=Meacham: The History of Power|last=Meacham|first=Jon|date=December 20, 2008|magazine=[[Newsweek]]|access-date=September 4, 2010}}</ref> Pakuŵa mulongozgi wa charu icho chili na [[List of countries by GDP (nominal)|chuma chikuru chomene pa GDP yakuyana waka]], pulezidenti wali na nkhongono zikuru za mu charu na zakuwaro, zakuchema kuti [[Hard power|nkhongono zakukhora]] na [[soft power|nkhongono zakuzika]]. Kwa nyengo yitali mu vyaka vya m'ma 20, chomenechomene mu nyengo ya [[Cold War]], pulezidenti wa United States kanandi wakachemekanga kuti "mulongozgi wa charu chaufulu".<ref name="freeworld">{{cite web |last1=Tierney |first1=Dominic |title=What Does It Mean That Trump Is 'Leader of the Free World'? |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2017/01/trump-free-world-leader/514232/ |magazine=The Atlantic |date=January 24, 2017}}</ref> [[Article Two of the United States Constitution|Ndime Yachiŵiri ya Dango la United States]] yikakhazikiska nthambi yakulongozga ya boma la federo ndipo yikapeleka nkhongono zakulongozga kwa pulezidenti. Nkhongono izi zikusazgapo kusazga na kukhazikiska malango gha federo na udindo wa kusankha ŵalara ŵa boma, ŵa vyakuyana na vyalo, ŵa maofesi gha malango, na ŵa makhoti. Kwizira mu ndondomeko za dango izo zikapeleka kwa pulezidenti nkhongono zakusankha na kupokelera ŵa kazembe na kupanga mapangano na vyaru vinyake, kweniso malango agho ghakazomerezgeka na Congress, upulezidenti wa mazuŵa ghano uli na udindo ukuru pa ndyali zakuwaro za United States. Udindo uwu ukusazgapo kulongozga gulu lankhondo lakudura chomene pa charu chose, ilo lili na [[List of states with nuclear weapons|vyankhondo vya nyukiliya vinandi chomene pa charu chachiŵiri]]. Pulezidenti wakuchitapo kanthu kukuru pa malango gha federo na ndondomeko za mu charu. Mu ndondomeko ya [[Separation of powers under the United States Constitution|kupatukana kwa nkhongono]], [[Article One of the United States Constitution#Section 7: Bills|Ndime Yakwamba, Gawo 7]] la Dango likumupa pulezidenti nkhongono zakusaina panji [[Veto power in the United States|kukana]] malango gha federo. Pakuti mapulezidenti ŵa mazuŵa ghano ŵakuwoneka nga mbalongozgi ŵa vyipani vyawo vya ndyali, kupanga ndondomeko zikuru kukwenera chomene na ivyo vikuchitika pa visola vya pulezidenti, ndipo mapulezidenti ŵakuchitapo kanthu kulimbikiska ivyo ŵakukhumba mu ŵabali ŵa Congress awo kanandi ŵakuthemba pa pulezidenti pa nkhani za visola.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Pfiffner |first=J. P. |year=1988 |title=The President's Legislative Agenda |journal=Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science |volume=499 |pages=22–35 |doi=10.1177/0002716288499001002 |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0002716288499001002 |s2cid=143985489 |url-access=subscription }}</ref> Mu nyengo yasono, mapulezidenti ŵasazgirapo kugwiliskira ntchito [[executive order]]s, malango gha maofesi, na kusankha ŵeruzgi kuti ŵakhwaskenge ndondomeko za mu charu. Pulezidenti wakusankhika kwizira mu [[United States Electoral College|Electoral College]] kuŵa na nyengo ya vyaka vinayi, pamoza na [[Vice President of the United States|vice president]]. Kwizira mu [[Twenty-second Amendment to the United States Constitution|Kusintha kwa Dango kwa Makumi Aŵiri na Viŵiri]], uko kukazomerezgeka mu 1951, munthu uyo wasankhika kuŵa pulezidenti maulendo ghaŵiri wangasankhikaso yayi kuŵa pulezidenti ulendo wachitatu. Kweniso, ma vice president 9 ŵakazgoka mapulezidenti chifukwa cha [[List of presidents of the United States who died in office|nyifwa ya pulezidenti mu nyengo ya uteŵeti]] panji [[Richard Nixon's resignation speech|kuleka ntchito]].{{efn|Ma vice president 9 awo ŵakatora udindo wa upulezidenti pamanyuma pa nyifwa panji kuleka ntchito kwa pulezidenti wakale ndipo ŵakamalizga nyengo yake ni: [[John Tyler]] (1841); [[Millard Fillmore]] (1850); [[Andrew Johnson]] (1865); [[Chester A. Arthur]] (1881); [[Theodore Roosevelt]] (1901); [[Calvin Coolidge]] (1923); [[Harry S. Truman]] (1945); [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] (1963); na [[Gerald Ford]] (1974).}} Pakuŵa na wose, [[List of presidents of the United States|ŵanthu 45]] ŵateŵetera, panji ŵakuteŵetera sono, mu ma pulezidenti 47 kufika pa nyengo ya sono ya 60 ya vyaka vinayi.{{efn|[[Grover Cleveland]] wakateŵetera nyengo ziŵiri zambura kulondezgana, ndipo [[Donald Trump]] sono wakuteŵetera nyengo yake yachiŵiri yambura kulondezgana, ntheura waliyose wakupendeka kaŵiri.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://trumpwhitehouse.archives.gov/about-the-white-house/presidents/grover-cleveland-24/ |title=Grover Cleveland—24 |publisher=White House}}</ref>}} [[Donald Trump]] ndiyo ni pulezidenti wa 47 ndipo wakuteŵetera sono kufuma pa January 20, 2025.<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Miller |first1=Zeke |last2=Price |first2=Michelle L. |last3=Weissert |first3=Will |last4=Colvin |first4=Jill |date=November 5, 2024 |title=Trump wins the White House in political comeback rooted in appeals to frustrated voters |url=https://apnews.com/article/election-day-trump-harris-white-house-83c8e246ab97f5b97be45cdc156af4e2 |access-date=November 6, 2024 |publisher=[[Associated Press]] }}</ref> == Mbiri na chitukuko == === Kwamba === Mu Julayi 1776, [[Thirteen Colonies|Makoloni Khumi na Ghatatu]], agho ghakimirika pa [[Second Continental Congress|Kongiresi Yachiŵiri ya Kontinenti]] mu [[Philadelphia]], ghakazomera mwakukolerana [[United States Declaration of Independence|Chilango cha Wanangwa cha United States]] umo makoloni ghakajilengeka kuti ni [[sovereign state|vyaru vyakujiyimira vyekha]] ndipo kuti ghakaŵaso pasi pa muwuso wa [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Ufumu wa Britain]] yayi.<ref name="Milkis">{{Cite book |last1=Milkis |first1=Sidney M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KkUvAAAAYAAJ |title=The American Presidency: Origins and Development |last2=Nelson |first2=Michael |publisher=CQ Press |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-87289-336-8 |edition=5th |location=Washington, D.C. |pages=1–25}}</ref> Kuzomera uku kukalembeka mu [[United States Declaration of Independence|Chilango cha Wanangwa]], icho chikalembeka chomene na [[Thomas Jefferson]] ndipo chikazomerezgeka mwakukolerana pa Julayi 4, 1776, na [[Second Continental Congress|Kongiresi Yachiŵiri ya Kontinenti]]. Pakumanya kuti ŵakakhumbikwiranga kukolerana chomene pa nkhondo yawo yakulimbana na [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Ufumu wa Britain]],<ref name="Kelly">{{Cite book |last1=Kelly |first1=Alfred H. |title=The American Constitution: Its Origins and Development |last2=Harbison |first2=Winfred A. |last3=Belz |first3=Herman |publisher=W.W. Norton & Co. |year=1991 |isbn=978-0-393-96056-3 |edition=7th |volume=I |location=New York |pages=76–81}}</ref> Kongiresi ya Kontinenti pa nyengo yimoza yikamba kulemba dango ilo likakoleranenge [[U.S. state|vyaru]] pamoza. Pakachitika kudumbiskana kwa nyengo yitali pa nkhani zinandi, kusazgapo kuyimirika na kuvota, kweniso nkhongono izo boma likuru likeneranga kuŵa nazo.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://history.state.gov/milestones/1776-1783/Articles |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090204233742/http://history.state.gov/milestones/1776-1783/Articles |url-status=dead |archive-date=February 4, 2009 |title=Articles of Confederation, 1777–1781 |publisher=Office of the Historian, Bureau of Public Affairs, United States Department of State |location=Washington, D.C. |access-date=January 20, 2019 }}</ref> Kongiresi wakamalizga kulemba [[Articles of Confederation|Mazuŵa gha Kukolerana]] kuti wakhazikiske [[Perpetual Union|umoza wa nyengo zose]] pakati pa vyaru mu Novembala 1777 ndipo wakatumizga kwa vyaru kuti vikazomerezge.<ref name=Milkis /> Pasi pa [[Articles of Confederation|Mazuŵa gha Kukolerana]], agho ghakaŵa na nkhongono kufuma pa Malichi 1, 1781, [[Congress of the Confederation|Kongiresi ya Kukolerana]] yikaŵa ulamuliro wa ndyali wa pakati kweni ukaŵavya nkhongono zakupanga malango. Ukakwananga kupanga fundo, vyeruzgo, na malango ghake, kweni ukatenge ungapanga malango yayi, kweniso ukatenge ungatozga misonkho yayi panji kukhazikiska malango gha malonda gha mu vyaru pa ŵanthu ŵake.<ref name=Kelly /> Ndondomeko iyi yikalongora umo ŵa America ŵakaghanaghaniranga kuti ndondomeko ya Britain ya [[The Crown|Korona]] na [[Parliament of Great Britain|Nyumba ya Malango]] yikwenera kuti yikagwiranga ntchito pakuyowoya za [[dominion|muwuso wa ufumu]]: wupu wakulongozga pa vinthu ivyo vikakhwaskanga ufumu wose.<ref name=Kelly /> Vyaru vikaŵa kuti vyafwatuka ku muwuso wa ufumu uliwose ndipo vikapeleka vinyake mwa [[royal prerogative|maufulu gha ufumu]] agho ghakaŵapo kale (mwachiyelezgero, kupanga nkhondo, kupokelera ŵakazembe, na vinyake) kwa Kongiresi; maufulu ghanyake ghakakhala mu maboma gha vyaru vyawo. Ŵabali ŵa Kongiresi ŵakasankha [[President of the Continental Congress|Pulezidenti wa United States mu Kongiresi Yakuwungana]] kuti walongozge madiskusoni ghawo nga ni munthu wambura kutemwera pa nkhani za [[discussion moderator|kulongozga kudumbiskana]]. Uwu ukaŵa udindo wakupambana chomene na wa pulezidenti wa United States uyo wakiza pamanyuma, chifukwa ukaŵa udindo wa mwambo pera kwambura nkhongono zakulongozga, kupatulapo kulongozga wupu wa nyumba ya malango.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ellis |first=Richard J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ybmeEcpEvlsC |title=Founding the American Presidency |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |year=1999 |isbn=0-8476-9499-2 |location=Lanham, Maryland |page=1}}</ref> Mu 1783, [[Phangano la Paris (1783)|Phangano la Paris]] likakhazikiska wanangwa wa makoloni ghose ghakale. Pakuti mtende ukaŵapo, vyaru vikalazga kuyang'anira vinthu vyawo vya mukati.<ref name=Milkis /> Kufika mu 1786, ŵa America ŵakawona kuti mphaka zawo za ku kontinenti zikaŵa zakufoka ndipo zikuvutika, ndipo vyaru vyawo vikakumana na masuzgo gha chuma apo vyaru vya pafupi vikambanga kulimbana pa malonda. Ŵakawona [[hard currency|ndalama zakukhora]] zawo zikwenda ku misika ya ku vyaru vinyake kulipira vinthu vyakunjira mu charu, malonda ghawo mu [[Mediterranean Sea|Nyanja ya Mediterranean]] ghakakhwaskika na ŵa [[North Africa]] awo ŵakaba mu nyanja, ndipo ngongoli za nkhondo ya wanangwa izo zikapokera ndalama zakuwaro zikaleka kulipirika ndipo zikamba kusazgikira na chiwongolero.<ref name=Milkis /> Vyakusuzga vya wanthu na ndyali vikamba kuwoneka. Vinthu nga ni [[Newburgh Conspiracy|Chiŵembu cha Newburgh]] na [[Shays' Rebellion|Muvundiko wa Shays]] vikulongora kuti [[Articles of Confederation|Mazuŵa gha Kukolerana]] zikatondeka kugwira ntchito, chomenechomene kuti pakaŵa pakukhumbikwa boma lankhongono la charu chose ilo likaŵenge na mulongozgi wa boma wakupika nkhongono. Pamanyuma pa kumazga mwakukolerana masuzgo gha malonda na somba pakati pa [[Virginia]] na Maryland pa [[Mount Vernon Conference|Ungano wa Mount Vernon]] mu 1785, Virginia wakachema kuti paŵe ungano wa malonda pakati pa vyaru vyose, uwo ukakhazikiskika mu Seputembala 1786 ku [[Annapolis, Maryland]], na chilato cha kumazga masuzgo ghakuru gha malonda pakati pa vyaru. Kweni [[Annapolis Convention (1786)|Ungano ya Annapolis]] yikatondeka chifukwa cha ŵanthu ŵachoko awo ŵakiza chifukwa cha kukayikira kwa vyaru vinandi, ndipo [[Alexander Hamilton]] wa New York wakalongozga ŵimiliri ŵa Annapolis kuti ŵacheme ungano wakusintha Mazuŵa gha Kukolerana, uwo ukeneranga kuchitika chaka chakulondezgapo ku [[Philadelphia]]. Ivyo vingachitika pa ungano uwu vikawoneka kuti ni vichoko mpaka apo [[James Madison]] na [[Edmund Randolph]] ŵakafiska kusanga kuti [[George Washington]] wize ku Philadelphia nga ni muyimiliri wa Virginia.<ref name=Milkis /><ref name="Beeman">{{Cite book |last=Beeman |first=Richard |url=https://archive.org/details/plainhonestmenm00beem |title=Plain, Honest Men: The Making of the American Constitution |publisher=Random House |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-8129-7684-7 |location=New York |url-access=registration}}</ref> Apo [[Constitutional Convention (United States)|Ungano wa Dango la United States]] ukakumana mu Meyi 1787, ŵimiliri ŵa vyaru 12 awo ŵakiza ([[Rhode Island]] yikatuma yayi ŵimiliri) ŵakiza na ivyo ŵakasambira mu ndondomeko zakupambana za maboma gha vyaru vyawo pa nkhani ya nthambi zakupanga malango na zakulongozga. Vyaru vinandi vikaŵa na mulongozgi wakufoka wambura nkhongono zakukana malango panji kusankha ŵalara, wakasankhikanga chaka chilichose na nyumba ya malango ku nyengo yimoza pera, wakagawana nkhongono na wupu wa ulongozgi, ndipo wakasangana na nyumba ya malango yankhongono.<ref name=Milkis /> [[New York (state)|New York]] ndiyo yikaŵa yapadera chomene, chifukwa yikaŵa na kazembe wankhongono yumoza uyo wakaŵa na nkhongono zakukana malango na kusankha ŵalara, wakasankhikanga vyaka vitatu ndipo wangasankhikaso maulendo ghanandi.<ref name=Milkis /> Kwizira mu kudumbiskana kwakubisika ku Philadelphia ndiko udindo wa upulezidenti uwo uli mu [[Constitution of the United States|Dango la United States]] ukapangika. === 1789–1933 === [[File:Gilbert Stuart Williamstown Portrait of George Washington.jpg|thumb|[[George Washington]], pulezidenti wakwamba wa United States]] Nga ni pulezidenti wakwamba wa charu, [[George Washington]] wakakhazikiska maluso ghanandi agho ghakazakaŵa chilangilo cha udindo uwu.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://millercenter.org/president/washington/life-in-brief|title=George Washington: Life in Brief|last=Steven|first=Knott|date=October 4, 2016|work=Miller Center|access-date=September 14, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180205001103/https://millercenter.org/president/washington/life-in-brief|archive-date=February 5, 2018|url-status=live|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Stockwell |first1=Mary |title=Presidential Precedents |url=https://www.mountvernon.org/library/digitalhistory/digital-encyclopedia/article/presidential-precedents/ |publisher=Mount Vernon, Washington Library, Center for Digital History |access-date=September 14, 2020}}</ref> Kusankha kwake kusiya ntchito pamanyuma pa nyengo ziŵiri kukawovwira kumazga wofi wakuti charu chingazakasanduka ufumu ndipo kukakhazikiska chiyerezgero icho chikaphyokeka yayi mpaka mu 1940 ndipo pamanyuma chikazakaŵa chakukhazikika kwizira mu [[Kusintha kwa Dango kwa Makumi Aŵiri na Viŵiri kwa Dango la United States|Kusintha kwa Dango kwa Makumi Aŵiri na Viŵiri]]. Kuumaliro wa upulezidenti wake, vipani vya ndyali vikaŵa kuti vyamba kuŵapo,<ref>{{cite news |last1=Feeling |first1=John |title=How the Rivalry Between Thomas Jefferson and Alexander Hamilton Changed History |url=https://time.com/4210440/jefferson-hamilton-excerpt/ |access-date=September 14, 2020 |publisher=Time |date=February 15, 2016}}</ref> ndipo [[John Adams]] wakathereska [[Thomas Jefferson]] mu 1796, visola vyakwamba vya pulezidenti ivyo vikapikisana chomene.<ref>{{cite news |last1=NCC staff |title=On This Day: The first bitter, contested presidential election takes place |url=https://constitutioncenter.org/blog/on-this-day-the-first-bitter-contested-presidential-election-takes-place |access-date=September 14, 2020 |publisher=National Constitution Center |date=November 4, 2019}}</ref> Pamanyuma pakuti Jefferson wathereska Adams mu 1800, iyo pamoza na [[James Madison]] na [[James Monroe]] ŵaliyose ŵakateŵetera nyengo ziŵiri, ndipo pamanyuma ŵakalamulira chomene ndyali za charu mu [[Nyengo ya Makhaliro Ghawemi]] mpaka mwana wa Adams [[John Quincy Adams]] wakathereska visola mu 1824 pamanyuma pa kupatulika kwa [[Chipani cha Democratic-Republican]]. Kusankhika kwa [[Andrew Jackson]] mu 1828 kukaŵa kakwamba munthu wakufuma kuwaro kwa ŵakulongozga ŵa Virginia na Massachusetts kusankhika kuŵa pulezidenti, vyaka 40 pamanyuma pakuti Washington wasankhika.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Walsh |first1=Kenneth |title=The Most Consequential Elections in History: Andrew Jackson and the Election of 1828 |url=https://www.usnews.com/news/articles/2008/08/20/the-most-consequential-elections-in-history-andrew-jackson-and-the-election-of-1828 |access-date=September 14, 2020 |publisher=U.S. News & World Report |date=August 20, 2008}}</ref> [[Demokilase ya Jackson|Demokilase ya Jackson]] yikakhumbanga kukhozga nkhongono za upulezidenti pa mtengo wa Congress, uku yikukuzga kutora nawo mbali kwa ŵanthu apo charu chikakuranga mwaluŵiro kumanjiliro gha dazi. Kweni uyo wakiza mu malo ghake, [[Martin Van Buren]], wakaleka kutemweka pamanyuma pa [[Chiwawa cha 1837]],<ref>{{cite news |last1=Bomboy |first1=Scott |title=Martin Van Buren's legacy: Expert politician, mediocre president |url=https://constitutioncenter.org/blog/martin-van-burens-legacy-was-more-than-just-muttonchops-2/ |access-date=September 14, 2020 |publisher=National Constitution Center |date=December 5, 2017}}</ref> ndipo nyifwa ya [[William Henry Harrison]] na ubwezi uheni pakati pa [[John Tyler]] na Congress vikapangiska kuti udindo uwu uŵe wakufoka chomene.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Freehling |first1=William |title=John Tyler: Impact and Legacy |url=https://millercenter.org/president/tyler/impact-and-legacy |website=University of Virginia, Miller Center |date=October 4, 2016 |access-date=September 14, 2020}}</ref> Pamoza na Van Buren, mu vyaka 24 pakati pa 1837 na 1861, ma nyengo 6 gha upulezidenti ghakazuzgika na ŵanalume 8 ŵakupambana, ndipo palije uyo wakateŵetera nyengo ziŵiri.<ref>{{cite news |last1=McNamara |first1=Robert |title=Seven Presidents Served in the 20 Years Before the Civil War |url=https://www.thoughtco.com/presidents-before-the-civil-war-1773447 |access-date=September 14, 2020 |publisher=ThoughtCo |date=July 3, 2019}}</ref> Senate yikaŵa na ntchito yikuru mu nyengo iyi, apo [[Wupu Ukulu Watatu]] wa [[Henry Clay]], [[Daniel Webster]], na [[John C. Calhoun]] ukaŵa na ntchito yikuru pakupanga ndondomeko za charu mu ma 1830 na ma 1840, mpaka apo kudumbiskana pa nkhani ya wuzga kukamba kupatulanya charu mu ma 1850.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Heidler |first1=David |last2=Heidler |first2=Jeanne |title=The Great Triumvirate |url=https://www.essentialcivilwarcurriculum.com/the-great-triumvirate.html |website=Essential Civil War Curriculum |access-date=September 14, 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Winters |first1=Michael Sean |title='Do not trust in princes': the limits of politics |url=https://www.ncronline.org/news/politics/do-not-trust-princes-limits-politics |access-date=September 14, 2020 |publisher=National Catholic Reporter |date=August 4, 2017}}</ref> Ulongozgi wa [[Abraham Lincoln]] mu nyengo ya [[Nkhondo ya pa Wanangwa ya America|Nkhondo ya pa Wanangwa ya America]] wapangiska ŵakulemba mbiri kumuwona nga ni yumoza wa mapulezidenti ŵakuru chomene ŵa charu.{{efn|Pafupifupi ŵakusambira mbiri wose ŵakumuyika Lincoln mu mapulezidenti ŵatatu ŵakwamba ŵa charu, ndipo ŵanandi ŵakumuyika pa malo ghakwamba. Wonani [[Malo gha mapulezidenti ŵa United States mu mbiri|Malo gha mapulezidenti ŵa United States mu mbiri]] kuti muwone ivyo kafukufuku wakulongora.}} Vinthu ivyo vikachitika pa nkhondo na kuwusa kwa Republican mu Congress vikapangiska udindo uwu kuŵa wankhongono chomene.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Williams |first1=Frank |title=Lincoln's War Powers: Part Constitution, Part Trust |url=https://www.abajournal.com/magazine/article/lincolns_war_powers_part_constitution_part_trust |access-date=September 14, 2020 |publisher=American Bar Association |date=April 1, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Weber |first1=Jennifer |title=Was Lincoln a Tyrant? |url=https://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2013/03/25/was-lincoln-a-tyrant/ |access-date=September 14, 2020 |publisher=New York Times Opinionator |date=March 25, 2013}}</ref> Kusankhikaso kwa Lincoln mu 1864 kukaŵa kakwamba pulezidenti kusankhikaso kufuma apo Jackson wakachitira mu 1832. Pamanyuma pa kuphedwa kwa Lincoln, uyo wakiza mu malo ghake [[Andrew Johnson]] wakataya chovwiro chose cha ndyali<ref>{{cite web |last1=Varon |first1=Elizabeth |title=Andrew Johnson: Campaigns and Elections |url=https://millercenter.org/president/johnson/campaigns-and-elections |website=University of Virginia, Miller Center |date=October 4, 2016 |access-date=September 14, 2020}}</ref> ndipo wakakhala pafupi kufumiskika pa udindo.<ref>{{cite news |last1=NCC Staff |title=The man whose impeachment vote saved Andrew Johnson |url=https://constitutioncenter.org/blog/the-man-whose-impeachment-vote-saved-andrew-johnson |access-date=September 14, 2020 |publisher=National Constitution Center |date=May 16, 2020}}</ref> Congress yikalutilira kuŵa yankhongono mu nyengo ziŵiri za upulezidenti wa mulongozgi wa nkhondo ya Civil War [[Ulysses S. Grant]]. Pamanyuma pa kumara kwa [[Nyengo ya Kuzengaso|Nyengo ya Kuzengaso]], [[Grover Cleveland]] wakaŵa pulezidenti wakwamba wa Democrat kusankhika kufuma pambere pa nkhondo, wakaluta ku visola vitatu vyakulondezgana (1884, 1888, 1892) ndipo wakathereska kaŵiri. Mu 1900, [[William McKinley]] wakaŵa pulezidenti wakwamba uyo wakaŵapo pa udindo kusankhikaso kufuma apo Grant wakachitira mu 1872. Pamanyuma pa [[Kuphedwa kwa William McKinley|kuphedwa]] kwa McKinley na [[Leon Czolgosz]] mu 1901, [[Theodore Roosevelt]] wakaŵa munthu wakumanyikwa chomene mu ndyali za America.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Boissoneault |first1=Lorraine |title=The Debate Over Executive Orders Began With Teddy Roosevelt's Mad Passion for Conservation |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/how-theodore-roosevelts-executive-orders-reshaped-countryand-presidency-180962908/ |access-date=September 14, 2020 |publisher=Smithsonian Magazine (website) |date=April 17, 2017}}</ref> Ŵakulemba mbiri ŵakugomezga kuti Roosevelt wakasintha mwakukhalapo ndondomeko ya ndyali chifukwa cha kukhozga udindo wa upulezidenti,<ref>{{cite news |last1=Posner |first1=Eric |title=The inevitability of the imperial presidency |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/political-bookworm/post/the-inevitability-of-the-imperial-presidency/2011/04/22/AFTRBoPE_blog.html |access-date=September 12, 2020 |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |date=April 22, 2011}}</ref> ndipo vinthu vinyake ivyo wakachita vikuphatikizapo kumazga ma wupu ghakuru gha malonda, kusungilira chilengedwe, kusintha kwa ntchito, kupanga mikhaliro ya munthu kuŵa yakuzirwa nga ni nkhani za ndondomeko, na kusankha yekha uyo wakeneranga kulondezga, [[William Howard Taft]]. Mu ma 1910, [[Woodrow Wilson]] wakalongozga charu ku chigonjetso mu [[Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Charu Chose|Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Charu Chose]], kweni fundo ya Wilson ya kukhazikiska [[Wupu wa Mitundu|Wupu wa Mitundu]] yikakanika na Senate.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Glass |first1=Andrew |title=Senate rejects League of Nations, Nov. 19, 2019 |url=https://www.politico.com/story/2014/11/senate-rejects-league-of-nations-nov-19-1919-113006 |access-date=September 14, 2020 |publisher=Politico |date=November 19, 2014}}</ref> [[Warren Harding]], nangauli wakatemwikwanga apo wakaŵa pa udindo, mbiri yake yikafipiskika chifukwa cha vinyake vyakuchita uheni, chomenechomene [[Teapot Dome scandal|Wubishi wa Teapot Dome]],<ref>{{cite news |last1=Robenalt |first1=James |title=If we weren't so obsessed with Warren G. Harding's sex life, we'd realize he was a pretty good president |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/posteverything/wp/2015/08/13/if-we-werent-so-obsessed-with-warren-g-hardings-sex-life-wed-realize-he-was-a-pretty-good-president/ |access-date=September 14, 2020 |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |date=August 13, 2015}}</ref> ndipo [[Herbert Hoover]] wakaleka kutemweka luŵiro pamanyuma pakutondeka kumazga [[Soka Likuru la Chuma|Soka Likuru la Chuma]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Smith |first1=Richard Norton |last2=Walch |first2=Timothy |title=The Ordeal of Herbert Hoover |journal=Prologue Magazine |date=Summer 2004 |volume=36 |issue=2 |url=https://www.archives.gov/publications/prologue/2004/summer/hoover-1.html |publisher=National Archives}}</ref> === Upulezidenti wa Ufumu === {{Main|Upulezidenti wa Ufumu}} [[File:Franklin D Roosevelt - radio broadcast.jpg|thumb|Pulezidenti [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] wakuyowoya pa wayilesi mu 1933.]] Kukwera kwa [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] mu 1933 kukalutilira kulazga ku ivyo wakulemba mbiri [[Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr.]] wakachema kuti ni [[Upulezidenti wa Ufumu|upulezidenti wa ufumu]].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/imperialpresiden00schl|title=The Imperial Presidency|last=Schlesinger| first=Arthur M. Jr. |date=1973|publisher=Houghton Mifflin|others=Frank and Virginia Williams Collection of Lincolniana (Mississippi State University. Libraries)|isbn=0-395-17713-8|location=Boston|pages=x|oclc=704887|author-link=Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr.|url-access=registration}}</ref> Chifukwa cha chovwiro cha ma Republican ghanandi mu Congress na ŵanthu awo ŵakakhumbanga kusintha kukuru, [[New Deal|Ndondomeko Yiphya]] ya Roosevelt yikakura chomene ukuru na mulimo wa boma la pakati, kusazgapo ma wupu ghakulongozga ghanandi.<ref name=JohnYooFDR>{{cite journal |last1=Yoo |first1=John |title=Franklin Roosevelt and Presidential Power |journal=Chapman Law Review |date=February 14, 2018 |volume=21 |issue=1 |page=205 |ssrn=3123894 |url=https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3123894}}</ref>{{rp|211–12}} Ŵantchito awo ŵakateŵeteranga pulezidenti, awo kale ŵakaŵa ŵachoko, ŵakasazgikira chomene, ndipo [[Ofesi Yikuluwakuru ya Pulezidenti|Ofesi Yikuru ya Pulezidenti]] yikakhazikiskika mu 1939, ndipo palije yumoza wa ŵantchito aŵa wakakhumbikwiranga kuzomerezgeka na Senate.<ref name=JohnYooFDR />{{rp|229–231}} Kusankhikaso kwa Roosevelt mwakupambana na kale ku nyengo yachitatu na yachinayi, chigonjetso cha United States mu [[Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Charu Chose|Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Charu Chose]], na kukura kwa chuma cha charu vyose vikawovwira kukhazikiska udindo uwu kuŵa wa ulongozgi wa charu chose.<ref name=JohnYooFDR />{{rp|269}} Awo ŵakamulondezga, [[Harry S. Truman]] na [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]], waliyose wakateŵetera nyengo ziŵiri apo [[Nkhondo Yakuzizima|Nkhondo Yakuzizima]] yikapangiska kuti upulezidenti uwoneke nga ni "[[mulongozgi wa charu chafwatuka|mulongozgi wa charu cha wanangwa]]",<ref name="freeworld" /> apo [[John F. Kennedy]] wakaŵa mulongozgi muwukirano kweniso wakatemweka uyo wakapokera chandulo kufuma ku kukura kwa TV mu ma 1960.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Eschner |first1=Kat |title=A Year Before His Presidential Debate, JFK Foresaw How TV Would Change Politics |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/what-jfk-had-say-about-tv-politics-180967172/ |access-date=September 12, 2020 |publisher=Smithsonian Magazine |date=November 14, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Simon |first1=Ron |title=See How JFK Created a Presidency for the Television Age |url=https://time.com/4795637/jfk-television/ |access-date=September 12, 2020 |publisher=Time |date=May 29, 2017}}</ref> Pamanyuma pakuti [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] wakataya chovwiro cha ŵanthu chifukwa cha [[Nkhondo ya ku Vietnam|Nkhondo ya Vietnam]] ndipo upulezidenti wa [[Richard Nixon]] ukamara mu [[Wubishi wa Watergate|wubishi wa Watergate]], Congress yikakhazikiska masinthiro ghanandi agho ghakakhumbanga kuti yijikhazikiske panthazi.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Wallach |first1=Philip |title=When Congress won the American people's respect: Watergate |url=https://www.legbranch.org/2018-4-25-when-congress-won-the-american-peoples-respect-watergate/ |access-date=September 12, 2020 |publisher=LegBranch.org |date=April 26, 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Berger |first1=Sam |last2=Tausanovitch |first2=Alex |title=Lessons From Watergate |url=https://www.americanprogress.org/issues/democracy/reports/2018/07/30/454058/lessons-from-watergate/ |access-date=September 12, 2020 |publisher=Center for American Progress |date=July 30, 2018}}</ref> Ivyo vikasazgapo [[War Powers Resolution|Dango la Mphamvu za Nkhondo]], ilo likapangika kuŵa dango nangauli Nixon wakaliveta mu 1973,<ref>{{USStat|87|555}}, 559–560.</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Madden |first1=Richard |title=House and Senate Override Veto by Nixon on Curb of War Powers; Backers of Bill Win 3-Year Fight |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1973/11/08/archives/house-and-senate-override-veto-by-nixon-on-curb-of-war-powers.html |access-date=September 12, 2020 |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=November 8, 1973}}</ref> ndiposo [[Dango la Bajeti la Congress na Kulongora Ndalama la 1974|Dango la Bajeti la Congress na Kulongora Ndalama la 1974]], ilo likakhumbanga kukhozga mazaza gha Congress pa nkhani za ndalama.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Glass |first1=Andrew |title=Budget and Impoundment Control Act becomes law, July 12, 1974 |url=https://www.politico.com/story/2017/07/12/budget-and-impoundment-control-act-becomes-law-july-12-1974-240372 |access-date=September 12, 2020 |publisher=Politico |date=July 12, 2017}}</ref> Mu 1976, [[Gerald Ford]] wakazomerezga kuti "pendulum ya mbiri" yikasintha kulazga ku Congress, ndipo ichi chikapangiska kuti paŵe suzgo la "kuswa" luso lake la kulamulira.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Shabecoff |first1=Philip |title=Presidency Is Found Weaker Under Ford |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1976/03/28/archives/presidency-is-found-weaker-under-ford-curbs-on-exerting-power-seen.html |access-date=September 9, 2020 |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=March 28, 1976}}</ref> Ford wakatondeka kusankhikaso kuti watemwere nyengo yakukwana ndipo uyo wakamulondezga, [[Jimmy Carter]], nayo wakatondeka kusankhikaso. [[Ronald Reagan]], uyo wakaŵa wakuseŵera mafilimu pambere wandambe mulimo wake wa ndyali, wakagwiliskira ntchito luso lake la kuyowoya kuti wawovwire kusintha ndondomeko ya America kufuma ku ndondomeko za New Deal kulazga ku fundo za ndyali za kusungilira miyambo.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Edwards |first1=Lee |title=What Made Reagan a Truly Great Communicator |url=https://www.heritage.org/conservatism/commentary/what-made-reagan-truly-great-communicator |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180615012306/https://www.heritage.org/conservatism/commentary/what-made-reagan-truly-great-communicator |url-status=unfit |archive-date=June 15, 2018 |access-date=September 12, 2020 |publisher=The Heritage Foundation |date=February 5, 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Brands |first1=H. W. |title=What Reagan Learned from FDR |url=https://historynewsnetwork.org/article/159389 |access-date=September 12, 2020 |publisher=History News Network}}</ref> Pamanyuma pa [[Nkhondo Yakuzizima|Nkhondo Yakuzizima]], United States yikazgoka charu chakulongozga chomene pa charu chose.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sorensen |first1=Theodore |title=America's First Post-Cold War President |journal=Foreign Affairs |date=Fall 1992 |volume=71 |issue=4 |pages=13–30 |doi=10.2307/20045307 |jstor=20045307 |url=https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/1992-09-01/americas-first-post-cold-war-president|url-access=subscription }}</ref> [[Bill Clinton]], [[George W. Bush]], na [[Barack Obama]] wose ŵakateŵetera nyengo ziŵiri nga ni mapulezidenti. Pa nyengo iyi, charu chikamba kuŵa chakugaŵikana chomene pa ndyali, ndipo ichi chikapangiska kuti ŵabali ŵa Congress awo ŵali na maghanoghano ghakupambana chomene ŵakure, chomenechomene pamanyuma pa [[Chisankho cha pakati pa nyengo cha United States cha 1994|visola vya pakati pa nyengo vya 1994]] ivyo vikawona ma Republican ghapoka mazaza mu Nyumba yakuwungana kwa nyengo yakwamba mu vyaka 40, kweniso kukura kwa kugwiliskira ntchito mwakawiro [[Filibuster mu Senate ya United States|filibuster]] mu Senate.<ref>Barber, Michael; McCarty, Nolan (2013), [https://web.archive.org/web/20210114193351/https://www.apsanet.org/portals/54/Files/Task%20Force%20Reports/Chapter2Mansbridge.pdf Causes and Consequences of Polarization] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210114193351/https://www.apsanet.org/portals/54/Files/Task%20Force%20Reports/Chapter2Mansbridge.pdf |date=January 14, 2021 }}, American Political Science Association Task Force on Negotiating Agreement in Politics report, at 19–20, 37–38.</ref> Ntheura izi, mapulezidenti ŵasono ŵakulutilira kugomezga chomene pa [[Executive order|malango gha pulezidenti]], ndondomeko za ma wupu, na kusankha ŵeruzgi kuti ŵakhazikiske ndondomeko zikuru, m'malo mwa malango ghakupangika na Congress kweniso mazaza gha Congress.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rudalevige |first1=Andrew |title=The Letter of the Law: Administrative Discretion and Obama's Domestic Unilateralism |journal=The Forum |date=April 1, 2014 |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=29–59 |doi=10.1515/for-2014-0023 |s2cid=145237493 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Visola vya upulezidenti mu vyaka vya m'ma 2000 vyalongora kulutilira kwa kugaŵikana uku, chifukwa palije munthu uyo wakapambana na mavoti gha ŵanthu na mphambano yakuluska pa 5 peresenti, kupatulapo Obama mu 2008, ndipo ŵaŵiri, George W. Bush ([[Visola vya pulezidenti vya United States vya 2000|2000]]) na [[Donald Trump]] ([[Visola vya pulezidenti vya United States vya 2016|2016]]), ŵakawina mu Electoral College kweni ŵakataya mavoti gha ŵanthu.<ref>{{efn|Wonani [[Mndandanda wa visola vya pulezidenti vya United States mwakuyana na mphambano ya mavoti gha ŵanthu]].}}</ref> Bush ([[Visola vya pulezidenti vya United States vya 2004|2004]]) na Trump ([[Visola vya pulezidenti vya United States vya 2024|2024]]) pamanyuma ŵakasankhikaso, ndipo wose ŵakawina mu Electoral College kweniso mu mavoti gha ŵanthu. === Ŵakususka kusintha kwa upulezidenti === Ŵakakhazikiska charu ichi [[Ŵakakhazikiska charu cha United States|Ŵakakhazikiska charu cha United States]] ŵakaghanaghananga kuti [[Congress ya United States|Congress]], iyo yikaŵa nthambi yakwamba ya boma yakuzunulika mu [[Dango la Malango la United States|Dango la Malango]], ndiyo yizamuŵa nthambi yikuru ya boma; ŵakaghanaghananga yayi kuti paŵenge dipatimenti yankhongono ya vya ukulongozga.<ref name="tws9nov09">{{Cite news |last=Kakutani |first=Michiko |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/07/06/books/06book.html |title=Unchecked and Unbalanced |date=July 6, 2007 |work=The New York Times |access-date=November 9, 2009 |quote=the founding fathers had "scant affection for strong executives" like England's king, and{{nbsp}}... Bush White House's claims are rooted in ideas "about the 'divine' right of kings"{{nbsp}}... and that certainly did not find their way into our founding documents, the 1776 Declaration of Independence and the Constitution of 1787.}}</ref> Kweni mazaza gha pulezidenti ghakusintha mu nyengo, ndipo ichi chapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵayowoye kuti upulezidenti wa mazuŵa ghano waŵa na nkhongono zinandi chomene,<ref name="twsSEPnnxcvdf1">{{Cite news |url=https://www.huffpost.com/entry/the-conquest-of-president_b_120582 |first=David |last=Sirota |title=The Conquest of Presidentialism |date=August 22, 2008 |work=HuffPost |access-date=September 20, 2009}}</ref><ref name="twsSEPnn5454">{{Cite news |last=Schimke |first=David |url=http://www.utne.com/2008-09-01/Politics/presidential-Power-to-the-People.aspx |title=Presidential Power to the People—Author Dana D. Nelson on why democracy demands that the next President be taken down a notch |date=September–October 2008 |work=Utne Reader |access-date=September 20, 2009}}</ref> wambura kuŵa na vyakupimika,<ref name="tws9nov07">{{Cite news |last=Linker |first=Ross |url=http://www.jhunewsletter.com/2007/09/26/critical-of-presidency-prof-ginsberg-and-crenson-unite-18626/ |title=Critical of Presidency, Prof. Ginsberg and Crenson unite |date=September 27, 2007 |access-date=November 9, 2017 |publisher=The Johns-Hopkins Newsletter |quote=Presidents slowly but surely gain more and more power with both the public at large and other political institutions doing nothing to prevent it.}}</ref> ndiposo uli na mikhaliro ya "uchifumu".<ref name="tws9nov08">{{Cite news |last=Kakutani |first=Michiko |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/07/06/books/06book.html |title=Unchecked and Unbalanced |date=July 6, 2007 |work=The New York Times |access-date=November 9, 2009 |quote=Unchecked and Unbalanced: Presidential Power in a Time of Terror By Frederick A. O. Schwarz Jr. and Aziz Z. Huq (authors)}}</ref> Mu 2008 pulofesa [[Dana D. Nelson]] wakayowoya kuti mapulezidenti mu vyaka 30 ivyo vikajumpha ŵakagwira ntchito yakuti ŵaŵe na "mazaza ghose pa nthambi ya vya ukulongozga na ma wupu ghake".<ref name="twsSEPrt8jyh5">{{Cite news |last=Nelson |first=Dana D. |url=http://www.latimes.com/news/opinion/la-oe-nelson11-2008oct11,0,224216.story |title=Opinion—The 'unitary executive' question—What do McCain and Obama think of the concept? |date=October 11, 2008 |work=Los Angeles Times |access-date=September 21, 2009}}</ref> Wakususka awo ŵakukhozgera [[Chisambizgo cha nthambi yimoza ya ukulongozga|chigomezgo cha nthambi yimoza ya ukulongozga]] chifukwa cha kusazgirako "mazaza ghanandi gha ukulongozga agho ghakuleka kupimika—nga ni malango gha pulezidenti, vyilongolero, makalata gha ndondomeko, vipharazgo, malango gha vya chitetezo cha charu, na mazgu gha pulezidenti pa kusayina malango—ivyo vikuzomerezga kale mapulezidenti kupanga ndondomeko zinandi za vya charu cha kuwaro na mukati kwambura wovwiri, kususkika, panji kuzomerezgeka na Congress".<ref name=twsSEPrt8jyh5 /> [[Bill Wilson (activist)|Bill Wilson]], membala wa wupu wa [[Americans for Limited Government]], wakayowoya kuti upulezidenti wakusazgikira "ni suzgo likuru chomene ilo likukumana na wanangwa wa munthu payekha na ulamuliro wa demokilase".<ref name="tws8nov06">{{Cite news |last=Shane |first=Scott |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/09/26/us/politics/26activist.html |title=A Critic Finds Obama Policies a Perfect Target |date=September 25, 2009 |work=The New York Times |access-date=November 8, 2009 |quote=There is the small, minority-owned firm with deep ties to President Obama's Chicago backers, made eligible by the Federal Reserve to handle potentially lucrative credit deals. "I want to know how these firms are picked and who picked them," Mr. Wilson, the group's president, tells his eager researchers.}}</ref> == Mazaza gha kupanga malango == [[Vigaŵa vya kupika mazaza|Article I, Gawo{{nbsp}}1]] la Dango la Malango likuŵika mazaza ghose gha [[Ukwamba kupika dango|kupanga malango]] mu mawoko gha Congress, ndipo [[Dango lakukanizga kuŵa mu malo ghaŵiri|Article 1, Gawo 6, Ndime{{nbsp}}2]] likukanizga pulezidenti (na ŵantchito wose ŵa nthambi ya ukulongozga) kuŵa membala wa Congress nyengo yeneyiyo. Nangauli vili nthena, upulezidenti wa mazuŵa ghano uli na mazaza ghakuru pa vya malango, chifukwa cha fundo za mu dango la malango kweniso kusintha kwa mbiri mu nyengo. === Kusayina na kuveta malango === [[File:Lyndon Johnson signing Civil Rights Act, July 2, 1964.jpg|alt=|thumb|Pulezidenti [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] wakusayina [[Dango la Wanangwa wa Ŵanthu la 1964|Dango la Wanangwa wa Ŵanthu la 1964]] pa [[Nyumba Yituŵa|Nyumba Yituŵa]] pa Julayi 2, 1964, apo [[Martin Luther King Jr.]] na ŵanyake ŵakulaŵiska.]] Mazaza ghakuru chomene gha pulezidenti pa kupanga malango ghakufuma ku [[Ndime ya Kupereka Dango|Ndime ya Kupereka Dango]], iyo yikupeleka mazaza kwa pulezidenti kuveta [[Bill (law)|dango lililose]] ilo lapokelereka na [[Congress ya United States|Congress]]. Nangauli Congress yingasintha veto ya pulezidenti, yikukhumbikwira [[Voti zinandi chomene#Voti ziŵiri pa zitatu|voti ziŵiri pa zitatu]] za nyumba zose ziŵiri, ndipo kanandi ichi chikuŵa chakusuzga kuchitika kwambura malango agho ghakukhozgeka na magulu ghaŵiri gha ndyali. Ŵakulemba dango la malango ŵakawopanga kuti Congress yingayezga kusazgirako mazaza ghake na kupangiska "uwofya wa ŵanandi", ntheura kupeleka veto kwa pulezidenti uyo wakusankhika mwakudunjika yayi kukaŵa nthowa yakuzikika ya kupima mazaza gha kupika malango. Nangauli George Washington wakagomezganga kuti veto yikwenera kugwiliskirika ntchito pera para dango lili kwambiska yayi, sono veto yikugwiliskirika ntchito kanandi apo mapulezidenti ŵali na mphambano za ndondomeko na dango. Ntheura veto—panji chiwopsezo cha veto—yikasintha ndipo yapangiska upulezidenti wa mazuŵa ghano kuŵa chigaŵa chakuzirwa chomene cha ndondomeko ya kupanga malango mu America. Chomenechomene, pasi pa [[Ndime ya Kupereka Dango|Presentment Clause]], para dango laperekeka na Congress, pulezidenti wali na nthowa zitatu: # Kusayina dango mu mazuŵa khumi, kwambura kupenda mazuŵa gha Sabata. Dango ili [[Coming into force|likwamba kugwira ntchito]]. # [[Veto power mu United States|Kuveta]] dango mu nyengo iyo yazunulika pachanya na kuliwezgera ku nyumba ya Congress iyo yikalambika, pakuyowoya ivyo wakususka. Dango ili likwamba yayi kugwira ntchito, kwambura kuti nyumba zose ziŵiri za Congress zivote kuti ziviske veto iyi na [[Voti zinandi chomene#Voti ziŵiri pa zitatu|voti ziŵiri pa zitatu]]. # Kuleka kuchitapo kanthu pa dango mu nyengo iyo yazunulika pachanya. Dango ili likwamba kugwira ntchito nga ni kuti pulezidenti wakalisayina, kweni pekha para Congress yili pa holide yayi. Usange Congress yili kumalizga nyengo yake yakuwungana, dango ili likwamba yayi kugwira ntchito, ndipo ichi chikudziwika kuti [[pocket veto]]. Mu 1996, Congress yikayezga kusazgirako mazaza gha veto gha pulezidenti kwizira mu [[Dango la Line Item Veto la 1996|Dango la Line Item Veto]]. Dango ili likapeleka mazaza kwa pulezidenti kusayina dango lililose la ndalama kuti liŵe dango kweniso nyengo yeneyiyo kufumiskapo vinthu vinyake vya ndalama mu dango ilo, chomenechomene ndalama ziphya, ndalama zakugwiliskirika ntchito mwakukhumbikwa, panji chandulo chiphya cha msonkho chakupimika. Congress yikatenge yingapangaso chinthu icho chafumiskika. Usange pulezidenti wakaveta dango liphya ili, Congress yikatenge yingasintha veto iyi mwakugwiliskira ntchito nthowa yake yakawiro, iyo ni voti ziŵiri pa zitatu mu nyumba zose ziŵiri. Mu ''[[Clinton v. City of New York]]'', {{ussc|524|417|1998}}, [[Khoti Likuru la United States|Khoti Likuru la United States]] likati kusintha uku kwa mazaza gha veto mu kupanga dango kukaŵa kwambura kulondezga dango la malango. === Kukhazikiska ndondomeko === [[File:2018 SOTU 27628831.jpg|alt=|thumb|Pulezidenti [[Donald Trump]] wakuyowoya [[Uthenga wa Boma la Charu wa 2018]] panthazi pa [[Congress ya United States|Congress]].]] Kwa nyengo yitali mu mbiri ya America, ŵanthu awo ŵakapenjanga kuŵa mapulezidenti ŵakapenjanga kusankhika chifukwa cha layizgo la ndondomeko ya malango iyo ŵakakhumbanga kuchita. [[Article Two of the United States Constitution#Section 3: Presidential responsibilities|Article II, Gawo 3, Ndime 2]] likukhumba kuti pulezidenti walongozge vinthu ivi ku Congress ivyo pulezidenti wakuwona kuti "nchakukhumbikwa kweniso chakwenelera". Ivi vikuchitika kwizira mu uthenga wa [[State of the Union|Umo Boma la Charu Liliri]], uwo kanandi ukuyowoya fundo za malango agho pulezidenti wakukhumba kuti ghapangike mu chaka chakulondezgapo, kweniso kwizira mu mauthenga ghanyake ghakuwoneka panji ghambura kuwoneka na Congress. Pulezidenti wangawovwirapo pakupanga malango mwa kupereka maghanoghano, kupempha, panji nanga nkhukoserezga kuti Congress ipange malango agho pulezidenti wakugomezga kuti ngakukhumbikwa. Kweniso, pulezidenti wangayezga kusintha umo dango likupangikira apo likali mu ndondomeko ya kupanga dango kwizira mu kukopa ŵabali ŵa Congress payekha.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.heritage.org/constitution/#!/articles/2/essays/95/recommendations-clause |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120421180046/http://www.heritage.org/constitution#!/articles/2/essays/95/recommendations-clause |url-status=unfit |archive-date=April 21, 2012 |title=Essays on Article II: Recommendations Clause |last=Pfiffner |first=James |website=The Heritage Guide to the Constitution |publisher=[[The Heritage Foundation]] |access-date=April 14, 2019}}</ref> Mapulezidenti ŵali na mazaza agha chifukwa Dango la Malango likuyowoya yayi uyo wangapanga malango, kweni mazaza agha ghali na mphaka chifukwa mbabali ŵa Congress pera ndiwo ŵangambiska dango.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://bidenwhitehouse.archives.gov/about-the-white-house/our-government/the-legislative-branch/ |title=Our Government: The Legislative Branch |website=[[White House]] |publisher=The White House |location=Washington, D.C. |access-date=April 14, 2019}}</ref> Pulezidenti panji ŵalara ŵanyake ŵa nthambi ya ukulongozga ŵangapanga vyakulemba vya malango na kupempha maseneta panji ŵimiliri kuti ŵaloweske vyakulemba ivi mu Congress. Kweniso, pulezidenti wangayezga kuchiska Congress kuti yisinthire dango ilo laperekeka, mwakuti wayowoye kuti wavetenge dango ilo usange vinthu ivyo wakukhumba vikasinthika yayi.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/R42843.pdf |title=Introduction to the Legislative Process in the U.S. Congress |last=Heitshusen |first=Valerie |date=November 15, 2018 |website=R42843 · Version 14 · updated |publisher=Congressional Research Service |location=Washington, D.C. |access-date=April 14, 2019}}</ref> === Kukhazikiska malango ghakulongozga === Malango ghanandi agho Congress yikapanga ghakuyowoya yayi vyose ivyo vingachitika, ndipo ghakupeleka mwakudunjika panji mwambura kudunjika mazaza gha kugwiliskira ntchito malango ku wupu wakwenelera wa boma. Nga ni mulongozgi wa nthambi ya ukulongozga, mapulezidenti ŵakulongozga ma wupu ghanandi gha [[List of federal agencies in the United States|boma la United States]] agho ghangapanga malango ghakulongozga kwambura kulaŵililika chomene na Congress. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1900, ŵakususkika ŵakayowoya kuti mazaza ghanandi gha kupanga malango na bajeti agho ghakeneranga kuŵa gha Congress ghakajumphira mu mawoko gha mapulezidenti. Munthu yumoza wakususka wakayowoya kuti mapulezidenti ŵangapanga "gulu la ŵanthu ŵakukwana nga ni gulu la ŵankhondo la 'ma czar'—waliyose wambura kuyankha kwa Congress kweni wakupika mulimo wa kulongozga ndondomeko zikuru za ku White House".<ref name="tws28sep08">{{Cite news |last=Cantor |first=Eric |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/07/29/AR2009072902624.html |title=Obama's 32 Czars |date=July 30, 2009 |newspaper=The Washington Post |access-date=September 28, 2009}}</ref> Mapulezidenti ŵakususkika chifukwa cha kupanga [[mazgu gha kusayina|mazgu gha kusayina]] apo ŵakusayina malango gha Congress, pakuyowoya umo ŵakupulikira dango panji umo ŵazamugwiliskira ntchito.<ref name="twsSEPrt8jyh5" /> Chizgoŵezi ichi chasukika na [[American Bar Association]] kuti nchakususkana na dango la malango.<ref name="tws11nov301">{{Cite news |last=Suarez |first=Ray |url=https://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/white_house/july-dec06/signing_07-24.html |title=President's Use of 'Signing Statements' Raises Constitutional Concerns |date=July 24, 2006 |access-date=November 11, 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070321035900/http://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/white_house/july-dec06/signing_07-24.html |archive-date=March 21, 2007 |publisher=PBS Online NewsHour |quote=The American Bar Association said President Bush's use of "signing statements", which allow him to sign a bill into law but not enforce certain provisions, disregards the rule of law and the separation of powers. Legal experts discuss the implications. |display-authors=etal }}</ref> Wakasangazga wa kusungilira miyambo [[George Will]] wakalemba vya "nthambi ya ukulongozga iyo yikusazgikira chomene" kweniso "kuzimirika kwa Congress".<ref name="tws28sep">{{Cite news |last=Will |first=George F. |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/12/19/AR2008121902929.html |title=Making Congress Moot |date=December 21, 2008 |newspaper=The Washington Post |access-date=September 28, 2009}}</ref> === Kucemera na kuzimiska Congress === Kuti boma lichitenge mwaluŵiro para pali suzgo likuru la mukati mwa charu panji la pa charu chose ilo likuchitika apo Congress yili pa nyengo yayi yakukumana, pulezidenti wali kupika nkhongono kwizira mu [[Article Two of the United States Constitution#Clause 3: Extraordinary sessions and prorogation of Congress|Nkhani Yachiŵiri, Chigaŵa 3]] cha Malango kuti wacheme [[special session|ungano wapadera]] wa nyumba yimoza panji zose ziŵiri za Congress. Kufuma apo [[John Adams]] wakachita nthena kakwamba mu 1797, pulezidenti wachema Congress yose kuti yikumanenge pa ungano wapadera maulendo 27. [[Harry S. Truman]] ndiyo wakaŵa waumaliro kuchita nthena mu Julayi 1948, ndipo ungano uwu ukamanyikwa kuti [[Turnip Day Session]].<ref name="Forte">{{Cite web |url=https://www.heritage.org/constitution/#!/articles/2/essays/96/convening-of-congress |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120421180046/http://www.heritage.org/constitution#!/articles/2/essays/96/convening-of-congress |url-status=unfit |archive-date=April 21, 2012 |title=Essays on Article II: Convening of Congress |last=Forte |first=David F. |website=The Heritage Guide to the Constitution |publisher=Heritage Foundation |access-date=April 14, 2019}}</ref><ref name="Steinmetz">{{Cite magazine |last=Steinmetz |first=Katy |date=August 10, 2010 |title=Congressional Special Sessions |url=https://content.time.com/time/politics/article/0,8599,2009480,00.html |magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] |access-date=April 14, 2019}}</ref> Kweniso, pambere [[Twentieth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Chigaziso cha Makumiŵiri]] chindazomerezgeke mu 1933, icho chikiza nyengo iyo Congress yikakumananga kufuma mu Disembala kuluta mu Janyuwale, ŵapulezidenti ŵaphya awo ŵakamba maudindo ŵakachemanga Senate kuti yikumanenge kuti yikhozge kusankhika kwa ŵanthu panji kuzomera mapangano. Kweni mu nyengo ya mazuŵa ghano, nkhongono iyi yili kuleka kugwiritsidwa ntchito chifukwa Congress sono yikukhalilira pa ungano chaka chose, ndipo yikuchita maungano gha pro forma mazuŵa ghose ghatatu nangauli yikuwoneka nga yili pa kupumura. Mwakuyana na ichi, pulezidenti wali na mazaza kuzimiska Congress usange Nyumba ya Ŵimiliri na Senate zingatondeka kupulikana pa nyengo ya kuzimiska; palije pulezidenti uyo wagwiriskapo ntchito nkhongono iyi.<ref name="Forte"/><ref name="Steinmetz"/> == Nkhongono za kulongozga == {{Main|Nkhongono za pulezidenti wa United States}} {{Quote box|align=right|width=25%|quote=Suffice it to say that the President is made the sole repository of the executive powers of the United States, and the powers entrusted to him as well as the duties imposed upon him are awesome indeed.|source=''[[Nixon v. General Services Administration]]'', '''{{ussc|433|425|1977}}''' ([[William Rehnquist|Rehnquist, J.]], [[Dissenting opinion|dissenting]])}} Pulezidenti ni mulongozgi wa nthambi yakulongozga ya boma la feduro ndipo wali na udindo wakuyana na [[Article Two of the United States Constitution|Malango]] wa "kuwona kuti malango ghakugwiriskika ntchito mwakugomezgeka".<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.law.cornell.edu/constitution/articleii#section3 |title=Article II, Section 3, U.S. Constitution |year=2012 |publisher=Legal Information Institute |access-date=August 7, 2012}}</ref> Nthambi yakulongozga yili na ŵantchito ŵakujumpha 4 miliyoni, kusazgapo ŵasilikari.<ref name="obamapresidency">{{Cite web |url=https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/1600/executive-branch |title=Executive Branch |date=April 2015 |via=[[NARA|National Archives]] |work=[[whitehouse.gov]] |access-date=January 24, 2020}}</ref> === Nkhongono za ulamuliro === Ŵapulezidenti ŵakusankha ŵanthu mu maudindo gha ndyali. Pulezidenti uyo wanjira waka mu udindo wangasankha ŵanthu 4,000, ndipo 1,200 mwa iwo ŵakwenera kuzomerezgeka na [[Advice and consent#United States|Senate ya United States]]. [[Ambassador|Ŵakazembe]], ŵabali ŵa [[Cabinet of the United States|Kabineti]], na ŵalara ŵanyake, ni mwa maudindo agho ghakuzuzgika kwizira mu kusankhika kwa pulezidenti na kuzomerezgeka na Senate.<ref>{{cite web| title=Presidentially Appointed Positions| date=April 14, 2021| url=https://presidentialtransition.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/6/2020/12/Presidentially-Appointed-Positions.pdf| publisher=[[Partnership for Public Service]]| location=Washington, D.C.| access-date=March 7, 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite news| title=Biden Political Appointee Tracker| url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/interactive/2020/biden-appointee-tracker/| newspaper=The Washington Post| access-date=March 7, 2023}}</ref> Nkhongono za pulezidenti zakuchimbiska ŵalara ŵa nthambi yakulongozga zakhala nkhani yakukwaskana chomene mu ndyali. Kanandi, pulezidenti wangawuskamo ŵalara ŵa nthambi yakulongozga nyengo yiliyose.<ref>See ''Shurtleff v. United States'', {{ussc|189|311|1903}}; ''[[Myers v. United States]]'', {{ussc|272|52|1926}}.</ref> Kweni, Congress yingachepeska na kukhora mazaza gha pulezidenti pakuwuskamo ŵalongozgi ŵa mawupu ghakujiyimira ghakulongozga malango na ŵalara ŵanyake ŵa pasi mu nthambi yakulongozga kwizira mu [[statute|dango]].<ref>See ''[[Humphrey's Executor v. United States]]'', {{ussc|295|602|1935}} and ''[[Morrison v. Olson]]'', {{ussc|487|654|1988}}, respectively.</ref> Kuti ŵalamulire boma la feduro ilo likukulirakulira, ŵapulezidenti ŵakamba kuzijala na magulu ghanandi gha ŵantchito, agho pamanyuma ghakanozgekera mu [[Executive Office of the President of the United States]]. Mu Executive Office iyi, gulu la mukati chomene la ŵawovwiri ŵa pulezidenti na ŵawovwiri ŵawo likusangika mu [[White House Office]]. Pulezidenti wali na nkhongono zakulongozga milimo ya boma la feduro kwizira mu kupereka mitundu yakupambanapambana ya [[Presidential directive|malanguro]], nga ni [[Presidential proclamation (United States)|chilango cha pulezidenti]] na [[executive order|malanguro gha pulezidenti]]. Para pulezidenti wakugwiriskira ntchito mwakwenelera udindo uwo wali kupika na malango, ukuru wa nkhongono iyi ngukuru.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.heritage.org/the-constitution/report/executive-summary-the-use-and-abuse-executive-orders-and-other-presidential |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170331030907/http://www.heritage.org/the-constitution/report/executive-summary-the-use-and-abuse-executive-orders-and-other-presidential |url-status=unfit |archive-date=March 31, 2017 |title=Executive Summary: The Use and Abuse of Executive Orders and Other Presidential Directives |last=Gaziano |first=Todd |date=February 21, 2001 |publisher=The Heritage Foundation |location=Washington, D.C. |access-date=January 23, 2018}}</ref> Nangauli vili nthena, malanguro agha ghali pasi pa [[Judicial review in the United States|kuweleruzgika na ŵeruzgi]] mu makhoti gha feduro gha United States, agho ghangasanga kuti ngambula kukolerana na malango. Congress yingazgora malanguro gha pulezidenti kuŵa ghambura ntchito kwizira mu dango. === Vya vyakuwaro (Foreign affairs) === [[File:President George H. W. Bush and Mikhail Gorbachev.jpg|thumb|Mulongozgi George H. W. Bush na mulongozgi wa Soviet [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] ŵali kusayina [[1990 Chemical Weapons Accord|Phangano la 1990 pa vya vilwero vya makemikolo]] ku [[White House|Nyumba ya White House]].]] [[Article Two of the United States Constitution#Section 3: Presidential responsibilities|Article II, Section 3, Clause 4]] chikukhumba kuti pulezidenti "wapokelere Mabambasada". Dango ili, ilo likumanyikwa kuti Reception Clause, lili kupulikikwa kuti likung'anamura kuti pulezidenti wali na mazaza ghakuru pa nkhani za vyakuwaro,<ref>''[[United States v. Curtiss-Wright Export Corp.]]'', {{ussc|299|304|1936}}, likalongosora Pulezidenti kuti ni "chiŵaro chekha cha charu mu ubale wake wakuwaro", fundo iyo [https://fas.org/sgp/eprint/fisher.pdf yikatsutsika] na Louis Fisher wa [[Library of Congress|Layibulare ya Kongiresi]].</ref> ndiposo kumovwira pulezidenti pa mazaza ghake ghakupokera [[diplomatic recognition|kuwoneska kuzomera]] boma la charu chinyake.<ref>''[[Zivotofsky v. Kerry]]'', {{Ussc|576|___|2015|el=no}}.</ref> Malango gha Dango la Malango gha charu ghakumupaso pulezidenti mazaza ghakuŵika mabambasada gha United States, kweniso kupereka na kudumbiskana chomene mapangano pakati pa United States na vyaru vinyake. Mapangano agha, para ghazomerezgeka na ulangizi na chivomerezgo cha Seneti ya U.S. (na mavoti gha [[Supermajority|maghanaghano ghaŵiri pa vigaŵa vitatu]]), ghakuŵa ghakukaka nga ni dango la boma. Nangauli nkhani za vyakuwaro zikaŵa nyengo zose chigaŵa chakuzirwa cha maudindo gha pulezidenti, kusintha kwa tekinoloje kufuma apo Dango la Malango likakhazikiskikira kwasazgirako mazaza gha pulezidenti. Kale mabambasada ŵakaŵa na mazaza ghakuru gha kudumbiskana mwakujiyimira paŵekha mu zina la United States, kweni sono mapulezidenti ŵakukumana nyengo zose mwakudunjika na ŵalongozgi ŵa vyaru vinyake. === Mulongozgi mukuru wa ŵasilikari (Commander-in-chief) === [[File:Lincoln O-62 by Gardner, 1862-crop.jpg|thumb|Pulezidenti [[Abraham Lincoln]] wakavikilira mwakukwana [[Union (American Civil War)|Union]] mu nyengo ya [[American Civil War|Nkhondo ya pa Wenenawene ya ku America]]. Pano wali (pakati) na General [[George B. McClellan]] (kumazere), ndiposo ŵasilikari ku [[Antietam National Battlefield|Antietam]], pa Okutobala 3, 1862.]] Chimoza mwa mazaza ghakuzirwa chomene gha wupu wakulongozga ni mulimo wa pulezidenti nga ni [[Powers of the president of the United States#Commander-in-chief|mulongozgi mukuru wa ŵasilikari]] wa [[United States Armed Forces|Ŵasilikari ŵa United States]]. Mazaza ghakupharazga nkhondo ghali mu mawoko gha Kongiresi mwakuyana na dango la malango, kweni pulezidenti wali na mulimo wakumalizga wakulongozga na kupangiska ndondomeko za ŵasilikari. Mlingo weneko wa mazaza agho Dango la Malango likumupa pulezidenti nga ni mulongozgi mukuru wa ŵasilikari waŵa nkhani ya kudumbirana chomene mu mdauko, apo Kongiresi nyengo zinyake yamupanga mazaza ghakuru ndipo nyengo zinyake yikayezga kuchepeska mazaza agha.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://constitutioncenter.org/interactive-constitution/articles/article-ii/commander-in-chief-clause-ramsey-and-vladeck/clause/25 |title=Common Interpretation: Commander in Chief Clause |last1=Ramsey |first1=Michael |last2=Vladeck |first2=Stephen |website=National Constitution Center Educational Resources (some internal navigation required) |publisher=National Constitution Center |access-date=May 23, 2017}}</ref> Ŵalembi ŵa Dango la Malango ŵakaphalira makora kuchepeska mazaza gha pulezidenti pa nkhani za ŵasilikari; [[Alexander Hamilton]] wakalongosora mu [[Federalist No. 69]] kuti:{{blockquote|Pulezidenti ndiyo wakwenera kuŵa mulongozgi mukuru wa ŵasilikari na sitima za nkhondo za United States.{{nbsp}}... Ichi chikung'anamura waka ulongozgi ukuru na kulongozga ŵasilikari na ŵanyamata ŵa sitima za nkhondo{{nbsp}}... apo [mazaza] gha [[Monarchy of Great Britain|themba la Britain]] ghakusazgapo KUPHARAZGA nkhondo na KULENGA NA KULONGOZGA magulu gha ŵasilikari na sitima za nkhondo, vyose ivi{{nbsp}}... vikeneranga kuŵa vya wupu wakupanga malango.<ref>[[Alexander Hamilton|Hamilton, Alexander]]. [http://www.constitution.org/fed/federa69.htm ''The Federalist'' #69] (reposting). Retrieved June 15, 2007.</ref> [Mazgu ghakudidimizgika mu chakwamba.]|sign=|source=}} Mu nyengo yasono, mwakuyana na [[War Powers Resolution|Dango la Mazaza gha Nkhondo]], Kongiresi yikwenera kuzomerezga kutumizga ŵasilikari kuluta ku malo ghanyake kwa mazuŵa ghakujumpha 60, nangauli ndondomeko iyi yikuthemba pa vinthu vyakuyambiska ivyo vindagwiriskikepo ntchito, ndipo ichi chapangiska kuti yileke kugwira ntchito makora.<ref name="miller-center">{{Cite web |url=http://millercenter.org/policy/commissions/warpowers/report |title=The National War Powers Commission Report |last1=Christopher |first1=James A. |last2=Baker, III |date=July 8, 2008 |publisher=The Miller Center of Public Affairs at the University of Virginia |format=PDF |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101126165009/http://millercenter.org/policy/commissions/warpowers/report |archive-date=November 26, 2010 |access-date=December 15, 2010 |quote=No clear mechanism or requirement exists today for the president and Congress to consult. The War Powers Resolution of 1973 contains only vague consultation requirements. Instead, it relies on reporting requirements that, if triggered, begin the clock running for Congress to approve the particular armed conflict. By the terms of the 1973 Resolution, however, Congress need not act to disapprove the conflict; the cessation of all hostilities is required in 60 to 90 days merely if Congress fails to act. Many have criticized this aspect of the Resolution as unwise and unconstitutional, and no president in the past 35 years has filed a report "pursuant" to these triggering provisions. }}</ref> Kweniso, Kongiresi yikupeleka mphaka ku mazaza gha pulezidenti pa ŵasilikari kwizira mu kulamulira ndalama za ŵasilikari na malango ghawo. Mapulezidenti mu mdauko ŵakambiska nyengo zinandi ndondomeko zakunjira mu nkhondo,<ref name="tws12novef">{{Cite news |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,878290,00.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080107101712/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,878290,00.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=January 7, 2008 |title=The Law: The President's War Powers |date=June 1, 1970 |magazine=Time |access-date=September 28, 2009 }}</ref><ref name="tws8nov102">{{Cite news |last=Mitchell |first=Alison |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1999/05/02/weekinreview/the-world-only-congress-can-declare-war-really-it-s-true.html |title=The World; Only Congress Can Declare War. Really. It's True |date=May 2, 1999 |work=The New York Times |access-date=November 8, 2009 |quote=Presidents have sent forces abroad more than 100 times; Congress has declared war only five times: the War of 1812, the Mexican War, the Spanish–American War, World War I and World War II.}}</ref> kweni ŵakususka ŵayowoya kuti pakaŵa mikangano yinandi iyo mapulezidenti ŵakachitapo nkhondo kwambura kupokera chiphani chakuzomerezgeka, kusazgapo kuluta kwa ŵasilikari ŵa [[Theodore Roosevelt]] ku [[Panama]] mu 1903,<ref name="tws12novef" /> [[Korean War|Nkhondo ya Korea]],<ref name="tws12novef" /> [[Vietnam War|Nkhondo ya Vietnam]],<ref name="tws12novef" /> ndiposo kuwukira kwa [[Grenada]] mu 1983<ref name="tws8nov101">{{Cite news |last=Mitchell |first=Alison |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1999/05/02/weekinreview/the-world-only-congress-can-declare-war-really-it-s-true.html |title=The World; Only Congress Can Declare War. Really. It's True |date=May 2, 1999 |work=The New York Times |access-date=November 8, 2009 |quote=President Reagan told Congress of the invasion of Grenada two hours after he had ordered the landing. He told Congressional leaders of the bombing of Libya while the aircraft were on their way.}}</ref> na [[Panama]] mu 1989.<ref name="tws8nov100">{{Cite news |last=Gordon |first=Michael R. |url=https://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/big/1220.html#article |title=U.S. troops move in Panama in effort to seize Noriega; gunfire is heard in capital |date=December 20, 1990 |work=The New York Times |access-date=November 8, 2009 |quote=It was not clear whether the White House consulted with Congressional leaders about the military action, or notified them in advance. Thomas S. Foley, the Speaker of the House, said on Tuesday night that he had not been alerted by the Administration.}}</ref> Nkhongono ya usilikari iyo pulezidenti wakulongozga yekha pa nyengo ya nkhondo yasintha chomene.Andrew J. Polsky, ''Elusive Victories: The American Presidency at War'' (Oxford University Press, 2012) [https://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=37003 online review] [[George Washington]], pulezidenti wakwamba wa United States, wakakhazikiska mwamphamvu [[Kulongozgeka kwa ŵasilikari na ŵanthu bweka|kujilambika kwa usilikari ku mazaza gha ŵanthu bweka]]. Mu 1794, Washington wakagwiliskira ntchito nkhongono zake za mu dango la malango kuwunganya ŵasilikari ŵa [[Militia]] ŵakukwana 12,000 kuti ŵamazge [[Chiwukirano cha Whiskey|Chiwukirano cha Whiskey]], nkhondo iyo yikachitika mu [[Western Pennsylvania|Western Pennsylvania]] yakukhwaskana na ŵalimi ŵakuvwara vilwero na ŵakupanga moŵa awo ŵakakana kulipira msonkho wa pa moŵa wa mizimu. Mwakuyana na mulembi wa mdauko [[Joseph Ellis]], iyi yikaŵa "nyengo yakwamba ndiposo yimoza pera apo pulezidenti wa America uyo wakaŵa pa udindo wakalongozga ŵasilikari pa malo gha nkhondo", nangauli [[James Madison]] wakalongozga kwa kanyengo waka magulu gha ŵasilikari ŵa mfuti zikuru pakuvikilira [[Kuwotcheka kwa Washington|Washington, D.C.]], pa nyengo ya [[Nkhondo ya 1812|Nkhondo ya 1812]].{{Cite web |url=http://www.history.org/foundation/journal/summer12/george.cfm |title=George Washington and the Evolution of the American Commander in Chief |publisher=The Colonial Williamsburg Foundation}} [[Abraham Lincoln]] wakachitanga mulimo ukuru pakunozga ndondomeko yose ya nkhondo ndiposo pa ntchito za zuŵa na zuŵa pa nyengo ya [[Nkhondo ya pa Charu ya ku America|Nkhondo ya pa Charu ya ku America]], 1861–1865; ndipo ŵakulemba mdauko ŵakamulumba chomene Lincoln chifukwa cha mahara ghake gha ndondomeko ya nkhondo ndiposo luso lwake lwakusankha na kukhozga ŵalongozgi ŵasilikari nga ni [[Ulysses S. Grant]].James M. McPherson, ''Tried by War: Abraham Lincoln As Commander in Chief'' (2009) Ulongozgi wa ntchito za zuŵa na zuŵa za ŵasilikari masiku ghano ukupika ku [[Dipatimenti ya Vyakuvikilira ya United States|Dipatimenti ya Vyakuvikilira]] ndipo kanandi ukuchitika kwizira mwa [[Mlembi wa Vyakuvikilira wa United States|Mlembi wa Vyakuvikilira]]. [[Mulongozgi wa Joint Chiefs of Staff|Mulongozgi wa Joint Chiefs of Staff]] pamoza na [[Combatant Commands|Combatant Commands]] ŵakovwira pa ulongozgi wa ntchito izi mwakuyana na Unified Command Plan (UCP) iyo yavomerezgeka na pulezidenti.{{Cite news |url=https://www.defense.gov/releases/release.aspx?releaseid=14398 |title=DOD Releases Unified Command Plan 2011 |date=April 8, 2011 |work=[[United States Department of Defense]] |access-date=February 25, 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110513070316/http://www.defense.gov/releases/release.aspx?releaseid=14398 |archive-date=May 13, 2011}}{{USC|10|164}}[[Joint Chiefs of Staff]]. [https://web.archive.org/web/20090416022040/http://www.jcs.mil/page.aspx?id=2 About the Joint Chiefs of Staff]. Retrieved February 25, 2013. == Nkhongono za vyeruzgo == {{Further|[[Mndandanda wa ŵanthu awo ŵakapika chigowokero panji kulekelereka na pulezidenti wa United States|Mndandanda wa ŵanthu awo ŵakapika chigowokero panji kulekelereka na pulezidenti wa United States]]}} {{Update|section|reason=The case [[Trump v. United States (2024)|Trump v. United States (2024)]]|date=July 2024}} [[File: P20220408AS-1467 (52067437977).jpg|thumb|Pulezidenti [[Joe Biden]] pamoza na wakweruzga wa [[Khoti Likuru Chomene la United States|Khoti Likuru Chomene]] uyo wakamusankha, [[Ketanji Brown Jackson]], kweniso Wachiwiri wa Pulezidenti [[Kamala Harris]] (uyo wali kumanyuma) pamanyuma pakuti Brown Jackson wazomerezgeke na [[Senate ya United States|Senate ya United States]] mu 2022]] Pulezidenti wali na mazaza ghakusankha [[Muweruzgi wa federo wa United States|ŵeruzgi ŵa federo]], kusazgapoŵanthu mu [[Makhoti gha Chikwenu gha United States|Makhoti gha Chikwenu gha United States]] na [[Khoti Likuru la United States|Khoti Likuru la United States]]. Kweni, visankho ivi vikukhumbikwira [[Ndangaulizgi na chizomerezgo#United States|kuzomerezgeka na Senate]] pambere ŵangamba mulimo. Kupokelera chizomerezgo cha Senate chingaŵa chinthu chikuru chakususka ku ŵalongozgi awo ŵakukhumba kunyoloska makhoti gha federo kuya na maghanoghano ghawo. Para ŵakusankha ŵeruzgi mu [[Khoti la Boma la United States|makhoti gha boma gha United States]], ŵalongozgi kanandi ŵakuchindika muzgo wakale wa [[Muzgo wa Senate|muzgo wa Senate]]. Ŵalongozgi ŵangaŵaso na mazaza ghakupereka [[Chigowokero|vigowokero]] na kuchedweska chilango. [[Gerald Ford]] wakagowokera [[Richard Nixon]] mwezi umoza pamanyuma pa kwamba mulimo wake. Ŵalongozgi kanandi ŵakupereka vigowokero pafupi na para ŵakuti ŵafumepo mu udindo wawo, nga umo [[Bill Clinton]] wakagowokera [[Patty Hearst]] pa zuŵa lake laumaliro mu udindo; ichi nchakukayikiska kanandi.<ref name="tws8nov12">{{Cite news |last=Johnston |first=David |url=https://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/big/1224.html |title=Bush Pardons Six in Iran Affair, Aborting a Weinberger Trial; Prosecutor Assails 'Cover-Up' |date=December 24, 1992 |work=The New York Times |access-date=November 8, 2009 |quote=But not since President Gerald R. Ford granted clemency to former President Richard M. Nixon for possible crimes in Watergate has a Presidential pardon so pointedly raised the issue of whether the president was trying to shield officials for political purposes.}}</ref><ref name="tws8nov11">{{Cite news |last=Johnston |first=David |url=https://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/big/1224.html |title=Bush Pardons Six in Iran Affair, Aborting a Weinberger Trial; Prosecutor Assails 'Cover-Up' |date=December 24, 1992 |work=The New York Times |access-date=November 8, 2009 |quote=The prosecutor charged that Mr. Weinberger's efforts to hide his notes may have 'forestalled impeachment proceedings against President Reagan' and formed part of a pattern of 'deception and obstruction'.{{nbsp}}... In light of President Bush's own misconduct, we are gravely concerned about his decision to pardon others who lied to Congress and obstructed official investigations.}}</ref><ref name="tws8nov10">{{Cite news |last=Eisler |first=Peter |url=https://www.usatoday.com/news/washington/2008-03-06-clinton-library-foia_N.htm |title=Clinton-papers release blocked |date=March 7, 2008 |work=USA Today |access-date=November 8, 2009 |quote=Former president Clinton issued 140 pardons on his last day in office, including several to controversial figures, such as commodities trader Rich, then a fugitive on tax evasion charges. Rich's ex-wife, Denise, contributed $2,000 in 1999 to Hillary Clinton's Senate campaign; $5,000 to a related political action committee; and $450,000 to a fund set up to build the Clinton library.}}</ref> Malango ghaŵiri ghakukhwaskana na mazaza gha boma ghakawoneka agho ghakuzomerezga pulezidenti kuti wachite milimo yake mwakujilongozga yekha munjila yinyake. Lakwamba ni [[Ufulu Wapadera wa Boma|ufulu wapadera wa boma]], uwo ukuzomerezga pulezidenti kuti waleke kuvumbura nkhani zauzgani izo zikachitika pakati pake nayo pakuchita milimo ya boma. George Washington ndiyo wakayambirizga kudemba ufulu uwu apo Bungwe la Congress likaŵeya kuwona vyalembo vya [[Muweruzgi Mkuru wa United States|Muweruzgi Mkuru]] [[John Jay]] kufuma ku chiwerengero cha phangano lakusuzga na [[Ufumu wa Great Britain|Great Britain]]. Nangauli chindindindi ichi chindalembeke mu Constitution panji dango linyake lililose, kuchita kwa Washington kukapangiska umboni wakwamba wa ufulu uwu. Apo Nixon wakayezga kugwiliskira ntchito ufulu wapadera wa boma kuŵa chifukwa chakukana kupeleka ukaboni uwo ukalongozgeka na Congress mu nyengo ya [[Nkhani ya Watergate|nkhani ya Watergate]], Khoti Likuru likazomerezga mu ''[[United States v. Nixon]]'', kuti ufulu wapadera wa boma ukazomerezgeka yayi mu nkhani izo pulezidenti wakayezganga kutaŵaka ku milandu yaupolisi. Apo Bill Clinton wakayezga kugwiliskira ntchito ufulu wapadera wa boma pa nkhani ya [[Nkhani ya Clinton–Lewinsky|nkhani ya Lewinsky]], Khoti Likuru likazomerezga mu ''[[Clinton v. Jones]]'', kuti ufulu uwu ungagwiliskikaso ntchito yayi mu milandu ya ŵanthu ŵaŵiri. Milandu iyi yikakhazikiska [[Fundo Yakale|fundo yakale ya malango]] yakuti ufulu wapadera wa boma ngwaunenesko, nangauli umo ufulu uwu ukufikira nkhathomo undalongosoreke makora. Kuwonjezgapo, makhoti gha federo ghazomerezga ufulu uwu kuti ukhwaskeso ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵakuteŵetera mu nthowa ya boma kweni ghawovwira yayi comene ku uzgani wa nthowa ya boma uwo pulezidenti wandavutikepo.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.americanprogress.org/issues/2010/06/executive_privilege.html |title=Executive Privilege 101 |last=Millhiser, Ian |date=June 1, 2010 |publisher=Center for American Progress |access-date=October 8, 2010 |archive-date=June 9, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100609224239/http://www.americanprogress.org/issues/2010/06/executive_privilege.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> [[Mwaŵi wakubisa vyamchindindi vya boma]] ukupeleka mazaza kwa pulezidenti na nthambi ya ulongozgi kubisa uthenga panji mabuku ku [[Discovery (law)|kufufuza kwa umboni]] mu milandu ya pa khoti usange kuwonekera kwake kungananga [[chivikiliro cha charu]]. Chiyambi cha mwaŵi uwu chikawoneka kukwambilira kwa vyaka vya m'ma 1800 apo [[Thomas Jefferson]] wakakana kupeleka mabuku gha nkhondo pa mulandu wa [[chiwembu chakugalukira boma]] wa [[Aaron Burr]], ndipo pamanyuma mu ''[[Totten v. United States]]'', apo Khoti Likuru Chomene likadumura mulandu uwo ukapelekeka na kazondi wakale wa Union.{{cite case |url=https://caselaw.findlaw.com/us-9th-circuit/1537579.html |title=Mohamed v. Jeppesen Dataplan |chapter=Part III |via=FindLaw |access-date=November 29, 2010}} Ndipouli, mwaŵi uwu ukazomerezgeka mwalamulo na Khoti Likuru Chomene la United States yayi m'paka pa mulandu wa ''[[United States v. Reynolds]]'', apo ukawonekera kuti ni mwaŵi wa [[common law]] wa [[Evidence (law)|umboni]].{{Cite web |url=https://www.acslaw.org/issue_brief/briefs-2007-2011/reforming-the-state-secrets-privilege/ |title=Reforming the State Secrets Privilege |last1=Frost |first1=Amanda |last2=Florence |first2=Justin |year=2009 |publisher=[[American Constitution Society]] |access-date=November 9, 2017}} Pambere [[vigaŵa vya pa Seputembala 11]] vindachitike, kugwiliskira ntchito mwaŵi uwu kukaŵa kwakuchitika nyengo zinyake waka, kweni kukamba kwasazgikiranga chomene.{{Cite journal |last1=Weaver |first1=William G. |last2=Pallitto |first2=Robert M. |year=2005 |title=State Secrets and Executive Power |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_political-science-quarterly_spring-2005_120_1/page/85 |journal=[[Political Science Quarterly]] |volume=120 |issue=1 |pages=85–112 |doi=10.1002/j.1538-165x.2005.tb00539.x |quote=Use of the state secrets privilege in courts has grown significantly over the last twenty-five years. In the twenty-three years between the decision in Reynolds [1953] and the election of Jimmy Carter, in 1976, there were four reported cases in which the government invoked the privilege. Between 1977 and 2001, there were a total of fifty-one reported cases in which courts ruled on invocation of the privilege. Because reported cases represent only a fraction of the total cases in which the privilege is invoked or implicated, it is unclear precisely how dramatically the use of the privilege has grown. But the increase in reported cases is indicative of greater willingness to assert the privilege than in the past.}} Kwambira mu 2001, boma lagwiliskira ntchito mwaŵi uwu mu milandu yinandi ndiposo pa nyengo yakwambilira ya mulandu, ndipo nyengo zinyake ichi chachitiska kuti milandu yimare pambere khoti lindafike pa fundo zikuru za madandawuro, nga umo vikawonekera pa cheruzgo cha [[Khoti la Apilu la United States la Dera la Naini|Khoti la Apilu la Dera la Naini]] mu ''[[Mohamed v. Jeppesen Dataplan, Inc.]]''.{{Cite news |last=Savage |first=Charlie |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/09/09/us/09secrets.html |title=Court Dismisses a Case Asserting Torture by C.I.A. |date=September 8, 2010 |work=[[The New York Times]] |access-date=October 8, 2010}}{{Cite news |last=Finn |first=Peter |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2010/09/08/AR2010090807334.html |title=Suit dismissed against firm in CIA rendition case |date=September 9, 2010 |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |access-date=October 8, 2010}} Ŵakususka mwaŵi uwu ŵakuti kugwiliskira ntchito kwake kwazgoka nthowa yakubisira milimo ya boma iyo yikaŵa yakwambura kuzomerezgeka panji yakukhozga soni.{{Cite web |url=http://www.salon.com/news/opinion/glenn_greenwald/2009/02/10/obama |title=The 180-degree reversal of Obama's State Secrets position |last=Glenn Greenwald |author-link=Glenn Greenwald |date=February 10, 2009 |website=Salon |access-date=October 8, 2010}}{{Cite web |url=https://www.aclu.org/national-security/background-state-secrets-privilege |title=Background on the State Secrets Privilege |date=January 31, 2007 |publisher=[[American Civil Liberties Union]] |access-date=October 8, 2010}} Kasi pulezidenti wali na [[absolute immunity|chivikiliro chakukwana]] kufuma ku milandu ya pa khoti mpaka pa mlingo wuli, nkhani iyi yikususkana ndipo yakhala yikweruzgikapo mu vyeruzgo vinandi vya Khoti Likuru Chomene. ''[[Nixon v. Fitzgerald]]'' (1982) yikadumura mulandu wa boma uwo ukapelekeka ku pulezidenti wakale Richard Nixon chifukwa cha milimo yake ya pa udindo. ''[[Clinton v. Jones]]'' (1997) yikadumura kuti pulezidenti walije chivikiliro ku milandu ya boma pa milimo iyo wakachita pambere wandazgoke pulezidenti, ndipo yikadumura kuti mulandu wa kuzunura munthu pa nkhani ya kugonana ungapitilirira kwambura kuchedwa, nangauli uyo wakususkika wakaŵa pulezidenti wakukhala pa udindo. [[Lipoti la Mueller]] la 2019 pa kunjilirapo kwa Russia mu [[Visola vya pulezidenti vya United States vya 2016|visola vya pulezidenti vya United States vya 2016]] likalongosora ukaboni wa [[kunangiska urunji]], kweni ŵakufufuza ŵakakana kupeleka [[Donald Trump]] ku mulandu chifukwa cha ndondomeko ya [[Unduna wa Chilungamo wa United States]] yakukanizga kususka pulezidenti uyo wachali pa udindo. Lipoti ili likati kufumiska pulezidenti pa udindo na Congress kukaŵa nthowa yimoza yakumazgira suzgo ili. Kufika mu Okutobala 2019, mulandu ukaŵa uchali mu makhoti gha boma pa nkhani ya kusanga malipoti gha msonkho gha Donald Trump pa mulandu wa uheni uwo ukapelekeka na [[Loya Mukuru wa Chigaŵa cha New York]] chifukwa cha kuswa malango gha boma la New York.{{Cite news|url=https://www.npr.org/2019/10/07/767830713/federal-judge-rules-trump-must-hand-over-8-years-of-tax-returns|title=President Trump Doesn't Need To Release His Tax Returns — For Now|website=[[NPR]]|date=October 7, 2019|access-date=April 28, 2020|last1=Brown|first1=Tanya Ballard}} Makalata gha [[Office of Legal Counsel]] agho ghakafuma mu 1973 na 2000 ghakakanizga mukati mwa Unduna wa Chilungamo kususka pulezidenti pa mulandu wa uheni, icho ŵasambizgi ŵanyake ŵa malango ŵakususkira kweni ŵanyake ŵakuchizomerezga.{{cite journal |last1=Prakash |first1=Saikrishna Bangalore |title=Prosecuting and Punishing Our Presidents. |journal=[[Texas Law Review]] |date=November 2021 |volume=100 |issue=1 |pages=55–113 |url=https://texaslawreview.org/prosecuting-and-punishing-our-presidents/ |access-date=31 March 2023 |ssrn=4039230 |id={{EBSCOhost|154035452|dbcode=a9h}}}} Pakujivikilira ku mulandu wa boma wa uheni pa [[Federal prosecution of Donald Trump (election obstruction case)|ivyo wakususkikira kuti wakayezga kunangiska visola vya 2020]], mu Janyuwale 2024, Trump wakaphalira [[Khoti la Apilu la DC Circuit]] kuti pulezidenti wali na [[absolute immunity|chivikiliro chakukwana]] ku milandu ya uheni pa vinthu ivyo wachita apo wakaŵa pa udindo. Mwezi wakulondezgapo, gulu la ŵeruzgi ŵatatu la khoti ili likadumura mwakukolerana kuti Trump wakaŵavya mazaza agha. Aka kakaŵa kakwamba kuti khoti la apilu lidumbiskane nkhani ya chivikiliro cha pulezidenti cha mtundu uwu, chifukwa pakaŵavya pulezidenti uyo wakaŵa pa udindo panji wakale uyo wakasuskikapo pa mulandu wa uheni.{{cite news |title=Federal Appeals Court Rejects Trump's Claim of Absolute Immunity |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2024/02/06/us/politics/trump-immunity-appeals-court.html |work=The New York Times |date=February 6, 2024|author1=Alan Feuer|author2=Charlie Savage}} Mu ''[[Trump v. United States (2024)|Trump v. United States]]'', pa Julayi 1, 2024, Khoti Likuru Chomene likadumura kuti mapulezidenti ŵali na [[absolute immunity|chivikiliro chakukwana]] para ŵakugwiliskira ntchito mazaza ghakuru agho ghali kulembeka mu Dango Likuru, [[presumption|kughanaghana kuti pali chivikiliro]] pa milimo yinyake ya pa udindo, kweni palije chivikiliro pa milimo ya munthu payekha iyo yikukhwaskana yayi na udindo. Mulandu uwu ukaweleraso ku makhoti ghapasi kuti ghadumbiske kuti ni milimo yili iyo yikwenera kuwoneka kuti nja pa udindo panji nja munthu payekha.{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/article/2024/jul/02/presidential-immunity-trump-lawsuits|title=What does the immunity ruling mean for Trump's criminal cases?|work= The Guardian}} Aka kakaŵa kakwamba kuti makhoti ghapeleke pulezidenti chivikiliro ku milandu ya uheni. == Maudindo gha ulongozgi == === Mutu wa boma === {{listen|filename=Four ruffles and flourishes, hail to the chief (long version).ogg|title=Four ruffles and flourishes and 'Hail to the Chief' (long version)}} Nga ni [[mutu wa boma]], pulezidenti wakwimira boma la United States ku ŵanthu ŵake ndipo wakwimira charu ku vyaru vinyake pa charu chose. Mwachiyelezgero, para mutu wa boma wa charu chinyake wafika pa ulendo wa boma, kanandi pulezidenti wakuchitiska [[State visits to the United States|mwambo wakupokelera mutu wa boma]] uwo ukuchitikira pa [[South Lawn (White House)|South Lawn]], mwambo uwo ukambika na [[John F. Kennedy]] mu 1961.{{Cite book |last1=Abbott |first1=James A. |url=https://archive.org/details/designingcamelot0000abbo |title=Designing Camelot: The Kennedy White House Restoration |last2=Rice |first2=Elaine M. |publisher=Van Nostrand Reinhold |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-442-02532-8 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/designingcamelot0000abbo/page/9 9]–10 |url-access=registration}} Pamanyuma pake pakuchitika [[state dinner]] iyo pulezidenti wakupeleka mu [[State Dining Room of the White House|State Dining Room]] kumise.{{Cite web |url=https://www.whitehousehistory.org/the-white-house-state-dinner |title=The White House State Dinner |website=The White House Historical Association |access-date=November 9, 2017}} [[File:Wilson opening day 1916.jpg|thumb|Pulezidenti [[Woodrow Wilson]] wakuponya bola lakwamba la mwambo pa [[Opening Day]] mu 1916.]] [[File:President Bill Clinton at Buckingham Palace.jpg|thumb|Pulezidenti [[Bill Clinton]] wakuwona gulu la ŵasilikari ŵa ntchindi pa [[Buckingham Palace]] pa ulendo wa boma ku United Kingdom mu 1995.]] Nga ni mulongozgi wa charu, pulezidenti wakufiska maudindo ghanandi ghambura kuŵa gha boma chomene agho ghakukhwaskana na mwambo. Mwachiyelezgero, [[William Howard Taft]] wakambiska mwambo wa kuponya [[ceremonial first pitch|bola lakwamba la mwambo]] mu 1910 pa [[Griffith Stadium]], Washington, D.C., pa [[Opening Day]] ya [[Minnesota Twins#Washington Nationals/Senators: 1901–1960|Washington Senators]]. Pulezidenti waliyose kufuma kwa Taft, kupatulapo [[Jimmy Carter]], waponya bola limoza lakwamba la mwambo pa Opening Day, pa [[Major League Baseball All-Star Game|All-Star Game]], panji pa [[World Series]], kanandi pakuŵa chikondwelero chikuru.{{Cite news |last=Duggan |first=Paul |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/04/01/AR2007040101262.html |title=Balking at the First Pitch |date=April 2, 2007 |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |page=A01}} Pulezidenti waliyose kufuma kwa [[Theodore Roosevelt]] waŵa pulezidenti wa ntchindi wa [[Boy Scouts of America]].{{Cite web |url=http://www.scouting.org/filestore/pdf/210-531_WB.pdf |title=History of the BSA Fact Sheet |publisher=Boy Scouts of America |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140629031545/http://www.scouting.org/filestore/pdf/210-531_WB.pdf |archive-date=June 29, 2014 |access-date=November 9, 2017}} === Mutu wa chipani === [[File:President Reagan giving his acceptance speech at the Republican National Convention in Dallas Texas.jpg|alt=|thumb|Pulezidenti [[Ronald Reagan]] wakuyowoya mazgu ghake ghakuzomera kusankhika pa [[1984 Republican National Convention]].]] Kanandi pulezidenti wakuwoneka nga ni mutu ndiposo muyowoyeri wa chipani chake cha ndyali. Kufuma apo visola vya kuwoneska ŵanthu ŵakusankhika (binding primaries) vikambira mu vyaru vinandi vya boma, ŵanthu awo ŵakusankhika kuŵa ŵakwimilira chipani pa visola vya pulezidenti kanandi ŵakuŵa na wovwiri wa ŵavoti ŵanandi ŵa chipani chawo. Pakuti Nyumba yose ya Ŵimiliri na pafupifupi chigaŵa chimoza pa vitatu cha Seneti vikusoleka pa nyengo yimoza na pulezidenti, kupunda kwa ŵakwimira chipani pa visola kanandi kukukolerana na umo wakwimira chipani pa visola vya pulezidenti wachitira. [[Coattail effect]], panji kusoŵa kwake, nayo kanandi wakukhwaska ŵakwimira chipani pa visola vya boma na vya mu vigaŵa. Ndipouli, kanandi pakuŵa mphindano pakati pa pulezidenti na ŵanyake mu chipani, ndipo mapulezidenti awo ŵakutaya wovwiri ukuru wa ŵa chipani chawo mu Congress kanandi ŵakuwoneka kuti mbafoka ndiposo ŵakuchita makora yayi. Kweniso, chifukwa United States ni boma la ndondomeko ya phalamende yayi, chipani cha pulezidenti chikusoŵa kanandi unandi wa ŵimiliri mu nyumba yimoza panji zose za Congress, panji pa maudindo gha mabwanamkubwa na mu nyumba za malango za vyaru vinandi. === Mulongozgi wa pa charu chose === Na kukura kwa United States kuŵa [[superpower|charu chankhongono chomene]] mu vyaka vya m'ma 1900, ndiposo kuŵa na chuma chikuru chomene pa charu chose mu vyaka vya m'ma 2000, kanandi pulezidenti wakuwoneka nga ni mulongozgi wa pa charu chose, ndipo nyengo zinyake nga ni munthu wa ndyali wali na nkhongono zikuru chomene pa charu. Udindo wa United States nga ni membara mukuru wa [[NATO]], ndiposo ubwezi wake wakukhora na vyaru vinyake vyasambazi panji vya demokilase nga ni ivyo vili mu [[European Union]], vyapangiska kuti pulezidenti wachemekenge kuti "[[mulongozgi wa charu cha wanangwa]]". == Ndondomeko ya kusankha == === Ivyo munthu wakwenera kuŵa navyo === [[Article Two of the United States Constitution#Clause 5: Qualifications for office|Article II, Section 1, Clause 5]] ya Dango Likuru yikulongosora vinthu vitatu ivyo munthu wakwenera kuŵa navyo kuti waŵe pulezidenti. Kuti munthu waŵe pulezidenti wakwenera: waŵe [[Natural-born-citizen clause (United States)|mwenekaya wa United States mwa kubabikira]]; waŵe na vyaka vyakukwana 35 panji kujumpha; waŵe [[Residency (domicile)#United States|wakukhala mu United States]] kwa vyaka vyakukwana 14.{{Cite web |url=https://constitutioncenter.org/interactive-constitution/articles/article-ii/article-ii-annenberg/interp/19 |title=Article II. The Executive Branch, Annenberg Classroom |website=The Interactive Constitution |publisher=The National Constitution Center |location=Philadelphia, Pennsylvania |access-date=June 15, 2018}} Munthu uyo wakufiska vyose ivyo vyalembeka pachanya wangatondeka kuŵa pulezidenti usange pali chilichose mwa ivi: Kuyana na [[Article One of the United States Constitution#Clause 7: Judgment in cases of impeachment; Punishment on conviction|Article I, Section 3, Clause 7]], usange munthu wakafumiskika pa udindo, wakasangika na mulandu ndiposo wakakanizgika kuŵaso na udindo uliwose wa boma, nangauli pali mphindano za malango pa nkhani yakuti dango ili likukhwaska so udindo wa pulezidenti: ŵanthu pera awo ŵali kukanizgikapo kuyana na dango ili ni ŵeruzgi ŵatatu ŵa boma.{{cite web |last1=Bernstein |first1=Richard D. |title=Lots of People Are Disqualified From Becoming President |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2021/02/trump-disqualification-president/617908/ |website=The Atlantic |access-date=March 1, 2021 |language=en |date=February 4, 2021 |quote=In addition to the list of people who are ineligible for reasons of mere demographic chance, the Constitution adds a category of people who cannot be elected as a result of their misdeeds. This category includes presidents (along with vice presidents and federal "civil officers") who are impeached, convicted by two-thirds of the Senate, and disqualified for serious misconduct committed while they were in office.}}{{cite web |last1=Wolfe |first1=Jan |title=Explainer: Impeachment or the 14th Amendment – Can Trump be barred from future office? |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-trump-impeachment-explainer-idUSKBN29I356 |website=Reuters |access-date=March 1, 2021 |language=en |date=January 14, 2021}} Kuyana na [[Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution#Participants in rebellion|Section 3 ya Amendment ya 14]], munthu waliyose uyo wakalapa kuti wavikilirenge Dango Likuru ndipo pamanyuma wakagalukira United States ngwakwenelera yayi kuŵa na udindo uliwose wa boma. Ndipouli, kukanizgika uku kungafumiskikapo na voti ya magawo ghaŵiri pa ghatatu gha nyumba yiliyose ya Congress.{{cite web|last=Moreno|first=Paul|title=Articles on Amendment XIV: Disqualification for Rebellion|url=https://www.heritage.org/constitution/#!/amendments/14/essays/173/disqualification-for-rebellion|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120421180046/http://www.heritage.org/constitution#!/amendments/14/essays/173/disqualification-for-rebellion|url-status=unfit|archive-date=April 21, 2012|website=The Heritage Guide to the Constitution|publisher=The Heritage Foundation|access-date=June 15, 2018}} Kweniso, pali mphindano pa nkhani yakuti dango ili, umo lili kulembekera, lingakanizga munthu kuŵa pulezidenti panji lingakhumbikwira dankha mulandu kuwaro kwa Congress, nangauli pali viyelezgero vya kugwiliskira ntchito amendment iyi pa vinthu vinyake padera pa chilato chake chakwambilira cha kukanizga [[Confederate States of America|ŵa Confederacy]] kuŵa pa maudindo gha boma pamanyuma pa Nkhondo ya Ŵanaŵene.{{cite web |last1=Vlamis |first1=Kelsey |title=Here's how the 14th Amendment could be used to prevent Trump from running again |url=https://www.businessinsider.com/how-the-14th-amendment-could-prevent-trump-from-office-2021-2 |website=Business Insider |access-date=March 1, 2021}} Kuyana na [[Twenty-second Amendment to the United States Constitution|Amendment ya 22]], palije munthu wangasoleka kuŵa pulezidenti kujumpha kaŵiri. Amendment iyi yikulongosoraso kuti usange munthu wakwenerera wateŵetera nga ni pulezidenti panji pulezidenti wakuchitapo ntchito kwa vyaka vyakujumpha viŵiri vya nyengo iyo munthu munyake wakasoleka kuŵa pulezidenti, munthu wakwamba wangasolekaso kuŵa pulezidenti kamoza pera.{{cite journal|last1=Peabody|first1=Bruce G.|last2=Gant|first2=Scott E.|date=February 1999|title=The Twice and Future President: Constitutional Interstices and the Twenty-Second Amendment|url=http://alpha.fdu.edu/~peabody/Twice_and_Future_President.html|journal=Minnesota Law Review|volume=83|issue=3|pages=565–635|access-date=June 12, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130115121046/http://alpha.fdu.edu/~peabody/Twice_and_Future_President.html|archive-date=January 15, 2013}}{{cite journal|last=Albert|first=Richard|title=The Evolving Vice Presidency|journal=Temple Law Review|date=Winter 2005|volume=78|issue=4|url=https://lawdigitalcommons.bc.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=https://www.google.com/&httpsredir=1&article=1624&context=lsfp|pages=811–896|access-date=July 31, 2018|via=Digital Commons @ Boston College Law School}} === Uteŵeti wakale === {{Main|List of presidents of the United States by other offices held|List of presidents of the United States by previous experience|List of presidents of the United States by education}} Palije chakukhumbikwa kuti pulezidenti panji ŵakwimira pa udindo wa pulezidenti ŵaŵepo na udindo unyake pambere ŵandanjire pa udindo panji pa nyengo yeneyiyo. Ndipouli, pulezidenti waliyose, kupatulapo Donald Trump, wali kuŵapo [[Governor (United States)|kazembe wa boma]], [[United States Senate|seneta wa United States]], [[United States House of Representatives|membara wa Congress]], [[General officers in the United States|mulara wa ŵasilikari]], panji [[Cabinet of the United States|membara wa nduna za boma]]. Ntchito iyo mapulezidenti ŵanandi ŵakachitanga ni ya muloya, pakuti ŵanalume 27 pa 45 awo ŵateŵeterapo nga ni pulezidenti ŵakaŵa maloya.International Law, US Power: The United States' Quest for Legal Security, p 10, Shirley V. Scott—2012 Mapulezidenti ŵanyake awo ŵakazakaŵa mapulezidenti ŵakaleka kusambira panji kuchita ntchito ya uloya pambere ŵandazgoke mapulezidenti. Palije nyengo iyo munthu wakakhumbikwiranga kuŵa na katundu kuti waŵe pulezidenti panji kuŵa na udindo unyake wa boma, kweni mu vyaka vyakwambilira vya republic, pakaŵa [[Property qualification#United States of America|vyakukhumbikwa vya katundu kuti munthu wavote]] panji kuti waŵe pa maudindo ghanyake agho ghakafiskanga munthu kuŵa pulezidenti, chomenechomene pa udindo wa kazembe wa boma. Pambere Nkhondo ya Ŵanaŵene yindachitike, chikaŵa chakuzara kuti mapulezidenti ŵaŵe ŵanthu ŵa katundu munandi: mapulezidenti ŵa ku North kanandi ŵakaŵa na mafamu ghachoko, apo ŵanandi ŵa ku South ŵakaŵa na minda yikuru ndiposo [[List of presidents of the United States who owned slaves|ŵazga]].{{cite news|url=https://247wallst.com/special-report/2019/02/26/the-net-worth-of-the-american-presidents-washington-to-trump-2/|title=The Net Worth of the American Presidents: Washington to Trump|date=November 10, 2016|work=24/7 Wall St.|access-date=April 10, 2019|publisher=247wallst.com|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190410142809/https://247wallst.com/special-report/2019/02/26/the-net-worth-of-the-american-presidents-washington-to-trump-2/|archive-date=April 10, 2019|url-status=live}}{{cite web |last1=Whitney |first1=Gleaves |title=Slaveholding Presidents |url=https://scholarworks.gvsu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1021&context=ask_gleaves |website=Ask Gleaves |publisher=Grand Valley State University |access-date=October 14, 2020 |ref=gvsu}} Nangauli mapulezidenti ŵanyake ŵakamanyuma ŵakafuma mu ukavu ukuru, ŵanyake, nga ni mbumba ya Roosevelt, John Kennedy, na Donald Trump, ŵakafuma mu mbumba zisambazi chomene. Ŵanalume 33 pa 45 awo ŵateŵeterapo nga ni pulezidenti, kusazgapo pulezidenti waliyose kwambira mu 1953 na wose kupatulapo yumoza kufuma mu 1901, ŵali kuŵa na digiri ya bachelor. Pa ŵanthu aŵa, [[Ivy League#U.S. presidents in the Ivy League|mapulezidenti 16]] ŵakasanga digiri ya Bachelor panji ya pachanya kufuma ku makoleji gha mu [[Ivy League]]. === Makampeni na kusankhika === {{Main|United States presidential primary|United States presidential nominating convention}} {{See also|United States presidential debates}} [[File:Carter Reagan Debate 10-28-80.png|thumb|Pulezidenti [[Jimmy Carter]] (kumazere) wakudumbiskana na wakwimira chipani cha Republican [[Ronald Reagan]] pa Okutobala 28, 1980, pa nyengo ya [[1980 United States presidential election|kampeni ya visola vya pulezidenti vya United States ya 1980]].]] Kampeni ya mazuŵa ghano ya pulezidenti yikwamba pambere [[United States presidential primary|visola vyakwambilira]] vindachitike, ivyo vipani viŵiri vikuru vya ndyali vikugwiliskira ntchito kupatura ŵakwimira pa visola pambere [[United States presidential nominating convention|misonkhano yawo ya kusankha wakwimira chipani]] yindachitike, uko munthu uyo wapunda chomene wakuzgoka wakwimira chipani pa visola vya pulezidenti. Kanandi, wakwimira chipani pa udindo wa pulezidenti wakusankha munthu wakwimira pa udindo wa wachiŵiri kwa pulezidenti, ndipo chisankho ichi [[Rubber stamp (politics)|chikuzomerezgeka]] na msonkhano. Ŵakwimira pa visola ŵakuchita [[United States presidential debates|nkhani za kudumbiskana]] izo zikuwoneskeka pa TV ya charu chose, ndipo nangauli nkhani izi kanandi zikuperekeka ku ŵakwimira [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]] na [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] pera, [[Third party (United States)|ŵakwimira vipani vinyake]] nawo ŵangachemeka, nga ni [[Ross Perot]] pa [[1992 United States presidential debates|nkhani za 1992]]. Ŵakwimira pa visola ŵakwendakwenda mu charu chose kulongosora maghanoghano ghawo, kukopa ŵavoti na kupempha ndalama zakwendeskera kampeni. Chigaŵa chikuru cha visola vya mazuŵa ghano chikukhwaskana na kupunda mu [[swing state|vyaru vya boma vyakusintha voti]] kwizira mu maulendo ghanandi na malonda gha pa [[mass media]]. === Visola === {{Main|United States presidential election}} {{See also|United States Electoral College}} [[File:ElectoralCollege2028.svg|thumb|293x293px|Mapu gha [[United States]] agho ghakulongora unandi wa mavoti gha Electoral College agho ghakapelekeka ku [[U.S. state|boma]] lililose na [[Washington, D.C.|District of Columbia]] pamanyuma pa [[2020 United States census]] pa visola vya pulezidenti vya 2024 na 2028. Mavoti 270 gha Electoral College ghakukhumbikwa kuti munthu waŵe na unandi pa mavoti 538 agho ghali ghose.]] Pulezidenti wakusoleka mwambura kulunjika na ŵavoti ŵa boma lililose na [[Washington, D.C.|District of Columbia]] kwizira mu Electoral College, gulu la ŵakusora ilo likupangika pa vyaka vinayi vilivyose kuti lisore pulezidenti na wachiŵiri wake pa nyengo ya vyaka vinayi. Nga umo vikulembekera mu Article II, Section 1, Clause 2, boma lililose likuŵa na unandi wa ŵakusora wakuyana na unandi wa ŵimiliri ŵake mu nyumba zose ziŵiri za Congress. [[Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution|Amendment ya 23]] yikupereka kuti District of Columbia yiŵe na unandi wa ŵakusora uwo yiŵenge nayo usange yikaŵa boma, kweni yingajumphanga yayi uwo boma ilo lili na ŵanthu ŵachoko chomene lili nawo.{{Cite web|url=http://www.annenbergclassroom.org/page/twenty-third-amendment|title=Twenty-third Amendment|date=March 29, 1961|website=Annenberg Classroom|publisher=The Annenberg Public Policy Center|location=Philadelphia, Pennsylvania|access-date=July 30, 2018}} Sono, maboma ghose na District of Columbia ghakusankha ŵakusora ŵawo kwizira mu visola vya ŵanthu wose.{{Cite web|url=https://fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/RL32611.pdf|title=The Electoral College: How It Works in Contemporary Presidential Elections|last=Neale|first=Thomas H.|date=May 15, 2017|website=CRS Report for Congress|publisher=Congressional Research Service|location=Washington, D.C.|page=13|access-date=July 29, 2018}} Mu maboma ghose kupatulapo ghaŵiri, chipani icho [[Ticket (election)|tikiti]] yake ya pulezidenti na wachiŵiri wake yapokera [[Plurality (voting)|mavoti ghanandi chomene]] mu boma, chikupokera [[Slate (elections)|gulu lose]] la ŵakusora ŵake kuŵa ŵakusora ŵa boma ilo.{{Cite web|url=https://www.archives.gov/federal-register/electoral-college/electors.html|title=About the Electors|website=U.S. Electoral College|publisher=[[National Archives and Records Administration]]|location=Washington, D.C.|access-date=August 2, 2018}} [[Maine]] na [[Nebraska]] vikulondezga yayi ndondomeko iyi ya {{nowrap|winner-take-all}}; vikupereka ŵakusora ŵaŵiri kwa uyo wapunda mu boma lose, na yumoza kwa uyo wapunda mu [[List of United States congressional districts|dela lililose la Congress]].{{Cite web|url=http://www.fairvote.org/maine_nebraska|title=Maine & Nebraska|publisher=FairVote|location=Takoma Park, Maryland|access-date=August 1, 2018|archive-date=August 2, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180802041058/http://www.fairvote.org/maine_nebraska|url-status=dead}}{{Cite web|url=https://www.270towin.com/content/split-electoral-votes-maine-and-nebraska/|title=Split Electoral Votes in Maine and Nebraska|website=[[270towin.com]]|access-date=August 1, 2018}} Pa Mande wakwamba pamanyuma pa Chitatu chachiŵiri cha mwezi wa Disembala, pafupifupi masabata ghankhondi na limoza pamanyuma pa visola, ŵakusora ŵakuwungana mu misumba yikuru ya maboma ghawo, na mu Washington, D.C., kuti ŵavotere pulezidenti, ndipo pa pepala linyake la voti, ŵavotere wachiŵiri kwa pulezidenti. Kanandi ŵakuvotera ŵakwimira chipani icho chikaŵasankha. Nangauli palije dango la mu Malango Ghakuru panji la boma ilo likuŵakakamizga kuchita nthena, District of Columbia na maboma 32 ghali na malango agho ghakukhumba kuti ŵakusora ŵavotere ŵakwimira awo ŵali [[Promise|kulayizgika]] kuvotera.{{cite web |title=Faithless Elector State Laws |url=https://www.fairvote.org/faithless_elector_state_laws |website=Fair Vote |access-date=March 4, 2020 |archive-date=December 19, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161219162610/https://www.fairvote.org/faithless_elector_state_laws |url-status=dead }}{{cite web |title=Laws Binding Electors |url=http://presidentialelectorlaws.us |access-date=March 4, 2020}} Kuzomerezgeka kwa malango agha kukakhozgeka mu mulandu wa ''[[Chiafalo v. Washington]]'' (2020).{{Cite web|last=Howe|first=Amy|date=July 6, 2020|title=Opinion analysis: Court upholds "faithless elector" laws|url=https://www.scotusblog.com/2020/07/opinion-analysis-court-upholds-faithless-elector-laws/|access-date=July 11, 2020|website=[[SCOTUSblog]]}} Pamanyuma pa kuvota, boma lililose likutumizga mbiri yakukhozgeka ya mavoti ghake gha Electoral College ku Congress. Mavoti gha ŵakusora ghakujurika na kuŵerengeka pa ungano wakuphatikizika wa Congress uwo ukuchitika mu sabata yakwamba ya Janyuwale. Usange wakwimira pa visola wapokera [[Unandi wakukwana wa mavoti|mavoti ghanandi chomene]] gha Electoral College pa udindo wa pulezidenti, sono 270 pa 538, munthu yura wakupharazgika kuŵa wapunda. Para palije uyo wapokera mavoti agha, [[Nyumba ya Ŵimiliri ya United States|Nyumba ya Ŵimiliri]] yikwenera kuwungana kuti yisore pulezidenti kwizira mu ndondomeko ya [[visola vyapadera]], umo ŵimiliri, awo ŵakuvota mwakuyimira boma lawo, ndipo boma lililose likupeleka voti yimoza, ŵakusankhapo pakati pa ŵanthu ''ŵatatu'' awo ŵapokera mavoti ghanandi gha Electoral College pa udindo wa pulezidenti. Kuti munthu waŵe pulezidenti, wakwimira pa visola wakwenera kupokera mavoti gha unandi wa maboma, sono 26 pa maboma 50. Mu mbiri ya charu ichi, pali visola viŵiri pera vya pulezidenti ivyo vikamara na [[visola vyapadera]]. Mu [[Visola vya pulezidenti vya United States vya 1800|visola vya 1800]], [[Thomas Jefferson]] na munyake wa chipani cha Democratic-Republican [[Aaron Burr]] ŵakapokera mavoti ghakuyana, 73–73, gha Electoral College, ndipo ichi chikapangiska kuti pakhale visola vyapadera vyakwamba. Vikachitika mwakukolerana na ndondomeko yakwamba iyo yikakhazikiskika na [[Nkhani Yachiŵiri ya Dango Likuru la United States#Ndime 3: Electoral College|Nkhani II, Chigaŵa 1, Ndime 3]] ya Dango Likuru, ilo likuti usange ŵanthu ŵaŵiri panji ŵatatu ŵapokera mavoti ghanandi ndiposo ghakuyana, Nyumba ya Ŵimiliri yikusankha yumoza wa iwo kuŵa pulezidenti; ndipo uyo waŵa pa malo ghachiŵiri wakuzgoka wachiŵiri kwa pulezidenti.{{Cite web|url=https://www.heritage.org/constitution/#!/articles/2/essays/80/electoral-college|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120421180046/http://www.heritage.org/constitution#!/articles/2/essays/80/electoral-college|url-status=unfit|archive-date=April 21, 2012|title=Essays on Article II: Electoral College|last=Kuroda|first=Tadahisa|website=The Heritage Guide to The Constitution|publisher=The Heritage Foundation|access-date=July 27, 2018}} Pa Febuluwale 17, 1801, Jefferson wakasankhika kuŵa pulezidenti pa voti ya 36, ndipo Burr wakasankhika kuŵa wachiŵiri kwa pulezidenti. Pamanyuma pake, ndondomeko iyi yikasinthika kwizira mu [[Amendment ya 12 ya Dango Likuru la United States|Amendment ya 12]] kuti yigwiliskike ntchito pa [[Visola vya pulezidenti vya United States vya 1804|visola vya 1804]].{{Cite web|url=https://www.heritage.org/constitution/#!/amendments/12/essays/165/electoral-college|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120421180046/http://www.heritage.org/constitution#!/amendments/12/essays/165/electoral-college|url-status=unfit|archive-date=April 21, 2012|title=Essays on Amendment XII: Electoral College|last=Fried|first=Charles|website=The Heritage Guide to the Constitution|publisher=The Heritage Foundation|access-date=February 20, 2018}} Pakati pajumpha vyaka pafupifupi 25, kusankha pulezidenti kukaweleraso ku Nyumba ya Ŵimiliri apo palije wakwimira pa visola uyo wakapokera [[Unandi wakukwana wa mavoti|mavoti ghanandi chomene]] gha Electoral College, 131 pa 261, mu [[Visola vya pulezidenti vya United States vya 1824|visola vya 1824]]. Kuyana na Amendment ya 12, Nyumba ya Ŵimiliri yikeneranga kusankha pulezidenti pakati pa ŵanthu ŵatatu awo ŵakapokera mavoti ghanandi gha Electoral College: [[Andrew Jackson]], [[John Quincy Adams]], na [[William H. Crawford]]. Visola vyapadera ivi vyachiŵiri, ndiposo vyamumaliro mpaka sono, vikachitika pa Febuluwale 9, 1825, ndipo vikapangiska kuti John Quincy Adams wasankhike kuŵa pulezidenti pa voti yakwamba.{{Cite book|last=Boller|first=Paul F.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fZ_fSmFIabQC|title=Presidential Campaigns: From George Washington to George W. Bush|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2004|isbn=978-0-19-516716-0|edition=2nd revised|location=New York, New York|pages=36–39|access-date=August 2, 2018}} === [[Kunjira pa udindo kwa pulezidenti wa United States|Kunjira pa udindo]] === {{Main|[[Kunjira pa udindo kwa pulezidenti wa United States|Kunjira pa udindo kwa pulezidenti wa United States]]}} Kuyana na [[Amendment ya 20 ya Dango Likuru la United States|Amendment ya 20]], nyengo ya vyaka vinayi ya uteŵeti wa pulezidenti na wachiŵiri wake yikwamba pa 12 koloko muhanya pa Janyuwale 20, mu chaka icho chikulondezga visola vya pulezidenti ivyo vyajumpha.{{Cite web |url=https://constitutioncenter.org/interactive-constitution/amendments/amendment-xx |title=The Twentieth Amendment |last1=Larson |first1=Edward J. |last2=Shesol |first2=Jeff |website=The Interactive Constitution |publisher=The National Constitution Center |location=Philadelphia, Pennsylvania |access-date=June 15, 2018}} Nyengo zakwamba za uteŵeti wa pulezidenti na wachiŵiri wake izo zikambira pa zuŵa ili, ilo likumanyikwa kuti [[Kunjira pa udindo kwa pulezidenti wa United States|Zuŵa la kunjira pa udindo]], zikaŵa [[Kunjira pa udindo kwachiŵiri kwa Franklin D. Roosevelt|nyengo yachiŵiri ya uteŵeti]] wa Pulezidenti [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] na Wachiŵiri kwa Pulezidenti [[John Nance Garner]] mu 1937.{{Cite web |url=http://history.house.gov/HistoricalHighlight/Detail/35948?ret=True |title=The First Inauguration after the Lame Duck Amendment: January 20, 1937 |publisher=Office of the Historian, U.S. House of Representatives |location=Washington, D.C. |access-date=July 24, 2018}} Kale, Zuŵa la Kunjira pa Udindo likaŵa pa Malichi 4. Chifukwa cha kusintha kwa deti ili, nyengo yakwamba ya uteŵeti (1933–37) ya ŵanalume aŵa yikachepeskeka na {{age in days|1937|1|20|1937|3|4}} mazuŵa.{{Cite web |url=https://www.congress.gov/content/conan/pdf/GPO-CONAN-2017-10-21.pdf |title=Commencement of the Terms of Office: Twentieth Amendment |website=Constitution of the United States of America: Analysis and Interpretation |publisher=United States Government Printing Office, Library of Congress |location=Washington, D.C. |pages=2297–98 |access-date=July 24, 2018}} Pambere wandambe kugwiliskira ntchito mazaza gha udindo wake, pulezidenti wakwenera [[Kuyowoya mwakuzomerezgeka|kuyowoya]] [[Chilapo cha udindo wa pulezidenti wa United States|chilapo cha udindo wa pulezidenti]], icho chili mu [[Nkhani Yachiŵiri ya Dango Likuru la United States#Ndime 8: Chilapo panji kukhozgera|Nkhani II, Chigaŵa 1, Ndime 8 ya Dango Likuru]]. Ichi ndicho chigaŵa chekha cha mwambo wa kunjira pa udindo icho chikukhumbikwa na Dango Likuru: {{blockquote|Nikulapa mwakuzirwa (panji [[Kukhozgera mu malango|kukhozgera]]) kuti nichitenge mwakugomezgeka ntchito ya Udindo wa Pulezidenti wa United States, ndipo mwakukwaniska kwane, nisungenge, nivikirirenge, na kudefendera Dango Likuru la United States.{{Cite web |url=https://www.heritage.org/constitution/#!/articles/2/essays/85/oath-of-office |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120421180046/http://www.heritage.org/constitution#!/articles/2/essays/85/oath-of-office |url-status=unfit |archive-date=April 21, 2012 |title=Essays on Article II: Oath of Office |last=Kesavan |first=Vasan |website=The Heritage Guide to The Constitution |publisher=The Heritage Foundation |access-date=August 2, 2018}}}} Mapulezidenti kanandi ŵakuŵika woko limoza pa [[Baibolo|Baibolo]] apo ŵakulapa chilapo, ndipo ŵakusazgapo mazgu ghakuti "Chiuta wanovwire" paumaliro wa chilapo.{{Cite web |url=https://constitutioncenter.org/blog/how-presidents-use-bibles-at-inaugurations |title=How Presidents use Bibles at inaugurations |last=NCC Staff |date=January 20, 2017 |website=Constitution Daily |publisher=National Constitution Center |location=Philadelphia, Pennsylvania |access-date=August 3, 2018 |archive-date=August 4, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180804014507/https://constitutioncenter.org/blog/how-presidents-use-bibles-at-inaugurations |url-status=dead }}{{Cite web |url=https://constitutioncenter.org/blog/who-said-that-a-quick-history-of-the-presidential-oath |title=Who said that? A quick history of the presidential oath |last=Munson |first=Holly |date=July 12, 2011 |website=ConstitutionDaily |publisher=National Constitution Center |location=Philadelphia, Pennsylvania |access-date=August 3, 2018 |archive-date=August 4, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180804014505/https://constitutioncenter.org/blog/who-said-that-a-quick-history-of-the-presidential-oath |url-status=dead }} Nangauli chilapo ichi chingapelekeka na munthu waliyose uyo wali na mazaza gha kulolezgeka na dango kupereka vilapo, mapulezidenti kanandi ŵakulapiskika na [[Chief Justice wa United States|Chief Justice wa United States]]. == Uteŵeti pa udindo == === Malire gha nyengo ya uteŵeti === [[File:William MacKinley (1843-1901), de 25ste president van de Verenigde Staten van Amerika, met naast, SFA002006258.jpg|thumb|Pulezidenti [[William McKinley]] na munyake wakwimira pa udindo wa wachiŵiri kwa pulezidenti, kazembe wa boma la New York [[Theodore Roosevelt]], {{Circa|1900}}]] [[File:FDR 1944 Color Portrait.jpg|alt=|thumb|[[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] wakapunda pa visola vya pulezidenti vinayi, [[Visola vya pulezidenti vya United States vya 1932|1932]], [[Visola vya pulezidenti vya United States vya 1936|1936]], [[Visola vya pulezidenti vya United States vya 1940|1940]], na [[Visola vya pulezidenti vya United States vya 1944|1944]] pambere [[Amendment ya 22 ya Dango Likuru la United States|Amendment ya 22]] yindambe kugwira ntchito mu 1951, iyo yikakhazikiska malire gha nyengo ziŵiri za uteŵeti.]] Apo pulezidenti wakwamba, [[George Washington]], wakapharazga mu [[Mazgu ghaumaliro gha George Washington|Mazgu Ghake Ghaumaliro]] kuti wazamukwimira yayi pa nyengo yachitatu ya uteŵeti, wakakhazikiska mwambo wa "nyengo ziŵiri pera". Mwambo uwu ukazgoka mwambo wakulondezgeka pamanyuma pakuti [[Thomas Jefferson]] wakawuzomerezga pakweru mu nyengo yake yachiŵiri ya uteŵeti, nga umo ŵakachitira ŵamanyuma ŵake ŵaŵiri, [[James Madison]] na [[James Monroe]].{{Cite web |url=http://www.whitehousetransitionproject.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/04/Terms-Tenure_101909-1.pdf |title=Presidential Terms and Tenure: Perspectives and Proposals for Change |last=Neale |first=Thomas H. |date=October 19, 2009 |publisher=Congressional Research Service |location=Washington, D.C. |access-date=August 3, 2018}} Nangauli mwambo wa nyengo ziŵiri ukaŵa wakukhora chomene, [[Ulysses S. Grant]] wakapenja kusankhika pa [[Msonkhano wa Chipani cha Republican wa 1880]] kuti wakwimire pa nyengo yachitatu yakulondezgana yayi, kweni wakatondeka.{{Cite web |url=https://millercenter.org/president/grant/campaigns-and-elections |title=Ulysses S. Grant: Campaigns and Elections |last=Waugh |first=Joan |date=October 4, 2016 |publisher=Miller Center of Public Affairs, University of Virginia |access-date=August 3, 2018}} Mu 1940, pamanyuma pakulongozga charu mu nyengo ya [[Great Depression|Suzgo Likuru la Chuma]] ndiposo pakukhwimiska wovwiri ku vyaru vya [[Allies of World War II|ŵabwezi ŵa nkhondo]] ivyo vikamenyananga na [[Axis powers|vyaru vya Axis]], Franklin Roosevelt wakasankhikaso pa nyengo yachitatu ya uteŵeti, ndipo wakaphwanya mwambo uwo ukaŵapo kwa nyengo yitali. Vyaka vinayi pamanyuma pake, apo United States yikanjilirapo kale mu [[Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Charu Chose]], wakasankhikaso pa nyengo yachinayi nangauli thupi lake likafowokanga; wakafwa pa Epulero 12, 1945, mazuŵa 82 ghati ghajumphapo kufuma apo wakambira nyengo yake yachinayi ya uteŵeti.{{Cite web |url=http://www.annenbergclassroom.org/page/twenty-second-amendment |title=Twenty-second Amendment |website=Annenberg Classroom |publisher=The Annenberg Public Policy Center |location=Philadelphia, Pennsylvania |access-date=August 2, 2018}} Pakuzgora nyengo yitali iyo Roosevelt wakateŵetera nga ni pulezidenti, [[Amendment ya 22 ya Dango Likuru la United States|Amendment ya 22]] [[kuzomerezgeka|yikazomerezgeka]] mu 1951. Amendment iyi yikukanizga munthu waliyose kusankhika kuŵa pulezidenti kujumpha kaŵiri, panji kamoza pera usange munthu yura wakateŵetera nga ni pulezidenti kwa vyaka vyakujumpha viŵiri (myezi 24) pa nyengo ya uteŵeti wa vyaka vinayi ya pulezidenti munyake. [[Harry S. Truman]], uyo wakaŵa pulezidenti pa nyengo iyo amendment iyi yikapelekekera ku maboma na Congress, wakafwatulika ku malire agha. Usange nthena yayi, nthena wakaŵavya mwaŵi wakwimira pa nyengo yachiŵiri yakukwana mu 1952, iyo wakayezga dankha kupenjera, chifukwa wakateŵetera pafupifupi nyengo yose yakukhalapo ya Roosevelt ya 1945–1949 ndipo wakasankhika pa nyengo yakukwana ya vyaka vinayi iyo yikambira mu 1949. === Malo ghambura munthu pa udindo na kulondezgana pa udindo === {{Main|[[Ndondomeko ya kulondezgana pa udindo wa pulezidenti wa United States|Ndondomeko ya kulondezgana pa udindo wa pulezidenti wa United States]]}} Kuyana na [[Amendment ya 25 ya Dango Likuru la United States#Chigaŵa 1: Kulondezgana pa udindo wa pulezidenti|Chigaŵa 1 cha Amendment ya 25]], iyo yikazomerezgeka mu 1967, wachiŵiri kwa pulezidenti wakuzgoka pulezidenti para pulezidenti [[Mulandu wa kufumiska pa udindo wa pulezidenti wa United States|wafumiskika pa udindo]], wafwa, panji waleka udindo. Nyifwa za mapulezidenti zachitikapo kanandi, kuleka udindo kwachitikapo kamoza pera, ndipo kufumiskika pa udindo kundachitikepo yayi. Pambere Amendment ya 25 yindazomerezgeke (iyo yikapambaniska makora nkhani ya kulondezgana pa udindo), [[Nkhani Yachiŵiri ya Dango Likuru la United States#Ndime 6: Malo ghambura munthu pa udindo na kuleka kukwaniska ntchito|Nkhani II, Chigaŵa 1, Ndime 6]], yikayowoyanga waka kuti wachiŵiri kwa pulezidenti wakutora "mazaza na milimo" ya pulezidenti para pulezidenti wafumiskika pa udindo, wafwa, waleka udindo, panji watondeka kuchita ntchito zake.{{Cite journal |last=Feerick |first=John D. |date=2011 |title=Presidential Succession and Inability: Before and After the Twenty-Fifth Amendment |url=http://ir.lawnet.fordham.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=4695&context=flr |journal=Fordham Law Review |location=New York City |publisher=[[Fordham University School of Law]] |volume=79 |issue=3 |pages=907–949 |access-date=December 13, 2018}} Kuyana na ndime iyi, pakaŵa kususkana pa nkhani yakuti kasi wachiŵiri kwa pulezidenti wakuzgoka nadi pulezidenti para udindo wasoŵa munthu, panji wakuŵa waka [[Kuchita udindo mwakanyengo|wakuchita udindo wa pulezidenti]],{{Cite web |url=https://www.heritage.org/constitution/#!/articles/2/essays/83/presidential-succession |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120421180046/http://www.heritage.org/constitution#!/articles/2/essays/83/presidential-succession |url-status=unfit |archive-date=April 21, 2012 |title=Essays on Article II: Presidential Succession |last=Feerick |first=John |website=The Heritage Guide to the Constitution |publisher=The Heritage Foundation |access-date=December 13, 2018}} icho nthena chikapangiska kuti pachitike [[visola vyapadera]]. Pulezidenti [[William Henry Harrison]] wakati wafwa mu 1841, Wachiŵiri kwa Pulezidenti [[John Tyler]] wakapharazga kuti walondezga udindo wose wa pulezidenti, ndipo wakakana kupokera mapepala ghose agho ghakalembekanga kwa "Pulezidenti Wakuchita Udindo". Pamanyuma pake, Congress yikazomerezga fundo yake. == Umulongozgi mu udindo == === Malire gha nyengo ya udindo === [[File:William MacKinley (1843-1901), de 25ste president van de Verenigde Staten van Amerika, met naast, SFA002006258.jpg|thumb|Pulezidenti [[William McKinley]] na munyake uyo wakapikanga nayo pa udindo wa wachiŵiri wa pulezidenti, kazembe wa New York [[Theodore Roosevelt]], {{Circa|1900}}]] [[File:FDR 1944 Color Portrait.jpg|alt=|thumb|[[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] wakathereska visola vinayi vya [[Visola vya pulezidenti wa United States|pulezidenti]] mu [[Visola vya pulezidenti wa United States vya 1932|1932]], [[Visola vya pulezidenti wa United States vya 1936|1936]], [[Visola vya pulezidenti wa United States vya 1940|1940]], na [[Visola vya pulezidenti wa United States vya 1944|1944]] pambere [[Sintho la nambara 22 la Dango Likuru la United States|Sintho la nambara 22]] lindambe kugwira ntchito mu 1951, ilo likakhazikiska mphaka wa maudindo ghaŵiri.]] Apo pulezidenti wakwamba, [[George Washington]], wakapharazga mu [[Mazgu gha George Washington pakulekana na udindo|Mazgu ghake ghakulekana na udindo]] kuti walekenge kupikaso pa nyengo yachitatu, wakakhazikiska mwambo wa "maudindo ghaŵiri pera". Mwambo uwu ukazgoka mwambo wakulondezgeka pamanyuma pakuti [[Thomas Jefferson]] wakawovwira pakweru fundo iyi mu nyengo yake yachiŵiri, nga umo ŵakachitira ŵalongozgi ŵaŵiri awo ŵakamulondezga, [[James Madison]] na [[James Monroe]].{{Cite web |url=http://www.whitehousetransitionproject.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/04/Terms-Tenure_101909-1.pdf |title=Presidential Terms and Tenure: Perspectives and Proposals for Change |last=Neale |first=Thomas H. |date=October 19, 2009 |publisher=Congressional Research Service |location=Washington, D.C. |access-date=August 3, 2018}} Nangauli mwambo wa maudindo ghaŵiri ukaŵa wakukhora, [[Ulysses S. Grant]] wakapenja kusankhika pa [[Msonkhano Wapachaka wa Republican wa 1880|Msonkhano Wapachaka wa Republican wa 1880]] kuti wapike pa nyengo yachitatu yambura kulondezgana, kweni wakatondeka.{{Cite web |url=https://millercenter.org/president/grant/campaigns-and-elections |title=Ulysses S. Grant: Campaigns and Elections |last=Waugh |first=Joan |date=October 4, 2016 |publisher=Miller Center of Public Affairs, University of Virginia |access-date=August 3, 2018}} Mu 1940, pamanyuma pakulongozga charu mu nyengo ya [[Great Depression]] ndipo wakakhumbanga kovwira [[Ŵabwezi ŵa United States mu Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya pa Charu Chose|ŵabwezi ŵa United States]] awo ŵakarwanga nkhondo na [[Mphara za Axis|ŵa Axis]], Franklin Roosevelt wakasankhika pa nyengo yachitatu, kuphwanya mwambo uwo ukaŵapo kwa nyengo yitali. Vyaka vinayi pamanyuma, apo United States yikachitanga [[Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya pa Charu Chose]], wakasankhikaso nangauli thupi lake likamba kufoka; wakafwa pa Epulero 12, 1945, mazuŵa 82 kufuma apo wakambira nyengo yake yachinayi.{{Cite web |url=http://www.annenbergclassroom.org/page/twenty-second-amendment |title=Twenty-second Amendment |website=Annenberg Classroom |publisher=The Annenberg Public Policy Center |location=Philadelphia, Pennsylvania |access-date=August 2, 2018}} Pakuzgora utali wakuluska wa ulamuliro wa Roosevelt, [[Sintho la nambara 22 la Dango Likuru la United States|Sintho la nambara 22]] likazomerezgeka mu 1951. Sintho ili likukanizga munthu waliyose kusankhika kuŵa pulezidenti kaŵiri kuluska, panji kamoza pera usange munthu yura wakateŵetera nga ni pulezidenti kwa vyaka vyakuluska viŵiri (myezi 24) vya nyengo ya pulezidenti munyake. [[Harry S. Truman]], uyo wakaŵa pulezidenti pa nyengo iyo Sintho ili likatumizgikira ku vyaru na Congress, wakafwatulika ku malire agha. Usange nthena wakafwatulikapo yayi, nthena wakatondekanga kupika pa nyengo yake yachiŵiri yakukwana mu 1952, iyo wakayezga pachoko waka, pakuti wakateŵetera pafupifupi nyengo yose ya Roosevelt yakusazgikira ya 1945–1949 ndipo wakasankhika ku nyengo yakukwana ya vyaka vinayi iyo yikambira mu 1949. === Malo ghambura munthu na kulondezgana pa udindo === {{Main|[[Ndondomeko ya kulondezgana pa udindo wa pulezidenti wa United States|Ndondomeko ya kulondezgana pa udindo wa pulezidenti wa United States]]}} Pasi pa [[Sintho la nambara 25 la Dango Likuru la United States#Chigaŵa 1: Kulondezgana pa udindo wa pulezidenti|Chigaŵa 1 cha Sintho la nambara 25]], ilo likazomerezgeka mu 1967, wachiŵiri wa pulezidenti wakuŵa pulezidenti para pulezidenti [[Mulandu wa kufumiskapo pa udindo wa boma ku United States|wafumiskika pa udindo]], wafwa, panji waleka ntchito. Nyifwa zachitika kanandi, kuleka ntchito kwachitika kamoza pera, ndipo kufumiskika pa udindo kundachitikepo. Pambere Sintho la nambara 25 lindazomerezgeke (ilo likalongosora makora nkhani ya kulondezgana pa udindo), [[Nkhani Yachiŵiri ya Dango Likuru la United States#Ndime 6: Malo ghambura munthu na kuleka kutondeka kuchita ntchito|Nkhani II, Chigaŵa 1, Ndime 6]], yikayowoya waka kuti wachiŵiri wa pulezidenti wakupokera "mazaza na milimo" ya pulezidenti para pulezidenti wafumiskika pa udindo, wafwa, waleka ntchito, panji watondeka kuchita milimo yake.{{Cite journal |last=Feerick |first=John D. |date=2011 |title=Presidential Succession and Inability: Before and After the Twenty-Fifth Amendment |url=http://ir.lawnet.fordham.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=4695&context=flr |journal=Fordham Law Review |location=New York City |publisher=[[Fordham University School of Law]] |volume=79 |issue=3 |pages=907–949 |access-date=December 13, 2018}} Pasi pa ndime iyi, pakaŵa kususkana pa nkhani yakuti kasi wachiŵiri wa pulezidenti waŵenge nadi pulezidenti para malo ghaba ghambura munthu, panji waŵenge waka [[Kuchita ntchito ya munyake mu dango|wakuchita ntchito nga ni pulezidenti]],{{Cite web |url=https://www.heritage.org/constitution/#!/articles/2/essays/83/presidential-succession |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120421180046/http://www.heritage.org/constitution#!/articles/2/essays/83/presidential-succession |url-status=unfit |archive-date=April 21, 2012 |title=Essays on Article II: Presidential Succession |last=Feerick |first=John |website=The Heritage Guide to the Constitution |publisher=The Heritage Foundation |access-date=December 13, 2018}} ndipo ichi nthena chikapangiska kuti paŵe [[Visola vyapadera|visola vyapadera]]. Pulezidenti [[William Henry Harrison]] wakati wafwa mu 1841, Wachiŵiri wa Pulezidenti [[John Tyler]] wakapharazga kuti walondezga udindo wose wa pulezidenti, ndipo wakakana kupokera mapepala agho ghakalembekanga ku "Pulezidenti Wakuchita Milimo". Pamanyuma pake, Congress yikazomera fundo yake. Para pulezidenti na wachiŵiri wa pulezidenti ŵalije wose, Nkhani II, Chigaŵa 1, Ndime 6 nayo yikupaso mazaza ku Congress kuti yidumbe uyo waŵenge wakuchita ntchito ya pulezidenti para "Pulezidenti na Wachiŵiri wa Pulezidenti ŵafumiskika pa udindo, ŵafwa, ŵaleka ntchito, panji ŵatondeka kuchita milimo yawo". [[Dango la Kulondezgana pa Udindo wa Pulezidenti la 1947]] (ilo lili mu 3 U.S.C. § 19) likuti usange pulezidenti na wachiŵiri wa pulezidenti ŵafumapo pa udindo panji ŵangateŵetera yayi mu nyengo yawo ya udindo, [[Ndondomeko ya kulondezgana pa udindo wa pulezidenti wa United States|ndondomeko ya kulondezgana pa udindo wa pulezidenti]] yikulondezga nthowa iyi: wakulongozga wa Nyumba ya Ŵimiliri, ndipo usange pakukhumbikwa, pulezidenti ''pro tempore'' wa Senate, ndipo usange pakukhumbikwaso, ŵalongozgi ŵakwenelera ŵa [[Madipatimenti gha boma la United States|madipatimenti gha boma]] awo ŵakupanga [[Kabineti ya United States|Kabineti]] ya pulezidenti.{{Cite news |url=https://www.cnn.com/2013/08/27/us/succession-presidential-and-vice-presidential-fast-facts/index.html |title=Succession: Presidential and Vice Presidential Fast Facts |date=October 24, 2017 |access-date=July 19, 2018 |website=CNN}} Kabineti sono yili na ŵanthu 15, ndipo mulembi wa vya kuwaro ndiyo wali pakwamba pa mzere wa kulondezgana pa udindo. Ŵalembi ŵanyake ŵa Kabineti ŵakulondezga mwakulondezgana na nyengo iyo dipatimenti yawo, panji dipatimenti iyo yikaluta m'malo mwa yawo, yikapangikira. Ŵanthu awo Dango Likuru likuŵazomerezga yayi kusankhika kuŵa pulezidenti nawo ŵakukanizgika kupokera mazaza na milimo ya pulezidenti kwizira mu kulondezgana pa udindo. Pakaŵavya munthu wakudumbika na dango uyo wali kuchitapo ntchito ya pulezidenti. === Kupharazga kuleka kukwaniska kuchita ntchito === {{Main|[[Sintho la nambara 25 la Dango Likuru la United States]]}} Pasi pa Sintho la nambara 25, pulezidenti wangasamuskira kwa kanyengo mazaza na milimo yake kwa wachiŵiri wa pulezidenti, uyo pamanyuma wakuŵa [[Pulezidenti wakuchita milimo wa United States|pulezidenti wakuchita milimo]], para watumizga kalata ku [[Wakulongozga wa Nyumba ya Ŵimiliri ya United States|wakulongozga wa Nyumba ya Ŵimiliri]] na [[Pulezidenti pro tempore wa Senate ya United States|pulezidenti ''pro tempore'' wa Senate]] yakuyowoya kuti wangakwaniska yayi kuchita milimo yake. Pulezidenti wakupokeraso mazaza ghake para watumizga kalata yachiŵiri yakuyowoya kuti wangachitaso ntchito zake. Nthowa iyi yagwiliskirika ntchito na [[Ronald Reagan]] (kamoza), [[George W. Bush]] (kaŵiri), na [[Joe Biden]] (kamoza), wose pambere ŵandachite opaleshoni.{{cite news| last=Olsen| first=Jillian| title=How many other vice presidents have temporarily taken over presidential powers?| date=November 19, 2021| url=https://www.wtsp.com/article/news/history/presidential-transfer-of-power-biden-bush-reagan/67-17f1fa96-f44a-4050-a53c-593f55e4949f| publisher=[[WTSP]]| location=St. Petersburg, Florida| access-date=May 11, 2022}}{{cite news|last=Sullivan|first=Kate|title=For 85 minutes, Kamala Harris became the first woman with presidential power|date=November 19, 2021|url=https://www.cnn.com/2021/11/19/politics/kamala-harris-presidential-power/index.html|publisher=CNN|access-date=November 19, 2021}} Sintho la nambara 25 likupangaso kuti wachiŵiri wa pulezidenti, pamoza na ŵanandi mwa ŵabali ŵanyake ŵa [[Kabineti ya United States|Kabineti]], wasamuske mazaza na milimo ya pulezidenti kwa wachiŵiri wa pulezidenti para ŵatumizga kalata yakulembeka ku wakulongozga wa Nyumba ya Ŵimiliri na pulezidenti ''pro tempore'' wa Senate, yakuyowoya kuti pulezidenti wangakwaniska yayi kuchita mazaza na milimo yake. Usange pulezidenti pamanyuma wayowoya kuti kuleka kukwaniska uku kulije, wakupokeraso mazaza ghake, kweni usange wachiŵiri wa pulezidenti na Kabineti ŵatumizga kalata yachiŵiri yakuyowoya kuti pulezidenti wangakwaniska yayi, Congress ndiyo yikusankha nkhani iyi. Kuti mazaza gha pulezidenti ghafumiskike, pakukhumbikwa mavoti gha magawo ghaŵiri pa vitatu mu nyumba zose ziŵiri za Congress. === Kufumiskika pa udindo === {{Main|[[Mndandanda wa vyakuyesera kufumiska ŵapulezidenti ŵa United States pa udindo|Mndandanda wa vyakuyesera kufumiska ŵapulezidenti ŵa United States pa udindo]]|[[Kufumiska pa udindo wa boma ku United States]]|[[Mulandu wa kufumiska pa udindo wa boma ku United States]]}} [[Nkhani Yachiŵiri ya Dango Likuru la United States#Chigaŵa 4: Kufumiska pa udindo|Nkhani II, Chigaŵa 4]] ya Dango Likuru yikuzomerezga kuti ŵalongozgi ŵakuru ŵa boma, kusazgapo pulezidenti, ŵafumiskike pa udindo chifukwa cha "[[kupandukira charu]], [[kupokera viwongo]], panji [[milandu yikuru na viheni vikuru]]". [[Nkhani Yakwamba ya Dango Likuru la United States#Ndime 5: Wakulongozga na ŵalara ŵanyake; kufumiska pa udindo|Nkhani I, Chigaŵa 2, Ndime 5]] yikupereka mazaza ku Nyumba ya Ŵimiliri kuti yichite nga ni "[[juri yikuru]]" yakuti yisuske ŵalara aŵa na voti ya ŵanandi.{{Cite web |url=https://www.heritage.org/constitution/#!/articles/1/essays/17/trial-of-impeachment |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120421180046/http://www.heritage.org/constitution#!/articles/1/essays/17/trial-of-impeachment |url-status=unfit |archive-date=April 21, 2012 |title=Essays on Article I: Impeachment |last=Presser |first=Stephen B. |website=Heritage Guide to the Constitution |publisher=The Heritage Foundation |access-date=August 3, 2018}} [[Nkhani Yakwamba ya Dango Likuru la United States#Ndime 6: Milandu ya kufumiska pa udindo|Nkhani I, Chigaŵa 3, Ndime 6]] yikupereka mazaza ku Senate kuti yichite nga ni [[khoti]], ndipo yingafumiska pa udindo ŵalara awo ŵasangika na mulandu para ŵavotera na ŵanandi ŵakukwana magawo ghaŵiri pa vitatu.{{Cite web |url=https://www.heritage.org/constitution/#!/articles/1/essays/17/trial-of-impeachment |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120421180046/http://www.heritage.org/constitution#!/articles/1/essays/17/trial-of-impeachment |url-status=unfit |archive-date=April 21, 2012 |title=Essays on Article I: Trial of Impeachment |last=Gerhardt |first=Michael J. |website=Heritage Guide to the Constitution |publisher=The Heritage Foundation |access-date=August 3, 2018}} Ŵapulezidenti ŵatatu ŵasuskika na Nyumba ya Ŵimiliri: Andrew Johnson mu [[Kufumiska Andrew Johnson pa udindo|1868]], Bill Clinton mu [[Kufumiska Bill Clinton pa udindo|1998]], na Donald Trump mu [[Kufumiska Donald Trump pa udindo kakwamba|2019]] na [[Kufumiska Donald Trump pa udindo kachiŵiri|2021]]. Palije nanga njumoza uyo wakasangika na mulandu na Senate. [[Komiti ya Nyumba ya Ŵimiliri ya United States ya vya Malango|Komiti ya Nyumba ya Ŵimiliri ya vya Malango]] yikachita kafukufuku wa kufumiska Richard Nixon pa udindo mu [[Ndondomeko ya kufumiska Richard Nixon pa udindo|1973–74]] ndipo yikapeleka nkhani zitatu za kufumiska pa udindo ku Nyumba ya Ŵimiliri kuti yichitepo kanthu. Kweni wakaleka ntchito pambere Nyumba ya Ŵimiliri yindavotepo pa nkhani izi. === Kulekeska mazaza === Vinthu vyakususkana navyo vichitikirapo nyengo zinyake kwambura kufika pa kumufumiska pulezidenti pa udindo kuti ŵamazge nkharo yake yakuwoneka nga njambura kupwelera panji chifukwa cha kuleka kukwaniska kuchita ntchito kwa nyengo yitali. Nyengo zinyake, ŵantchito ŵakuleka dala kupeleka mauthenga kwa pulezidenti panji kufuma kwa iyo, kanandi kuti ŵaleke kuchita panji kovwira pulezidenti kulemba malango ghanyake. Ivi vyachitika kufuma apo Mulara wa Ŵantchito ŵa [[Richard Nixon]] wakatondeka kutumizga malango ku Kabineti chifukwa cha kumwa chomene kwa pulezidenti, mpaka apo ŵantchito ŵakafumyapo mapepala pa desiki la [[Donald Trump]].{{cite book |author=David Priess |title=How to Get Rid of a President: History's Guide to Removing Unpopular, Unable, or Unfit Chief Executives |url=https://archive.org/details/howtogetridofpre0000davi |publisher=PublicAffairs |year=2018 |isbn=978-1541788206 |chapter=2 Undermined by Opponents or Subordinates}} Vyaka vinandi pambere [[Sintho la nambara 25 la Dango Likuru la United States|Sintho la nambara 25]] lindazomerezgeke, mu 1919, Pulezidenti Woodrow Wilson wakadwala [[Ulongozgi wa Woodrow Wilson#Kuleka kukwaniska kuchita ntchito, 1919–1921|sitiroko]] iyo yikamulekeska kuchita milimo yinyake. Muwoli wake wakwamba, [[Edith Wilson]], wakabisa nkhani iyi kwa nyengo ku ŵanthu, ndipo mwakususkana, [[Edith Wilson#Udindo ukuru pamanyuma pa sitiroko ya mfumu wake|wakaŵa yekha munthu wakuzomerezga ŵanthu kufika kwa pulezidenti]] (kupatulako dokotala wake), wakamovwiranga na mapepala na kusankha ivyo vikaŵa "vyakuzirwa" kuti vimanyiskike kwa iyo.{{cite book |author=David Priess |title=How to Get Rid of a President: History's Guide to Removing Unpopular, Unable, or Unfit Chief Executives |url=https://archive.org/details/howtogetridofpre0000davi |publisher=PublicAffairs |year=2018 |isbn=978-1541788206 |chapter=2 Undermined by Opponents or Subordinates}} === Malipiro === {| class="wikitable floatright" ; margin-right:2em" |- ! colspan="3" |Mbiri ya malipiro gha pulezidenti |- ! Chakachakakhazikiskikira !! Malipiro !! Malipiro mu{{Inflation/year|US}} USD |- | 1789 || style="text-align:right;"| $25,000 || style="text-align:right;"| ${{Inflation|US|25000|1789|fmt=c}} |- | 1873 || style="text-align:right;"| $50,000 || style="text-align:right;"| ${{Inflation|US|50000|1873|fmt=c}} |- | 1909 || style="text-align:right;"| $75,000 || style="text-align:right;"| ${{Inflation|US|75000|1909|fmt=c}} |- | 1949 || style="text-align:right;"| $100,000 || style="text-align:right;"|${{Inflation|US|100000|1949|fmt=c}} |- | 1969 || style="text-align:right;"| $200,000 || style="text-align:right;"|${{Inflation|US|200000|1969|fmt=c}} |- | 2001 || style="text-align:right;"| $400,000 || style="text-align:right;"|${{Inflation|US|400000|2001|fmt=c}} |- ! colspan="3" | Malo ghakufumira:{{Cite web|url=http://www-personal.umich.edu/~graceyor/govdocs/fedprssal.html|title=Presidential and Vice Presidential Salaries Exclusive of Perquisites|website=Data from Congressional Quarterly's Guide to the Presidency|publisher=[[University of Michigan]]|access-date=July 31, 2020}}{{Cite web|url=https://www.measuringworth.com/calculators/uscompare/index.php|title=Seven Ways to Compute the Relative Value of a U.S. Dollar Amount, 1774 to Present|last=Williamson|first=Samuel H.|publisher=MeasuringWorth|access-date=July 31, 2020}}{{inflation/fn|US}} |} Kwambira mu 2001, malipiro gha chaka gha pulezidenti ghakhala $400,000, pamoza na ndalama za vyakugwiliskira ntchito zakukwana $50,000; akaunti yambura msonkho ya ndalama zakwendera ya $100,000; na akaunti ya ndalama zakuchitira mphwando ya $19,000{{clarify|date=August 2022}}. Malipiro gha pulezidenti ghakukhazikiskika na Congress, ndipo pasi pa [[Nkhani Yachiŵiri ya Dango Likuru la United States#Ndime 7: Malipiro|Nkhani II, Chigaŵa 1, Ndime 7]] ya Dango Likuru, kusazgirako panji kuchepeskako malipiro gha pulezidenti kungamba yayi kugwira ntchito pambere nyengo yakulondezgapo ya pulezidenti yindambe.{{Cite web|url=https://www.thoughtco.com/presidential-pay-and-compensation-3322194|title=Presidential Pay and Compensation|last=Longley|first=Robert|date=September 1, 2017|publisher=[[ThoughtCo]]|access-date=July 31, 2018}} === Malo ghakukhala === {{for-multi|malo ghakukhala gha boma agho Pulezidenti Washington wakakhalanga|[[Ulongozgi wa George Washington#Malo ghakukhala|Ulongozgi wa George Washington § Malo ghakukhala]]|malo ghakukhala gha munthu yekha gha ŵapulezidenti ŵakupambanapambana ŵa United States|[[Mndandanda wa malo ghakukhala gha ŵapulezidenti ŵa United States]]}} [[Malo Ghakukhala gha Executive]] gha [[White House]] ku [[Washington, D.C.]], ndigho [[malo ghakukhala gha boma]] gha pulezidenti. Malo agha ghakasankhika na George Washington, ndipo libwe lakwamba la maziko likayikika mu 1792. Pulezidenti waliyose kwambira [[John Adams]] mu 1800 wakhalapo penepapo. Mu nyengo zakupambanapambana za mbiri ya United States, nyumba iyi yikamanyikwanga kuti "Nyumba ya Pulezidenti", "Nyumba ya Mlongozgi", na "Nyumba ya Executive". Theodore Roosevelt ndiyo wakapeleka zina lakuti White House mwalamulo mu 1901.{{Cite web|url=https://www.whitehouse.gov/about-the-white-house/the-white-house/|title=The White House Building|website=[[White House|whitehouse.gov]]|access-date=August 3, 2018}} Boma la federal ndilo likulipira vyakurya vya pa mphwando za boma na milimo yinyake ya boma, kweni pulezidenti yekha ndiyo wakulipira ndalama za kulongoska vyakuvwara, vyakurya vya mbumba yake, na vya ŵalendo ŵake.{{Cite magazine|last=Bulmiller|first=Elisabeth|date=January 2009|title=Inside the Presidency: Few outsiders ever see the President's private enclave|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/magazine/2009/01/president/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180714224047/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/magazine/2009/01/president/|url-status=dead|archive-date=July 14, 2018|magazine=[[National Geographic]]|location=Washington, D.C.|access-date=August 3, 2018}} [[Camp David]], ilo mwalamulo likuchemeka Naval Support Facility Thurmont, ni msasa wa ŵasilikari uwo uli mu mapiri mu [[Frederick County, Maryland]]. Ni malo gha pulezidenti ghakupumulirako ku mizi. Malo agha ghakumanyikwa chifukwa cha mtende na kupumura, ndipo ghagwiliskirika ntchito chomene kwambira m'ma 1940 pakupokelera ŵalongozgi ŵa vyaru vinyake.{{Cite web|url=https://www.whitehouse.gov/about-the-white-house/camp-david/|title=The White House Building|website=[[White House|whitehouse.gov]]|access-date=August 3, 2018}} == Kukhala pa Udindo == === Malire gha nyengo ya uteŵeti === [[File:William MacKinley (1843-1901), de 25ste president van de Verenigde Staten van Amerika, met naast, SFA002006258.jpg|thumb|Purezidenti [[William McKinley]] na munyake wake wakuphalirika kuŵa wachiŵiri kwa purezidenti, kazembe wa New York [[Theodore Roosevelt]], {{Circa|1900}}]] [[File:FDR 1944 Color Portrait.jpg|alt=|thumb|[[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] wakathereska ma [[chisankho cha purezidenti wa United States|chisankho cha purezidenti]] vinayi, mu [[1932 United States presidential election|1932]], [[1936 United States presidential election|1936]], [[1940 United States presidential election|1940]], na [[1944 United States presidential election|1944]], pambere [[Twenty-second Amendment to the United States Constitution|Sintho la Malango la 22]] lindambe kugwira ntchito mu 1951, ilo likakhazikiska mphaka wa nyengo ziŵiri za uteŵeti.]] Apo purezidenti wakwamba, [[George Washington]], wakapharazga mu [[George Washington's Farewell Address|mazgu ghake gha kupatura pa udindo]] kuti wangalutilira yayi kuphalirika nyengo yachitatu, wakakhazikiska mwambo wa "nyengo ziŵiri pera". Mwambo uwu ukazgoka mwambo wa boma apo [[Thomas Jefferson]] wakawovwira fundo iyi pakweru mu nyengo yake yachiŵiri, nga umo ŵakachitira ŵalondezgani ŵake ŵaŵiri, [[James Madison]] na [[James Monroe]].<ref name="TermsTenure">{{Cite web |url=http://www.whitehousetransitionproject.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/04/Terms-Tenure_101909-1.pdf |title=Presidential Terms and Tenure: Perspectives and Proposals for Change |last=Neale |first=Thomas H. |date=October 19, 2009 |publisher=Congressional Research Service |location=Washington, D.C. |access-date=August 3, 2018}}</ref> Nangauli mwambo wa kuteŵetera nyengo ziŵiri ukaŵa wakukhora, [[Ulysses S. Grant]] wakapenja kusankhika pa [[1880 Republican National Convention|Msonkhano Wapachaka wa Republican wa 1880]] kuti waphalirikeso nyengo yachitatu yakulondezgana yayi, kweni wakatondeka.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://millercenter.org/president/grant/campaigns-and-elections |title=Ulysses S. Grant: Campaigns and Elections |last=Waugh |first=Joan |date=October 4, 2016 |publisher=Miller Center of Public Affairs, University of Virginia |access-date=August 3, 2018}}</ref> Mu 1940, pamanyuma pakulongozga charu mu nyengo ya [[Great Depression]] ndipo wakakhazikika pa kovwira ŵabwezi ŵa United States pa nkhondo na [[Axis powers]], Franklin Roosevelt wakasankhikaso ku nyengo yachitatu, kuswa mwambo uwo ukaŵapo kwa nyengo yitali. Vyaka vinayi pamanyuma pake, apo United States yikachitanga nkhondo mu [[Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Charu Chose]], wakasankhikaso nangauli thupi lake likalutilira kufoka; wakafwa mazuŵa 82 kufuma apo wakambira nyengo yake yachinayi pa Epulero 12, 1945.<ref name="22ndAPPC">{{Cite web |url=http://www.annenbergclassroom.org/page/twenty-second-amendment |title=Twenty-second Amendment |website=Annenberg Classroom |publisher=The Annenberg Public Policy Center |location=Philadelphia, Pennsylvania |access-date=August 2, 2018}}</ref> Pakuzgora uteŵeti utali wakuluska wa Roosevelt, [[Twenty-second Amendment to the United States Constitution|Sintho la Malango la 22]] likazomerezgeka mu 1951. Sintho ili likukanizga munthu waliyose kusankhika kuŵa purezidenti kanandi kuluska kaŵiri, panji kamoza pera usange wakateŵetera kujumpha vyaka viŵiri (myezi 24) ya nyengo ya vyaka vinayi ya purezidenti munyake. [[Harry S. Truman]], uyo wakaŵa purezidenti pa nyengo iyo sintho ili likatumizgikira ku maboma na Congress, wakafumiskikapo pa malire agha. Usange mphakawavyenge kulekeskeka uku, mphanyi wakazomerezgekanga yayi kuphalirikaso ku nyengo yachiŵiri yakukwana mu 1952, iyo wakayezga mwachoko kuyipenja, chifukwa wakateŵetera pafupifupi nyengo yose yakukhalako ya Roosevelt ya 1945–1949 ndipo wakasankhika ku nyengo yakukwana ya vyaka vinayi iyo yikambira mu 1949.<ref name=22ndAPPC /> === Malo ghambura munthu pa udindo na kulondezgana === {{Main|United States presidential line of succession}} Mwakuyana na [[Twenty-fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution#Section 1: Presidential succession|Gawo 1 la Sintho la Malango la 25]], ilo likazomerezgeka mu 1967, wachiŵiri kwa purezidenti wakuŵa purezidenti para purezidenti wafumiskika pa udindo, wafwa, panji waleka yekha. Kufwa kwa purezidenti kwachitika kanandi, kuleka udindo kwachitika kamoza pera, ndipo kufumiskika pa udindo kundachitikepo. Pambere Sintho la Malango la 25 lindazomerezgeke (ilo likalongosora makora nkhani ya kulondezgana), [[Article Two of the United States Constitution#Clause 6: Vacancy and disability|Article II, Section 1, Clause 6]] likati waka wachiŵiri kwa purezidenti wakutora "nkhongono na milimo" ya purezidenti para wafumiskika pa udindo, wafwa, waleka udindo, panji watondeka kuchita milimo yake.<ref name="FordhamLaw2011">{{Cite journal |last=Feerick |first=John D. |date=2011 |title=Presidential Succession and Inability: Before and After the Twenty-Fifth Amendment |url=http://ir.lawnet.fordham.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=4695&context=flr |journal=Fordham Law Review |location=New York City |publisher=[[Fordham University School of Law]] |volume=79 |issue=3 |pages=907–949 |access-date=December 13, 2018}}</ref> Mwakuyana na ndime iyi, pakaŵa kususkana usange wachiŵiri kwa purezidenti waŵenge purezidenti nadi para malo ghakhala ghawaka, panji waŵenge waka [[Acting (law)|wakuchita milimo]] ya purezidenti,<ref name="ArticleIIessays">{{Cite web |url=https://www.heritage.org/constitution/#!/articles/2/essays/83/presidential-succession |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120421180046/http://www.heritage.org/constitution#!/articles/2/essays/83/presidential-succession |url-status=unfit |archive-date=April 21, 2012 |title=Essays on Article II: Presidential Succession |last=Feerick |first=John |website=The Heritage Guide to the Constitution |publisher=The Heritage Foundation |access-date=December 13, 2018}}</ref> ndipo ichi mphanyi chikapangiska kuti paŵe [[chisankho chapadera]]. Pamasinda pakufwa kwa Purezidenti [[William Henry Harrison]] mu 1841, Wachiŵiri kwa Purezidenti [[John Tyler]] wakapharazga kuti wali kunjira mu udindo uwu wekha, ndipo wakakana kupokera mapepala agho ghakalembekera "Purezidenti Wakuchita Milimo". Pamanyuma pake, Congress yikazomerezga fundo iyi. Usange malo gha purezidenti na gha wachiŵiri kwa purezidenti ghose ghawaka pa nyengo yimoza, Article II, Section 1, Clause 6 yikovwiraso Congress nkhongono zakulongosora uyo waŵenge wakuchita milimo ya purezidenti para purezidenti na wachiŵiri wake wafumiskika pa udindo, wafwa, waleka udindo, panji watondeka kuchita milimo yawo.<ref name=ArticleIIessays /> [[Presidential Succession Act]] ya 1947 (iyo yili kulembeka mu 3 U.S.C. § 19) yikulongora kuti usange purezidenti na wachiŵiri kwa purezidenti ŵafumapo pa udindo panji ŵaleka kutondeka kuteŵetera mu nyengo yawo, [[United States presidential line of succession|ndondomeko ya kulondezgana pa udindo wa purezidenti]] yikulondezgana nthena: [[Speaker of the United States House of Representatives|Speaker wa Nyumba ya Wimiliri]], ndipo usange ntchakukhumbikwa, [[President pro tempore of the United States Senate|purezidenti ''pro tempore'' wa Senate]], ndipo usange ntchakukhumbikwiraso, ŵalongozgi ŵakwenelera ŵa [[United States federal executive departments|madipatimenti gha boma]] agho ghakupanga [[Cabinet of the United States|Kabineti]] ya purezidenti.<ref name="cnn.com">{{Cite news |url=https://www.cnn.com/2013/08/27/us/succession-presidential-and-vice-presidential-fast-facts/index.html |title=Succession: Presidential and Vice Presidential Fast Facts |date=October 24, 2017 |access-date=July 19, 2018 |website=CNN}}</ref> Kabineti sono yili na ŵanthu 15, ndipo nduna ya vya kuwaro ndiyo yili pa malo ghakwamba mu mzere wa kulondezgana. Nduna zinyake zikulondezgana mwakuyana na nyengo iyo dipatimenti yawo, panji dipatimenti iyo yikazgoka yawo, yikapangikira. Ŵanthu awo ŵakukanizgika na Dango Likuru kusankhika kuŵa purezidenti nawo ŵakukanizgika kutora nkhongono na milimo ya purezidenti kwizira mu kulondezgana. Palije munthu uyo wakulongosoreka na dango uyo wali kuchitapo milimo ya purezidenti chifukwa cha ndondomeko iyi.<ref name="cnn.com"/> === Kuphara kuti watondeka kuchita milimo === {{Main|Twenty-fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution}} Mwakuyana na Sintho la Malango la 25, purezidenti wangapeleka nkhongono na milimo yake kwa wachiŵiri kwa purezidenti kwa nyengo yichoko waka, uyo pamanyuma wakuŵa [[Acting president of the United States|purezidenti wakuchita milimo]], para watumizga kalata kwa [[Speaker of the United States House of Representatives|Speaker wa Nyumba ya Wimiliri]] na [[President pro tempore of the United States Senate|purezidenti ''pro tempore'' wa Senate]] yakulongora kuti watondeka kuchita milimo yake. Purezidenti wakuweleraso ku nkhongono zake para watumizga kalata yachiŵiri yakulongora kuti sono wangachitaso milimo yake. Ndondomeko iyi yikagwiliskirika ntchito na [[Ronald Reagan]] (kamoza), [[George W. Bush]] (kaŵiri), na [[Joe Biden]] (kamoza), wose ŵakanozgekanga kuchita opareshoni.<ref>{{cite news| last=Olsen| first=Jillian| title=How many other vice presidents have temporarily taken over presidential powers?| date=November 19, 2021| url=https://www.wtsp.com/article/news/history/presidential-transfer-of-power-biden-bush-reagan/67-17f1fa96-f44a-4050-a53c-593f55e4949f| publisher=[[WTSP]]| location=St. Petersburg, Florida| access-date=May 11, 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Sullivan|first=Kate|title=For 85 minutes, Kamala Harris became the first woman with presidential power|date=November 19, 2021|url=https://www.cnn.com/2021/11/19/politics/kamala-harris-presidential-power/index.html|publisher=CNN|access-date=November 19, 2021}}</ref> Sintho la Malango la 25 likulongoraso kuti wachiŵiri kwa purezidenti, pamoza na ŵanandi mwa ŵabali ŵanyake ŵa [[Cabinet of the United States|Kabineti]], wangatora nkhongono na milimo ya purezidenti mwa kutumizga chikalata chakulembeka kwa Speaker wa Nyumba ya Wimiliri na purezidenti ''pro tempore'' wa Senate, chakulongora kuti purezidenti watondeka kuchita milimo yake. Usange pamanyuma purezidenti wakuti palije kutondeka kulikose, wakuweleraso ku nkhongono zake, kwambura kuti wachiŵiri kwa purezidenti na Kabineti ŵatumizge chikalata chachiŵiri chakulongora kuti watondeka. Para vyachitika nthena, Congress ndiyo yikusankha nkhani iyi. Kuti purezidenti watoreke nkhongono zake, pakukhumbikwa voti ya ŵanthu ŵaŵiri pa ŵatatu mu nyumba zose ziŵiri za Congress. === Kufumiskika pa udindo === {{Main|List of efforts to impeach presidents of the United States|Federal impeachment in the United States|Federal impeachment trial in the United States}} [[Article Two of the United States Constitution#Section 4: Impeachment|Article II, Section 4]] ya Dango Likuru yikovwira kufumiska pa udindo ŵalaraŵalara ŵa boma, kusazgapo purezidenti, chifukwa cha "[[treason|kupandukira charu]], [[bribery|kupokera vimbundi]], panji [[high crimes and misdemeanors|milandu yikuru na viheni vikuru]]". [[Article One of the United States Constitution#Clause 5: Speaker and other officers; Impeachment|Article I, Section 2, Clause 5]] yikovwira Nyumba ya Wimiliri kuchita nga ni [[grand jury]], ndipo yili na nkhongono zakwambiska mulandu wa impeachment na voti ya ŵanandi.<ref name="A1essaySBP">{{Cite web |url=https://www.heritage.org/constitution/#!/articles/1/essays/17/trial-of-impeachment |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120421180046/http://www.heritage.org/constitution#!/articles/1/essays/17/trial-of-impeachment |url-status=unfit |archive-date=April 21, 2012 |title=Essays on Article I: Impeachment |last=Presser |first=Stephen B. |website=Heritage Guide to the Constitution |publisher=The Heritage Foundation |access-date=August 3, 2018}}</ref> [[Article One of the United States Constitution#Clause 6: Trial of Impeachments|Article I, Section 3, Clause 6]] yikovwira Senate kuchita nga ni [[court|khoti]] ilo lili na nkhongono zakufumiska pa udindo ŵanthu awo ŵasangika na mulandu wa impeachment, na voti ya ŵanthu ŵaŵiri pa ŵatatu.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.heritage.org/constitution/#!/articles/1/essays/17/trial-of-impeachment |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120421180046/http://www.heritage.org/constitution#!/articles/1/essays/17/trial-of-impeachment |url-status=unfit |archive-date=April 21, 2012 |title=Essays on Article I: Trial of Impeachment |last=Gerhardt |first=Michael J. |website=Heritage Guide to the Constitution |publisher=The Heritage Foundation |access-date=August 3, 2018}}</ref> Apurezidenti ŵatatu ŵali kupika mulandu wa impeachment na Nyumba ya Wimiliri: Andrew Johnson mu [[Impeachment of Andrew Johnson|1868]], Bill Clinton mu [[Impeachment of Bill Clinton|1998]], na Donald Trump mu [[First impeachment of Donald Trump|2019]] na [[Second impeachment of Donald Trump|2021]]. Palije nanga njumoza uyo wakasangika na mulandu mu Senate. [[United States House Committee on the Judiciary|Komiti ya Vyamalango ya Nyumba ya Wimiliri]] yikachita kufufuza kwa impeachment pa Richard Nixon mu [[Impeachment process against Richard Nixon|1973–74]] ndipo yikapeleka nkhani zitatu za impeachment ku Nyumba ya Wimiliri kuti yivoterenge. Kweni wakaleka udindo pambere Nyumba yindavotere pa nkhani izi.<ref name=A1essaySBP /> === Kulekeska nkhongono za purezidenti mwa nthowa zinyake === Nthowa zakususkana zinyake zili kugwiliskirika ntchito, kwambura kufumiska purezidenti pa udindo, kuti ŵachitepo kanthu pa purezidenti uyo wakuwoneka kuŵa wakupusa panji uyo wali na suzgo la nyengo yitali. Mu vinyake, ŵantchito ŵakakana dala kupeleka mauthenga ku purezidenti panji kufumira kwa iyo, kanandi kuti ŵalekeske kuchita panji kukhozgera malango agho purezidenti wakakhumbanga kulemba. Ivi vikachitika kufuma pa apo Chief of Staff wa [[Richard Nixon]] wakatondeka kutumizga malango ku Kabineti chifukwa cha kumwa chomene kwa purezidenti, m'paka apo ŵantchito ŵakafumiskanga memos pa desiki la [[Donald Trump]].<ref>{{cite book |author=David Priess |title=How to Get Rid of a President: History's Guide to Removing Unpopular, Unable, or Unfit Chief Executives |url=https://archive.org/details/howtogetridofpre0000davi |publisher=PublicAffairs |year=2018 |isbn=978-1541788206 |chapter=2 Undermined by Opponents or Subordinates}}</ref> Vyaka vinandi pambere Sintho la Malango la 25 lindachitike, mu 1919, Purezidenti Woodrow Wilson wakapwetekeka na [[Presidency of Woodrow Wilson#Incapacity, 1919–1921|stroke]] iyo yikamulemesa pachoko. Mwanakazi wake, [[Edith Wilson]], wakabisa nkhani iyi kwa nyengo yinyake, ndipo mwakususkana wakazgoka [[Edith Wilson#Increased role after husband's stroke|munthu yekha wakuzomerezga ŵanthu kufika kwa purezidenti]] (kupatulako dokotala wake), wakamovwiranga na mapepala ndipo wakasankhanga uthenga uwo wakaŵa "wakukhumbikwa" kuti ulongoreke kwa iyo. === Malipiro === {| class="wikitable floatright" ; margin-right:2em" |- ! colspan="3" |Mbiri ya malipiro gha purezidenti |- ! Chaka !! Malipiro !! Malipiro mu<br />{{Inflation/year|US}} USD |- | 1789 || style="text-align:right;"| $25,000 || style="text-align:right;"| ${{Inflation|US|25000|1789|fmt=c}} |- | 1873 || style="text-align:right;"| $50,000 || style="text-align:right;"| ${{Inflation|US|50000|1873|fmt=c}} |- | 1909 || style="text-align:right;"| $75,000 || style="text-align:right;"| ${{Inflation|US|75000|1909|fmt=c}} |- | 1949 || style="text-align:right;"| $100,000 || style="text-align:right;"| ${{Inflation|US|100000|1949|fmt=c}} |- | 1969 || style="text-align:right;"| $200,000 || style="text-align:right;"| ${{Inflation|US|200000|1969|fmt=c}} |- | 2001 || style="text-align:right;"| $400,000 || style="text-align:right;"| ${{Inflation|US|400000|2001|fmt=c}} |- ! colspan="3" | Vyakufumira:<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www-personal.umich.edu/~graceyor/govdocs/fedprssal.html|title=Presidential and Vice Presidential Salaries Exclusive of Perquisites|website=Data from Congressional Quarterly's Guide to the Presidency|publisher=[[University of Michigan]]|access-date=July 31, 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.measuringworth.com/calculators/uscompare/index.php|title=Seven Ways to Compute the Relative Value of a U.S. Dollar Amount, 1774 to Present|last=Williamson|first=Samuel H.|publisher=MeasuringWorth|access-date=July 31, 2020}}</ref>{{inflation/fn|US}} |} Kufuma mu 2001, malipiro gha chaka gha purezidenti ni $400,000, pamoza na ndalama za vyakugwiliskira ntchito zakukwana $50,000; akaunti ya ulendo ya $100,000 yambura msonkho; na akaunti ya kulandilirako ŵalendo ya $19,000. Malipiro gha purezidenti ghakukhazikiskika na Congress, ndipo mwakuyana na [[Article Two of the United States Constitution#Clause 7: Salary|Article II, Section 1, Clause 7]] ya Dango Likuru, kusazgirako panji kuchepeskako malipiro gha purezidenti kungamba yayi kugwira ntchito pambere nyengo yakulondezgako ya purezidenti yindambe.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thoughtco.com/presidential-pay-and-compensation-3322194|title=Presidential Pay and Compensation|last=Longley|first=Robert|date=September 1, 2017|publisher=[[ThoughtCo]]|access-date=July 31, 2018}}</ref><ref name="cnbc"/> === Malo ghakukhala === {{for-multi|the official residences in which President Washington resided|Presidency of George Washington#Residences|the private residences of the various U.S. presidents|List of residences of presidents of the United States}} [[Executive Residence]] ya [[White House]] mu [[Washington, D.C.]], ndiyo [[malo ghakukhala gha boma]] gha purezidenti. Malo agha ghakasankhika na George Washington, ndipo libwe lakwamba likayikika mu 1792. Purezidenti waliyose kufuma pa John Adams mu 1800 wakhalapo penepapo. Pa nyengo zakupambanapambana mu mbiri ya United States, nyumba iyi yikachemekanga "President's Palace", "President's House", na "Executive Mansion". Theodore Roosevelt ndiyo wakapeleka zina lakuti White House mu 1901.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.whitehouse.gov/about-the-white-house/the-white-house/|title=The White House Building|website=[[whitehouse.gov]]|access-date=August 3, 2018}}</ref> Boma la federali ndilo likulipira chakurya cha boma na vyakuchitika vinyake vya boma, kweni purezidenti yekha ndiyo wakulipira vyakurya vyake, vya banja lake, vya ŵalendo ŵake, kweniso kuwuska malaya ghake.<ref>{{Cite magazine|last=Bulmiller|first=Elisabeth|date=January 2009|title=Inside the Presidency: Few outsiders ever see the President's private enclave|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/magazine/2009/01/president/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180714224047/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/magazine/2009/01/president/|url-status=dead|archive-date=July 14, 2018|magazine=[[National Geographic]]|location=Washington, D.C.|access-date=August 3, 2018}}</ref> [[Camp David]], ilo likumanyikwa mwaboma kuti Naval Support Facility Thurmont, ni msasa wa nkhondo wa mu mapiri ku [[Frederick County, Maryland]], ndipo ni malo gha kupumulirako gha purezidenti. Malo agha ghakumanyikwa chifukwa cha mtende na kuzgeŵa phokoso, ndipo ghagwiliskirika ntchito chomene kulandira ŵalongozgi ŵa vyaru vinyake kufuma m'ma 1940.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.whitehouse.gov/about-the-white-house/camp-david/|title=The White House Building|website=[[whitehouse.gov]]|access-date=August 3, 2018}}</ref> === Kuleka ntchito ya pulezidenti (Post-presidency) === [[File:Five Presidents Oval Office.jpg|thumb|Kufuma kumazere kuya kumalyero: Mapulezidenti [[George H. W. Bush]], [[Barack Obama]], [[George W. Bush]], [[Bill Clinton]], na [[Jimmy Carter]] mu [[Oval Office]] pa Janyuwale 7, 2009; Obama wakanjira pa udindo mazuŵa 13 pamanyuma.]] ==== Milimo iyo ŵakuchita pamanyuma pa udindo ==== Mapulezidenti ghanyake ghakale ghakaŵa na ntchito zikuru chomene pamanyuma pakufuma pa udindo. Viyelezgero vikuru ni [[William Howard Taft]], uyo wakaŵa [[Chief Justice of the United States|mweruzgi mukuru wa United States]], na [[Herbert Hoover]], uyo wakalongozga ntchito zakuweleraso kupanga boma pamanyuma pa [[Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya pa Charu Chose]]. Mapulezidenti ŵaŵiri ŵakaweleraso ku [[United States Congress|Congress]] pamanyuma pakufuma mu White House: [[John Quincy Adams]] wakasankhika ku [[United States House of Representatives|Nyumba ya Ŵimiliri]], uko wakateŵetera vyaka 17, ndipo [[Andrew Johnson]] wakaweleraso ku [[United States Senate|Senate]] mu 1875, nangauli wakafwa nyengo yichoko waka pamanyuma. Mapulezidenti ŵaŵiri nawo ŵakaweleraso ku upulezidenti: [[Grover Cleveland]] wakathera pa [[1888 United States presidential election|chisankho cha 1888]] ndipo wakatheraso pa [[1892 United States presidential election|chisankho cha 1892]], apo [[Donald Trump]] wakathera pa [[2020 United States presidential election|chisankho cha 2020]] ndipo wakatheraso pa [[2024 United States presidential election|chisankho cha 2024]]. Ŵapulezidenti ŵanyake ŵakakhalaso ŵakuchita vinandi pa nkhani za pa charu chose, kusazgapo [[Theodore Roosevelt]],<ref>Edmund Morris, ''Colonel Roosevelt'' (2011)</ref> [[Herbert Hoover]],<ref>Gary Dean Best, ''The Life of Herbert Hoover: Keeper of the Torch, 1933–1964'' (2013)</ref> [[Richard Nixon]],<ref>Kasey S. Pipes, ''After the Fall: The Remarkable Comeback of Richard Nixon'' (2019)</ref> na [[Jimmy Carter]].<ref>Douglas Brinkley. ''The Unfinished Presidency: Jimmy Carter's Journey Beyond the White House'' (1998).</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = John Whiteclay | first1 = Chambers II | year = 1979 | title = Presidents Emeritus | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_american-heritage_june-july-1979_30_4/page/16 | journal = American Heritage | volume = 30 | issue = 4| pages = 16–25 }}</ref> Mapulezidenti ŵakwambilira ŵakaweleranga ku vikaya vyawo kukulongozga ntchito zachitemwa, panji kulaŵilira milimo yaulimi pa minda yawo na mapulante awo ghakanyalanyazgika apo ŵakaŵa pa udindo. [[Thomas Jefferson]] wakambiska [[University of Virginia]] pamanyuma pa upulezidenti wake, ndipo wakati wafwa, [[James Madison]] ndiyo wakamulondezga nga ni rector. Madison na [[James Monroe]] nawo ŵakawovwira kulemba mtundu umoza wa [[Virginia Constitution]], apo [[John Tyler]] wakateŵeteranga pa [[Confederate Constitution]] na mu [[Confederate Congress]]. Mapulezidenti ŵa pa nyengo iyo ŵaleka udindo ŵangatumika na pulezidenti uyo wali pa udindo kuti ŵafikiskenge mauthenga ghachisisi ku vyaru vinyake panji kuŵa ŵimiliri ŵaboma pa nyifwa za ŵalongozgi ŵa vyaru na pa vyakuchitika vikuru vya pa charu chose.<ref name="apreaction19810331">{{Cite news |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=TE4tAAAAIBAJ&dq=reagan%20assassination%201981&pg=1392%2C4423618 |title=Shock and Anger Flash Throughout the United States |date=March 31, 1981 |access-date=March 11, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150906144021/https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=TE4tAAAAIBAJ&sjid=bM4FAAAAIBAJ&dq=reagan%20assassination%201981&pg=1392%2C4423618 |archive-date=September 6, 2015 |agency=Associated Press }}</ref><ref name="4presidentsphotos">{{Cite web |url=http://www.reagan.utexas.edu/archives/photographs/four.html |title=Four Presidents |publisher=Reagan Presidential Library, National Archives and Records Administration |access-date=April 3, 2011 |archive-date=May 12, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110512020542/http://www.reagan.utexas.edu/archives/photographs/four.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> [[Richard Nixon]] wakachita maulendo ghanandi ku vyaru nga ni China na Russia ndipo wakalumbikika nga ni mulongozgi wakumanyikwa chomene.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/1600/presidents/richardnixon |work=[[whitehouse.gov]] |title=Biography of Richard M. Nixon |via=[[NARA|National Archives]] |date=December 30, 2014 }}</ref> Mu [[Post-presidency of Jimmy Carter|umoyo wake pamanyuma pa upulezidenti]], [[Jimmy Carter]] wakaŵa mulimbikira wa [[human rights]], muphalamano wa pa charu chose, na mulaŵiliri wa visankho, ndipo wakapokera [[Nobel Peace Prize]]. [[Bill Clinton]] nayo wakateŵeteranga nga ni nthumwi yambura udindo wa boma, chomenechomene pa kudumbiskana uko kukapangiska kuti ŵamasulike ŵalembi ŵa nkhani ŵa ku America [[Laura Ling]] na [[Euna Lee]] kufuma ku [[North Korea]]. Pa nyengo ya upulezidenti wake, [[George W. Bush]] wakapempha ŵapulezidenti ŵakale [[George H. W. Bush]] na Clinton kuti ŵawovwire pa ntchito za wovwiri wa ŵanthu pamanyuma pa [[2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami]]. Pulezidenti Obama nayo wakachita mwakuyana waka pakupempha Clinton na George W. Bush kuti ŵalongozge ntchito zakovwira Haiti pamanyuma pa [[2010 Haiti earthquake|chindindindi chikuru]] icho chikaparanya charu ichi mu 2010. Ubwezi wa Clinton na ŵa Bush ŵaŵiri ukaŵa wakwamba yayi pakati pa ŵapulezidenti ŵakale; Carter wakaŵaso na ubwezi na kulemberana makalata na [[Gerald Ford]], apo [[Thomas Jefferson]] na [[John Adams]] nawo ŵakalemberananga makalata kwa nyengo yitali pamanyuma pa maudindo ghawo. [[Post-presidency of Bill Clinton|Clinton]] walutilira kuŵa wakugwira ntchito za ndyali pamanyuma pa kuleka udindo, wakawovwira muwoli wake [[Hillary Clinton|Hillary]] pa [[Hillary Clinton 2008 presidential campaign|kampeni ya 2008]] na [[Hillary Clinton 2016 presidential campaign|ya 2016]], kweniso wakawovwira Pulezidenti Obama pa [[Barack Obama 2012 presidential campaign|kampeni yake ya kusankhikaso mu 2012]]. Obama nayo walutilira kuŵa wakuchita ndyali pamanyuma pa kuleka udindo, wakawovwira uyo wakaŵa muteŵeti wake [[Joe Biden]] pa [[Joe Biden 2020 presidential campaign|kampeni ya 2020]], kweniso wakawovwira muteŵeti wa Biden [[Kamala Harris]] pa [[Kamala Harris 2024 presidential campaign|kampeni yake ya 2024]] pamanyuma pakuti Pulezidenti Biden [[Withdrawal of Joe Biden from the 2024 United States presidential election|wafumiskepo bid yake ya kusankhikaso]]. Pamanyuma pakutaya chisankho cha 2020, Trump wakalutilira kuŵa wakugwira ntchito za ndyali ndipo wakasuskanga chomene mulondezgi wake na chipani cha Democratic Party. Wakasanganaso na milandu yinayi ya uchigeŵenga. Trump wakapharazga kuti waŵengepo pa chisankho cha upulezidenti kachinayi mu 2022, ndipo pamanyuma wakazgoka msankho wa chipani chake kachitatu, ndipo wakatheraso pa udindo wa upulezidenti mu 2024. ==== Penshoni na vyawanangwa vinyake ==== [[Former Presidents Act]] (FPA), iyo yikakhazikiskika mu 1958, yikupereka vyawanangwa vya umoyo wose ku ŵapulezidenti ŵakale na ŵalongosi ŵawo, kusazgapo penshoni ya mwezi uliwose, chovwiri cha munkhwala mu vipatala vya ŵasilikari, inshuwalansi ya umoyo, na chivikiliro cha [[United States Secret Service|Secret Service]]. Ndiposo boma likupeleka ndalama za ŵantchito ŵanyake na za ofesi. Dango ili lasinthika kanandi kuti likwezge ndalama za penshoni na za ŵantchito ŵa maofesi. FPA yikupereka yayi vyawanangwa ivi kwa pulezidenti uyo wakafumiskika pa udindo chifukwa cha [[Federal impeachment in the United States|impeachment]].<ref name="CRS">{{cite web |author1=Stephanie Smith |title=Federal Pension and Retirement Benefits |url=https://fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/98-249.pdf |website=Federation of American Scientists |publisher=Congressional Research Service, The Library of Congress |access-date=November 10, 2020 |date=March 18, 2008 |archive-date=January 7, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210107170308/https://fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/98-249.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Mwakuyana na lipoti la [[Congressional Research Service]] la 2008:<ref name="CRS" /> <blockquote>Ŵalongozgi ŵakuru awo ŵakafumanga pa udindo pambere chaka cha 1958 chindafike kanandi ŵakalutiliranga kuchita ntchito zinyake ndipo ŵakapokeranga wovwiri uliwose yayi kufuma ku boma la federal. Apo mubizinesi Andrew Carnegie wakapharazga ndondomeko mu 1912 yakuti waŵapenge ŵapulezidenti ŵakale penshoni ya $25,000 pa chaka, ŵabali ŵanandi ŵa Congress ŵakawona kuti ntchambura kwenelera kuti kampani ya munthu payekha ndiyo yipelekenge penshoni yanthena. Mu chaka chenechira, dango lakukhazikiska mapenshoni gha ŵapulezidenti likayambiska kudumbiskika kakwamba, kweni likazomerezgeka yayi. Mu 1955, Congress yikawerezgaso kudumbiskana za dango ili chifukwa cha masuzgo gha ndalama agho wakaŵa nagho pulezidenti wakale Harry S. Truman pakulemba ŵantchito ŵa ofesi.</blockquote> Penshoni yakwezgeka kanandi mwakuzomerezgeka na Congress. Ŵapulezidenti ŵakale ŵakupokera penshoni yakuyana na malipiro gha mlembi wa dipatimenti ya Cabinet wa boma ilo lili pa udindo, agho ghakaŵa $199,700 pa chaka mu 2012.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/RS20115.pdf |title=President of the United States: Compensation |last=Schwemle |first=Barbara L. |date=October 17, 2012 |publisher=Congressional Research Service |access-date=January 10, 2013}}</ref> Ŵapulezidenti ŵakale awo ŵakateŵeteraso mu Congress ŵangapokeraso [[congressional pension]].<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.toledoblade.com/Politics/2007/01/07/Former-presidents-cost-U-S-taxpayers-big-bucks-tab-from-1977-to-2000-is-pegged-at-370-million.html |title=Former presidents cost U.S. taxpayers big bucks |date=January 7, 2007 |website=[[The Blade (Toledo)|Toledo Blade]] |access-date=May 22, 2007}}</ref> Dango ili likupelekaso ndalama za maulendo na wanangwa wa [[franking]]. Pambere chaka cha 1997 chindafike, ŵapulezidenti wose ŵakale, ŵawoli ŵawo, na ŵana ŵawo ŵasinkhu wa pasi pa vyaka 16 ŵakavikilirikanga na [[United States Secret Service|Secret Service]] mpaka nyifwa ya pulezidenti.<ref>{{usc|18|3056}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/obama-signs-bill-granting-lifetime-secret-service-protection-to-former-presidents-and-spouses/2013/01/10/c4474416-5b5a-11e2-b8b2-0d18a64c8dfa_story.html |title=Obama signs bill granting lifetime Secret Service protection to former presidents and spouses |date=January 10, 2013 |newspaper=The Washington Post |access-date=January 10, 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160823000643/https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/obama-signs-bill-granting-lifetime-secret-service-protection-to-former-presidents-and-spouses/2013/01/10/c4474416-5b5a-11e2-b8b2-0d18a64c8dfa_story.html |archive-date=August 23, 2016 |agency=Associated Press}}</ref> Mu 1997, Congress yikadumura dango lakuti chivikiliro cha Secret Service chiŵe cha vyaka 10 pera kufuma apo pulezidenti wafumira pa udindo.<ref name="secretservice.gov">{{Cite web |url=https://www.secretservice.gov/protection/ |title=United States Secret Service: Protection |publisher=United States Secret Service |access-date=November 9, 2017}}</ref> Pa Janyuwale 10, 2013, Pulezidenti Obama wakasayina dango ilo likawelereska chivikiliro cha umoyo wose cha Secret Service kwa iyomwene, [[George W. Bush]], na ŵapulezidenti wose awo ŵazamwiza pamanyuma pake.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2013/jan/10/inside-politics-obama-signs-protection-bill-for-fo/?page=all |title=Obama signs protection bill for former presidents |date=January 10, 2013 |work=The Washington Times |access-date=August 14, 2013}}</ref> [[First Spouse of the United States|Muwoli wa pulezidenti]] uyo wakutoraso nthengwa wakuleka kuŵa wakwenelera kupokera chivikiliro cha Secret Service.<ref name="secretservice.gov" /> === Kulemba mabuku === {{main|Mndandanda wa mabuku gha umoyo wa mapulezidenti gha United States}} Kufuma apo [[Ulysses S. Grant]] wakafumiska buku lake la ''[[Personal Memoirs of U. S. Grant|Personal Memoirs]]'' mu 1885, mapulezidenti ghanandi, kusazgapo pulezidenti waliyose uyo wakakhala wamoyo mpaka wamara nyengo yake kufuma kwa [[Calvin Coolidge]] kufika kwa [[Barack Obama]], walemba buku limoza panji ghakujumpha limoza la umoyo wake. Mabuku agha gha umoyo ghakuchita vinthu viŵiri: kuvikilira chuma cha Banja Lakwamba (First Family) (Bill Clinton wakasangapo ndalama zakujumpha $30 miliyoni chifukwa cha kulemba mabuku ghaŵiri<ref>{{cite news| url= https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/7331834.stm |title= Clintons' earnings exceed $100m| publisher= BBC News| date= April 5, 2008| access-date= June 26, 2015}}</ref>), kweniso kuvikilira panji kuwezgeraso mbiri ya upulezidenti wawo. === Kulemba === {{main|Mndandanda wa mabuku gha umoyo wa ŵapurezidenti ŵa United States}} Kwambira apo [[Ulysses S. Grant]] wakafumiskira buku lake la ''[[Mabuku gha Umoyo gha U. S. Grant]]'' mu 1885, ŵapurezidenti ŵanandi, kusazgapo pulezidenti waliyose uyo wakakhala wamoyo m'paka kumalizga nyengo yake ya uteŵeti kufuma kwa [[Calvin Coolidge]] mpaka [[Barack Obama]], ŵalemba buku limoza panji vinandi vya umoyo wawo. Mabuku agha ghakukhwaskana na umoyo wa ŵapurezidenti ghali na vilato viŵiri: kuvikilira ndalama za [[Banja Lakwamba la United States|Banja Lakwamba]] (mwachiyelezgero, [[Bill Clinton]] wakasanga ndalama zakujumpha madola 30 miliyoni kufuma ku kulemba mabuku ghaŵiri<ref>{{cite news| url= https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/7331834.stm |title= Clintons' earnings exceed $100m| publisher= BBC News| date= April 5, 2008| access-date= June 26, 2015}}</ref>), kweniso kuvikilira panji kuwezgerapo mbiri ya ulamuliro wawo. === Malaibulale gha ŵapurezidenti na malo ghakale === {{Main|Ndondomeko ya malaibulale gha ŵapurezidenti|Mndandanda wa nyumba za ŵapurezidenti ŵa United States}} Nyumba izo ŵapurezidenti ŵa United States ŵakababikiramo, ŵakakhalamo, panji ŵakapumulirangamo, kanandi zikusungika nga ni [[nyumba ya museum]] ndipo zikumanyikwa nga ni [[Mndandanda wa malo ghakale gha charu na mapaki gha mbiri gha United States|Malo Ghakale gha Charu]] panji kulembeka pa [[U.S. National Register of Historic Places]]. [[File:George W. Bush Presidential Center dedication.tif|alt=|thumb|Kufuma kumazere kuya kumanja: Ŵapurezidenti [[Barack Obama]], [[George W. Bush]], [[Bill Clinton]], [[George H. W. Bush]], na [[Jimmy Carter]] pa kujulira [[Laibulale na Museum ya Pulezidenti George W. Bush]] ku [[Dallas]] mu 2013.]] Pulezidenti waliyose kwambira [[Herbert Hoover]] wali kupanga [[malo ghakusungiramo vyakulemba]] agho ghakumanyikwa kuti [[ndondomeko ya malaibulale gha ŵapurezidenti|laibulale ya pulezidenti]] kuti ŵasungemo mapepala ghake, marekodi, na vinthu vinyake. Malaibulale agho ghazamala kuzengeka ghakuperekeka na kusungika na [[National Archives and Records Administration]] (NARA); ndalama zakwamba zakuzengera na kuvikonzeska zikufuma ku ŵanthu pawokha, osati ku boma la federal.<ref>{{usc|44|2112}}</ref> Pasono pali malaibulale 13 gha ŵapurezidenti agho ghali mu ndondomeko ya NARA. Paliso malaibulale gha ŵapurezidenti agho ghakusungika na maboma gha vigaŵa, maziko gha ŵanthu pawokha, kweniso mayunivesite, nga ni: * [[Laibulale na Museum ya Pulezidenti Abraham Lincoln]], iyo yikwendeskeka na Boma la [[Illinois]]; * [[Laibulale na Museum ya Pulezidenti George W. Bush]], iyo yikwendeskeka na [[Southern Methodist University]]; * [[Laibulale na Museum ya Pulezidenti George H. W. Bush]], iyo yikwendeskeka na [[Texas A&M University]]; na * [[Laibulale na Museum ya Pulezidenti Lyndon Baines Johnson]], iyo yikwendeskeka na [[University of Texas at Austin]]. Ŵapurezidenti ŵanyake ŵakawoneseska kuzenga na kujulira malaibulale ghawo ŵekha. Ŵanyake ŵakanozga kuti ŵazakasungikike pamalo agha para ŵafwa. Malaibulale ghanandi gha ŵapurezidenti ghali na madindi gha pulezidenti uyo ghakumulongosora: * [[Laibulale na Museum ya Pulezidenti Harry S. Truman]] ku [[Independence, Missouri]]; * [[Laibulale, Museum na Nyumba ya Uwana ya Dwight D. Eisenhower]] ku [[Abilene, Kansas]]; * [[Laibulale na Museum ya Pulezidenti Richard Nixon]] ku [[Yorba Linda, California]]; na * [[Laibulale na Museum ya Pulezidenti Ronald Reagan]] ku [[Simi Valley, California]]. Madindi agha ghali kujulika ku ŵanthu wose. Mu viyelezgero vinyake (nga ni vya Nixon), laibulale ya pulezidenti yili pafupi na nyumba yake yakale. Kweni kwa ŵanyake, nga ni [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] na [[Jimmy Carter]], laibulale ya pulezidenti na malo ghakale vili mu misumba yakupambana. == Chipani cha ndale == [[Vipani vya ndale vya United States|Vipani vya ndale]] vyalongozga [[Ndale za United States|ndale za America]] kwa nyengo yitali chomene ya mbiri ya charu ichi. Nangauli [[Ŵadada ŵakwambiska United States]] ŵakawonanga vipani vya ndale kuti vingagaŵa na kunanga wumoza wa charu, ndipo kuŵapo kwake kukayembekezgekanga yayi apo [[Dango Likuru la United States]] likalembekanga mu 1787, vipani vya ndale vyakukhazikika vikamba kuwoneka pakati pa m'ma 1790. Vikafuma ku [[gulu la ndale|magulu gha ndale]], agho ghakamba kuwoneka mwaluŵiro chomene pamanyuma pakukhazikika kwa boma la federal. Awo ŵakawovwiranga [[Ulamuliro wa George Washington]] ŵakamanyikwanga kuti "ŵakukhozgera boma", ndipo pamanyuma ŵakapanga [[Federalist Party]], apo awo ŵakasuskanga ŵakakolerana na [[Democratic-Republican Party]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.senate.gov/history/partydiv.htm|title=U.S. Senate: Party Division|publisher=U.S. Senate|access-date=January 2, 2017}}</ref> Chifukwa cha kufipa mtima na nkhongono izo vipani vya ndale vingamanya kuparanya wumoza wa charu, Washington wakakhalira [[wandale wambura chipani]] mu nyengo yose ya vyaka vinkhondi na viŵiri vya ulamuliro wake. Wakaŵa, ndipo wachali, pulezidenti yekha wa United States uyo wandakhalepo wa chipani chilichose cha ndale.<ref name="GWpps">{{Cite web|url=http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2014/dec/31/george-washingtons-views-political-parties-america/|title=George Washington's views on political parties in America|last=Jamison|first=Dennis|date=December 31, 2014|website=[[The Washington Times]]|access-date=July 1, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.mountvernon.org/george-washington/the-first-president/political-parties/|title=Political Parties|publisher=Mount Vernon Ladies' Association|location=Mount Vernon, Virginia|access-date=March 24, 2019}}</ref> Kwambira pa Washington, pulezidenti waliyose wa United States wakaŵa wa chipani cha ndale apo wakanjiliranga pa udindo. Ndipo kwambira mu 1869, pulezidenti waliyose wakaŵa wa [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] panji [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.enchantedlearning.com/history/us/pres/list.shtml|title=The Presidents of the United States of America|website=Enchanted Learning|access-date=August 2, 2018}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.presidentsusa.net/partyofpresidents.html|title=Political Parties of the Presidents|website=Presidents USA|access-date=August 2, 2018}}</ref> Chiŵelengero cha ŵapurezidenti malinga na chipani icho ŵakaŵamo apo ŵakalapanga ntchito pakwamba ni ichi: {| class=wikitable |- ! colspan=2| Chipani ! {{vertical header|Chiŵelengero cha<br>ŵapurezidenti}} ! Mazina |- | style="background-color:{{party color|Republican Party (United States)}}" | | [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] | style="text-align: center;" |19 | [[Chester A. Arthur]], [[George H. W. Bush]], [[George W. Bush]], [[Calvin Coolidge]], [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]], [[Gerald Ford]], [[James A. Garfield]], [[Ulysses S. Grant]], [[Warren G. Harding]], [[Benjamin Harrison]], [[Rutherford B. Hayes]], [[Herbert Hoover]], [[Abraham Lincoln]],{{efn|Republican Abraham Lincoln wakasankhikaso pa tikiti ya [[National Union Party (United States)|National Union Party]] pamoza na Democrat Andrew Johnson mu 1864.}} [[William McKinley]], [[Richard Nixon]], [[Ronald Reagan]], [[Theodore Roosevelt]], [[William Howard Taft]], na '''[[Donald Trump]] (wali pa udindo)''' |- | style="background: {{party color|Democratic Party (United States)}};" | | [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]] | style="text-align: center;" |15 | [[Joe Biden]], [[James Buchanan]], [[Jimmy Carter]], [[Grover Cleveland]], [[Bill Clinton]], [[Andrew Jackson]], [[Lyndon B. Johnson]], [[John F. Kennedy]], [[Barack Obama]], [[Franklin Pierce]], [[James K. Polk]], [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]], [[Harry S. Truman]], [[Martin Van Buren]], na [[Woodrow Wilson]] |- | style="background-color:{{party color|Democratic-Republican Party}}" | | [[Democratic-Republican Party|Democratic-Republican]] | style="text-align: center;" |4 | [[John Quincy Adams]], [[Thomas Jefferson]], [[James Madison]], na [[James Monroe]] |- | style="background-color:{{party color|Whig Party (United States)}}" | | [[Whig Party (United States)|Whig]] | style="text-align: center;" |4 | [[Millard Fillmore]], [[William Henry Harrison]], [[Zachary Taylor]], na [[John Tyler]]{{efn|Democrat John Tyler wakasankhika kuŵa vice president pa tikiti ya Whig pamoza na Harrison mu 1840. Ndondomeko zake apo wakaŵa pulezidenti zikapambana na ivyo Whig Party yikakhumbanga, ndipo chipani chikamufumiska mu Seputembala 1841.}} |- | style="background-color:{{party color|Federalist Party}}" | | [[Federalist Party|Federalist]] | style="text-align: center;" |1 | [[John Adams]] |- | style="background-color:{{party color|National Union Party (United States)}}" | | nowrap | [[National Union Party (United States)|National Union]] | style="text-align: center;" |1 | [[Andrew Johnson]]{{efn|Democrat Andrew Johnson wakasankhika kuŵa vice president pa tikiti ya National Union Party pamoza na Republican Abraham Lincoln mu 1864. Pamanyuma, apo wakaŵa pulezidenti, wakayezga kupanga chipani cha ŵakugomezgeka kwa iyo pasi pa mbendera ya National Union kweni wakatondeka. Kufupi naumaliro wa ulamuliro wake, wakaweleraso ku Democratic Party.}} |- | style="background:#f5f5f5" | | [[Independent politician (United States)|Wambura chipani]] | style="text-align: center;" |1 | [[George Washington]] |} == Nyengo ya ŵapurezidenti == {{see also|Mndandanda wa ŵapurezidenti ŵa United States}} [[Bar chart|Chati ya nyengo]] iyi yikulongora umo ŵapurezidenti ŵa United States ŵakendeleranga mu nyengo kweniso [[chipani cha ndale]] icho ŵakaŵamo pa nyengo iyo ŵakanjiranga pa udindo. <div class="center">{{#tag:timeline| ImageSize = width:1500 height:auto barincrement:18 PlotArea = top:10 bottom:20 right:130 left:10 AlignBars = late DateFormat = x.y Period = from:1788.90 till:{{#expr:{{#time:Y}}+{{#time:m}}/6}} TimeAxis = orientation:horizontal ScaleMajor = unit:year increment:10 start:1790 ScaleMinor = unit:year increment:1 start:1789 Define $now = {{#expr:{{#time:Y}}+{{#time:m}}/12}} Colors = id:5year value:rgb(0.8, 0.8, 0.8) id:0year value:rgb(0.6, 0.6, 0.6) id:noparty value:rgb(0.7, 0.7, 0.7) id:fed value:rgb(0.85, 0.52, 0.38) id:demrep value:rgb(0, 0.5, 0) id:whig value:rgb(0.84, 0.74, 0.34) id:nlunion value:rgb(0.7, 0.13, 0.13) id:dem value:rgb(0.2, 0.2, 1) id:rep value:rgb(1, 0.2, 0.2) id:seat1 value:rgb(0.60,0.10,0.10) id:blank value:white BarData = barset:PresidentLine barset:Presidents PlotData= width:1 align:right fontsize:S shift:(-3,-4) anchor:from fontsize:8 color:black barset:PresidentLine from:1804 till:end text:Ŵapurezidenti width:6 align:left fontsize:S shift:(5,-4) anchor:till fontsize:10 barset:Presidents from:1789.40 till:1797.17 color:noparty text:"George Washington" from:1797.17 till:1801.17 color:fed text:"John Adams" from:1801.17 till:1809.17 color:demrep text:"Thomas Jefferson" from:1809.17 till:1817.17 color:demrep text:"James Madison" from:1817.17 till:1825.17 color:demrep text:"James Monroe" from:1825.17 till:1829.17 color:demrep text:"John Quincy Adams" from:1829.17 till:1837.17 color:dem text:"Andrew Jackson" from:1837.17 till:1841.17 color:dem text:"Martin Van Buren" from:1841.17 till:1841.26 color:whig text:"William Henry Harrison" from:1841.26 till:1845.17 color:whig text:"John Tyler" from:1845.17 till:1849.17 color:dem text:"James K. Polk" from:1849.17 till:1850.52 color:whig text:"Zachary Taylor" from:1850.52 till:1853.17 color:whig text:"Millard Fillmore" from:1853.17 till:1857.17 color:dem text:"Franklin Pierce" from:1857.17 till:1861.17 color:dem text:"James Buchanan" from:1861.17 till:1865.29 color:rep text:"Abraham Lincoln" from:1865.29 till:1869.17 color:nlunion text:"Andrew Johnson" from:1869.17 till:1877.17 color:rep text:"Ulysses S. Grant" from:1877.17 till:1881.17 color:rep text:"Rutherford B. Hayes" from:1881.17 till:1881.73 color:rep text:"James A. Garfield" from:1881.73 till:1885.17 color:rep text:"Chester A. Arthur" from:1885.17 till:1889.17 color:dem text:"Grover Cleveland" from:1889.17 till:1893.17 color:rep text:"Benjamin Harrison" from:1893.17 till:1897.17 color:dem text:"Grover Cleveland" from:1897.17 till:1901.72 color:rep text:"William McKinley" from:1901.72 till:1909.17 color:rep text:"Theodore Roosevelt" from:1909.17 till:1913.17 color:rep text:"William Howard Taft" from:1913.17 till:1921.17 color:dem text:"Woodrow Wilson" from:1921.17 till:1923.59 color:rep text:"Warren G. Harding" from:1923.59 till:1929.17 color:rep text:"Calvin Coolidge" from:1929.17 till:1933.17 color:rep text:"Herbert Hoover" from:1933.17 till:1945.28 color:dem text:"Franklin D. Roosevelt" from:1945.28 till:1953.05 color:dem text:"Harry S. Truman" from:1953.05 till:1961.05 color:rep text:"Dwight D. Eisenhower" from:1961.05 till:1963.89 color:dem text:"John F. Kennedy" from:1963.89 till:1969.05 color:dem text:"Lyndon B. Johnson" from:1969.05 till:1974.61 color:rep text:"Richard Nixon" from:1974.61 till:1977.05 color:rep text:"Gerald Ford" from:1977.05 till:1981.05 color:dem text:"Jimmy Carter" from:1981.05 till:1989.05 color:rep text:"Ronald Reagan" from:1989.05 till:1993.05 color:rep text:"George H. W. Bush" from:1993.05 till:2001.05 color:dem text:"Bill Clinton" from:2001.05 till:2009.05 color:rep text:"George W. Bush" from:2009.05 till:2017.05 color:dem text:"Barack Obama" from:2017.05 till:2021.05 color:rep text:"Donald Trump" from:2021.05 till:2025.05 color:dem text:"Joe Biden" from:2025.05 till:$now color:rep text:"Donald Trump" LineData= from:1842.00 till:1845.17 atpos:650 color:noparty width:6 from:1885.17 till:1889.17 atpos:439.5 color:dem width:6 from:2017.05 till:2021.05 atpos:52 color:rep width:6 layer:back at:1790.00 width:0.1 color:0year at:1795.00 width:0.1 color:5year at:1800.00 width:0.1 color:0year at:1805.00 width:0.1 color:5year at:1810.00 width:0.1 color:0year at:1815.00 width:0.1 color:5year at:1820.00 width:0.1 color:0year at:1825.00 width:0.1 color:5year at:1830.00 width:0.1 color:0year at:1835.00 width:0.1 color:5year at:1840.00 width:0.1 color:0year at:1845.00 width:0.1 color:5year at:1850.00 width:0.1 color:0year at:1855.00 width:0.1 color:5year at:1860.00 width:0.1 color:0year at:1865.00 width:0.1 color:5year at:1870.00 width:0.1 color:0year at:1875.00 width:0.1 color:5year at:1880.00 width:0.1 color:0year at:1885.00 width:0.1 color:5year at:1890.00 width:0.1 color:0year at:1895.00 width:0.1 color:5year at:1900.00 width:0.1 color:0year at:1905.00 width:0.1 color:5year at:1910.00 width:0.1 color:0year at:1915.00 width:0.1 color:5year at:1920.00 width:0.1 color:0year at:1925.00 width:0.1 color:5year at:1930.00 width:0.1 color:0year at:1935.00 width:0.1 color:5year at:1940.00 width:0.1 color:0year at:1945.00 width:0.1 color:5year at:1950.00 width:0.1 color:0year at:1955.00 width:0.1 color:5year at:1960.00 width:0.1 color:0year at:1965.00 width:0.1 color:5year at:1970.00 width:0.1 color:0year at:1975.00 width:0.1 color:5year at:1980.00 width:0.1 color:0year at:1985.00 width:0.1 color:5year at:1990.00 width:0.1 color:0year at:1995.00 width:0.1 color:5year at:2000.00 width:0.1 color:0year at:2005.00 width:0.1 color:5year at:2010.00 width:0.1 color:0year at:2015.00 width:0.1 color:5year at:2020.00 width:0.1 color:0year at:2025.00 width:0.1 color:5year }}</div> == Wonani so == {{Portal|United States|Politics}} * [[Outline of American politics]] {{Clear}} == Vyakulemba == {{Notelist}} == Ukaboni == {{Reflist}} == Vinandi == {{Refbegin}} * Edwards, George C. and Thomas G. Howell (eds.). 2009. ''The Oxford Handbook of the American Presidency''. Oxford University Press. * {{cite journal |last1=Kernell |first1=Samuel |last2=Jacobson |first2=Gary C. |year=1987 |title=Congress and the Presidency as News in the Nineteenth Century |url=http://pages.ucsd.edu/~skernell/resources/congresspresasnews.pdf |journal=Journal of Politics |volume=49 |issue=4 |pages=1016–1035 |doi=10.2307/2130782 |jstor=2130782 |s2cid=154834781}} * Howell, William G. 2023. ''The American Presidency: An Institutional Approach to Executive Politics''. Princeton University Press. * {{cite journal |last1=Sigelman |first1=Lee |last2=Bullock |first2=David |year=1991 |title=Candidates, issues, horse races, and hoopla: Presidential campaign coverage, 1888–1988 |url=https://blogs.cornell.edu/bigreddc/files/2013/09/SchoolsAmerican-Politics-Research-1991-Sigelman-5-32.pdf |journal=American Politics Quarterly |volume=19 |issue=1 |pages=5–32 |doi=10.1177/1532673x9101900101 |s2cid=154283367}} * [[John William Tebbel|Tebbel, John William]], and Sarah Miles Watts. ''The Press and the Presidency: From George Washington to Ronald Reagan'' (Oxford University Press, 1985). [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2131296 online review] * Waterman, Richard W., and Robert Wright. ''The Image-Is-Everything Presidency: Dilemmas in American Leadership'' (Routledge, 2018). * ''[[Presidential Studies Quarterly]]'', published by Wiley, is an academic journal on the presidency. {{Refend}} ==Pa intaneti== {{Sister project links|d=y|wikt=POTUS|voy=y|b=United States Government/The Executive Branch}} * [https://www.whitehouse.gov/ White House homepage] * [[hdl:10079/fa/beinecke.pres|United States Presidents Collection. General Collection]], Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Yale University {{Presidents of the United States}} {{Navboxes|list = {{Lists of US Presidents and Vice Presidents}} {{United States topics}} {{US Chief Executives}} {{United States presidential elections}} {{US presidential memorials}} {{United States Armed Forces}} {{White House}} {{Heads of state and government of North America}} }} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Ŵalongozgi ŵa United States| ]] [[Category:Ulongozgi wa pulezidenti wa United States| ]] [[Category:Vyakukhazikiskika mu United States mu 1789]] [[Category:Ŵalongozgi ŵa boma ŵa United States]] [[Category:Nkhani izo zili na ma timeline gha chithuzithuzi]] dmn1p7ib5lkqgvslsmdnbb1fetyubzk 0 47962 119276 117499 2026-08-13T21:39:12Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260813sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 119276 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|none}} <!-- "none" is preferred when the title is sufficiently descriptive; see [[WP:SDNONE]] --> {{Use dmy dates|date=May 2018}} [[Image:Cameroon Map.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Map of Cameroon]] [[File:LocationCameroon.svg|thumb|Location of Cameroon]] At {{convert|475440|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}, [[Cameroon]] is the world's 53rd largest country. It is slightly larger than the nation of [[Sweden]] and the US state of [[California]]. It is comparable in size to [[Papua New Guinea]]. Cameroon's landmass is {{convert|472710|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}, with {{convert|2730|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} of water. The country is located in Central and West Africa, bordering the [[Bight of Biafra]], between [[Equatorial Guinea]] and [[Nigeria]]. Cameroon is sometimes described as "Africa in miniature" because it exhibits all the major climates and vegetation of the continent: mountains, desert, rain forest, savanna grassland, and ocean coastland. Cameroon can be divided into five geographic zones. These are distinguished by dominant physical, climatic, and vegetative features. ==Natural regions== [[Image:Cameroon Topography.png|thumb|Topography of Cameroon]] {{MapLibrary|Cameroon_sat.png|Cameroon}} [[File:Down Beach Limbe.jpg|thumb|Night view of Limbe Atlantic Ocean]] [[File:Mangrove-Wouri 02.jpg|thumb|Mangroves along the banks of Wouri River in Douala]] Cameroon is one of the wettest parts of Africa and records Africa's second highest concentration of biodiversity.<ref name="Africa">{{cite web |title=Cameroon |url=http://www.wcs.org/where-we-work/africa/cameroon.aspx |access-date=14 February 2013 |publisher=Wildlife Conservation Society}}</ref><ref name="Regional">{{cite web |last1=Wilkie |first1=D. S. |last2=Hakizumwami |first2=E. |last3=Gami |first3=N. |last4=Difara |first4=B. |year=2001 |title=Beyond Boundaries:Regional Overview of Transboundary Natural Resource Management in Central Africa |url=http://www.worldwildlife.org/bsp/publications/africa/125/125/CentralAfrica.htm |access-date=14 February 2013 |work=Table 1 World Wildlife Organization |publisher=World Wildlife Organization}}</ref> In Cameroon [[forest cover]] is around 43% of the total land area, equivalent to {{convert|20,340,480|ha}} of forest in 2020, down from {{convert|22,500,000|ha}} in 1990. In 2020, naturally regenerating forest covered {{convert|20,279,380|ha}} and planted forest covered {{convert|61,100|ha}}. Around 15% of the forest area was found within protected areas, for the year 2015, 100% of the forest area was reported to be under [[State ownership|public ownership]].<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://openknowledge.fao.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/a6e225da-4a31-4e06-818d-ca3aeadfd635/content |title=Terms and Definitions FRA 2025 Forest Resources Assessment, Working Paper 194 |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations |year=2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Global Forest Resources Assessment 2020, Cameroon |url=https://fra-data.fao.org/assessments/fra/2020/CMR/home/overview |website=Food Agriculture Organization of the United Nations}}</ref> Cameroon's coastal plain extends {{convert|10|to|50|mi|km|sigfig=1|order=flip}} inland from the [[Gulf of Guinea]] (part of the Atlantic Ocean) to the edge of a plateau. In the former western state, however, the mass of [[Mount Cameroon]] reaches almost to the sea. The plain is densely forested including areas of [[Central African mangroves]] especially around [[Douala]] and in the estuary of the [[Cross River (Nigeria)|Cross River]] on the border with [[Nigeria]]. A recent global [[remote sensing]] analysis suggested that there were 643&nbsp;km² of tidal flats in Cameroon, making it the 39th ranked country in terms of tidal flat area.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Murray |first1=N.J. |last2=Phinn |first2=S.R. |last3=DeWitt |first3=M. |last4=Ferrari |first4=R. |last5=Johnston |first5=R. |last6=Lyons |first6=M.B. |last7=Clinton |first7=N. |last8=Thau |first8=D. |last9=Fuller |first9=R.A. |title=The global distribution and trajectory of tidal flats |journal=Nature |date=2019 |volume=565 |issue=7738 |pages=222–225 |doi=10.1038/s41586-018-0805-8 |pmid=30568300 |s2cid=56481043 |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-018-0805-8|url-access=subscription }}</ref> The low [[South Cameroon Plateau]], rising from the coastal plain and dominated by tropical rain forest, has an average elevation of {{convert|1500|to|2000|ft|m|sigfig=1|order=flip}}. It is less humid than the coast. In western Cameroon is an irregular chain of mountains, hills, and plateaus that extends from Mount Cameroon almost to [[Lake Chad]] at the northern tip of the country. This region includes the [[Bamenda highlands|Bamenda]], [[Bamiléké highlands|Bamiléké]], and [[Mambilla highlands]]. It also contains some of the country's most fertile soils, notably around volcanic Mt. Cameroon. This area of tropical forest has been categorised by the [[World Wildlife Fund]] as the [[Cameroonian Highlands forests]] [[ecoregion]] with [[Mount Cameroon and Bioko montane forests|Mount Cameroon]] considered separately because as an active volcano it has a distinct environment from the other mountains. From the forested southern plateau the land rises northward to the grassy, rugged [[Adamaoua highlands|Adamaoua]] (Adamawa) highlands. Stretching across Cameroon from the western mountain area, the Adamaoua forms a barrier between the north and south. Its average elevation is {{convert|3400|ft|m|sigfig=2|abbr=on|order=flip}}. The southern [[savanna|savanna plain]] extends from the edge of the Adamaoua to Lake Chad. Its characteristic vegetation is scrub and grass. This is region of sparse rainfall and high median temperatures has been included as part of the [[East Sudanian savanna]] ecoregion. == Climate == The climate varies with terrain, from tropical along the coast to semiarid and hot in the north. Exceedingly hot and humid, the coastal belt includes some of the wettest places on earth. For example, [[Debundscha]], at the base of Mt. Cameroon, has an average annual rainfall of {{convert|405|in|mm|order=flip}}.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20131128084534/http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/oa/climate/globalextremes.html Highest Average Annual Precipitation Extremes]. Global Measured Extremes of Temperature and Precipitation, [[National Climatic Data Center]]. 9 August 2004. Last accessed 7 November 2006.</ref> {{Weather box |width = auto |location = Yaoundé |metric first = yes |single line = yes |collapsed = yes |Jan record high C = 33 |Feb record high C = 33 |Mar record high C = 33 |Apr record high C = 36 |May record high C = 34 |Jun record high C = 32 |Jul record high C = 31 |Aug record high C = 34 |Sep record high C = 31 |Oct record high C = 33 |Nov record high C = 32 |Dec record high C = 32 |year record high C = 36 |Jan high C = 29.6 |Feb high C = 31.0 |Mar high C = 30.4 |Apr high C = 29.6 |May high C = 28.8 |Jun high C = 27.7 |Jul high C = 26.5 |Aug high C = 26.5 |Sep high C = 27.5 |Oct high C = 27.8 |Nov high C = 28.1 |Dec high C = 28.5 |year high C = 28.5 |Jan mean C = 24.6 |Feb mean C = 25.7 |Mar mean C = 25.4 |Apr mean C = 25.0 |May mean C = 24.5 |Jun mean C = 23.8 |Jul mean C = 23.2 |Aug mean C = 22.9 |Sep mean C = 23.4 |Oct mean C = 23.5 |Nov mean C = 23.9 |Dec mean C = 24.0 |year mean C = 24.2 |Jan low C = 19.6 |Feb low C = 20.3 |Mar low C = 20.3 |Apr low C = 20.3 |May low C = 20.2 |Jun low C = 19.9 |Jul low C = 19.9 |Aug low C = 19.3 |Sep low C = 19.3 |Oct low C = 19.2 |Nov low C = 19.6 |Dec low C = 19.5 |year low C = 19.8 |Jan record low C = 14 |Feb record low C = 15 |Mar record low C = 16 |Apr record low C = 15 |May record low C = 16 |Jun record low C = 15 |Jul record low C = 16 |Aug record low C = 16 |Sep record low C = 15 |Oct record low C = 15 |Nov record low C = 17 |Dec record low C = 16 |year record low C = 14 |precipitation colour = green |Jan precipitation mm = 19.0 |Feb precipitation mm = 42.8 |Mar precipitation mm = 124.9 |Apr precipitation mm = 171.3 |May precipitation mm = 199.3 |Jun precipitation mm = 157.1 |Jul precipitation mm = 74.2 |Aug precipitation mm = 113.7 |Sep precipitation mm = 232.3 |Oct precipitation mm = 293.6 |Nov precipitation mm = 94.3 |Dec precipitation mm = 18.6 |year precipitation mm = |Jan humidity = 79.5 |Feb humidity = 79.5 |Mar humidity = 81.0 |Apr humidity = 82.0 |May humidity = 84.0 |Jun humidity = 85.0 |Jul humidity = 85.5 |Aug humidity = 86.0 |Sep humidity = 85.5 |Oct humidity = 85.0 |Nov humidity = 82.0 |Dec humidity = 79.0 |year humidity = 82.8 |unit precipitation days= 0.1 mm |Jan precipitation days = 3 |Feb precipitation days = 4 |Mar precipitation days = 12 |Apr precipitation days = 14 |May precipitation days = 17 |Jun precipitation days = 14 |Jul precipitation days = 11 |Aug precipitation days = 12 |Sep precipitation days = 20 |Oct precipitation days = 23 |Nov precipitation days = 11 |Dec precipitation days = 3 |Jan sun = 172.0 |Feb sun = 179.0 |Mar sun = 169.9 |Apr sun = 164.5 |May sun = 166.2 |Jun sun = 126.0 |Jul sun = 96.1 |Aug sun = 86.2 |Sep sun = 102.4 |Oct sun = 130.2 |Nov sun = 167.1 |Dec sun = 181.4 |year sun = 1741.0 |source 1 = [[World Meteorological Organization]]<ref name=WMOYaounde>{{cite web|url=http://worldweather.wmo.int/055/c00257.htm|title=World Weather Information Service - Yaounde|publisher=World Meteorological Organization|access-date=December 7, 2012}}</ref> NOAA (sun 1961–1990)<ref name=NOAA>{{Cite FTP |url=ftp://ftp.atdd.noaa.gov/pub/GCOS/WMO-Normals/TABLES/REG__I/KM/64950.TXT|server=[[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration]]|title=Yaounde Climate Normals 1961–1990|access-date=September 10, 2015}}</ref> |source 2 = BBC Weather<ref name="weather1">{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/weather/2220957|title=Average Conditions Yaounde, Cameroon|access-date=December 7, 2012|publisher=BBC Weather}}</ref>|date=August 2010}} {{Weather box |width = auto |location = Douala (1971-2000, extremes 1885-present) |single line = Yes |metric first = Yes |collapsed = Yes |Jan record high C = 35.8 |Feb record high C = 39.8 |Mar record high C = 37.8 |Apr record high C = 36.4 |May record high C = 36.0 |Jun record high C = 39.0 |Jul record high C = 32.5 |Aug record high C = 32.0 |Sep record high C = 33.1 |Oct record high C = 35.0 |Nov record high C = 38.0 |Dec record high C = 38.0 |year record high C = 39.8 |Jan high C = 32.2 |Feb high C = 32.8 |Mar high C = 32.5 |Apr high C = 32.1 |May high C = 31.4 |Jun high C = 29.9 |Jul high C = 28.1 |Aug high C = 27.7 |Sep high C = 29.0 |Oct high C = 29.8 |Nov high C = 30.9 |Dec high C = 31.7 |year high C = 30.7 |Jan mean C = 27.8 |Feb mean C = 28.5 |Mar mean C = 28.2 |Apr mean C = 27.8 |May mean C = 27.3 |Jun mean C = 26.5 |Jul mean C = 25.4 |Aug mean C = 25.3 |Sep mean C = 25.9 |Oct mean C = 26.2 |Nov mean C = 27.1 |Dec mean C = 27.5 |year mean C = 27.0 |Jan low C = 23.4 |Feb low C = 24.1 |Mar low C = 23.9 |Apr low C = 23.5 |May low C = 23.2 |Jun low C = 23.0 |Jul low C = 22.7 |Aug low C = 22.8 |Sep low C = 22.8 |Oct low C = 22.5 |Nov low C = 23.2 |Dec low C = 23.3 |year low C = 23.2 |Jan record low C = 18.0 |Feb record low C = 19.0 |Mar record low C = 18.0 |Apr record low C = 18.3 |May record low C = 16.0 |Jun record low C = 18.2 |Jul record low C = 18.2 |Aug record low C = 19.0 |Sep record low C = 18.5 |Oct record low C = 16.8 |Nov record low C = 18.5 |Dec record low C = 18.0 |year record low C = 16.0 |precipitation colour = green |Jan precipitation mm = 34.2 |Feb precipitation mm = 54.5 |Mar precipitation mm = 155.2 |Apr precipitation mm = 241.2 |May precipitation mm = 276.2 |Jun precipitation mm = 354.1 |Jul precipitation mm = 681.4 |Aug precipitation mm = 687.5 |Sep precipitation mm = 561.2 |Oct precipitation mm = 406.6 |Nov precipitation mm = 123.1 |Dec precipitation mm = 27.5 |year precipitation mm = 3602.7 |Jan humidity = 80 |Feb humidity = 79 |Mar humidity = 80 |Apr humidity = 81 |May humidity = 82 |Jun humidity = 85 |Jul humidity = 87 |Aug humidity = 88 |Sep humidity = 86 |Oct humidity = 84 |Nov humidity = 83 |Dec humidity = 82 |year humidity = 83 |unit precipitation days= 0.1 mm |Jan precipitation days = 5 |Feb precipitation days = 9 |Mar precipitation days = 15 |Apr precipitation days = 18 |May precipitation days = 21 |Jun precipitation days = 23 |Jul precipitation days = 27 |Aug precipitation days = 30 |Sep precipitation days = 26 |Oct precipitation days = 24 |Nov precipitation days = 12 |Dec precipitation days = 5 |year precipitation days = 215 |Jan sun = 193.3 |Feb sun = 179.1 |Mar sun = 171.9 |Apr sun = 176.5 |May sun = 175.8 |Jun sun = 123.1 |Jul sun = 72.0 |Aug sun = 53.2 |Sep sun = 90.8 |Oct sun = 131.2 |Nov sun = 162.1 |Dec sun = 184.2 |year sun = 1713.2 |source 1 = [[World Meteorological Organization]]<ref name = WMOdouala > {{cite web |url = http://worldweather.wmo.int/en/city.html?cityId=1513 |title = World Weather Information Service – Douala |publisher= World Meteorological Organization |access-date = 13 June 2016}}</ref> Meteo Climat (record highs and lows)<ref name = doualameteoclimat> {{cite web |url = http://meteo-climat-bzh.dyndns.org/index.php?page=stati&id=1526 |title = Station Douala |publisher = Meteo Climat |language = fr |access-date = 13 June 2016}}</ref> |source 2 = [[Deutscher Wetterdienst]] (humidity, 1957-1990),<ref name = DWDdouala> {{cite web |url = http://www.dwd.de/DWD/klima/beratung/ak/ak_649100_kt.pdf |title = Klimatafel von Douala (Duala), Observatorium / Kamerun |work = Baseline climate means (1961-1990) from stations all over the world |publisher = Deutscher Wetterdienst |language = de |access-date = 13 June 2016}}</ref> NOAA (sun, 1961-1990)<ref name = NOAADouala> {{cite web |url = ftp://ftp.atdd.noaa.gov/pub/GCOS/WMO-Normals/TABLES/REG__I/KM/64910.TXT |title = Douala Climate Normals 1961-1990 |publisher = [[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration]] |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200726195601/ftp://ftp.atdd.noaa.gov/pub/GCOS/WMO-Normals/TABLES/REG__I/KM/64910.TXT |archive-date = 2020-07-26 |url-status = dead |access-date = 13 June 2016}}</ref> |date=November 2011 }} {{Weather box|width = auto |location = Garoua |collapsed = Yes |single line = Yes |metric first = Yes |Jan high C = 34.4 |Feb high C = 37.3 |Mar high C = 39.8 |Apr high C = 39.5 |May high C = 36.5 |Jun high C = 33.2 |Jul high C = 31.1 |Aug high C = 30.7 |Sep high C = 31.5 |Oct high C = 34.2 |Nov high C = 36.0 |Dec high C = 34.8 |year high C = 34.9 |Jan mean C = 26.0 |Feb mean C = 28.9 |Mar mean C = 32.2 |Apr mean C = 33.0 |May mean C = 30.7 |Jun mean C = 28.2 |Jul mean C = 26.6 |Aug mean C = 26.4 |Sep mean C = 26.7 |Oct mean C = 28.1 |Nov mean C = 27.3 |Dec mean C = 26.0 |year mean C = 28.3 |Jan low C = 17.5 |Feb low C = 20.5 |Mar low C = 24.7 |Apr low C = 26.4 |May low C = 24.9 |Jun low C = 23.2 |Jul low C = 22.2 |Aug low C = 22.0 |Sep low C = 21.9 |Oct low C = 22.2 |Nov low C = 19.2 |Dec low C = 17.3 |year low C = 21.8 |rain colour = green |Jan rain mm = 0.0 |Feb rain mm = 0.0 |Mar rain mm = 2.0 |Apr rain mm = 44.1 |May rain mm = 108.4 |Jun rain mm = 134.8 |Jul rain mm = 205.3 |Aug rain mm = 247.9 |Sep rain mm = 190.0 |Oct rain mm = 63.3 |Nov rain mm = 1.6 |Dec rain mm = 0.0 |unit rain days = 1.0 mm |Jan rain days = 0 |Feb rain days = 0 |Mar rain days = 1 |Apr rain days = 5 |May rain days = 9 |Jun rain days = 11 |Jul rain days = 14 |Aug rain days = 17 |Sep rain days = 24 |Oct rain days = 6 |Nov rain days = 1 |Dec rain days = 0 |Jan sun = 275.0 |Feb sun = 252.6 |Mar sun = 260.1 |Apr sun = 245.4 |May sun = 256.7 |Jun sun = 224.4 |Jul sun = 194.0 |Aug sun = 187.2 |Sep sun = 204.5 |Oct sun = 261.5 |Nov sun = 279.2 |Dec sun = 286.5 |year sun = 2927.1 |source 1 = NOAA<ref name= NOAAgaroua>{{cite web | url = ftp://ftp.atdd.noaa.gov/pub/GCOS/WMO-Normals/TABLES/REG__I/KM/64860.TXT | title = Garoua Climate Normals 1961–1990 | publisher = [[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration]] | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210303100123/ftp://ftp.atdd.noaa.gov/pub/GCOS/WMO-Normals/TABLES/REG__I/KM/64860.TXT | archive-date = 2021-03-03 | url-status = dead | access-date = March 8, 2015}}</ref> |date=November 2011 }} ==Biodiversity== {{Main|Wildlife of Cameroon}} The wide diversity of climates and natural regions of Cameroon, as coastline, mountains, savanna, deserts, and tropical forests, allows that the country counts with rich biodiversity. Twenty-two million hectares from the [[Congo Basin]] forest ecosystem are located in Cameroon, where 9,000 plant species, 900 bird species, and 320 mammals species live,<ref>{{cite web|title=Cameroon|url=https://www.awf.org/country/cameroon|publisher=Cameroon|access-date=29 September 2020 }}</ref> included 156 [[Endemism|endemic]] plants, eight endemic birds, and 14 endemic mammals. The border with Nigeria has one of the highest concentration of biodiversity in Africa.<ref name="afcn">{{cite web|title=Africa: Cameroon, Nigeria|url=https://www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/at0710|access-date=29 September 2020 }}</ref> As part of the conservation efforts to protect threatened natural resources, Cameroon has established [[List of protected areas of Cameroon|protected areas]] since 1932, included national parks, wildlife sanctuaries, faunal reserves, and one flora sanctuary.<ref name="Cartesia">{{cite web|url=http://www.cartesia.org/geodoc/icc2005/pdf/oral/TEMA10/Session%206/TCHINDJANG%20MESMIN%202.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.cartesia.org/geodoc/icc2005/pdf/oral/TEMA10/Session%206/TCHINDJANG%20MESMIN%202.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |title=Mapping of Protected Areas Evolution in Cameroon from the Beginning to 2000: Lesson to Learn and Perspectives. |author1=Mesmin Tchindjang |author2=Clair Réné Banga |author3=Appolinaire Nankam |author4=Jean Sylvestre Makak |year=2001 |work=Table 1 World Wildlife Organization |access-date=14 February 2013 |publisher=World Wildlife Organization}}</ref> ==Rivers== [[File:La sanaga4.jpg|thumb|Sanaga River]] [[File:River Mungo.jpg|thumb|Mungo River with fishing Canoes at the far end of the picture]] The country has four patterns of drainage. In the south, the principal rivers flow southwestward or westward directly to the [[Gulf of Guinea]] – the [[Wouri River|Wouri]], and lesser [[Dibamba River|Dibamba]], [[Bimbia River|Bimbia]] and [[Mungo River, Cameroon|Mungo]] to the Cameroon [[estuary]] near [[Douala]]; [[Sanaga River|Sanaga]], [[Nyong River|Nyong]], and [[Ntem River|Ntem]] further south along the coast; [[Akwayafe River|Akwayafe]] and [[Manyu River|Manyu]] (which joins Nigerian [[Cross River (Nigeria)|Cross]]), and the lesser [[Ndian River|Ndian]] and [[Meme River|Meme]] north of the coast.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://nest.su.se/mnode/Africa/Cameroon/cameroonintro.htm | access-date = 2012-10-25 | last = Gabche | first = C E | author2 = Smith, S V | title = Cameroon Estuarine Systems | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110823031328/http://nest.su.se/mnode/africa/cameroon/cameroonintro.htm | archive-date = 23 August 2011 | url-status = dead }}</ref> The [[Dja River|Dja]] and [[Kadei River|Kadeï]], however, drain southeastward into the [[Congo River]]. In northern Cameroon, the [[Benue River|Benoué River]] (Benue) runs north and west, eventually into the Niger, while the [[Logone River]] flows northward into [[Lake Chad]]. Some of the borders of Cameron follow rivers, including the [[Aïna River|Aïna]], Akwayafe, and Ntem or [[Campo River|Campo]]. ==Forests== Cameroon had a 2018 [[Forest Landscape Integrity Index]] mean score of 8.00/10, ranking it 29th globally out of 172 countries.<ref name="FLII-Supplementary">{{cite journal|last1=Grantham|first1=H. S.|last2=Duncan|first2=A.|last3=Evans|first3=T. D.|last4=Jones|first4=K. R.|last5=Beyer|first5=H. L.|last6=Schuster|first6=R.|last7=Walston|first7=J.|last8=Ray|first8=J. C.|last9=Robinson|first9=J. G.|last10=Callow|first10=M.|last11=Clements|first11=T.|last12=Costa|first12=H. M.|last13=DeGemmis|first13=A.|last14=Elsen|first14=P. R.|last15=Ervin|first15=J.|last16=Franco|first16=P.|last17=Goldman|first17=E.|last18=Goetz|first18=S.|last19=Hansen|first19=A.|last20=Hofsvang|first20=E.|last21=Jantz|first21=P.|last22=Jupiter|first22=S.|last23=Kang|first23=A.|last24=Langhammer|first24=P.|last25=Laurance|first25=W. F.|last26=Lieberman|first26=S.|last27=Linkie|first27=M.|last28=Malhi|first28=Y.|last29=Maxwell|first29=S.|last30=Mendez|first30=M.|last31=Mittermeier|first31=R.|last32=Murray|first32=N. J.|last33=Possingham|first33=H.|last34=Radachowsky|first34=J.|last35=Saatchi|first35=S.|last36=Samper|first36=C.|last37=Silverman|first37=J.|last38=Shapiro|first38=A.|last39=Strassburg|first39=B.|last40=Stevens|first40=T.|last41=Stokes|first41=E.|last42=Taylor|first42=R.|last43=Tear|first43=T.|last44=Tizard|first44=R.|last45=Venter|first45=O.|last46=Visconti|first46=P.|last47=Wang|first47=S.|last48=Watson|first48=J. E. M.|title=Anthropogenic modification of forests means only 40% of remaining forests have high ecosystem integrity - Supplementary Material|journal=Nature Communications|volume=11|issue=1|year=2020|page=5978 |issn=2041-1723|doi=10.1038/s41467-020-19493-3|pmid=33293507 |pmc=7723057 |doi-access=free}}</ref> === Tree cover extent and loss === [[Global Forest Watch]] publishes annual estimates of tree cover loss and 2000 tree cover extent derived from time-series analysis of [[Landsat program|Landsat]] satellite imagery in the Global Forest Change dataset.<ref name="GFWCMRdashboard">{{cite web |title=Cameroon Deforestation Rates & Statistics |website=Global Forest Watch |url=https://www.globalforestwatch.org/dashboards/country/CMR/ }}</ref><ref name="HansenEtAl2013">{{cite journal |last1=Hansen |first1=Matthew C. |last2=Potapov |first2=Peter V. |last3=Moore |first3=Rebecca |last4=Hancher |first4=Matt |last5=Turubanova |first5=Svetlana A. |last6=Tyukavina |first6=Alexandra |display-authors=3 |title=High-Resolution Global Maps of 21st-Century Forest Cover Change |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_2013-11-15_342_6160/page/850 |journal=Science |volume=342 |issue=6160 |year=2013 |pages=850-853 |doi=10.1126/science.1244693 }}</ref><ref name="GFWTCLossAbout">{{cite web |title=Tree cover loss |website=Global Forest Watch Open Data Portal |url=https://data.globalforestwatch.org/documents/gfw::tree-cover-loss/about }}</ref><ref name="GFWTCCover2000About">{{cite web |title=Tree cover (2000) |website=Global Forest Watch Open Data Portal |url=https://data.globalforestwatch.org/documents/gfw::tree-cover-2000/about }}</ref> In this framework, tree cover refers to vegetation taller than 5 m (including natural forests and tree plantations), and tree cover loss is defined as the complete removal of tree cover canopy for a given year, regardless of cause.<ref name="GFRTreeCoverLoss2023">{{cite web |title=How much forest was lost in 2023? |website=Global Forest Review |url=https://gfr.wri.org/global-tree-cover-loss-data-2023 }}</ref> For Cameroon, country statistics report cumulative tree cover loss of {{convert|2226205|ha|km2|abbr=on}} from 2001 to 2024 (about 7.1% of its 2000 tree cover area).<ref name="GFWCMRdashboard" /> For tree cover density greater than 30%, country statistics report a 2000 tree cover extent of {{convert|31459321|ha|km2|abbr=on}}.<ref name="GFWCMRdashboard" /> The charts and table below display this data. In simple terms, the annual loss number is the area where tree cover disappeared in that year, and the extent number shows what remains of the 2000 tree cover baseline after subtracting cumulative loss. Forest regrowth is not included in the dataset.<ref name="GFWCMRdashboard" /><ref name="GFRTreeCoverLoss2023" /> {{ChartDirect |type=bar |align=center |width=100% |x=2001,2002,2003,2004,2005,2006,2007,2008,2009,2010,2011,2012,2013,2014,2015,2016,2017,2018,2019,2020,2021,2022,2023,2024 |xType=integer |y1=392.03,287.68,253.46,230.04,251.58,359.86,459.16,351.41,360.72,579.93,276.52,512.67,846.13,1818.51,789.69,1166.18,1872.81,1208.14,1218.00,2027.96,1687.97,1478.09,2041.99,1791.52 |y1Title=Annual tree cover loss (km²) |caption=Annual tree cover loss in Cameroon, 2001–2024.<ref name="GFWCMRdashboard" /> }} {{ChartDirect |type=line |align=center |width=100% |x=2001,2002,2003,2004,2005,2006,2007,2008,2009,2010,2011,2012,2013,2014,2015,2016,2017,2018,2019,2020,2021,2022,2023,2024 |xType=integer |y1=314201.18,313913.50,313660.04,313430.00,313178.42,312818.56,312359.40,312007.99,311647.27,311067.34,310790.82,310278.15,309432.02,307613.51,306823.82,305657.64,303784.83,302576.69,301358.69,299330.73,297642.76,296164.67,294122.68,292331.16 |y1Title=Extent minus cumulative loss (km²) |caption=Tree cover extent in 2000 minus cumulative tree cover loss in Cameroon, 2001–2024 (loss-only residual; does not account for gain).<ref name="GFWCMRdashboard" /> }} {| class="wikitable sortable collapsible collapsed" style="text-align:right;" |+ Annual tree cover extent and loss<ref name="GFWCMRdashboard" /> ! Year ! Tree cover extent (km2){{efn|name=regrowth|This residual measure does not include forest regrowth.}} ! Annual tree cover loss (km2) |- | 2001 || 314,201.18 || 392.03 |- | 2002 || 313,913.50 || 287.68 |- | 2003 || 313,660.04 || 253.46 |- | 2004 || 313,430.00 || 230.04 |- | 2005 || 313,178.42 || 251.58 |- | 2006 || 312,818.56 || 359.86 |- | 2007 || 312,359.40 || 459.16 |- | 2008 || 312,007.99 || 351.41 |- | 2009 || 311,647.27 || 360.72 |- | 2010 || 311,067.34 || 579.93 |- | 2011 || 310,790.82 || 276.52 |- | 2012 || 310,278.15 || 512.67 |- | 2013 || 309,432.02 || 846.13 |- | 2014 || 307,613.51 || 1,818.51 |- | 2015 || 306,823.82 || 789.69 |- | 2016 || 305,657.64 || 1,166.18 |- | 2017 || 303,784.83 || 1,872.81 |- | 2018 || 302,576.69 || 1,208.14 |- | 2019 || 301,358.69 || 1,218.00 |- | 2020 || 299,330.73 || 2,027.96 |- | 2021 || 297,642.76 || 1,687.97 |- | 2022 || 296,164.67 || 1,478.09 |- | 2023 || 294,122.68 || 2,041.99 |- | 2024 || 292,331.16 || 1,791.52 |} ===REDD+ reference level and monitoring=== Under the [[UNFCCC]] [[REDD+]] framework, Cameroon has submitted a national [[forest reference level]]. On the UNFCCC REDD+ Web Platform, the country’s 2026 submission is listed as “under technical assessment”, while the other [[Warsaw Framework on REDD-plus|Warsaw Framework]] elements—a national strategy, [[Cancún safeguards|safeguards]], and a [[national forest monitoring system]]—are listed as “not reported”.<ref name="UNFCCC_REDD_CMR">{{cite web |title=Cameroon (CMR) — Submissions provided by Country |website=REDD+ Web Platform |publisher=United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) |url=https://redd.unfccc.int/submissions/by-country/country_detail/cmr.html}}</ref> In its 2026 submission, Cameroon proposed its first national forest reference level as a “zero” reference level (''niveau de référence zéro''). The submission states that it is national in scope, covers all five REDD+ activities, uses a historical reference period of 2000–2020, and applies to the implementation period 2021–2025. The proposed benchmark is 0 [[carbon dioxide equivalent|t CO2 eq]] per year, with the government arguing that results-based payments should be claimed only for net removals because Cameroon presents itself as a net carbon sink at national level.<ref name="CMR_NRF_2026">{{cite report |title=Niveau de référence pour les forêts du Cameroun |publisher=République du Cameroun |date=January 2026 |type=UNFCCC submission |url=https://redd.unfccc.int/media/cmr_nrf_zero_final_20janvier2026_f.pdf}}</ref> The submission applies a forest definition of at least 0.5 hectares, minimum canopy cover of 10%, and trees or shrubs capable of reaching a minimum height of 3 metres at maturity, while excluding mono-specific agro-industrial plantations managed primarily through agricultural techniques. It states that activity data were produced through a systematic 4 km × 4 km grid interpreted in Collect Earth Online, covering land use and land-use change for 2000–2023 across 29,409 sample plots. The proposed reference level includes biomass, dead organic matter and mineral soil carbon pools.<ref name="CMR_NRF_2026" /> ==Data== '''Location:''' Central Africa, bordering the [[Bight of Biafra]], between [[Equatorial Guinea]] and [[Nigeria]] '''Geographic coordinates:''' {{coord|6|N|12|E|region:CM_type:country}} '''Continent:''' Africa '''Area:''' <br>''total:'' {{convert|475,440|km2|abbr=on}} <br>''land:'' {{convert|472,710|km2|abbr=on}} <br>''water:'' {{convert|2,730|km2|abbr=on}} <br> ''country rank in the world: 53rd'' '''Area – comparative:''' :* Australia comparative: slightly more than twice the size of [[Victoria (state)|Victoria]] :* Canada comparative: slightly smaller than the [[Yukon]] :* United Kingdom comparative: slightly less than twice the size of the United Kingdom :* United States comparative: slightly more than {{sfrac|1|10}} larger than [[California]] :* [[European Union|EU]] comparative: slightly smaller than [[Spain]]; slightly larger than [[Sweden]] '''Land boundaries:''' <br>''total:'' 5,018&nbsp;km <br>''border countries:'' [[Central African Republic]] 901&nbsp;km, [[Chad]] 1,116&nbsp;km, [[Republic of the Congo]] 494&nbsp;km, [[Equatorial Guinea]] 183&nbsp;km, [[Gabon]] 349&nbsp;km, Nigeria 1,975&nbsp;km '''Coastline:''' 402&nbsp;km '''Maritime claims:''' <br>''territorial sea:'' {{convert|12|nmi|km mi|1|abbr=on|lk=in}} '''Terrain:''' diverse, with coastal [[plain]] in southwest, dissected [[plateau]] in center, mountains in west, plains in north '''Elevation extremes:''' <br>''lowest point:'' Atlantic Ocean 0 m <br>''highest point:'' [[Fako]] (on. [[Mt. Cameroon]]) 4,095 m '''Natural resources:''' petroleum, [[bauxite]], iron ore, timber, [[hydropower]] [[Image:Mount Cameroon craters.jpg|thumb|left|Mount Cameroon craters]] '''Land use:''' <br>''arable land:'' 13.12% <br>''permanent crops:'' 3.28% <br>''other:'' 83.61% (2012) '''Irrigated land:''' 256.5&nbsp;km² (2003) [[Image:Rhumsiki Peak.jpg|thumb|300px|right|[[Rhumsiki]] Peak in Cameroon's [[Far North Province]].]] '''Total renewable water resources:''' 285.5&nbsp;km³ (2011) '''Freshwater withdrawal (domestic/industrial/agricultural):''' <br>''total:'' 0.97&nbsp;km³/yr (23%/10%/68%) <br>''per capita:'' 58.9 m³/yr (2005) '''Natural hazards:''' Recent [[limnic eruption]]s with release of [[carbon dioxide]]: *from [[Lake Monoun]], 15 August 1984, killing 37 *from [[Lake Nyos]], 21 August 1986, killing as many as 1,800 {{anchor|Environmental issues}}'''Environment – current issues:''' water-borne diseases are prevalent; [[deforestation]]; [[overgrazing]]; [[desertification]]; [[poaching]]; [[overfishing]] '''Environment – international agreements:''' <br>''party to:'' [[Biodiversity]], [[United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change|Climate Change]], Desertification, [[Endangered Species]], Hazardous Wastes, [[Law of the Sea]], [[Ozone Layer Protection]], [[Tropical Timber 83]], [[Tropical Timber 94]], Wetlands, Whaling <br>''signed, but not ratified:'' [[Nuclear Test Ban]] '''Geography – note:''' sometimes referred to as 'the hinge of Africa;' throughout the country there are areas of thermal springs and indications of current or prior volcanic activity; Mount Cameroon, the highest mountain in Sub-Saharan west Africa, is an active volcano [[File:Landscape of Mount Cameroon.jpg|thumb|Mount Cameroon Landscape|alt=|220x220px]] == Extreme points == This is a list of the extreme points of [[Cameroon]], the points that are farther north, south, east or west than any other location. * Northernmost point – unnamed [[peninsula]] jutting into [[Lake Chad]], [[Far North Province|Far North Region]] * Easternmost point – unnamed location on the border with the [[Republic of Congo]] in the [[Sangha River]] opposite the Congolese town of [[Bomassa]], [[East Region (Cameroon)|East Region]] * Southernmost point – unnamed headland at the [[confluence]] on the Sangha River and the [[Ngoko River]] immediately north of the Congolese town of [[Ouesso]], [[East Region (Cameroon)|East Region]] * Westernmost point – unnamed point on [[Akwabana Island]], [[Southwest region (Cameroon)|Southwest Region]] ==Gallery== <gallery> File:Koppen-Geiger Map CMR present.svg|Cameroon map of Köppen climate classification. File:Hills near Ngaoundal.jpg|Countryside near [[Ngaoundal]] in Cameroon's [[Adamawa Region]]. File:Berges du Wouri 05.jpg|A view of Wouri River with a transport vessel in the Littoral Region of Cameroon </gallery> ==See also== {{commons category|Geography of Cameroon}} *[[Geology of Cameroon]] *[[List of volcanoes in Cameroon]] == Notes == {{notelist}} ==References== {{CIA World Factbook}} {{Reflist}} {{Cameroon topics}} {{Geography of Africa}} {{Africa topic|Climate of}} [[Category:Geography of Cameroon| ]] 2yjkwybxvodg53ea26bsqjq1m4b31xf 0 48142 119279 118107 2026-08-13T21:41:13Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260813sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 119279 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|palije}} <!--Per MOS:BOLDTITLE and WP:SBE, please do not reword this to include the article's title.--> [[File:Malawi-map-blank.png|thumb|right|alt=Map of Malawi.|Mapu ya Malawi.]] [[Malawi|Malawi]] ntchimoza mwa vyaru ivyo vili na chitukuko chakukwana yayi pa charu chose. Mu [[Ndemanga ya chitukuko cha ŵanthu|Human Development Index]] ya chaka cha 2010, Malawi yikaŵa pa malo 170 pa vyaru 187.<ref name="Number52">{{Cite report |url=https://hdr.undp.org/content/human-development-report-2013 |title=Human Development Report 2013 |author=United Nations |date=2013-01-01 |publisher=United Nations |language=en}}</ref> Chalo ichi chili na ŵanthu pafupifupi 16 miliyoni, ndipo 53% ŵawo ŵakukhala pasi pa [[Mphaka wa ukavu|mphaka wa ukavu]] wa charu. Pafupifupi 90% ŵakukhala na ndalama zakujumpha yayi madola gha ku America ghaŵiri pa zuŵa.<ref name="Number53">{{Cite web |title=FINCA Malawi |url=https://finca.org/where-we-work/africa/malawi/?wp-nocache=true |access-date=2022-05-14 |website=FINCA International |language=en-US}}</ref> [[Wupu wa Mitundu Yakwiza wa Kusungilira Ŵana|Wupu wa Ŵana wa United Nations]] (UNICEF) ukayowoya kuti mu Malawi muli ŵana 46,000 awo ŵakusuzgika chomene na [[kusowa chakurya chakukwana|kusowa chakurya]].<ref name=":1">{{cite web|url=http://www.unicef.org/media/media_28776.html|title=High stakes for Malawi's children as malnutrition rises|publisher=[[UNICEF]]|date=2005-10-14|access-date=2007-12-13|archive-date=2021-01-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210121023749/https://www.unicef.org/media/media_28776.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> Mu 2023, UNICEF yikachenjezga kuti ŵana ŵakujumpha 500,000 mu Malawi ŵakaŵa pa ngozi ya kusowa chakurya.<ref name=":1" /> Mazuŵa ghano, mapulogiramu ghanandi ghakuŵikika mu Malawi kuti ghakumane na masuzgo gha kusintha kwa nyengo, ukavu, kweniso kusintha kwa vyakuchita vya chuma na ulimi.<ref name=":03">{{Cite journal |last1=Stringer |first1=Lindsay C. |last2=Mkwambisi |first2=David D. |last3=Dougill |first3=Andrew J. |last4=Dyer |first4=Jen C. |date=April 2010 |title=Adaptation to climate change and desertification: Perspectives from national policy and autonomous practice in Malawi |journal=Climate and Development |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=145–160 |doi=10.3763/cdev.2010.0042 |issn=1756-5529 |s2cid=153677852}}</ref> ==Mbiri na ivyo vikachitika pakwamba== Ŵasayansi ŵa mbiri ŵalondezga kwamba kwa suzgo la chakurya mu Malawi kufika mu vyaka vya 1991 na 1992, apo chilangalanga chikuru mu kumwera kwa [[Africa]] chikachepeska chomene vyakurya vya chimanga mu Malawi.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Msowoya |first1=Kondwani |last2=Madani |first2=Kaveh |last3=Davtalab |first3=Rahman |last4=Mirchi |first4=Ali |last5=Lund |first5=Jay R. |date=2016-11-01 |title=Climate Change Impacts on Maize Production in the Warm Heart of Africa |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s11269-016-1487-3 |journal=Water Resources Management |language=en |volume=30 |issue=14 |pages=5299–5312 |doi=10.1007/s11269-016-1487-3 |issn=1573-1650|doi-access=free |hdl=10044/1/39909 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> Mtengo wa chimanga ukakwera chomene. Chimanga ndicho chikupanga pafupifupi 54% ya chakurya cha ma calories agho Ŵamalawi ŵakugwiliskira ntchito zuŵa lililose.<ref name="Number1">{{Cite journal |last=Minot |first=Nicholas |date=2010-01-10 |title=Staple Food Prices in Malawi |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/46470944 |journal=Food Security Collaborative Working Papers, Prepared for Comesa Policy Seminar on "Variation in Staple Food Prices: Causes, Consequence, and Policy Options" Under the African Agricultural Marketing Project (AAMP) |location=Maputo, Mozambique |publisher=Michigan State University, Department of Agricultural, Food, and Resource Economics}}</ref> Mtengo wa chimanga ukakwera pafupifupi kaŵiri pakati pa 1992 na 1993.<ref name="Number2">{{Cite book |last=Administrative Committee on Coordination |first=Subcommittee on Nutrition |title=Update on the Nutrition Situation |date=November 1994 |publisher=United Nations |language=en-GB |chapter=Recent Nutrition Trends in 14 Countries – Malawi |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081202025840/http://www.unsystem.org/scn/archives/rwns94update/ch14.htm#Malawi |archive-date=2008-12-02 |chapter-url=http://www.unsystem.org/scn/archives/rwns94update/ch14.htm#Malawi}}</ref> Nangauli mu 1993 mukaŵa chimanga chinandi chifukwa cha vula yiwemi kweniso mbuto ziwemi za chimanga na fetereza uyo boma likapeleka, ŵanthu ŵakakura yayi mu vyakurya chifukwa cha umo ŵakachitira mu nyengo ya njara.<ref name="Number3">Hayes, L.M., Minae, S., Bunderson, W.T., Bodnar, F. & Ngugi, D. "The potential of improved fallows on small holder maize productivity on food security in Malawi." 1997. Paper presented at the International Symposium on The Science and Practice of Short-term Fallows. Lilongwe, Malawi.</ref> [[File:ILRI, Stevie Mann - Household takes refuge from the rain in central Malawi.jpg|thumb|left|alt=Flooding in Malawi.|Chigumula mu Malawi. Ulimi wa Malawi ukusuzgika chifukwa cha masoka gha chilengedwe.]] Bungwe la boma ilo likachemekanga [[Bungwe la Ulimi na Malonda la Malawi|ADMARC]] (Agricultural Development and Marketing Corporation) likalamuliranga kugura na kuguliska vyakurya vya ŵalimi ŵachoko kweniso kugawa fetereza pambere chaka cha 1998 chindafike.<ref name="Number12">"Malawi—The Food Crises, the Strategic Grain Reserve, and the IMF." July 2002. International Monetary Fund. Washington, DC: IMF.</ref> Ukaboni wa vimbundi na kusanga phindu mwakwenelera yayi mu ADMARC ukapangiska kuti bungwe ili lisuzge ŵalimi ŵachoko na kusintha mitengo ya vyakurya mwambura kwenelera.<ref name=Number12 /> Peneapo mitengo ya hona yikakhira mu 1985, [[Bungwe la Ulimi na Malonda la Malawi|ADMARC]] likakhala pafupi kubwanganduka.<ref name="Number32">{{Cite journal |last=Lele |first=Uma |date=1990-09-01 |title=Structural adjustment, agricultural development and the poor: Some lessons from the Malawian experience |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0305-750x(90)90026-t |journal=World Development |volume=18 |issue=9 |pages=1207–1219 |doi=10.1016/0305-750X(90)90026-t |issn=0305-750X|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Pambere apa, nyengo za chilala na chigumula zikalutilira kusuzga Malawi.<ref name="Number5">"Climate change and smallholder farmers in Malawi." ActionAid. October 2006. https://web.archive.org/web/20150503035203/https://www.actionaid.org.uk/sites/default/files/doc_lib/malawi_climate_change_report.pdf {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150503035203/https://www.actionaid.org.uk/sites/default/files/doc_lib/malawi_climate_change_report.pdf |date=2015-05-03 }}</ref> Pakati pa 1990 na 2006, pakaŵa masoka gha nyengo 33, ndipo ichi chikaŵa chikuru chomene pakuyaniska na masoka 7 agho ghakachitika pakati pa 1970 na 1989, kuyana na [[ActionAid]].<ref name=Number5 /> Chuma cha Malawi chikugomezga chomene pa [[Ulimi|ulimi]]. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakukhala chifukwa cha ivyo ŵakulima ndipo ŵakuguliska ivyo vyakhalako kuti ŵasange ndalama.<ref name="Number6">{{cite journal | doi=10.1017/s0022278x04000229 | title=The Malawi 2002 food crisis: The rural development challenge | year=2004 | last1=Dorward | first1=Andrew | last2=Kydd | first2=Jonathan | journal=The Journal of Modern African Studies | volume=42 | issue=3 | pages=343–361 | s2cid=54763363 | url=https://eprints.soas.ac.uk/5115/1/malawi_food_crisis.pdf }}</ref> Kuchuluka kwa chilala na chigumula kufuma mu 1990 kukakhwaska chomene ŵanthu ŵa mu Malawi. Ŵalimi ŵakaŵavya nthowa zakukwana zakuzizipizgira masoka agha panji kubwelera mwaluŵiro, ndipo ichi chikapangiska kuti ŵaŵe pa ngozi ya kusuzgika chomene na masuzgo ghanyake mu nyengo yikwiza. Mzere wa ukavu na njara ukalutilira kukura.<ref name=Number5 /> Kufuma ku vyaka vya m'ma 1970 m'paka mu 1994, boma likapelekanga wovwiri pa ulimi wa chimanga chakusazgika luso. Kweni apo boma likalekezga pulogalamu iyi chifukwa cha mtengo wake ukuru, ulimi wa chimanga ukakhira ndipo mitengo yikakweraso.<ref name=Number5 /> Mu 2002, pakaŵa [[Njara|njara yikuru]] mu Malawi ndipo ŵanthu ŵakufwa ŵakayananga pakati pa 300 na 3,000, kuyana na [[ActionAid]] na [[Lipoti la chitukuko cha ŵanthu|HDR]].<ref>{{Cite report |url=https://hdr.undp.org/content/famine-malawi-causes-and-consequences |title=Famine in Malawi: Causes and Consequences |author=United Nations |date=2008-01-01 |publisher=United Nations |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Number16">{{cite book |last=Phillips |first=Erica |title=Case Studies in Food Policy for Developing Countries |publisher=Cornell University Press |year=2019 |isbn=9780801466373 |editor1=Pinstrup-Andersen, Per |location=Ithaca, NY |pages=135–148 |chapter=Chapter Eleven. The 2002 Malawi Famine (7-1) |doi=10.7591/9780801466373-014 |editor2=Cheng, Fuzhi |s2cid=198660921}}</ref> Pafupifupi 85% ya ndalama zakwizira mu mbumba za Ŵamalawi zikaŵanga kufuma ku ulimi. Chimanga, tirigu na mbatata vikaŵa vyakurya vikuru ivyo ŵanthu ŵakalimanga na kurya.<ref name="Number15">{{Cite book |last=Lilliston, B. & Ranallo, A. |title=Grain reserves and the food price crisis: Selected writings from 2008–2012 |date=2012-07-13 |publisher=Institution for Agriculture and Trade Policy |location=Minneapolis}}</ref> Ntheura, apo [[Wupu wa Ndalama wa Charu Chose|IMF]] ukayowoya kuti zokolola za chimanga mu nyengo ya 2000/2001 zikakhira kufuma pa matani 2.5 miliyoni kufika pa matani 1.7 miliyoni, ndipo ichi chikapangiska kuti mu charu muŵe kusoŵa kwa matani 273,000 gha chimanga, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakasuzgika.<ref name="Number12" /> Mu February 2002, boma la Malawi likapharazga kuti mu charu mukaŵa suzgo la chakurya ndipo likapharazga kuti chikaŵa nyengo ya soka la chalo.<ref name="Number12" /> Zakurya ivyo vikavunwa mu hafu yakwamba ya 2002 vikawovwira kuchepeska njara yikuru, kweni mu 2005, chilala chinyake chikapangiska suzgo linyake la chakurya.<ref name="Number54">{{Citation |chapter=Food, human rights, democracy and beyond |date=2016-11-10 |chapter-url=http://dx.doi.org/10.9774/gleaf.9781315529899_3 |title=The Right to Food Guidelines, Democracy and Citizen Participation |pages=9–27 |access-date=2022-05-14 |place=London; New York |publisher=Routledge |doi=10.9774/gleaf.9781315529899_3 |isbn=9781315529899|chapter-url-access=subscription }}</ref> Pa Okutobala 15, 2005, boma ilo likalongozgekanga na [[Mulongozgi wa Malawi|Mulongozgi]] [[Bingu wa Mutharika]] likapharazga [[nyengo ya soka|soka la chalo]].<ref>{{cite web |date=2005-10-15 |title=Malawi issues food crisis appeal |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/4345246.stm |access-date=2007-12-13 |publisher=[[BBC]]}}</ref> Kufuma apo Malawi yikamba kubwelera kufuma ku suzgo la 2005, kweni sono yikusangana na suzgo linyake la kusoŵa chakurya.<ref name="Number20">{{Cite book |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.7591/9780801466380 |title=Case Studies in Food Policy for Developing Countries |date=2009-01-01 |isbn=9780801466380 |editor-last=Pinstrup-Andersen |editor-first=Per |doi=10.7591/9780801466380 |editor2-last=Cheng |editor2-first=Fuzhi}}</ref> Pakaŵaso masuzgo gha chakurya mu 2012 na 2015. Vinthu vinandi ivyo vikapangiska suzgo la 2002 vikapambananga yayi, kweni pa nyengo iyi vikakhwaskika chomene na chilala chikuru na vyigumula. Mu 2012, suzgo la chakurya likachitika chifukwa cha vula yichoko iyo yikakhwaska zokolola za chimanga, kweniso kukwera kwa mitengo chifukwa cha kuchepa kwa mtengo wa [[Kwacha ya Malawi|kwacha]].<ref name=":12">{{Cite web |title=Malawi {{!}} WFP {{!}} United Nations World Food Programme – Fighting Hunger Worldwide |url=https://www.wfp.org/node/3513/3879/642177 |access-date=2019-04-25 |website=www.wfp.org |archive-date=2023-02-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230210030856/https://www.wfp.org/node/3513/3879/642177 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Mu 2015, chilara chikuru chikapangiska suzgo linyake la chakurya, ndipo mulongozgi wa Malawi wakapharazga kuti mu charu mukaŵa nyengo ya soka.<ref name=":7">{{Cite web |last1=Oneko |first1=Sella |date=2016-04-13 |title=Malawi declares national disaster over food crisis |url=https://www.dw.com/en/malawi-declares-national-disaster-over-food-crisis/a-19183292 |access-date=2019-04-01 |website=Deutsche Welle (DW)}}</ref> [[File:ILRI, Stevie Mann - Household takes refuge from the rain in central Malawi.jpg|thumb|left|alt=Flooding in Malawi.|Ulimi wa ku Malawi ukukhwaskika na masoka gha chilengedwe nga ni vigumula.]] Bungwe la boma ilo likachemekanga [[Bungwe la chitukuko cha ulimi na malonda|ADMARC]] (Agricultural Development and Marketing Corporation) ndilo likalamuliranga kugura na kuguliska vyakurya vya ŵalimi ŵachokoŵachoko kweniso manyowa pambere chaka cha 1998 chindafike.<ref name="Number12">"Malawi—The Food Crises, the Strategic Grain Reserve, and the IMF." July 2002. International Monetary Fund. Washington, DC: IMF.</ref> Vimbundi na vyakuchita vya kujipenja phindu mu ADMARC vikapangiska kuti bungwe ili lisangwe likupoka ndalama za ŵalimi ŵachoko na kusintha mitengo ya vyakurya mwakubendera.<ref name=Number12 /> Apo mitengo ya hona yikakhira mu 1985, ADMARC yikakhala pafupi kubwanganduka.<ref name="Number32">{{Cite journal |last=Lele |first=Uma |date=1990-09-01 |title=Structural adjustment, agricultural development and the poor: Some lessons from the Malawian experience |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0305-750x(90)90026-t |journal=World Development |volume=18 |issue=9 |pages=1207–1219 |doi=10.1016/0305-750X(90)90026-t |issn=0305-750X|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Kuti lisange ngongoli kufuma ku [[Bungwe la ndalama la charu chose|World Bank]], ADMARC likazgoka kampani iyo yikaŵa na chigaŵa cha ŵanthu wamba ndipo likamazga chithandizo cha manyowa mu 1988/1989.<ref name=Number32 /> Kusowa kwa ADMARC kupereka manyowa na mbuto kwa ŵalimi ŵachoko nako kukawovwira kuti suzgo la chakurya la 1992 liŵe likuru.<ref name="Number33">{{Cite book |last=Mkandawire |first=Thandika |url=http://www.oit.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---africa/---ro-abidjan/---sro-harare/documents/publication/wcms_228921.pdf |title=Agriculture, Employment, and Poverty in Malawi. ILO/SAMAT Policy Paper NO. 9 |publisher=International Labour Organization |year=1999 |location=Harare}}</ref> Kwambira nyengo iyi, chilangalanga na vigumula vikulutilira kukhuŵazga Malawi.<ref name="Number5">"Climate change and smallholder farmers in Malawi." ActionAid. October 2006.</ref> Pakati pa 1990 na 2006, pakaŵa masoka gha nyengo 33, ndipo ichi chikaŵa chakwera chomene kuluska masoka 7 agho ghakachitika pakati pa 1970 na 1989, kuyana na [[ActionAid]].<ref name=Number5 /> Chuma cha Malawi chikukhazikika chomene pa ulimi; ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakukhala chifukwa cha ivyo ŵakuvuna ndipo ŵakuguliska ivyo vyajumphapo kuti ŵasange ndalama.<ref name="Number6">{{cite journal | doi=10.1017/s0022278x04000229 | title=The Malawi 2002 food crisis: The rural development challenge | year=2004 | last1=Dorward | first1=Andrew | last2=Kydd | first2=Jonathan | journal=The Journal of Modern African Studies | volume=42 | issue=3 | pages=343–361 | s2cid=54763363 | url=https://eprints.soas.ac.uk/5115/1/malawi_food_crisis.pdf }}</ref> Chiŵelengero chikuru cha chilangalanga na vigumula kufuma mu 1990 chakhwaska ŵanthu ŵanandi mu charu ichi. Ŵalimi ŵakaŵa ŵambura nkhongono zakusintha panji kuwezgerapo ivyo ŵakataya chifukwa cha masoka, ndipo ichi chikapangiska kuti ŵaŵe pa ngozi yakukumana na masuzgo ghanyake mu nyengo yikwiza.<ref name=Number5 /> Kufuma mu vyaka vya m'ma 1970 m'paka mu 1994, boma likapelekanga chithandizo cha manyowa na mbuto za chimanga cha mtundu uphya. Kweni apo pulogiramu iyi yikamara chifukwa cha kukwera kwa mtengo wake, kupanga chimanga kukakhira ndipo mitengo yikakwera so.<ref name=Number5 /> ==Njara ya mu 2002 ku Malawi== Mu 2002, ku Malawi kukaŵa [[Njara|njara yikuru]]. Chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu awo ŵakafwa chikupambanapambana, kufuma pa 300 m'paka 3,000, kuyana na [[ActionAid]] na [[Lipoti la chitukuko cha ŵanthu|HDR]].<ref>{{Cite report |url=https://hdr.undp.org/content/famine-malawi-causes-and-consequences |title=Famine in Malawi: Causes and Consequences |author=United Nations |date=2008-01-01 |publisher=United Nations |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Number16"/> ==Vyakuchitiska suzgo la chakurya== ===Vyandulo vya ndyali=== Pamanyuma pakuti Malawi yapeleka wanangwa mu 1964, charu ichi chikalongozgekanga na pulezidenti [[Hastings Banda]].<ref name="Number35">{{Cite web |title=Malawi: History |url=https://globaledge.msu.edu/countries/malawi/history |access-date=2014-03-30 |website=Global Edge |language=en-us}}</ref> Nangauli ŵanthu ŵakaŵa na wanangwa wa kuvota, Malawi yikaŵa na ndyali ya chipani chimoza, ndipo Banda ndiyo wakaŵa mulongozgi wa [[Malawi Congress Party|Chipani cha Malawi Congress]], chipani chimoza pera icho chikaŵapo pa nyengo iyo.<ref name=Number35 /> Ntheura Banda wakaŵa na mazaza nga ni muwusi wankhongono chomene, ndipo pa nyengo ya muwuso wake pakaŵa kuphwanya wanangwa wa ŵanthu, kusazgapo kukoma ŵanthu awo ŵakasuskanga boma.<ref name=Number35 /> Mu 1993 pera, ndipo ŵanthu ŵakavota kuti Malawi yiŵe na ndyali ya vyipani vinandi. Pa nyengo iyi Banda na [[Malawi Congress Party|Chipani cha Malawi Congress]] ŵakathereskeka pa mavoti.<ref name=Number35 /> Mu 1995, pakaŵa dango liphya la charu ilo likakhazikiska boma ilo likaŵa na nthambi yakulongozga, nyumba ya malango ya chipani chimoza, kweniso makhoti.<ref name="Number34">{{Citation |title=Malawi |date=2022-05-11 |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/malawi/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220513105646/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/malawi/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=May 13, 2022 |work=The World Factbook |publisher=Central Intelligence Agency |language=en |access-date=2022-05-15}}</ref> Mu 1998, pasi pa muwuso wa demokilasi wa [[Bakili Muluzi]], boma likakhazikiska [[Bungwe la National Food Reserve Agency|Bungwe la chakurya chakusungika cha charu]] (NFRA) kuti lilongozge malo ghakusungirako chimanga kuti ghawovwire pa nyengo ya masoka. NFRA, ilo likaŵa bungwe la boma ilo likaŵa na komiti ya ŵalongozgi ŵakusankhika na boma la Malawi, likalamuliranga vyakusungika vya chimanga kweniso ndalama na malonda ghakunjira na kufuma mu charu.<ref name="Number36">{{Cite web |date=2014-03-03 |title=Adequate Reserves for Malawi |url=http://www.nframw.com/ |website=National Food Reserve Agency}}</ref> Kweni mwaluŵiro NFRA likamba kuŵa na ngongoli yakukwana 1 biliyoni ya [[Malawi kwacha|kwacha ya Malawi]] chifukwa cha chiwongolero chikuru cha ngongoli cha 56%. Bungwe ili likagura matani 165,000 gha chimanga.<ref name=Number12 /> Mu 2001, [[Bungwe la ndalama la charu chose|IMF]] likalangura boma kuti liguliske chimanga chakusungika chifukwa mu 2000 pakaŵa chimanga chinandi. Pakawonekanga kuti pakukhumbikwanga yayi kusunga chimanga chinandi nthena ndipo chimanga chinyake chikaŵa kwamba kunangika.<ref name=Number12 /> Kulongozga uku kukaliso chifukwa cha kafukufuku wa 2000 uyo wakapemphika na [[European Commission|Bungwe la European Commission]]. Kafukufuku uyu wakayowoya kuti matani 30,000 m'paka 60,000 gha chimanga ghakaŵa ghakukwana pa nyengo ya soka lakukhuŵazga chigaŵa chimoza pera.<ref name=Number12 /> NFRA likalondezga languro la IMF ndipo likaguliska chigaŵa chikuru cha chimanga chakusungika ku [[Kenya]] na [[Mozambique]], ndipo malo ghakusungirako chimanga ghakakhira kufuma pa matani 165,000 kufika pa matani 60,000.<ref name=Number16 /><ref name=Number15 /><ref name=Number12 /> Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakayowoyanga kuti languro la IMF lakuti chimanga chiguliskike ndilo likaŵa chimoza mwa ivyo vikapangiska njara ya 2002.<ref name=Number16 /> Kweni IMF na [[ActionAid]] ŵakazomera kuti chimanga icho chikaŵa chakale ndipo chikaŵa chakudura kuchisunga, ntheura pa nyengo iyo languro ili likawonekanga lakwenelera.<ref name=Number16 /> Apo njara yikakura chomene mu 2002, malo ghakusungirako chimanga ghakaŵa kuti ghamara ndipo boma likaŵavya vinthu vyakukwana vyakuti lingagwiliskira ntchito.<ref name=Number12 /> Suzgo likakulirakulira chifukwa boma likanozga yayi kuwezgerapo chimanga chakusungika apo chikagwiliskikanga ntchito.<ref name=Number12 /> Kweniso ŵamalonda ŵachisisi ŵakanjilirapo ndipo ŵakagura chimanga chinandi kufuma mu malo ghakusungirako, pamanyuma ŵakachiguliska pa mitengo yapachanya chomene apo chakurya chikaŵa chakusowa.<ref name=Number15 /> == Mbiri na vyakuyambirira == Ŵasayansi ŵa mbiri ŵakulongora kuti suzgo la vyakurya ku Malawi likamba mu 1991 na 1992, apo chilangalanga chikuru ku kumwera kwa Africa chikapangiska kuti vyakurya vya [[chimanga]] viŵe vichoko chomene ku Malawi.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Msowoya |first1=Kondwani |last2=Madani |first2=Kaveh |last3=Davtalab |first3=Rahman |last4=Mirchi |first4=Ali |last5=Lund |first5=Jay R. |date=2016-11-01 |title=Climate Change Impacts on Maize Production in the Warm Heart of Africa |journal=Water Resources Management |volume=30 |issue=14 |pages=5299–5312 |doi=10.1007/s11269-016-1487-3 |issn=1573-1650|doi-access=free |hdl=10044/1/39909 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> Mtengo wa chimanga, icho chikaŵa chakurya chakuzirwa chomene ndipo chikaŵa pafupifupi 54% ya mphamvu ya vyakurya ivyo ŵanthu ŵa ku Malawi ŵakalyanga,<ref name="Number1">{{Cite journal |last=Minot |first=Nicholas |date=2010-01-10 |title=Staple Food Prices in Malawi |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/46470944 |journal=Food Security Collaborative Working Papers, Prepared for Comesa Policy Seminar on "Variation in Staple Food Prices: Causes, Consequence, and Policy Options" Under the African Agricultural Marketing Project (AAMP) |location=Maputo, Mozambique |publisher=Michigan State University, Department of Agricultural, Food, and Resource Economics}}</ref> ukakwera chomene; mtengo wa chimanga ukakhala pafupifupi wakukwana kaŵiri pakati pa 1992 na 1993.<ref name="Number2"/> Nangauli mu 1993 mukaŵa chimanga chinandi chifukwa cha vula yiwemi kweniso ndondomeko ya boma ya kovwira ŵalimi na mbuto za chimanga za mtundu uphya na manyowa, ŵanthu ŵakalyanga vyakurya vinandi yayi chifukwa cha umo ŵakajizolerezgera mu nyengo ya njara.<ref name="Number3">Hayes, L.M., Minae, S., Bunderson, W.T., Bodnar, F. & Ngugi, D. "The potential of improved fallows on small holder maize productivity on food security in Malawi." 1997. Paper presented at the International Symposium on The Science and Practice of Short-term Fallows. Lilongwe, Malawi.</ref> [[File:ILRI, Stevie Mann - Household takes refuge from the rain in central Malawi.jpg|thumb|left|alt=Madambo ku Malawi.|Ulimi wa Malawi ukusuzgika chifukwa cha masoka gha chilengiwa nga ni kusefukira kwa maji.]] Bungwe la boma ilo likachemekanga [[Bungwe la vya ulimi na malonda|Agricultural Development and Marketing Corporation]] (ADMARC) ndilo likalamuliranga kugura na kuguliska vyakurya vya ŵalimi ŵachokoŵachoko kweniso kugawira manyowa pambere chaka cha 1998 chindafike.<ref name="Number12">"Malawi—The Food Crises, the Strategic Grain Reserve, and the IMF." July 2002. International Monetary Fund. Washington, DC: IMF.</ref> Kupuluska ndarama na vinthu vya boma mukati mwa bungwe ili kukapangiska kuti ADMARC yileme kuŵa yakovwira ŵalimi ndipo yikapangiska mitengo ya vyakurya kuŵa yambura kulongosoka.<ref name=Number12 /> Apo mitengo ya fodya yikakhira mu 1985, ADMARC yikamba kusuzgika chomene ndipo yikaŵa pafupi kumara.<ref name="Number32">{{Cite journal |last=Lele |first=Uma |date=1990-09-01 |title=Structural adjustment, agricultural development and the poor: Some lessons from the Malawian experience |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_world-development_1990-09_18_9/page/1207 |journal=World Development |volume=18 |issue=9 |pages=1207–1219 |doi=10.1016/0305-750x(90)90026-t}}</ref> Kuti liŵeze ngongoli kufuma ku [[Bungwe la ndalama la pa charu chose|International Monetary Fund]] na mabungwe gha charu chose, ADMARC likazgoka kampani ya payekha mwa chigaŵa ndipo likaleka kovwira na manyowa mu vyaka vya 1988/1989.<ref name=Number32 /> Kuleka kwa ADMARC kupereka manyowa na mbuto ku ŵalimi ŵachoko kukapangiska kuti suzgo la vyakurya mu 1992 liŵe likuru chomene.<ref name="Number33"/> Kwambira nyengo iyo, Malawi wakumana nyengo na nyengo na chilangalanga kweniso kusefukira kwa maji.<ref name="Number5">"Climate change and smallholder farmers in Malawi." ActionAid. October 2006.</ref> Pakati pa 1990 na 2006, kukaŵa masoka gha nyengo ghakukwana 33, apo pakati pa 1970 na 1989 kukaŵa masoka 7 pera.<ref name=Number5 /> Chuma cha Malawi chikudalira chomene ulimi; ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuphalira pa ivyo ŵalima kuti ŵarye kweniso kuguliska ivyo vyakhalako kuti ŵasange ndalama.<ref name="Number6">{{cite journal | doi=10.1017/s0022278x04000229 | title=The Malawi 2002 food crisis: The rural development challenge | year=2004 | journal=The Journal of Modern African Studies}}</ref> Chifukwa cha kukwera kwa chilangalanga na kusefukira kwa maji, ŵalimi ŵanandi ŵakatondeka kusintha nthowa zawo za ulimi ndipo ŵakaŵa pangozi ya njara. Mu 2002, kukaŵa [[njara]] yikuru ku Malawi iyo yikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵasuzgike chomene. Chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu awo ŵakafwa chikupambana, ndipo ŵanyake ŵakuti ŵakaŵa pakati pa 300 na 3,000, kuyana na malipoti gha [[ActionAid]] na [[Lipoti la vya chitukuko cha ŵanthu|Human Development Report]].<ref>{{Cite report |url=https://hdr.undp.org/content/famine-malawi-causes-and-consequences |title=Famine in Malawi: Causes and Consequences |author=United Nations |date=2008-01-01 |publisher=United Nations |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Number16"/> Pa nyengo iyi, pafupifupi 85% ya ŵanthu ŵa ku Malawi ŵakasanganga ndalama zawo chomene kufuma ku ulimi.<ref name="Number15"/> [[Chimanga]] chikaŵa chakurya chakuzirwa chomene mu charu ichi. Ntheura apo zokolola za chimanga zikakhira, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakatondeka kusanga chakurya chakukwana. Mu nyengo ya 2000/2001, [[Bungwe la ndalama la pa charu chose|IMF]] likati zokolola za chimanga zikakhira kufuma pa matani 2.5 miliyoni kufika pa matani 1.7 miliyoni, ndipo ichi chikapangiska kuti pa charu chose paŵe mphaka ya matani 273,000 gha chimanga.<ref name="Number12" /> Mu Febuluwale 2002, boma la Malawi likapharazga kuti charu ichi chikaŵa mu suzgo la vyakurya ndipo likati pali [[suzgo la chivikiliro cha charu|soka la chigaŵa cha charu]].<ref name="Number12" /> Mu chigaŵa chaumaliro cha 2002, mvula yikawovwira ndipo vyakurya vikamba kuŵako, kuchepeska njara yikuru. Kweni mu 2005, chilangalanga chinyake chikapangiska kuti Malawi wakumaneso na suzgo la vyakurya.<ref name="Number54"/> Pa 15 Okutobala 2005, boma ilo likalongozgekanga na [[Bingu wa Mutharika]] likapharazga kuti mu Malawi mukaŵa [[suzgo la vyakurya|soka la pa charu chose]].<ref>{{cite web |date=2005-10-15 |title=Malawi issues food crisis appeal |publisher=[[BBC]]}}</ref> Nangauli Malawi wakachira kufuma ku suzgo la 2005, charu ichi chikalutilira kukumana na masuzgo gha vyakurya chifukwa cha kusintha kwa nyengo, ukavu, kweniso kuthemba chomene ulimi wa chimanga.<ref name="Number20"/> Mu vyaka vya 2012 na 2015, kukaŵaso masuzgo ghanyake gha vyakurya. Masuzgo agha ghakafuma ku vinthu vyakuyana na vya 2002, kweni ghakasazgikako chifukwa cha chilangalanga chikuru na kusefukira kwa maji. Mu 2012, kusowa kwa vula kukapangiska kuti zokolola za chimanga zichepe, apo kutsika kwa mtengo wa ndalama ya Malawi ([[kwacha]]) kukapangiska kuti mitengo ya vyakurya yikwere.<ref name=":12"/> Mu 2015, chilangalanga chikuru chikati chachitika, chikazakasazgika na kusefukira kwa maji. Ivi vikapangiska kuti pulezidenti wa Malawi walengezge kuti charu chili mu suzgo la vyachilengiwa.<ref name=":7"/> == Vyakupangiska suzgo la vyakurya == === Ndale === Pamanyuma pakuti Malawi wapokera wanangwa mu 1964, charu ichi chikalamulirika na pulezidenti [[Hastings Banda]].<ref name="Number35"/> Nangauli ŵanthu ŵakaŵa na wanangwa wa kuvota, Malawi wakaŵa na ndondomeko ya chipani chimoza pera, ndipo Banda wakaŵa mulongozgi wa chipani cha [[Malawi Congress Party]], icho chikaŵa chipani chekha pa nyengo iyo.<ref name=Number35 /> Chifukwa cha nkhongono zake, Banda wakalamuliranga nga ni mulongozgi wankhongono chomene, ndipo mu nyengo ya muwuso wake mukaŵa kuswa wanangwa wa ŵanthu, kusazgapo kukoma ŵanthu awo ŵakasuskanga boma.<ref name=Number35 /> Mu 1993, ŵanthu ŵakavota kuti Malawi usinthe kuŵa charu cha vyipani vinandi, ndipo Banda na [[Malawi Congress Party]] ŵakafumiskika mu mazaza.<ref name=Number35 /> Mu 1995, pakaŵa dango liphya la charu ilo likakhazikiska boma ilo likaŵa na nthambi yakulongozga, nyumba ya malango yimoza, na makhoti.<ref name="Number34"/> Mu 1998, mu nyengo ya pulezidenti [[Bakili Muluzi]], boma likakhazikiska [[National Food Reserve Agency]] (NFRA) kuti lilongozge malo ghakusungirako chimanga cha chivikiliro mu nyengo ya masoka.<ref name="Number36"/> NFRA likaŵa bungwe la boma ilo likaŵa na wupu wa ŵanthu ŵakimikika na boma la Malawi. Bungwe ili likalamuliranga chomene malo ghakusungirako chimanga kweniso ndarama, kugula na kuguliska vyakurya.<ref name="Number36" /> Kweni NFRA likamba kuŵa na ngongoli ya pafupifupi 1 biliyoni ya [[kwacha ya Malawi]] chifukwa cha chiŵelengero chikuru cha chiwongolero cha ngongoli (56%).<ref name=Number12 /> Bungwe ili likagura matani 165,000 gha chimanga kuti lisunge nga ni chakurya cha nyengo ya soka.<ref name=Number12 /> Mu 2001, [[Bungwe la ndalama la pa charu chose|IMF]] likalangura boma kuti liguliske malo ghakusungirako chimanga chifukwa zokolola za 2000 zikaŵa zinandi ndipo pakaŵavya chifukwa cha kusunga chimanga chinandi nthena.<ref name=Number12 /> Kafukufuku uyo wakachitika mu 2000 na kulamulika na [[European Commission]] wakalongora kuti chimanga chakukwana matani 30,000 mpaka 60,000 ndicho chikakhumbikwanga kuti chivikilire charu pa nyengo ya soka.<ref name=Number12 /> Chifukwa cha ulongozgi wa IMF, NFRA likaguliska chigaŵa chikuru cha chimanga chake ku [[Kenya]] na [[Mozambique]], kuchepeska malo ghakusungirako kufuma pa matani 165,000 kufika pa matani 60,000.<ref name=Number16 /><ref name=Number15 /><ref name=Number12 /> Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakatenge suzgo la vyakurya la 2002 likasazgikapo chifukwa cha ulongozgi wa IMF wakuti chimanga ichi chigulisike.<ref name=Number16 /> Kweni IMF na mabungwe ghanyake ghakazomerezga kuti kusunga chimanga chinandi kukawonanga ndalama zinandi ndipo chimanga chikaŵa chakale, ntheura ulongozgi uwu ukaŵa wakupulikikwa pa nyengo iyo.<ref name=Number16 /> Apo njara yikafika pachanya mu 2002, malo ghakusungirako chimanga ghakaŵa ghawaka ndipo boma likaŵavya vyakusungira vyakukwana. Suzgo ili likakura chifukwa boma likaleka kunozgekera mwakukwana kuti lizuzgenso malo ghakusungirako chimanga.<ref name=Number12 /> Kweniso, ŵamalonda ŵachisisi ŵakagura chimanga chinandi kufuma ku malo ghakusungirako boma ndipo pamanyuma ŵakachiguliska pa mitengo yapachanya chomene apo vyakurya vikamba kusowa.<ref name=Number15 /> Boma likamba kupenja chimanga kufuma ku vyaru vyapafupi kweniso vyakutali, kweni chikatora nyengo kuti chifike ku Malawi chifukwa cha masuzgo gha mayendedwe, misewu yambura kwenelera, madoko ghakuzura, na magalimoto agho ghakatondekanga kufika luŵiro.<ref name=Number12 /><ref name=Number16 /> Vyaru vinyake vyakupereka wovwiri navyo vikachedwa kovwira chifukwa vikasuzgika na nkhani za katangale mu boma la Malawi kweniso chifukwa cha mphindano zakukhwaskana na ulongozgi wa IMF.<ref name=Number16 /> === Vyakupangiska vya chuma === Mu 2009, [[United Nations|Bungwe la vyaru vyose]] likati pafupifupi 80% ya ŵanthu ŵa ku Malawi ŵakakhalanga mu mizi.<ref name="Number30">{{Cite web |last=United Nations |date=2011-02-22 |title=Urban/rural division of countries for the year 2010, World Urbanization Prospects |website=GeoHive}}</ref> Mu charu ichi mukaŵavya nchito zinandi zakukhwaskana na mafakitale panji mauteŵeti.<ref name=Number15 /> Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakasanganga nchito mu minda yikuru ya [[fodya]], mu matawuni, panji kusamira ku vyaru vyapafupi kuti ŵakagwire nchito za malipiro ghachoko.<ref name=Number15 /> Kweni mipata ya nchito yikaŵa yichoko. Chuma cha Malawi chikudalira chomene ulimi. Mu vyaka vya 2000, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakagwiranga ntchito mu ulimi, ndipo ulimi ukapanganga chigaŵa chikuru cha ndalama izo charu chikapezanga.<ref name="Number37">{{Cite web |last=Kadzamira, Z.D., Kalinga, O.J., Mitchell, J.C., Ingham, K., Phiri, K.M. |date=2021-10-29 |title=Malawi |website=Britannica Online}}</ref> Pafupifupi chigaŵa chimoza pa vigaŵa vitatu vya ndalama zose za charu (GDP) chikaŵanga kufuma ku ulimi, ndipo ulimi ukapanganga ndalama zinandi zakufuma ku malonda gha ku vyaru vinyake, chomenechomene kufuma ku [[fodya]], shuga, tiyi, na kotoni.<ref name=Number37 /> Bungwe la [[Agricultural Development and Marketing Corporation|ADMARC]] likaŵa bungwe la boma ilo likalamuliranga chigaŵa chinyake cha msika wa chimanga ndipo likawovwiranga pa mitengo ya vyakurya.<ref name=Number15 /> Kafukufuku wa [[Institute for Agriculture and Trade Policy]] wakalongora kuti mtengo wa chimanga ukakwera chomene kufuma pa 4 MK pa kilogalamu yimoza mu Juni 2001 kufika pa ma MK 40 panji kujumpha mu Janyuwale 2002.<ref name=Number15 /> Nangauli mtengo wa vyakurya ukakwera, malipiro gha ŵantchito ghakhalilira waka pa 20 MK pa zuŵa.<ref name=Number15 /> Ichi chikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵatondeke kugura chakurya. Kufwatuka kwa msika, chomenechomene kuchepa kwa mazaza gha ADMARC, kukapangiska kuti kuŵe kusuzga kulondezga na kulamulira msika wa chimanga.<ref name=Number16 /> Mtengo wa chimanga ukamba kutoleka na msika pera, ndipo NFRA likaŵavya nkhongono zinandi zakusinthira vinthu mu msika.<ref name=Number16 /> Ndondomeko za ulimi za Malawi zikaŵaso na masuzgo chifukwa charu ichi chikagomezganga chomene pa chimanga pera. Maukaboni ghakupangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵalime vyakurya vyakupambana ghakatondeka chomene.<ref name=Number12 /> Ntheura, apo zokolola za chimanga zikakhira mu 2001, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakasuzgika chifukwa ŵakatondeka kulima chakurya chawo panji kusanga ndalama zakugulira chakurya. [[Fodya]] ukaŵa chinthu chikuru icho Malawi wakaguliskanga ku vyaru vinyake, kweni malonda gha fodya ghakamba kuchepa kufuma mu ma 1980. Ndalama izo zikafumanga mu fodya zikakhira na pafupifupi hafu, ndipo ivi vikachepeska nkhongono zakugulira vinthu za ŵalimi ŵachoko.<ref name=Number15 /> Mu nyengo ya 2000/2001, ŵalimi ŵachoko ŵanandi ŵakatondeka kuwezga ngongoli izo ŵakaŵa nazo ku mabungwe gha ndalama na ku boma.<ref name=Number15 /> Chifukwa cha ichi, mu 2001/2002 ŵakatondeka kusanga ngongoli zakugulira mbuto na manyowa.<ref name="Number22">{{Cite book |title=FAO/WFP Crop and food supply assessment mission |publisher=University of Arizona Libraries |year=2000}}</ref> Nthowa zinyake zakukhozgera ulimi, nga ni kusazgirako vyakurya vyakupambanapambana, kunozga vyakuthilira maji, kusunga vyakurya, kuzenga misewu, na kupereka ngongoli ku ŵalimi, zikaŵa zakovwira chomene ŵalimi ŵakurya mu minda yikuru kuluska ŵalimi ŵachoko.<ref name=Number37 /> === Vyakukhwaskana na ŵanthu na umoyo === [[File:Malawi AIDS Orphans.jpeg|thumb|left|alt=Ŵana ŵakusuzgika chifukwa cha HIV/AIDS ku Malawi.|Suzgo la vyakurya likapangiska kuti ŵana awo ŵakataya ŵapapi chifukwa cha HIV/AIDS ŵaŵe pangozi chomene ya ukavu na njara.]] Ukavu uli palipose mu Malawi. Mwakuyana na [[Bungwe la Banki ya Charu|World Bank]], pafupifupi hafu ya ŵanthu ŵa ku Malawi ŵakukhala pasi pa mphaka ya ukavu ya madola gha US$2 pa zuŵa.<ref name="Number17">{{Cite web |title=Malawi Overview |url=https://www.worldbank.org/en/country/malawi/overview |website=World Bank}}</ref> Ŵanthu ŵakavu awo ŵakukhala mu mizi ndiwo ŵakasuzgika chomene mu nyengo ya suzgo la vyakurya chifukwa ŵakaŵavya ndalama zakugulira chakurya para vyakurya ivyo ŵakalima vyatondeka.<ref name=Number16 /> Lipoti la [[ActionAid]] la mu 2002 likayowoya kuti kufuma apo demokilase yikakhazikikira mu Malawi mu 1994, chigomezgo cha kovwirana pakati pa ŵanthu chikamba kuchepa.<ref name=Number1 /> Mu nyengo ya chilangalanga cha 1991/1992, mbumba zikovwirana na kupereka chakurya panji nchito ku ŵanthu awo ŵakasuzgikanga. Kweni mu suzgo la vyakurya la 2001/2002, ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakamba kuŵa na mtima wa "munthu waliyose wajipulumuske yekha", kuyana na lipoti la ActionAid.<ref name=Number1 /> [[HIV/AIDS ku Malawi|HIV/AIDS]] nayo yikaŵa suzgo likuru ilo likapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵaŵe pangozi mu nyengo ya njara. Mu 2012, boma la Malawi likati nthenda iyi yikakhwaskanga pafupifupi 17% ya ŵanthu ŵa mu matawuni na 9% ya ŵanthu ŵa mu mizi.<ref name="Number55">{{Cite journal |last=Government of Malawi |date=2012-03-31 |title=2012 Global AIDS Response Report: Malawi Country Report for 2010 and 2011 |journal=Joint United Nations Programme on HIV AIDS}}</ref> Mbumba izo zikaŵa na ŵanthu awo ŵali na HIV/AIDS zikaŵa na vyakulima vichoko chifukwa ŵanthu awo ŵakaŵa na nthenda iyi ŵakatondekanga kugwira ntchito mu minda. Kweniso, ŵanthu ŵanyake mu mbumba ŵakeneranga kuŵapwelelera, ndipo ndalama zinyake zikagwiranga ntchito pa munkhwala na malaro. Ichi chikapangiska kuti mbumba zinandi ziŵe zakuzizipizga yayi para chakurya chasowa.<ref name="Number18">{{Cite book |last=Shah |first=Meera Kaul |title=Impact of HIV/AIDS on agricultural productivity and rural livelihoods in the central region of Malawi |publisher=CARE International in Malawi |year=2002 |location=Malawi}}</ref> Mu nyengo ya njara ya 2002, pafupifupi 70% ya ŵanthu awo ŵakafwira mu vipatala ŵakaŵa chifukwa cha HIV/AIDS.<ref name="Number31">{{Cite web |title=HIV & AIDS in Malawi |website=Avert}}</ref> Suzgo la vyakurya likapangiska kuti ŵana ŵaŵe pangozi chomene ku matenda na kusoŵa chakurya chakukwana. Mu 2006, [[UNICEF]] yikati 46% ya ŵana ŵa pasi pa vyaka vinkhondi ŵakaŵa na suzgo la kukura chifukwa cha kusoŵa chakurya, ndipo 19% ŵakaŵa ŵakupereŵera thupi.<ref name="Number13">UNICEF. “Malawi Annual Report.” 2006. Malawi: UNICEF.</ref> Kwambira mu 1992 apo suzgo la vyakurya likamba, umoyo wa ŵana pa nkhani ya chakurya ukasintha viŵi yayi.<ref name=Number13 /> Mu nyengo ya kusowa kwa chakurya mu 2001/2002 na 2005/2006, kukaŵa miliri yikuru ya [[kolera]] mu Malawi. [[UNICEF]] yikati miliri iyi yikachitika chifukwa cha kusowa kwa ukhondo, maji ghambura kuŵa ghawemi, kweniso chifukwa chakuti njara yikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵaŵe ŵakutondeka kulimbana na matenda.<ref name=Number13 /> Kafukufuku wa [[Save the Children]] UK mu 2002 wakalongora kuti suzgo la vyakurya likapangiska kuti ŵana na ŵalara ŵaŵe na kutupa kwa mawoko na malundi chifukwa cha kusoŵa chakurya.<ref name="Number21">Kamowa, Olex M. "Living In The Abyss: Hunger In Mchinji, Lilongwe." Save the Children (UK). February 2002.</ref> Ŵanthu awo ŵakaŵa na njara ŵakamba kurya vinthu ivyo ŵakaŵa kuti ŵakalyanga yayi, nga ni misisi yinyake, vikoti vya chimanga, vikhuni vyakuphwanyika, na vipasi vyakusangika mu muthondo. Ivi vikapangiska matenda gha mu nthumbo na vyakuŵinya.<ref name=Number21 /> Mu chigaŵa cha [[Nsanje District|Nsanje]], ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakamba kurya vimiti vya maji ivyo vikuchemeka nyika. Nangauli pakwamba vikaŵa chakurya cha nyengo, sono ŵakamba kuvigwiliskira ntchito nga ni chakurya chikuru, kweni kurya vinandi kukapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵaŵe na matenda gha mu nthumbo.<ref name="Number51">{{cite journal |title=Malawi's food crisis continues to worsen |journal=The Lancet |volume=366 |issue=9502 |pages=1994–1995}}</ref> === Vyakukhwaskana na chilengiwa === Dongo la ku Malawi lili na suzgo chifukwa ŵalimi ŵanandi ŵakaŵavya ndalama zakugulira manyowa mu nyengo yakale.<ref name="Number4">{{Cite book|last=Hardy |first=Jeffrey S. |date=1998-05-01 |title=Malawi: Soil Fertility Issues and Options |publisher=Cornell University Press |volume=1}}</ref> Pali nthowa zicoko waka zakuwezgera nkhongono za dongo. Malawi ngwakavu chomene kuti wambe kunjizga vinthu vinandi vya ku vyaru vinyake kuti ŵawezgere vyakurya mu dongo, ndipo malo ghakulimapo ngakusuzga kusunga malo ghakuru ghakupumulira dongo.<ref name=Number4 /> Ŵalimi ŵachoko ŵanandi ŵakatondeka kugura manyowa chifukwa cha kusoŵa ndalama.<ref name=Number16 /> Chifukwa cha ichi, unandi wa vyakurya ivyo ŵakalima ukakhwaskika chomene na kuchepa kwa nkhongono ya dongo kweniso kuchepa kwa malo ghakulimapo. Ŵalimi ŵachoko ku Malawi ŵakakumanaso na kuchepa kwa vyakurya chifukwa cha kusintha kwa nyengo. Para nyengo ya vula yikusintha na kutentha kukukwera, nyengo yakulimapo yikuchepa ndipo ŵalimi ŵakukhumbikwira kugura mbuto zakudura za mtundu uphya kuti ŵasange vyakurya vyakukwana.<ref name="Number5" /> Ŵalimi ŵanyake ŵakasintha nyengo iyo ŵakalimiranga chimanga. Ŵanyake ŵakamba kulima mu Disembala m’malo mwa Novembala, apo ŵanyake ŵakalima mwaluŵiro kuti ŵayezge kukumana na kusintha kwa nyengo.<ref name="Number5" /> Kuchuluka kwa nyengo za chilangalanga na kusefukira kwa maji kukapangiska kuti ŵalimi ŵaŵe pangozi chomene ya kusoŵa chakurya.<ref name="Number5" /> Mu nyengo ya 2000/2001 na 2001/2002, vula yikaŵa yambura kwenelera. Pakachitikanga nyengo zakumira na kusefukira kwa maji, ndipo ivi vikapangiska kuti vyakurya vileke kukura makora.<ref name="Number8">{{Cite web |last=Masina |first=Lameck |date=2013-01-22 |title=Washed Away: Malawi's Food Security Hit By Natural Disasters |website=Global Policy Forum}}</ref> Ŵalimi ŵanandi, kuti ŵayezge kujivikilira ku nyengo yambura kumanyikwa, ŵakamba kuvuna vyakurya vyawo pambere nyengo yakuvunira yindafike. Kweni ichi chikapangiska kuti vyakurya ivyo vikapelekekanga viŵe vichoko chomene mu 2001/2002.<ref name=Number8 /> Kusintha kwa nyengo kukapangiska kuti nthowa zakuyowoyera vya zokolola zamunthazi ziŵe zambura kugomezgeka. Mautolero agho ghakagwiliskiranga ntchito vifukwa vya nyengo na kuwona vyakurya ghakatondeka kumanya mwakwenelera kukhira kwa vyakurya mu nyengo iyi.<ref name=Number8 /> Mwachiyerezgero, ŵanthu awo ŵakalongozganga vya vyakurya ŵakaghanaghananga kuti kuchepa kwa chimanga kuzamuwelerapo chifukwa cha vyakurya vinyake nga ni misisi na vyakurya vya pasi. Kweni mu nyengo ya 2001/2002, vyakurya vyose vikatondeka.<ref name=Number8 /> Chifukwa cha ichi, boma likaŵavya kunozgeka kwakukwana apo suzgo la vyakurya la 2002 likafika.<ref name=Number8 /> == Wovwiri na nthowa zakuzenga == Boma la Malawi likakhazikiska ndondomeko ya kovwira ŵalimi iyo yikuchemeka [[Farm Input Subsidy Programme]] (FISP) mu 2005. Mu ndondomeko iyi, boma likapelekanga manyowa na mbuto pa mtengo wakuchepa ku ŵalimi awo ŵakaŵa mu suzgo.<ref name="Number7" /> Manyowa gha mu FISP ghakaguliskikanga pa madola gha US$7 pa thumba la makilogalamu 50, apo mtengo wa msika ukaŵa pafupifupi madola gha US$27 pa thumba lenelili.<ref name=Number7 /> Kafukufuku uyo wakachitika na [[Michigan State University]] wakalongora kuti nangauli vula yambura kwenelera yikatondeska ndondomeko iyi mu nyengo ya 2005/2006, nyengo yiwemi mu 2007 yikawovwira kuti ndondomeko iyi yichite makora.<ref name="Number7">{{Cite journal |last=Jayne, T.S., Chapoto, A., Minde I.J., Donovan, C. |date=2008 |title=Grain Marketing Policy at the Crossroads: Challenges for Eastern and Southern Africa |journal=International Development Working Papers |publisher=Department of Agricultural, Food, and Resource Economics}}</ref> Chifukwa cha FISP, Malawi wakasanga zokolola zikuru za chimanga mu 2007. Charu ichi chikavuna matani pafupifupi 3.4 miliyoni gha chimanga, ndipo chikaŵa na chakukwana chakujumpha chomene chomwe chikakwana matani 1.4 miliyoni.<ref name=Number7 /> Chifukwa cha chimanga chinandi ichi, Malawi wakamba kuguliska chimanga ku vyaru vinyake kweniso kupereka wovwiri ku vyaru ivyo vikaŵa na suzgo la vyakurya. [[Zimbabwe]] wakapokera matani 40,000 gha chimanga kufuma ku Malawi, ndipo [[Lesotho]] na [[Eswatini|Swaziland]] waliyose wakapokera matani 5,000 gha chimanga.<ref name=Number7 /> Mabungwe gha pa charu chose na gha mu Malawi, kusazgapo [[World Food Programme|WFP]], [[European Union|EU]], [[United Kingdom|UK]], na [[USAID]], ghakapeleka wovwiri wa vyakurya ku Malawi pamanyuma pakuti boma lapharazga soka mu 2002. Mu 2005, WFP yikati wovwiri wake wa vyakurya ukaŵa kovwira pafupifupi 11% ya ŵanthu wose ŵa ku Malawi.<ref name=Number20 /> ==Vyakukhala vyakunyuma (Long-term effects)== ===Umoyo=== Suzgo la vyakurya lapangiska kuti ŵana ŵaŵe pangozi yikuru ya kusoŵa vyakurya mu thupi na matenda. Mu 2006, [[UNICEF]] yikayowoya kuti 46% ya ŵana ŵa pasi pa vyaka vinkhondi ŵakaŵa na suzgo la kusoŵa vyakurya mu thupi nyengo yitali, ndipo 19% ŵakaŵa ŵakutepeta chomene.<ref name="Number13">UNICEF. “Malawi Annual Report.” 2006. Malawi: UNICEF. http://www.unicef.org/malawi/MLW_annualreport_2006.pdf {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304030933/http://www.unicef.org/malawi/MLW_annualreport_2006.pdf |date=2016-03-04 }}</ref> Kufuma mu 1992, apo misisi ya suzgo la vyakurya yikambiranga, umoyo wa kadyero ka ŵana undasintha.<ref name=Number13 /> Mu 2001/2002 na 2005/2006, mu nyengo izo kusoŵa vyakurya kukaŵa kukuru, kukaŵa miliri yikuru ya [[kolera]] mu charu chose. [[UNICEF]] yikamanya kuti miliri iyi yikachitika chifukwa cha ukhondo wambura kwenelera na maji ghambura kuvikilirika, ivyo vikakolerana na suzgo la vyakurya ndipo vikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵaŵe ŵakupokera matenda.<ref name=Number13 /> Mwakuyana waka, kafukufuku uyo wakachitika na [[Save the Children|Save The Children]] UK mu February 2002 wakawona kuti suzgo la vyakurya likakhwaska umoyo wa ŵanthu chifukwa likapangiska kuvimba kwa mawoko na malundi mu ŵana na ŵalara.<ref name="Number21">Kamowa, Olex M. "Living In The Abyss: Hunger In Mchinji, Lilongwe." Save the Children (UK). February 2002.</ref> Kusoŵa vyakurya kwapangiska nyifwa zinandi chifukwa cha njara; unandi wake weneko ukumanyikwa yayi.<ref name=Number5 /> Zinyake mwa nyifwa izi zikasazgirako suzgo la [[HIV]]/[[AIDS]], ndipo ŵanthu awo ŵakaŵa na nthenda iyi ŵakaŵa pangozi chomene, kweniso kukapangika unandi wa ŵana ŵambura ŵapapi. [[UNICEF]] yikuyowoya kuti 17% ya ŵana ŵalije ŵapapi ŵamoyo chifukwa cha HIV/AIDS.<ref name=Number13 /> Pa nyengo iyo suzgo la vyakurya likaŵa likuru chomene, kufuma mu Epulero m’paka Meyi 2002, [[WHO]] yikachita kuwunika umoyo wa ŵanthu mu Malawi. Yikawona kuti pakati pa Okutobala 2001 na Malichi 2002, pakaŵa nyifwa zakukwana 1.9 pa ŵanthu 10,000 zuŵa lililose. Kukaŵa muliri wa kolera uwo ukaŵa na milandu 33,150 yakumanyikwa na nyifwa 981, mwakuyana na chiŵelengero cha nyifwa cha 3%. Kweni chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu awo ŵakalutanga ku malo gha chipatala chikakhira na 25% mu nyengo yeneyiyo. Kafukufuku uyu wakalongora kuti malo gha chipatala ghakaŵa na masuzgo chifukwa cha kusoŵa ŵantchito, munkhwala, kweniso mauthenga na mayendedwe ghambura kwenelera. Apo ŵanthu ŵakamba kuŵika pakwamba kusanga vyakurya, kupenja wovwiri wa umoyo na kuluta ku malo gha chipatala ghambura kunozgeka kukamba kuchepa.<ref name=Number50>WHO 2002</ref> Ŵanthu awo ŵakaŵa na njara ŵakamba kurya misisi yambura kuŵa yakwenelera, mphangwe za chimanga, fumbi la mathabwa, na vipambi vyakuphikika, ndipo ŵakamba kutora matenda gha mu nthumbo na vyakurya vyakuphambanapambana.<ref name=Number21 /> Lipoti mu magazini ya [[The Lancet]] likawona kuti mbumba zinandi, nanga zikaŵa zasambazi, mu [[Nsanje]] chigaŵa cha kumwera kwa Malawi, zikaŵa kurya mizi ya chomera cha maji icho chikachemekanga nyika. Mizi iyi iyo pakwamba yikaŵa chakurya chakulyera waka, yikazgoka chakurya chikuru ndipo para munthu wangarya vinandi yingapangiska kutaya nthumbo.<ref name="Number51">{{cite journal | doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(05)67799-9 | title=Malawi's food crisis continues to worsen | year=2005 | last1=Tenthani | first1=Raphael | journal=The Lancet | volume=366 | issue=9502 | pages=1994–1995 | pmid=16353311 | s2cid=28688185 | doi-access=free }}</ref> Pa nyengo yinyake, mwana mukuru wa mbumba ya ŵanthu 10 wakasanga mphonje zakupha za chomera cha mbatata zakuthengo. Awiske ŵakapeleka mphonje izi ku ŵana na anyina chifukwa ŵakaŵavya chakurya chinyake; ŵenecho ŵakarya yayi chifukwa ŵakaŵika njara ya ŵana na muwoli wawo panthazi pa njara yawo. Anyina na ŵana ŵawo 8 ŵakafwa yumoza yumoza chifukwa cha kusanza na kupokera chiphe cha vyakurya.<ref name=Number51 /> ===Ndondomeko za boma=== Ndondomeko ya boma ya kuvikilira vyakurya, iyo yikuchemeka FISP, yikawovwira kusazgirako ulimi. Nga umo vyayowoyekera kale, kupanga chimanga kukajumpha ivyo charu chikakhumbanga pamanyuma pa kukhazikiska FISP. Pakati pa 2005 na 2011, [[GDP|GDP ya Malawi]] yikakuranga mwakukwana 11.7% chaka chilichose, ndipo ŵakumanya vinthu ŵanandi ŵakayaniska kukura kwa GDP ya ulimi na FISP. Kweni kafukufuku wa sonosono wakulongora kuti FISP ni ndondomeko iyo yingakhalapo yayi nyengo yitali: apo mbumba izo zikukhumbikwira wovwiri zikuchuluka, uwemi wa fetereza na mbuto izo zikuperekeka ukakhira kufuma pa makilogalamu 85 pa mulimi mu 2005/2006 kufika pa makilogalamu 60 pa mulimi mu 2012/2013.<ref name="Number25">{{Cite journal |last=Thurlow, James |first=Pauw, Karl |date=2014 |title=Malawi's Farm Input Subsidy Program: Where do we go from here? Policy Note 18 |url=http://www.ifpri.org/sites/default/files/publications/massppn18.pdf |journal=Malawi Strategy Support Program |publisher=International Food Policy Research Institute}}</ref> Ndondomeko ziphya za kuvikilira vyakurya zikapangika mu 2002 na 2003. Ndondomeko ya Malawi ya [[Kuchepeska ukavu|kuchepeska ukavu]] yikaŵa chikalata cha ndondomeko icho chikakhumbikwanga kulongozga na kovwira pakupanga vyakusankha vya bajeti ya boma. Pakatikati pa ndondomeko iyi pakaŵa kukura kwa chuma, ŵanthu ŵakuzirwa pa chuma, nthowa zakovwilira ŵanthu ŵakusuzgika, na kayendeskero kawemi ka boma; mwa kupanga vyakusankha vya bajeti ivyo vikukhozgera kukura kwa ulimi na kuŵika nthowa zakovwilira ŵanthu, boma likate liŵe na nkhongono zakukhozgera kuŵa na vyakurya.<ref name="Number27">{{Cite journal |last=Sahley, C., Groelsema, Bob., Marchione, T., Nelson, D. |date=2005 |title=The Governance Dimensions of Food Security in Malawi |url=http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/pnade034.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060923152016/http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PNADE034.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=September 23, 2006 |journal=Is Food Security Achievable in Malawi? |location=Washington DC |publisher=USA Agency for International Development |volume=20}}</ref> Unduna wa vyaulimi ukagwira ntchito pamoza na mabungwe gha ŵanthu, ma unduna ghanyake, makampani ghapadera, na ŵakupereka wovwiri kupanga Ndondomeko ya Vyakurya na Kadyero. Ndondomeko iyi yikaŵa na vilato vya: 1) kusazgirako vyakurya mwa kusazgirako vyakuvwilira vya maji na kuŵa na fetereza na malo, 2) kukhozga misika ya ku mizi, 3) kupanga malango gha umoyo na kadyero, na 4) kukhazikiska na kukhozga ndondomeko zakulimbana na masoka, malo ghakusungirako chimanga, na nthowa zakuwonera na kulongosora kupanga vyakurya.<ref name=Number27 /> Pamasinda, Unduna wa Kupanga Chuma na Chitukuko ukapanga ndondomeko ya kukura kwa chuma iyo yikaŵa na chilato chakuti ŵanthu ŵaŵe na m'pata wakusanga vyakurya mwa kukhozgera malonda na ndalama zakunjira mu vyalo vya ku mizi mu Malawi, kuti ŵasange ndalama na ntchito.<ref name=Number27 /> ===Mitheto na chikaya=== Pa nyengo ya suzgo la vyakurya, ŵanthu ŵakamba kusintha umo ŵakakhaliranga kuti ŵasange chakurya. Ŵanyake ŵakamba kugwira ntchito zakwiza waka kuti ŵapokere vyakurya. Ŵanandi ŵakaguliska katundu wa mu nyumba na viŵeto pa mitengo yichoko kuti ŵagule chakurya, ndipo ichi chikapangiska kuti chiŵe chakusuzga kwa iwo kuwelera ku umoyo wakukhazikika pamanyuma pa suzgo la vyakurya.<ref name="Number39">{{Cite journal |last=Margolies, A., Kalagho, K., Kazembe, C. |date=2019 |title=Examining perceptions of food assistance on household food security and resilience in Malawi; Policy Note 32 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2499/p15738coll2.133065 |publisher=International Food Policy Research Institute |location=Washington DC |volume= |doi=10.2499/p15738coll2.133065|s2cid=239189252|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Ŵanyake ŵakasamukira ku [[Zambia]] na vyalo vinyake vyapafupi kukapenja ntchito za malipiro ghachoko panji vyakurya.<ref name=Number5 /> Suzgo la vyakurya likakhwaskaso masambiro. Mu vigaŵa vinyake, ŵana awo ŵakaleka sukulu ŵakafika pa 25% chifukwa cha njara. Ŵanandi ŵakaleka kuluta ku sukulu kuti ŵagwire ntchito panji kupenja chakurya, apo ŵanyake ŵakatondeka kulipira ndalama za sukulu.<ref name=Number39 /> Ŵasambizgi ŵanyake ŵakadandawura kuti sukulu zikaluza mazaza pa ŵana chifukwa ŵangachichizga yayi ŵana kukhala, kusambira, panji kuchita ntchito za ku sukulu usange ŵali na njara na kudwala.<ref name=Number5 /> [[UNICEF]] yikayowoya kuti mu vigaŵa ivyo suzgo la vyakurya likaŵa likuru chomene, hafu m’paka vitatu mwa vigaŵa vinayi vya ŵana ŵa sukulu ŵakaleka kuluta ku sukulu.<ref name=Number51 /> Chifukwa cha kuchepa kwa ŵana ku sukulu, [[UNICEF]] na [[WFP]] vikamba mapulogiramu ghakupereka vyakurya ku ŵana ku sukulu na wovwiri unyake ku ŵasambizgi na ŵantchito. [[UNICEF]] yikati pulogiramu iyi yikapangiska "kusintha kukuru" mu kuluta ku sukulu, ndipo mu malo ghanyake nyumba za sukulu zikazura na ŵana awo ŵakapenjanga chakurya.<ref name=Number51 /> Makhaliro gha chikaya chose ghakasinthaso kuheni, chifukwa ŵanthu ŵakamba kwiba ku ŵazengezgani, kusida ŵana, kulimbana chifukwa cha chakurya, na kusinthana kugonana kuti ŵasange chakurya.<ref name=Number5 /> Kwiba vyakurya na ndalama kukachuluka chomene. Mu vigaŵa vinyake, ŵakukora ŵankhungu ŵakaŵatombozganga na kuŵapweteka nga ni chilango.<ref name=Number5 /> Ŵachekuru, ŵana ŵambura ŵapapi, na ŵanakazi ŵakaŵa pangozi chomene, chifukwa chikaŵa chakusuzga kwa iwo kujiwovwira, ndipo ŵakaŵa vilato vikuru vya kwiba na nkhaza.<ref name=Number5 /> Mu 2005, ŵanakazi ŵanandi ŵakayowoya kuti ŵakakomekanga pa msika wa [[ADMARC]] apo ŵakaguranga chimanga chawo cha makilogalamu 25 icho ŵakapika.<ref name="Number40">{{Cite web |title=The Effect of the Food Crisis on Women and Their Families |url=https://archive.globalpolicy.org/the-dark-side-of-natural-resources-st/water-in-conflict/46209.html |access-date=2022-05-15 |website=archive.globalpolicy.org}}</ref> Mtengo wa [[ntchito ya kugonana]] ukakhira kufuma pa MK1000 kufika pa MK200, ndipo ichi chikapangiska kuti ŵanakazi na ŵasungwana awo ŵakachitanga vinthu ivi kuti ŵasange ndalama ŵaŵe pangozi yikuru.<ref name=Number40 /> Mbumba na nthengwa nazo zikasinthika chifukwa cha suzgo la vyakurya: ŵasungwana ŵanandi ŵakachichizgika kutengwa ŵachali ŵachoko chifukwa mbumba zawo zikatenge zingakwaniska yayi kuŵapwelelera mu nyengo ya suzgo la vyakurya, ndipo ichi chikapangiska kuti nthengwa zakuleka na za nkhaza zichuluke.<ref name=Number39 /> Ŵanalume na ŵanakazi ŵakutorana ŵanyake ŵakamba kuleka kugomezgeka mu nthengwa kuti ŵasange ndalama na chakurya, ndipo ichi nacho chikapangiska kuti nthengwa zakuleka na za nkhaza zichuluke.<ref name=Number39 /> ==Suzgo la kusoŵa vyakurya mu 2012–2013== Malawi yikasanganaso na suzgo linyake la vyakurya mu 2012 na 2013. Kuyana na MVAC National [[Chivikiliro cha vyakurya|Food Security]] Forecast, ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 1.4 miliyoni mu [[Malawi]] ŵakaŵa pangozi ya kusoŵa vyakurya mu vyaka vya 2013 na 2014.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://reliefweb.int/disaster/ot-2012-000156-mwi|title=Malawi: Food Insecurity – 2012–2014|website=ReliefWeb|access-date=2019-04-25}}</ref> Ichi chikaŵa 9.5% ya ŵanthu mu vigaŵa 21 vya charu, ndipo chigaŵa cha kumpoto ndicho chikasangana na suzgo likuru chomene.<ref name=":0" /> Vifukwa vya chuma, ndale, na ulimi vikawovwirapo pa suzgo ili.{{Citation needed|date=March 2022}} Ku chigaŵa cha chuma na ndale, Joyce Banda wakamba kulamulira mu Epulero 2012, ndipo wakaŵa mwanakazi wakwamba kuŵa pulezidenti wa Malawi. Mu Meyi wa chaka chenicho, [[Malawian kwacha|kwacha]] yikachepeska mtengo wake na 49% ndipo yikayamba kutaya nkhongono chomene.<ref name=":12"/> Kuyana na [[World Food Programme]], kuchepa kwa mtengo kwa ndalama iyi pamoza na kukwera kwa mitengo ya vinthu (inflation) kwa 12.4% mu mwezi wenewura kukapangiska mitengo ya vinthu vyakuzirwa na mauteŵeti kukwera chomene mu charu chose.<ref name=":12"/> Kweniso, Centre for Social Concern yikafumiska lipoti ilo likalongora kuti mtengo wa umoyo ukakwera na kujumpha 50% kufuma mu 2011 kufika mu 2012.{{Citation needed|date=March 2022}} Ku chigaŵa cha ulimi, kupanga chimanga kukakhira na 40% mu vigaŵa vinandi chifukwa cha vula yichoko.<ref name=":12"/> Kupanga chimanga kochepa uku pamoza na kuchepa kwa nkhongono za ŵanthu kugura vinthu, vikapangiska kuti mu 2012 ŵanthu pafupifupi miliyoni yimoza ŵakhumbikwirenge wovwiri kuti ŵasange vyakurya vyawo vyakuzirwa.<ref name=":12" /> Ndipouli, umo Malawi Vulnerability Assessment Committee yikawoneranga mu 2012, chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu awo ŵakaŵa pangozi chikeneranga kukwera na 21% chifukwa cha suzgo la vyakurya.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://reliefweb.int/disaster/ot-2012-000156-mwi|title=Malawi: Food Insecurity – 2012–2014|website=ReliefWeb|access-date=2019-04-25}}</ref> Kukwera kwa mitengo pamoza na kuchepa kwa kupanga chimanga vikapangiska kuti mitengo ya [[chimanga]] mu 2012 yiŵe yakwera na 40% kuluska mtengo wapakati wa vyaka vinkhondi ivyo vyajumpha.<ref name=":12" /> Chifukwa cha kukwera chomene kwa khumbo la chakurya, ŵamalonda ŵachisisi ŵakaguliskanga chimanga pa mitengo yapachanya chomene, ndipo ŵakapelekanga ku misika yinyake chimanga icho chikeneranga kupelekeka ku ŵanthu.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Musa |first=Madalitso |date=2013-09-30 |title=No maize in Malawi's Admarc depots |url=http://timesmediamw.com/no-maize-in-malawis-admarc-depots/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150316233943/http://timesmediamw.com/no-maize-in-malawis-admarc-depots/ |archive-date=2015-03-16 |access-date=2022-05-14 |website=BNL Times}}</ref> Vinthu ivyo vikabisika na malo ghakupelekera vyakurya ivyo ŵanthu ŵakagomezganga vikawa vichoko chomene panji vikamara. Ichi chikakhwaska chomene chivikiliro cha vyakurya mu Malawi chifukwa chimanga ntchakurya chakuzirwa chomene ndipo ndicho chikulimika na kuryeka chomene mu charu.<ref name=":03"/> [[Famine Early Warning Systems Network|Mulongozgi wa machenjezo ghakwamba gha njara]] wakafumiska uthenga wakuti suzgo likuru la vyakurya lingachitika mu Malawi kufika mu Julayi 2012 ndipo lingatora myezi 9.<ref name=":12" /> Kweniso, kuyana na kafukufuku mu [[The Journal of Modern African Studies]], vinthu vyakhalako kufuma ku masuzgo gha vyakurya ghakale vikaŵa vikuwoneka mu 2012. Vifukwa vinandi ivyo vikapangiska suzgo la vyakurya la 2002, nga ni kutondeka kwa chitukuko na misika, navyo vikawovwirapo pa suzgo la 2012.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Dorward|first1=Andrew|last2=Kydd|first2=Jonathan|date=2004|title=The Malawi 2002 Food Crisis: The Rural Development Challenge|journal=The Journal of Modern African Studies|volume=42|issue=3|pages=343–361|issn=0022-278X|jstor=3876336|doi=10.1017/S0022278X04000229|s2cid=54763363|url=https://eprints.soas.ac.uk/5115/1/malawi_food_crisis.pdf}}</ref> Ivi vikasazgapo kusazgikiska kwa malonda gha vyakurya mu mawoko gha ŵanthu, kufumiskapo wovwiri wa ŵalimi, na kuleka kulamulira misika.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Ng’ambi|first1=F.|last2=Owusu|first2=K.|date=2002|title=Structural damage: the causes and consequences of Malawi's food crisis|url=http://agris.fao.org/agris-search/search.do?recordID=GB2013202812|language=en}}</ref> Kweniso, masuzgo gha vyakurya ghakale ghali na ndalama zikuru za nyengo yitali chifukwa kusoŵa makora vyakurya mu thupi kukupangiska kuchepa kwa nkhongono za ntchito chifukwa cha [[Kukura kwambura kwenelera|kuŵa wakutepeta]]. Kuyana na kafukufuku, pafupifupi 60% ya ŵalara mu charu ŵakusuzgika na kukura kwambura kwenelera chifukwa cha njara iyo ŵakaŵa nayo apo ŵakaŵa ŵana, ndipo ichi chikukwana pafupifupi ŵanthu 4.5 miliyoni mu Malawi awo ŵali na suzgo la kusoŵa vyakurya mu thupi.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=https://www.wfp.org/news/news-release/new-study-reveals-huge-impact-hunger-economy-malawi-0|title=New Study Reveals Huge Impact Of Hunger On Economy Of Malawi|website=www.wfp.org|access-date=2019-04-25}}</ref> Nadi, kafukufuku wenewura wa [[World Food Programme]] wakawona kuti Malawi yikataya ndalama zakukwana MWK 16.5 biliyoni mu kupanga vinthu chifukwa cha kusoŵa vyakurya mu thupi.<ref name=":2" /> == Chaka cha 2015 cha njara == Nangauli mu 2014 kuŵa kwa vyakurya mu Malawi kukakwera, ŵalimi ŵakawelera mu suzgo la kusoŵa chakurya mu 2015. Mu 2014, komiti ya Malawi Vulnerability Assessment Committee (MVAC) yikayowoya kuti ŵanthu 640,009 ŵakaŵa kuti ŵakusuzgika kusanga chakurya, pakuyaniska na ŵanthu 1.46 miliyoni mu chaka cham'mbuyo.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|url=https://reliefweb.int/disaster/ot-2012-000156-mwi|title=Malawi: Food Insecurity – 2012–2014|website=ReliefWeb|access-date=2019-04-25}}</ref> Kuchepa kwa ŵanthu ŵakusuzgika na chakurya kukachitika chifukwa cha kusangika kwa vyakurya vinandi mu 2014 chifukwa cha vuna yiwemi, kweni ivi vikakhala kwa nyengo yichoko chifukwa mu 2015 Malawi yikakhwaskika na maji ghanandi chomene.<ref name=":3" /> Vikuyerekelezgeka kuti Malawi yikutaya ndalama zakukwana madola 12.5 miliyoni, panji 1% ya [[GDP|chuma cha charu chonse]], chaka chilichose chifukwa cha chilangalanga, ndipo madola 9 miliyoni panji 0.7% ya GDP chifukwa cha kusefukira kwa maji mu vigaŵa vya kumwera kwa charu.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Besada|first1=Hany|last2=Werner|first2=Karolina|date=2015-01-02|title=An assessment of the effects of Africa's water crisis on food security and management|journal=International Journal of Water Resources Development|volume=31|issue=1|pages=120–133|doi=10.1080/07900627.2014.905124|issn=0790-0627|doi-access=free}}</ref> Nadi, Malawi ni charu chachilendo yayi ku masuzgo gha nyengo, chifukwa pakati pa 1970 na 2006 pakaŵa masoka ghakujintha pa nyengo ghakujumpha 40.<ref name=":5"/> Mu 2015 kufika mu 2016, Malawi yikakumana na chilangalanga chikuru ndipo pamanyuma pakaŵa kusefukira kwa maji chifukwa cha [[El Niño|El Nino]].<ref name="Malawi Food Crisis">{{Cite web|url=https://www.oxfam.org.uk/what-we-do/emergency-response/malawi-food-crisis|title=Malawi Food Crisis|website=Oxfam GB|access-date=2019-04-01}}</ref> Vilangalanga ivi vikaŵa viheni chomene mu vyaka 35 ivyo vyajumpha, chifukwa pakaŵa nyengo ziŵiri zakulima zakutondeka ndipo ŵalimi ŵakaŵavya vinthu vyakukwana vyakuŵapa chakurya iwo na mbumba zawo.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.deki.org.uk/blog/2017/1/27/update-on-food-crisis-in-malawi|title=Update on the food crisis in Malawi|website=Deki|access-date=2019-04-01|archive-date=2019-04-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190401043739/https://www.deki.org.uk/blog/2017/1/27/update-on-food-crisis-in-malawi|url-status=dead}}</ref> Ivyo vikakhwaska ŵanthu chomene chifukwa 90% ya ŵanthu mu Malawi ŵakuthemba vyakurya ivyo vikulimika na vula kweniso ulimi kuti ŵakhale na umoyo. Ntheura pa 13 April 2016, [[Peter Mutharika|Mutharika]] pulezidenti wakapharazga kuti mu charu mwawa masoka ghakuru ndipo wakaŵika Malawi pa mulandu wa suzgo la chilangalanga na kusefukira kwa maji.<ref name=":7" /> Chifukwa cha suzgo ili, mitengo ya [[chimanga]] yikakwera chomene ndipo mbumba zinandi zikakatondeka kugula. Kweniso maji ghakukwana pa ulimi ghakaŵa ghachoko chomene, ivyo vikapangiska kuti ŵalimi ŵaleke kuwelera ku umoyo wawo wa kale.<ref name="Malawi Food Crisis"/> Mu February wa chaka chenechichi, mtengo wa chimanga ukaŵa kuti wakwera kale na 60% kuluska mtengo wa vyaka vitatu ivyo vyajumpha.<ref name=":7"/> Kuyana na [[Action Against Hunger]], ulimi wa chimanga ukachepa na 27% kufuma mu 2013 ndipo ukawa pasi na 20% pakuyaniska na umo ukaŵira mu vyaka vinkhondi ivyo vyajumpha.<ref name=":4">{{Cite web|url=https://reliefweb.int/report/malawi/massive-food-crisis-threatens-500000-children-malawi|title=Massive food crisis threatens 500,000 children in Malawi – Malawi|website=ReliefWeb|access-date=2019-04-25}}</ref> Masuzgo agha ghakapangiska ŵanthu kuguliska katundu wawo kuti ŵagure chakurya cha mbumba zawo, ndipo charu chikanjira mu suzgo likuru.<ref name=":4" /> Kuyana na [[World Food Programme]], mwana yumoza pa ŵana 10 wakusuzgika na kukura makora kwa thupi chifukwa cha kusoŵa kwa vyakurya na suzgo la chakurya ilo likapangika na kusintha kwa nyengo.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://news.un.org/en/story/2015/09/509722-malawi-facing-worst-food-crisis-decade-requires-81-million-relief-aid-un-agency|title=Malawi facing worst food crisis in decade, requires $81 million in relief aid – UN agency|date=2015-09-25|website=UN News|access-date=2019-04-01}}</ref> Pakaŵaso vinthu vinyake ivyo vikapangiska suzgo ili kuŵa likuru, nga nkhuŵavya ndondomeko zakukhora za nyengo yitali zakovwira ŵalimi mu Malawi kuti ŵalimbane na kusintha kwa nyengo mu ulimi.<ref name=":02">{{cite journal | doi=10.3390/su7021620 | doi-access=free | title=Responding to Crop Failure: Understanding Farmers' Coping Strategies in Southern Malawi | year=2015 | last1=Coulibaly | first1=Jeanne | last2=Gbetibouo | first2=Glwadys | last3=Kundhlande | first3=Godfrey | last4=Sileshi | first4=Gudeta | last5=Beedy | first5=Tracy | journal=Sustainability | volume=7 | issue=2 | pages=1620–1636 }}</ref> Vikupulikikwa kuti pakukhumbikwa ndondomeko zakovwira ŵalimi kusanga nthowa zakulimbana na kusintha kwa nyengo, nga ni ulimi wakukhalilira kweniso kusazgirako uwemi wa dongo.<ref name=":02" /> Kusowa kwa kunozgekera uku kukasazgikira pa masuzgo agho charu chikaŵa nagho kale. Kuyana na [[World Bank]], ŵanthu mu vyaru vyakukura makora yayi ŵakukhwaskika chomene na masoka gha chilengedwe chifukwa kutaya kwawo kukupimika kuyana na GDP yawo.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/content/famine-malawi-causes-and-consequences|title=Famine in Malawi: Causes and Consequences {{!}} Human Development Reports|website=hdr.undp.org|date=January 2008 |access-date=2019-04-27}}</ref> Kweniso [[United Nations Development Programme]] yikulongosora kuti para charu chilije kunozgekera makora, masoka na ivyo vikuchitika pamanyuma vikuŵa viheni chomene.<ref name=":5" /> Malawi yikayezga kuchepeska vyakufumapo vya suzgo la chakurya mwa kugura inshuwalansi ya chilangalanga. Mu 2015, Malawi yikagura inshuwalansi ya chilangalanga ya nyengo ya ulimi wa 2015/2016 kufuma ku kampani ya African Risk Capacity (ACR).<ref name=":62">{{Cite journal|last1=Reeves|first1=Jonathan|date=May 2017|title=The wrong model for resilience: How G7-backed drought insurance failed Malawi, and what we must learn from it|url=https://actionaid.org/publications/2017/wrong-model-resilience#downloads|journal=Action Aid}}</ref> Inshuwalansi iyi yikagulira madola ghakukwana US$5 miliyoni.<ref name=":62"/> Kweni wovwiri ukachedwa kufika ndipo ukafika ku ŵanthu ŵa Malawi mu 2017, ntheura ukatondeka kuchepeska kutaya kwachuma chifukwa cha suzgo ili.<ref name=":62"/> Action Aid yikuyowoya kuti chilangalanga cha 2015 chikapangiska Malawi kutaya ndalama zakukwana US$395 miliyoni.<ref name=":62"/> == Umo vinthu viliri sono == Nangauli Malawi yikambiska Ndondomeko ya Kovwira Ŵalimi na Vinthu vya Ulimi mu 2005, chandulo cha ndondomeko iyi chikalutilira kuthemba pa vula.<ref name=":62"/> Kweniso nthowa izo zikugwiliskirika ntchito nga ni manyowa gha kupanga na mbuto zakusinthika zikwambiska kunangika kwa dongo kweniso kuŵika ŵalimi mu vikatiko vya ngongoli.<ref name=":62" /> Ndondomeko zinandi zili kuŵikika kuti zivwire ŵalimi pa nkhani ya ndalama na ngongoli, nga ni [[ntchito za ulongozgi wa ulimi]], mapulogiramu gha ntchito za boma, na kupokera ndalama kwambura vifukwa vyakupokera. Ndondomeko ya charu ya kusintha na kunozgekera nyengo nayo yikukhumba kuŵikapo nthowa zakukhozgera chomene ulimi kuti ulutilire kususkana na masuzgo.<ref name=":62" /> Ivi vikukolerana na ndondomeko ya Malawi ya kusinthasintha vyakuchita, iyo yikuyowoya kuti masuzgo ghakuru ni ukavu, malo ghachoko gha kulimapo, kweniso kuthemba chomene pa vinthu vya chilengedwe.<ref name=":03"/> Ndondomeko iyi yikukhumba kunozga nkhani za kusangika kwa chakurya, kusamalira vinthu vya chilengedwe, nkhongono zakutowa, tekinoloje, na ndalama kuti chitukuko chikure, kusintha kwa nyengo kuchepe, kweniso kukhozga mtende na chitetezo cha ŵanthu.<ref name=":03"/> Mu 2018, mtengo wa chimanga ukakwera kanandi waka, kufuma pa 100 Malawi Kwacha (US$0.14) pa kilogalamu kufika pa 140 Kwacha ($0.19) pa kilogalamu.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://mwnation.com/maize-prices-40/|title=Maize prices up 40%|last1=Phiri|first1=Grace|date=2018-02-06|website=The Nation Online|access-date=2019-03-15}}</ref> Pa nyengo yeneyiyo, ulimi wa chimanga mu Malawi ukachepa na 20% mu 2018.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Roy |first1=Deblina |date=24 May 2018 |title=Malawi maize production down by 20 percent |url=http://www.africanfarming.net/crops/agriculture/malawi-maize-production-down-by-20-per-cent |access-date=2019-03-15 |website=African Farming and Food Processing |language=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Khamula |first=Owen |date=2018-05-22 |title=Malawi maize production harvests down by 20 percent |url=https://www.nyasatimes.com/malawi-maize-production-harvests-drops-by-20/ |access-date=2022-05-14 |website=Nyasa Times |language=en-GB}}</ref> Kufika mu Seputembala 2018, boma la Malawi likakhazikiska mtengo wa chimanga pa 170 Kwacha ($0.23) pa kilogalamu.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nyasatimes.com/govt-brings-down-maize-prices-in-admarc/|title=Govt brings down maize prices in Admarc|date=2018-09-20|website=Malawi Nyasa Times – Malawi breaking news in Malawi|access-date=2019-03-15}}</ref> Pa 14 Malichi 2019, Fumu yikuru ya mu [[Karonga District|Chigaŵa cha Karonga]] yikayowoya kuti yikwenjerwa kuti Karonga yingakumana na kusoŵa kwa chimanga chifukwa cha chilangalanga icho chikatora nyengo yitali.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://allafrica.com/stories/201903140491.html|title=Malawi: Karonga At Risk of Hunger Due to Prolonged Dry Spell|last1=Mhone|first1=Sithembile|date=2019-03-14|work=Nyasa Times (Leeds)|access-date=2019-03-15}}</ref> Mu Malichi 2019, Malawi yikakhwaskika na [[Cyclone Idai|Chimphepo cha Idai]]. Pamanyuma pa kusefukira kwa maji kwakofya uko kukachitika chifukwa cha chimphepo ichi, nduna ya vya ulimi yikayowoya kuti charu chingaŵa kuti chataya 20% ya chimanga icho chikeneranga kubalika mu nyengo iyi.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://af.reuters.com/article/topNews/idAFKCN1RE0NK-OZATP|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190402094925/https://af.reuters.com/article/topNews/idAFKCN1RE0NK-OZATP|url-status=dead|archive-date=April 2, 2019|title=Malawi could lose 20 pct of maize crop in cyclone flooding – minister|last1=Winning|first1=Alexander|date=April 2, 2019|work=Reuters Africa|access-date=April 5, 2019}}</ref> == Mazgu ghakulongosora == <references/> [[Category:Njara mu Africa]] [[Category:2005 mu Malawi|suzgo la vyakurya]] [[Category:Chilala mu Africa]] [[Category:Masoka gha chilengiwa mu Malawi]] [[Category: 2002 chilala]] [[Category:2002 mu Malaŵi]] [[Category:Kuvikilirika kwa vyakurya kuyana na vyaru|Malawi]] hhsmuij8p2596x03sshv6k9ad198wlt 0 48149 119273 117949 2026-08-13T13:16:35Z Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi 11606 119273 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''{{PAGENAME}}''' (王虹) ni [[munthu]] wakufuma ku {{#invoke:wd|property|linked|references|P27}}. Iwo ni {{#invoke:wd|property|linked|references|P21}}. ==Moyo== {{PAGENAME}} wakababika mu {{#invoke:wd|property|linked|references|P569}} ku {{#invoke:wd|property|linked|references|P19}}. ==Vilembo vifupi== {{reflist}} [[Category:Ŵanthu ŵamoyo]] 6m3207yx7kjewrb9ar75jr313jylld3 0 48153 119323 118859 2026-08-13T22:52:35Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Add 3 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260813sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 119323 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Lipoti la ku North America la 1910 pa masambiro gha vyaudokotala}} {{Use mdy dates|date=April 2026}} [[File:Carnegie Flexner Report.djvu|thumb|Tsamba lakwamba la ''Flexner Report'']] '''''Flexner Report'''''<ref name=":5">{{Citation | author=Flexner, Abraham | year=1910 | title=Medical Education in the United States and Canada: A Report to the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching | series=Bulletin No. 4. | publisher=Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching | location=New York City | pages=346 | oclc=9795002 | url=http://archive.carnegiefoundation.org/publications/pdfs/elibrary/Carnegie_Flexner_Report.pdf | access-date=August 22, 2021 }}</ref> ni lipoti likuru la buku lakukhwaskana na masambiro gha vyaudokotala mu United States na Canada, ilo likalembeka na [[Abraham Flexner]] ndipo likafumiskika mu chaka cha 1910 pasi pa [[Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching|Carnegie Foundation]]. Flexner wakalongosora umo masambiro gha vyaudokotala ghakaŵira ku North America pa nyengo iyo, ndipo wakapelekaso malongosolero ghakukwana gha masukulu ghaudokotala agho ghakaŵapo pa nyengo iyo. Wakalongora ivyo vikasoŵekanga, ndipo wakapeleka ulongozgi wa umo masambiro ghaudokotala ghangawovwilirika na kunozgekaso mu United States. Nangauli lipoti ili likabweriska vinthu vinandi viwemi ku masambiro ghaudokotala gha ku America, ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakususka kuti likambiska ndondomeko izo zikakhozga [[Institutional racism|kusankhana mitundu na ŵanthu mwa ndondomeko]] kweniso kusankhana chifukwa cha jenda.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Laws |first=Terri |date=March 1, 2021 |title=How Should We Respond to Racist Legacies in Health Professions Education Originating in the Flexner Report? |url=https://journalofethics.ama-assn.org/article/how-should-we-respond-racist-legacies-health-professions-education-originating-flexner-report/2021-03 |journal=AMA Journal of Ethics |volume=23 |issue=3 |pages=271–275 |doi=10.1001/amajethics.2021.271 |pmid=33818380 |s2cid=233028996 |issn=2376-6980|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite web |last=Wright-Mendoza |first=Jessie |date=May 3, 2019 |title=The 1910 Report That Disadvantaged Minority Doctors |url=https://daily.jstor.org/the-1910-report-that-unintentionally-disadvantaged-minority-doctors/ |access-date=May 1, 2022 |website=JSTOR Daily }}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite web |last=Redford |first=Gabrielle |date=November 17, 2020 |title=AAMC renames prestigious Abraham Flexner award in light of racist and sexist writings |url=https://www.aamc.org/news-insights/aamc-renames-prestigious-abraham-flexner-award-light-racist-and-sexist-writings |access-date=May 1, 2022 |website=AAMC }}</ref> Lipoti ili, ilo likamanyikwaso kuti ''Carnegie Foundation Bulletin Number Four'', likachemerezga kuti [[Medical school in the United States|masukulu ghaudokotala gha ku America]] ghaŵike milingo yakukwera pa kunjira na kumalizga masambiro, kweniso kulondezga mwakukhora fundo za sayansi pa kusambizga na kafukufuku. Lipoti ili likalongosoraso kuti pakakhumbikwanga kusintha na kuwunganya masukulu ghaudokotala kuti ghaŵe ghakovwira chomene. Masukulu ghanandi ghaudokotala gha ku America ghakafikanga yayi pa mulingo uwo ''Flexner Report'' likakhumbanga, ndipo pamanyuma pakuti lipoti ili lafuma, pafupifupi hafu ya masukulu agha ghakabungana panji kujalika. Masukulu agho ghasambizganga nthowa zinyake za munkhwala, nga ni [[electrotherapy]], ghakajalika. [[Homeopathy]], [[osteopathy]] yakale, [[eclectic medicine]], na [[Herbalism|physiomedicalism]] (mankhwala gha vyakumera agho ghakaŵavye ukaboni wa sayansi) vikayowoyeka kuti vikaŵa vyambura maziko gha sayansi.<ref name="FlexnerChXexerpt">{{cite web |last1=Flexner |first1=Abraham |title=Abraham Flexner's View of Homeopathic Schools: An Excerpt from the Flexner Report (1910) |url=https://www.homeowatch.org/history/flexner.html |website=HomeoWatch |date=January 22, 2005 |publisher=[[Quackwatch]] |access-date=June 11, 2019}}</ref> Lipoti ili likamalizgaso kuti ku United States kukaŵa masukulu ghanandi chomene ghaudokotala, ndipo ŵadokotala ŵanandi chomene ŵakasambizgikanga. Chimoza mwa ivyo vikachitika chifukwa cha ''Flexner Report'' chikaŵa kujalika panji kubunganya masukulu gha yunivesite. Ichi chikapangiska kuti pa masukulu ghaudokotala gha ŵafipa paŵe ghaŵiri pera agho ghakakhalapo, ndipo mayunivesite ghanandi ghakaweleraso ku ndondomeko yakupokera ŵanalume pera kuti ŵachepeske unandi wa ŵasambiri. Mu Mutu 11, Flexner wakalongosora kuti kunozga masambiro ghaudokotala na kupanga ntchito yaudokotala kuŵa yakwenerera kukadalira chomene mabodi gha boma agho ghakupereka malaisensi ghaudokotala kuti ghachite ntchito yawo mwadango na mwaunenesko. Kweni wakawona kuti mabodi agha ghakatondekanga kufiska ntchito yawo, ghakachedweskanga kusintha, ndipo ghakalekeleranga munkhwala wambura milingo kulutilira, ivyo vikayikanga umoyo wa ŵanthu pa ngozi. Suzgo ili lichali kulutilira mpaka lero mu ntchito yaudokotala ku United States.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The doctors prescribing misinformation |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/podcasts/post-reports/the-doctors-prescribing-misinformation/ |access-date=September 24, 2024 |website=[www.washingtonpost.com](http://www.washingtonpost.com) |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=August 16, 2023 |title=Report: Ranking of the Rate of State Medical Boards' Serious Disciplinary Actions, 2019-2021 |url=https://www.citizen.org/article/report-ranking-of-the-rate-of-state-medical-boards-serious-disciplinary-actions-2019-2021/ |access-date=September 24, 2024 |website=Public Citizen |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=July 29, 2021 |title=FSMB {{!}} FSMB: Spreading COVID-19 Vaccine Misinformation May Put Medical License at Risk |url=https://www.fsmb.org/advocacy/news-releases/fsmb-spreading-covid-19-vaccine-misinformation-may-put-medical-license-at-risk/ |access-date=September 24, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210729181246/https://www.fsmb.org/advocacy/news-releases/fsmb-spreading-covid-19-vaccine-misinformation-may-put-medical-license-at-risk/ |archive-date=July 29, 2021 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=November 15, 2021 |title=AMA adopts policy to combat disinformation by health care professionals |url=https://www.ama-assn.org/press-center/press-releases/ama-adopts-policy-combat-disinformation-health-care-professionals |access-date=September 24, 2024 |website=American Medical Association |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=May 27, 2022 |title=Money, politics and patient safety: Abbott donors on Texas Medical Board {{!}} KXAN Austin |url=https://www.kxan.com/investigations/money-politics-and-patient-safety-abbott-donors-on-texas-medical-board/ |access-date=September 24, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220527175731/https://www.kxan.com/investigations/money-politics-and-patient-safety-abbott-donors-on-texas-medical-board/ |archive-date=May 27, 2022 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |author=Los Angeles Times Staff |date=January 14, 2022 |title=California Medical Board and troubled doctors: What you need to know |url=https://www.latimes.com/california/story/2021-12-10/full-coverage-california-medical-board-and-troubled-doctors |access-date=September 24, 2024 |website=Los Angeles Times |language=en-US}}</ref> ==Mbiri yakwamba== [[File:Picture of Abraham Flexner.jpg|thumb|Abraham Flexner]] Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800, vyaudokotala ku America vikaŵavya wovwiri wa ndalama panji kulamulirika na boma.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Starr |first=Paul |date=1977 |title=Medicine, Economy and Society in Nineteenth-Century America |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3786770 |journal=Journal of Social History |volume=10 |issue=4 |pages=588–607 |doi=10.1353/jsh/10.4.588 |jstor=3786770 |issn=0022-4529|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Malango gha vyilolezgo vya ntchito yaudokotala gha maboma ghakaŵapo ghachoko waka,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Truex |first=Eleanor Shanklin |date=April 2014 |title=Medical Licensing and Discipline in America: A History of the Federation of State Medical Boards |journal=Journal of the Medical Library Association |volume=102 |issue=2 |pages=133–134 |doi=10.3163/1536-5050.102.2.019 |issn=1536-5050 |pmc=3988768}}</ref> ndipo nangauli ghakaŵapo, ghakagwiriskikanga ntchito mwankhongono yayi. Pakaŵa masukulu ghanandi ghaudokotala, ndipo lililose likaŵa na mtundu wake wa masambiro kweniso umampha wake. Mu 1904, [[American Medical Association]] (AMA) yikakhazikiska Council on Medical Education (CME),<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ama-assn.org/about-council-medical-education | title=About the Council on Medical Education | website=American Medical Association |access-date=February 20, 2017 | quote=Founded in 1904, the Council on Medical Education recommends educational policies to the AMA House of Delegates.}}</ref> iyo yikaŵa na chilato chakusintha masambiro ghaudokotala ku America. Pa ungano wake wakwamba wa chaka, CME yikazomerezga milingo yiŵiri: wakwamba ukaŵika masambiro ghakwambilira agho ghakakhumbikwanga kuti munthu wapokerereke mu sukulu yaudokotala; wachiŵiri ukalongosora kuti masambiro ghaudokotala ghakaŵa gha vyaka viŵiri vya kusambira [[anatomy]] na [[physiology]] ya thupi la munthu, kulondezgana na vyaka viŵiri vya ntchito ya kuchipatala mu [[teaching hospital]]. Mu fundo yake yose, khonsolo iyi yikakhumbanga kunozga umampha wa ŵasambiri ŵaudokotala mwa kukopa ŵasambiri ŵakusambira chomene kweniso ŵakufuma mu mbumba zakusambira.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Rockefeller Medicine Men: Medicine and Capitalism in America|url=https://archive.org/details/rockefellermedic0000eric|last=Brown|first=E. Richard|publisher=The Regents of the University of California|year=1979|isbn=978-0-520-04269-8|location=United States of America|pages=[https://archive.org/details/rockefellermedic0000eric/page/150 150]}}</ref> Mu 1908, pakukhumba kulutiska panthazi ndondomeko yake ya kusintha na kuchimbizga kujalika kwa masukulu agho ghakatondekanga kufiska milingo yake, CME yikapangana na [[Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching]] kuti yisande masambiro ghaudokotala gha ku America. [[Henry Pritchett]], pulezidenti wa Carnegie Foundation kweniso wakukhozga chomene kusintha kwa masukulu ghaudokotala, wakasankha [[Abraham Flexner]] kuti wachite kafukufuku uwu. Flexner wakaŵa dokotala yayi, musayansi yayi, ndipo wakaŵaso msambizgi waudokotala yayi. Wakaŵa na digiri ya [[Bachelor of Arts]] ndipo wakalongozganga [[for-profit school|sukulu ya malonda]] ku [[Louisville, Kentucky]].<ref name=Goodman_143>{{cite book|last1=Goodman|first1=John C.|last2=Musgrave|first2=Gerald L.|title=Patient power: Solving America's Health Care Crisis|year=1992|publisher=Cato Inst.|location=Washington, DC|isbn=978-0-932790-92-7|url=http://www.ncpa.org/pdfs/sp_pp_Part_II.pdf|pages=142–148|archive-date=May 24, 2010|access-date=March 22, 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100524132721/http://www.ncpa.org/pdfs/sp_pp_Part_II.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> Wakaluta ku masukulu ghose ghaudokotala 155 agho ghakaŵa kugwira ntchito pa nyengo iyo ku North America. Masukulu agha ghakasiyananga chomene pa mapulogiramu gha masambiro, nthowa za kuyezgera ŵasambiri, kweniso ivyo vikakhumbikwanga kuti munthu wapokerereke panji wamalizge masambiro. Pakufiska kafukufuku wake, wakalemba kuti:<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cooke |first1=Molly |last2=Irby |first2=David M. |last3=Sullivan |first3=William |last4=Ludmerer |first4=Kenneth M. |author-link4=Kenneth Ludmerer |title=American Medical Education 100 Years after the Flexner Report |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_new-england-journal-of-medicine_2006-09-28_355_13/page/1339 |journal=New England Journal of Medicine |date=September 28, 2006 |volume=355 |issue=13 |pages=1339–1344 |doi=10.1056/NEJMra055445 |pmid=17005951}}</ref> {{cquote | quote = "Each day students were subjected to interminable lectures and recitations. After a long morning of dissection or a series of quiz sections, they might sit wearily in the afternoon through three or four or even five lectures delivered in methodical fashion by part-time teachers. Evenings were given over to reading and preparation for recitations." }} Lipoti ili likamanyikwa chomene chifukwa cha mazgu ghake ghankhongono ghakususka masukulu ghanyake. Mwachiyelezgero, Flexner wakalongosora masukulu ghaudokotala 14 gha ku Chicago kuti "ngakukhozga soni ku Boma ilo malango ghake ghakuzomerezga kuti ghalutilire kuŵapo ... ngakufipiskira chomene ... ni suzgo likuru la charu." <ref name=":5" /> Nangauli vikaŵa nthena, masukulu ghanyake ghakatumbikika chifukwa cha ntchito yawo yiwemi, kusazgapo [[Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine|Western Reserve]] (sono ''Case'' Western Reserve), [[Michigan Medicine|Michigan]], [[Wake Forest School of Medicine|Wake Forest]], [[McGill University Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences|McGill]], [[University of Toronto Faculty of Medicine|Toronto]], ndipo chomene [[Johns Hopkins School of Medicine|Johns Hopkins]], ilo likalongosoreka kuti ni "chiyelezgero cha masambiro ghaudokotala."<ref>Raffel MN, Raffel NK. ''The US Health System: Origins and Functions''. 4th ed. Albany, NY: Delmar Publishers; 1994:11.</ref> Pamanyuma pake, lipoti ili likabweriska vyakuchitika vinandi ivyo vikaghanaghanirikanga yayi, ndipo vinyake mwa ivyo vikabwera chifukwa cha lipoti ili vichali kuwoneka mu vyaudokotala vya ku America mpaka lero. Magulu gha ŵanthu nga ni ŵa ku Africa-America na ŵanakazi ghakasangana na mwaŵi uchoko chifukwa cha kufumiskika kwa ''Flexner Report''.<ref name=":2" /> Kweniso, masukulu ghanandi gha [[alternative medicine]] na [[Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine|osteopathic medicine]] ghakajalika chifukwa cha lipoti ili.<ref name=":3" /> == Vyakusintha ivyo vikakhumbikwanga == Kuti kovwire pa kusintha ndiposo kusintha maghanoghano gha madokotala na ŵasayansi ŵanyake, [[John D. Rockefeller]] wakapeleka ndalama zinandi chomene ku makoleji na vipatala, ndipo wakambiska bungwe la vyawanangwa lakucemeka [[General Education Board]] (GEB).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://resource.rockarch.org/story/the-general-education-board-1903-1964/|title=“Without Distinction of Race, Sex, or Creed”: The General Education Board, 1903-1964, Rockefeller Archive Center|website=resource.rockarch.org|access-date=May 27, 2026}}</ref> Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800, vikaŵa vyakusuzga yayi kusambira vya munkhwala pera yayi, kweniso kukhazikiska sukulu ya munkhwala. Apo Flexner wakachitanga kafukufuku wake, masukulu ghanandi gha munkhwala ku United States ghakaŵa masukulu ghachoko gha ŵanthu ŵekha agho ghakasambizganga ntchito, ndipo ghakaŵa gha dokotala yumoza panji ŵanandi. Masukulu agha ghakaŵavya kukolerana na koleji panji yunivesite ndipo ghakendeskekanga kuti ghapange phindu. Digiri yikapelekekanga para munthu wasambira vyaka viŵiri pera, ndipo ntchito za mu [[Labotale]] na [[Kusekenura thupi]] zikaŵa zakusankha waka. Ŵasambizgi ŵanandi ŵakaŵa madokotala gha mu malo agho ŵakasambizganga nyengo yichoko waka. Pakaŵavya maprofesa ŵanandi ŵakugwira ntchito nyengo yose awo ŵakajipelekanga ku masambiro gha munkhwala. Masukulu gha munkhwala ghakapokeranga yayi ndalama za boma, ndipo ndalama zawo zikafumanga waka ku malipiro gha ŵasambiri. Maboma gha vigaŵa ghakaŵa na malango ghachoko chomene panji ghakaŵavya pakuwoneseska ntchito ya udokotala. Madokotala gha ku America ghakasiyananga chomene pa kumanya kwawo vya [[Kayendeskero ka thupi la munthu]], ndipo lizgu lakuti [[Wudokotala wautesi|quack]] likagwiriskikanga ntchito kanandi. Flexner wakasanda mwakupwelelera umo vinthu vikaŵiranga. Pakugwiliskira ntchito [[Sukulu ya Munkhwala ya Johns Hopkins]] nga ni chiyelezgero cha sukulu yiwemi chomene ya munkhwala,<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20070514010030/http://www.unmc.edu/Community/ruralmeded/flexner.htm UNMC's ''Flexner's Impact on American Medicine''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070514010030/http://www.unmc.edu/Community/ruralmeded/flexner.htm |date=May 14, 2007 }}</ref> wakapeleka ulongozgi uwu:<ref name=Barzansky1992 /> # Kuchepeska unandi wa masukulu gha munkhwala (kufuma pa 155 kufika pa 31), kweniso kuchepeska unandi wa madokotala awo ŵakasambizgika makora yayi; # Kusazgirako ivyo munthu wakwenera kuŵa navyo pambere wandanjire mu [[Masambiro ghakwambilira gha munkhwala]]; # Kusambizga madokotala kugwiliskira ntchito [[Nthowa ya sayansi]] ndiposo kuchiska ŵasambizgi ŵa munkhwala kuchita kafukufuku; # Kupeleka masukulu gha munkhwala mazaza ghakwendeska masambiro gha kuchipatala mu vipatala; # Kulemba ntchito ŵasambizgi ŵakusambizgika makora awo ŵagwirenge ntchito nyengo yose pa masambiro gha munkhwala; # Kusazgirako ndalama zakovwilira masukulu gha munkhwala; # Kukhozga malango gha maboma gha vigaŵa pa kupereka layisensi ya udokotala. Flexner wakalemba kuti wakawonanga Johns Hopkins nga ni "sukulu yichoko kweni yakufikapo ya munkhwala, iyo yikaphatikizga mu nthowa yiphya yakukolerana na umo vinthu vikaŵiranga ku America, makhaliro ghawemi chomene gha masambiro gha munkhwala ku England, France na Germany." Kwa Flexner, Johns Hopkins wakaphatikizga miyezgo yapachanya ya masambiro gha munkhwala gha ku Germany, apo wakasunganga mwambo wa ku America wakuchindika chomene ŵalwari na madokotala.<ref name=":4" /> Pakukhumba kuti Johns Hopkins yiŵe chiyelezgero icho masukulu ghanyake ghose gha munkhwala ku United States ghawoneskerenge, Flexner wakafika pakuyowoya kuti masukulu ghanyake ghose ghakaŵa pasi pa "malo ghakuwala ghekha."<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://soilandhealth.org/wp-content/uploads/0303critic/030312brown/brown4.htm|title=Brown: Chapter 4 - Reforming Medical Education: Who Will Rule Medicine?|last=Bonner|first=Thomas|date=February 1998|website=soilandhealth.org|access-date=March 1, 2017}}</ref> Padera pa [[Sukulu ya Munkhwala ya Johns Hopkins]], Flexner wakawonaso kuti [[Sukulu ya Munkhwala ya Harvard]], [[Sukulu ya Munkhwala ya Yunivesite ya Michigan]], na [[Sukulu ya Munkhwala ya Perelman pa Yunivesite ya Pennsylvania]] ghakaŵa masukulu ghawemi. Wakati masukulu agho ghakafikanga yayi pa miyezgo iyi ghakeneranga kusintha nthowa yawo yakusambizgira munkhwala panji kujara. Flexner wakagomezgaso kuti kuti munthu wapokereke mu sukulu ya munkhwala wakeneranga kuŵa na satifiketi ya [[Sukulu ya Sekondale]] ndiposo vyaka viŵiri vya masambiro gha ku koleji panji yunivesite, chomenechomene mu [[Sayansi yakwamba]]. Apo wakachitanga kafukufuku wake, masukulu 16 pera pa 155 gha munkhwala ku United States na Canada ndigho ghakakhumbanga kuti awo ŵakulemba ŵaŵe kuti ŵamalizga vyaka viŵiri panji vyakuluska pa yunivesite.<ref name="Flexner_28">{{Harvnb|Flexner|Pritchett|1910|pp=28}}</ref> Kufika mu 1920, masukulu 92 pa 100 gha munkhwala ku United States ghakakhumbanga kale fundo iyi. Flexner wakayowoyaso kuti masambiro gha munkhwala ghakwenera kuŵa gha vyaka vinayi, ndipo ivyo vikusambizgika viŵe ivyo CME yikazomerezga mu 1905. Wakapangiska kuti masukulu gha munkhwala gha ŵanthu ŵekha ghatsekeke panji ghasazgikemo mu mayunivesite agho ghakalipo. Wakayowoyaso kuti sukulu ya munkhwala yikwenera kuŵa yimoza mwa masukulu gha yunivesite yikuru chifukwa sukulu yakuyimira payekha yikeneranga kulipiska ndalama zinandi chomene kuti yikhalilire. Chinthu chinyake icho ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuchimanya yayi ni ulongozgi wa Flexner wakuti masukulu gha munkhwala ghakwenera kulemba ntchito maprofesa ŵa vya kuchipatala awo ŵagwirenge ntchito nyengo yose. Pakachitikanga kafukufuku wake, wakawona kuti pakaŵa kusoŵa kwa maprofesa ŵakujipeleka ku ntchito nyengo yose. Wakati masambiro gha munkhwala gha ku America ghakakhumbikwiranga maprofesa ŵakujipeleka kuti ŵasambizge mibadwo yakulondezgapo ya madokotala. Ŵeneawo ŵapikenge maudindo agha ŵaŵenge "ŵasambizgi ŵanadi ŵa yunivesite, ŵakugegeka ku ntchito zinyake zose kupatulako ntchito ya chawanangwa, chifukwa cha kusambizga."<ref name=":5" /> Flexner wakalutilira kulimbikira fundo iyi kwa vyaka vinandi, nangauli ŵasambizgi ŵanandi ŵa munkhwala ŵakasuskanga. Flexner wakaŵa mwana wa ŵanthu ŵakafuma ku Germany ndipo wakasambira na kwenda chomene ku Europe. Wakamanyanga makora kuti munthu wangachita yayi ntchito ya udokotala mu vyaru vinandi vya ku Europe kwambura kusambira pa yunivesite mu nthambi yapadera kwa nyengo yitali. Vinthu vinandi vya masambiro gha munkhwala gha ku Germany vikamukondweskanga Flexner, pamoza na ŵasambizgi na madokotala ŵanyake awo ŵakalutanga ku Germany, nga ni miyezgo ya charu yose ya ŵasambiri na mayunivesite, wanangwa wa masambiro, ndiposo kukhumbikwira kusambira mwapadera para munthu wamara digiri.<ref name=":4">{{Cite web |title=German influences on U.S. surgery and the founding of the ACS |url=https://www.facs.org/for-medical-professionals/news-publications/news-and-articles/bulletin/2020/07/german-influences-on-u-s-surgery-and-the-founding-of-the-acs/ |access-date=April 23, 2024 |website=ACS }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Duffy |first=Thomas P. |date=September 2011 |title=The Flexner Report ― 100 Years Later |journal=The Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine |volume=84 |issue=3 |pages=269–276 |issn=0044-0086 |pmc=3178858 |pmid=21966046}}</ref> Kweniso, madokotala ŵanandi awo ŵakalutanga ku Europe kukasambira para ŵamaliska digiri ŵakakondwanga na umo Germany yikajipelekera ku [[Kafukufuku]], kupanga vinthu viphya, ndiposo kusambizga.<ref name=":4" /> Mwantheura, Flexner wakakhumbanga kuti masambiro gha munkhwala gha ku America ghakolerane na umo vinthu vikachitikira mu vyaru vya ku Europe. Pa nyengo yikuru, masukulu gha munkhwala ku Canada na United States ghakalondezga ulongozgi unandi wa Flexner. Ndipouli, ghakusazgirapo chomene sono kusambizga nkhani za [[Umoyo wa ŵanthu]]. === Kukhozga malango gha boma pa nkhani ya malayisensi gha ŵakuchita vya munkhwala === Mutu 11 wa ''Flexner Report'', wakuti "The State Boards," ukulongosora mwaukali chomene umo vinthu vikaŵira pa nkhani ya malango gha vya munkhwala mu nyengo iyo, chomenechomene pa kuleka kugwira ntchito makora na kusiyana kwa makhaliro gha mabodi gha vya munkhwala gha maboma gha vigaŵa. Flexner wakalongosora ntchito yakuzirwa iyo mabodi agha ghakeneranga kuchita pakusunga miyezo ya masambiro gha vya munkhwala, kweniso pa nkhani za malango na makhaliro, kweni wakayowoya kuti mabodi agha ghakafipiska ntchito iyi chomene. <blockquote>"Mu 1906, sukulu yiheni chomene mu Chicago—sukulu iyo yikaŵavya chakwamba chakukhumbikwa kuti munthu wasambirepo, yikaŵavya masambiro gha mu ma laboratory, ndipo yikaŵavya ubwezi na vipatala—yikapanga mbiri yiwemi chomene pa mabodi gha boma kuluska sukulu yiliyose ya Chicago mu chaka icho. Sukulu iyi, iyo yili pafupifupi yakuyana waka na iyo yikaŵa kale, sono pera ndiyo yalengeka kuti "yili mu malo ghawemi yayi" na boma la Illinois. Kulikose mu Canada na United States, mabungwe ghambura ntchito ghakukana chizunguziro chifukwa ghakulongora kuti ghakachita makora pa mayeso gha mabodi gha boma."<ref name=":5" /></blockquote> Ndondomeko yakukonzaso ya Flexner, iyo yikalata kuti yikwezge masambiro gha vya munkhwala mu United States, yikathemba chomene pa mabodi gha vya munkhwala gha boma kuti ghaŵe ŵalinda ŵakugomezgeka ŵa ntchito iyi. Wakakosera kuti mabodi gha boma ghakeneranga kuwona mwakukhwima kuti ŵekha awo ŵamalizga masambiro ghakwenelera na ghakuyana mu miyezo ndiwo ŵanjire mu ntchito ya vya munkhwala. Kwaku nkhani ya malango, mabodi gha boma ghakeneranga kuŵa na mazaza gha kupereka malayisensi kwa ŵakuchita vya munkhwala, ndipo ku nkhani ya makhaliro, ghakeneranga kusunga uchindami wa ntchito iyi mwa kukhazikiska na kulondezga miyezo iyi. <blockquote>"Nkhongono iyo yikuzomerezga diploma pamoza na layisensi yake yikwenera kuŵa na nkhongono yakuvikilira ivyo yikupereka ku chinthu chilichose icho chingachizgora kuŵa chakuchepa mtengo panji kuphwanya."<ref name=":5" /> </blockquote> Kweni, lipoti la Flexner likususka uheni wa vimbundi na kusoŵa kwa umo mabodi gha boma ghakuyana, ivyo vikazomerezga masukulu gha vya munkhwala agho ghakaŵa pasi pa miyezo kulutilira kugwira ntchito. Kanandi mabodi agha ghakaŵa pasi pa nkhongono za ndyali m’malo mwa fundo za masambiro panji za ntchito, ndipo ichi chikapangiska kuti malango gha malayisensi ghalondezgeke mwakusiyana. Madera ghanyake ghakasunga miyezo yapachanya, kweni ghanyake ghakazomerezga pafupifupi munthu waliyose uyo wakaŵa na masambiro ghachoko waka kuti wachite vya munkhwala. <blockquote>"Mu maboma ghanandi, kusankhika kwa ŵanthu mu maudindo kukuwoneka nga ni mphotho za ndyali; kanandi ŵasambizgi ŵakuŵavya mwaŵi wakusankhika. Ntheura, vikuchitika kuti mabodi agha nyengo zinyake ghakuŵa ghambura nkhongono, ndipo panji ghakukhumba yayi kususkana na masukulu panji ghakuŵavya mazaza gha malango kuti ghachite nthena; nyengo zinyake ghakuŵa na mtima uwemi kweni ghakuŵavya luso; ndipo mu vinyake ghakuŵa ghambura kulopwa yayi nanga ni ghambura mtima uwemi, kweni ghakuŵa ghakuchenjera, ghankhongono, ndiposo ghakukolerana chomene na vyakukhumba vyawo na vyakupweteka vya ndyali."<ref name=":5" /> </blockquote> Flexner wakadandawura kuti ndondomeko yakupambana-pambana iyi ya malango yikapweteka mboniwoni yake ya ntchito ya vya munkhwala iyo yikaŵa yakukolerana, yasayansi, ndiposo yakulondezga makhaliro ghawemi mu United States yose. Ndondomeko yake yikathemba pa mabodi agha kuti ghachite nga ni ŵalinda ŵa makhaliro ghawemi kuti ŵavikilire umoyo na chivikiliro cha ŵanthu, kweni kuleka kwa mabodi agha kufiska ntchito yawo kukalongoreka kuti nkhani yikuru iyo yikatondeska kukwaniska kukonzaso kwakukwana. ==Ivyo lipoti ili likapangiska== Vinthu vinandi mu ntchito ya vya munkhwala mu North America vikasinthika pamanyuma pa ''Flexner Report''. Masambiro gha vya munkhwala ghakamba kulondezga chomene nthowa ya sayansi ndipo ghakakhazikika pa umo thupi la munthu likugwirira ntchito na [[biochemistry|sayansi ya makemikhali gha mu thupi]]. Kafukufuku wa vya munkhwala wakayamba kukolerana chomene na malango gha kafukufuku wa sayansi.<ref name="Beck2004">{{cite journal|last=Beck|first=Andrew H.|title=The Flexner report and the standardization of American medical education.|journal=The Journal of the American Medical Association|date=May 5, 2004|volume=291|issue=17|pages=2139–40|doi=10.1001/jama.291.17.2139|pmid=15126445|url=https://www.cosbyig.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/11/Flexner-report.pdf|access-date=November 24, 2012}}</ref> Luso la ŵakuchita vya munkhwala pa avareji likakwera chomene.<ref name="Barzansky1992">{{cite book|last=Barzansky|first=Barbara|title=Beyond Flexner: Medical Education in the Twentieth Century|year=1992|publisher=Greenwood Press|location=New York|isbn=978-0313259845|edition=1. publ.|author2=Gevitz, Norman |author-link2=Norman Gevitz }}</ref> ===Kujalika kwa masukulu gha vya munkhwala=== Flexner wakakhumba kusintha vyakukhumbikwa pakupokera ŵasambiri mu masukulu gha vya munkhwala kweniso kukweza ubali wa masambiro gha vya munkhwala. Wakawona kuti masukulu ghanandi gha vya munkhwala ghakaŵa na vyakukhumbikwa vyakukwana yayi pakupokera ŵasambiri ndiposo ghakaŵavya masambiro ghakukwana. Ntheura, Flexner wakakhumba kuchepeska unandi wa masukulu gha vya munkhwala mu United States.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Patel |first1=Kant |last2=Rushefsky |first2=Mark E. |title=The Politics of Public Health in the United States |date=2004 |publisher=M.E. Sharpe |isbn=9780765636454 |page=90 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=symnYJlBtewC&pg=PA90 }}</ref> Sukulu zinandi za ku America izo zikaperekanga madigiri gha [[Doctor of Medicine|MD]] panji [[Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine|DO]] pa nyengo ya ''Report'' (1910) zikajara mu vyaka pafupifupi makumi ghaŵiri panji makumi ghatatu. (Mu Canada, sukulu ya vya munkhwala pera ku [[University of Western Ontario|Western University]] ndiyo yikawoneka kuti yikaŵa yakukwana yayi, kweni yikajara yayi panji kusazgikana na sukulu yinyake pamanyuma pa ''Report''.) Mu 1904, pambere ''Report'' yindafike, mukaŵa mabungwe 160 agho ghakaperekanga MD ndipo ghakaŵa na ŵasambiri ŵakujumpha 28,000. Mu 1920, pamanyuma pa ''Report'', pakaŵa mabungwe 85 pera agho ghakaperekanga MD, ndipo ghakasambizganga ŵasambiri 13,800 pera. Mu 1935, pakaŵa masukulu gha vya munkhwala 66 pera agho ghakaŵa ghakugwira ntchito mu United States. Pakati pa 1910 na 1935, kupitirira hafu ya masukulu ghose gha vya munkhwala gha ku America ghakasazgikana panji ghakajara. Kutsika kukuru uku kukaŵa chifukwa mu chigaŵa chinyake cha kukhazikiska ivyo ''Report'' yikayowoya kuti masukulu ghose gha [[For-profit education|"proprietary" schools|masukulu gha vyamalonda]] ghakeneranga kujara ndipo masukulu gha vya munkhwala ghakeneranga kulumikizgika na mayunivesite. Pa masukulu 66 agho ghakakhalapo mu 1935 ndipo ghakaperekanga madigiri gha MD, 57 ghakaŵa gha mayunivesite. Chinthu chakuzirwa icho chikapangiska kuti masukulu gha vya munkhwala ghakasazgike panji ghajare chikaŵa malango gha chalo chose na kulondezga miyezo ya masukulu gha vya munkhwala: mabodi ghose gha vya munkhwala gha boma ghakamba pachoko-pachoko kulondezga na kukhazikiska ivyo ''Report'' yikapempha. Chifukwa cha ''Flexner'' ''Report'', masukulu ghanyake ghakachimbizga ŵasambizgi ŵakukalamba chomene nga ni chigaŵa cha ndondomeko ya kusintha na kuphya.<ref>{{cite journal|last=McAlister|first=Vivian|author2=Claydon, Emily|title=The Life of John Wishart (1850–1926): Study of an Academic Surgical Career Prior to the Flexner Report|journal=World Journal of Surgery|year=2012|pages=684–8|url=https://tspace.library.utoronto.ca/handle/1807/32172|doi=10.1007/s00268-011-1407-x|pmid=22270978|pmc=3279636|volume=36|issue=3}}</ref> ===Ivyo vikapangiska pa udindo wa dokotala=== Mboniwoni ya masambiro gha vya munkhwala iyo yikulongosoreka mu ''Flexner Report'' yikapangiska masukulu gha vya munkhwala kuŵika mtima chomene pa matenda, kuleka kuŵa na chidwi chikuru pa ndondomeko ya vya chipharo panji umoyo wa ŵanthu wose padera pa matenda. [[Preventive healthcare|Kuvikilira matenda pambere ghandambe]] na [[population health|umoyo wa ŵanthu wose]] vikaŵa yayi nga ni mulimo wa madokotala, ndipo ichi chikagaŵa mazgu ghakuti "umoyo" mu vigaŵa viŵiri vyakupambana: [[Medicine|mankhwala gha sayansi]] na [[umoyo wa ŵanthu]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ludmerer, Kenneth M. |url=https://archive.org/details/timetohealameric0000ludm |title=Time to heal: American medical education from the turn of the century |date=2005 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=0-19-518136-0 |oclc=57282902 |url-access=registration}}</ref> ===Ivyo vikapangiska pa madokotala na ŵalwari ŵa ku Africa-America=== ''Flexner Report'' yikususkika chifukwa cha kwambiska ndondomeko izo zikakhozga [[systemic racism|sankho lakukhazikika mu ndondomeko za wupu]].<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /><ref>{{Cite web |date=April 4, 2022 |title=Listen: How one 1910 report curtailed Black medical education for over a century |url=https://www.statnews.com/2022/04/04/color-code-flexner-report-curtailed-black-medical-education/ |access-date=May 1, 2022 |website=STAT }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Cryts |first=Aine |date=June 15, 2021 |title=AMA Acknowledges Past Med Education Racism, Vows Better Future |url=http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/953120 |access-date=May 1, 2022 |website=Medscape }}</ref> Flexner wakakhozgera kuti masukulu gha vya munkhwala ghose gha ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yinyake gha [[historically Black colleges and universities|ŵanthu ŵafipa mu mdauko]] ghajare padera pa ghaŵiri pera. Chifukwa cha ichi, pakaŵa pera [[Howard University College of Medicine]] na [[Meharry Medical College]] agho ghakalutilira kuŵa ghakujura, apo masukulu ghanyake ghankhondi ghakajara. Flexner wakalongora maghanoghano ghake ghakuti madokotala ŵa fipa ŵakeneranga kulapa ŵalwari ŵa fipa pera ndipo ŵakeneranga kuŵa na maudindo ghapasi kuluska madokotala ŵazungu. Flexner wakakhozga fundo yakuti ŵasambiri ŵa vya munkhwala ŵa ku Africa-America ŵakeneranga kusambizgika pa "ukhondo kuluska opaleshoni" ndipo ŵagwire ntchito nga ni "ŵakuvikilira ukhondo," na mulimo ukuru wa kuvikilira ŵanthu ŵazungu ku matenda.<ref name=":6">{{Cite news |date=January 22, 2024 |title=Opinion {{!}} How tens of thousands of Black U.S. doctors simply vanished |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/2024/01/22/uche-blackstock-legacy-black-doctors/ |access-date=April 23, 2024 |newspaper=Washington Post }}</ref> Flexner wakalemba mu ''Report'':<ref name=":5" /> {{Blockquote|quote = "Munthu wa fipa uyo wasambizgika makora vya ukhondo wazamuŵa wakovwira chomene; kweni munthu wa fipa uyo wandasambire makora kweni wavwara digiri ya M.D. ni wakofya."}} Kweniso, pamoza na kulondezga kwake [[germ theory of disease|chiphunzitso cha tizirombo uto tukupangiska matenda]], Flexner wakayowoya kuti, usange ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa-America ŵandapokere masambiro ghakwenelera na wovwiri wakwenelera, ŵangaŵa chakofya ku umoyo wa ŵazungu ŵa pakati na ŵa pachanya.<ref name="medicine.missouri.edu">{{cite book|title=Black Physicians and Black Hospitals|url=http://medicine.missouri.edu/ophthalmology/uploads/ch06.pdf|page=24|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161002104238/http://medicine.missouri.edu/ophthalmology/uploads/ch06.pdf|archive-date=October 2, 2016}}</ref> Flexner wakayowoya kuti madokotala ŵa ku Africa-America ŵakeneranga kusambizgika kuti ŵakanizge kufalikira kwa matenda pakati pa ŵa ku Africa-America kweniso kuvikilira ŵazungu kuti ŵaleke kutapukira na matenda agha.<ref name=":5" /> {{Blockquote|quote = "Mulimo wa dokotala wa fipa uzamukhala wakukanizgika ku mtundu wake pera, uwo nawo uzamupokera chivikiliro chiwemi chomene kufuma ku madokotala ŵa fipa ŵawemi kuluska kufuma ku madokotala ŵazungu ŵambura luso. Kweni umoyo wa thupi wa munthu wa fipa ngwakuzirwa yayi kwa munthu wa fipa pera. Mamiliyoni khumi gha iwo ghakukhala pafupi na mamiliyoni makumi ghankhondi na limoza gha ŵazungu. Sikuti munthu wa fipa yekha ndiyo wakutambuzgika na mphutsi za hookworm na TB; iyo wakuphalira matenda agha kwa ŵazengezgani ŵake ŵazungu, nga umo munthu mzungu wambura mahara na wakukhumudwa nayo wangamutapurira. Kujivikilira kweniso uwemi wa mtima vikupereka ulongozgi wakuzirwa pa nkhani iyi; ''kujikhumbira kwawemi kukukolerana na lusungu''. Munthu wa fipa wakwenera kusambizgika chifukwa cha iyo pera yayi, kweni chifukwa cha ise. Iyo, mwakuyana na umo jiso la munthu lingawona, ni chigaŵa chakukhalilira mu mtundu uwu wa charu." <ref name="medicine.missouri.edu"/>}} Ivyo Flexner wakasanga vikachepeskaso mwaŵi wa madokotala ŵa ku Africa-America mu ntchito ya vya munkhwala. Nanga ni masukulu gha Howard na Meharry ghakasuzgika kuti ghalutilire kuŵa ghakujura pamanyuma pa ''Flexner Report'', chifukwa ghakeneranga kukwaniska vyakukhumbikwa vya mabungwe nga ni masukulu gha vya munkhwala gha ŵazungu, ivyo vikulongora kupambana pa mwaŵi wakusanga wovwiri wa vya munkhwala pakati pa ŵazungu na ŵa ku Africa-America. Pamanyuma pa ''Flexner Report'', ŵasambiri ŵa ku Africa-America ŵakasuzga mayunivesite mu makhoti, kupikisana na fundo iyo yikaŵa yakukhazikika mu [[Plessy v. Ferguson]]. Kweni ŵasambiri aŵa ŵakasangana na kukanizgika kufuma ku masukulu agho ghakalutilira kukhozgera [[racial segregation|kugaŵikana kwa mitundu]] mu masambiro gha vya munkhwala. Pakati pajumpha vyaka 15 kufuma pa [[Brown v. Board of Education]] mu 1954, ndipo apo [[Association of American Medical Colleges|AAMC]] yikamba kusimikizga mwaŵi wa masambiro gha vya munkhwala kwa ŵa ku Africa-America na ŵa mitundu yinyake mwa kukhozgera kusazgikana kwa masukulu gha vya munkhwala.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Steinecke |first1=Ann |last2=Terrell |first2=Charles |date=February 2010 |title=Progress for Whose Future? The Impact of the Flexner Report on Medical Education for Racial and Ethnic Minority Physicians in the United States |journal=Academic Medicine |volume=85 |issue=2 |pages=236–245 |doi=10.1097/ACM.0b013e3181c885be |issn=1040-2446 |pmid=20107348 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Kujalika kwa masukulu ghankhondi, kweniso unenesko wakuti ŵasambiri ŵa fipa ŵakazomerezgekanga yayi mu masukulu ghanandi gha vya munkhwala gha ku U.S. kwa vyaka 50 pamanyuma pa ''Flexner Report'', vyawovwira pa unandi uchoko wa madokotala ŵa mitundu yakupambana awo ŵababika mu America, chifukwa masuzgo agha ghachali kuwoneka nanga ni pamanyuma pa vyaka vyakujumpha 100.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sullivan |first1=Louis W. |last2=Suez Mittman |first2=Ilana |date=February 2010 |title=The State of Diversity in the Health Professions a Century After Flexner |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_academic-medicine_2010-02_85_2/page/246 |journal=Academic Medicine |volume=85 |issue=2 |pages=246–253 |doi=10.1097/ACM.0b013e3181c88145 |pmid=20107349 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Makumi gha masauzandi gha madokotala ŵa ku Africa-America ghakazimiririka chifukwa cha ''Flexner Report''.<ref name=":6" /> Kuyana na [[Census|kalembera wa ŵanthu wa chalo]], madokotala ŵakufuma mu magulu gha ŵanthu ŵachoko, kusazgapo ŵa ku Africa-America, ŵachalutilira kuŵa ŵakuyimiririka pachoko mu ntchito ya vya munkhwala.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Morris |first1=Devin B. |last2=Gruppuso |first2=Philip A. |last3=McGee |first3=Heather A. |last4=Murillo |first4=Anarina L. |last5=Grover |first5=Atul |last6=Adashi |first6=Eli Y. |date=April 29, 2021 |title=Diversity of the National Medical Student Body — Four Decades of Inequities |url=http://www.nejm.org/doi/10.1056/NEJMsr2028487 |journal=New England Journal of Medicine |volume=384 |issue=17 |pages=1661–1668 |doi=10.1056/NEJMsr2028487 |pmid=33913645 |issn=0028-4793}}</ref> Chifukwa cha malemba gha sankho gha mu ''Flexner Report'', AAMC yikasankha kusintha zina la chawanangwa chakuzirwa cha Abraham Flexner mu 2020.<ref name=":2" /> David Acosta, M.D., mulara wa vya kusazgikana na kulondezga mwaŵi wa AAMC, wakayowoya kuti, "Tikwenera yayi kusulako mdauko wa sankho mu vya munkhwala ndipo tikwenera kuchita chilichose icho tingakwaniska kuti tiwovwire pakunozga vinthu para mdauko uwu wasangika."<ref name=":2" /> Kweni maghanoghano ghakuti Flexner na ''Report'' yake vikapweteka masukulu gha vya munkhwala gha ŵanthu ŵa fipa ghakususkika na [[Thomas N. Bonner]], uyo wakayowoya kuti Flexner wakagwira ntchito yakuvikilira masukulu ghaŵiri gha vya munkhwala gha ŵanthu ŵa fipa agho ghakasambizganga madokotala ghanandi gha fipa pa nyengo iyo.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Searching for Abraham|journal=Academic Medicine |date=February 1998 |volume=73 |issue=2 |url=https://journals.lww.com/academicmedicine/Abstract/1998/02000/Searching_for_Abraham_Flexner.14.aspx|access-date=August 13, 2022 |last1=Bonner |first1=T. N. |pages=160–166 |doi=10.1097/00001888-199802000-00014 |pmid=9484189 |url-access=subscription }}</ref> ===Ivyo vikapangiska pa ŵanakazi=== ''Flexner Report'' yikususkikaso chifukwa cha kwambiska ndondomeko izo zikakhozga sankho la kugonana,<ref name=":2" /> ivyo vikapangiska kuti "ŵanakazi pafupi kumara mu gulu la madokotala pakati pa 1910 na 1970."<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Barkin |first1=Shari L. |last2=Fuentes-Afflick |first2=Elena |last3=Brosco |first3=Jeffrey P. |last4=Tuchman |first4=Arleen M. |date=December 1, 2010 |title=Unintended Consequences of the Flexner Report: Women in Pediatrics |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1542/peds.2010-2050 |journal=Pediatrics |volume=126 |issue=6 |pages=1055–1057 |doi=10.1542/peds.2010-2050 |pmid=21059716 |issn=0031-4005|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Pambere ''Flexner Report'' yindalembeke, mu chigaŵa cha pakati na kuumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1800, mayunivesite ghakaŵa kwamba waka kujura na kusazgirako kupokera ŵanakazi nga ni chigaŵa cha masukulu gha ŵanakazi na masukulu gha ŵanalume na ŵanakazi pamoza, pamoza na kukhazikiska kwa [[co-education|masambiro gha ŵanalume na ŵanakazi pamoza]] pa [[Oberlin College]] mu 1833 kweniso masukulu ghapadera gha ŵanakazi pera nga ni [[Vassar College]] na [[Pembroke College (Brown University)|Pembroke College]]. Kweniso, ŵanakazi ŵanandi ŵakajura masukulu ghawo gha vya munkhwala gha ŵanakazi chifukwa masukulu ghanyake gha vya munkhwala ghakakananga kuŵapokera. Mu ''Report'', Flexner wakazunura kuti mukaŵa ŵanakazi ŵachoko mu masambiro gha vya munkhwala.<ref name=":5" /> Flexner wakagomezganga kuti unandi uchoko wa ŵasambiri ŵanakazi ŵa vya munkhwala na madokotala ŵanakazi ukaŵa chifukwa cha kusoŵa kwa mwaŵi yayi, chifukwa iyo wakawonanga kuti mukaŵa mwaŵi wakukwana kuti ŵanakazi ŵasambire vya munkhwala. Ntheura, wakagomezganga kuti unandi uchoko uwu ukaŵa chifukwa cha khumbo lakusazgikira yayi na chizolowezi chakuŵa na khumbo lakuŵa mu sukulu ya vya munkhwala.<ref name=":5" /> {{Blockquote|quote = “Sono pakuti ŵanakazi ŵakuzomerezgeka mwawanangwa mu ntchito ya vya munkhwala, vikuwoneka kuti ŵakulondezga mwakuchepa khumbo lakunjira mu ntchito iyi. Masukulu ghanandi mu vigaŵa vyose ghali kujulika kwa iwo; ŵachoko waka ŵakuluta ndipo ŵachoko waka ŵakumalizga.”}} {{Blockquote|quote = “Sono pakuti ŵanakazi ŵakuzomerezgeka mwawanangwa mu ntchito ya vya munkhwala, vikuwoneka kuti ŵakulondezga mwakuchepa khumbo lakunjira mu ntchito iyi. Masukulu ghanandi mu vigaŵa vyose ghali kujulika kwa iwo; ŵachoko waka ŵakuluta ndipo ŵachoko waka ŵakumalizga.”}} Flexner wakakhozgeraso chomene udindo wapadera wa ŵanakazi mu vya munkhwala mu ''Report'', pakuyowoya kuti "[w]anakazi ŵali na mulimo wakuwonekera chomene mu vigaŵa vinyake vya vya munkhwala".<ref name=":5"/> Apo ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakagomezganga kuti ŵanakazi ŵakaŵa ŵakuyana na ŵanalume pa vinjeru ndipo ŵangaŵa na luso mu ntchito yiliyose, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakaghanaghananga kuti ŵanakazi mwakawiro ŵali na mtima wa kupwelelera na chitemwa, ndipo usange ŵangasankha ntchito ya vya munkhwala, ŵakeneranga kuchita mu vya umoyo wa ŵana, umoyo wa pa ntchito, panji umoyo wa amama.<ref name=":7" /> Mazuŵa ghano, ŵanthu ŵakughanaghana kuti ''Report'' yingaŵa chinthu chinyake icho chikakhozgera madokotala ŵanakazi kusankha mwapadera vya [[pediatrics|umoyo wa ŵana]], [[obstetrics|ubali wa kubaba ŵana]], na [[gynecology|matenda gha ŵanakazi]] m’malo mwa vigaŵa vinyake vya vya munkhwala.<ref name=":7" /> ===Ivyo vikapangiska pa munkhwala wakupambana=== Pa nyengo iyo Flexner wakachitanga kafukufuku wa lipoti lake, "mankhwala gha mazuŵa ghano" ghakasangana na kupikisana kukuru kufuma ku vigaŵa vinandi, kusazgapo [[Osteopathic medicine in the United States|mankhwala gha osteopathic mu United States]], [[Chiropractic|chiropractic]], [[electrotherapy|mankhwala gha magetsi]], [[eclectic medicine|mankhwala gha kusazga nthowa zakupambana]], [[naturopathy|naturopathy]], na [[homeopathy|homeopathy]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Stahnisch |first=Frank W. |author-link=Frank W. Stahnisch |author2=Verhoef, Marja |title=The Flexner Report of 1910 and Its Impact on Complementary and Alternative Medicine and Psychiatry in North America in the 20th Century |journal=Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine |volume=2012 |pages=1–10 |doi=10.1155/2012/647896 |pmid=23346209 |pmc=3543812 |year=2012 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Flexner wakakayikira chomene kuti nthowa zose za vya munkhwala izo zikaŵavya ukaboni wa kafukufuku wa sayansi zikaŵa zakugomezgeka yayi. Wakawonanga kuti nthowa yiliyose ya vya munkhwala iyo yikaleka kukhozgera kugwiliskira ntchito munkhwala nga ni majekiseni pakukanizga na kuchizga matenda yikaŵa yakuyana na upusikizgi na ulendo wa ŵapusu. Masukulu gha vya munkhwala agho ghakasambizganga nthowa zakupambana, kusazgapo [[Electromagnetic therapy|mankhwala gha minda ya magineti]], [[Light therapy|mankhwala gha ungweru]], [[eclectic medicine|mankhwala gha kusazga nthowa zakupambana]], physiomedicalism, [[naturopathy|naturopathy]], na [[homeopathy|homeopathy]], ghakapempheka kuti ghachotse masambiro agha mu ndondomeko yawo ya masambiro panji ghakataye chizomerezgo chawo na wovwiri wa ndalama. Masukulu ghanyake ghakasuskanga kwa nyengo yichoko, kweni paumaliro masukulu ghanandi gha munkhwala wakupambana ghakakolerana na ''Report'' panji ghakajara visisi vyawo.<ref name=":3">{{cite journal |title=The Flexner Report of 1910 and Its Impact on Complementary and Alternative Medicine and Psychiatry in North America in the 20th Century |year=2012 |doi=10.1155/2012/647896 |doi-access=free |last1=Stahnisch |first1=Frank W. |author-link1=Frank W. Stahnisch |last2=Verhoef |first2=Marja |journal=Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine |volume=2012 |pages=1–10 |pmid=23346209 |pmc=3543812}}</ref> ===Ivyo vikapangiska pa munkhwala wa osteopathic=== Nangauli pafupifupi masukulu ghose gha munkhwala wakupambana agho ghakazunulika mu ''Flexner Report'' ghakajara, [[American Osteopathic Association]] (AOA) yikawovwira masukulu ghanandi gha vya munkhwala gha osteopathic kulondezga ivyo Flexner wakayowoya kuti ghapange nthowa ya munkhwala iyo yikukolerana na ukaboni wa sayansi.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Gevitz |first=Norman |date=June 2009 |title=The transformation of osteopathic medical education |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_academic-medicine_2009-06_84_6/page/701 |journal=Academic Medicine: Journal of the Association of American Medical Colleges |volume=84 |issue=6 |pages=701–706 |doi=10.1097/ACM.0b013e3181a4049e |issn=1938-808X |pmid=19474540}}</ref> Mazuŵa ghano, ndondomeko za masambiro mu masukulu gha vya munkhwala agho ghakupereka madigiri gha DO na MD zili pafupifupi zakuyana chomene, ndipo kupambana kukuru nkhusazgikira kwa masambiro gha [[osteopathic manipulative medicine|nthowa za osteopathic zakukhwaskira na kulongora thupi]] mu masukulu gha osteopathic.<ref>{{Cite web |title=DO vs. MD: How much does the medical school degree type matter? |url=https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/do-vs-md-how-much-does-medical-school-degree-lit9c |access-date=April 23, 2024 |website=linkedin.com }}</ref> == Maukaboni == <references/> [[Category:Masambiro gha vyaumoyo ku United States]] [[Category:Masambiro gha vyaumoyo ku Canada]] [[Category:Munkhwala wa Osteopathic]] [[Category: Mbiri ya munkhwala ku United States]] [[Category:1910 mabuku ghambura kulembeka]] [[Category:Mabuku gha vyaumoyo]] [[Category:Mabuku ghakuyowoya za masambiro ghapachanya]] 897hal0u9lvfm11qhvu3hn0jd2hdnry 0 48168 119330 118110 2026-08-13T23:06:13Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260813sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 119330 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Mbiri ya Kumwera kwa Afilika''' yagawika mu nyengo za kale za ŵanthu, mbiri yake yakale, maufumu ghakuru agho ghakasambira na kukura, nyengo ya ukoloni, na nyengo ya pamanyuma pa ukoloni, iyo ndiyo yikapangiska vyaru ivyo vilipo sono. [[Kumwera kwa Afilika]] kuli na mphaka na [[Afilika ya Pakati]], [[Afilika ya Kumafumiro gha Dazi]], [[Nyanja ya Atlantic]], [[Nyanja ya India]], na [[Jangwa la Sahara]]. Mipaka ya mu nyengo ya ukoloni yikuwoneka mu mipaka ya mazuŵa ghano pakati pa vyaru vya ku Kumwera kwa Afilika, ndipo kanandi yikajumpha pa mphaka za mitundu na chikaya, mwakugaŵa gulu limoza la mtundu wa ŵanthu pakati pa vyaru viŵiri panji vyakujumpha. ==Malo gha Charu== {{Further|Malo gha Charu gha Africa}} [[File:2002 Satellite Image of Southern Africa.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[Chithuzithuzi cha pa satellite]] cha [[Kumwera kwa Africa]].]] Chigaŵa icho chili kumwera kwa jangwa ichi ni [[steppe|chigaŵa cha udambo]], icho ntcha chikaŵa chichoko cha chiwawa, ndipo chikuchemeka [[Sahel]]. Ni chigaŵa cha nyengo na [[chigaŵa cha vyamoyo|vyamoyo]] cha [[ecotone|kusintha]] mu Africa pakati pa Jangwa la Sahara kumpoto na [[Savanna ya Sudan]] kumwera. Savanna ya Sudan ni lamba ukuru wa [[malo gha udambo gha mu nyengo yakotcha, masavanna na malo gha vithaka|savanna ya mu nyengo yakotcha]] iyo yikwenda mu [[Africa|charu cha Africa]], kufuma ku mphepete mwa Nyanja ya Atlantic mu [[Savanna ya Sudan ya Kumafumiro gha Dazi]] kufika ku [[Mapiri gha Ethiopia]] mu [[Savanna ya Sudan ya Kumafumiro gha Dazi]]. ==Nyengo== {{Further|Nyengo ya Africa}} Mu vyaka 15,000 [[Pambere Pakaŵako sono|BP]], [[Mvula ya ku Africa ya Kumafumiro gha Dazi]] yikasintha malo gha [[Africa]] ndipo yikambiska nyengo ya [[Sahara Wakubiliwira]]; vula zinandi mu nyengo ya chihanya zikapangiska kuti malo gha maji (nga ni [[nyanja]], [[madambo]]) na masavanna (nga ni [[malo gha utheka]], [[malo gha vithaka]]) vikure mu [[Africa ya Kumpoto]].<ref name="Pausata">{{cite journal |last1=Pausata |first1=Francesco S.R. |display-authors=etal |title=Impacts of dust reduction on the northward expansion of the African monsoon during the Green Sahara period |journal=Earth and Planetary Science Letters |year=2016 |volume=434 |pages=298–307 |doi=10.1016/j.epsl.2015.11.049 |bibcode=2016E&PSL.434..298P|doi-access=free }}</ref> Pakati pa 5500 BP na 4000 BP, nyengo ya Sahara Wakubiliwira yikamara.<ref name="Pausata" /> ==Mbiri ya Kale ya Ŵanthu== {{Main|Mbiri ya Kale ya Kumwera kwa Africa}} Kuŵa kwamba mu vyaka 170,000 BP, mu nyengo ya [[Nyengo ya Pakati ya Malibwe|Nyengo ya Pakati ya Malibwe]], ŵanthu ŵa ku Kumwera kwa Africa ŵakaphikanga na kurya [[Hypoxis]] angustifolia [[mizu ya pasi]] ku [[Malo gha Malibwe gha Border]], [[Africa ya Kumwera]], ndipo vyakurya ivi vikwenera kuti vikapelekanga [[makarbohayidireti]] pa maulendo ghawo.<ref name="Wadley">{{cite journal |last1=Wadley |first1=Lyn |last2=Backwell |first2=Lucinda |last3=D'Errico |first3=Francesco |last4=Sievers |first4=Christine |title=Cooked starchy rhizomes in Africa 170 thousand years ago |journal=Science |volume=367 |issue=6473 |pages=87–91 |date=3 Jan 2020 |doi=10.1126/science.aaz5926 |pmid=31896717 |bibcode=2020Sci...367...87W |oclc=8527136604 |s2cid=209677578|doi-access=free |hdl=11336/142825 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> Mu vyaka 92,000 BP, mu nyengo ya [[Nyengo ya Pakati ya Malibwe]], ŵalimi ŵa vinyama na ŵakusaka ŵa ku Malawi ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito [[Moto|mulilo]] kuti ŵasinthe malo agho ŵakakhalanga.<ref name="Thompson">{{cite journal |last1=Thompson |first1=Jessica C. |display-authors=etal |title=Early human impacts and ecosystem reorganization in southern-central Africa |journal=Science Advances |volume=7 |issue=19 |date=5 May 2021 |doi=10.1126/sciadv.abf9776 |pmid=33952528 |pmc=8099189 |bibcode=2021SciA....7.9776T |oclc=9579895150 |s2cid=233871035}}</ref> Pakati pa 65,000 BP na 37,000 BP, mu nyengo yakusintha kufuma ku [[Nyengo ya Pakati ya Malibwe|Nyengo ya Pakati ya Malibwe]] kuya ku [[Nyengo ya Malibwe Yakumaliro|Nyengo ya Malibwe Yakumaliro]], [[ŴaKhoisan|ŴaKhosani ŵa Kumwera kwa Africa]] ŵakamba kugwiliskira ntchito [[uta na mivi]].<ref name="Hitchcock">{{cite journal |last1=Hitchcock |first1=Robert K. |last2=Crowell |first2=Aron |last3=Brooks |first3=Alison |title=The ethnoarchaeology of Ambush Hunting: A Case Study of ǂGi Pan, Western Ngamiland, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/332529080 |journal=African Archaeological Review |date=14 February 2019 |pages=119–144 |volume=36 |doi=10.1007/S10437-018-9319-X |issn=0263-0338 |oclc=8031623872 |s2cid=166634393}}</ref> ===Ufumu wa Butua=== {{Main|Ufumu wa Butua}} Pambere undaŵe chigaŵa cha [[Ufumu wa Rozwi|Ufumu wa Rozwi]], fuko la Togwa likalamuliranga mu ufumu wa Butua m'paka mu chaka cha 1683 C.E.<ref name="Britannica">{{cite web |title=Butua |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Butua |publisher=Encyclopaedia Britannica}}</ref> ===Ufumu wa Maravi=== {{Main|Maravi}} Pakati pa vyaka vya m'ma 16 C.E. na m'ma 19 C.E., maufumu gha Maravi (nga ni Undi, Lundu, na Kalonga) ghakasangwa na kukura chomene.<ref name="Newitt">{{cite book |last1=Newitt |first1=Malyn |title=The Encyclopedia of Empire |chapter=Maravi Kingdom |year=2016 |pages=1–2 |chapter-url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/9781118455074.wbeoe035 |publisher=Wiley|doi=10.1002/9781118455074.wbeoe035 |isbn=978-1-118-45507-4 }}</ref> ==Mbiri ya sono== ===Ufumu wa Merina=== {{Main|Ufumu wa Merina#Mbiri}} Kufika kukwambilira kwa vyaka vya m'ma 19 C.E., Ŵamerina ŵakakwaniska kutonda mafuko ghanyake gha pa chilwa ichi nga ni [[Ŵanthu ŵa Bezanozano|Bezanozano]], [[Ŵanthu ŵa Betsimisaraka|Betsimisaraka]], na ufumu wa Sakalava, ndipo ŵakaghazenga pasi pa ufumu wa Merina. Mu ndondomeko iyi mazina gha mtundu wakuti "Merina" ghakamba kugwiliskirika ntchito chomene, chifukwa ghakulongora kuŵa ŵakumanyikwa mu chiyowoyero cha [[Chiyowoyero cha Malagasy|Malagasy]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Larson|first=Pier M.|date=1996|title=Desperately Seeking 'the Merina' (Central Madagascar): Reading Ethnonyms and Their Semantic Fields in African Identity Histories|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-southern-african-studies_1996-12_22_4/page/541|journal=Journal of Southern African Studies|volume=22|issue=4|pages=541–560|doi=10.1080/03057079608708511|jstor=2637156|bibcode=1996JSAfS..22..541L |issn=0305-7070}}</ref> Nangauli vinyake vikulongosora kukura kwa Merina nga nkhuwunganiska Madagascar yose, mafuko agho ghakakhalanga pafupi nga ni Betsimisaraka ghakawonanga kukura uku nga ni nthowa ya kulamulira ŵanthu ŵanyake.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Cole, Jennifer, 1966-|title=Forget colonialism?: sacrifice and the art of memory in Madagascar|date=2001|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-92682-0 |oclc=49570321}}</ref> Mu 1824 C.E., Ŵamerina ŵakatora doko la [[Mahajanga]] ilo lili ku chigaŵa cha kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa chilwa, ndipo ichi chikalongora kusazgikira kwa nkhongono zawo. Mu nyengo ya [[Radama I]], Ŵamerina ŵakalutilira kuchita nkhondo izo zikakuzga mazaza gha ufumu na kusazgira chuma cha ŵalongozgi ŵa ŵasilikari.<ref name="Campbell">{{Cite journal|last=Campbell|first=Gwyn|date=1981|title=Madagascar and the Slave Trade, 1810-1895|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-african-history_1981_22_2/page/203|journal=The Journal of African History|volume=22|issue=2|pages=203–227|doi=10.1017/S0021853700019411|jstor=181583|s2cid=161991146 |issn=0021-8537}}</ref> Ŵasilikari ŵa Merina ŵakakumana na kususkika kufuma ku ŵazga awo ŵakachimbira na ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵakachimbira ku ulamuliro wa ufumu. Ŵanthu aŵa ŵakaŵa masauzandi ghanandi, ndipo ŵakakhalanga nga ni magulu ghakuwukira agho ghakasuskikanga na ŵasilikari ŵa ufumu awo ŵakakwendera ŵanthu aŵa mu 1835 C.E. Chomenechomene, unandi wa ŵanthu awo ŵakachimbiranga ukapangiska kuti pakhale khumbo likuru la ŵantchito ŵazga mu ufumu wa Merina, ndipo ichi chikapangiska kuti nkhondo zakukuzga ufumu zilutilire.<ref name="Campbell" /> Mu pakati pa vyaka vya m'ma 19 C.E., kukura kwa ufumu na kulamulira chomene malonda gha ku mphepete mwa nyanja vikapangiska kuti Merina ŵaŵe na mazaza ghakuru pa chilwa chose. Ufumu wa Merina ukakhala pafupi kuŵika Madagascar yose pasi pa ufumu umoza pambere [[Ukoloni wa France ku Madagascar|ukoloni wa France]] undambe mu 1895 C.E.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Merina|title=Merina {{!}} people |publisher=Encyclopedia Britannica}}</ref> [[File:Ranavalona III of Madagascar.jpg|thumb|right|[[Ranavalona III]] wakaŵa themba laumaliro la Madagascar.]] ===Ufumu wa Rozwi=== {{Main|Ufumu wa Rozwi#Mbiri}} Mabuku gha Ŵapwitikizi ghakulongora kuti Ŵarozwi ŵakaŵa ŵasilikari ŵakumanya chomene. Ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito nthowa ya [[kupanga msasa wa nkhondo wa nyanga za ng'ombe|nyanga za ng'ombe mu nkhondo]] vyaka vinandi pambere mulongozgi mukuru wa Ŵazulu, [[Shaka]], wandayambe kuyigwiliskira ntchito mu vyaka vya m'ma 19 C.E. Ŵarozwi, awo ŵakaŵa na mikondo, zishango, na mauta na mivi, ŵakatola chigaŵa cha Zimbabwe plateau.<ref name="brit1">{{cite news |url=http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9064305/Rozvi |title=Rozvi |work=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]}}</ref> ===Ufumu wa Ndwandwe=== {{Main|Ndwandwe}} Ufumu wa Ndwandwe ukakura mu vyaka vya m'ma 19 C.E. chifukwa cha kusintha kwakupambanapambana kwa vya chuma, ndyali, na umoyo wa ŵanthu.<ref name="Ndlovu‐Gatsheni">{{cite book |last1=Ndlovu-Gatsheni |first1=Sabelo J. |title=The Encyclopedia of Empire |chapter=Nguni empires |year=2016 |pages=1–8 |chapter-url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/9781118455074.wbeoe161 |publisher=Wiley|doi=10.1002/9781118455074.wbeoe161 |isbn=978-1-118-45507-4 }}</ref> ===Ulongozgi wa Mthethwa=== {{Main|Ulongozgi wa Mthethwa}} Mwakuyana na Muzi Mthethwa (1995), Ŵamthethwa ŵakafuma ku mafuko gha [[Ŵanthu ŵa Nguni|Nguni]] gha kumpoto kwa Natal na [[Mapiri gha Lubombo|Mapiri gha Lubombo]], ndipo mtundu wawo wa sono ukamba kumanyikwa vyaka pafupifupi 700 ivyo vyajumpha.<ref>Muzi Mthethwa (1995), "The History of abakwaMthethwa, Research Project", Department of History, University of Zululand.</ref> Ŵakaŵa pakati pa magulu ghakwambilira gha Nguni-Tsonga agho ghakafuma ku [[Maziŵa Ghakuru gha mu Africa|Maziŵa Ghakuru]] mu [[Central Africa|Africa ya pakati]] pakati pa 200 C.E. na 1200 C.E. Apo ŵakafika ku [[Southern Africa|Africa ya kumwera]], ŵakakhala pafupi na charu cha sono cha [[Eswatini]], chomenechomene pa [[Mapiri gha Lubombo]]. Pamanyuma mu vyaka vya m'ma 17 C.E. ŵakasamira ku chigaŵa cha sono cha [[KwaZulu-Natal]], mu chigaŵa cha [[Nkandla, KwaZulu-Natal|Nkandla]]. Ulongozgi wa Mthethwa ukaŵa na mafuko, mbumba, na maufumu ghachoko pafupifupi 30 gha Nguni. Mwakupambana na uyo wakiza pamanyuma, [[Ufumu wa Zulu]], Ulongozgi wa Mthethwa ukaŵa wupu wa maufumu ghakupambanapambana.<ref>Morris, page 42</ref> Pasi pa ulamuliro wa [[Dingiswayo]], ulongozgi wa Mthethwa ukakhozgeka na kusazgikira. Themba ili likapanga ubwezi na [[Ŵanthu ŵa Tsonga|Ŵatsonga]] kumpoto kwa chigaŵa ichi mu vyaka vya m'ma 19 C.E. ndipo likamba kuchita malonda gha [[minyanga ya njovu|minyanga ya njovu]] na vinthu vinyake na [[Portugal|Ŵapwitikizi]] mu [[Mozambique]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Mthethwa|title=Mthethwa - historical state, Africa |publisher=Britannica}}</ref> ===Ufumu wa Zulu=== {{Main|Ufumu wa Zulu#Mbiri}} [[Shaka]] wakaŵa mwana wa [[Senzangakhona]], themba la Ŵazulu, uyo wakababika cha mu nthengwa. Wakababika cha mu chaka cha 1787 C.E. Iyo na amama ŵake, [[Nandi (amama ŵa Shaka)|Nandi]], ŵakachimbizgika na Senzangakhona ndipo ŵakasanga malo ghakubisamamo mu [[Ulongozgi wa Mthethwa|Mthethwa]]. Shaka wakalwana nga ni msilikari pasi pa Jobe, ndipo pamanyuma pasi pa Dingiswayo, mulongozgi wa Mthethwa. Senzangakhona wati wafwa, Dingiswayo wakawovwira Shaka kuŵa mulongozgi wa Ufumu wa Zulu. Pamanyuma pa nyifwa ya Dingiswayo chifukwa cha Zwide, themba la [[Ufumu wa Ndwandwe|Ndwandwe]], mu 1818 C.E., Shaka wakatora ulongozgi wa wupu wose wa Mthethwa.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Shaka Zulu: Africa's Napoleon?|url=https://www.historynet.com/shaka-zulu-africas-napoleon.htm|last=Wilkinson|first=Stephan|date=2017-03-14 |publisher=HistoryNet}}</ref> Shaka wakambiska masinthiro ghanandi gha vya nkhondo, vya umoyo wa ŵanthu, vya mitheto, na vya ndyali, ndipo wakazenga ufumu wa Zulu uwo ukaŵa wakulongozgeka mwakukhora. Kusintha kukuru chomene kukaŵa mu umo ŵasilikari ŵakenderanga, kugwiliskira ntchito nthowa ziphya za nkhondo na vilwero, kweniso kulimbana na ŵalongozgi ŵa vya mizimu, ŵamankhwala ŵa mizimu ([[sangoma]]), mwakuti ŵakaŵa pasi pa mazaza gha boma la Zulu. Wupu uwo ukaŵa pasi pa ulongozgi wake ukapona pa kuwukira kwakwamba kwa Zwide pa [[Nkhondo ya Phiri la Gqokli|Nkhondo ya Gqokli Hill]] mu 1818 C.E. Mu vyaka viŵiri, Shaka wakatonda Zwide pa [[Nkhondo ya Mlonga wa Mhlatuze|Nkhondo ya Mhlatuze River]] mu 1820 C.E. ndipo wakaparanya wupu wa Ndwandwe. Ŵanyake mwa Ŵandwandwe ŵakamba ulendo wakukoma na kuwukira mafuko ghanyake gha [[Ŵanthu ŵa Nguni|Nguni]], ndipo ichi chikapangiska kuti paŵe [[Difaqane|Difaqane (Mfecane)]], uwo ukaŵa kusama kukuru kwa mafuko agho ghakachimbiranga ku maboma agho ghakasweka na nkhondo za Ŵazulu. Chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu awo ŵakafwa mu nyengo iyi chikumanyikwa makora yayi. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuti chikaŵa pakati pa ŵanthu 1 miliyoni na 2 miliyoni, kweni manambara agha ghakususkika.<ref name="Walter1969">{{cite book|author=Walter, Eugene Victor |year=1969 |title=Terror and Resistance: A Study of Political Violence, with Case Studies of Some Primitive African Communities|publisher=Oxford University Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=k-3mmwEACAAJ|isbn=978-0-19-501562-1 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|author=<nowiki>Charters, R. A. (Major, Royal Artillery)</nowiki>|year=1839|title=Notices of the Cape And Southern Africa, Since The Appointment, As Governor, Of Major-Gen. Sir Geo. Napier|journal=United Service Journal and Naval and Military Magazine |publisher=Henry Colburn|volume=1839, Part III|issue=September, October, November|pages=19–25, 171–179, 352–359}}</ref><ref>Encyclopædia Britannica, 15th edition</ref><ref name="Hanson2007">{{cite book|author=Hanson, Victor Davis |year=2001 |title=Carnage and Culture: Landmark Battles in the Rise to Western Power|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XGr16-CxpH8C |publisher=Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-307-42518-8|page=313}}</ref> Kufika mu 1822 C.E., Shaka wakaŵa walamulira ufumu uwo ukaŵa na malo pafupifupi {{convert|80000|sqmi|km2|sigfig=2}}.<ref name="Gluckman">{{Cite journal|last=Gluckman|first=Max|author-link=Max Gluckman|date=1960|title=The Rise of a Zulu Empire|url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-rise-of-a-zulu-empire/|journal=[[Scientific American]]|volume=202|issue=4|page=162|doi=10.1038/scientificamerican0460-157|issn=0036-8733|jstor=24940454|bibcode=1960SciAm.202d.157G |quote=By 1822 he had made himself master over 80,000 square miles|url-access=subscription}}</ref> [[File:KingShaka.jpg|thumb|upright|right|Chithuzithuzi cha Themba Shaka ({{circa}} 1824)]] ===Ufumu wa Mthwakazi=== {{Main|Mthwakazi#Kukhazikika kwa Mzilikazi mu Mthwakazi}} Mthwakazi ni zina lakale ilo likugwiliskirika ntchito pa ŵanthu ŵakwambilira ŵa Ndebele na ufumu wa [[Ŵanthu ŵa Ndebele ŵa Kumpoto|Ndebele]], uwo uli mu chigaŵa cha sono cha [[Zimbabwe]].<ref name="auto">{{Cite web|url=https://www.reportfocusnews.com/2018/10/01/bulelani-lobengula-crowned-the-ndebele-king/|title=Bulelani Lobengula crowned the Ndebele King|date=1 October 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mthwakazifoundation.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=31&Itemid=51|title=Brief History of Mthwakazi (English)|access-date=2021-05-13|archive-date=2013-04-15|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130415094724/http://www.mthwakazifoundation.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=31&Itemid=51}}</ref> Mthwakazi likugwiliskirikaso ntchito pakuyowoya za ŵanthu awo ŵakukhala mu chigaŵa cha Matebeleland mu Zimbabwe.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20140311164413/http://www.mthwakazifoundation.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=14&Itemid=29 Mthwakazi Foundation Inc.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140311164413/http://www.mthwakazifoundation.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=14&Itemid=29 |date=2014-03-11 }} Retrieved 2012-08-09.</ref> ===Malonda gha ŵazga=== {{Further|Malonda gha ŵazga mu Nyanja ya India|Malonda gha ŵazga mu Nyanja ya Atlantic}} ===Nyengo ya ukoloni=== {{Main|Ukoloni wa Africa}} Mu 1652 C.E., [[Dutch East India Company]] yikakhazikiska malo gha ukoloni pafupi na [[Cape of Good Hope]] kuti yiwovwire nthowa ya malonda gha pa nyanja pakati pa Europe na Southeast Asia. Malo agha ghakakura kuŵa [[Cape Town]], ndipo ghakazgoka [[Dutch Cape Colony]]. Ukoloni wa Ŵadachi ukawukilika kaŵiri na Ŵabritishi; ulendo wakwamba ukaŵa mu 1795 C.E. mu [[kuwukira Cape Colony|kuwukira kwa Cape Colony]] uko kukaŵa chigaŵa cha nkhondo za French Revolutionary Wars, ndipo ulendo wachiŵiri ukaŵa mu 1806 C.E. pa [[Nkhondo ya Blaauwberg]] mu nyengo ya nkhondo za Napoleon. Pamanyuma pa kuwukira kwachiŵiri uku, Cape Colony yikazgoka koloni ya Britain mpaka apo [[Union ya South Africa]] yikapangika mu 1910 C.E. Kukhazikika kwa Cape Colony kukamba nyengo ya ukoloni mu Africa ya kumwera ndipo kukapereka nthowa ya [[Kugawana Africa|kugawika kwa Africa]] mu vyaka vya m'ma 1880 na kukhazikika kwa [[Maboma gha Boer|maboma gha Boer]] pamanyuma pa [[Ulendo Mukuru wa Boer|Great Trek]] mu 1836 C.E. Nyengo iyi yikawona kwiza kwa ŵanthu ŵaphya, matekinoloje, vyakumera, na vinyama kufuma ku vyaru vinyake pa charu chose, kweniso kusuzgika kwa maufumu gha ku Africa agho ghakaŵapo kale. ====Kugawana Africa==== {{Main|Kugawana Africa}} ===Nyengo ya pamanyuma pa ukoloni=== {{Further|Kuleka kwa ukoloni mu Africa|Africa ya pamanyuma pa ukoloni#Africa ya kumwera|Ukoloni uphya}} {{See also|Phangano la umoza wa ŵasilikari}} ==Mbiri ya Mapangidwe gha Nyumba mu Africa ya Kumwera== ''Wonani vinyake mu vigaŵa vya [[Mapangidwe gha nyumba mu Africa]]:'' * [[Mapangidwe gha nyumba mu Africa#Africa ya Kumwera|Mapangidwe gha nyumba gha mu nyengo ya pakati mu Africa ya Kumwera]] ==Mbiri ya Sayansi na Tekinoloji mu Africa ya Kumwera== {{Further||List of South African inventions and discoveries}} ''Wonani vinyake mu vigaŵa vya [[Mbiri ya sayansi na tekinoloji mu Africa]]:'' {{Div col|small=yes}} * [[Mbiri ya sayansi na tekinoloji mu Africa#Africa ya Kumwera|Sayansi ya nyenyezi]] * [[Mbiri ya sayansi na tekinoloji mu Africa#Africa ya pakati na ya kumwera|Masamu]] * [[Mbiri ya sayansi na tekinoloji mu Africa#Africa ya Kumwera 2|Mankhwala]] * [[Mbiri ya sayansi na tekinoloji mu Africa#Africa ya Kumwera 3|Ulimi]] * [[Mbiri ya sayansi na tekinoloji mu Africa#Africa ya Kumwera 4|Kupanga salu]] * [[Mbiri ya sayansi na tekinoloji mu Africa#Africa ya Kumwera 5|Mapangidwe gha nyumba]] * [[Mbiri ya sayansi na tekinoloji mu Africa#Africa ya Kumwera 6|Nkhondo]] * [[Mbiri ya sayansi na tekinoloji mu Africa#Africa ya Kumwera 7|Mwakuyana na charu]] {{Div col end}} ==Mbiri ya vya nkhondo mu Africa ya Kumwera== {{Main|Mbiri ya nkhondo mu Africa#Mbiri ya nkhondo mu Africa ya Kumwera}} ==Mbiri ya majini mu Africa ya Kumwera== {{Main|Mbiri ya majini mu Africa ya Kumwera}} {{Further|Ŵanthu ŵa San#Majini|Ŵanthu ŵa Khoekhoe}} Kufuma ku chigaŵa cha [[Kenya]] na [[Tanzania]] kuya ku [[South Africa]], Ŵaafrica ŵa kumafumiro gha dazi awo ŵakuyowoya viyowoyero vya [[viyowoyero vya Bantu]] ŵakulongora mphambano ya majini yakufuma kumpoto kuya kumwera. Kweniso, kufuma ku [[Africa ya kumafumiro gha dazi]] kulazga ku [[Africa ya kumwera]], ukaboni wa kufanana kwa majini ukulongora kuti pakaŵa kusama kwa ŵanthu na kusazgikana kwa mitundu pakati pa Ŵanthu ŵa Bantu na magulu ghanyake gha ŵanthu ŵa mu Africa apo kusama kwa Bantu kukafika ku Africa ya kumwera.<ref name="Pfennig">{{cite journal |last1=Pfennig |first1=Aaron |display-authors=etal |title=Evolutionary Genetics and Admixture in African Populations |journal=Genome Biology and Evolution |date=March 29, 2023 |volume=15 |issue=4 |article-number=evad054 |doi=10.1093/gbe/evad054 |pmid=36987563 |url=https://academic.oup.com/gbe/article/15/4/evad054/7092825 |pmc=10118306 |oclc=9817135458 |s2cid=257803764}}</ref> ===DNA ya ŵanthu ŵakale=== {{Further|Kusazgikana pakati pa ŵanthu ŵakale na ŵanthu ŵasono#Ŵanthu ŵakale ŵa mu Africa}} Nangauli mphapu za [[Denisovan]] na [[Neanderthal]] mu ŵanthu awo ŵakukhala kuwaro kwa Africa zikupulikikwa makora, ukaboni wa mphapu za ŵanthu ŵakale mu ŵanthu ŵa mu Africa ngwachali kusimikizgika yayi ndipo ukukumana na mphindano.<ref name="Bergström">{{cite journal |last1=Bergström |first1=Anders |display-authors=etal |title=Origins of modern human ancestry |url=https://iranvarjavand.ir/wp-content/uploads/2021/02/paperhub.ir10.1038@s41586-021-03244-5.pdf |journal=Nature |volume=590 |issue=7845 |pages=229–237 |date=February 2021 |pmid=33568824 |doi=10.1038/s41586-021-03244-5 |s2cid=231883210 |bibcode=2021Natur.590..229B}}</ref> ===DNA yakufuma ku ŵanthu ŵakale=== Ŵanthu ŵatatu ŵa [[Nyengo ya Malibwe ya Pamanyuma|Nyengo ya Malibwe ya Pamanyuma]] awo ŵakaŵa ŵakukwima ŵakanyamura DNA yakuyana na ya ŵanthu ŵa San awo ŵakuyowoya chiyowoyero cha San.<ref name="Choudhury">{{cite journal |last1=Choudhury |first1=Ananyo |display-authors=etal |title=Bantu-speaker migration and admixture in southern Africa |url=https://academic.oup.com/hmg/article/30/R1/R56/6046806 |journal=Human Molecular Genetics |volume=30 |issue=R1 |pages=R56–R63 |date=April 2021 |pmid=33367711 |pmc=8117461 |doi=10.1093/hmg/ddaa274}}</ref> Pambere kusama kwa [[Ŵanthu ŵa Bantu|Bantu]] kwinda mu chigaŵa ichi, nga umo DNA yakufuma ku ŵanthu ŵakale mu [[Botswana]] yikulongolera, ŵaliska ŵa vinyama ŵakufuma ku [[Africa ya kumafumiro gha dazi]] ŵakasamira ku Africa ya kumwera.<ref name="Choudhury" /> Pa ŵalimi ŵa nyengo ya [[Nyengo ya Chuma cha Chisulo|Chuma cha Chisulo]] ŵanayi ŵa Bantu awo ŵakafuma ku [[Africa ya kumanjiliro gha dazi]], ŵalimi ŵaŵiri ŵakwambilira ŵakaŵa na DNA yakuyana na Ŵatsonga na Ŵavenda, ndipo ŵalimi ŵaŵiri ŵanyengo yamanyuma ŵakaŵa na DNA yakuyana na Ŵanthu ŵa Nguni. Ichi chikulongora kuti pakaŵa mayendedwe ghakupambanapambana gha ŵanthu pa nyengo ya kusama kwa Bantu, ndipo ichi chikapangiska kuti Ŵanthu ŵa Bantu na Ŵanthu ŵa Khoisan ŵakumane na kusazgikana.<ref name="Choudhury" /> ====Botswana==== Ku Nqoma, mu [[Botswana]], munthu yumoza uyo wakalembeka kuti wakaŵako mu nyengo yakwamba ya [[Nyengo ya Chuma cha Chisulo|Chuma cha Chisulo]] (vyaka pafupifupi 900 ivyo vyajumpha), wakaŵa na [[Haplogroup L2 (mtDNA)#Haplogroup L2a1|haplogroup L2a1f]].<ref name="Wang">{{cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=Ke |display-authors=etal |title=Ancient genomes reveal complex patterns of population movement, interaction, and replacement in sub-Saharan Africa |journal=Science Advances |volume=6 |issue=24 |article-number=eaaz0183 |date=June 2020 |pmid=32582847 |pmc=7292641 |doi=10.1126/sciadv.aaz0183 |bibcode=2020SciA....6..183W}}</ref><ref name="Wang II">{{cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=Ke |display-authors=etal |title=Supplementary Materials for Ancient genomes reveal complex patterns of population movement, interaction, and replacement in sub-Saharan Africa |url=https://advances.sciencemag.org/content/suppl/2020/06/08/6.24.eaaz0183.DC1/aaz0183_SM.pdf |journal=Science Advances |volume=6 |issue=24 |article-number=eaaz0183 |date=June 2020 |pmid=32582847 |doi=10.1126/sciadv.aaz0183 |pmc=7292641 |bibcode=2020SciA....6..183W}}</ref> Ku Taukome, mu [[Botswana]], munthu uyo wakalembeka kuti wakaŵako mu nyengo yakwamba ya [[Nyengo ya Chuma cha Chisulo|Chuma cha Chisulo]] (vyaka pafupifupi 1100 ivyo vyajumpha), wakaŵa na ma haplogroup [[Haplogroup E-M2#E1b1a1|E1b1a1 (E-M2, E-Z1123)]] na [[Haplogroup L0#Distribution|L0d3b1]].<ref name="Wang" /><ref name="Wang II" /> Ku Xaro, mu [[Botswana]], mukaŵa ŵanthu ŵaŵiri awo ŵakaŵako mu nyengo yakwamba ya [[Nyengo ya Chuma cha Chisulo|Chuma cha Chisulo]] (vyaka pafupifupi 1400 ivyo vyajumpha). Yumoza wakaŵa na ma haplogroup [[Haplogroup E-M2#E1b1a1a1c|E1b1a1a1c1a]] na [[Haplogroup L3 (mtDNA)#Subclade distribution|L3e1a2]], ndipo munyake wakaŵa na ma haplogroup [[Haplogroup E-Z827#E-V1515|E1b1b1b2b (E-M293, E-CTS10880)]] na [[Haplogroup L0#Distribution|L0k1a2]].<ref name="Wang" /><ref name="Wang II" /> ====Malawi==== =====Fingira===== Ku malo ghakusungirako malibwe gha Fingira mu [[Malawi]], munthu uyo wakalembeka kuti wakaŵako pakati pa vyaka 6179 BP na 2341 BP, wakaŵa na ma haplogroup [[Haplogroup B-M60#B-M182|B2]] na [[Haplogroup L0#Distribution|L0d1]].<ref name="Lipson II">{{cite journal |last1=Lipson |first1=Mark |display-authors=etal |title=Extended Data Table 1 Ancient individuals analysed in this study: Ancient DNA and deep population structure in sub-Saharan African foragers |journal=Nature |date=23 February 2022 |volume=603 |issue=7900 |pages=290–296 |doi=10.1038/s41586-022-04430-9 |pmid=35197631 |issn=0028-0836 |pmc=8907066 |oclc=9437356581 |bibcode=2022Natur.603..290L |s2cid=247083477}}</ref> Ku Fingira, mu [[Malawi]], munthu uyo wakayowoyeka kuti wakaŵako pakati pa vyaka 6175 BP na 5913 BP, wakaŵa na ma haplogroup [[Haplogroup BT|BT]] na [[Haplogroup L0#Distribution|L0d1b2b]].<ref name="Skoglund">{{cite journal |last1=Skoglund |first1=Pontus |display-authors=etal |title=Reconstructing Prehistoric African Population Structure |journal=Cell |volume=171 |issue=1 |pages=59–71.e21 |date=September 2017 |pmid=28938123 |pmc=5679310 |doi=10.1016/j.cell.2017.08.049}}</ref> Ku Fingira, mu [[Malawi]], munthu munyake uyo wakayowoyeka kuti wakaŵako pakati pa vyaka 6177 BP na 5923 BP, wakaŵa na ma haplogroup [[Haplogroup BT|BT]] na [[Haplogroup L0#Distribution|L0d1c]].<ref name="Skoglund" /> Ku Fingira, mu [[Malawi]], munthu uyo wakayowoyeka kuti wakaŵako pakati pa vyaka 2676 BP na 2330 BP, wakaŵa na [[Haplogroup L0#Distribution|haplogroup L0f]].<ref name="Skoglund" /> =====Chencherere===== Ku Chencherere, mu [[Malawi]], munthu uyo wakayowoyeka kuti wakaŵako pakati pa vyaka 5400 BP na 4800 BP, wakaŵa na [[Haplogroup L0#Distribution|haplogroup L0k2]].<ref name="Skoglund" /> Ku Chencherere, mu [[Malawi]], munthu uyo wakayowoyeka kuti wakaŵako pakati pa vyaka 5293 BP na 4979 BP, wakaŵa na [[Haplogroup L0#Distribution|haplogroup L0k1]].<ref name="Skoglund" /> =====Hora===== Ku Hora 1 rockshelter, mu [[Malawi]], munthu uyo wakalembeka kuti wakaŵako pakati pa vyaka 16,897 BP na 15,827 BP, wakaŵa na ma haplogroup [[Haplogroup B-M60#B-M112|B2b]] na [[Haplogroup L5 (mtDNA)|L5b]].<ref name="Lipson II" /> Ku Hora 1 rockshelter, mu [[Malawi]], munthu uyo wakalembeka kuti wakaŵako pakati pa vyaka 16,424 BP na 14,029 BP, wakaŵa na ma haplogroup [[Haplogroup B-M60#B-M112|B2b1a2~]] na [[Haplogroup L0#Distribution|L0d3/L0d3b]].<ref name="Lipson II" /> Ku Hora, mu [[Malawi]], munthu uyo wakayowoyeka kuti wakaŵako pakati pa vyaka 10,000 BP na 5000 BP, wakaŵa na ma haplogroup [[Haplogroup BT|BT]] na [[Haplogroup L0#Distribution|L0k2]].<ref name="Skoglund" /> Ku Hora, mu [[Malawi]], munthu uyo wakayowoyeka kuti wakaŵako pakati pa vyaka 8173 BP na 7957 BP, wakaŵa na [[Haplogroup L0#Distribution|haplogroup L0a2]].<ref name="Skoglund" /> =====Ballito Bay===== {{Main|Ballito Bay}} Ku [[Ballito Bay|Malaŵi gha ku Ballito Bay]], ku [[South Africa|South Africa]], munthu munyake uyo wakayezgeka kuti wakaŵako pakati pa vyaka 1986 BP na 1831 BP wakaŵa na ma [[Haplogulu la Y-DNA|haplogulu]] gha [[Haplogulu A (Y-DNA)|A1b1b2]] na [[Haplogulu L0|L0d2c1]].<ref name="Schlebusch">{{cite journal |last1=Schlebusch |first1=Carina M. |display-authors=etal |title=Southern African ancient genomes estimate modern human divergence to 350,000 to 260,000 years ago |journal=Science |volume=358 |issue=6363 |pages=652–655 |date=November 2017 |pmid=28971970 |doi=10.1126/science.aao6266 |s2cid=206663925 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2017Sci...358..652S}}</ref><ref name="Schlebusch II">{{cite journal |last1=Schlebusch |first1=Carina M. |display-authors=etal |title=Supplementary Materials for Southern African ancient genomes estimate modern human divergence to 350,000 to 260,000 years ago |url=[https://science.sciencemag.org/content/sci/suppl/2017/09/27/science.aao6266.DC1/aao6266_Schlebusch_SM.pdf](https://science.sciencemag.org/content/sci/suppl/2017/09/27/science.aao6266.DC1/aao6266_Schlebusch_SM.pdf) |journal=Science |date=3 November 2017 |volume=358 |issue=6363 |pages=652–655 |doi=10.1126/science.aao6266 |pmid=28971970 |bibcode=2017Sci...358..652S |s2cid=206663925}}</ref> Munthu munyake wa ku [[Ballito Bay|Ballito Bay]], uyo wakayezgeka kuti wakaŵako pakati pa vyaka 2149 BP na 1932 BP, wakaŵa na ma haplogulu gha [[Haplogulu A (Y-DNA)|A1b1b2]] na [[Haplogulu L0|L0d2a1]].<ref name="Schlebusch"/><ref name="Schlebusch II"/> Ku [[Ballito Bay|Ballito Bay]], mwana uyo wakumanyikwa kuti Ballito Boy, uyo wakayezgeka kuti wakaŵako vyaka pafupifupi 1,980 ± 20 BP, wakasangika kuti wakaŵa na DNA ya [[Rickettsia felis]].<ref name="Rifkin">{{cite journal |last1=Rifkin |first1=Riaan F. |display-authors=etal |title=Rickettsia felis DNA recovered from a child who lived in southern Africa 2000 years ago |journal=Communications Biology |date=March 3, 2023 |volume=6 |issue=1 |page=240 |doi=10.1038/s42003-023-04582-y |pmid=36869137 |pmc=9984397 |oclc=9786799123 |s2cid=257312840}}</ref><ref name="Rifkin II">{{cite journal |last1=Rifkin |first1=Riaan F. |display-authors=etal |title=Supplementary Notes 1-7 for Rickettsia felis DNA recovered from a child who lived in southern Africa 2,000 years ago |journal=Communications Biology |date=March 3, 2023 |volume=6 |issue=1 |page=240 |doi=10.1038/s42003-023-04582-y |pmid=36869137 |url=[https://static-content.springer.com/esm/art%3A10.1038%2Fs42003-023-04582-y/MediaObjects/42003_2023_4582_MOESM2_ESM.pdf](https://static-content.springer.com/esm/art%3A10.1038%2Fs42003-023-04582-y/MediaObjects/42003_2023_4582_MOESM2_ESM.pdf) |pmc=9984397 |oclc=9786799123 |s2cid=257312840}}</ref> ===DNA ya kromozomu Y=== {{Further|Ma haplogulu gha Y-DNA mu ŵanthu ŵa kumwera kwa Jangwa la Sahara}} Masambiro ghakupambanapambana gha [[Kromozomu Y|kromozomu Y]] ghakulongora kuti Ŵasan ŵali na ma haplogulu gha kromozomu Y agho ghakusangika kuŵa ghakale chomene pa charu chapasi. Ma haplogulu agha ni magulu gha [[Haplogulu A (Y-DNA)|A]] na [[Haplogulu B (Y-DNA)|B]], agho ni nthambi zakwambilira chomene mu mphyanga ya ubabika wa kromozomu Y wa ŵanthu.<ref name=j1>{{cite journal |last1=Knight |first1=Alec |display-authors=etal |title=African Y chromosome and mtDNA divergence provides insight into the history of click languages |journal=Current Biology |volume=13 |issue=6 |pages=464–473 |date=March 2003 |pmid=12646128 |doi=10.1016/S0960-9822(03)00130-1 |issn=0960-9822 |oclc=4931666146 |s2cid=52862939 |doi-access=free|bibcode=2003CBio...13..464K }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hammer |first1=MF |display-authors=etal |title=Hierarchical patterns of global human Y-chromosome diversity |journal=Molecular Biology and Evolution |volume=18 |issue=7 |pages=1189–1203 |date=July 2001 |pmid=11420360 |doi=10.1093/oxfordjournals.molbev.a003906 |issn=0737-4038 |oclc=8092394585 |s2cid=28304418 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Naidoo |first1=Thijessen |display-authors=etal |title=Development of a single base extension method to resolve Y chromosome haplogroups in sub-Saharan African populations |journal=Investigative Genetics |volume=1 |issue=1 |page=6 |date=September 2010 |pmid=21092339 |pmc=2988483 |doi=10.1186/2041-2223-1-6 |oclc=5632083214 |s2cid=18243824 |doi-access=free }}</ref> ===DNA ya mitochondria=== {{Further|DNA ya mitochondria ya ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa}} Mu vyaka pafupifupi 200,000 BP, ŵanthu ŵa mu Africa (nga ni [[Ŵasan|Ŵasan ŵa kumwera kwa Africa]]) awo ŵakaŵa na [[Haplogulu L0|haplogulu L0]] ŵakapambanika kufuma ku ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵakaŵa na haplogulu [[Haplogulu L1–6 (mtDNA)|L1′6]], awo ŵakukhala chomene kumpoto kwa [[Kumwera kwa Africa|kumwera kwa Africa]].<ref name="Sá">{{cite journal |last1=Sá |first1=Luísa |display-authors=etal |title=Phylogeography of Sub-Saharan Mitochondrial Lineages Outside Africa Highlights the Roles of the Holocene Climate Changes and the Atlantic Slave Trade |journal=International Journal of Molecular Sciences |date=16 August 2022 |volume=23 |issue=16 |page=9219 |doi=10.3390/ijms23169219 |pmid=36012483 |issn=1661-6596 |pmc=9408831 |oclc=9627558751 |s2cid=251653686|doi-access=free }}</ref> Pakati pa 130,000 BP na 75,000 BP, vinthu ivyo vikulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵakamba kuŵa na maluso gha mazuŵa ghano vikawoneka pakati pa ŵanthu ŵa ku [[Kumwera kwa Africa|Kumwera kwa Africa]], ndipo ubwezi wa nyengo yitali pakati pa chigaŵa cha Kumwera kwa Africa na [[Kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Africa|Kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Africa]] ukakhazikika.<ref name="Sá"/> Masambiro gha DNA ya mitochondria ghakulongoraso kuti Ŵasan ŵali na unandi ukuru wa nthambi zakale chomene za [[Haplogulu la DNA ya mitochondria|haplogulu ya DNA ya mitochondria]]. DNA iyi yikupokera kufuma kwa nyina pera. Haplogulu yakale chomene, [[Haplogulu L0|L0]], yikusangika chomene mu magulu gha Ŵasan ŵa kumwera kwa Africa.<ref name=j1/><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Chen |first1=Yu-Sheng |display-authors=etal |title=mtDNA variation in the South African Kung and Khwe-and their genetic relationships to other African populations |journal=American Journal of Human Genetics |volume=66 |issue=4 |pages=1362–1383 |date=April 2000 |pmid=10739760 |pmc=1288201 |doi=10.1086/302848 |oclc=679558953 |s2cid=31258611}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Tishkoff |first1=S. A. |display-authors=etal |title=History of click-speaking populations of Africa inferred from mtDNA and Y chromosome genetic variation |journal=Molecular Biology and Evolution |volume=24 |issue=10 |pages=2180–2195 |date=October 2007 |pmid=17656633 |doi=10.1093/molbev/msm155 |issn=0737-4038 |oclc=8090974992 |s2cid=17282053 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Schlebusch |first1=Carina M. |display-authors=etal |title=SNaPshot minisequencing to resolve mitochondrial macro-haplogroups found in Africa |url=[https://analyticalsciencejournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/elps.200900197](https://analyticalsciencejournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/elps.200900197) |journal=Electrophoresis |volume=30 |issue=21 |pages=3657–3664 |date=November 2009 |pmid=19810027 |doi=10.1002/elps.200900197 |issn=0173-0835 |oclc=5151862048 |s2cid=19515426|url-access=subscription }}</ref> === DNA ya thupi lose (Autosomal DNA) === Mu kafukufuku uyo ukafumiskika mu Malichi 2011, Brenna Henn na ŵanyake ŵakasanga kuti Ŵa [[ǂKhomani San|ǂKhomani San]], kweniso Ŵa [[Sandawe people|Sandawe]] na Ŵa [[Hadza people|Hadza]] ŵa ku [[Tanzania]], ŵakaŵa na kupambana kukuru kwa majini kuluska ŵanthu wose ŵanyake ŵamoyo awo ŵakasandikwa mu kafukufuku uyu. Kupambana kukuru uku kwa majini kukulongora kuti ndiko kukwenera kuŵa uko [[anatomically modern humans|ŵanthu ŵa mazuŵa ghano ŵa thupi lakukwana]] ŵakambira.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Henn |first1=Brenna |display-authors=etal |title=Hunter-gatherer genomic diversity suggests a southern African origin for modern humans |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=108 |issue=13 |pages=5154–5162 |date=March 2011 |pmid=21383195 |pmc=3069156 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1017511108 |jstor=41125668 |bibcode=2011PNAS..108.5154H |issn=0027-8424 |oclc=9529060694 |s2cid=12423756 |publisher=[[National Academy of Sciences|National Academy of Sciences]] |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Kaplan |first=Matt |year=2011 |title=Gene Study Challenges Human Origins in Eastern Africa |journal=[[Scientific American|Scientific American]] |publisher=[[Nature Publishing Group|Nature Publishing Group]] |url=[http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/gene-study-challenges-human-origin-africa/](http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/gene-study-challenges-human-origin-africa/) |issn=0036-8733 |oclc=1775222}}</ref> === DNA ya vya matenda (Medical DNA) === Pakati pa DNA yakale yakufuma ku ŵanthu ŵatatu awo ŵakaŵa ŵakusanga vyakurya mu vigaŵa vya chilengedwe (hunter-gatherers) ndipo ŵakaŵa na kufanana kwa majini na [[San people|Ŵa San]], kweniso ŵalimi ŵanayi ŵa nyengo ya Iron Age, ma [[SNPs|SNP]] ghawo ghakalongora kuti ŵakaŵa na mitundu ya majini yakovwira kulimbana na [[sleeping sickness|matenda gha tsetse fly]] na [[Plasmodium vivax]].<ref name="Pfeiffer">{{cite journal |last1=Pfeiffer |first1=Susan |title=Disease as a Factor in the African Archaeological Record |journal=The African Archaeological Review |volume=37 |issue=3 |pages=487–490 |year=2020 |pmid=32863518 |pmc=7445818 |doi=10.1007/s10437-020-09405-7 |issn=0263-0338 |oclc=8671686339 |s2cid=221320841}}</ref> Mwakudumura, ŵaŵiri pa ŵalimi ŵanayi ŵa nyengo ya Iron Age ŵakaŵa na mitundu ya majini yakovwira kulimbana na matenda gha tsetse fly, ndipo ŵatatu pa ŵalimi ŵanayi ŵakaŵa na [[Human genetic resistance to malaria#Duffy antigen receptor negativity|mitundu ya Duffy negative]] iyo yikovwira kulimbana na [[malaria]].<ref name="Pfeiffer" /> Mwakupambana na ŵalimi ŵa Iron Age, pakati pa ŵasakaji ŵakale awo ŵakaŵa paubali na Ŵa San, mwana munyamata wa vyaka 6 wakwenera kuti wakafwa chifukwa cha [[schistosomiasis|matenda gha mphutsi za mu maji]].<ref name="Pfeiffer" /> Ku [[Botswana]], mwanalume uyo wakukhala mu nyengo ya vyaka pafupifupi 1400 BP, wakwenera kuti wakaŵa na mtundu wa Duffy negative uwo ukovwira kulimbana na malaria.<ref name="Pfeiffer" /> ### Kusintha kwa majini mwa ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa (Genetic adaptation) Ma genome gha ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa agho kanandi ghakusangika kuti ghali na **kusintha kwakukhwaskana na chilengedwe (adaptation)** ghakukhwaska chomene **DNA yakulongozga umo majini ghakugwilira ntchito (regulatory DNA)**. Milandu yinandi ya kusintha uku mwa ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa yikukolerana na **vyakurya, umo thupi likugwilira ntchito (physiology),** kweniso **mphinjika za kusankha kwa chilengedwe chifukwa cha matenda (evolutionary pressure from pathogens)**.<ref name="Pfennig" /> Mu [[Sub-Saharan Africa|vigaŵa vya kumwera kwa chipalamba cha Sahara]], kusintha kwa majini (mwachiyelezgero, kusintha kwa **rs334**, [[Duffy blood group|gulu la ndopa la Duffy]], kuchuluka kwa [[Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency|kupereŵera kwa G6PD]], na [[sickle cell disease|matenda gha sickle cell]]) kwakukhwaskana na [[malaria]] kwasangwa pakati pa Ŵa ku Sub-Saharan Africa. Kusintha uku kukwenera kuti kukamba kuchitika pafupifupi vyaka 7300 BP ivyo vyajumpha.<ref name="Pfennig" /> Ŵanthu ŵa ku [[Sub-Saharan Africa|kumwera kwa Sahara]] ŵali na kupitilira 90% ya mtundu wa majini wa [[Duffy antigen system|Duffy-null]].<ref name="Wonkam">{{cite journal |last1=Wonkam |first1=Ambroise |last2=Adeyemo |first2=Adebowale |title=Leveraging our common African origins to understand human evolution and health |journal=Cell Genomics |date=March 8, 2023 |volume=3 |issue=3 |article-number=100278 |doi=10.1016/j.xgen.2023.100278 |pmid=36950382 |url=[https://www.cell.com/cell-genomics/pdf/S2666-979X(23)00038-1.pdf](https://www.cell.com/cell-genomics/pdf/S2666-979X%2823%2900038-1.pdf) |pmc=10025516 |s2cid=257458855}}</ref> Mu chigaŵa cha [[Kalahari Desert|chipalamba cha Kalahari]] mu Africa, mitundu yakupambanapambana ya kusintha kwa majini (nga ni [[adiponectin]], [[body mass index|chiyezo cha uzito wa thupi]], na [[metabolism|umo thupi likusinthira vyakurya kuŵa nkhongono]]) yasangika pakati pa Ŵa [[ǂKhomani people|ǂKhomani]].<ref name="Pfennig" /> Mu [[South Africa|South Africa]], kusintha kwa majini (nga ni rs28647531 pa [[Chromosome 4|chromosome 4q22]]) kweniso kutambuzgika chomene na [[Tuberculosis#Risk factors|TB]] kwasangwa pakati pa Ŵa [[Coloureds|Coloured]].<ref name="Pfennig" /> --- ## Ndondomeko ya nyengo ya malo gha vinthu vya kale na mitheto ya ŵanthu (Timeline of archaeological cultures and sites) * [[Lomekwi]] (vyaka 3,300,000 BP)<ref name="Berwick">{{cite book |last1=Berwick |first1=Robert C. |last2=Chomsky |first2=Noam |title=Why Only Us: Language and Evolution |date=2016 |publisher=MIT Press |page=37 |isbn=978-0-262-03424-1 |url=[https://books.google.com/books?id=8eBRCwAAQBAJ&q=Lomekwi&pg=PP6}}](https://books.google.com/books?id=8eBRCwAAQBAJ&q=Lomekwi&pg=PP6}})</ref> * [[Taung]] (vyaka 3,030,000 BP)<ref name="Kuhn">{{cite web |last1=Kuhn |first1=Brian F. |display-authors=etal |title=Renewed investigations at Taung; 90 years after the discovery of Australopithecus africanus |url=[http://wiredspace.wits.ac.za/bitstream/handle/10539/21251/2016.V51.KUHN_ET_AL_Taung.pdf?sequence=3&isAllowed=y](http://wiredspace.wits.ac.za/bitstream/handle/10539/21251/2016.V51.KUHN_ET_AL_Taung.pdf?sequence=3&isAllowed=y) |publisher=Palaeontologia africana}}</ref> * [[Sterkfontein]] (vyaka 2,800,000 BP)<ref name="Pickering">{{cite journal |last1=Pickering |first1=Robyn |last2=Kramers |first2=Jan D. |title=Re-appraisal of the stratigraphy and determination of new U-Pb dates for the Sterkfontein hominin site, South Africa |year=2010 |volume=59 |issue=1 |pages=70–86 |url=[https://www.academia.edu/446925](https://www.academia.edu/446925) |journal=Journal of Human Evolution|doi=10.1016/j.jhevol.2010.03.014 |pmid=20605190 |bibcode=2010JHumE..59...70P }}</ref> * [[Drimolen]] (vyaka 2,000,000 BP)<ref name="Stammers">{{cite web |last1=Stammers |first1=Rhiannon C. |title=The first bone tools from Kromdraai and stone tools from Drimolen, and the place of bone tools in the South African Earlier Stone Age |url=[http://www.archaeomagnetism.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/01/Stammers-et-al-2018-QR.pdf](http://www.archaeomagnetism.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/01/Stammers-et-al-2018-QR.pdf) |publisher=Quaternary International}}</ref> * [[Kromdraai fossil site|Kromdraai malo gha mafupa gha zakale]] (vyaka 2,000,000 BP)<ref name="Stammers" /> * [[Cooper's Cave]] (vyaka 1,900,000 BP)<ref name="Steininger">{{cite journal |last1=Steininger |first1=Christine |display-authors=etal |title=A partial skull of Paranthropus robustus from Cooper's Cave, South Africa |issue=3–4 |pages=143–146 |url=[http://www.scielo.org.za/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0038-23532008000200014](http://www.scielo.org.za/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0038-23532008000200014) |journal=South African Journal of Science|date=April 2008 |volume=104 }}</ref> * [[Canteen Kopje]] (vyaka 1,890,000 BP)<ref name="Smith">{{cite journal |last1=Smith |first1=Patricia |display-authors=etal |title=Canteen Kopje: a new look at an old skull |issue=1–2 |pages=01–09 |journal=South African Journal of Science|date=January 2012 |volume=108 |doi=10.4102/sajs.v108i1/2.738 |doi-access=free }}</ref> * [[Swartkrans]] (vyaka 1,800,000 BP)<ref name="D'Errico">{{cite web |last1=D'Errico |first1=Francesco |last2=Backwell |first2=Lucinda |title=Possible Evidence of Bone Tool Shaping by Swartkrans Early Hominids |url=[https://www.researchgate.net/publication/223636936](https://www.researchgate.net/publication/223636936) |publisher=Journal of Archaeological Science}}</ref> * [[Motsetsi]] (vyaka 1,640,000 ivyo vyajumpha (BP))<ref name="Berger">{{cite web |last1=Berger |first1=L.R. |last2=Lacruz |first2=R. |title=Preliminary report on the firstexcavations at the new fossil siteof Motsetse, Gauteng, South Africa |url=https://journals.co.za/doi/pdf/10.10520/EJC97627 |publisher=South African Journal of Science}}</ref> * [[Wonderwerk Cave]] (vyaka 1,000,000 ivyo vyajumpha (BP))<ref name="Berna">{{cite web |last1=Berna |first1=Francesco |title=Microstratigraphic evidence of in situfire in theAcheulean strata of Wonderwerk Cave, Northern Cape province, South Africa |url=https://www.pnas.org/content/pnas/109/20/E1215.full.pdf |publisher=Francesco Berna |ref=PNAS}}</ref> * [[Amanzi Springs archaeological site]] ([[Pleistocene chapakati]])<ref name="Petraglia">{{cite journal |last1=Petraglia |first1=Michael |title=The large cutting tools from the South African Acheulean and the question of social traditions |issue=5 |page=653 |url=https://www.academia.edu/471301 |journal=Current Anthropology|year=2004 |volume=45 |doi=10.1086/423973 |s2cid=163124683 }}</ref> * [[Rising Star Cave]] (vyaka 414,000 ivyo vyajumpha (BP))<ref name="Dirks">{{cite journal |last1=Dirks |first1=Paul HGM |display-authors=etal |title=The age of Homo naledi and associated sediments in the Rising Star Cave, South Africa |year=2017 |volume=6 |journal=eLife|doi=10.7554/eLife.24231 |pmid=28483040 |pmc=5423772 |doi-access=free }}</ref> * [[Kalambo Falls]] (vyaka 300,000 BP – 200,000 BP)<ref name="Clark">{{cite book |last1=Clark |first1=J.D. |title=Kalambo Falls Prehistoric Site: Volume 3, The Earlier Cultures: Middle and Earlier Stone Age |date=1969 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=28 |isbn=978-0-521-20071-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QYGwagdt9MQC&dq=%22Kalambo+Falls%22+%22BP%22+Africa&pg=PP14}}</ref> * [[Duinefontein]] (vyaka 290,000 BP)<ref name="Cruz-Uribe">{{cite web |last1=Cruz-Uribe |first1=Kathryn |display-authors=etal |title=Excavation of buried Late Acheulean (Mid-Quaternary) land surfaces at Duinefontein 2, Western Cape Province, South Africa |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/223255530 |publisher=Journal of Archaeological Science}}</ref> * [[Gladysvale Cave]] (vyaka 257,000 BP)<ref name="Backwell">{{cite web |last1=Backwell |first1=Lucinda |display-authors=etal |title=Probable human hair found in a fossil hyaena coprolite from Gladysvale cave, South Africa |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/223705742 |publisher=Journal of Archaeological Science}}</ref> * [[Florisbad archaeological and paleontological site]] (vyaka 200,000 BP)<ref name="Kuman">{{cite web |last1=Kuman |first1=K. |last2=Clarke |first2=R. |title=Florisbad—New investigations at a middle stone age Hominid Site in South Africa |url=http://hesp.irmacs.sfu.ca/sites/hesp.irmacs.sfu.ca/files/kuman_1986_-_new_investigations_at_florisbad.pdf |publisher=Geoarchaeology}}</ref> * [[Mumbwa Caves]] (vyaka 194,000 BP – 124,000 BP)<ref name="Avery">{{cite journal |last1=Avery |first1=D.M. |title=Early and Middle Pleistocene environments and hominid biogeography; micromammalian evidence from Kabwe, Twin Rivers and Mumbwa Caves in central Zambia |year=2003 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S003101820200593X |journal=Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology|volume=189 |issue=1–2 |pages=55–69 |doi=10.1016/S0031-0182(02)00593-X |bibcode=2003PPP...189...55A |url-access=subscription }}</ref> * [[Pinnacle Point]] (vyaka 164,000 BP)<ref name="Marean">{{cite web |last1=Marean |first1=Curtis W. |title=The stratigraphy of the Middle Stone Age sediments at Pinnacle PointCave 13B (Mossel Bay, Western Cape Province, South Africa) |url=http://www.archaeomagnetism.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/03/Marean-et-al-2010-JHE.pdf |publisher=Journal of Human Evolution}}</ref> * [[Hoedjiespunt]] (vyaka 130,000 BP)<ref name="Kyriacou">{{cite journal |last1=Kyriacou |first1=K. |title=Middle and Later Stone Age shellfish exploitation strategies and coastal foraging at Hoedjiespunt and Lynch Point, Saldanha Bay, South Africa |year=2015 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S030544031500031X |journal=Journal of Archaeological Science|volume=57 |pages=197–206 |doi=10.1016/j.jas.2015.01.018 |bibcode=2015JArSc..57..197K |url-access=subscription }}</ref> * [[Ngalue]] (vyaka 105,000 BP)<ref name="Mercader">{{cite journal |last1=Mercader |first1=Julio |display-authors=etal |title=Initial excavation and dating of Ngalue Cave: A Middle Stone Age site along the Niassa Rift, Mozambique |year=2009 |volume=57 |issue=1 |pages=63–74 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0047248409000633 |journal=Journal of Human Evolution|doi=10.1016/j.jhevol.2009.03.005 |pmid=19487015 |bibcode=2009JHumE..57...63M |url-access=subscription }}</ref> * [[Blombos Cave]] (vyaka 84,000 ivyo vyajumpha (BP))<ref name="Backwell II">{{cite web |last1=Backwell |first1=Lucinda |last2=D'Errico |first2=Francesco |last3=Wadley |first3=Lyn |title=Middle Stone Age bone tools from the Howiesons Poort layers, Sibudu Cave, South Africa |url=http://in-africa.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/12/Backwell-et-al-2008-JAS-MSA-bone-tools-from-HP-layers-Sibudu.pdf |publisher=Journal of Archaeological Science}}</ref> * [[Stillbay]] (vyaka 80,000 BP)<ref name="Lovell">{{cite web |last1=Lovell |first1=Nancy C |last2=Palichuk |first2=Kimberley E. |title=Task activity and tooth wear in a woman of ancient Egypt |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/331309201 |publisher=Bioarchaeology of Marginalized People}}</ref> * [[Howieson's Poort Shelter]] (vyaka 80,000 BP – 60,000 BP)<ref name="Jacobs">{{cite journal |last1=Jacobs |first1=Zenobia |display-authors=etal |title=Ages for the Middle Stone Age of Southern Africa: Implications for Human Behavior and Dispersal |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/23441925 |journal=Science|year=2008 |volume=322 |issue=5902 |pages=733–735 |doi=10.1126/science.1162219 |pmid=18974351 |bibcode=2008Sci...322..733J |hdl=1885/32902 |s2cid=206514762 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> * [[Mousteroid]] (vyaka 80,000 BP – 50,000 BP)<ref>O. Davies (1964)</ref><ref>J. D. Clark (1967)</ref> * Peers Cave (vyaka 75,000 BP)<ref name="Backwell II" /> * [[Howiesons Poort]] (vyaka 68,000 BP – 60,000 BP)<ref name="Gibson">{{cite web |last1=Gibson |first1=N. E. |last2=Wadley |first2=L. |last3=Williamson |first3=B. S. |title=Microscopic residues as evidence of hafting on backed tools from the 60 000 to 68 000 year-old Howiesons Poort layers of Rose Cottage Cave, South Africa |url=https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.902.9496&rep=rep1&type=pdf |publisher=Southern African Humanities|citeseerx=10.1.1.902.9496 }}</ref> * [[Boomplaas Cave]] (vyaka 66,000 BP)<ref name="Pargeter">{{cite web |last1=Pargeter |first1=Justin |title=New ages from Boomplaas Cave, South Africa, provideincreased resolution on late/terminal Pleistocene humanbehavioural variability |url=https://sites.lsa.umich.edu/brianstewart/wp-content/uploads/sites/62/2018/03/New-ages-from-Boomplaas-Cave-South-Africa-provide-increased-resolution-on-late-terminal-Pleistocene-human-behavioural-variability.pdf |publisher=Azania: Archaeological Research In Africa}}</ref> * [[Klasies River Caves]] (vyaka 66,000 BP)<ref name="Backwell II" /> * [[Diepkloof Rock Shelter]] (vyaka 65,000 BP)<ref name="Verna">{{cite journal |last1=Verna |first1=Christine |display-authors=etal |title=The Middle Stone Age human remains from Diepkloof Rock Shelter (Western Cape, South Africa) |year=2013 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0305440313001350 |journal=Journal of Archaeological Science|volume=40 |issue=9 |pages=3532–3541 |doi=10.1016/j.jas.2013.04.011 |bibcode=2013JArSc..40.3532V |url-access=subscription }}</ref> * [[Plovers Lake]] (vyaka 62,900 BP)<ref name="Brophy">{{cite journal |last1=Brophy |first1=Juliet |display-authors=etal |title=Faunal assemblage composition and paleoenvironment of Plovers Lake, a Middle Stone Age locality in Gauteng Province, South Africa |year=2008 |volume=55 |issue=6 |pages=1102–1117 |url=https://www.academia.edu/9373821 |journal=Journal of Human Evolution|doi=10.1016/j.jhevol.2008.07.011 |pmid=18954892 |bibcode=2008JHumE..55.1102D }}</ref> * [[Sibudu Cave]] (vyaka 61,000 BP)<ref name="Backwell II" /> * [[Fauresmith (industry)]] (vyaka 60,300 BP – 32,600 BP)<ref name="Herries">{{cite journal |last1=Herries |first1=Andy I. R. |title=A Chronological Perspective on the Acheulian and ItsTransition to the Middle Stone Age in Southern Africa:The Question of the Fauresmith |date=2011 |url=https://downloads.hindawi.com/archive/2011/961401.pdf |journal=International Journal of Evolutionary Biology|issue=1 |pages=1–25 |doi=10.4061/2011/961401 |doi-access=free |pmid=21785711 |pmc=3139141 }}</ref> * [[Border Cave]] (vyaka 58,200 BP)<ref name="Bird">{{cite journal |last1=Bird |first1=M.I. |display-authors=etal |title=Radiocarbon dating from 40 to 60 ka BP at Border Cave, South Africa |year=2003 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0277379103000052 |journal=Quaternary Science Reviews|volume=22 |issue=8–9 |pages=943–947 |doi=10.1016/S0277-3791(03)00005-2 |bibcode=2003QSRv...22..943B |url-access=subscription }}</ref> * [[Ngwenya Mine]] (vyaka 43,000 BP)<ref name="Watling">{{cite web |last1=Watling |first1=Sarah Elizabeth |title=What Does The Mine Have To Tell Us? Art As A Reclamation Streategy In The Post-Mined Landscape Of The Oldest Known Mine In The World, Ngwenya Mine Swaziland |url=https://drum.lib.umd.edu/bitstream/handle/1903/14237/Watling_umd_0117N_14329.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=n |publisher=University of Maryland}}</ref> * [[Apollo 11 Cave]] (vyaka 30,000 BP)<ref name="Haaland">{{cite web |last1=Haaland |first1=Magnus |display-authors=etal |title=Pleistocene Figurative Art Mobilier From Apollo 11 Cave, Karas Region, Southern Namibia |url=https://www.academia.edu/14617050 |publisher=South African Archaeological Bulletin}}</ref> * [[Elands Bay Cave]] (vyaka 19,398 BP)<ref name="Porraz">{{cite web |last1=Porraz |first1=Guillaume |display-authors=etal |title=A shape to the microlithic Robberg from Elands BayCave (South Africa) |url=https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-02517687/document |publisher=Southern African Humanities}}</ref> * [[Tsodilo]] (vyaka 14,500 BP)<ref name="Robbins">{{cite web |last1=Robbins |first1=Lawrence H. |display-authors=etal |title=World's Oldest Ritual Site? The"Python Cave" at Tsodilo Hills World Heritage Site, Botswana |url=https://static1.squarespace.com/static/5bd0e66f8d97400eb0099556/t/5bddf66f40ec9a449daf1e88/1541273199732/Nyame+Akuma+Issue+067-Robbins.pdf |publisher=Nyame Akuma}}</ref> * [[Mwela Rock Paintings]] (vyaka 10,820 BP)<ref name="Muianga">{{cite web |last1=Muianga |first1=Décio |title=Rock Art and Ancient Material Culture of Cahora Bassa Dam, Tete Province, Mozambique |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/279443446 |publisher=University of the Witwatersrand}}</ref> * [[Kalemba Rockshelter]] (vyaka 10,000 BP – 8,000 BP)<ref name="Robinson">{{cite journal |last1=Robinson |first1=Joshua R. |last2=Rowan |first2=John |title=Holocene paleoenvironmental change in southeastern Africa (Makwe Rockshelter, Zambia): Implications for the spread of pastoralism |year=2017 |journal=Quaternary Science Reviews|volume=156 |pages=57–68 |doi=10.1016/j.quascirev.2016.11.030 |bibcode=2017QSRv..156...57R |doi-access=free }}</ref> * [[Matsieng Footprints]] (vyaka 10,000 BP – 3000 BP)<ref name="Matsieng">{{cite web |title=Matsieng Footprints |url=http://www.botswanatourism.co.bw/attractions/matsieng_footprints.html |publisher=Botswana Tourism Board|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100725080508/http://www.botswanatourism.co.bw/attractions/matsieng_footprints.html |archive-date=2010-07-25 }}</ref> * [[Nelson Bay Cave]] (vyaka 9000 BP)<ref name="Backwell II" /> * Jubilee Shelter (vyaka 8500 BP)<ref name="Backwell II" /> * [[Twyfelfontein]] (vyaka 5850 BP)<ref name="Imalwa">{{cite web |last1=Imalwa |first1=Emma |title=Analysis of the Management of Twyfelfontein World Heritage Site, Namibia |url=https://repositorio.utad.pt/bitstream/10348/6089/1/phd_eimalwa.pdf |publisher=Universidade de Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro}}</ref> * [[Rose Cottage Cave]] (vyaka 4000 BP)<ref name="Backwell II" /> * [[The White Lady (Namibia)|The White Lady]] (3000 B.C.E. – 1500 B.C.E.)<ref name="Dubow">{{cite web |last1=Dubow |first1=Saul |title=Henri Breuil And The Imagination Of Prehistory:'Mixing Up Rubble, Trouble And Stratification' |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/332735840 |publisher=South African Archaeological Society Goodwin Series}}</ref> * [[Mussel Point]] (vyaka 3500 BP)<ref name="Jerardino">{{cite web |last1=Jerardino |first1=Antonieta |title=Mid- to late-Holocene sea-level fluctuations: the archaeological evidence at Tortoise Cave, south-western Cape, South Africa |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/292257945 |publisher=Suid-Afrikaanse Tydskrif vir Wetenskap}}</ref> * [[Byneskranskop]] (vyaka 3200 BP – 1500 BP)<ref name="Bräuer">{{cite book |last1=Bräuer |first1=Günter |last2=Friedrich |first2=Wilhelm Rösing |title=Afrika II: Südafrika: Human biological history of southern Africa. Le peuplement de Madagascar |date=Dec 3, 2018 |publisher=Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG |isbn=978-3-486-82584-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W7N6DwAAQBAJ&dq=%22Bambandyanalo%22+%22BP%22+Africa&pg=PA6}}</ref> * [[Driekops Eiland]] (vyaka 2500 BP)<ref name="Morris">{{cite web |last1=Morris |first1=David Roger Neacalbann McIntyre |title=Driekopseiland and "the rain's magic power': history and landscape in a new interpretation of a Northern Cape rock engraving site |url=https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/58912508.pdf |publisher=University of Western Cape}}</ref> * [[Bambata Cave]] (mu chaka cha 215 C.E.)<ref name="Huffman">{{cite web |last1=Huffman |first1=Thomas |title=The stylistic origin of Bambata and the spread of mixed farming in southern Africa |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/264852616 |publisher=Southern African Humanities}}</ref> * [[Ziwa]] (vyaka 1630 BP)<ref name="Huffman II">{{cite web |last1=Huffman |first1=Thomas |title=Mapungubwe and Great Zimbabwe: The Origin and Spread of Social Complexity in Southern Africa |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/248572439 |publisher=Journal of Anthropological Archaeology}}</ref> * [[Chibuene]] (mu vyaka vya m’ma 7 C.E.)<ref name="Robertshaw">{{cite web |last1=Robertshaw |first1=Peter |display-authors=etal |title=Glass finds from Chibuene, a 6th to 17th century AD port in southern Mozambique |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/265050510 |publisher=The South African Archaeological Bulletin}}</ref> * [[Toutswemogala Hill]] (mu vyaka vya m’ma 7 C.E. – 19 C.E.)<ref name="UNESCO">{{cite web |title=Toutswemogala Hill Iron Age Settlement |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/1340/ |publisher=UNESCO}}</ref> * [[Leopard's Kopje]] (mu vyaka vya m’ma 750 C.E. – 800 C.E.)<ref name="Huffman III">{{cite web |last1=Huffman |first1=Thomas |title=A cultural proxy for drought: ritual burning in the Iron age of Southern Africa |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/248579741 |publisher=Journal of Archaeological Science}}</ref> * [[Bambandyanalo]] (mu chaka cha 1000 C.E.)<ref name="Bräuer" /> * [[Great Zimbabwe]] (mu chaka cha 1300 C.E.)<ref name="Huffman IV">{{cite journal |last1=Huffman |first1=Tom |title=Mapungubwe and Great Zimbabwe: The origin and spread of social complexity in southern Africa |date=2009 |url=https://www.academia.edu/7500155 |journal=Journal of Anthropological Archaeology|volume=28 |pages=37–54 |doi=10.1016/J.JAA.2008.10.004 }}</ref> * [[Domboshaba]] (mu vyaka vya m’ma 1300 C.E. – 1600 C.E.)<ref name="De Wit">{{cite journal |last1=De Wit |first1=Michiel C. J. |title=Prospecting history leading to the discovery of Botswana's diamond mines: from artefacts to Lesedi La Rona |year=2018 |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00710-018-0556-0 |journal=Mineralogy and Petrology|volume=112 |issue=1 |pages=7–22 |doi=10.1007/s00710-018-0556-0 |bibcode=2018MinPe.112....7D |hdl=2263/64747 |s2cid=189943118 |hdl-access=free |url-access=subscription }}</ref> * [[Majojo]] (mu vyaka vya m’ma 1300 C.E. – 1650 C.E.)<ref name="Ossola">{{cite book |last1=Ossola |first1=Paola |last2=Grechi |first2=Daniele |title=Botswana Cultural Heritage and Sustainable Tourism Development A Handbook of Theory and Practice |date=2020 |publisher=Cambridge Scholars Publishing |page=253 |isbn=978-1-5275-4956-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HkfhDwAAQBAJ&dq=Majojo+1300-1650+AD&pg=PA253}}</ref> * [[Mbande Hill]] (vyaka 600 BP)<ref name="Seitsonen">{{cite web |last1=Seitsonen |first1=Oula |title=Lithics After Stone Age In East Africa Wadh Lang'o Case Study |url=https://helda.helsinki.fi/bitstream/handle/10138/19613/lithicsa.pdf?sequence=3&isAllowed=y |publisher=University Of Helsinki Institute For Cultural Studies}}</ref> * [[Kingdom of Mapungubwe]] (mu vyaka vya m’ma 1370 C.E. – 1410 C.E.)<ref name="Bräuer" /> * [[Manyikeni]] (mu vyaka vya m’ma 14 C.E.)<ref name="Jopela">{{cite web |last1=Jopela |first1=Albino Pereira de Jesus |title=Traditional Custodianship Of Rock Art Sites In Southern Africa: A Case Study From Central Mozambique |url=http://wiredspace.wits.ac.za/bitstream/handle/10539/8878/MA%20Thesis%20-%20Jopela.pdf?sequence=2 |publisher=University of the Witwatersrand}}</ref> * [[Khami]] (mu vyaka vya m’ma 1450 C.E. – 1820 C.E.)<ref name="Chirikure">{{cite journal |last1=Chirikure |first1=Shadreck |display-authors=etal |title=New Pathways of Sociopolitical Complexity in Southern Africa |year=2013 |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10437-013-9142-3?shared-article-renderer |journal=African Archaeological Review|volume=30 |issue=4 |pages=339–366 |doi=10.1007/s10437-013-9142-3 |s2cid=254192991 |hdl=2263/41780 |hdl-access=free |url-access=subscription }}</ref> * [[Dzata ruins]] (pambere pa chaka cha 1600 C.E.)<ref name="Swanepoel">{{cite book |last1=Swanepoel |first1=Natalie |last2=Esterhuysen |first2=Amanda |title=Five Hundred Years Rediscovered: Southern African precedents and prospects |date=Aug 1, 2008 |publisher=NYU Press |isbn=978-1-77614-228-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hjZjDwAAQBAJ&q=dzata&pg=PT8}}</ref> * [[Blaauboschkraal stone ruins]] (mu vyaka vya m’ma 16 C.E.)<ref name="Bokoni">{{cite web |title=The Bokoni story unearthed |date=26 February 2015 |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2015-02-26-the-bokoni-story-unearthed/ |publisher=Mail & Guardian Online}}</ref> * [[Ingombe Ilede]] (mu vyaka vya m’ma 16 C.E.)<ref name="McIntosh">{{cite journal |last1=McIntosh |first1=Susan Keech |last2=Fagan |first2=Brian M. |title=Re-dating the Ingombe Ilede burials |date=2017 |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/antiquity/article/redating-the-ingombe-ilede-burials/E15825A560157DBC4389DD416013A859 |journal=Antiquity|volume=91 |issue=358 |pages=1069–1077 |doi=10.15184/aqy.2017.74 |url-access=subscription }}</ref> * [[Danangombe]] (mu vyaka vya m’ma 1650 C.E. – 1815 C.E.)<ref name="Pikirayi">{{cite book |last1=Pikirayi |first1=Innocent |title=The Zimbabwe Culture Origins and Decline of Social Complexity in Southern Zambezian States |date=2002 |publisher=AltaMira Press |isbn=978-0-585-38649-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QZ2aAAAAQBAJ&q=Danangombe}}</ref> * [[Burchell's Shelter]] (pamanyuma pa 1660 C.E.)<ref name="Vogel">{{cite web |last1=Vogel |first1=J.C. |display-authors=etal |title=Pretoria Radiocarbon Dates III |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/469F44D9DB5C543B6285300463751FF4/S003382220002018Xa.pdf/pretoria_radiocarbon_dates_iii.pdf |publisher=Radiocarbon}}</ref> * [[Mamuno Monument]] (vyaka 200 BP)<ref name="Litherland">{{cite journal |last1=Litherland |first1=M. |display-authors=etal |title=Rock Engravings from Mamuno |year=1975 |journal=Botswana Notes and Records|volume=7 |pages=19–28 |jstor=40979420 }}</ref> * [[Kaditshwene]] (mu chaka cha 1790 C.E.)<ref name="Boeyens">{{cite web |last1=Boeyens |first1=J.C.A. |last2=Plug |first2=I. |title='A chief is like an ash-heap on which is gathered all therefuse': the faunal remains from the central court middenat Kaditshwene |url=http://uir.unisa.ac.za/bitstream/handle/10500/4190/BOEYENS-high-res.pdf?sequence=1 |publisher=Annals Of The Ditsong National Museum Of Natural History}}</ref> * [[Bumbusi National Monument]] (mu vyaka vya m’ma 18 C.E.)<ref name="Haynes">{{cite web |last1=Haynes |first1=Gary |title=Puzzling over the Bumbusi Spoor Engravings in Zimbabwe |work=Paper presented at SAA annual meeting |date=January 2010 |url=https://www.academia.edu/2916049 |publisher=SAA}}</ref> * [[Tlokwe Ruins]] (mu vyaka vya m’ma 19 C.E.)<ref name="Anderson">{{cite web |last1=Anderson |first1=Mark Steven |title=The historical archaeology of Marothodi: towards an understanding of space, identity and the organisation of production at an early 19th century Tlokwa capital in the Pilansberg region of South Africa |date=2009 |url=https://open.uct.ac.za/handle/11427/8924 |publisher=University of Cape Town}}</ref> * [[Old Palapye]] (mu vyaka vya m’ma 19 C.E.)<ref name="Reid">{{cite book |last1=Reid |first1=Andrew M. |last2=Lane |first2=Paul J. |title=African Historical Archaeologies |date=Nov 30, 2003 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-0-306-47996-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T3PUSDyy4vQC&q=Old+Palapye&pg=PA1}}</ref> * [[Dundo]] (mu chaka cha 1912 C.E.)<ref name="Bednarski">{{cite web |last1=Bednarski |first1=Cezary M |title=Urbanisation in Africa –Taking Angola as an Example |url=https://www.salzburgglobal.org/fileadmin/user_upload/Documents/2010-2019/2016/Session_559/C_Bednarski_.IABSE-Geneva_09.2015.pdf |publisher=IABSE Conference –Structural Engineering: Providing Solutions to Global Challenge}}</ref> ===Mndandanda wa mitundu ya vya m'mabwinja na malo gha m'mbiri=== * [[Mapanga gha Cango]] * [[Jiso la Kuruman]] * [[Maji ghakotcha gha Gwisho]] * [[Chuma cha Western Cape]] * [[Malo gha m'mabwinja gha Kathu]] * [[ǁKhauxaǃnas]] * [[Pango la Kogelbeen]] * [[Mission ya Kolobeng]] * [[Mabwinja gha Kweneng]] * [[Magosian]] * [[Makapansgat]] * [[Malapa Fossil Site, Mlonga wa Umo Ŵanthu Ŵakafumira]] * [[Pango la Melkhoutboom]] * [[Melville Koppies]] * [[Naletale]] * [[Malo gha myala yakuzizima gha Nooitgedacht]] * [[Ulamuliro wa vya chiharo cha Northern Cape]] * [[Mafunde gha Nyambwezi]] * [[Malo gha visulo vya Paternoster]] * [[Sangoan]] * [[Schoemansdal, Limpopo]] * [[Nyumba za myala za Sedan za nga njuchi]] * [[Malo gha vithuzithuzi vya pa myala gha Wildebeest Kuil]] * [[Pango la Witsie (Lekhalong la Witsie)]] ==Wonani so== *[[Mndandanda wa maufumu mu Africa mu nyengo yakale#Kummwera kwa Africa]] ==Mabuku gha umo vyafumira== {{reflist}} {{Africa topics}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Kummwera kwa Africa]] [[Category:Mbiri ya Kummwera kwa Africa]] [[Category:Mbiri ya Africa mwakuyana na chigaŵa]] [[Category:Africa iyo yili pasi pa Sahara]] [[Category:Mbiri ya chilengedwe ya Africa]] a54dzk1pqt15szl38am4m0u8ldk2fd1 0 48181 119299 118826 2026-08-13T22:07:48Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260813sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 119299 wikitext text/x-wiki {{pp-protected|small=yes}} {{Short description|Udindo wa chisisiro wa pa dango uwo uli wachiŵiri pachanya chomene mu United States}} {{For|mndandanda wa ŵachiŵiri ŵa mlongozgi ŵa United States|Mndandanda wa ŵachiŵiri ŵa mlongozgi ŵa United States}} {{Use American English|date=February 2026}} {{Use mdy dates|date=August 2018}} {{Infobox official post | post = Wachiŵiri wa Mlongozgi | body = wa United States | insignia = US Vice President Seal.svg | insigniasize = 145 | insigniacaption = [[Chimanyikwilo cha Wachiŵiri wa Mlongozgi wa United States|Chimanyikwilo cha Wachiŵiri wa Mlongozgi]] | flag = Flag of the Vice President of the United States.svg | flagsize = 145 | flagborder = yes | flagcaption = [[Mbendera ya Wachiŵiri wa Mlongozgi wa United States|Mbendera ya Wachiŵiri wa Mlongozgi]] | image = March 2026 Official Vice Presidential Portrait of JD Vance (3x4 cropped).jpg | incumbent = [[JD Vance]] | incumbentsince = January 20, 2025 | department = {{ubl|[[Nyumba ya Malango ya United States|United States Senate]]|[[Nthambi ya Executive ya Boma la United States]]|[[Ofesi ya Wachiŵiri wa Mlongozgi wa United States]]}} | style = {{ubl|[[Mlongozgi (zina la udindo wa boma)|Bwana Wachiŵiri wa Mlongozgi]] (mwamwambo yayi)|[[The Honourable#United States|Wakuchindikika]] (mwamwambo)|[[Mlongozgi (zina la udindo wa boma)|Bwana Mlongozgi]] (mu Nyumba ya Malango)|[[Excellency|Wakuchindikika Chomene]] (pa vya wanthavi)}} | unofficial_names = VPOTUS,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/VPOTUS|title=VPOTUS|work=[[Merriam-Webster]]|accessdate=February 10, 2021|archive-date=January 25, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210125113323/https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/VPOTUS|url-status=live}}</ref> VP, Veep<ref name="Veep">{{Cite web |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/veep |title=Veep |work=Merriam-Webster |access-date=February 14, 2021 |archive-date=October 14, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201014174159/https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/veep |url-status=live }}</ref> | member_of = {{ubl|[[Kabineti ya United States|Kabineti]]|[[National Security Council ya United States]]|[[National Space Council]]|[[National Economic Council (United States)|National Economic Council]]|[[Nyumba ya Malango ya United States|United States Senate]]}} | status = {{ubl|Udindo wa wachiŵiri pachanya chomene mu nthambi ya executive|[[Mlongozgi wa Nyumba ya Malango]]}} | residence = [[Number One Observatory Circle]] | seat = [[Washington, D.C.]] | appointer = [[Electoral College (United States)|Electoral College]], panji usange palije wakukhala pa udindo uwu, [[Mlongozgi wa United States]] kwizira mu [[Twenty-fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution#Section 2: Vice presidential vacancy|kukhozgeka na Congress]] | termlength = Vyaka vinayi, palije mphaka ya nyengo ya uteŵeti | constituting_instrument = [[Dango Likuru la United States]] | formation = {{start date and age|1789|3|4|p=1|br=1}}<ref name="formation">"The conventions of nine states having adopted the Constitution, Congress, in September or October, 1788, passed a resolution in conformity with the opinions expressed by the Convention and appointed the first Wednesday in March of the ensuing year as the day, and the then seat of Congress as the place, 'for commencing proceedings under the Constitution.'<p> "Both governments could not be understood to exist at the same time. The new government did not commence until the old government expired. It is apparent that the government did not commence on the Constitution's being ratified by the ninth state, for these ratifications were to be reported to Congress, whose continuing existence was recognized by the Convention, and who were requested to continue to exercise their powers for the purpose of bringing the new government into operation. In fact, Congress did continue to act as a government until it dissolved on the first of November by the successive disappearance of its members. It existed potentially until 2 March, the day preceding that on which the members of the new Congress were directed to assemble."{{ussc|name=Owings v. Speed|link=supreme.justia.com|volume=18|page=420|pin=422|year=1820|reporter=Wheat|reporter-volume=5}}</p></ref><ref>{{cite book| last=Maier|first=Pauline | author-link=Pauline Maier| title=Ratification: The People Debate the Constitution, 1787–1788| url=https://archive.org/details/ratificationpeop00paul|date=2010|publisher=Simon & Schuster|location=New York | isbn=978-0-684-86854-7| page=[https://archive.org/details/ratificationpeop00paul/page/433 433]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=March 4: A forgotten huge day in American history|date=March 4, 2013|url=https://constitutioncenter.org/blog/march-4-a-forgotten-huge-day-in-american-politics/|publisher=[[National Constitution Center]]|location=Philadelphia|access-date=July 24, 2018|archive-date=February 24, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180224184927/https://constitutioncenter.org/blog/march-4-a-forgotten-huge-day-in-american-politics|url-status=live}}</ref> | first = [[John Adams]]<ref>{{cite book| last=Smith| first=Page| author-link=Page Smith| title=John Adams|volume=Two 1784–1826| date=1962| publisher=Doubleday| location=Garden City, New York| page=744}}</ref> | succession = [[Mndandanda wa kulondezgana pa udindo wa Mlongozgi wa United States|Wakwamba]]<ref name=XXVHeritage>{{cite web|title=Essays on Amendment XXV: Presidential Succession|work=The Heritage Guide to the Constitution|last=Feerick|first=John|url=https://www.heritage.org/constitution/#!/amendments/25/essays/187/presidential-succession|publisher=The Heritage Foundation|access-date=July 3, 2018|archive-date=August 22, 2020|archive-url=https://archive.today/20200822232208/https://www.heritage.org/constitution/%23!/amendments/8/essays/161/cruel-and-unusual-punishment#!/amendments/25/essays/187/presidential-succession|url-status=unfit}}</ref> | salary = $284,600 pa chaka | website = {{URL|https://www.whitehouse.gov/administration/jd-vance/|whitehouse.gov}} }} '''Wachiŵiri wa Mlongozgi<!--"wachiŵiri wa mlongozgi" walembeka na vilembo vichoko pano chifukwa wali panthazi na lizgu lakulongosora lakuti "The", kuyana na [[MOS:JOBTITLES]] bullet 3 na chiyezgero 1 mu column 2 ya tebulo. Chilichose chakukhumbikwira kusintha ulongozgi uwu chikwenera kulembeka pa peji la kudumbiskirana lake, [[WT:MOSBIO]].--> wa United States''' ('''VPOTUS''', '''VP''', panji mwakuzgoŵeleka '''veep''')<ref name="Veep"/> ni udindo wa wachiŵiri wapachanya chomene mu [[Nthambi ya Executive ya Boma la United States|nthambi ya executive]]<ref>{{cite news |work=[[The Christian Science Monitor]] |date=October 14, 2014 |first=Steve |last=Weinberg |title='The American Vice Presidency' sketches all 47 men who held America's second-highest office |access-date=October 6, 2019 |url=https://www.csmonitor.com/Books/Book-Reviews/2014/1014/The-American-Vice-Presidency-sketches-all-47-men-who-held-America-s-second-highest-office |archive-date=October 6, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191006061616/https://www.csmonitor.com/Books/Book-Reviews/2014/1014/The-American-Vice-Presidency-sketches-all-47-men-who-held-America-s-second-highest-office |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |website=USLegal.com |date=n.d. |title=Vice President |access-date=October 6, 2019 |quote=The Vice President of the United States is the second highest executive office of the United States government, after the President. |url=https://system.uslegal.com/executive-branch/vice-president/ |archive-date=October 25, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121025034243/https://system.uslegal.com/executive-branch/vice-president/ |url-status=live }}</ref> ya [[Boma la Federal la United States]], pamanyuma pa [[Mlongozgi wa United States]], ndipo wali pa malo ghakwamba mu [[Mndandanda wa kulondezgana pa udindo wa Mlongozgi wa United States|mndandanda wa kulondezgana pa udindo wa mlongozgi]]. Wachiŵiri wa mlongozgi nayo ni msilikali mu [[Nthambi ya Malango ya Boma la Federal la United States|nthambi ya malango]], ndipo ndiyo '''Mulongozgi wa Nyumba ya Malango'''. Mu udindo uwu, wachiŵiri wa mlongozgi wali na mazaza gha [[Mulongozgi wa Nyumba ya Malango ya United States|kulongozga]] [[Nyumba ya Malango ya United States]], kweni wangavota yayi kwambura para wakupereka [[Mndandanda wa mavoti ghakupatura agho ghakaperekeka na Wachiŵiri wa Mlongozgi wa United States|voti lakupatura para mavoti ghakuyana]].<ref name=USlegal-VP>{{Cite web| title=Executive Branch: Vice President| work=The US Legal System| url=https://system.uslegal.com/executive-branch/vice-president/| publisher=U.S. Legal Support| access-date=February 20, 2018| archive-date=October 25, 2012| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121025034243/https://system.uslegal.com/executive-branch/vice-president/| url-status=live}}</ref> Wachiŵiri wa mlongozgi wakusankhika pa nyengo yimoza na mlongozgi kuti wateŵetere kwa vyaka vinayi na ŵanthu ŵa ku United States kwizira mu [[Electoral College (United States)|Electoral College]], kweni mavoti gha Electoral College ghakuponyeka mwakupambana pa maudindo ghaŵiri agha.<ref name=USlegal-VP/> Pamanyuma pakuti mu 1967 pakajumphapo [[Twenty-fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Sintho la Dango Likuru la nambala 25]] la Dango Likuru la United States, mpando wa wachiŵiri wa mlongozgi uwo walekeka ungazuzgika na munthu uyo wasankhika na mlongozgi na kukhozgeka na mavoti gha ŵanandi mu nyumba zose ziŵiri za Congress. Ichi chikajintha pa [[Tyler Precedent]] iyo yikakhazikiskika mu 1841 apo [[John Tyler]] wakaŵa wachiŵiri wakwamba wa mlongozgi kutora udindo wa mlongozgi uyo wakafwa pamanyuma pa nyifwa ya [[William Henry Harrison]]. Udindo wa mazuŵa ghano wa wachiŵiri wa mlongozgi ni udindo wa nkhongono zikuru ndipo ukuwoneka na ŵanthu ŵanandi kuti ni chigaŵa chakukhumbikwa chomene cha boma la mlongozgi. Munthu uyo wakwimilira pa visola vya ulongozgi wakusora munthu wakwimilira udindo wa wachiŵiri wa mlongozgi kuŵa [[Munthu wakwendera nayo pa chisankho|munthu wakwendera nayo pa chisankho]] pambere visola vya ulongozgi vindachitike. Nangauli umo udindo uwu ukuŵira ukusintha mu boma lililose, chifukwa chakuti wachiŵiri wa mlongozgi wakuteŵetera chifukwa cha kusankhika, mlongozgi wangamufumiska pa udindo yayi. Ndiposo ubwezi wa pa ntchito pakati pa mlongozgi na wachiŵiri wake ukusintha. Kweni ŵachiŵiri ŵa mlongozgi ŵanandi mazuŵa ghano ŵakuteŵetera nga mbaulongozgi ŵakuzirwa ŵa mlongozgi, ŵakwendeska boma pamoza na mlongozgi, kweniso ŵakumimira mlongozgi. Wachiŵiri wa mlongozgi nayo ni membala wa pa dango wa [[Kabineti ya United States]] na [[United States National Security Council|Khonsolo ya Chitetezo cha Charu ya United States]]<ref name=USlegal-VP/> ndipo wakuchita ntchito yikuru mu nthambi ya executive ya boma kweniso pa nkhani za chitetezo cha charu. Apo udindo wa wachiŵiri wa mlongozgi mu nthambi ya executive ukukulira, udindo wake mu nthambi ya malango ukuchepa; mwachiyelezgero, mazuŵa ghano ŵachiŵiri ŵa mlongozgi ŵakulongozga waka Nyumba ya Malango nyengo zichoko chomene.<ref name=Garvey>{{cite journal|last=Garvey|first=Todd|title=A Constitutional Anomaly: Safeguarding Confidential National Security Information Within the Enigma That Is the American Vice Presidency|url=http://scholarship.law.wm.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1030&context=wmborj|journal=William & Mary Bill of Rights Journal|volume=17|issue=2|year=2008|pages=565–605|publisher=[[William & Mary Law School]] Scholarship Repository|location=Williamsburg, Virginia|access-date=July 28, 2018|archive-date=July 16, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180716054155/http://scholarship.law.wm.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1030&context=wmborj|url-status=live}}</ref> Udindo wa wachiŵiri wa mlongozgi wasintha chomene kufuma apo ukakhazikiskikira pa [[Msonkhano wa Dango Likuru wa United States wa 1787|Msonkhano wa Dango Likuru wa 1787]]. Pakwamba, udindo uwu ukaŵikikapo waka mwambura kuŵikikapo mtima chomene, ndipo ukaŵa wakuwoneka kuŵa wambura kukhumbikwa kwa nyengo yitali ya mbiri ya charu, chomenechomene pamanyuma pakuti [[Sintho la Dango Likuru la nambala 12 la United States|Sintho la Dango Likuru la nambala 12]] likapangiska kuti ŵachiŵiri ŵa mlongozgi ŵaleke kuŵa awo ŵakiza pa malo ghachiŵiri pa chisankho cha mlongozgi. Kufuma mu m'ma 1930, udindo wa wachiŵiri wa mlongozgi ukamba kukura pachokopachoko apo [[Ofesi ya Wachiŵiri wa Mlongozgi wa United States|Ofesi ya Wachiŵiri wa Mlongozgi]] yikakhazikiskika mu nthambi ya executive mu 1939, ndipo kufuma nyengo yira udindo uwu walutilira kukura chomene. Chifukwa cha kukwera kwa nkhongono zake na ntchindi zake, mazuŵa ghano udindo wa wachiŵiri wa mlongozgi kanandi ukuwoneka kuŵa nthowa yakufikira pa udindo wa mlongozgi. Kwambira mu m'ma 1970, wachiŵiri wa mlongozgi wali kuŵa na nyumba ya boma yakuzomerezgeka ku [[Number One Observatory Circle]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/1600/vp-residence |title=The Vice President's Residence |website=[[White House]] |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091021225638/http://www.whitehouse.gov/about/vp_residence/ |archive-date=October 21, 2009}}</ref> Dango Likuru likupereka yayi mwakudunjika kuti udindo wa wachiŵiri wa mlongozgi ngwa nthambi yili ya boma, ndipo ichi chapangiska mphindano pakati pa ŵasambiri ŵa malango pa nkhani yakuti udindo uwu ngwa nthambi nji (ya executive, ya malango, zose ziŵiri, panji yiliyose yayi).<ref name=Garvey/><ref name=24KJLPP1>{{cite journal| last=Brownell II| first=Roy E.| title=A Constitutional Chameleon: The Vice President's Place within the American System of Separation of Powers Part I: Text, Structure, Views of the Framers and the Courts| url=https://law.ku.edu/sites/law.drupal.ku.edu/files/docs/law_journal/v24/Brownell.pdf| journal=Kansas Journal of Law and Public Policy| volume=24| issue=1| date=Fall 2014| pages=1–77| access-date=July 27, 2018| archive-date=December 30, 2017| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171230020232/http://law.ku.edu/sites/law.drupal.ku.edu/files/docs/law_journal/v24/Brownell.pdf| url-status=live}}</ref> Maghanoghano gha mazuŵa ghano ghakuti wachiŵiri wa mlongozgi ni msilikali wa nthambi ya executive—uyo wali kutolekapo pafupifupi chose mu nthambi ya malango—ghafuma chomene pa kupika mazaza gha executive kwa wachiŵiri wa mlongozgi na mlongozgi panji Congress.<ref name=Garvey/><ref name=Goldstein>{{cite journal|last=Goldstein|first=Joel K.|title=The New Constitutional Vice Presidency|journal=Wake Forest Law Review|volume=30|page=505|publisher=Wake Forest Law Review Association, Inc.|url=http://scholarship.law.wm.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1030&context=wmborj|location=Winston Salem, NC|year=1995|access-date=July 16, 2018|archive-date=July 16, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180716054155/http://scholarship.law.wm.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1030&context=wmborj|url-status=live}}</ref> Ndipouli, ŵachiŵiri ŵa mlongozgi ŵanandi ŵali kuteŵeterapo kale mu Congress, ndipo kanandi ŵakupelekeka ntchito yakovwira kukhozga ndondomeko za malango za boma. [[John Adams]] wakaŵa wachiŵiri wakwamba wa mlongozgi wa charu ichi. [[JD Vance]] ndiyo ni wachiŵiri wa mlongozgi wa nambala 50 ndipo ndiyo wali pa udindo sono kufuma pa Januwale 20, 2025. ==Mbili na kukula kwake== ===Msonkhano wa Dango Likuru=== Pakaŵavya kuyowoyeka kulikose kwa udindo wa wachiŵiri wa mlongozgi pa [[Msonkhano wa Dango Likuru wa United States wa 1787|Msonkhano wa Dango Likuru]] wa 1787 mpaka chakumunjilira kwa msonkhano apo komiti ya ŵanthu khumi na yumoza ya "Nkhani Zakukhalira" yikapeleka nthowa yakusankhira mlongozgi mukuru (mlongozgi).<ref>{{cite web|title=Major Themes at the Constitutional Convention: 8. Establishing the Electoral College and the Presidency|url=http://teachingamericanhistory.org/static/convention/themes/8.html|website=Teaching American History|publisher=Ashbrook Center at Ashland University |first1= Gordon |last1=Lloyd |location=Ashland, Ohio|access-date=February 21, 2018|archive-date=February 10, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180210174819/http://teachingamericanhistory.org/static/convention/themes/8.html|url-status=dead }}</ref> Kale ŵimiliri ŵa msonkhano ŵakaghanaghananga vya umo mulongozgi wa Nyumba ya Malango wasankhirikenge, ndipo ŵakadumura kuti "Nyumba ya Malango yisankhenge Mulongozgi wake", ndipo ŵakazomerezga kuti msilikali uyu ndiyo waŵenge wakulondezgapo mlongozgi wa boma para wasoŵapo. Ŵakaghanaghanaso vya nthowa yakusankhira mlongozgi wa boma kweni ŵakatondeka kufiska fundo yimoza. Ichi chose chikasintha pa Seputembala 4 apo komiti yikapeleka fundo yakuti mlongozgi wa charu wasankhikenge na [[Electoral College (United States)|Electoral College]], ndipo [[Boma la United States|boma]] lililose liŵenge na ŵakusankha mlongozgi ŵakukwana na unandi wa [[Ŵimiliri mu Nyumba ya Ŵimiliri ya United States|ŵimiliri]] na [[Nyumba ya Malango ya United States|ŵaseneta]] awo boma lira lili nawo.<ref name=Garvey/><ref name=RA2005TLR>{{cite journal|last=Albert|first=Richard|title=The Evolving Vice Presidency|journal=Temple Law Review|date=Winter 2005|volume=78|issue=4|url=https://lawdigitalcommons.bc.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=https://www.google.com/&httpsredir=1&article=1624&context=lsfp|pages=811–896|publisher=Temple University of the Commonwealth System of Higher Education|location=Philadelphia, Pennsylvania|access-date=July 29, 2018|via=Digital Commons @ Boston College Law School|archive-date=April 1, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190401064932/https://lawdigitalcommons.bc.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.google.com%2F&httpsredir=1&article=1624&context=lsfp|url-status=live}}</ref> Pakumanya kuti kugomezgeka ku boma la munthu yekha kukaŵa kwakukhora kuluska kugomezgeka ku mgwirizano uphya wa maboma, awo ŵakalemba Dango Likuru ŵakaghanaghana kuti ŵakusankha payekhapayekha ŵazamukhumba kusankha munthu wakufuma mu boma lawo (uyo wakumanyikwa kuti "[[Mwana wakutemweka wa boma]]") kuluska munthu wakufuma mu boma linyake. Ntheura ŵakakhazikiska udindo wa wachiŵiri wa mlongozgi ndipo ŵakalamura kuti ŵakusankha ŵavotere ŵanthu ŵaŵiri, ndipo yumoza wa iwo wakwenera kufuma kuwaro kwa boma la wakusankha, pakugomezga kuti voti yachiŵiri yipelekekenge kwa munthu uyo wakwimira charu chose.<ref name=RA2005TLR/><ref>{{cite magazine|title=US Vice Presidents|url=http://www.historytoday.com/mark-rathbone/us-vice-presidents|last=Rathbone|first=Mark|magazine=History Review|issue=71|date=December 2011|publisher=History Today|location=London|access-date=February 21, 2018|archive-date=February 19, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180219050924/http://www.historytoday.com/mark-rathbone/us-vice-presidents|url-status=live}}</ref> Kweniso, kuti ŵajivikilire ku nthowa yakuti ŵakusankha ŵangataya mwadala voti yawo yachiŵiri chifukwa cha ndondomeko za visankho, ŵakalemba kuti munthu uyo waŵenge pa malo ghachiŵiri ndiyo waŵenge wachiŵiri wa mlongozgi.<ref name=RA2005TLR/> Nthowa iyi yakusankhira mlongozgi na wachiŵiri wa mlongozgi, iyo yikalembeka mu [[Article Two of the United States Constitution#Clause 3: Electoral College|Article{{spaces}}II, Section{{spaces}}1, Clause{{spaces}}3]], yikapeleka ku [[Boma la United States|boma]] lililose unandi wa ŵakusankha wakuyana na unandi wa ŵaseneta na ŵimiliri ŵake mu Nyumba ya Ŵimiliri. Wakusankha waliyose wakazomerezgekanga kuvotera ŵanthu ŵaŵiri pa udindo wa mlongozgi (m'malo mwa kuvotera mlongozgi na wachiŵiri wa mlongozgi payekhapayekha), kweni wakatondekanga [[Kuvota mwakulondezgana|kupambaniska]] pakati pa chisankho chake chakwamba na chachiŵiri pa ulongozgi. Munthu uyo wakapokera mavoti ghanandi chomene (para ghakaŵa [[ŵanandi kuluska hafu]] ya ŵakusankha wose) ndiyo wakaŵa mlongozgi, ndipo munthu uyo wakapokera mavoti ghanandi ghakulondezgapo wakaŵa wachiŵiri wa mlongozgi. Usange pakaŵa kuyana kwa malo ghakwamba panji ghachiŵiri, panji usange pakaŵavya uyo wapokera mavoti ghanandi kuluska hafu, mlongozgi na wachiŵiri wa mlongozgi ŵakasankhikanga kwizira mu ndondomeko za [[chisankho chakusankha na nyumba ya malango]] izo zikalembeka mu ndime iyi. ===Ŵaŵakalamba ŵa vice president ŵakwambilira na Kusintha kwa Chinkhondi na chiŵiri=== [[File:John Adams 1800 to 1815 Portrait (4x5 cropped).jpg|thumb|upright|250px|[[John Adams]], vice president wakwamba wa United States]] Ŵa vice president ŵaŵili ŵakwambilira, [[John Adams]] na [[Thomas Jefferson]], wose awo ŵakasanga udindo uwu chifukwa ŵakaŵa ŵaŵili panyuma pa awo ŵakatora malo mu visola vya mlongozgi, ŵakalamuliranga nyengo zose pa milimo ya Senate ndipo ŵakachita vinandi kupanga mulimo wa president wa Senate.<ref name=VP-PS/><ref>{{cite web| last=Schramm| first=Peter W.| title=Essays on Article I: Vice President as Presiding Officer| url=https://www.heritage.org/constitution/#!/articles/1/essays/15/vice-president-as-presiding-officer| work=Heritage Guide to the Constitution| publisher=The Heritage Foundation| access-date=July 27, 2018| archive-date=August 22, 2020| archive-url=https://archive.today/20200822232208/https://www.heritage.org/constitution/%23!/amendments/8/essays/161/cruel-and-unusual-punishment#!/articles/1/essays/15/vice-president-as-presiding-officer| url-status=unfit}}</ref> Ŵa vice president ŵanyake ŵa mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800—nga ni [[George M. Dallas|George Dallas]], [[Levi Morton]], na [[Garret Hobart]]—ŵakalondezga chiyelezgero chawo ndipo ŵakalongozganga makora, kweni ŵanyake ŵakaŵa yayi ŵakuŵapo kanandi.<ref name=VP-PS/> Kuwuka kwa [[Political party|vyama vya ndale]] na ndondomeko za visola vya pa charu chose izo zikulongozgekanga pamoza mu vyaka vya m'ma 1790 (izo ŵanthu awo ŵakapanga Malango ŵakaŵa kuti ŵandaghanaghanepo) kukasuzga luŵiro ndondomeko ya visola iyo yikaŵa mu Malango ghakwambilira. Mu [[1796 United States presidential election|visola vya 1796]], munthu wa [[Federalist Party|Chama cha Federalist]] John Adams wakatora chipani cha upresidenti, kweni mulwani wake, munthu wa [[Democratic-Republican Party|Chama cha Democratic-Republican]] Thomas Jefferson, wakiza wachiwiri ndipo ntheura wakatora udindo wa vice president. Chifukwa cha ichi, president na vice president ŵakaŵa ŵa vyama vyakupambana; ndipo Jefferson wakagwiliskira ntchito udindo wa vice president kususkana na ndondomeko za president. Pamanyuma, vyaka vinayi vikati vyajumphapo, mu [[1800 United States presidential election|visola vya 1800]], Jefferson na munyake wa Democratic-Republican [[Aaron Burr]] wose ŵakasanga mavoti 73 gha ŵanthu ŵa visola. Mu visola vyapadera ivyo vikachitika pamanyuma, Jefferson wakamalizga kutora chipani cha upresidenti pa voti ya 36, ndipo Burr wakasida udindo wa vice president. Pamanyuma pake, ndondomeko iyi yikasinthika kwizira mu [[Twelfth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Kusintha kwa Chinkhondi na chiŵiri kwa Malango gha United States]] mu nyengo yakuti yigwiriskike ntchito mu [[1804 United States presidential election|visola vya 1804]].<ref name=HF-XII>{{cite news|last=Fried|first=Charles|title=Essays on Amendment XII: Electoral College|work=The Heritage Guide to the Constitution|url=https://www.heritage.org/constitution/#!/amendments/12/essays/165/electoral-college|publisher=The Heritage Foundation|access-date=February 20, 2018|archive-date=August 22, 2020|archive-url=https://archive.today/20200822232208/https://www.heritage.org/constitution/%23!/amendments/8/essays/161/cruel-and-unusual-punishment#!/amendments/12/essays/165/electoral-college|url-status=unfit}}</ref> ===Vyaka vya m'ma 1800 na vyaka vya m'ma 1900 vyakwambilira=== Kwa nyengo yikuru ya kukhalapo kwake, udindo wa vice president ukawoneleranga nga ni udindo wambura kuzirwa chomene. John Adams, vice president wakwamba, wakaŵa wakwamba mwa ŵanandi awo ŵakakwiyiskika na "kuŵa wambura kuzirwa chomene" kwa udindo uwu. Kwa muwoli wake [[Abigail Adams]] wakalemba kuti, "Charu chane mu vinjeru vyake chaninozgera udindo wambura kuzirwa chomene uwo munthu wangapangapo{{spaces}}... panji maghanoghano ghake ghangananga panji ghakawona; ndipo pakuti ningachita yayi chinthu chiwemi panji chiheni, nkhenera kutoleka na ŵanyake ndipo kukumana na ivyo wose ŵakukumana navyo."<ref>{{cite book| last=Smith| first=Page| author-link=Page Smith| title=John Adams| volume=II 1784–1826| date=1962| publisher=Doubleday| location= New York| lccn=63-7188| page=844}}</ref> [[Thomas R. Marshall]], uyo wakaŵa vice president kufuma mu 1913 kufika mu 1921 pasi pa President [[Woodrow Wilson]], wakadandawura kuti: "Kale kukaŵa ŵana ŵaŵili ŵakufuma kwa nyina yumoza. Yumoza wakachimbira ku nyanja; munyake wakasankhika kuŵa Vice President wa United States. Ndipo palije chinthu chinyake chikapulikikwa chakukhwaskana na waliyose wa iwo kufuma apo."<ref name="casevpquote">{{cite web|url=http://www.case.edu/news/2004/10-04/vp_trivia.htm|title=A heartbeat away from the presidency: vice presidential trivia|publisher=[[Case Western Reserve University]]|date=October 4, 2004|access-date=September 12, 2008|archive-date=October 19, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171019155112/http://case.edu/news/2004/10-04/vp_trivia.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> Uyo wakiza pamanyuma pake, [[Calvin Coolidge]], wakaŵa wambura kumanyikwa chomene mwakuti [[Major League Baseball]] yikamutumira matikiti ghaulere agho zina lake likalembeka mwakubudika, ndipo mulinda moto wakatondeka kumumanya apo nyumba yake ku Washington yikachimbiliranga chifukwa cha moto.<ref name="greenberg2007">{{cite book|title=Calvin Coolidge profile|publisher=Macmillan|author=Greenberg, David|year=2007|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wq1D6hcYlFwC&q=notary&pg=PA40|isbn=978-0-8050-6957-0|pages=40–41|access-date=October 15, 2020|archive-date=January 14, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210114195045/https://books.google.com/books?id=wq1D6hcYlFwC&q=notary&pg=PA40|url-status=live}}</ref> [[John Nance Garner]], uyo wakaŵa vice president kufuma mu 1933 kufika mu 1941 pasi pa President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]], wakati udindo wa vice president "ngwambura kuzirwa nga ni chinthu chakubikamo maji ghakuthukira."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://thinkexist.com/quotation/the_vice-presidency_isn-t_worth_a_pitcher_of_warm/196103.html|title=John Nance Garner quotes|access-date=August 25, 2008|archive-date=April 14, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160414213700/http://thinkexist.com/quotation/the_vice-presidency_isn-t_worth_a_pitcher_of_warm/196103.html|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Harry S. Truman]], uyo nayo wakaŵa vice president pasi pa Franklin D. Roosevelt, wakati udindo uwu ukaŵa "wakovwira nga ni chibereko chankhondi cha ng'ombe."<ref>{{cite magazine|title=Nation: Some Day You'll Be Sitting in That Chair|url=http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,875366,00.html|magazine=Time|access-date=October 3, 2014|date=November 29, 1963|archive-date=October 7, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141007074757/http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,875366,00.html|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Walter Bagehot]] wakalemba mu ''[[The English Constitution]]'' kuti "[ŵanthu awo ŵakapanga Malango ŵakagomezganga kuti vice president wazamusankhika na Electoral College kuŵa munthu wachiŵiri wavinjeru chomene mu charu. Pakuti udindo wa vice president ukaŵa [[sinecure|udindo wambura mulimo ukuru]], munthu wambura kuzirwa chomene uyo wakukondweska ŵalongozgi ŵa vyandale wakusisikizgika mu udindo uwu nyengo zose. Mwaŵi wakuti wanganjira mu udindo wa president ukaŵa kutali chomene kuti munthu wangaghanaghanirapo yayi."<ref>{{Cite book|last=Bagehot|first=Walter|title=[[The English Constitution]]|publisher=Collins|year=1963|pages=[https://archive.org/details/englishconstitut0000bage_k9d4/page/80 80]|orig-year=1867}}</ref> Chikaŵa apo [[Whig Party (United States)|Chama cha Whig]] chikapempha [[Daniel Webster]] kuti wimilire pa udindo wa vice president pamoza na [[Zachary Taylor]], ndipo iyo wakazgora kuti "Nkhukhumba yayi kusungika nga ndafwa mpaka apo nizamuŵa nadi wakufwa ndipo ndili mu bokosi lane la nyifwa."<ref name="webster-novp">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FVSFAAAAMAAJ&q=%22I+do+not+propose+to+be+buried+until+I+am+really+dead+and+in+my+coffin.%22|title=A Grammar of American Politics: The National Government|last1=Binkley|first1=Wilfred Ellsworth|last2=Moos|first2=Malcolm Charles|author-link2=Malcolm Moos|location=New York|publisher=[[Alfred A. Knopf]]|year=1949|page=265|access-date=October 17, 2015|archive-date=September 13, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150913042802/https://books.google.com/books?id=FVSFAAAAMAAJ&q=%22I+do+not+propose+to+be+buried+until+I+am+really+dead+and+in+my+coffin.%22|url-status=live}}</ref><!--Wonaso: https://books.google.com/books?id=FVSFAAAAMAAJ&q=%22I+do+not+propose+to+be+buried+until+I+am+really+dead+and+in+my+coffin.%22+webster (wonjezgerapo lizgu).--> Ichi chikaŵa kachiŵiri apo Webster wakakana udindo uwu, uwo [[William Henry Harrison]] wakamutolera dankha. Chakuzizwiska ntchakuti, ŵa president wose awo ŵakamupempha Webster ŵakafwa ŵachali mu maudindo ghawo, ntheura munthu uyu uyo wakayimirapo katatu wakatenge waŵenge president usange wakazomera umoza mwa maudindo agha. Pakuti ŵa president ŵakufwa viŵi yayi ŵachali mu udindo, kweni, kunozgekera makora kuŵa president kukawoneranga nga ni udindo wa [[United States Secretary of State|Mlembi wa boma wa United States]], uwo Webster wakachitapo pasi pa Harrison, Tyler, ndipo pamanyuma pasi pa Taylor, uyo wakalondezgana na Fillmore. Mu vyaka vyakwambilira 100 vya kukhalapo kwa United States, pakaŵa viŵi yayi pasi pa masachizgo ghankhondi na ghaŵiri ghakuti udindo wa vice president ulekeke.<ref name="ames">{{cite book|last1=Ames|first1=Herman|title=The Proposed Amendments to the Constitution of the United States During the First Century of Its History|date=1896|publisher=[[American Historical Association]]|pages=[https://archive.org/details/proposedamendmen00amesrich/page/70 70]–72|url=https://archive.org/details/proposedamendmen00amesrich}}</ref> Kusintha kwa Malango kwakwamba pa nkhani iyi kukapelekeka na [[Samuel W. Dana]] mu 1800; kweni kukakanika mu [[United States House of Representatives]] na mavoti 27 ku 85.<ref name="ames"/> Kachiŵiri, ako kakapelekeka na Senator wa United States [[James Hillhouse]] mu 1808, nako kakakanika.<ref name="ames"/> Mu vyaka vya kumalizga vya m'ma 1860 na vyakwambilira vya m'ma 1870, pakaŵa masachizgo ghanyake ghankhondi ghakusinthira Malango.<ref name="ames"/> Mumoza wa awo ŵakakhozgeranga kusintha uku, [[James Mitchell Ashley]], wakayowoya kuti udindo wa vice president ukaŵa "wambura kwenerera" ndipo wankhani zakofya.<ref name="ames"/> [[Garret Hobart]], uyo wakaŵa vice president wakwamba pasi pa [[William McKinley]], wakaŵa yumoza mwa ŵa vice president ŵachoko chomene mu nyengo iyi awo ŵakachitapo mulimo ukuru mu boma. Pakuti wakaŵa munthu wakugomezgeka chomene na mlangizi wa president, Hobart wakachemekanga "Msaidizi wa President".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.historycentral.com/Bio/rec/GarretHobart.html|title=Garret Hobart|access-date=August 25, 2008|archive-date=September 27, 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927233833/http://www.historycentral.com/Bio/rec/GarretHobart.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Kweni, kufika mu 1919, ŵa vice president ŵakazomerezgekanga yayi kunjira mu maungano gha [[United States Cabinet|Kabineti ya President]]. Ndondomeko iyi yikasinthika na Woodrow Wilson apo wakapempha Thomas R. Marshall kuti walongozge maungano gha Kabineti apo Wilson wakaŵa ku France pakudumbiskana vya [[Treaty of Versailles|Phangano la Versailles]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://lugar.senate.gov/services/pdf_crs/executive/The_Vice_Presidency.pdf|title=The Vice Presidency: Evolution of the Modern Office, 1933–2001|author=Harold C. Relyea|date=February 13, 2001|publisher=Congressional Research Service|access-date=February 11, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111109070153/http://www.lugar.senate.gov/services/pdf_crs/executive/The_Vice_Presidency.pdf|archive-date=November 9, 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref> President [[Warren G. Harding]] nayo wakachemanga Calvin Coolidge ku maungano. Vice president wakalondezgapo, [[Charles G. Dawes]], wakakhumba yayi kuluta ku maungano gha Kabineti pasi pa President Coolidge, ndipo wakati "ndondomeko iyi yingaŵa yakupweteka charu."<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/common/generic/VP_Charles_Dawes.htm|title=U.S. Senate Web page on Charles G. Dawes, 30th Vice President (1925–1929)|publisher=Senate.gov|access-date=August 9, 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141106112435/https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/common/generic/VP_Charles_Dawes.htm|archive-date=November 6, 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref> ===Kuwuka kwa vice presidency ya mazuŵa ghano=== [[File:Harry S. Truman.jpg|thumb|upright|Nangauli wakaŵa wakumanyikwa chomene nga ni Senator wa Missouri, [[Harry S. Truman]] wakaŵa vice president myezi yitatu pera apo wakaŵa president; wakamanyanga yayi ndondomeko za nkhondo panji za pamanyuma pa nkhondo za [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] apo wakaŵa vice president. Ichi chikapangiska kuti paŵe kusintha kwa malango kwakukhwaskana na udindo uwu.]] Mu 1929, Herbert Hoover wakakwezga kuzirwa kwa udindo uwu mwa kuwezgerapo ndondomeko yakucema vice president ku maungano gha kabinethi, iyo president waliyose kufuma apo walutilira kusunga.<ref>{{cite magazine| title=National Affairs: Curtis v. Brown?| date=April 21, 1930| url=https://content.time.com/time/subscriber/article/0,33009,739085,00.html| magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]]| access-date=October 31, 2022}}</ref> Mwakupambana na ŵa vice president ŵakale ŵa United States, [[John Nance Garner]] wakaŵa na mulimo ukuru chomene pakupanga ndondomeko za president, ndipo Roosevelt wakagwiliskiranga ntchito umanyi na vinjeru vya Garner pakulongozga malango gha [[New Deal]] kwizira mu Congress.<ref name=garnerpowerandinfluencevicepresident>{{cite news|url=https://millercenter.org/president/fdroosevelt/essays/garner-1933-vicepresident|title=John N. Garner (1933–1941)|publisher=Miller Center|accessdate=February 2, 2026}}</ref><ref name=garnerandfdr>{{cite news|url=https://www.cah.utexas.edu/museums/garner_bio_three.php|title=Garner the Vice President (1933–1941)|publisher=Briscoe Center for American History|accessdate=February 2, 2026|archive-date=May 12, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210512142126/https://www.cah.utexas.edu/museums/garner_bio_three.php|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name=vicepresidentprominence>{{cite web|url=https://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/entries/garner-john-nance|title=John Nance Garner: The Influential Vice President of the New Deal|first=Lionel V.|last=Patenaude|publisher=Texas State Historical Association|accessdate=February 2, 2026}}</ref> Kweni, Garner wakapambana maghanoghano na Roosevelt pa nkhani ya "[[Judiciary Reorganization Bill of 1937|court-packing]]" kukwambilira kwa nyengo yake yachiŵiri, ndipo wakaŵa mulwani mukuru wa Roosevelt. Pakwamba pa nyengo iyo, pa [[Second inauguration of Franklin D. Roosevelt|January 20, 1937]], Garner wakaŵa vice president wakwamba kulapizga mulimo pa masitepisi gha Capitol mu mwambo umoza na president, ndondomeko iyo yicali kulutilira. Pambere nyengo iyi yindafike, ŵa vice president ŵakalapizganga mwakawiro pa mwambo wapadera mu chipinda cha Senate. [[Gerald Ford]] na [[Nelson Rockefeller]], awo wose ŵakasankhika ku udindo uwu mwakuyana na malango gha Kusintha kwa 25, ŵakalapizgira mu vipinda vya House na Senate mwakuyana. Pa [[1940 Democratic National Convention|Msonkhano wa Democratic National Convention wa 1940]], Roosevelt wakasora yekha munthu uyo wakeneranga kwimilira nayo, [[Henry A. Wallace|Henry Wallace]], m’malo mwa kuleka kuti msonkhano usankhe, apo wakakhumbanga kuti Garner wafumeko.<ref name=VPrising>{{cite journal|last=Goldstein|first=Joel M.|title=The Rising Power of the Modern Vice Presidency|journal=Presidential Studies Quarterly|volume=38|issue=3|date=September 2008|pages=374–389|publisher=Wiley|doi=10.1111/j.1741-5705.2008.02650.x|jstor=41219685|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41219685|access-date=December 10, 2021 | issn = 0360-4918 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Pamanyuma wakapeleka milimo yikuru kwa Wallace mu nyengo ya [[World War II|Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Charu Chose]]. Kweni, pamanyuma pa mphindano zinandi za ndondomeko pakati pa Wallace na ŵa [[Presidency of Franklin D. Roosevelt|boma la Roosevelt]] kweniso ŵalongozgi ŵa [[Democratic Party (United States)|Chama cha Democratic]], wakakanika kusankhikaso pa [[1944 Democratic National Convention|Msonkhano wa Democratic National Convention wa 1944]]. [[Harry S. Truman]] ndiyo wakasankhika m’malo mwake. Mu mazuŵa ghake {{age in days|January 20, 1945|April 12, 1945}} gha kuŵa vice president, Truman wakamanyanga yayi vya ndondomeko yiliyose ya nkhondo panji ya pamanyuma pa nkhondo, kusazgapo [[Manhattan Project]].<ref name="JSTOR daily">{{cite web| last=Feuerherd| first=Peter| title=How Harry Truman Transformed the Vice Presidency| date=May 8, 2018| url=https://daily.jstor.org/how-harry-truman-transformed-the-vice-presidency/| work=JSTOR Daily| publisher=[[JSTOR]]| access-date=August 12, 2022}}</ref> Truman wakaŵavya mulimo wakuwoneka mu boma la Roosevelt padera pa milimo yake ya ku Congress ndipo wakakumana na president kanandi waka yayi mu nyengo iyo wakaŵa vice president.<ref>{{cite web| last=Hamby| first=Alonzo L.| title=Harry Truman: Life Before the Presidency| date=October 4, 2016| url=https://millercenter.org/president/truman/life-before-the-presidency| publisher=Miller Center, University of Virginia| location=Charlottesville, Virginia| access-date=August 12, 2022}}</ref> Roosevelt wakafwa pa Epulero 12, 1945, ndipo Truman wakanjira mu udindo wa president (umoyo wa Roosevelt ukaŵa wasungika kwa Truman). Pa nyengo iyo wakati, "Nkhajipulika nga ni mwezi, nyenyezi na mapulaneti ghose vikawa pa ine."<ref>{{cite web| title=Harry S Truman National Historic Site: Missouri| url=https://www.nps.gov/nr/travel/presidents/harry_truman_nhs.html| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090430112918/http://www.nps.gov/nr/travel/presidents/harry_truman_nhs.html| url-status=dead| archive-date=April 30, 2009| publisher=National Park Service, U.S. Department of the Interior| access-date=August 12, 2022}}</ref> Pakukhumba kuti palije vice president munyengo yakunthazi wazakasangaso wambura kumanya vinthu para wanjira mwamabuchi mu udindo wa president, Truman wakapanga vice president kuŵa membala wa [[United States National Security Council|National Security Council]], wakuluta ku maungano gha Kabineti ndipo wakupokera uthenga wa chitetezo nyengo zose mu 1949.<ref name="JSTOR daily"/> Uzirwa wa udindo wa vice president ukakweraso apo [[Richard Nixon]] wakaŵa mu udindo (1953–1961). Wakawoneka chomene mu vyakuwoneska vya nkhani na mu [[Republican Party (United States)|Chama cha Republican]], apo [[Dwight Eisenhower]] wakamupa mazaza kuti walongozgenge maungano gha [[Cabinet of the United States|Kabineti]] para iyo palije kweniso kuti wapoke kwa nyengo yichoko mazaza gha boma la ukulongozgi, ndipo wakachita nthena apo Eisenhower wakalwara na [[myocardial infarction|matenda gha mtima]] pa Seputembala 24, 1955, [[ileitis]] mu Juni 1956, na [[stroke]] mu Novembala 1957. Nixon wakaŵaso wakuwoneka pa charu chose mu nyengo yake ya mulimo.<ref name="JSTOR daily"/> Kufika mu 1961, ŵa vice president ŵakaŵa na maofesi ghawo pa [[Capitol Hill]], ofesi yakuzirwa mu Capitol yeneko kweniso ofesi yakugwirirapo ntchito mu [[Russell Senate Office Building]]. [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] wakaŵa vice president wakwamba kupelekeka ofesi mu malo gha White House, mu [[Old Executive Office Building]]. Ofesi ya uyo kale wakaŵa Mlembi wa Navy mu OEOB, kufuma apo yikachemekanga "Ceremonial Office of the Vice President" ndipo sono yikugwiliskirika ntchito pa milimo ya mwambo na ma interview gha atolankhani. President [[Jimmy Carter]] wakaŵa president wakwamba kupeleka vice president wake, [[Walter Mondale]], ofesi mu [[West Wing]] ya White House, ndipo ŵa vice president wose kufuma apo ŵasungilira ofesi iyi. Chifukwa cha mulimo wawo nga ni president wa Senate, ŵa vice president ŵachali kusunga maofesi na ŵantchito pa Capitol Hill. Kusintha uku kukachitika chifukwa Carter wakaŵa na maghanoghano ghakuti udindo wa vice presidency ukaŵa chinthu icho chikaphyoka ntchito mu mdauko ndipo wakakhumbanga kuti vice president wake waŵengepo mu kupanga vyakusankha. Carter wakawona mwakupulikikwa, kuyana na Joel Goldstein, umo Roosevelt wakachitira na Truman kuŵa "kwambura makola".<ref name="WPO 41921">{{cite news|last=Balz|first=Dan|title=Mondale lost the presidency but permanently changed the office of vice presidency|date=April 19, 2021|newspaper=The Washington Post|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/mondale-lost-the-presidency-but-permanently-changed-the-office-of-vice-presidency/2021/04/19/478b1a68-a17b-11eb-85fc-06664ff4489d_story.html|access-date=August 2, 2023}}</ref> Chinthu chinyake icho chikapangiska kuti kuzirwa kwa vice presidency kukwere chikaŵa kukura kwa kugwiliskira ntchito visola vya pakwamba vya kusora ŵimiliri ŵa vyama mu vyaka vya m'ma 1900. Pakugwiliskira ntchito visola vya pakwamba, gulu la ŵanthu awo ŵakakhumbanga kuŵa vice president likakura chifukwa cha unandi na umanyi wa ŵanthu awo ŵakakhumbanga kuŵa president, awo ŵakatheranga mu visola vinyake vya pakwamba kweni pamanyuma ŵakatondeka kusanga kusankhika pa msonkhano wa chipani.<ref name=VPrising/> Pakudangulira kwa vyaka vya m'ma 2000, [[Dick Cheney]] (2001–2009) wakaŵa na mazaza ghanandi chomene mu boma, ndipo kanandi waka wakasankhanga vyakusankha vya ndondomeko yekha, kwambura kumanyiska president.<ref name="Kenneth T. Walsh">{{cite magazine |url=https://www.usnews.com/usnews/news/articles/031013/13cheney.htm|title=Dick Cheney is the most powerful vice president in history. Is that good?|magazine=U.S. News & World Report|author=Kenneth T. Walsh|date=October 3, 2003|access-date=September 13, 2015 |url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110205021439/http://www.usnews.com/usnews/news/articles/031013/13cheney.htm|archive-date=February 5, 2011}}</ref> Kukura mwaluŵiro uku kukapangiska [[Matthew Yglesias]] na [[Bruce Ackerman]] kupempha kuti udindo wa vice president ulekeke<ref>{{cite news|last1=Yglesias|first1=Matthew|title=End the Vice Presidency|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2009/07/end-the-vice-presidency/307516/|access-date=December 28, 2017|work=[[The Atlantic]]|date=July 2009|archive-date=December 29, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171229052318/https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2009/07/end-the-vice-presidency/307516/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last1=Ackerman|first1=Bruce|title=Abolish the vice presidency|url=http://www.latimes.com/opinion/opinion-la/la-oe-ackerman2-2008oct02-story.html?barc=0|access-date=December 28, 2017|work=[[Los Angeles Times]]|date=October 2, 2008|archive-date=December 29, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171229112244/http://www.latimes.com/opinion/opinion-la/la-oe-ackerman2-2008oct02-story.html?barc=0|url-status=live}}</ref> apo ŵa vice president wose ŵa [[2008 United States presidential election|visola vya 2008]], [[Sarah Palin]] na [[Joe Biden]], ŵakayowoya kuti ŵakhumbenge kuchepeska mulimo uwu kuti uŵe wa kuŵa waka mlangizi wa president.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=89FbCPzAsRA|title=Full Vice Presidential Debate with Gov. Palin and Sen. Biden|date=October 2, 2008 |publisher=YouTube|access-date=October 30, 2011|archive-date=January 14, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210114195116/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=89FbCPzAsRA|url-status=live}}</ref> ==Milimo ya mu Malango gha boma== {{Politics of the United States}} Nangauli ŵimiliri ku msonkhano wakupanga Malango ŵakazomerezga kukhazikiska udindo uwu, uwo ukaŵa na milimo ya ukulongozgi na ya Senate, ŵanandi ŵakamanyanga yayi chomene vya udindo uwu, ntheura ŵakamupa vice president milimo yichoko na mazaza ghachoko.<ref name=VP-PS>{{cite web| title=Vice President of the United States (President of the Senate)| website=senate.gov| url=https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/common/briefing/Vice_President.htm| publisher=Secretary of the Senate| location=Washington, D.C.| access-date=July 28, 2018| archive-date=November 15, 2002| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20021115191818/https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/common/briefing/Vice_President.htm| url-status=live}}</ref> Mazuŵa ghakale, ni vyaru vichoko waka ndivyo vikaŵa na udindo wakuyana na uwu. Pakati pa ivyo vikaŵa nawo, [[New York Constitution|malango gha New York]] ghakayowoya kuti "lieutenant-governor, chifukwa cha udindo wake, ndiyo ni president wa Senate, ndipo para mavoti ghagaŵikana mwakuyana, wangaŵa na voti yakumalizga pa ivyo ŵakusankha, kweni wangavota yayi pa nyengo zinyake".<ref>{{Cite web | title=The Senate and the United States Constitution | url=https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/common/briefing/Constitution_Senate.htm#5 | website=senate.gov | publisher=Secretary of the Senate | location=Washington, D.C. | access-date=February 20, 2018 | archive-date=February 11, 2020 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200211193328/https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/common/briefing/Constitution_Senate.htm#5 | url-status=live }}</ref> Ntheura, pakwamba vice presidency yikaŵa na mazaza mu malo ghachoko waka, kweni kusintha kwa Malango kwawonjezera panji kuwoneska makora vinthu vinyake. ===President wa Senate=== [[Article One of the United States Constitution#Clause 4: Vice President as President of Senate|Chigaŵa chakwamba cha Malango gha United States#Ndime 4: Vice President nga ni President wa Senate]] mu [[Article One of the United States Constitution|Article I]], Chigaŵa 3, Ndime 4, chikupeleka kwa vice president udindo wa "President wa Senate", ndipo chikupereka mazaza kwa vice president kuti [[Presiding Officer of the United States Senate|walongozge maungano gha Senate]]. Mu mulimo uwu, vice president ndiyo wakwenera kusunga ndondomeko na ulemu mu maungano, kumanya ŵabali awo ŵakhumba kuyowoya, kweniso kulongosora malango, ndondomeko na ivyo vikachitikapo kale mu Senate. Pa udindo uwu pakwiza so mazaza gha [[List of tie-breaking votes cast by the vice president of the United States|kuvota para mavoti ghagaŵikana mwakuyana]].<ref name=VP-PS/> Mu ntchito, unandi wa nyengo izo ŵa vice president ŵagwiliskira ntchito wanangwa uwu wapambana chomene. [[Kamala Harris]] wali na mbiri ya mavoti 33, kulondezgana na [[John C. Calhoun]] uyo pakwamba wakaŵa na mbiri iyi na mavoti 31; [[John Adams]] wali pa malo ghachitatu na mavoti 29.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Lebowitz|first1=Megan|last2=Thorp|first2=Frank|last3=Santaliz|first3=Kate|title=Vice President Harris breaks record for casting the most tie-breaking votes|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/politics/congress/president-harris-breaks-record-casting-tie-breaking-votes-rcna123999|website=NBC News|date=December 5, 2023|access-date=December 5, 2023|archive-date=December 5, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231205185108/https://www.nbcnews.com/politics/congress/president-harris-breaks-record-casting-tie-breaking-votes-rcna123999|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=U.S. Senate: Votes to Break Ties in the Senate |url=https://www.senate.gov/legislative/TieVotes.htm |access-date=2022-08-25 |website=United States Senate}}</ref> Ŵa vice president khumi na ŵaŵiri ŵakavuotapo yayi mavoti ghakumalizga para mavoti ghagaŵikana. Pakuti awo ŵakapanga Malango ŵakaghanaghananga kuti vice president wazamuŵapo yayi nyengo zose kuti wachite mulimo uwu, Malango ghakuzomerezga kuti Senate yingasora [[President pro tempore of the United States Senate|president pro tempore]] (panji "[[Pro tempore|president wa kanyengo]]") kuti yilutilire kusunga ndondomeko yakwenelera ya milimo ya kupanga malango. Kweni mu ntchito, kufuma kukwambilira kwa vyaka vya m'ma 1900, nanga ni president wa Senate panji pro tempore wakulongozga maungano nyengo zose yayi; m’malo mwake, president pro tempore kanandi wakupereka mulimo uwu ku ŵabali ŵanyake ŵa Senate.<ref>[[Standing Rules of the Senate Rule XIX|Dango XIX la Malango gha Senate]], ilo likulongozga vyakuyowoya, likumupa yayi vice president mazaza ghakunjira mu vyakuyowoya, ndipo likupeleka wanangwa wakuyowoya mu Senate ku ŵabali ŵa Senate pera (kweniso, para ŵamanyiskika makora, ŵa president ŵakale ŵa United States), kwambura kumupa wanangwa wakuyowoya wakuyana na uwu vice president uyo wali pa udindo. Ntheura, magazini ya ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'' yikalemba mu 1925, mu nyengo ya [[Charles G. Dawes]], kuti "kanayi pera mu vyaka vinayi vice president wangayowoya kachoko, ndipo pamanyuma wamalizga. Kwa vyaka vinayi wakwenera kukhala pa mpando wa munthu wambura kuyowoya, kupulikizga nkhani zakudidima panji zinyake, za kughanaghanira panji kusekeska."<ref>{{cite magazine|title=President Dawes|department=The Congress|url=http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,786539,00.html|url-access=subscription|magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]]|location=New York, New York|date=December 14, 1925|volume=6|issue=24|access-date=July 31, 2018|archive-date=October 19, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171019162915/http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,786539,00.html|url-status=live}}</ref> ==== Kulongozga pa milandu yakufumiska ŵalara mu maudindo ==== Mu mulimo wawo nga ni president wa Senate, vice president wangalongozga milandu yinandi ya [[Federal impeachment trial in the United States|kufumiska mu udindo ŵalara ŵa boma la pakati]], nangauli Malango ghakuyowoya mwakudunjika yayi kuti wachite nthena. Kweni para president wa United States wali pa mulandu, Malango ghakukhumba kuti [[chief justice of the United States|wakulongozga khoti likuru la United States]] ndiyo walongozge. Ndondomeko iyi yikapangika kuti yileke kuŵa suzgo la kukolerana kwa vyakukhumba, chifukwa cha kupangiska vice president kulongozga mulandu wa kufumiska mu udindo munthu yumoza uyo wali pakati pa iyo na upresidenti. Mwakupambana na ichi, Malango ghakuyowoya yayi kuti ni mulongozgi nuyu wa boma la pakati uyo wangalongozga para vice president wali pa mulandu mu Senate.<ref name=24KJLPP1/><ref>{{Cite journal| title=Can the Vice President preside at his own impeachment trial?: A critique of bare textualism| last=Goldstein| first=Joel K.| url=https://poseidon01.ssrn.com/delivery.php?ID=392001104070027081022120029066016007014068057063028037092012019031105007127000116031006037049124106003039080094094007065105089046016030083072001069104126069096114087051008094092074006002100029126100108126094011105105076101115026002005094084099102090074&EXT=pdf| year=2000| volume=44| journal=Saint Louis University Law Journal| pages=849–870| access-date=September 30, 2019| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210114195031/https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3297261| archive-date=January 14, 2021| url-status=live}}</ref> Palije vice president uyo wakafumiskika mu udindo kwizira mu mulandu wa impeachment, ntheura vikumanyikwa yayi usange vice president uyo wafumiskika mu udindo wangalongozga mulandu wake wa impeachment nga ni president wa Senate. ==== Kulongozga kupenda mavoti gha visola vya ŵanthu ŵa visola ==== Kusintha kwa Chinkhondi na chiŵiri kukupereka kuti vice president, mu mulimo wake nga ni president wa Senate, wapokere mavoti gha [[Electoral College (United States)|Electoral College]], ndipo pamanyuma, pamaso pa Senate na House of Representatives, wazule mavoti ghakufinyika mu makhwangwa.<ref name=A2TKec/> Pamanyuma mavoti ghakuŵerengedwa na Congress pa [[Joint session of the United States Congress|msonkhano wakukolerana]], kuyana na ndondomeko zinyake izo zili mu [[Electoral Count Act]] ndipo zikasinthika na [[Electoral Count Reform and Presidential Transition Improvement Act]].<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Bessette |first1=Joseph |last2=Schmitt |first2=Gary |author-link2=Gary Schmitt |date=2023-04-19 |title=Counting Electoral Votes: How the Constitution Empowers Congress—and Not the Vice President—to Resolve Electoral Disputes |url=https://www.aei.org/research-products/report/counting-electoral-votes-how-the-constitution-empowers-congressand-not-the-vice-presidentto-resolve-electoral-disputes/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240927113615/https://www.aei.org/research-products/report/counting-electoral-votes-how-the-constitution-empowers-congressand-not-the-vice-presidentto-resolve-electoral-disputes/ |archive-date=September 27, 2024 |access-date=2024-12-20 |work=[[American Enterprise Institute]] |language=en-US }}</ref> Dango lakwamba likuyowoya kuti president wa Senate walongozga msonkhano wakukolerana,<ref>[https://uscode.house.gov/statviewer.htm?volume=24&page=373 24 Stat. 373] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201015112458/https://uscode.house.gov/statviewer.htm?volume=24&page=373 |date=October 15, 2020 }} (Feb. 3, 1887).</ref> ndipo lachiŵiri likulongosora kuti mulimo wa president wa Senate mu ndondomeko iyi ngwa kupulikira waka malango kwambura kuŵa na mazaza ghanyake.<ref>[https://uscode.house.gov/statviewer.htm?volume=136&page=5234# 136 Stat. 5238] {{Webarchive|url= https://web.archive.org/web/20231027221946/https://uscode.house.gov/statviewer.htm?volume=136&page=5234 |date=October 27, 2023}} (Dec. 9, 2022).</ref> Msonkhano wakukolerana wakulondezgapo pa nkhani iyi ukukayikika kuti uzamuchitika pamanyuma pa [[2028 United States presidential election|visola vya president vya 2028]], pa Janyuwale 6, 2029 (panyake usange Congress yasora zuŵa linyake kwizira mu dango).<ref name=CRS2017THN/> Mu mulimo uwu, ŵa vice president ŵanayi ŵakakwaniska kulengezga kusankhika kwawo kuŵa president: [[John Adams]] mu 1797, [[Thomas Jefferson]] mu 1801, [[Martin Van Buren]] mu 1837 na [[George H. W. Bush]] mu 1989.<ref name=VP-PS/> Mwakupambana na ichi, ŵa vice president ŵanayi ŵakakhumbikwira kulengezga kusankhika kwa ŵalwani ŵawo kuŵa president: [[John C. Breckinridge]] mu 1861,<ref>{{cite web|last=Glass|first=Andrew|title=Senate expels John C. Breckinridge, Dec. 4, 1861|url=https://www.politico.com/story/2014/12/senate-expels-john-c-breckinridge-dec-4-1861-113297|date=December 4, 2014|publisher=Politico|location=Arlington County, Virginia|access-date=July 29, 2018|archive-date=September 23, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180923114731/https://www.politico.com/story/2014/12/senate-expels-john-c-breckinridge-dec-4-1861-113297|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Richard Nixon]] mu 1961,<ref name=EV1969count>{{cite news|author=<!--UPI; no by-line.--> |title=Electoral Vote Challenge Loses|work=[[St. Petersburg Times]]|date=January 7, 1969|pages=1, 6|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=BvsNAAAAIBAJ&sjid=x3sDAAAAIBAJ&pg=3226,4398264|access-date=July 29, 2018|via=Google News}}</ref> [[Al Gore]] mu [[2001 United States Electoral College vote count|2001]],<ref>{{cite web|last=Glass|first=Andrew|title=Congress certifies Bush as winner of 2000 election, Jan. 6, 2001|url=https://www.politico.com/story/2016/01/congress-certifies-bush-as-winner-of-2000-election-jan-6-2001-217291|date=January 6, 2016|publisher=Politico|location=Arlington County, Virginia|access-date=July 29, 2018|archive-date=September 23, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180923123421/https://www.politico.com/story/2016/01/congress-certifies-bush-as-winner-of-2000-election-jan-6-2001-217291|url-status=live}}</ref> na [[Kamala Harris]] mu [[2025 United States Electoral College vote count|2025]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Korecki |first1=Natasha |last2=Leach |first2=Brennan |title=With an intent stare, a wide smile and a simple declaration, Harris certifies her loss to Trump |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/politics/kamala-harris/kamala-harris-certifies-loss-donald-trump-rcna186013 |website=NBC News |date=January 6, 2025 |access-date=January 6, 2025}}</ref> Mu 1969, Vice President [[Hubert Humphrey]] nayo wakatenge wachitapo nthena, pamanyuma pa kutondeka kwa visola vya 1968 kwa Richard Nixon; kweni pa zuŵa la msonkhano wakukolerana wa Congress, Humphrey wakaŵa ku [[Norway]] kuluta ku nyifwa ya [[Trygve Lie]], uyo wakaŵa [[Secretary-General]] wakwamba kusankhika wa [[United Nations]]. President pro tempore, [[Richard Russell Jr.|Richard Russell]], ndiyo wakalongozga mu malo ghake.<ref name="EV1969count" /> Pa Febuluwale 8, 1933, Vice President [[Charles Curtis]] wakalengezga chipulikano cha kusankhika kwa uyo wakalondezganga pa udindo wake, Speaker wa House [[John Nance Garner]], apo Garner wakakhala pafupi nayo pa {{Linktext|dais}} ya House.<ref>{{Cite news| author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.-->| title=Congress Counts Electoral Vote; Joint Session Applauds Every State Return as Curtis Performs Grim Task. Yells Drown His Gavel Vice President Finally Laughs With the Rest as Victory of Democrats Is Unfolded. Opponents Cheer Garner Speaker Declares His Heart Will Remain in the House, Replying to Tribute by Snell| date=February 9, 1933| newspaper=The New York Times| url=https://www.nytimes.com/1933/02/09/archives/congress-counts-electoral-vote-joint-session-applauds-every-state.html| via=TimesMachine| access-date=October 1, 2019| archive-date=February 11, 2020| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200211172940/https://www.nytimes.com/1933/02/09/archives/congress-counts-electoral-vote-joint-session-applauds-every-state.html| url-status=live}}</ref> Mwakuyana waka, [[Walter Mondale]], mu 1981, [[Dan Quayle]], mu 1993, na [[Mike Pence]], mu [[2021 United States Electoral College vote count|2021]], waliyose wakakhumbikwira kulengezga kupokera kwa uyo wakalondezganga pa udindo wawo, pamanyuma pa kutondeka kusankhika kachiŵiri. ===Wakunthazi wa president wa United States=== [[File:Tyler receives news.jpg|thumb|alt=Chithuzi:Tyler wakimilira pa khonde la nyumba yake ku Virginia, ndipo munthu wakwiza kwa iyo na envelopu. Mazu ghali pasi ghakuti "Tyler wakupokera uthenga wa nyifwa ya Harrison."|upright=1.05|Chithuzi cha mu 1888 cha [[John Tyler]] wakupokera uthenga wa nyifwa ya President [[William Henry Harrison]] kufuma kwa Chief Clerk wa State Department [[Fletcher Webster]]]] [[Article Two of the United States Constitution#Clause 6: Vacancy and disability|Chigaŵa chachiŵiri cha Malango gha United States#Ndime 6: Malo ghakuleka kanthawi na kutondeka kugwira ntchito]] mu [[Article Two of the United States Constitution|Article II]], Chigaŵa 1, Ndime 6, chikuyowoya kuti vice president wakutora "mazaza na milimo" ya upresidenti para president wafumiskika mu udindo, wafwa, waleka udindo, panji watondeka kugwira ntchito.<ref name=FordhamLaw2011>{{cite journal|last=Feerick|first=John D.|journal=Fordham Law Review|volume=79|issue=3|date=2011|pages=907–949|url=http://ir.lawnet.fordham.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=4695&context=flr|title=Presidential Succession and Inability: Before and After the Twenty-Fifth Amendment|publisher=[[Fordham University School of Law]]|location=New York City|access-date=July 7, 2017|archive-date=August 20, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150820001749/http://ir.lawnet.fordham.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=4695&context=flr|url-status=live}}</ref> Nangauli vili nthena, likayowoya mwakudunjika yayi usange vice president wakaŵa president panji wakachitanga waka nga ni president mu nyengo ya kulondezgana kwa maudindo. Mazu agho ghakalembeka pa msonkhano wakupanga Malango mu 1787, pamoza na ivyo ŵanyake awo ŵakaŵapo pa msonkhano uwu ŵakalemba pamanyuma, vikulongora kuti awo ŵakapanga Malango ŵakakhumbanga kuti vice president wazamugwiliskira ntchito kanyengo mazaza na milimo ya udindo uwu para president wafwa, watondeka kugwira ntchito, panji wafumiskika mu udindo, kweni wazamuŵa yayi president wa United States mu udindo wake wenecho.<ref name=PVPS2004OCL>{{cite web|last=Neale|first=Thomas H.|title=Presidential and Vice Presidential Succession: Overview and Current Legislation|work=CRS Report for Congress|url=https://fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/RL31761.pdf|publisher=[[Congressional Research Service]]|location=Washington, D.C.|date=September 27, 2004|access-date=July 27, 2018|archive-date=November 14, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201114173057/https://web.archive.org/web/20201114173057/https://fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/RL31761.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=From Failing Hands: the Story of Presidential Succession|last1=Feerick|first1=John D.|last2=Freund|first2=Paul A.|date=1965|url=https://ir.lawnet.fordham.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1000&context=twentyfifth_amendment_books|publisher=Fordham University Press|location=New York City|page=56|lccn=65-14917|access-date=July 31, 2018|archive-date=November 20, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201120053125/https://web.archive.org/web/20201120053125/https://ir.lawnet.fordham.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1000&context=twentyfifth_amendment_books|url-status=live}}</ref> Maghanoghano agha ghakayezgeka kakwamba mu 1841, pamanyuma pa nyifwa ya President [[William Henry Harrison]], pamanyuma pa mazuŵa {{age in days|March 4, 1841|April 4, 1841}} pera kufuma apo wakamba mulimo wake. Vice president wa Harrison, [[John Tyler]], wakayowoya kuti kuyana na Malango, iyo wakalondezga pa udindo wa president, osati kutora waka mazaza na milimo yake. Wakajilapizga yekha kuŵa president ndipo wakamba kugwiliskira ntchito mazaza ghose gha president, kukana kuzomera mabuku agho ghakamuchema kuti "Acting President".<ref name=JTDA>{{cite web|title=John Tyler: Domestic Affairs|last=Freehling|first=William|date=October 4, 2016|url=https://millercenter.org/president/tyler/domestic-affairs|publisher=Miller Center of Public Affairs, University of Virginia|location=Charllotesville, Virginia|access-date=July 29, 2018|archive-date=March 12, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170312033201/https://millercenter.org/president/tyler/domestic-affairs|url-status=live}}</ref> Nangauli ŵanyake mu Congress ŵakasuska ivyo Tyler wakayowoya nga ni kuswa Malango,<ref name=FordhamLaw2011/> iyo wakalutilira na maghanoghano ghake. Pamanyuma maghanoghano ghake ghakazomerezgeka apo Senate na House wose ŵakavota kumumanya nga ni president.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1111/j.1741-5705.2005.00269.x|last=Abbott|first=Philip|title=Accidental Presidents: Death, Assassination, Resignation, and Democratic Succession|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_presidential-studies-quarterly_2005-12_35_4/page/627|journal=Presidential Studies Quarterly|date=December 2005|volume=35|issue=4|pages=627–645|jstor=27552721}}</ref> [[Tyler Precedent|Ndondomeko ya Tyler]] yakuti vice president wakutora zina lose na mulimo wa president para uyo wakamutolelanga wafwa, waleka udindo, panji wafumiskika mu udindo (kwizira mu kweruzgika kwa impeachment) yikazomerezgeka mu Malango kwizira mu [[Twenty-fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Kusintha kwa Chinkhondi na chinkhondi kwa Malango gha United States]] mu 1967.<ref>{{cite web| title=A controversial President who established presidential succession| date=March 29, 2017| url=https://constitutioncenter.org/blog/john-tyler-americas-most-unusual-president| work=Constitution Daily| publisher=[[National Constitution Center]]| location=Philadelphia, Pennsylvania| access-date=November 25, 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| url=https://law.justia.com/constitution/us/article-2/05-presidential-succession.html| title=Presidential Succession| work=US Law| publisher=Justia| location=Mountain View, California| access-date=July 29, 2018}}</ref> Wose pamoza, ŵa vice president 9 ŵakanjira mu udindo wa president mu nyengo iyo udindo ukaŵa kuti wandamalizge. Padera pa Tyler, ŵanyake ni [[Millard Fillmore]], [[Andrew Johnson]], [[Chester A. Arthur]], [[Theodore Roosevelt]], [[Calvin Coolidge]], [[Harry S. Truman]], [[Lyndon B. Johnson]], na [[Gerald Ford]]. Ŵanayi mwa iwo—Roosevelt, Coolidge, Truman, na Lyndon B. Johnson—pamanyuma ŵakasankhikaso kuŵa president pa nyengo zawo zose.<ref name=PVPS2004OCL/> Ŵa vice president ŵanayi awo ŵakaŵa pa udindo ŵakasankhika kuŵa president: [[John Adams]] mu [[1796 United States presidential election|visola vya president vya United States vya 1796]], [[Thomas Jefferson]] mu [[1800 United States presidential election|visola vya president vya United States vya 1800]], [[Martin Van Buren]] mu [[1836 United States presidential election|visola vya president vya United States vya 1836]], na [[George H. W. Bush]] mu [[1988 United States presidential election|visola vya president vya United States vya 1988]]. Mwakuyana waka, ŵa vice president ŵa kale ŵaŵiri ŵakathereska kuŵa president, [[Richard Nixon]] mu [[1968 United States presidential election|visola vya president vya United States vya 1968]] na [[Joe Biden]] mu [[2020 United States presidential election|visola vya president vya United States vya 2020]]. Ŵa vice president ŵankhondi awo ŵakaŵa pa udindo ŵakatondeka mu visola vya president: Breckinridge mu [[1860 United States presidential election|visola vya president vya United States vya 1860]], Nixon mu [[1960 United States presidential election|visola vya president vya United States vya 1960]], Humphrey mu 1968, Gore mu [[2000 United States presidential election|visola vya president vya United States vya 2000]], na Harris mu [[2024 United States presidential election|visola vya president vya United States vya 2024]]. Mwakuyana waka, vice president wakale Walter Mondale wakatondeka mu [[1984 United States presidential election|visola vya president vya United States vya 1984]].<ref>{{cite magazine|title=Does the Vice Presidency Give Joe Biden an Advantage in the Race to the Top? Here's How VPs Before Him Fared|last=Waxman|first=Olivia|date=April 25, 2019|url=https://time.com/5549797/joe-biden-president-2020-history/|magazine=Time|access-date=December 10, 2021}}</ref> Pamoza, ŵa vice president 15 ŵakazgoka ŵa president.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.insider.com/vice-presidents-who-became-president-2020-12|title=15 vice presidents who became president themselves|first=Talia|last=Lakritz|website=Insider}}</ref> ===President wakuchita kanyengo=== {{Further| Acting President of the United States}} Vigaŵa 3 na 4 vya Kusintha kwa Chinkhondi na chinkhondi kwa Malango gha United States vikulongosora nyengo izo president wakutondeka kanyengo panji nyengo yose kulongozga, nga ni para president wakuchita opaleshoni, wakulwara chomene panji wavulala, panji wakutondeka kuchita mazaza panji milimo ya upresidenti.<ref name=NCC25th/> Chigaŵa{{spaces}}3 chikuyowoya vya kutondeka kugwira ntchito uko president mweneko wakulengezga, ndipo Chigaŵa{{spaces}}4 chikuyowoya vya kutondeka kugwira ntchito uko vice president na ŵanandi mu Cabinet ŵakupangana.<ref name=NCC25th/> Nangauli Chigaŵa{{spaces}}4 chindagwiliskikepo ntchito, Chigaŵa{{spaces}}3 chagwiliskika ntchito kanayi na ŵa president ŵatatu, kwamba mu 1985. Apo chikagwiliskika ntchito pa Novembala 19, 2021, [[Kamala Harris]] wakaŵa mwanakazi wakwamba mu mdauko wa United States kuŵa na mazaza na milimo ya president.<ref>{{cite news|last=Sullivan|first=Kate|title=For 85 minutes, Kamala Harris became the first woman with presidential power|date=November 19, 2021|url=https://www.cnn.com/2021/11/19/politics/kamala-harris-presidential-power/index.html|publisher=CNN|access-date=November 19, 2021}}</ref> Vigaŵa 3 na 4 vikaŵikika chifukwa pakaŵa kusoŵa kumanyikwa mu ndime ya kulondezgana kwa maudindo mu [[Article Two of the United States Constitution|Article II]], pa nkhani ya president uyo watondeka kugwira ntchito, kusazgapo ivyo vikupanga "[[incapacity|kutondeka kugwira ntchito]]", uyo wakusimikizga kuti kutondeka kulipo, kweniso usange vice president wakuzgoka president kuzakamalizga nyengo ya president panji wakaŵa "acting president". Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800 na hafu yakwamba ya vyaka vya m'ma 1900, ŵa president ŵanandi ŵakasangana na nyengo za matenda ghakuru, kutondeka kwa thupi panji vilonda, vinyake vikatora masabata panji myezi. Mu nyengo izi, nangauli charu chikakhumbanga ulongozgi uwemi wa president, palije vice president uyo wakakhumbanga kuwoneka nga ni uyo wapoka mazaza, ntheura mazaza ghakaŵikika kwa munyake yayi. Pamanyuma pa President [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] kuyowoya pakweru vya suzgo la umoyo wake na kupanga phangano na Vice President Richard Nixon ilo likapelekanga mpata kwa Nixon kuchita m'malo mwa iyo usange Eisenhower watondeka kupereka ulongozgi uwemi wa president (Nixon wakachitapo mwakuzomerezgeka yayi pa milimo yinyake ya president kwa masabata ghanandi mu nyengo zitatu apo Eisenhower wakalwaranga), kudumbiskana mu Congress kukamba pa nkhani ya kumazga kusoŵa kumanyikwa uku mu Malango.<ref name=FordhamLaw2011/><ref name=NCC25th>{{cite web| title=The Twenty-fifth Amendment| last1=Kalt| first1=Brian C.| last2=Pozen| first2=David| url=https://constitutioncenter.org/interactive-constitution/amendments/amendment-xxv| work=The Interactive Constitution| publisher=The National Constitution Center| location=Philadelphia, Pennsylvania| access-date=July 28, 2018| archive-date=September 4, 2019| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190904214749/https://constitutioncenter.org/interactive-constitution/amendments/amendment-xxv| url-status=live}}</ref> ==Milimo ya mazuŵa ghano== Mazaza gha ofesi iyi mazuŵa ghano ghakufuma chomene ku mazaza agho ghakupelekeka mwakudunjika panji mwambura kulembeka kufuma kwa president na Congress.<ref name=24KJLPP1/> Mazaza agha ghangasiyana chomene pa kukura kwake; mwachiyelezgero, vice president ni chiŵaro cha malango cha [[United States National Security Council|National Security Council]] na wupu wa ŵalongozgi wa [[Smithsonian Institution]].<ref name=USlegal-VP/> Kukura kwa milimo na maudindo gha vice president kukuthemba chomene pa ubale wapadera pakati pa president na vice president, kweni kanandi kukusazgapo milimo nga ni kulemba ndondomeko za boma na kuyowoyera boma, kuŵa mlangizi wa president, kweniso kuŵa chimanyikwilo cha chitima panji chovwiro cha America. Mphaka ya mazaza gha vice president mu milimo iyi yikuthemba pafupifupi yose pa umo boma la president uyo liliri.<ref>{{Cite magazine |last=Lizza |first=Ryan |date=October 10, 2008 |title=Biden's Brief |url=https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2008/10/20/bidens-brief |access-date=August 1, 2023 |magazine=The New Yorker |language=en-US}}</ref> ===Mlangizi wa president=== [[File:President Donald Trump and Vice President JD Vance walk along the Colonnade towards the Oval Office (54508186298).jpg|thumb|Vice President [[JD Vance]] na President [[Donald Trump]], 2025.]] Ŵa vice president ŵanandi ŵasono ŵawonekanga nga mbalangizi ŵakuzirwa ŵa president. Walter Mondale, mwakupambana na awo ŵakaŵa pa udindo pambere iyo, wakakhumba yayi kuti milimo yapadera yipelekeke kwa iyo. Mondale wakagomezganga, nga umo wakalembera mu memo kwa president wakusankhika Jimmy Carter pamanyuma pa visola vya 1976, kuti mulimo wake wakuzirwa chomene ukaŵenge kuŵa "mlangizi wa president pa nkhani zose".<ref name="WPO 41921" /><ref>Walter Mondale, [https://www.mnhs.org/collections/upclose/Mondale-CarterMemo-Transcription.pdf Memo to Jimmy Carter re: The Role of the Vice President in the Carter Administration] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200307080046/http://www.mnhs.org/collections/upclose/Mondale-CarterMemo-Transcription.pdf |date=March 7, 2020 }}, Dec. 9, 1976.</ref> Al Gore wakaŵa mlangizi wakuzirwa kwa President [[Bill Clinton]] pa nkhani za [[foreign policy|ndondomeko za vyakuwaro]] na [[environmental policy|ndondomeko za chilengedwe]]. Dick Cheney wakamanyikwanga kuti wakaŵa yumoza wa ŵanthu ŵapafupi chomene na President George W. Bush. Joe Biden wakapempha President Barack Obama kuti wamuzomerezge kuŵa nyengo zose "munthu waumaliro mu chipinda" apo chinthu chikuru chikupangika; pamanyuma, apo wakaŵa president mweneko, Biden wakagwiliskira ntchito ndondomeko iyi na vice president wake, Kamala Harris.<ref name="Politico">{{cite news |last1=Lizza |first1=Ryan |title=What Harris Got from Biden During Her Job Interview |url=https://www.politico.com/news/magazine/2020/08/13/joe-biden-kamala-harris-relationship-395160 |access-date=14 August 2020 |publisher=Politico |date=August 13, 2020 |archive-date=January 14, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210114194956/https://www.politico.com/news/magazine/2020/08/13/joe-biden-kamala-harris-relationship-395160 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="BusinessInsider">{{cite web|url=https://www.businessinsider.com/kamala-harris-portfolio-2024-president-biden-white-house-administration-2021-1|title=Kamala Harris is the president-in-waiting. Here's how the VP is balancing building her own brand against serving as a loyal soldier on Team Biden.|publisher=[[Business Insider]]|last1=Bravender|first1=Robin|last2=Sfondeles|first2=Tina|date=January 29, 2021|access-date=January 29, 2021|archive-date=January 29, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210129145023/https://www.businessinsider.com/kamala-harris-portfolio-2024-president-biden-white-house-administration-2021-1|url-status=live}}</ref> ===Mwenekuso wakuŵira munyake pa ulongozgi=== Ŵa vice president ŵasono ŵapokera mazaza kufuma kwa ma president kuti ŵawongolere ŵekha vigaŵa vikuru vya nkhani. Joe Biden (uyo wali kugwirapo ntchito nga ni President na Vice President wa United States) wakayowoya kuti upresidenti "ngwakukura chomene sono mwakuti munthu yumoza mwanalume panji mwanakazi wangakwaniska yayi".<ref>{{cite news |last1=Glueck |first1=Katie |title=Behind Joe Biden's Thinking on a Female Running Mate |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/03/16/us/politics/joe-biden-vp-running-mate.html |access-date=August 14, 2020 |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=March 16, 2020 |archive-date=August 25, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200825135306/https://www.nytimes.com/2020/03/16/us/politics/joe-biden-vp-running-mate.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Dick Cheney wakaghanaghanika kuti wakaŵa na mazaza ghanandi chomene ndipo kanandi wakapanganga vyakusankha vya ndondomeko yekha, kwambura kuti president wamanye.<ref name="Kenneth T. Walsh" /> Barack Obama wakapeleka mulimo kwa Biden wakuti wawongolere ndondomeko ya Iraq; vikayowoyeka kuti Obama wakati, "Joe, iwe ulongozge vya Iraq".<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.newyorker.com/news/daily-comment/breaking-maliki-biden |title=Breaking Up: Maliki and Biden |last=Osnos |first=Evan |magazine=The New Yorker |date=August 12, 2014 |access-date=August 26, 2015 |archive-date=October 2, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151002053443/http://www.newyorker.com/news/daily-comment/breaking-maliki-biden |url-status=live }}</ref> Mu Febuluwale 2020, [[Donald Trump]] wakasankha Mike Pence kuti walongozge ivyo boma likachitanga pa mulandu wa COVID-19.<ref>{{Cite web|last1=Cancryn|first1=Adam|last2=Forgey|first2=Quint|last3=Diamond|first3=Dan|date=February 27, 2020|title=After fumbled messaging, Trump gets a coronavirus czar by another name|url=https://www.politico.com/news/2020/02/27/white-house-coronavirus-response-debbie-birx-117893|access-date=July 19, 2021|website=[[POLITICO]]|language=}}</ref> Mu Malichi 2021, President Biden wakaŵika Kamala Harris kuyang'anira mulimo wakumalana na chiŵelengero chikuru cha ŵasamuka awo ŵakizanga pa mphaka ya [[U.S.–Mexico border|United States na Mexico]].<ref>{{Cite news|date=March 24, 2021|title=Biden tasks Harris with tackling migrant influx on US–Mexico border|language=|work=[[BBC News]]|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-56516332|access-date=July 19, 2021}}</ref> ===Mwenekoso wa pa ubali wa Congress=== Vice president kanandi ni mulumikizgi wakuzirwa pakati pa boma na Congress, chomene mu nyengo izo president wandagwirepo ntchito mu Congress panji wakagwirapo ntchito kanyengo kachoko waka. Kanandi ŵa vice president ŵakusankhika kuŵa ŵanyawo mu visola chifukwa cha ubale wawo na ŵanthu mu malango, kusazgapo [[Richard Nixon]], [[Lyndon Johnson]], [[Walter Mondale]], [[Dick Cheney]], [[Joe Biden]], na [[Mike Pence]] pamoza na ŵanyake. Mu vyaka vyasono, Dick Cheney wakachitanga maungano gha sabata na sabata mu Chipinda cha Vice President mu [[United States Capitol]], Joe Biden wakachitapo mulimo ukuru mu kudumbiskana kwa bajeti pakati pa vipani viŵiri, ndipo Mike Pence kanandi wakakumananga na ŵa Republican mu House na Senate. Kamala Harris wakalongozganga Senate iyo yikaŵa yakugaŵikana 50–50 mu nyengo ya [[117th United States Congress|Congress ya 117]], icho chikamupa mulimo wakuzirwa pakuzomerezga malango. ===Mjumbe ku vyakuchitika=== Mu ndondomeko ya boma ya America ya [[Presidential system|upresidenti]], president ni [[head of state|mutu wa charu]] na [[head of government|mutu wa boma]],<ref>{{cite web|title=Our Government: The Executive Branch|url=https://bidenwhitehouse.archives.gov/about-the-white-house/our-government/the-executive-branch/|website=[[White House]]|publisher=The White House|location=Washington, D.C.|access-date=July 31, 2018|archive-date=July 31, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180731035828/https://www.whitehouse.gov/about-the-white-house/the-executive-branch/|url-status=live}}</ref> ndipo milimo ya mwambo ya udindo wakwamba kanandi yikupelekeka kwa vice president. Vice president nyengo zinyake wakwimira president na boma la United States pa nyifwa za ŵalongozgi mu vyaru vinyake, panji pa vyakuchitika vyakupambanapambana mu United States. Kanandi uwu ndiwo mulimo uwo ŵanthu ŵakuwona chomene wa vice president. Vice president wangakumanaso na ŵalongozgi ŵa vyaru vinyake mu nyengo izo boma likukhumba kulongora chitima panji chovwiro kweni likutondeka kutuma president mweneko. ===Chiŵaro cha National Security Council=== Kwambira mu 1949, vice president wali kuŵa chiŵaro cha malango cha [[United States National Security Council|National Security Council]]. [[Harry S. Truman]], chifukwa chakuti wakaŵa wandaphalirike vya mapulani gha nkhondo panji pamanyuma pa nkhondo mu nyengo iyo wakaŵa vice president (chomene [[Manhattan Project]]), wakamanya kuti para vice president wazgoka president wakwenera kuti wafumapo kale kumanya vya nkhani izi. Ŵa vice president ŵasono nawo ŵakusazgikamo mu [[President's Daily Brief|malipoti gha zuŵa na zuŵa gha vinthu vya chitetezo]] gha president,<ref name="Politico" /> ndipo kanandi ŵakutora chigaŵa mu maungano mu [[Situation Room]] pamoza na president. ==Umo ŵakusankhira== ===Ukwaniskika=== Kuti munthu waŵe wakwenelera mwakuyana na Malango gha charu kuti wagwire ntchito ya vice president, munthu wakwenera, kuyana na Kusintha kwa Chinkhondi na chinkhondi, kukwaniska ivyo vikukhumbikwa kuti waŵe president (ivyo vili kulembeka mu [[Article Two of the United States Constitution#Clause 5: Qualifications for office|Article{{spaces}}II, Section{{spaces}}1, Clause{{spaces}}5]]). Ntheura, kuti munthu wagwire ntchito ya vice president, wakwenera: * kuŵa [[Natural-born-citizen clause (United States)|mubadwa wa charu]] wa [[United States nationality law|United States]]; * kuŵa na vyaka 35 panji kujumphapo; * kuŵa [[Residency (domicile)#United States|wakukhala mu United States]] kwa vyaka 14 panji kujumphapo.<ref name="AC-XII">{{cite web|title=Twelfth Amendment|url=http://www.annenbergclassroom.org/page/twelfth-amendment|work=Annenberg Classroom|date=December 9, 1804|publisher=The Annenberg Public Policy Center|location=Philadelphia, Pennsylvania|access-date=February 21, 2018|archive-date=February 22, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180222165133/http://www.annenbergclassroom.org/page/twelfth-amendment|url-status=deviated}}</ref> Munthu uyo wakukwana vinthu ivi pachanya wakukanizgikaso kukhala mu udindo wa wachiŵiri wa pulezidenti mu nyengo izi: * Mwakuyana na [[Article One of the United States Constitution#Clause 7: Judgment in cases of impeachment; Punishment on conviction|Article{{spaces}}I, Section{{spaces}}3, Clause{{spaces}}7]], para munthu wasangika na mulandu mu milandu ya kuchimbizga mu udindo, Senate yili na wanangwa wa kumukanizga munthu uyo wasangika na mulandu kuti waleke kugwira udindo wa boma, kusazgapo udindo wa wachiŵiri wa pulezidenti; * Mwakuyana na [[Twelfth Amendment to the United States Constitution]], "palije munthu uyo mwakuyana na malango wakukanizgika kukhala pulezidenti ndiyo wangayana na udindo wa wachiŵiri wa pulezidenti wa United States".<ref name="AC-XII" /> * Mwakuyana na [[Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution#Participants in rebellion|Section 3 ya Fourteenth Amendment]], palije munthu uyo wali kulapa kuti wasungilire Malango gha Boma, uyo pamanyuma "wakachitako kuwukira panji kugaluka" ku United States, panji uyo wakapeleka wovwiri na chivikiliro ku ŵalwani ŵa charu, wangagwira udindo uliwose wa boma la chigaŵa panji la fuko—kusazgapo udindo wa wachiŵiri wa pulezidenti. Kuletsedwa uku, uko pakwamba kukakhumbanga ŵanthu awo ŵakakhozgeranga [[Confederate States of America|Confederacy]], kungawuskika para nyumba zose ziŵiri za Congress zavota na magawo ghaŵiri pa ghatatu.<ref>{{cite web|title=Fourteenth Amendment|url=http://www.annenbergclassroom.org/page/fourteenth-amendment|work=Annenberg Classroom|date=June 7, 1964|publisher=The Annenberg Public Policy Center|location=Philadelphia, Pennsylvania|access-date=February 21, 2018|archive-date=February 26, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180226091918/http://www.annenbergclassroom.org/page/fourteenth-amendment|url-status=deviated}}</ref> ===Kusankhika=== [[File:GERALDINEFERRARO.jpg|thumb|right|[[Geraldine Ferraro]] wakuyowoya pamanyuma pa kusankhika kwake kuŵa munthu wa chipani chake kuŵa wakwimira pa udindo wa wachiŵiri wa pulezidenti.]] Ŵanthu awo ŵakusankhika kuŵa ŵakwimira pa udindo wa wachiŵiri wa pulezidenti ŵa vipani vikuru vya ndyali vya fuko ŵakusankhika mwakuzomerezgeka na ungano wa chipani uwo ukuchitika vilimika vinayi vilimose, pamanyuma pa kusankhika kwa munthu wa chipani chawo kuŵa wakwimira pa udindo wa pulezidenti. Ndondomeko yakusankhira iyi njakuyana na iyo yikugwiliskirika ntchito pakusankha ŵakwimira pa udindo wa pulezidenti, apo ŵimiliri ŵakuŵika mazina gha ŵanthu awo ŵakusankhika, ndipo pamanyuma pakuchitika kuvota uko munthu wakwenera kusanga mavoti ghanandi kuti wasankhike kuŵa munthu wa chipani. Mu nyengo yasono, munthu uyo wasankhika kuŵa wakwimira pa udindo wa pulezidenti wali na mazaza ghakuru pa chisankho ichi, ndipo kwambira pakati pa vyaka vya m'ma 1900 chikaŵa chizolowezi kuti munthu uyu wasankhe munyake uyo wakwenda nayo pa chisankho, uyo pamanyuma wakusankhika na kuzomerezgeka na ungano wa chipani. Pambere Franklin D. Roosevelt mu 1940, ŵapulezidenti ŵaŵiri pera—Andrew Jackson mu [[1832 Democratic National Convention|1832]] na Abraham Lincoln mu [[1864 National Union National Convention|1864]]—ndiwo ŵakachita nthena.<ref name="Smithsonian112014">{{cite magazine|last=Py-Lieberman|first=Beth|title=How the Office of the Vice Presidency Evolved from Nothing to Something|url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smithsonian-institutions/how-office-vice-presidency-evolved-nothing-something-180953302/|date=November 18, 2014|magazine=[[Smithsonian (magazine)|Smithsonian]]|access-date=December 10, 2021}}</ref> Mu vyaka vyasono, chifukwa chakuti munthu wa chipani uyo wakwimira pa udindo wa pulezidenti kanandi wakumanyikwa kale chifukwa cha ndondomeko ya mavoti gha pakwamba, kusankhika kwa munthu wa udindo wa wachiŵiri wa pulezidenti kanandi kukupharazgika pambere mavoti gha kusankha pulezidenti ghandachitike, ndipo nyengo zinyake pambere ungano weneko undambe. Munthu waumaliro wakwimira pa udindo wa pulezidenti uyo wakasankha yayi munthu wa wachiŵiri wa pulezidenti, kweni wakaleka nkhani iyi ku ungano, wakaŵa Democrat [[Adlai Stevenson II|Adlai Stevenson]] mu 1956. Ungano ukasankha Senator wa [[Tennessee]] [[Estes Kefauver]] m’malo mwa Senator wa [[Massachusetts]] (ndipo pamanyuma pulezidenti) [[John F. Kennedy]]. Pa ungano wa Democrats wa 1972 uwo ukaŵa na mphindano, wakwimira pa udindo wa pulezidenti [[George McGovern]] wakasankha Senator wa [[Missouri]] [[Thomas Eagleton]] kuŵa munyake pa chisankho, kweni ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵanyake nawo ŵakaŵikika pa mazina panji ŵakasanga mavoti pa nyengo ya kuvota. Nangauli nthena, Eagleton wakasanga mavoti ghanandi na kusankhika, kweni pamanyuma wakalekera pa chisankho, ndipo ichi chikapangiska kuti [[Sargent Shriver]] wa ku [[Maryland]] waŵe munthu waumaliro uyo wakendanga na McGovern; wose ŵakatondeka pa chisankho na chipani cha Nixon–Agnew mwakutali, ndipo ŵakasanga chalo cha [[Massachusetts]] pera na [[Washington, D.C.|District of Columbia]]. Mu nyengo izo zili mu ndondomeko ya chisankho cha pulezidenti apo zina la munthu wakwimira pa udindo wa pulezidenti lindakamanyikwa makora, kusazgapo nyengo izo kusankhika kwa munthu wakwimira pa udindo wa pulezidenti kukukayikirika apo ungano ukwiza kufika, kampeni za maudindo ghaŵiri izi zingasangananga. Mu 1976, [[Ronald Reagan]], uyo wakaŵa kumanyuma kwa Pulezidenti [[Gerald Ford]] pa unandi wa ŵimiliri ŵa chipani, wakapharazga pambere Ungano wa Republican undambe kuti, usange wasankhika, wasankhenge Senator wa [[Pennsylvania]] [[Richard Schweiker]] kuŵa munyake pa chisankho. Reagan wakaŵa munthu wakwamba wakakhumbanga kuŵa pulezidenti uyo wakapharazga kusankhika kwake kwa wachiŵiri wa pulezidenti pambere ungano undambe. Ŵakukhozgera Reagan pamanyuma ŵakayezga kwambura kukwana kusintha malango gha ungano kuti Gerald Ford wakeneranga kusankha munyake wa wachiŵiri wa pulezidenti mwaluŵiro. Kachitidwe aka kakawuskapo phindu ku chigaŵa chinyake, chifukwa mbiri ya mavoti ya Schweiker iyo yikaŵa yakukolerana na wanangwa wakakhuŵazga ŵimiliri ŵanandi ŵa chipani awo ŵakaŵa ŵakusungilira chomene ndipo ŵakaghanaghananga kususka malango gha kusankha ŵimiliri ŵa chipani kuti ŵawovwire mipata ya Reagan. Paumaliro, Ford wakatonda kusankhika kuŵa wakwimira pa udindo wa pulezidenti mwakufupifupi, ndipo kusankhika kwa Schweiker na Reagan kukazgoka kwambura ntchito. Mu mavoti gha pakwamba gha chipani cha Democrats gha 2008 gha kusankha pulezidenti, agho ghakasuskana pakati pa [[Hillary Clinton]] na [[Barack Obama]], Clinton wakayowoya za tikiti ya Clinton–Obama apo Obama wangaŵa pa udindo wa wachiŵiri wa pulezidenti, ndipo wakayowoya kuti iyi yikaŵa "yambura kutondeka" pakususka munthu uyo wakaghanaghanikanga kuti ndiyo wakwimira chipani cha Republican. Obama wakakana pempho ili mwakudunjika, wakati, "Nkhukhumba kuti waliyose wamanye makora. Ine nkhupenja kuŵa wachiŵiri wa pulezidenti yayi. Ine nkhupenja kuŵa pulezidenti wa United States of America," ndipo wakasazgirapo kuti, "Na ntchindi zose. Ndatonda mu vigaŵa viŵiri kupambana Senator Clinton. Nasanga mavoti ghanandi gha ŵanthu kuluska Senator Clinton. Ndili na ŵimiliri ŵanandi kuluska Senator Clinton. Ntheura, nkhumanya yayi umo munthu uyo wali pa malo ghaŵiri wakupempha udindo wa wachiŵiri wa pulezidenti kwa munthu uyo wali pa malo ghakwamba." Obama wakayowoya kuti ndondomeko ya kusankha yikeneranga kuŵa chisankho pakati pa iyo na Clinton, wakati "Nkhukhumba yayi kuti munthu waliyose pano waghanaghanenge kuti 'Mwenecho, panji ningasanga wose ŵaŵiri'," mwa kusankha Clinton na kughanaghana kuti iyo waŵenge munyake pa chisankho.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2008/mar/10/barackobama.hillaryclinton|title=Obama scoffs at Clinton's vice-presidential hint|first1=Allegra|last1=Stratton|first2=Daniel|last2=Nasaw|date=March 11, 2008|newspaper=The Guardian|location=London|access-date=November 21, 2016|archive-date=November 22, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161122073221/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2008/mar/10/barackobama.hillaryclinton|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cnn.com/2008/POLITICS/03/10/dems.campaign/index.html?iref=nextin|title=Obama rejects being Clinton's No. 2|publisher=CNN|date=March 11, 2008|access-date=November 21, 2016|archive-date=November 22, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161122071859/http://www.cnn.com/2008/POLITICS/03/10/dems.campaign/index.html?iref=nextin|url-status=live}}</ref> Ŵanyake ŵakaghanaghananga kuti ichi chikaŵa chinyengo cha kampeni ya Clinton kuti ŵamupangiske Obama kuwoneka nga ngwakwenelera pachoko kuŵa pulezidenti.<ref>{{cite news |url= https://www.politico.com/story/2016/06/trump-obama-clinton-2008-ad-224189 |title= Trump throws 2008 Obama ad in Clinton's face |work= Politico |date= June 10, 2016 |access-date= November 21, 2016 |archive-date= November 22, 2016 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20161122071709/http://www.politico.com/story/2016/06/trump-obama-clinton-2008-ad-224189 |url-status= live }}</ref>{{failed verification|date = June 2021}} Pamanyuma, apo Obama wakazgoka munthu uyo wakaghanaghanikanga kuti ndiyo wakwimira chipani cha Democrats pa udindo wa pulezidenti, pulezidenti wakale [[Jimmy Carter]] wakachenjezga kuti Clinton waleke kusankhika kuŵa munthu wa wachiŵiri wa pulezidenti pa tikiti iyo, wakati "Nkhughanaghana kuti chingaŵa chinthu chiheni chomene icho chingachitika. Ichi chingasazgirapo waka vinthu viheni vya ŵanthu ŵaŵiri ŵakukhumba udindo," ndipo wakayowoya za mavoti gha maghanoghano agho ghakalongora kuti 50% ya ŵavoti ŵa ku United States ŵakaŵa na maghanoghano ghaheni pa Hillary Clinton.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2008/jun/04/uselections2008|title=US elections: Jimmy Carter tells Barack Obama not to pick Hillary Clinton as running mate|first=Jonathan|last=Freedland|date=June 4, 2008|newspaper=The Guardian|location=London|access-date=November 21, 2016|archive-date=November 16, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161116022610/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2008/jun/04/uselections2008|url-status=live}}</ref>{{multiple image | direction = horizontal | total_width = 350 | footer = | image1 = Photograph of the Official Portrait of President Reagan and Vice-President Bush (cropped).jpg | alt1 = | caption1 = Wachiŵiri wa pulezidenti [[George H. W. Bush]] na Pulezidenti [[Ronald Reagan]] mu 1981. | image2 = President Bush and Vice President Quayle pose together for their official portrait - NARA - 186393.jpg | alt2 = | caption2 = Wachiŵiri wa pulezidenti [[Dan Quayle]] na Pulezidenti [[George H. W. Bush]] mu 1989. }} ===Vinthu ivyo ŵakusankha navyo=== Nangauli wachiŵiri wa pulezidenti wakukhumbikwira yayi kuŵa na vinjeru vya ndyali, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa vipani vikuru awo ŵakusankhika kuŵa ŵakwimira pa udindo wa wachiŵiri wa pulezidenti mbenecho ŵa sono panji ŵakale ŵa [[United States Senate|Senate ya United States]] panji ŵimiliri ŵa ku [[United States House of Representatives|Nyumba ya Ŵimiliri]], ndipo nyengo zinyake pakusankhika gavena wa sono panji wakale, mulongozgi mukuru wa ŵasilikari (ŵasilikari awo ŵali pa ntchito ŵakukanizgika na malango gha US kugwira maudindo gha ndyali), panji munthu uyo wali kugwirapo udindo ukuru mu chigaŵa cha Ulongozgi wa Boma. Kusazgapo apa, munthu uyo wakwimira pa udindo wa wachiŵiri wa pulezidenti nyengo zose waŵanga munthu uyo wakukhala mwalamulo mu chigaŵa chinyake chakupambana na icho munthu wakwimira pa udindo wa pulezidenti wakukhalamo. Nangauli mu Malango gha Boma mulije chinthu icho chikuletelera munthu wakwimira pa udindo wa pulezidenti na munyake uyo wakwenda nayo pa chisankho kuŵa ŵa chigaŵa chimoza, "dango la munthu wakukhala mu chigaŵa" mu Twelfth Amendment likukhumba kuti munthu waliyose wakuvota pa chisankho cha pulezidenti waŵike voti yake kwa munthu yumoza pera uyo wakufuma yayi mu chigaŵa chawo. Pambere [[2000 United States presidential election|chisankho cha 2000]] chindachitike, George W. Bush na Dick Cheney wose ŵakakhalanga na kuvotera ku Texas. Kuti ŵaleke kupangiska suzgo lakuti ŵanthu ŵa Texas awo ŵakavotanga pa chisankho ichi ŵasangane nalo, Cheney wakasinthaso malo ghake ghakukhala ku Wyoming pambere kampeni yindambe.<ref name=AC-XII/> Kanandi, munthu wakwimira pa udindo wa pulezidenti wakusankha munthu wa wachiŵiri wa pulezidenti uyo wangiza [[Ticket balance|kuyana kwa chigaŵa panji maghanoghano gha ndyali]] pa tikiti iyo, panji kukopa gulu linyake la ŵavoti. Munthu wakwimira pa udindo wa wachiŵiri wa pulezidenti wangasankhikaso chifukwa cha vinthu ivyo ŵanthu ŵakuwona kuti munthu wakwimira pa udindo wa pulezidenti wakuvileka, panji chifukwa cha kumanyikwa kwa zina lake. Kuti ŵakhozge umoza wa chipani, ŵanthu awo ŵakatondeka pachoko mu ndondomeko ya kusankha munthu wa chipani kuŵa wakwimira pa udindo wa pulezidenti kanandi ŵakuwona kuti mbakwenelera kusankhika. Nangauli ndondomeko iyi yingasazgirako mwaŵi wa kutonda kwa tikiti ya fuko, mu nyengo yakale kanandi yikapangiska kuti munthu wakwimira pa udindo wa wachiŵiri wa pulezidenti wakwimira vigaŵa, magulu gha ŵavoti, panji maghanoghano agho ghakaŵa ghakupambana na gha munthu wakwimira pa udindo wa pulezidenti. Chifukwa cha ichi, ŵapulezidenti ŵaŵiri kanandi ŵakaŵanga kutali na ndondomeko ya kupanga ndondomeko za boma liphya. Nyengo zinandi ubwezi wawo na pulezidenti kweniso ŵantchito ŵake ukaŵanga wakutali, wambura kukhalapo, panji wakususkana.<ref group="n" >{{citation needed|date=July 2024}}</ref> Mu nyengo yakale, munthu wakwimira pa udindo wa wachiŵiri wa pulezidenti kanandi wakaŵanga wandale wa chiŵiri, uyo wakasankhikanga kuti wakhorweske chigaŵa chichoko cha chipani, kukhorweska ŵalongozgi ŵa chipani, panji kusanga chigaŵa chakuzirwa pa chisankho.<ref>{{cite magazine|last=Horwitz|first=Tony|title=The Vice Presidents That History Forgot|date=July 2012|url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/the-vice-presidents-that-history-forgot-137851151/|magazine=[[Smithsonian (magazine)|Smithsonian]]|access-date=December 10, 2021}}</ref> Vinthu ivyo vikaŵa na mulimo pa kusankha vikaŵa: kuyana kwa chigaŵa na maghanoghano gha ndyali, kusazgirako kukopeka kwa munthu wakwimira pa udindo wa pulezidenti ku ŵavoti ŵakufuma kuwaro kwa chigaŵa chake panji phiko la chipani. Ŵakwimira ŵakufuma mu vigaŵa ivyo vikaŵa na mavoti ghanandi gha chisankho kweni ivyo vingasinthasintha kanandi ndiwo ŵakasankhikanga. Kafukufuku wa 2016, uyo wakawona ŵanthu ŵakwimira pa udindo wa wachiŵiri wa pulezidenti mu nyengo ya 1884–2012, wakasanga kuti ŵakwimira pa udindo wa wachiŵiri wa pulezidenti ŵakasazgiranga umo tikiti yawo yikachitiranga mu vigaŵa vyawo pakuyana na magawo gha 2.67 pa 100 pa avareji.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Heersink|first1=Boris|last2=Peterson|first2=Brenton|date=2016|title=Measuring the Vice-Presidential Home State Advantage With Synthetic Controls|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/1532673X16642567|journal=American Politics Research|volume=44|issue=4|pages=734–763|doi=10.1177/1532673X16642567|issn=1556-5068|url-access=subscription}}</ref> ===Chisankho=== {{Main|United States Electoral College}} [[File:ElectoralCollege2028.svg|thumb|upright=1.25|Mapu gha [[United States]] agho ghakulongora unandi wa mavoti gha chisankho agho ghali kupika ku [[U.S. state|chigaŵa]] chilichose na ku [[Washington, D.C.|District of Columbia]] pamanyuma pa [[2020 United States census]] pa visankho vya pulezidenti vya 2024 na 2028. Mavoti 270 gha chisankho ghakukhumbikwa kuti munthu wasange unandi kufuma pa mavoti ghose 538.]] Mulongozgi wakuwona vya charu wakusankhika mwakujumphilira na ŵanthu ŵa mu chalo chilichose kweniso ku chigaŵa cha District of Columbia kwizira mu [[Electoral College (United States)|Gulu la ŵakusankha]], ilo ni gulu la ŵanthu ŵakusankha ilo likupangika kamoza pa vyaka vinayi pera na chilato chakusankha mlongozgi wa charu na mulongozgi wakuwona vya charu pa nyengo yimoza ya vyaka vinayi. Chalo chilichose chili na wanangwa wa kuŵa na ŵakusankha ŵakuyana na unandi wa ŵimiliri ŵake mu nyumba zose ziŵiri za Congress. Kweniso, [[Chiwonjezgo cha nambara 23 cha Malango gha United States|Chiwonjezgo cha nambara 23]] chikupereka kuti District of Columbia yili na unandi wa ŵakusankha uwo yikaŵenge nawo usange yikaŵa chalo, kweni ungajumpha yayi unandi wa ŵakusankha wa chalo icho chili na ŵanthu ŵachoko chomene.<ref>{{cite web|title=Twenty-third Amendment|url=http://www.annenbergclassroom.org/page/twenty-third-amendment|work=Annenberg Classroom|date=March 29, 1961|publisher=The Annenberg Public Policy Center|location=Philadelphia, Pennsylvania|access-date=July 30, 2018|archive-date=July 31, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180731062243/http://www.annenbergclassroom.org/page/twenty-third-amendment|url-status=live}}</ref> Mazuŵa ghano, vyaru vyose na D.C. vikupanga kusankha ŵakusankha ŵawo kwizira mu visola vya ŵanthu ivyo vikuchitika pa [[Election Day (United States)|Zuŵa la visola]].<ref name=CRS2017THN/> Mu vyaru vyose kupatulapo viŵiri, chipani icho tikiti yake ya mlongozgi wa charu na mulongozgi wakuwona vya charu yapokera mavoti ghanandi gha ŵanthu mu chalocho, chikusora ŵanthu wose awo ŵakusankhika kuŵa ŵakusankha ŵa chalocho.<ref>{{cite web|title=About the Electors|url=https://www.archives.gov/federal-register/electoral-college/electors.html|work=U.S. Electoral College|publisher=[[National Archives and Records Administration]]|location=Washington, D.C.|access-date=August 2, 2018|archive-date=July 21, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180721012941/https://www.archives.gov/federal-register/electoral-college/electors.html|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Maine]] na [[Nebraska]] vikupambana na ndondomeko iyi ya uyo wapokera mavoti ghanandi kutora vyose, chifukwa vikupereka ŵakusankha ŵaŵiri kwa uyo wapokera mavoti ghanandi mu chalo chose, ndipo yumoza kwa uyo wapokera mavoti ghanandi mu chigaŵa chilichose cha visola vya ŵimiliri.<ref>{{cite web|title=Maine & Nebraska|url=http://www.fairvote.org/maine_nebraska|website=fairvote.com|publisher=FairVote|location=Takoma Park, Maryland|access-date=August 1, 2018|archive-date=August 2, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180802041058/http://www.fairvote.org/maine_nebraska|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Split Electoral Votes in Maine and Nebraska|url=https://www.270towin.com/content/split-electoral-votes-maine-and-nebraska/|website=[[270towin.com]]|access-date=August 1, 2018|archive-date=August 2, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180802041034/https://www.270towin.com/content/split-electoral-votes-maine-and-nebraska|url-status=live}}</ref> Pa Mande yakwamba pamanyuma pa Chitatu chachiŵiri mu Disembala, pafupifupi masabata ghankhondi na limoza pamanyuma pa chisankho, ŵakusankha ŵakuwungana mu vyaru vyawo (ndiposo ku Washington, D.C.) kuti ŵavote mlongozgi wa charu ndipo pa voti yinyake ŵavote mulongozgi wakuwona vya charu. Ivyo vyazomerezgeka vikujulika na kupendeka pa ungano wa nyumba ziŵiri za Congress, uwo ukuchitika mu sabata yakwamba ya Janyuwale. Munthu uyo wapokera mavoti ghanandi chomene gha ŵakusankha gha mulongozgi wakuwona vya charu (mazuŵa ghano 270 pa 538) wakupharazgika kuŵa wakunowa. Usange palije munthu uyo wapokera unandi uwu, Senate yikwenera kuwungana kuti yisankhe mulongozgi wakuwona vya charu kwizira mu ndondomeko ya chisankho chapadera, apo maseneta ŵakuvota yumoza-yumoza kusankha pakati pa ŵanthu ŵaŵiri awo ŵakapokera mavoti ghanandi chomene gha ŵakusankha. Kuti munthu wanowe pa chisankho ichi, wakwenera kupokera mavoti gha unandi wa maseneta (mazuŵa ghano 51 pa 100).<ref name=CRS2017THN/><ref>{{cite web|title=What is the Electoral College?|url=https://www.archives.gov/federal-register/electoral-college/about.html|work=U.S. Electoral College|publisher=[[National Archives and Records Administration]]|location=Washington, D.C.|access-date=August 2, 2018|archive-date=December 12, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191212192807/https://www.archives.gov/federal-register/electoral-college/about.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Pali chisankho chimoza pera cha mulongozgi wakuwona vya charu icho chikachitika chifukwa palije uyo wakapokera mavoti ghanandi kufuma apo ndondomeko iyi yikapangikira kwizira mu Chiwonjezgo cha nambara 12. Chikachitika pa Febuluwale 8, 1837, pamanyuma pakuti palije munthu uyo wakapokera mavoti ghanandi gha ŵakusankha mu [[Visola vya mlongozgi wa United States vya 1836|visola vya 1836]]. Na mavoti 33–17, [[Richard M. Johnson]] (uyo wakaŵa munyake wa [[Martin Van Buren]]) wakasankhika kuŵa mulongozgi wakuwona vya charu wa nambara 9, wakathereska [[Francis Granger]] (uyo wakaŵa munyake wa [[William Henry Harrison]] na [[Daniel Webster]]).<ref>{{cite web|last=Bomboy|first=Scott|title=The one election where Faithless Electors made a difference|date=December 19, 2016|url=https://constitutioncenter.org/blog/the-one-election-where-faithless-electors-made-a-difference|work=Constitution Daily|publisher=National Constitution Center|location=Philadelphia, Pennsylvania|access-date=July 30, 2018|archive-date=February 14, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210214233225/https://constitutioncenter.org/blog/the-one-election-where-faithless-electors-made-a-difference|url-status=live}}</ref> ==Nyengo yakugwira ntchito== ===Kuyambika kwa udindo=== {{main|Kuyambika kwa udindo wa mlongozgi wa United States}} [[File:Johnson, Nixon, Agnew, Humphrey cropped.jpg|thumb|upright=1.05|Ŵalongozgi ŵakuwona vya charu ŵanayi: (kufuma kumazere) mlongozgi wakufuma pa udindo [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] (mulongozgi wakuwona vya charu wa nambara 37), mlongozgi wakunjira pa udindo [[Richard Nixon]] (nambara 36), ([[Everett Dirksen]] uyo wakalapa chilapo), mulongozgi wakunjira pa udindo [[Spiro Agnew]] (nambara 39), na mulongozgi wakufuma pa udindo [[Hubert Humphrey]] (nambara 38), Janyuwale 20, 1969]] Mwakuyana na [[Chiwonjezgo cha nambara 20 cha Malango gha United States|Chiwonjezgo cha nambara 20]], nyengo ya kugwira ntchito ya mulongozgi wakuwona vya charu yikwamba pa mise ya Janyuwale 20, nga umo ziliri na nyengo ya mlongozgi wa charu.<ref>{{cite web| title=The Twentieth Amendment| last1=Larson| first1=Edward J.| last2=Shesol| first2=Jeff| url=https://constitutioncenter.org/interactive-constitution/amendments/amendment-xx| work=The Interactive Constitution| publisher=The National Constitution Center| location=Philadelphia, Pennsylvania| access-date=June 15, 2018| archive-date=August 28, 2019| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190828202655/https://constitutioncenter.org/interactive-constitution/amendments/amendment-xx| url-status=live}}</ref> Nyengo zakwamba za mlongozgi wa charu na mulongozgi wakuwona vya charu izo zikamba pa zuŵa ili, ilo likumanyikwa kuti [[Kuyambika kwa udindo wa mlongozgi wa United States|Zuŵa la kuyambika kwa udindo]], zikaŵa nyengo zachiwiri za Mlongozgi [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] na Mulongozgi wakuwona vya charu [[John Nance Garner]] mu 1937.<ref name=HHistory1201937>{{cite web|title=The First Inauguration after the Lame Duck Amendment: January 20, 1937|url=http://history.house.gov/HistoricalHighlight/Detail/35948?ret=True|publisher=Office of the Historian, U.S. House of Representatives|location=Washington, D.C.|access-date=July 24, 2018|archive-date=July 25, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180725033713/http://history.house.gov/HistoricalHighlight/Detail/35948?ret=True|url-status=live}}</ref> Pambere pa nyengo iyi, Zuŵa la kuyambika kwa udindo likaŵa pa Malichi 4. Chifukwa cha kusintha kwa zuŵa ili, nyengo zakwamba za ŵanalume wose ŵaŵiri (1933–1937) zikaŵa zifupi kuluska vyaka vinayi na mazuŵa {{age in days|1937|1|20|1937|3|4}}.<ref name=GPOCONAN20171021>{{cite web|title=Commencement of the Terms of Office: Twentieth Amendment|work=Constitution of the United States of America: Analysis and Interpretation|url=https://www.congress.gov/content/conan/pdf/GPO-CONAN-2017-10-21.pdf|publisher=United States Government Printing Office, Library of Congress|location=Washington, D.C.|pages=2297–98|access-date=July 24, 2018|archive-date=July 25, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180725033538/https://www.congress.gov/content/conan/pdf/GPO-CONAN-2017-10-21.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> Mu 1937, mwakuyana na apa, mwambo wa [[Chilapo cha udindo cha mulongozgi wakuwona vya charu wa United States|kulapa chilapo kwa mulongozgi wakuwona vya charu]] ukachitikira pa malo gha kuyambikapo udindo kumafumiro gha dazi kwa [[United States Capitol|Capitol]] pambere mlongozgi wa charu wandalape chilapo chake cha [[Chilapo cha udindo cha mlongozgi wa United States|udindo]]. Kufika nyengo iyo, ŵalongozgi ŵanandi ŵakuwona vya charu ŵakalapanga chilapo cha udindo mu chipinda cha Senate pambere mwambo wa kulapa chilapo cha mlongozgi wa charu wandachitike.<ref name=VPinaug>{{cite web|title=Vice President's Swearing-in Ceremony|website=inaugural.senate.gov|url=https://www.inaugural.senate.gov/days-events/vice-presidents-swearing-in-ceremony/index.html|publisher=Joint Congressional Committee on Inaugural Ceremonies|location=Washington, D.C.|access-date=July 30, 2018|archive-date=September 18, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180918035818/https://www.inaugural.senate.gov/days-events/vice-presidents-swearing-in-ceremony/index.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Nanga Malango gha charu ghali na mazgu ghakupambaniska gha chilapo cha mlongozgi wa charu, ghali na fundo yimoza pera mu [[Chilapo cha udindo cha United States|Article VI]] yakuti mulongozgi wakuwona vya charu na ŵantchito ŵanyake ŵa boma ŵakwenera kulapa [[chilapo]] panji [[Kukhozgera mu malango|kukhozgera]] kuti ŵavikilire Malango gha charu. Mazgu gha chilapo agho ghakugwira ntchito sono, agho ghakugwiritsidwa ntchito kufuma mu 1884 ghakuti: {{blockquote|Ine, (''zina lakwamba na zina lakumalizga''), nkhulapa (panji [[Kukhozgera mu malango|nkhukhozgera]]) mwakufikapo kuti nivikilirenge na kuvikilira Malango gha United States ku ŵalwani wose, ŵa kunja na ŵa mukati; kuti niŵenge wakugomezgeka na kuŵa na chitemwa chakwenelera ku Malango agha; kuti nkupokera udindo uwu mwakukhumbisiska, kwambura kubisa maghanoghano panji khumbo lakuchimbira udindo; ndipo kuti nichitenge makora na mwakugomezgeka ntchito za udindo uwo nkukhumba kwamba. Ntheura Chiuta wanovwire.<ref>{{cite web|title=Oath of Office|url=https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/common/briefing/Oath_Office.htm|website=senate.gov|publisher=Secretary of the Senate|location=Washington, D.C.|access-date=July 30, 2018|archive-date=July 28, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180728181228/https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/common/briefing/Oath_Office.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>}} ===Nyengo ya kugwira ntchito=== ==Nyengo yakugwira nchito== ===Kulapizgika pa udindo=== {{main|Kulapizgika pa udindo wa mlongozgi wa United States}} [[File:Johnson, Nixon, Agnew, Humphrey cropped.jpg|thumb|upright=1.05|Ŵalamuliri ŵaŵiri ŵa United States: (kufuma kumazere) mlongozgi uyo wakamalizga ntchito [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] (mulongozgi wa United States wa nambara 37), mlongozgi uyo wakamba ntchito [[Richard Nixon]] (wa nambara 36), ([[Everett Dirksen]] uyo wakalapizga chilapo), mulongozgi wachiŵiri uyo wakamba ntchito [[Spiro Agnew]] (wa nambara 39), na mulongozgi wachiŵiri uyo wakamalizga ntchito [[Hubert Humphrey]] (wa nambara 38), pa Janyuwale 20, 1969]] Kuyana na [[Vinthukuko vya Vinayi vya Malango gha United States|Vinthukuko vya Makumi ghaŵiri]], nyengo ya ntchito ya mulongozgi wachiŵiri yikwamba pa nyengo ya pakati pa zuŵa la Janyuwale 20, nga umo viliri na mulongozgi.<ref>{{cite web| title=The Twentieth Amendment| last1=Larson| first1=Edward J.| last2=Shesol| first2=Jeff| url=https://constitutioncenter.org/interactive-constitution/amendments/amendment-xx| work=The Interactive Constitution| publisher=The National Constitution Center| location=Philadelphia, Pennsylvania| access-date=June 15, 2018| archive-date=August 28, 2019| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190828202655/https://constitutioncenter.org/interactive-constitution/amendments/amendment-xx| url-status=live}}</ref> Nyengo zakwamba za ŵalongozgi na ŵalongozgi ŵachiŵiri izo zikamba pa zuŵa ili, ilo likumanyikwa kuti [[Kulapizgika pa udindo wa mlongozgi wa United States|Zuŵa la kulapizgika]], zikaŵa nyengo zachiwiri za mlongozgi [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] na mulongozgi wachiŵiri [[John Nance Garner]] mu 1937.<ref name=HHistory1201937>{{cite web|title=The First Inauguration after the Lame Duck Amendment: January 20, 1937|url=http://history.house.gov/HistoricalHighlight/Detail/35948?ret=True|publisher=Office of the Historian, U.S. House of Representatives|location=Washington, D.C.|access-date=July 24, 2018|archive-date=July 25, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180725033713/http://history.house.gov/HistoricalHighlight/Detail/35948?ret=True|url-status=live}}</ref> Pambere penjiro la zuŵa ili, Zuŵa la kulapizgika likaŵa pa Malichi 4. Chifukwa cha kusintha kwa zuŵa ili, nyengo yakwamba ya ŵanalume wose ŵaŵiri (1933–1937) yikaŵa yifupi kuluska vyaka vinayi.<ref name=GPOCONAN20171021>{{cite web|title=Commencement of the Terms of Office: Twentieth Amendment|work=Constitution of the United States of America: Analysis and Interpretation|url=https://www.congress.gov/content/conan/pdf/GPO-CONAN-2017-10-21.pdf|publisher=United States Government Printing Office, Library of Congress|location=Washington, D.C.|pages=2297–98|access-date=July 24, 2018|archive-date=July 25, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180725033538/https://www.congress.gov/content/conan/pdf/GPO-CONAN-2017-10-21.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> Mu 1937 so, mwambo wa kulapizgika kwa mulongozgi wachiŵiri ukachitikira pa malo gha kulapizgika pa chigaŵa cha kumafumiro gha dazi cha [[United States Capitol|Capitol]] nyengo yichoko waka pambere mulongozgi wandalapizgike chilapo.<ref name=VPinaug>{{cite web|title=Vice President's Swearing-in Ceremony|website=inaugural.senate.gov|url=https://www.inaugural.senate.gov/days-events/vice-presidents-swearing-in-ceremony/index.html|publisher=Joint Congressional Committee on Inaugural Ceremonies|location=Washington, D.C.|access-date=July 30, 2018|archive-date=September 18, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180918035818/https://www.inaugural.senate.gov/days-events/vice-presidents-swearing-in-ceremony/index.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Pambere pa nyengo iyi, ŵalongozgi ŵachiŵiri ŵanandi ŵakatoranga chilapo mu chipinda cha Senate, pambere mulongozgi wandalapizgike.<ref name=VPinaug/> Nangauli Malango gha chalo ghali na mazgu ghakupulikikwa gha chilapo cha mulongozgi, ghakuyowoya waka mwakudunjika mu [[Article Six of the United States Constitution|Ndime VI]] kuti mulongozgi wachiŵiri na ŵantchito ŵanyake ŵa boma ŵakwenera kulapa chilapo panji kulapizga kuti ŵateŵeterenge Malango gha chalo. Mazgu gha chilapo ichi, agho ghagwiriskika ntchito kufuma mu 1884 ghakuti: {{blockquote|Ine, (''zina lakwamba na zina la banja''), nkulapa mwakudidimizga (panji nkukhozgera) kuti nizamukhozga na kuvikilira Malango gha United States ku ŵalwani wose, ŵa kunja na ŵa mukati; kuti nizamugomezgeka nadi ku Malango agha; kuti nkupokera udindo uwu mwakufwatuka, kwambura kuŵa na maghanoghano ghakubisika panji chilato cha kutondeka; ndipo nizamuchita makora na mwakugomezgeka ntchito za udindo uwo nkukhala nawo sono. Ntheura Chiuta wandovwire.<ref>{{cite web|title=Oath of Office|url=https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/common/briefing/Oath_Office.htm|website=senate.gov|publisher=Secretary of the Senate|location=Washington, D.C.|access-date=July 30, 2018|archive-date=July 28, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180728181228/https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/common/briefing/Oath_Office.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>}} ===Nyengo ya ntchito=== Ndime 2 ya [[Vinthukuko vya Makumi ghaŵiri na Chisambilo vya Malango gha United States|Vinthukuko vya Makumi ghaŵiri na Chisambilo]] yikuyowoya kuti "para pali malo ghambura mulongozgi wachiŵiri, mulongozgi wazamusankha mulongozgi wachiŵiri uyo wazambe ntchito para wazomerezgeka na mavoti ghanandi gha Nyumba zose ziŵiri za Nyumba ya Malamulo."<ref>{{cite web|url=https://constitution.congress.gov/constitution/amendment-25/|title=United States Constitution, Twenty-Fifth Amendment|publisher=Constitution Annotated, US Congress}}</ref> Ndondomeko iyi yikagwiriskika ntchito kaŵiri kufuma apo chinthu ichi [[Coming into force|chikamba kugwira ntchito]]: chakwamba chikachitika mu 1973 pamanyuma pa kuleka ntchito kwa [[Spiro Agnew]] pa Okutobala 10, apo [[Gerald Ford]] wakasankhika na mulongozgi [[Richard Nixon]] ndipo [[1973 United States vice presidential confirmation|wakazomerezgeka na Nyumba ya Malamulo]]. Chachiŵiri chikachitika myezi khumi pamanyuma, pa Ogasiti 9, 1974, apo Ford wakatora udindo wa mulongozgi pamanyuma pa kuleka ntchito kwa Nixon, apo [[Nelson Rockefeller]] wakasankhika na Mulongozgi Ford ndipo [[1974 United States vice presidential confirmation|wakazomerezgeka na Nyumba ya Malamulo]].<ref name=FordhamLaw2011/><ref name=succesionfacts/> Usange pakaŵavya nthowa iyi ya malango, udindo wa mulongozgi wachiŵiri mphanyi ukalutilira kuŵa wambura munthu pamanyuma pa kuleka ntchito kwa Agnew; [[Mulongozgi wa Nyumba ya Ŵimiliri ya United States|mulongozgi wa Nyumba ya Ŵimiliri]], [[Carl Albert]], mphanyi wakaŵa [[Mulongozgi wakuchita ntchito wa United States|Mulongozgi wakuchita ntchito]] usange Nixon wakaleka ntchito mu nkhani iyi, kuyana na malango gha [[Presidential Succession Act of 1947]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Speaker Albert Was Ready to Be President|last=Gup|first=Ted|date=November 28, 1982|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1982/11/28/speaker-albert-was-ready-to-be-president/84ebaa61-9cf1-4817-836e-a993e7e0e980/|newspaper=The Washington Post|access-date=July 24, 2018|archive-date=July 28, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180728131338/https://web.archive.org/web/20180728131338/https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1982/11/28/speaker-albert-was-ready-to-be-president/84ebaa61-9cf1-4817-836e-a993e7e0e980/|url-status=live}}</ref> {| class="wikitable sortable" |+ Malo ghambura mulongozgi wachiŵiri<ref name=VP-PS/><ref name=PVPS2004OCL/> |- ! Nambara !! Nyengo iyo malo ghakaŵa ghambura munthu !! Chifukwa cha malo ghambura munthu !! Utali wa nyengo !! Uyo wakazuzga malo |- | {{0|0}}1 || {{dts|April 20, 1812}} –{{indent|2}}March 4, 1813 | {{sort|201|Nyifwa}} ya [[George Clinton (vice president)|George Clinton]] | {{ayd|1812|04|20|1813|03|04}} | [[Visola vya mlongozgi wa United States vya 1812|Visola vya 1812]] |- | {{0|0}}2 || {{dts|November 23, 1814}} –{{indent|2}}March 4, 1817 | {{sort|202|Nyifwa}} ya [[Elbridge Gerry]] | {{ayd|1814|11|23|1817|03|04}} | [[Visola vya mlongozgi wa United States vya 1816|Visola vya 1816]] |- | {{0|0}}3 || {{dts|December 28, 1832}} –{{indent|2}}March 4, 1833 | {{sort|301|Kuleka ntchito}} kwa [[John C. Calhoun]] | {{ayd|1832|12|28|1833|03|04}} | [[Visola vya mlongozgi wa United States vya 1832|Visola vya 1832]] |- | {{0|0}}4 || {{dts|April 4, 1841}} –{{indent|2}}March 4, 1845 | {{sort|101|[[Kulapizgika kwa John Tyler|Kutora udindo]]}} kwa [[John Tyler]] kuŵa mulongozgi | {{ayd|1841|04|04|1845|03|04}}{{spaces|2}} | [[Visola vya mlongozgi wa United States vya 1844|Visola vya 1844]] |- | {{0|0}}5 || {{dts|July 9, 1850}} –{{indent|2}}March 4, 1853 | {{sort|102|[[Kulapizgika kwa Millard Fillmore|Kutora udindo]]}} kwa [[Millard Fillmore]] kuŵa mulongozgi | {{ayd|1850|07|09|1853|03|04}} | [[Visola vya mlongozgi wa United States vya 1852|Visola vya 1852]] |- | {{0|0}}6 || {{dts|April 18, 1853}} –{{indent|2}}March 4, 1857 | {{sort|203|Nyifwa}} ya [[William R. King]] | {{ayd|1853|04|18|1857|03|04}} | [[Visola vya mlongozgi wa United States vya 1856|Visola vya 1856]] |- | {{0|0}}7 || {{dts|April 15, 1865}} –{{indent|2}}March 4, 1869 | {{sort|103|[[Kulapizgika kwa Andrew Johnson|Kutora udindo]]}} kwa [[Andrew Johnson]] kuŵa mulongozgi | {{ayd|1865|04|15|1869|03|04}} | [[Visola vya mlongozgi wa United States vya 1868|Visola vya 1868]] |- | {{0|0}}8 || {{dts|November 22, 1875}} –{{indent|2}}March 4, 1877 | {{sort|204|Nyifwa}} ya [[Henry Wilson]] | {{ayd|1875|11|22|1877|03|04}} | [[Visola vya mlongozgi wa United States vya 1876|Visola vya 1876]] |- | {{0|0}}9 || {{nowrap|{{dts|September 19, 1881}} –}}{{indent|2}}March 4, 1885 | {{sort|104|[[Kulapizgika kwa Chester A. Arthur|Kutora udindo]]}} kwa [[Chester A. Arthur]] kuŵa mulongozgi | {{ayd|1881|09|19|1885|03|04}} | [[Visola vya mlongozgi wa United States vya 1884|Visola vya 1884]] |- | 10 || {{dts |November 25, 1885}} –{{indent|2}}March 4, 1889 | {{sort|205|Nyifwa}} ya [[Thomas A. Hendricks]] | {{ayd|1885|11|25|1889|03|04}} | [[Visola vya mlongozgi wa United States vya 1888|Visola vya 1888]] |- | 11 || {{dts|November 21, 1899}} –{{indent|2}}March 4, 1901 | {{sort|206|Nyifwa}} ya [[Garret Hobart]] | {{ayd|1899|11|21|1901|03|04}} | [[Visola vya mlongozgi wa United States vya 1900|Visola vya 1900]] |- | 12 || {{dts|September 14, 1901}} –{{indent|2}}March 4, 1905 | {{sort|105|[[Kulapizgika kwakwamba kwa Theodore Roosevelt|Kutora udindo]]}} kwa [[Theodore Roosevelt]] kuŵa mulongozgi | {{ayd|1901|09|14|1905|03|04}} | [[Visola vya mlongozgi wa United States vya 1904|Visola vya 1904]] |- | 13 || {{dts|October 30, 1912}} –{{indent|2}}March 4, 1913 | {{sort|207|Nyifwa}} ya [[James S. Sherman]] | {{ayd|1912|10|30|1913|03|04}} | [[Visola vya mlongozgi wa United States vya 1912|Visola vya 1912]] |- | 14 || {{dts|August 2, 1923}} –{{indent|2}}March 4, 1925 | {{sort|106|[[Kulapizgika kwakwamba kwa Calvin Coolidge|Kutora udindo]]}} kwa [[Calvin Coolidge]] kuŵa mulongozgi | {{ayd|1923|08|02|1925|03|04}} | [[Visola vya mlongozgi wa United States vya 1924|Visola vya 1924]] |- | 15 || {{dts|April 12, 1945}} –{{indent|2}}January 20, 1949 | {{sort|107|[[Kulapizgika kwakwamba kwa Harry S. Truman|Kutora udindo]]}} kwa [[Harry S. Truman]] kuŵa mulongozgi | {{ayd|1945|04|12|1949|01|20}} | [[Visola vya mlongozgi wa United States vya 1948|Visola vya 1948]] |- | 16 || {{dts|November 22, 1963}} –{{indent|2}}January 20, 1965 | {{sort|108|[[Kulapizgika kwakwamba kwa Lyndon B. Johnson|Kutora udindo]]}} kwa [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] kuŵa mulongozgi | {{ayd|1963|11|22|1965|01|20}} | [[Visola vya mlongozgi wa United States vya 1964|Visola vya 1964]] |- | 17 || {{dts|October 10, 1973}} –{{indent|2}}December 6, 1973 | {{sort|302|Kuleka ntchito}} kwa [[Spiro Agnew]] | {{ayd|1973|10|10|1973|12|06}} | [[1973 United States vice presidential confirmation|Kuzomerezgeka kwa uyo wakasankhika kunthazi]] |- | 18 || {{dts|August 9, 1974}} –{{indent|2}}December 19, 1974 | {{sort|109|[[Kulapizgika kwa Gerald Ford|Kutora udindo]]}} kwa [[Gerald Ford]] kuŵa mulongozgi | {{ayd|1974|08|09|1974|12|19}} | [[1974 United States vice presidential confirmation|Kuzomerezgeka kwa uyo wakasankhika kunthazi]] |} ==Ofesi na udindo== ===Malipiro=== Malipiro gha wachiŵiri wa pulezidenti mu 2019 ghakaŵa $235,100.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Groppe |first1=Maureen |date=February 14, 2019 |title=Vice President Pence's pay bump is not as big as Republicans wanted |url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/politics/2019/02/14/vice-president-pences-salary-rising-but-not-much-gop-wanted/2872326002/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190415044023/https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/politics/2019/02/14/vice-president-pences-salary-rising-but-not-much-gop-wanted/2872326002/ |archive-date=April 15, 2019 |access-date=2019-04-15 |website=[[USA Today]] |language=en}}</ref> Mu 2024, malipiro gha wachiŵiri wa pulezidenti ni $284,600,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.opm.gov/policy-data-oversight/pay-leave/salaries-wages/pay-executive-order-2024-adjustments-of-certain-rates-of-pay.pdf |title=Executive Order - Adjustment of Certain Rates of Pay |at=Schedule 6 |date=December 21, 2023 |website=OPM |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20240115043850/https://www.opm.gov/policy-data-oversight/pay-leave/salaries-wages/pay-executive-order-2024-adjustments-of-certain-rates-of-pay.pdf |archive-date= Jan 15, 2024 }}</ref> kweni chifukwa cha kukanizgika kukwezgeka kwa malipiro uko kwakhala kukuchitika kufuma mu 2019, chigaŵa cheneko cha malipiro agha icho chikulipirika chicali $235,100.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ahuja |first=Kiran A. |date=December 21, 2023 |title=Continued Pay Freeze for Certain Senior Political Officials |url=https://chcoc.gov/sites/default/files/Continued%20Pay%20Freeze%20for%20Certain%20Senior%20Political%20Officials%20CPM%202023-23.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240115075222/https://chcoc.gov/sites/default/files/Continued%20Pay%20Freeze%20for%20Certain%20Senior%20Political%20Officials%20CPM%202023-23.pdf |archive-date=Jan 15, 2024 |website=OPM}}</ref> Malipiro agha ghakaŵikika na [[Federal Employees Pay Comparability Act of 1990|Dango la Boma la Kukoleraniska Malipiro la 1989]], ilo likuperekaso kusintha kwa malipiro mwakuyana na kusintha kwa mtengo wa umoyo kwa ŵantchito ŵa boma. Wachiŵiri wa pulezidenti wakupokera yayi penshoni mwakudunjika chifukwa cha udindo uwu, kweni wakupokera penshoni yakuyana na ya ŵabali ŵanyake ŵa Congress chifukwa cha udindo wake nga ni mulongozgi wa Senate.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Retirement Benefits for Members of Congress|last=Purcell|first=Patrick J.|date=January 21, 2005|url=https://www.senate.gov/reference/resources/pdf/RL30631.pdf|publisher=Congressional Research Service, The Library of Congress|location=Washington, D.C.|access-date=February 16, 2018|archive-date=January 3, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180103064138/https://www.senate.gov/reference/resources/pdf/RL30631.pdf|url-status=dead }}</ref> Wachiŵiri wa pulezidenti wakwenera kuteŵetera vyaka viŵiri panji kujumpha kuti waŵe wakwenelera kupokera penshoni.<ref>{{cite web|first1=Emily|last1=Yoffe|url=http://www.slate.com/id/1006798|title=A Presidential Salary FAQ |website=[[Slate (magazine)|Slate]]|date=January 3, 2001|access-date=August 9, 2009|archive-date=September 14, 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090914105912/http://www.slate.com/id/1006798/|url-status=live}}</ref> ===Kukhalamo=== [[File:Number One Observatory Circle; December 2017.jpg|thumb|[[Number One Observatory Circle]], [[Washington, D.C.|Washington D.C.]], nyumba yakukhala ya wachiŵiri wa pulezidenti]] Nyumba yakukhala ya wachiŵiri wa pulezidenti yikasankhika mu 1974, apo Congress yikakhazikiska [[Number One Observatory Circle]] nga ni nyumba yakukhala ya kanyengo ya wachiŵiri wa pulezidenti wa United States. Mu 1966, Congress, chifukwa cha kwenelera kwa chitetezo na kuŵikapo mtima pa milimo iyo yikukura ya udindo uwu, yikapeleka ndalama ($75,000) zakuzenga nyumba ya wachiŵiri wa pulezidenti, kweni ntchito iyi yikalekeka. Pamasinda pa vyaka vinkhondi na viŵiri, fundo iyi yikasinthika, ndipo One Observatory Circle yikasankhika kuŵa nyumba ya wachiŵiri wa pulezidenti.<ref name="Groppe 2017 Where does ...">{{cite news |last1=Groppe |first1=Maureen |title=Where does the vice president live? Few people know, but new book will show you |url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/politics/2017/11/24/where-does-vice-president-live-few-people-know-but-new-book-show-you/892243001/ |access-date=21 November 2018 |work=USA TODAY |date=24 November 2017 |language=en |archive-date=November 21, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181121120242/https://web.archive.org/web/20181121120242/https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/politics/2017/11/24/where-does-vice-president-live-few-people-know-but-new-book-show-you/892243001/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Pambere kusintha uku kwindachitika, ŵachiŵiri ŵa pulezidenti ŵakakhalanga mu nyumba, mu nyumba zakupangiska panji mu mahotelo, ndipo ŵakapokeranga malipiro ghakuyana na ŵabali ŵa nduna na ŵabali ŵa Congress, kwizira mu ndalama zakukhala pera. Nyumba ya vipinda vitatu ya kalembedwe ka [[Queen Anne style architecture in the United States|Queen Anne]] yikazengeka mu 1893 pa malo gha [[U.S. Naval Observatory]] mu Washington, D.C. kuti yiŵe nyumba yakukhalamo ya msungichuma wa malo ghakuwonerapo nyenyezi. Mu 1923, nyumba iyi yikasinthika kuŵa nyumba ya [[Chief of Naval Operations]] (CNO), ndipo yikaŵa ntheura mpaka apo yikasinthira ku ofesi ya wachiŵiri wa pulezidenti vyaka 50 pamanyuma. ===Ulendo na mayendedwe=== [[File:USAF C-32A.jpg|thumb|[[Air Force Two]], ndege yakudangilira ya wachiŵiri wa pulezidenti, yakunyamura wachiŵiri wa pulezidenti]] Nthowa yikuru ya ulendo wa pa ndege wa mtunda utali wa wachiŵiri wa pulezidenti ni yimoza mwa ndege ziŵiri zakuyana za Boeing, izo zikasinthika chomene kufuma ku ndege za [[Boeing 757]] ndipo zikuchemeka ''[[Air Force Two],'' para wachiŵiri wa pulezidenti wali mukati. Ndege yiliyose ya [[United States Air Force|U.S. Air Force]] iyo wachiŵiri wa pulezidenti wakwendamo yikuchemeka "Air Force Two" mu nyengo yose ya ulendo. Maulendo gha mukati mwa charu kanandi ghakuchitika na ndege yimoza pera mwa ziŵiri izi, kweni maulendo gha ku vyaru vinyake ghakuchitika na zose ziŵiri, yimoza yakwamba ndipo yinyake yakovwira. Pa maulendo gha pa ndege gha mtunda ufupi, wachiŵiri wa pulezidenti wali na mwaŵi wakugwiliskira ntchito gulu la mahelikoputala gha [[United States Marine Corps|U.S. Marine Corps]] gha mitundu yakupambanapambana kusazgapo ''[[Marine One|Marine Two]]'' para wachiŵiri wa pulezidenti wali mu helikoputala yiliyose ya gulu ili. Maulendo agha kanandi ghakuchitika na mahelikoputala ghakukwana ghanayi panji ghankhondi agho ghakuwuluka pamoza ndipo kanandi ghakusinthana malo kuti kubisika helikoputala iyo wachiŵiri wa pulezidenti walimo ku ŵanthu awo ŵangakhumbanga kumupweteka. ===Ŵantchito=== Wachiŵiri wa pulezidenti wakovwirika na ŵantchito mu [[Office of the Vice President of the United States|Ofesi ya wachiŵiri wa pulezidenti wa United States]]. Ofesi iyi yikapangika mu [[Reorganization Act of 1939|Dango la Kukonzaso Vinthu la 1939]], ilo likasazgapo "ofesi ya wachiŵiri wa pulezidenti" pasi pa [[Executive Office of the President|Ofesi Yakulongozga ya Pulezidenti]]. Malipiro gha ŵantchito ghakuperekeka kwizira mu ndalama zakupokera za nthambi yakupanga malango na nthambi yakulongozga, chifukwa cha milimo ya wachiŵiri wa pulezidenti mu nthambi zose ziŵiri. ===Chivikiliro=== {{Main|United States Secret Service}} [[File:Kamala Harris and her family walk to the White House on Pennsylvania Avenue on January 20, 2021.jpg|thumb|Wachiŵiri wa pulezidenti [[Kamala Harris]], wakazingilizgika na ŵa mbumba yake na [[United States Secret Service|Secret Service]]]] [[United States Secret Service|U.S. Secret Service]] ndiyo yikupwelelera na kuvikilira wachiŵiri wa pulezidenti na mbumba yachiŵiri. Nga chigaŵa cha chivikiliro chawo, ŵachiŵiri ŵa pulezidenti, ŵafumu panji ŵawoli ŵawo, ŵana ŵawo na ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵapafupi mu mbumba, kweniso ŵanthu ŵakuzirwa na malo ghanyake, ŵakuŵapika [[Secret Service codename|mazina gha cisisi gha Secret Service]]. Kugwiliskira ntchito mazina agha pakwamba kukachitikanga chifukwa cha vifukwa vya chivikiliro na kuŵa ŵakuvikilirika. ===Malo gha maofesi=== Mu nyengo yasono, wachiŵiri wa pulezidenti wakugwiliskira ntchito malo gha maofesi ghakukwana ghankhondi. Agha ghakusazgapo ofesi mu [[West Wing]], ofesi yakuchitira viphikiro mu [[Eisenhower Executive Office Building]] pafupi na apo ŵantchito ŵanandi ŵa wachiŵiri wa pulezidenti ŵakugwilira ntchito, [[Vice President's Room]] ku chigaŵa cha Senate mu [[United States Capitol]] pakuchita maungano na ŵabali ŵa Congress, ofesi mu [[Dirksen Senate Office Building]], na ofesi pa nyumba yakukhala ya wachiŵiri wa pulezidenti. ==Pamanyuma pa kuŵa wachiŵiri wa pulezidenti== {{see also|List of vice presidents of the United States by other offices held}} Kwambira mu 1977, ŵapulezidenti ŵakale na ŵachiŵiri ŵa pulezidenti ŵakale awo ŵakusankhika panji kusankhikaso ku Senate ŵali na wanangwa wa kuŵa mu udindo wa ulemu wa [[President pro tempore of the United States Senate#Deputy president pro tempore|Deputy President pro tempore]]. Kufika sono, wachiŵiri wa pulezidenti wakale pera uyo wali na udindo uwu ni Hubert Humphrey. Kweniso, kuyana na fundo ya Senate ya 1886, ŵachiŵiri ŵa pulezidenti wose ŵakale ŵali na wanangwa wa kuŵa na [[United States Senate Vice Presidential Bust Collection|chithuzi chakujoba cha mutu]] mu chigaŵa cha Senate mu [[United States Capitol]], chakukumbukira uteŵeti wawo nga ŵalongozgi ŵa Senate. [[Dick Cheney]] ndiyo ni wachiŵiri wa pulezidenti wakale uyo wali pafupi chomene kuŵa mu gulu ili.<ref>{{cite web|title=Senate Vice Presidential Bust Collection|website=senate.gov|url=https://www.senate.gov/art-artifacts/fine-art/sculpture/vp-busts.htm|publisher=Secretary of the Senate|location=Washington, D.C.|access-date=May 5, 2021|archive-date=March 18, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210318005322/https://web.archive.org/web/20210318005322/https://www.senate.gov/art-artifacts/fine-art/sculpture/vp-busts.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> Mwakupambana na ŵapulezidenti ŵakale, awo penshoni yawo yikuŵikika pa mulingo wakuyana kwambura kuŵika mtima pa nyengo iyo ŵakaŵira mu udindo, ŵachiŵiri ŵa pulezidenti ŵakale ŵakupokera ndalama zakupumura ntchito kuyana na udindo wawo nga ŵalongozgi ŵa Senate.<ref>{{cite web |last=Adamczyk |first=Alicia |date=January 20, 2017 |title=Here's How Much Money Obama and Biden Will Get From Their Pensions |url=https://money.com/barack-obama-joe-biden-pension/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220312100107/https://web.archive.org/web/20220312100107/https://money.com/barack-obama-joe-biden-pension/ |archive-date=March 12, 2022 |access-date=August 3, 2018 |publisher=Money.com}}</ref> Kweniso, kufuma mu 2008, wachiŵiri wa pulezidenti wakale waliyose na mbumba yake yapafupi wali na wanangwa (pasi pa Dango la [[Former Vice President Protection Act of 2008|Chivikiliro cha Ŵachiŵiri ŵa Pulezidenti Ŵakale la 2008]]) wa kupokera chivikiliro cha [[United States Secret Service|Secret Service]] kwa myezi yakukwana yinkhondi na umoza pamanyuma pakuleka udindo, ndipo kanyengo kanyake pa nyengo yiliyose yakwenelera pamanyuma pake.<ref>{{cite web|title=H.R.5938—Former Vice President Protection Act of 2008, 110th Congress (2007–2008)|url=https://www.congress.gov/bill/110th-congress/house-bill/5938|website=congress.gov|date=September 26, 2008|publisher=Library of Congress|location=Washington, D.C.|access-date=August 3, 2018|archive-date=January 9, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210109172518/https://web.archive.org/web/20210109172518/https://www.congress.gov/bill/110th-congress/house-bill/5938|url-status=live}}</ref> ==Nyengo ya kukhala pa udindo== {{see also|Mndandanda wa ŵala ŵakakhala ŵazachiwiri ŵa pulezidenti wa United States}} {{Timeline US Vice Presidents}} ==Ukaboni== {{Reflist}} ==Vyakusambira vinandi== * {{Cite book |last1=Brower |first1=Kate A. |date=2018 |title=First in Line: Presidents, Vice Presidents, and the Pursuit of Power |url=https://archive.org/details/firstinlinepresi0000brow |location=New York |publisher=Harper |isbn=978-0062668943}} * {{Cite book |last1=Cohen |first1=Jared |author-link=Jared Cohen |date=2019 |title=Accidental Presidents: Eight Men Who Changed America |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RjxqDwAAQBAJ |edition=Hardcover |location=New York |publisher=Simon & Schuster |pages=1–48 |isbn=978-1501109829}} * {{Cite book |last=Goldstein |first=Joel K. |year=1982 |title=The Modern American Vice Presidency |url=https://archive.org/details/modernamericanvi0000gold |url-access=registration |location=Princeton, NJ |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=0-691-02208-9}} * {{Cite book |last=Hatch |first=Louis C. |date=2012 |editor-last=Shoup |editor-first=Earl L. |title=A History of the Vice-Presidency of the United States |location=Whitefish, MT |publisher=Literary Licensing |isbn=978-1258442262}} * {{Cite book |last=Kamarck |first=Elaine C. |year=2020 |title=Picking the Vice President |location=Washington, D.C. |publisher=Brookings Institution Press |isbn=9780815738756 |oclc=1164502534}} EBook, 37 pp. * {{Cite book |last=Tally |first=Steve |year=1992 |title=Bland Ambition: From Adams to Quayle—the Cranks, Criminals, Tax Cheats, and Golfers Who Made It to Vice President |url=https://archive.org/details/blandambitionfro00tall |publisher=Harcourt |isbn=0-15-613140-4}} * {{Cite book |last1=Vexler |first1=Robert I. |date=1975 |title=The Vice-Presidents and Cabinet Members: Biographies Arranged Chronologically by Administration |url=https://archive.org/details/vicepresidentsca0001vexl |url-access=registration |volume=I |location=Dobbs Ferry, NY |publisher=Oceana Publications |isbn=0379120895}} * {{Cite book |last1=Vexler |first1=Robert I. |date=1975 |title=The Vice-Presidents and Cabinet Members: Biographies Arranged Chronologically by Administration |url=https://archive.org/details/vicepresidentsca0002vexl/ |url-access=registration |volume=II |location=Dobbs Ferry, NY |publisher=Oceana Publications |isbn=0379120909}} * {{Cite book |last1=Waldrup |first1=Carole C. |date=2006 |title=Vice Presidents: Biographies of the 45 Men Who Have Held the Second Highest Office in the United States |url=https://archive.org/details/vicepresidentsbi0000wald_y7b5 |location=Jefferson, NC |publisher=McFarland & Company |isbn=978-0786426119}} * {{Cite book |last1=Witcover |first1=Jules |date=2014 |title=The American Vice Presidency: From Irrelevance to Power |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_2901588344716 |publisher=Smithsonian Books |location=Washington, D.C. |isbn=978-1588344717}} ==Maulalo gha pa intaneti== {{Commons}} * [https://bidenwhitehouse.archives.gov/administration/vice-president-harris/ Webusayiti ya White House ya Wachiŵiri wa Pulezidenti Kamala Harris] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110202214223/http://elections.lib.tufts.edu/aas_portal/index.xq A New Nation Votes: Visola vya ku America 1787–1825] * Filimu yakulongosora vya visola vya 1996 na ŵachiŵiri ŵa mapulezidenti mu mbili, [https://americanarchive.org/catalog/cpb-aacip-526-f18sb3z07s ''Running Mate''], 1996-10-01, The Walter J. Brown Media Archives & Peabody Awards Collection pa [[University of Georgia]], [[American Archive of Public Broadcasting]] {{s-start}} {{s-prec| us-pres}} {{s-bef | before = Palije }} {{s-ttl | title = Wakwamba mu ndondomeko ya kulondezga }} {{s-aft | after = [[Wakuyowoya wa Nyumba ya Ŵimiliri ya United States|Wakuyowoya wa Nyumba ya Ŵimiliri]]<br>{{small|[[Mike Johnson]]}} }} {{s-end}} {{Navboxes |list = {{US Vice Presidents}} {{Mndandanda wa ŵachiŵiri ŵa mapulezidenti ŵa United States}} {{Ndondomeko ya kulondezga pulezidenti wa United States}} {{Nkhani za United States}} {{Ŵazachiwiri ŵa maboma mu North America}} {{Portal bar|United States|Ndale}} }} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Ŵachiŵiri ŵa mapulezidenti ŵa United States| ]] [[Category:Udindo wa wachiŵiri wa pulezidenti wa United States| ]] [[Category:1789 kukhazikika kwa United States]] [[Category:Ŵalongozgi ŵa Senate ya United States]] [[Category:Ŵachiŵiri ŵa mapulezidenti|United States]] [[Category:Vyakulembedwa ivyo vili na ndondomeko za nyengo mu chithuzithuzi]] 0c2bij23j8dlkqeytqbpir74v23okcg 0 48556 119340 119240 2026-08-14T01:32:41Z InternetArchiveBot 6449 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 119340 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Triangle''' ni muzi mu [[chigaŵa cha Masvingo]] mu charu cha {{#invoke:wd|property|linked|references|P17}}.<ref>https://geonames.org</ref> Muzi iyi yili mu boma la Chiredzi, chimoza mwa vigaŵa vinkhondi na viŵiri ivyo vili mu chigaŵa cha Masvingo. ==Mbiri== Muzi ya Triangle yikuchemeka nthena chifukwa apo Murray MacDougall wakayezganga kakwamba kulima mijuwa, vigaŵa vitatu pera vya mijuwa ndivyo vikamera, Iyo wakati wangachita navyo chinthu chimoza pera ndipo chikaŵa chakuti wapangire triangle. Iyi yikaŵa nyengo yakwamba kuti ŵayezge kulima mijuwa ku Rhodesia uko sono ni Zimbabwe. ==Kunyuma kwa chithuzi== Muzi iyi yikapangika kuzingilizga malo gha Triangle gha Tongaat Hulett, malo ghachiŵiri ghakuthilira ku Zimbabwe, ndipo ghakulimbana na malo gha [[Hippo Valley]]. ==Triangle Estate== Mu minda ya kampani iyi, 13,500ha ya nzimbe ndipo yikuthilira ndipo pali mphero yikuru ya shuga pa estate. Mijuwa yikabzalika kakwamba mu chigaŵa ichi mu 1931 na Thomas Murray McDougall ndipo yikapangika kakwamba mu 1939. Chifukwa cha kucepa kwa chuma mu charu ichi, nga umo vikaŵira ku Hippo Valley, kupanga shuga kwakhira mu vyaka vyasonosono apa. Kucepa kwa vyakupangapanga kwasazgikirapo cifukwa ca gulu likuru la ŵalimi awo ŵali kucimbizgika mu vikaya vyawo ndipo ŵali kukhazikika mu minda yake yinyake iyo yikupanga vipambi, ndipo ivi vyapangiska kuti vyakupangapanga vileke kwenda makora.<ref>https://web.archive.org/web/20080303114818/http://www.zimonline.co.za/Article.aspx?ArticleId=2808</ref> Pa nyengo iyo Sugar Estates yikapangika, ŵanchito ŵanandi awo ŵakagwiranga ntchito pa malo agha ŵakafumanga ku vyaru vyapafupi vya [[Malaŵi]] na [[Zambia]]. Ŵantchito aŵa ŵakanjiranga kuzakagwira ntchito mu minda ya nzimbe nga mbantchito ŵa boma na ŵakudumura nzimbe. Chifukwa cha nthengwa pakati pa ŵa Karanga ŵa ku malo agha, Shangaan na ŵanchito ŵa mu minda awo ŵanandi ŵakaŵa ŵalendo, ivi vyapangiska kuti mitundu na mitheto yiŵe yakusazgikana mu Triangle na mu vigaŵa vya kumwera kwa Zimbabwe. Ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakukhala mu tawuni iyi ŵakugwira ntchito ku kampani iyi.<ref>https://web.archive.org/web/20080303114818/http://www.zimonline.co.za/Article.aspx?ArticleId=2808</ref> ==Ukaboni== {{reflist}} [[Category:Zimbabwe]] nppmqfkycrzuwxzzf8hc2mdpi6tsh3j 3 48566 119254 2026-08-13T12:37:40Z Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi 11606 Created page with "{{Talkarchive}} == Wow == @[[User:Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi|Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi]] Greetings, wow, muli makola? I am super impressed by your work here. It's good to see you here and can't imagine how happy I am to see someone editing here. Yewo chomene. Chonde pitilizgani kuchita ntchito iwemi iyi. And again, welcome :). [[user:Tumbuka Arch|<span style='color: #FFFFFF;background-color: #191970;'>'''''Tumbuka Arch'''''</span>]]user talk:Tumbuka Arch|'''<span style='colo..." 119254 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Talkarchive}} == Wow == @[[User:Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi|Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi]] Greetings, wow, muli makola? I am super impressed by your work here. It's good to see you here and can't imagine how happy I am to see someone editing here. Yewo chomene. Chonde pitilizgani kuchita ntchito iwemi iyi. And again, welcome :). [[user:Tumbuka Arch|<span style='color: #FFFFFF;background-color: #191970;'>'''''Tumbuka Arch'''''</span>]][[user talk:Tumbuka Arch|'''<span style='color: #B20000;background-color: #FFFFFF;'>^★_★^★</span>''']] 23:43, 22 Meyi 2026 (UTC) :Forgot to mention your English Wikipedia work also, amazing! [[user:Tumbuka Arch|<span style='color: #FFFFFF;background-color: #191970;'>'''''Tumbuka Arch'''''</span>]][[user talk:Tumbuka Arch|'''<span style='color: #B20000;background-color: #FFFFFF;'>^★_★^★</span>''']] 23:44, 22 Meyi 2026 (UTC) ::Hi, would you mind linking the page [[Palau]] to https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q695, since I cannot yet. Thank you so much! [[User:Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi|Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi]] ([[User talk:Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi|pakuchezgela]]) 01:11, 23 Meyi 2026 (UTC) == Chonde ikani "Email" == Hi, please add email. If you use from a new device or location, you may be locked out forever with no means of retrieving your account. Email helps with password resets, private emails, etc. Yewo chomene. [[user:Tumbuka Arch|<span style='color: #FFFFFF;background-color: #191970;'>'''''Tumbuka Arch'''''</span>]][[user talk:Tumbuka Arch|'''<span style='color: #B20000;background-color: #FFFFFF;'>^★_★^★</span>''']] 00:01, 23 Meyi 2026 (UTC) :Thank you. I am also letting you know the articles I am creating are very very short. I am planning on expanding them all soon, when I get more info. Thanks! [[User:Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi|Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi]] ([[User talk:Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi|pakuchezgela]]) 01:07, 23 Meyi 2026 (UTC) :I don't have a email yet, I am from Mozambique and I only just moved to Australia and are trying to set an email. Thanks. [[User:Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi|Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi]] ([[User talk:Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi|pakuchezgela]]) 01:10, 23 Meyi 2026 (UTC) ::@[[User:Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi|Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi]], please can you make a temporary email and link it to this account. Thank you. [[user:Tumbuka Arch|<span style='color: #FFFFFF;background-color: #191970;'>'''''Tumbuka Arch'''''</span>]][[user talk:Tumbuka Arch|'''<span style='color: #B20000;background-color: #FFFFFF;'>^★_★^★</span>''']] 13:16, 19 Julayi 2026 (UTC) :::I will look into it. Thanks. [[User:Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi|Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi]] ([[User talk:Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi|pakuchezgela]]) 12:27, 21 Julayi 2026 (UTC) == Join Wikimedia Community User Group Malawi == Hello @[[User:Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi|Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi]], '''Wikimedia Community User Group Malawi''' welcomes Wikimedia contributors from Malawi and contributors interested in Malawi-related knowledge to participate in building a stronger Wikimedia community. We invite contributors from Tumbuka, English and Chewa Wikipedias, Wikimedia Commons, Wikidata, and other Wikimedia projects to become participating members of the community. If you would like to participate: # Visit the [[:Meta:Wikimedia_Community_Malawi/Founding_and_Participating|Founding and Participating Members]] page. # Open the '''Participating members''' section directly: [[:Meta:Wikimedia_Community_Malawi/Founding_and_Participating#List_of_participants]] # Add your Wikimedia username under the list of participating members. # Sign your entry by adding <nowiki>#~~~~</nowiki> after your username. Your participation will help strengthen Wikimedia projects in Malawi, including Wikipedia, Wikimedia Commons, Wikidata, and Malawian language content. Participants may contribute to community discussions, outreach activities, edit-a-thons, language projects, cultural documentation, and other free knowledge initiatives. Everyone interested in creating, improving, and sharing free knowledge is welcome to participate. Thank you. [[user:Tumbuka Arch|<span style='color: #FFFFFF;background-color: #191970;'>'''''Tumbuka Arch'''''</span>]][[user talk:Tumbuka Arch|'''<span style='color: #B20000;background-color: #FFFFFF;'>^★_★^★</span>''']] 14:07, 19 Julayi 2026 (UTC) :@[[User:Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi|Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi]] thanks. And here too: https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Community_User_Group_Malawi/Founding_and_Participating [[user:Tumbuka Arch|<span style='color: #FFFFFF;background-color: #191970;'>'''''Tumbuka Arch'''''</span>]][[user talk:Tumbuka Arch|'''<span style='color: #B20000;background-color: #FFFFFF;'>^★_★^★</span>''']] 08:20, 20 Julayi 2026 (UTC) ::Of course, anytime! Nyengo zose nkhukondwa kutorapo mbali. '''''[[User:Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi|Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi]]'''''[[User talk:Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi|'''<span style='color: #00008b;background-color: #FFFFFF;'>_★^★_★</span>''']] 12:35, 21 Julayi 2026 (UTC) == Admin flag == @[[User:Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi|Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi]] Hi, I would like to nominate you as an admin so that you move some pages without leaving a redirect, import templates, delete pages that you would consider not useful, protect pages, etc. Let me know if it is okay with you. Yewo chomene. [[user:Tumbuka Arch|<span style='color: #FFFFFF;background-color: #191970;'>'''''Tumbuka Arch'''''</span>]][[user talk:Tumbuka Arch|'''<span style='color: #B20000;background-color: #FFFFFF;'>^★_★^★</span>''']] 15:14, 21 Julayi 2026 (UTC) :I would love that, thanks. Completely ok. However, I am a bit worried I am too new to be an admin. Anyways, thank you so much. Yewo chomene. '''''[[User:Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi|Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi]]'''''[[User talk:Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi|'''<span style='color: #00008b;background-color: #FFFFFF;'>_★^★_★</span>''']] 00:05, 22 Julayi 2026 (UTC) ::@[[User:Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi|Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi]] if you are nervous about that, then take your time. At least notify when you will need it after couple of months. [[user:Tumbuka Arch|<span style='color: #FFFFFF;background-color: #191970;'>'''''Tumbuka Arch'''''</span>]][[user talk:Tumbuka Arch|'''<span style='color: #B20000;background-color: #FFFFFF;'>^★_★^★</span>''']] 10:07, 23 Julayi 2026 (UTC) == Lets wake up Tumbuka Wiktionary == @[[User:Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi|Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi]] Can we please wake this project up? It has been almost 4 years now and it is not yet ready. It only needs few entries to get going. 10 entries from you, me and the lest of other editors then it will be published. We already requested it [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Requests_for_new_languages/Wiktionary_Tumbuka here], the main page is [https://incubator.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wt/tum/Jani_likulu here]. This how its articles [https://incubator.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wt/tum/Malawi look like here], and others are on main page. If it has some entries, I will then post on Meta. See last time I posted there and what the response [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Talk:Language_committee/2024#Request_for_Approval_of_Tumbuka_Wiktionary was this]. Thanks. [[user:Tumbuka Arch|<span style='color: #FFFFFF;background-color: #191970;'>'''''Tumbuka Arch'''''</span>]][[user talk:Tumbuka Arch|'''<span style='color: #B20000;background-color: #FFFFFF;'>^★_★^★</span>''']] 17:35, 21 Julayi 2026 (UTC) :One issue - I do not have an interest in actively expanding a Wiktionary. My main focus is Wikipedia, unfortunately. '''''[[User:Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi|Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi]]'''''[[User talk:Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi|'''<span style='color: #00008b;background-color: #FFFFFF;'>_★^★_★</span>''']] 00:04, 22 Julayi 2026 (UTC) ::@[[User:Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi|Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi]] Great! [[user:Tumbuka Arch|<span style='color: #FFFFFF;background-color: #191970;'>'''''Tumbuka Arch'''''</span>]][[user talk:Tumbuka Arch|'''<span style='color: #B20000;background-color: #FFFFFF;'>^★_★^★</span>''']] 10:05, 23 Julayi 2026 (UTC) == Translation notification: Event:Open Heritage-Wikidata Contest == Hello Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi, You are receiving this notification because you signed up as a translator to chiTumbuka on Meta-Wiki. The page [[:metawikipedia:Event:Open Heritage-Wikidata Contest|Event:Open Heritage-Wikidata Contest]] is available for translation. You can translate it here: * [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&group=page-Event%3AOpen+Heritage-Wikidata+Contest&language=tum&action=page&action_source=translation_notification translate to chiTumbuka] The priority of this page is medium. The deadline for translating this page is 2026-08-15. <div lang="en" class="mw-content-ltr">Hello, We are looking forward to translating this page. We highly appreciate your support Best</div> Your help is greatly appreciated. Translators like you help Meta-Wiki to function as a truly multilingual community. To unsubscribe or to change your notification preferences for translations, please visit [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:TranslatorSignup Special:TranslatorSignup]. Thank you! Meta-Wiki translation coordinators‎, 18:54, 10 Ogasiti 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:SanBonne@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:NotifyTranslators --> nmxan1r9bntzm0dxqyn49jvj88g8wlr 0 48567 119258 2026-08-13T12:51:17Z Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi 11606 Created page with "{{Ving'anamulilo vinyake}} '''Chewa''' wangang'anamula: * [[ŴaCheŵa]] * [[ChiCheŵa]]" 119258 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Ving'anamulilo vinyake}} '''Chewa''' wangang'anamula: * [[ŴaCheŵa]] * [[ChiCheŵa]] gocbfepksx527pktvt9embt4qy5evg4 119259 119258 2026-08-13T12:52:20Z Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi 11606 119259 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Ving'anamulilo vinyake}} '''Chewa''' panji '''Cheŵa''' wangang'anamula: * [[ŴaCheŵa]] * [[ChiCheŵa]] an7h8q87337psy53yg2oejddbnbboth 0 48568 119260 2026-08-13T12:52:39Z Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi 11606 Redirected page to [[Chewa]] 119260 wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Chewa]] lfahbn1u1p0eyy6gq6jx5zioe7g1h5k 14 48569 119261 2026-08-13T12:53:34Z Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi 11606 Created blank page 119261 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 3 48570 119263 2026-08-13T12:57:52Z Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi 11606 Created page with "== Join Wikimedia Community User Group Malawi == Hello @[[User:{{PAGENAME}}|{{PAGENAME}}]], '''Wikimedia Community User Group Malawi''' welcomes Wikimedia contributors from Malawi and contributors interested in Malawi-related knowledge to participate in building a stronger Wikimedia community. We invite contributors from Tumbuka, English and Chewa Wikipedias, Wikimedia Commons, Wikidata, and other Wikimedia projects to become participating members of the community...." 119263 wikitext text/x-wiki == Join Wikimedia Community User Group Malawi == Hello @[[User:{{PAGENAME}}|{{PAGENAME}}]], '''Wikimedia Community User Group Malawi''' welcomes Wikimedia contributors from Malawi and contributors interested in Malawi-related knowledge to participate in building a stronger Wikimedia community. We invite contributors from Tumbuka, English and Chewa Wikipedias, Wikimedia Commons, Wikidata, and other Wikimedia projects to become participating members of the community. If you would like to participate: # Visit the [[:Meta:Wikimedia_Community_Malawi/Founding_and_Participating|Founding and Participating Members]] page. # Open the '''Participating members''' section directly: [[:Meta:Wikimedia_Community_Malawi/Founding_and_Participating#List_of_participants]] # Add your Wikimedia username under the list of participating members. # Sign your entry by adding <nowiki>#~~~~</nowiki> after your username. Your participation will help strengthen Wikimedia projects in Malawi, including Wikipedia, Wikimedia Commons, Wikidata, and Malawian language content. Participants may contribute to community discussions, outreach activities, edit-a-thons, language projects, cultural documentation, and other free knowledge initiatives. Everyone interested in creating, improving, and sharing free knowledge is welcome to participate. Thank you. '''''[[User:Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi|Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi]]'''''[[User talk:Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi|'''<span style='color: #00008b;background-color: #FFFFFF;'>_★^★_★</span>''']] 12:57, 13 Ogasiti 2026 (UTC) 4suidvjjo0nsxysk0xk9q2dv3zsczvh 0 48571 119277 2026-08-13T21:40:05Z Tumbuka Arch 6863 Created page with "{{Short description|none}} {{Use dmy dates|date=August 2026}} {{current election}} {{Infobox election | country = Zambia | election_date = 13 August 2026 | previous_election = Visola vikulu vya Zambia vya 2021 | previous_year = 2021 | next_year = | module = {{Infobox election | embed = yes | election_name = Visola vya mlongozgi wa charu | ongoing = yes | type = presidential | image_size = 130x130px | image1 = Hakainde Hichilema in Japan on February 6, 2025 (cropped).jpg..." 119277 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|none}} {{Use dmy dates|date=August 2026}} {{current election}} {{Infobox election | country = Zambia | election_date = 13 August 2026 | previous_election = Visola vikulu vya Zambia vya 2021 | previous_year = 2021 | next_year = | module = {{Infobox election | embed = yes | election_name = Visola vya mlongozgi wa charu | ongoing = yes | type = presidential | image_size = 130x130px | image1 = Hakainde Hichilema in Japan on February 6, 2025 (cropped).jpg | candidate1 = [[Hakainde Hichilema]] | party1 = United Party for National Development | alliance1 = [[UPND Alliance]] | popular_vote1 = | running_mate1 = [[Mutale Nalumango]] | percentage1 = | image2 = Brian Mundibile.png | candidate2 = [[Brian Mundubile]] | party2 = National Reconciliation Party for Unity and Prosperity | alliance2 = [[Tonse Alliance]] | alliance2_name = no | running_mate2 = [[Makebi Zulu]] | image3 = Välisminister_Sven_Mikser_ja_Sambia_välisminister_Harry_Kalaba_(31719036133).jpg | candidate3 = [[Harry Kalaba]] | party3 = Citizens First | alliance3 = Orange Alliance | alliance3_name = no | running_mate3 = [[Moses Mawere]] | before_election = [[Hakainde Hichilema]] | before_party = United Party for National Development | title = [[Mlongozgi wa Zambia|Mlongozgi]] | module = {{Infobox legislative election | embed = yes | election_name = Visola vya ŵimilili | seats_for_election = Mipando yose 280 ya [[National Assembly of Zambia|Nyumba ya Malango ya Zambia]] | majority_seats = 141 | seats_title = Visola vyakumalizga | ongoing = yes | leader1 = [[Hakainde Hichilema]] | party1 = United Party for National Development | last_election1 = 82 | current_seats1 = 82 | percentage1 = | leader2 = [[Given Lubinda]]&nbsp;(acting) | party2 = Patriotic Front (Zambia) | last_election2 = 60 | current_seats2 = 60 | percentage2 = | leader3 = [[Highvie Hamududu]] | party3 = Party of National Unity and Progress | last_election3 = 1 | current_seats3 = 1 | percentage3 = | leader4 = – | party4 = Independents | last_election4 = 13 | current_seats4 = 13 | percentage4 = | title = [[Speaker of the National Assembly of Zambia|Mulongozgi wa Nyumba ya Malango]] | before_election = [[Nelly Mutti]] | before_party = | after_election = | after_party = | map_image = {{Switcher | [[File:2026 Zambia Presidential Election Results by Constituency.svg|300px]] | Ivyo mlongozgi wasola mu constituency yiliyose ya Nyumba ya Malango | [[File:2026 Zambian National Assembly election results by constituency.svg|277px]] | Ivyo ŵimilili ŵasola mu constituency yiliyose ya Nyumba ya Malango }} }}}}}}}{{Politics of Zambia}} Visola vikulu vikachitika mu [[Zambia]] pa 13 Ogasiti 2026 kuti ŵanthu ŵasole mlongozgi wa charu, ŵimilili ŵa Nyumba ya Malango, ŵalongozgi ŵa maboma gha pasi na ŵalongozgi ŵa makhonsolo. ==Ndondomeko ya visola== [[Mlongozgi wa Zambia|Mlongozgi]] wakusoleka kwizira mu [[Ndondomeko ya visola vya ma round ghaŵiri]]. Kufuma pa kusintha kwa malango gha charu mu 2025, ndondomeko ya kusolera ŵimilili ŵa [[Nyumba ya Malango ya Zambia]] yikasinthika. Pambere apa, ŵimilili 156 ŵakasolekanga kwizira mu ndondomeko yakuti uyo wasanga mavoti ghanandi mu constituency yimoza ndiyo wakusola, apo ŵimilili 8 ŵakasankhikanga na mlongozgi ndipo ŵanyake ŵatatu ŵakaŵanga ŵimilili chifukwa cha maudindo ghawo: wachiŵiri wa mlongozgi, mulongozgi wa Nyumba ya Malango na wachiŵiri wa mulongozgi wakusoleka kufuma kuwaro kwa Nyumba ya Malango. Kusintha kwa 2025 kukiziska ndondomeko ya [[mixed-member majoritarian representation|ŵimilili ŵakupambanapambana]], umo ŵimilili 226 ŵakusoleka kwizira mu constituency zimoza-zimoza, ŵimilili 40 ŵakusoleka kwizira mu mavoti gha chiŵelengero kuyana na mavoti gha mlongozgi, kusazgapo mipando 20 ya ŵanakazi, 15 ya ŵawukirano na 5 ya ŵanthu ŵakupunduka, kweniso ŵimilili ŵakufika pa 11 ŵakusankhika na mlongozgi. Wachiŵiri wa mlongozgi, mulongozgi wa Nyumba ya Malango na ŵachiŵiri ŵakwamba na ŵachiŵiri ŵa mulongozgi ŵakusazgikaso mu ndondomeko iyi. Nyengo yakuchepera yakuti munthu wambe kuvota ni vyaka 18, apo munthu wakwendera pa visola vya Nyumba ya Malango wakwenera kuŵa na vyaka vyakujumpha 21. ==Ŵakwimilira pa visola vya mlongozgi== Mlongozgi uyo wali pa mpando [[Hakainde Hichilema]] wakapokera chovwiro kufuma ku ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵa [[UPND Alliance]], kusazgapo [[Highvie Hamududu]], mulongozgi wa [[Party of National Unity and Progress]], [[Nevers Mumba]], mulongozgi wa [[Movement for Multi-Party Democracy]], [[Leslie Chikuse]], mulongozgi wa Republican Progressive Party, [[Ezra Ngulube]], mulongozgi wa [[National Restoration Party (Zambia)|National Restoration Party]], [[Charles Milupi]], mulongozgi wa alliance iyi, na [[Felix Mutati]], mulongozgi wa Movement for Democratic Change. Chipani chakale chakulamulira, [[Patriotic Front (Zambia)|Patriotic Front]], pamoza na vyipani vinyake vya chipani chakususkana, vikapanga [[Tonse Alliance]] mu Novembala 2024 na chilato chakuti vifumiske UPND pa mazaza mu visola vya 2026. Mlongozgi wakale [[Edgar Lungu]] wakapharazgika kuti ndiyo wakaŵa mulongozgi na mwimiliri wa alliance iyi, kweni pa 10 Disembala 2024 khoti likati wangakhozgeka yayi kwimilira pa visola vya 2026, ndipo wakafwa mu 2025. Pa 28 Janyuwale 2026, Memba wa Nyumba ya Malango [[Brian Mundubile]] wakasoleka kuŵa mwimiliri wa alliance iyi, ndipo mu Meyi 2026 vikazomerezgeka kuti National Reconciliation Party for Unity and Prosperity (NRPUP) ndiyo yikaŵa chipani icho alliance iyi yikagwiliskirenge ntchito pa visola. [[Harry Kalaba]] wa Citizens First wakwimira chipani chake nga ni mwimiliri wa CF Orange Alliance ndipo wakachovwirika na ŵanthu ŵa alliance iyi, kusazgapo [[Saboi Imboela]], pulezidenti wa [[National Democratic Congress (Zambia)|National Democratic Congress]]. [[Fred M'membe]] wakwimira [[Socialist Party (Zambia)|Socialist Party]]. [[Given Katuta Mwelwa]], uyo wakaŵa Memba wa Nyumba ya Malango wa [[Chiengi (constituency)|constituency ya Chiengi]] kwa vyaka 10 kufuma mu 2016, wakapharazga mu 2025 kuti wimilire yekha pa visola vya mlongozgi vya 2026. ==Kafukufuku wa maghanoghano gha ŵanthu== Kafukufuku wa maghanoghano gha ŵanthu uyo ukachitika na ŵakufufuza ŵalongozgeka na munthu wakusambira vya ŵanthu ku University of Zambia ukalongora kuti Hichilema wakaŵa panthazi na 60% ya mavoti, apo ŵakususkana pamoza ŵakaŵa na 35%. Pakuyaniska Hichilema na ŵakwimilira ŵakususkana payekhapayekha, chovwiro chake chikaŵa pakati pa 58% na 63%. ==Ukaboni== {{reflist}} {{Zambian elections}} [[Category:2026 visola vyamu Afilika|Zambia]] [[Category:2026 ku Zambia|Visola vya mlongozgi]] k677t8y6tuwio81l5nuhiw2yd7v96rs 119281 119277 2026-08-13T21:43:31Z Tumbuka Arch 6863 119281 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|none}} {{Use dmy dates|date=August 2026}} {{current election}} {{Infobox election | country = Zambia | election_date = 13 August 2026 | previous_election = Visola vikulu vya Zambia vya 2021 | previous_year = 2021 | next_year = | module = {{Infobox election | embed = yes | election_name = Visola vya mlongozgi wa charu | ongoing = yes | type = presidential | image_size = 130x130px | image1 = Hakainde Hichilema in Japan on February 6, 2025 (cropped).jpg | candidate1 = [[Hakainde Hichilema]] | party1 = United Party for National Development | alliance1 = [[UPND Alliance]] | popular_vote1 = | running_mate1 = [[Mutale Nalumango]] | percentage1 = | image2 = Brian Mundibile.png | candidate2 = [[Brian Mundubile]] | party2 = National Reconciliation Party for Unity and Prosperity | alliance2 = [[Tonse Alliance]] | alliance2_name = no | running_mate2 = [[Makebi Zulu]] | image3 = Välisminister_Sven_Mikser_ja_Sambia_välisminister_Harry_Kalaba_(31719036133).jpg | candidate3 = [[Harry Kalaba]] | party3 = Citizens First | alliance3 = Orange Alliance | alliance3_name = no | running_mate3 = [[Moses Mawere]] | before_election = [[Hakainde Hichilema]] | before_party = United Party for National Development | title = [[Mlongozgi wa Zambia|Mlongozgi]] | module = {{Infobox legislative election | embed = yes | election_name = Visola vya ŵimilili | seats_for_election = Mipando yose 280 ya [[National Assembly of Zambia|Nyumba ya Malango ya Zambia]] | majority_seats = 141 | seats_title = Visola vyakumalizga | ongoing = yes | leader1 = [[Hakainde Hichilema]] | party1 = United Party for National Development | last_election1 = 82 | current_seats1 = 82 | percentage1 = | leader2 = [[Given Lubinda]]&nbsp;(acting) | party2 = Patriotic Front (Zambia) | last_election2 = 60 | current_seats2 = 60 | percentage2 = | leader3 = [[Highvie Hamududu]] | party3 = Party of National Unity and Progress | last_election3 = 1 | current_seats3 = 1 | percentage3 = | leader4 = – | party4 = Independents | last_election4 = 13 | current_seats4 = 13 | percentage4 = | title = [[Speaker of the National Assembly of Zambia|Mulongozgi wa Nyumba ya Malango]] | before_election = [[Nelly Mutti]] | before_party = | after_election = | after_party = | map_image = {{Switcher | [[File:2026 Zambia Presidential Election Results by Constituency.svg|300px]] | Ivyo mlongozgi wasola mu constituency yiliyose ya Nyumba ya Malango | [[File:2026 Zambian National Assembly election results by constituency.svg|277px]] | Ivyo ŵimilili ŵasola mu constituency yiliyose ya Nyumba ya Malango }} }}}}}}{{Politics of Zambia}} Visola vikulu vikachitika mu [[Zambia]] pa 13 Ogasiti 2026 kuti ŵanthu ŵasole mlongozgi wa charu, ŵimilili ŵa Nyumba ya Malango, ŵalongozgi ŵa maboma gha pasi na ŵalongozgi ŵa makhonsolo. ==Ndondomeko ya visola== [[Mlongozgi wa Zambia|Mlongozgi]] wakusoleka kwizira mu [[Ndondomeko ya visola vya ma round ghaŵiri]]. Kufuma pa kusintha kwa malango gha charu mu 2025, ndondomeko ya kusolera ŵimilili ŵa [[Nyumba ya Malango ya Zambia]] yikasinthika. Pambere apa, ŵimilili 156 ŵakasolekanga kwizira mu ndondomeko yakuti uyo wasanga mavoti ghanandi mu constituency yimoza ndiyo wakusola, apo ŵimilili 8 ŵakasankhikanga na mlongozgi ndipo ŵanyake ŵatatu ŵakaŵanga ŵimilili chifukwa cha maudindo ghawo: wachiŵiri wa mlongozgi, mulongozgi wa Nyumba ya Malango na wachiŵiri wa mulongozgi wakusoleka kufuma kuwaro kwa Nyumba ya Malango. Kusintha kwa 2025 kukiziska ndondomeko ya [[mixed-member majoritarian representation|ŵimilili ŵakupambanapambana]], umo ŵimilili 226 ŵakusoleka kwizira mu constituency zimoza-zimoza, ŵimilili 40 ŵakusoleka kwizira mu mavoti gha chiŵelengero kuyana na mavoti gha mlongozgi, kusazgapo mipando 20 ya ŵanakazi, 15 ya ŵawukirano na 5 ya ŵanthu ŵakupunduka, kweniso ŵimilili ŵakufika pa 11 ŵakusankhika na mlongozgi. Wachiŵiri wa mlongozgi, mulongozgi wa Nyumba ya Malango na ŵachiŵiri ŵakwamba na ŵachiŵiri ŵa mulongozgi ŵakusazgikaso mu ndondomeko iyi. Nyengo yakuchepera yakuti munthu wambe kuvota ni vyaka 18, apo munthu wakwendera pa visola vya Nyumba ya Malango wakwenera kuŵa na vyaka vyakujumpha 21. ==Ŵakwimilira pa visola vya mlongozgi== Mlongozgi uyo wali pa mpando [[Hakainde Hichilema]] wakapokera chovwiro kufuma ku ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵa [[UPND Alliance]], kusazgapo [[Highvie Hamududu]], mulongozgi wa [[Party of National Unity and Progress]], [[Nevers Mumba]], mulongozgi wa [[Movement for Multi-Party Democracy]], [[Leslie Chikuse]], mulongozgi wa Republican Progressive Party, [[Ezra Ngulube]], mulongozgi wa [[National Restoration Party (Zambia)|National Restoration Party]], [[Charles Milupi]], mulongozgi wa alliance iyi, na [[Felix Mutati]], mulongozgi wa Movement for Democratic Change. Chipani chakale chakulamulira, [[Patriotic Front (Zambia)|Patriotic Front]], pamoza na vyipani vinyake vya chipani chakususkana, vikapanga [[Tonse Alliance]] mu Novembala 2024 na chilato chakuti vifumiske UPND pa mazaza mu visola vya 2026. Mlongozgi wakale [[Edgar Lungu]] wakapharazgika kuti ndiyo wakaŵa mulongozgi na mwimiliri wa alliance iyi, kweni pa 10 Disembala 2024 khoti likati wangakhozgeka yayi kwimilira pa visola vya 2026, ndipo wakafwa mu 2025. Pa 28 Janyuwale 2026, Memba wa Nyumba ya Malango [[Brian Mundubile]] wakasoleka kuŵa mwimiliri wa alliance iyi, ndipo mu Meyi 2026 vikazomerezgeka kuti National Reconciliation Party for Unity and Prosperity (NRPUP) ndiyo yikaŵa chipani icho alliance iyi yikagwiliskirenge ntchito pa visola. [[Harry Kalaba]] wa Citizens First wakwimira chipani chake nga ni mwimiliri wa CF Orange Alliance ndipo wakachovwirika na ŵanthu ŵa alliance iyi, kusazgapo [[Saboi Imboela]], pulezidenti wa [[National Democratic Congress (Zambia)|National Democratic Congress]]. [[Fred M'membe]] wakwimira [[Socialist Party (Zambia)|Socialist Party]]. [[Given Katuta Mwelwa]], uyo wakaŵa Memba wa Nyumba ya Malango wa [[Chiengi (constituency)|constituency ya Chiengi]] kwa vyaka 10 kufuma mu 2016, wakapharazga mu 2025 kuti wimilire yekha pa visola vya mlongozgi vya 2026. ==Kafukufuku wa maghanoghano gha ŵanthu== Kafukufuku wa maghanoghano gha ŵanthu uyo ukachitika na ŵakufufuza ŵalongozgeka na munthu wakusambira vya ŵanthu ku University of Zambia ukalongora kuti Hichilema wakaŵa panthazi na 60% ya mavoti, apo ŵakususkana pamoza ŵakaŵa na 35%. Pakuyaniska Hichilema na ŵakwimilira ŵakususkana payekhapayekha, chovwiro chake chikaŵa pakati pa 58% na 63%. ==Ukaboni== {{reflist}} {{Zambian elections}} [[Category:2026 visola vyamu Afilika|Zambia]] [[Category:2026 ku Zambia|Visola vya mlongozgi]] 3yd2v49i18xc4fkkc6gq5prxorx2nb3 14 48572 119278 2026-08-13T21:41:02Z Tumbuka Arch 6863 Created blank page 119278 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 48573 119280 2026-08-13T21:41:29Z Tumbuka Arch 6863 Created blank page 119280 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 0 48574 119341 2026-08-14T06:35:05Z Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi 11606 Created page with "{{Databox}} '''{{PAGENAME}}''' ni muzi mu [[chigaŵa cha Wajir]] mu charu cha [[Kenya]].<ref>https://geonames.org</ref><ref>https://web.archive.org/web/20140419202700/http://www.stad.com/index.php?city_id=198968</ref><ref>http://www.geographic.org/geographic_names/name.php?uni=-3098542&fid=3299&c=kenya</ref> Lili pa mphaka ya [[Somalia]].<ref>https://web.archive.org/web/20140420032219/http://www.nri.org/projects/pastoralism/kenyappgmayfinal.doc</ref> ==Chiŵelengero ch..." 119341 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''{{PAGENAME}}''' ni muzi mu [[chigaŵa cha Wajir]] mu charu cha [[Kenya]].<ref>https://geonames.org</ref><ref>https://web.archive.org/web/20140419202700/http://www.stad.com/index.php?city_id=198968</ref><ref>http://www.geographic.org/geographic_names/name.php?uni=-3098542&fid=3299&c=kenya</ref> Lili pa mphaka ya [[Somalia]].<ref>https://web.archive.org/web/20140420032219/http://www.nri.org/projects/pastoralism/kenyappgmayfinal.doc</ref> ==Chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu== Dif chomenechomene ndipo yikukhala waka na Ogaden, fuko la Darood ndipo ni nyumba ya fuko la Mohamed Zubeer. ==Ukaboni== {{reflist}} [[Category:Kenya]] pv5vkt67gcnyu2b6pkqrru7376xzb7e 119342 119341 2026-08-14T09:17:33Z Viyowoyero-vya-Malaŵi 11606 119342 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''{{PAGENAME}}''' ni muzi mu [[Wajir County, Kenya|chigaŵa cha Wajir]] mu charu cha [[Kenya]].<ref>https://geonames.org</ref><ref>https://web.archive.org/web/20140419202700/http://www.stad.com/index.php?city_id=198968</ref><ref>http://www.geographic.org/geographic_names/name.php?uni=-3098542&fid=3299&c=kenya</ref> Lili pa mphaka ya [[Somalia]].<ref>https://web.archive.org/web/20140420032219/http://www.nri.org/projects/pastoralism/kenyappgmayfinal.doc</ref> ==Chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu== Dif chomenechomene ndipo yikukhala waka na Ogaden, fuko la Darood ndipo ni nyumba ya fuko la Mohamed Zubeer. ==Ukaboni== {{reflist}} [[Category:Kenya]] ra30tkjbrqggw2j8d8yvjuufxum6w1u 0 48575 119343 2026-08-14T10:08:16Z ~2026-43617-84 12029 Created page with ""'''Manifesto wa Interlingua''' ni buku ilo likapangika na [[Alexander Gode]], Ph.D., ndipo likalongosoreka mu [[1959]] pa ungano wachitatu wa [[Union Mundial pro Interlingua]]. Kufuma pa Ogasiti 1 mpaka 6, 1959, Union Mundial pro Interlingua ukachita ungano wake wachitatu wa pa charu chose ku [[Maulendo]], [[France]]. Pa nyengo iyo, [[Pulezidenti]] wa Union, [[Alexander Gode]], wakalemba nkhani iyi." {{Interlingua}} [[Chigaŵa:Mabuku mu Interlingua]]" 119343 wikitext text/x-wiki "'''Manifesto wa Interlingua''' ni buku ilo likapangika na [[Alexander Gode]], Ph.D., ndipo likalongosoreka mu [[1959]] pa ungano wachitatu wa [[Union Mundial pro Interlingua]]. Kufuma pa Ogasiti 1 mpaka 6, 1959, Union Mundial pro Interlingua ukachita ungano wake wachitatu wa pa charu chose ku [[Maulendo]], [[France]]. Pa nyengo iyo, [[Pulezidenti]] wa Union, [[Alexander Gode]], wakalemba nkhani iyi." {{Interlingua}} [[Chigaŵa:Mabuku mu Interlingua]] mhr8sjp2jf6nsy89ldytn69n8cot9ek 119344 119343 2026-08-14T10:08:27Z ~2026-43617-84 12029 119344 wikitext text/x-wiki "'''Manifesto wa Interlingua''' ni buku ilo likapangika na [[Alexander Gode]], Ph.D., ndipo likalongosoreka mu [[1959]] pa ungano wachitatu wa [[Union Mundial pro Interlingua]]. Kufuma pa Ogasiti 1 mpaka 6, 1959, Union Mundial pro Interlingua ukachita ungano wake wachitatu wa pa charu chose ku [[Maulendo]], [[France]]. Pa nyengo iyo, [[Pulezidenti]] wa Union, [[Alexander Gode]], wakalemba nkhani iyi." {{Interlingua}} [[Category:Mabuku mu Interlingua]] lpzb12wjhxm9dinif6luvlap4vfb917 0 48576 119345 2026-08-14T10:16:31Z ~2026-43617-84 12029 Created page with "'''Union Mundial pro Interlingua''' (Mgwirizano wa Viyowoyero Vyakupambanapambana pa Charu Chose, '''UMI''') ni wupu uwo ukuchitako yayi ntchito zakusanga phindu ndipo ukujipeleka kukhozgera chimanyisko na kugwiliskira ntchito [[Interlingua]] pa charu chose. UMI ni wupu uwo ukukolerana na vyaru vinyake pa nkhani ya kukhozgera kugwiliskira ntchito chiyowoyero cha Interlingua pakudumbiskana na vyaru vinyake mu nyengo zakwenelera, uthenga wakukhwaskana na chiyowoyero ichi,..." 119345 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Union Mundial pro Interlingua''' (Mgwirizano wa Viyowoyero Vyakupambanapambana pa Charu Chose, '''UMI''') ni wupu uwo ukuchitako yayi ntchito zakusanga phindu ndipo ukujipeleka kukhozgera chimanyisko na kugwiliskira ntchito [[Interlingua]] pa charu chose. UMI ni wupu uwo ukukolerana na vyaru vinyake pa nkhani ya kukhozgera kugwiliskira ntchito chiyowoyero cha Interlingua pakudumbiskana na vyaru vinyake mu nyengo zakwenelera, uthenga wakukhwaskana na chiyowoyero ichi, na kupharazga mabuku ghakusambizga ŵanthu, madikishonale, na mabuku ghanyake gha Interlingua. UMI ili na ŵabali, ŵayimiliri, na ŵayimiliri pa makontinenti ghankhondi. Bungwe la ŵalara ilo lili na pulezidenti, mulembi mulara, muteŵeti wa mulembi, na mulaŵiliri ndilo likuwonelera milimo ya zuŵa na zuŵa ya UMI. Bungwe la ŵalara, ilo lili na ŵayimiliri ŵaŵiri kufuma mu charu chilichose icho chili na ŵayimiliri ŵa viyowoyero vyakupambanapambana vya charu chose, ŵakudumbiskana ndondomeko za nyengo yitali. UMI yikupharazga magazini ya myezi yiŵiri, ''[[Panorama in Interlingua]]'', iyo yikulongora uthenga wa pa charu chose mu viyowoyero vya pa charu chose kuti ŵanthu ŵa pa charu chose ŵapulike: utolankhani, nkhani, malipoti, kufumba ŵanthu, kuwoneseska mabuku, ndiposo na kuŵika mtima chomene pa kuthandazga nkhani za pa charu chose za viyowoyero vya pa charu chose na za pa charu chose. {{Interlingua}} [[Category:Mabungwe agho ghakukolerana na Interlingua]] tle8iybjuaagr9a3qlwwe282nr979cy 14 48577 119346 2026-08-14T10:16:48Z ~2026-43617-84 12029 Created page with "[[Category:Interlingua]]" 119346 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Category:Interlingua]] 96plnty37vegddlellp85n9tg1dse5u 14 48578 119347 2026-08-14T10:21:42Z ~2026-43617-84 12029 Created page with "[[Category:Interlingua]]" 119347 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Category:Interlingua]] 96plnty37vegddlellp85n9tg1dse5u 14 48579 119348 2026-08-14T11:43:14Z PK2 834 Created blank page 119348 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1